Encyclopaedia Britannica [23, 14 ed.]

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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

a

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND

THIRD

FIFTH

|

1768

EDITION

EDITION

FOURTH

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EDITION

1777

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1788

as

1801

EDITION

1815

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nS7 k4 SIXTH

EDITION

SEVENTH EIGHTH

EDITION

1830

EDITION

NINTH

EDITION

1875

EDITION

1902

ELEVENTH

EDITION

FOURTEENTH

b

1922

EDITION EDITION

2

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1910

EDITION

THIRTEENTH

AON osat, US SZ iN a

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1853

TENTH

TWELFTH

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1823

.

1926

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1929,1932

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ce ot

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION ANEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME 23 VASE

TO

ZYGOTE

THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 1929, 1930, 1932 BY THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Nofe: Pages vii and ix were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929-30 edition,

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME XXIII WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. A. A. M,

A. A. Micuerson, Px.D., Sc.D., LL.D. , , Distinguished Service Professor of Physics, University of Chicago. Nobel Prizeman +Velocity of Light.

A.B.

AUBREY FITZGERALD BELL

A. B.G.

ALFRED BrapLey Govcs, M A., Px.D. Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John’s College, Oxford.

(Physics), 1907.

}Vincente, Gil.

Author of Portugal for the Portuguese; etc

À English Lector in the -Westphalia, Treaty of.

University of Kiel, 1896-1905

A. C. Ho.

Sir ALEXANDER C Houston, K B.E., C.V0.,MB,DSc,FRSE

A. D.I.

A D Imus, MA., DSc

|

A. D. L.

ALEXANDER Duntop Linpsay, C.B E , Hon LL D. Master of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Philosophy of Bergson, etc

fWorkers, Education oft

A. D.M.

Director of Water Examinations, Metropolitan Water Board, London Author of pWatet Purification. Rwers as Sources of Water Supply, Rural Water Supplies and their Pursficateon, etc. Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. |Wasp; Formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of Biology, | Weevil. University of Allahabad. Author of A General Textbook of Entomology; etc.

A. D

MITCHELL,

D Sc., FI.C.

Assistant Editor to the Journal of the Chemical Society

Water:

Assistant Examımer in Zinc (en art)

Chemistry, University of London and Institute of Chemistry.

bart).

A. F.B.

ALpRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. Wool (in part), Professor of Textile Industries, Leeds University. Author of Wool and Textile Indus- Yooer, Manufacture;

A. F. Be.

ARCHIBALD FRANK BEcKE, Hon.M A

A. F. Hu.

A. F Hutcartson, M A Sometime Rector of the High School, Stirling

A. Gei.

eologist Daca Durector-General Geological PP Gesineut’ Gai vtofotis the Cabal

triés, etc

Major, Royal Field Artillery (retired)

arn.

Author of Introduction to the History of Tacies.

Raber Sir, William (in part). United Kingdom Kingdom f the United

Survey of the

Director of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1881-1901

ical article, GeIKIE, SrR ARCHIBALD.

A.G.P.

}Waterloo Campaign, r815.

an

and

;

;

See the biograph- Vesuvius (i port).

Artur GEORGE PERKIN, D Sc., FIC., ERS.

Emeritus Professor formerly of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing, Dean, 1922-4 of the Lwreg,

Faculty of Technology, University of Leeds. Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, 1925 A. Hn.

Joint Author of The Natural Organic Colouring Matters.

ARTHUR Harden, D.Sc., Pu D., F.R S.

,

Head of Biochemutal Department, Lister Institute.

A. Ho.

A. J.L.

ANDREW Jackson LAMOUREUX.

A.K. Ċ.

ANANDA K. Coomaraswamy, D.Sc; F.LS,F.GS., MRAS.

A, L.B.

aa

A. L. Q.

i

Professor of Biochemistry,

London University. Sr Anam Hore, K B E., C.B.

eee:

Vitamins.

}War Pensions.

Principal Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Pensions.

e

|Venezuela (in part).

Late Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University.

Keeper of Indian, Persian and Mohammedan Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Author of The Indsan Crafisman; Essays in Natwonal Idealism, Art ond Swadeshi.

LYON pova Sc D, a A., F.S s dat

pal

Yaksas.

ahi

essor of Statistics in the University of London Formerly Protéssór ot Matie. soti : matics and Economics, University College, Reading. Author of Elements of Statis- ‘Wages: Statistics of United tics, Measurement of Social Phenomena, The Course of Prices and Wages During the Kingdom.

Wap; ete

A. L. Quarntance, D.Sc Associate Chief, Bureau of Entomology, Washington.

,

A. L.S.

Anpr& L Smon.

A. L. Wi.

A. L. WIDGERY.

A. Mor.

A. Mora. Director of Plywood Marketing Corporation, Ltd , London.

Of Messrs, Pommery and Greno, Ltd Wane Trade

} Vine in part). w pori)

Author of The Blood of the Grape; Wine and.the Wine.

Wales bart in part); eee (in |Veneer.

AND

INITIALS

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

ALLAN Nevins, A.M.

2

A. P. Hi

Professor of American History, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y Author of TheWashington, George. Emergence of Modern America, etc. ARTHUR P. HIROSE. Manager, Market Analysis Department, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Author ‘Washing Machines. of Domestic Electric Refrigeration

A. P.W.

COLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAavELL, C.M.G., M.C.

A. P. Wi.

A. P. WILts r RASNE Professor of Mathematical Physics, Columbia University, New York. SIR JAMES ARTHUR SALTER, K.C.B : Director of the Economic and Finance Section of the League of Nations.

A. Sa.

A. S. P.-P.

,

,

British Military Late the Black Watch. General Staff Officer, War Office, London Attaché on the Caucasus Front, Nov. 1916-June 1917 General Staff Officer and Bngadier General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917-20

Vistula-San, Battles of the.

iVector Analysis.

General Secretary to the Reparations Commission, 1920-2 Secretary of the British Department of the Supreme Economic Council, 1919. Secretary of the Allied Maritime Transport Council and Chairman of Allied Maritime Transport Executive, 1918 Author of Allzed Shipping Control: An Expervment an International Administration

Anprew SETH Princte-Pattison, MA,LLD.,DCL,FBA.

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh Gifford Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911-3; Edinburgh, 1921-3. Author of Man's Place an the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals, etc.

‘War Control of Shipping. } Weber's

ARTHUR SYMONS

A. Sy. A. W. Hu.

’

Law.

i

;

English poet and critic. Author of Studzes ın Two Literatures, Days and sts, Weaine xm Adam Charles Baudelaire, etc. See biographical article SYMONS, ARTHUR Rev. ArrTmUR Worrasron Horron, M A Wiseman, Nicholas P. S.

A. W.K.

Author of Lafe of Cardinal Newman, Lafe of Cardinal Manning. ARTHUR WILLIAM KIDDY.

A. W.R.

Sm ALEXANDER Woop Renton, K C., G.CM.G., MA, LL.B

(in part) ,

City Editor of The Morning Post and of The Spectator, London. Financial Corre-|'War Finance (Cost of the spondent in London of The New York Evening Post Editor of The Bankers' Maga-{ World War).

gene, London, Puisne Justice, Supreme Court and Procureur and Advocate-General, Mauritius, 1901-5, Ceylon, 1905-15 Chief Justice, 1914 Author of Law and Practice of Lunacy. Editor of Encyclopedia of Enghsh Law, etc

}

Waste

A. W. W.-E.

Rev. ArtHuR WADE WADE-EVANS, Vicar of Pottersbury since 1926 Author of Welsh Mediaeval Law, Life of St Dand

Welsh Laws or Leges Britanniae.

A. Yo.

Attyn Younc, Px D

Wages;

B. F.C. A.

B. F. C ATKINSON, Pu D.

B. F. F.

LIEUTENANT B. F. FELLERS.

B. H. L. H.

CAPTAIN B. H Lipperxy Hars, F R Hrsrt.S.

B . H.-S.

Major Brooke HEcKsTALL-SMITH

Late Professor of Political Economy in the University of London

Wealth.

yi X;

Under Librarian, University College, Cambridge. ae oint

Y; Z.

:

in the Department of English, United States Military Academy, West >West Point.

Military historian and critic. Military correspondent to the Daily Telegraph Editor of the Military and Military History section, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica Yachting Editor of The Freld, 1900-28, and Editor of The Yachtung World. correspondent of The Daily Telegraph, London.

Yachting

B atre ce ROWNTREE Jésu hairman of Rowntree and Co , Ltd. Author of Poverty, A Study of Town Life, The

C. A. C. B.

CHARLES A.C

C. A. S.

C. À. SMTH, M.A Secretary of the Faculty, Unıversity of Wisconsın, Madıson, .Wis. CHARLES E. COFEIN. i President of the American Whist League, Author of The Gist of Whist. , Crcit EpGar TrittEy, B.Sc, Pa D., F G.S.

Way to Industrial Peace, The Human Needs of Labour, How the Labourer Lwes. author of Unemployment: A Social Study.

C. E.T.

Ypres, Battles of, 1917.

Secretary to the Yacht Racing Association and International Yacht Racing Union ly, optin g (in part)

B. S.R.

C. E. Co.

World War (Un pari);

Co-

Brown.

Welfare Work.

lesan and Wind Power (in part)

Institute of Agriculture and Engineering, Oxford University.

Wisconsin, j}Whist.

University of.

jZoisite.

Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

C.F. A.

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford.

C. G. D.

C. G. Darwm, MA,

C. Go.

C. B. Goutprn, M A.,. MC, M.D,F.RCS Specialist in Ophthalmology, London Hospital Medical College. Dean of the Royal

}Vision or Sight (in part)

Cartton Huntiey Haves, A.M., Pau D` Professor of History ın Columbia University, New York City. Member of the Amer-

-Victor (2 part)

The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

Major, late East Surrey Regiment,

Author of pWilderness (in part).

F.RS.

Tait Professor of Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. Lecturer, Christ’s College, Cambridge

Formerly Fellow and

London Ophthalmic Hospital

C. H.

H.

ican Histórical Association

i

+

}Zeeman Effect.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS C. H. W.

CAMILLA H. WEpGwoop, B.A.

C. J. C.K. W.

CHARLES JAMES.

CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A., Lirtrt.D.

CL. K.

CHARLES LETHBRIDGE Kincsrorp, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.

Department of Anthropology, Sydney University, N.S.W. Sociology, Bedford College, London.

Weapons, Primitive;

Formerly Lecturer in

Professor of Chemistry, New Hampshire University, Durham, New Hampenine,

wi

Weaving (in part).

! }Ytterbium ; Yttrium.

ilaga Tartar of International Polities, University of Wales, Aberystwyth. Proessor o odern History, Liverpool University, 1914—22. Secretary, Military sec- | qy; tion, British Delegation, Conference of Paris, 1918-9. Author of British Diplomacy, Vienna, Congress of. 1813-5; The Congress of Vienna, 1814-5. Contributor to the Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy.

Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, 1905-12. Sometime member of the staff of a Dictionary of National Biography. Ford Lecturer in English History, University of -Whittington, Richard. Oxford, 1923-4. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of Chronicles of London and Stow’s Survey of London. Cornet rus L. SHEAR, PH.D. Principal Pathologist in Charge, Office of Mycology and Disease Survey, Bureau offin (in pari). Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.

C. L.S.

C. Mi.

Cart THEeopvor Mirst, D.Tx.

Formerly Professor. of Church History in the University of Marburg.

Author ot | rote Council, The (in

Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII., Quellen sur Geschichte des SARN

etc.

C. M. Kn.

C. M. Knowres, LL.B.

C.M. L.

CHARLES MosrTYN Lroywp, M.A.

C. Mn.

CHRYSTAL MACMILLAN, M.A., B.Sc.

Barrister-at-law.

f

? uF )

oe

Assistant Legal Adviser, Home Office, London.

(in paty.

Compensation

Barrister-at-law. Lecturer and Head of the Department of Social Service anid Workhouse. Administration in the London School of Economics, University of London. Assistant Editor of The New Statesman.

|Women, Legal Position of

C. Ra.

Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. CORNELIA M. RAYMOND, A.B.

C.R. B.

CHARLES Raymond BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lirt., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S:

(in part).

T

Director, Bureau of Publication, Vassar College, Poughkepsk

Pror eegr of

lvassar College.

ata, UniversityofBirmingham. Late Fellow of oe

ee

versity Lecturer in History an eography, or ormerly on Council of Roya Geographical Society and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a member of the yma Amerigo; House of Laymen. Member of Advisory Committees of British Labour Party for | #C™mMarcnus. International Affairs and for Education. Member of Executive of Birmingham Labour Party. Author of History of Russia; prelate C ay Europe.

CARLETON. Ry: Bact, M.S. D506,

C. R. BI.

C. R. Fi.

Principal Agronomist in Charge, Office of Cereal Cusp and Diseases, Bureau of Wheat (in sted. Plant Industry, United States Department of. Agriculture. CARIL RussELL Frs, M.A., Pa.D. , Professor of American History in i the University of Wisconsin: Author of Develop- Wisconsin. ment of American Nationality; American Diplomacy; etc. ?

C. Sey.

CHARLES SEYMOUR, PH.D., LITT. D. TD: Provost and Sterling Professor of History, Yale aieri, Author of Electoral Re-

Washington Conference;

form in England and Wales; The Diplomatic Background of the War; The Initmate | Wilson, Thomas Woodrow. Papers of Colonel House; Woodrow Wilson and ithe World War; etc.

Mayjor-GENERAL CHARLES WALTER Ropinson, C.B., D.C.L.

C. W. Ro.

D.C.B.

Instructor in Animal Drawing, Woman’s Shad of Applied Design, 1893-1900, Chief Woodcraft Scout, Department of Woodcraft, Culver (Ind.) Military Academy, organizer, and chief, 1911-5. Author of American Boys’ Book of Camplore and Woodcraft.

D. C.S.

“D. C. So.

|Vitoria (Battle of).

Author of Strategy of the Peninsula War; etc.

= DAaNieL CARTER BeaRD, C.E.

Rev. Canon Davip Carpet Simpson, M.A., D.D.

|

Oriel Professor of Interpretation of Holy Seripturè, Oxford Dairey. Canon aof |Wisdom, Book of;

Rochester Cathedral. Fellow of Oriel. College. Old Testament, Manchester College, Oxford.

r

Reader in Semitic .

angia 3 and Wisdom Literature.

DAVID CHURCHILL SOMERVELL; M.A. Assistant Master, Tonbridge School, Tonbridge, Kent.

de Br. |

Duc DE BROGLIE: Officer of the Legion of Honour.

D. F. T.

Donar Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc.

Victorja.

Membre deI’Kesdlénde desSciences, E Paris. $

Reid. Professor of Music:in "Edinburgh University.

Gapari). ae

Author of Heine in Musical Victoria, Aeons

Analysis, comprising The Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations and analyses of > Ludovico da;

Encyclo- by (in gar).

many other classical works, editorial Adviser, Music section, 14th me `

peda Britannica,

ie

|

a

E Dav GEORGE HOGARTH, M. A.,Es M. G D LITT. Late. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Pelow of “Magdalen Citlege,| Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1889 Xanthus. and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-5; Assiut, 1906~7. Director of the British School at Athens, 4 1897~1900. Late Director of the Cretan Exploration Fund. |

D. Hu.

Dard HUNTER.

00°

|

|

Are

anid neme, Author of many \eidles on aaan ipea tie The Literature of Primitivee Papermaking; Old. oe

30edition. Note:Thispagefom 1929-

ig

"aia of Watermarks. fae a. ‘Gees * ee

trea TR a

Vill D. M. S. W.

AND

INITIALS

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

VID MEREDITH SEARES Watson, M Sc, F.R.S

i

ian

D. No.

me Jodrell Trold of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. | Zoological Regions; ‘Author of many papers on Vertebrate Paleontology and cannected subjects ın Pra- |Zoology. ceedings of the Zoological Society, Journal of Anatomy, etc. oe Specie Bank, DAISUKE NOHARA.

D.

Davip Ranpatt-MaclIver,

R.-M.

Ltd., The

Manager, Yokohama Specie Bank, Ltd

M A., DSc,

F§.A

p

Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford Author of Medsaeval Rhodesia, etc

Davip THEODORE FyFrzE, MA., F.RIBA . Lecturer in Architecture, and Director of the University School of Architecture, Cambridge.

Duprey W.

Knox

.

-Villanovans. Western Asiatic | Architecture.

:

Coote, Gene States Navy History Section, Naval Records and Library, Navy }Warof 1812, The. Department, Washıngton. Author of The Eclipse of American Sea Power

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B , RN

A

Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution since 1927. Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expedition, 1918-9 Secretary and Editor of the Journal of the Royal Untied Service Institutton. Editor of the Naval section, 14th Edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

E. A.A.

E A. Atkins, M.I.Mecs.E. F Member of the Iron and Steel Institute and the Institute af Welding Papeete Director of Research, The Pearson and Knowles and Ryland Bros Research

Labora-

Wilson, Sir Arthur Knyvet.

Wire; Wire Manufactures: Wire Springs.

tories.

,

Ting

EDWIN ANDERSON ALDERMAN, LL.D , Pu.B., D.C L.

sty stata

aa

President, University of Virginia. "Author of Southern Idealism, The Spirit of the -Virginia, University of.

South; etc

ERICH BRANDENBURG.

:

=

Lecturer in Philosophy and History at the Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften | Wiliam II. Berlin. ;

EDUARD MEYER, D Litr.

polar of Ancient History in the University of Berhn. terthums, etc,

E. E. Hu.

E. E. K. E. F. A.

E. E Hucues,

Vi è eee 5;

Author of Geschechta des Xerxes; : y;

azdegerd.

M.A.

Professor af History, University College of Swansea, Wales. }Wales (an pari). E E. KELLETT. Author of Suggestions, Literary Essays, The Apprecriakon of Lsterature. iWebster, Jahn. E. F. ALBEE. President of the Ke'th-Alhee Crcuit New York Vice-President, Actors’ Fund of Waudeville

E. F. H.

erica, Pre- cert, Ketta-Abee VatdeviieI xcnange ELDRED F. Hitcucock, C.B.E. Government Wool Statistician, Assistant Director of Raw Materials and formeriy| Wo, War Control of. Deputy Director, Wool Textiles, War Office, London

E. F. La.

Lreut -CoLonet E. F Lawson,

DS.0,

M.C,, T.D.

General Manager, The Daily Telegraph, London

E. F. P.

ELLEN F. PENDLETON,

E. G.

}Yeom anny.

A M., Litt.D , LL D

President of Wellesley College

Member of Jury of Award for American Peace.

jWellesley College.

Sir Epmunp Gosse, M A., C.B , LL.D., Hon,Lirt.D,

Lrbrarian, Hovse of Lords r90:- 13 Sometime Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Ciarg [ ecturer in Paghek Lite-zture ‘Lriitv Co lege, Cambridge, 1884-90. President of the Tongli-a Assoc atin, 1921 A rhor of 7/«stsry of Eighteenth Century Literature,

a Poems, Books on the Table, etc.

Verse (in part); Waller, Edmund (in part);

See the biographical article; GassE, Sir Watson, Thomas.

PMUND.

E. G. Bor. E. G. Bow.

E. Hol.

E. Ja.

Epwin G°Bortne, A.M, Px.D.

}Visceral Sensations. Professor of Psychology, Harvard University. E. G. Bawen, M.A. Late Cecil Prosser Post-Graduate Scholar of the University of Wales and author of Wales (in pari). various seientific papers Emit Hatscuer, FIP. Lecturer on Colloids at the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Landon. Editor an Viscosity. behalf of British Association Colloids Committee of a collection of classical papers

entitled Tha Foundatiam of Coliord Chemasiry. on Emory HoLioway, A.M. Professor of English, Adelphi College, Brooklyn, New York. Author of Whitman: An Interpretation ın Narratwe. Editor of Leaves of Grass.

Encar JAnwIn, Hon.DE, ; Major-General, Chief of Engineers, United States Army, Washington,

E. J.T.

Epwarp J. Tromas, Px.D.

E. L.

P. R Ersa Lewgowmsen, Pu.D. B.Sa (Hans), ARCS.

Translator, Vedic Hymns.

Author of The Life of Buddha as Legend and History

Whitman, Walt.

I Washington. {Zend-Avesta (in part).

|Whale Qil (in part).

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS E. M. G.

E. M. Gurr, M.A.

F ormerly pearelanys Associated Hongkong.

ae

Chambers

of

ee in

iina and

© ix

|

Wei-Hai-Wei. F

E. MURRAY HARVEY. Commercial Secretary at Belgrade, 1920-8. Author of Report an Economic Conditions Apan

E. M. Ha.

(in pari).

in Yugoslavia.

ELM. He.

EDWIN MUSSER Herr, Pu.D., D.Sc..

President, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing

eae

-

New York.

[Westinghouse Electric and

Manufacturing Company.

Rev. Epwarp M. WALKER, M.A.

E. M. Wa.

|

Pro-Provost of Queen’s College, Oxford. Author of Greek Eisioes, Itis Problems aud Xenophon. - Its Meaning; ete. E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA, RosA ANDRADE, D.Sc., Bee ef INST.P. si = Quain Professor of

Physics in the

University of

-the Aiom; The Mechanism of Nature; etc. Encyclopedia Britannica.

BÒ.

London.

Author of

The Structure of

Editor of the Physics section, 14th Edition, |-Witson loud Chamber.

EpMuUND OwEn, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. i Formerly Consulting Surgeon to St. Mary’s Hospital and to the Children’s Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London.

E. Pu

Monstcnor

w Venereal Diseases (in pari).

Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

i

Enrico Pucct.

Domestic Prelate to the Pope; ‘Editor of the Corriere d’ Italia. Author of La Pace | Watican,The.

del Laterano

|

4

EDWARD STANLEY ROSCOE.

E.S. R.

Barrister-at-law.

Official Law Reporter in the Admiralty Court, 1883.

Admiralty

Registrar, 1904. Assessor, North Sea enquiry, 1905. Registrar of Prize Court, 1914.

.

Wreck (in part).

Author of Admiralty Law and Practice; The Measure of Damages in Acttons of Mart- | | tıme Collision.

EDWARD VICTOR APPLETON, M.A., D.Sc., E.R.S.

E. V.A.

Wireless Telegraphy (in

Wheatstone Professor of Physics, King’ s College, London University. E. V. Purum, .D.Sc. Radiological Research Department, Woolwich.

E: V. P.

F.A.B.

part).

ees Nature ofCinpari). |

FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. _ = Assistant Keeper of Zoology, British Museum, togt, Roileseon Prizeman, Oxford, for research in Biology, 1892. Author of “Echinoderma” in A Treatise on ‘Zoology; Zoological N aiignctatard, Triassic Echinoderms of Bakony; etc.

F.A.M. W. F. BI.

Caprary F. A. M. Wester.

©.

as

j P BLUETHGEN. | Director of the Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken A. G.

F. Bu.

FRED Buttock, LL.D., F.C.LS. Of

g

Gray’s Inn, Barrister-at- aw

Surgeons.

$

e Royal

Collegeof Veterinary

.

s

a

Surgeons; Law Relating to Medical, ERSOY Science (in part).

, 3 3 i | Fameg CHARLES BARTLETT, M.A. al , cal Vision (in pari). University Reader in Experiment Psychology and Director of the Psychologi P Laboratory, Cambridge.

F.G. M.B. F.G. P.

| Eerie GlanzstoffFabriken A. G.

Registrar,

Author of Handbook of PA

Weight Throwing.

i

In ecretary and

Dental, and Veterinary Practice.

F.C. Ba. 7

2

Walking Races; |

Joint- Editor of The Blue M agazine, aa dan, and aater on athletics.

i

Tate, FCS. H. Chemist, Francis First G. Class Government FREDERICK Grorce Mzzson Bec

H

|

O

T. London.

orWhiskey. |whisky o1

Oga

As

a

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in ‘Classics, ClareCollege, Cambridge.

ia

JWessex.

FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C. S., Boke o Professor of Anatomy, University of ordo, President,

EE E Soelas off |. T Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer òn Anatomy at St. Thomas’ Hospital and the Veins. ee London School of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at Royal Sug = Bailes of SUEBEOmS, | | a gt ep® og

FRED HORNER. ` Consulting Baginee E Contributor: to The Times ; Engineering Supplement; pns Butnar : ing; Machinery. pie dh, ears: oe aim

maeMachinery.

E Frank Katrak: Máy ME LEB:

< Patent Attorney. "Inventor. of the Shier faterlock ‘gee on all votlag dines. | ki Lecturer on inventions- amd, ppe, Author, of Ponga OES ane, Pioneer

a

_ Patents.

RMS.—

s r We. STENTOR:

_ Professor of TN University of Reading, Editorofthe e History0 Mediaeval)s sec- -Witenor £ Witenagemot. tion, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia, Pananniei, À bac eaesm, ole hd eo”

i F.M. Su. | , i FRANK. Macy SURFACE, M. Aa Pa. D.

Assistant Director in Charge of Domestic Cotrmerce, B Baag ofFeide andDóme: | War Control ofFoodLn

tic Commerce, Washington. Author of American Pork Production ageing o the Pon a be). On at War; The Grain Trade During titeWarns Wars

FRANEN. Freeman, M.A., PH.D É

a

Pe. Tiva Professor of Educational E

+::LofSan resa i

2

IE

AE

ance tee

of. Chicago.Author ofTheTeaching Visual Education.: ofFagg pai

Visual Haneatean; M ental TPE, etc..

|Note:This spageffomth

e192840 editor.

F. N. M.

COLONEL FrEDERIC Naruscu Maune,

F.R. C.

FRANK RICHARDSON CANA, F R G.S

F.

T. H.

F.T. M. F.W. F. W. Ta.

G. A.C. G. B. G. B. B.

G. C. H.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

AND

INITIALS

X

C B, RE.

Author of Cavalry: Its Past and Future; Evolution of Strategy, War and the World's Life, Campargn of Leipzig, of Jena; of Ulm and many other technical essays.

Staff of The Tomes, Editonal Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5 London, sınce 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Ummon, The Great War ın Europe, The Peace Settlement.

E

>Worth.

Wadai; West Africa; Zaben Zanzıbar;

Zululand (in part).

Science

oe

F. T. Harvey, FR C.V.S

Examuner in Vetermary Medicine to the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.

Srr Franx THomas Marziats, K.C B.

Accountant General of the Army, 1898-1904. Editor of ‘‘Great Writers” series i MAJOR-GENERAL Sır Fasan Warr, K C.VO,KBE,CB,C MG Formerly Director-General of Graves Registration and Enquiries Permanent ViceChairman, Imperial War Graves Commission F. WILBUR TANNER, M.S., Pa D. Professor of Bacteriology, also Head of the Department of Bacteriology, University of Hlimois. Author of Bacierzology and Mycology of Foods.

(ın part)

oe Emile Edourd Charles Antoine. >War Graves.

Yeast.

REV. GEORGE ALBERT Cooke, D.D.

Se

Regius Professor of Hebrew and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford Formerly Orel Zenobia (in pari). Professor of the Interpretation of the Scripture, Oxford, and Canon of Rochester GAMALIEL BRADFORD, Litt.D i . Author of Damaged Souls; Darwin; Lee, the American, etc.

Webster, Daniel.

airman o Tree CCentral Prose Press a ea al

Association, NewNew York. York. Formerly Formerly Director Director of of A Amer: ican Relief Administration, and Member, Executive Committee, Commission for War Relief Work. Relef in Belgium.

GEORGE CHARLES HUSMANN.

.

Specialist in Viticulture, United States Department of Agriculture.

G.C. R.

Guy Cotwin Rosson, M A

G. D. H. C.

GEORGE DOUGLAS HOWARD COLE.

} Vine (in pari).

}Whelk.

Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum,

.

,

University Reader in Economics, Oxford.

Author of The Payment of Wages; Self- -Wage-Systems in Industry.

Government ın Industry, Guld Socialism Restated, etc.

G. F. Z.

GEORGE FREDERICK. ZIMMER, A.M Inst.C.E.

G.G. A.

aa

Consulting Engineer and ecturer on

on ao Naval

Histo

Joint-Editor of Engineering and Industrial Management.

aiton niversity

CES ege,

dene

pases

London* Formerly

.

Wagon Tipplers.

i

Professor of Forti-

fication at the Royal aval College, Greenwich. Author of Sea, Land and Aw Strategy; Memories of a Marine, The Navy of To-day. Editor of The Study of War

G. Go.

GERALD GOULD, B.A. Associate Editor of The Datly Herald, 1919-22. Fellow of University College, London,

G.G. W.

GEORGE GRAFTON Wirson, Pu D , LL D.

1906, and Merton College, Oxford, 1909-16,

Professor of International Law, Harvard University. Author of International Law

Situations and Topics; Hague Arbitration Cases, etc.

G.H. G.

}

tn

fd

Yugoslavia (én part).

Wells, Herbert George.

>Visit and Search (in part).

of History History at at Berkeley, Berkeley, Calif California. Author Author of of The G Hrofessor Saes: of Th

G.H. W.

Colomal Policy of Wal: lam III ın Amerca and the West Indies (Choate Memorial Prize Essay); Life of Whig and Tory. Dand Hartley, the American Patriot. GrorcEe H WARBURTON.

G. Kr.

GUSTAV KRAEMER.

G. McL. Wo.

GROE

Editor of the Sıxth Edition of Os, Fats and Waxes by E. Lewkowitsch and Chief

Whale Oil (ùn part).

Chemist of the Lewkowıtsch Laboratories.

Of the Vereinigte Industrie-Unternehmungen Aktiengesellschaft.

aaa Moore Pe ee tor, United States Geological Survey, ington Secretary, Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company. Author of Texts for United States Geological Survey and

G. M. MoB.

G. P. E. G.

T. M.

G. W.T.

Vereinigte Industrie-

Uniternehmungen Aktiengesellschaft. s

Venezuela (in part).

press notices

Gzorce M McBrivg, B.A, Px.D. Universıty of California at Los Angeles, Calif. Author of Agrarıan Indian Communitres of Highland Bolivia. Grori Parii P Š

V

: enezuela (in part) ; West Indies (in part).

ember, Painters, GILBERT T. Director,

American Water Color Society, Guild of American Painters, Society of i inti etc Director and Secretary, rand Central Schoo! of Art, New York. kf water Coloas Paining: MorcaN, O B.E., F.I C., D.Sc., F R.S. Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Formerly Mason Professor of Chemitiy, University of Birmingham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Ireland Zirconium. and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Editor of the Chemistry section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica Rev. Grirritas WHEELER THATCHER, M.A, B.D. Wagidi Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -Ya‘qa’ ie

Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

Zuhair.

INITIALS H.C. H. C. L. H. C. Sc. H. De.

H. E. C. H. F. H. F. Br.

Hucr CutsHoimw,

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

M A.

;

Editor of the 11th and 12th Editions of The Encyclopedia Britannica.

=

}Walter, John (in pa

eee i eis and Fisheries, London. Author of Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden, Planis Potsonous to Livestock, Porsonous Plants on the Farm.

Henry C. SCHNEIDER, M.E.

oe and Win

Charge of Windmill Department, Morse and Company, Chicago, Ill. REv. HIppotyTE DELEHAYE, S J. Joint-Editor of the Bollandist publication, Acta Sanctorum. H. E. Cox, M.Sc., Pa.D., F.I.C Public Analyst for the Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead, London. HELENA FRANK.

(ın part). Vitus. St Aa Pee

lvi

Translator from the Yiddish of Stories and Psctures by Perez; Yiddish Tales, etc.

Literature (in par

}Venice (in part).

of Life on the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington Symonds, A Biography, etc

Harry FLooD BYRD.

H. H.C.

Sm H. Harpincr CunyNGHAME, K.C.B., M.A.

ct

Governor of Virginia.

Barrister-at-law.

H. He.

H. H.G. H. H. L. B.

ar

megar:

Yiddish Language «

Horatio Ropert Forsres Brown, LL.D. Editor of the Calendar of Venetran Siate Papers for the Public Record Office. Author

H. F. By.

Vetch (in part); Wheat (in part).

| Virginia.

Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office, 1894-1913.

:

Vice-Presi- |Watches (in part).

dent, Institution of Electrical Engineers. HALLDÓR HERMANNSSON. Professor of Scandinavian Languages and Curator of the Fiske Icelandic cusater fini Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Author of numerous works on Icelandic Literature and History.

HERBERT H. Grrmwoop. Principal, School of Woodcarving, South Kensington. ue m potoa PErLOT, M ae DE L. AS

or Winelan

* |Wood-Carving

; (in p

ate cié de l'Instıtut de Droit Internation: on. Secretary, International Law | y;_: . Association, and Grotius Society, Acting Professor of Constitutional Law, University Ae oneate

of London and Secretary of the Laws of War Committee

H. J.F. G. H. Jn.

Author of Commerce un | W aters,

War, The Pharmacy Acts, Permanent Court of International Justice. H. J. F. Gourtry, M.Enc., M.Inst.C E., F.G.S. Director of SirAlexander Binnie Son and Deacon, Water Engineers. Henry Jackson, O.M., Litt.D., F.B.A.

Late Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. ole

Lerritorial.

}Water Supply.

Fellow of Trinity |Kenocrates, of Chalc

Author of Texts to Illustrate the History of Greek Philosophy from Thales

to

(in part).

ristoile.

H. J. R.

H. La.

HERBERT JENNINGS Rose, M.A. Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter College, Oxford, 19073 Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University, 1911-5 Vesta Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27. Author of : The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primrinve Culture in Greece; Primitive Culture ın Italy, A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Hersert Lapworts, D.Sc, M.Inst C.E, F.GS. }well. President of the Institute of Water Engineers, Chartered Civil Engineer.

H. L. J.

Henry Lewis Jones, M.A., M D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.

H. L. St.

HERBERT L. STONE. Editor of Yachung, New York. Author of The America’s Cup Races; The Yachisman’s

Formerly Medical Officer in Charge of the Electrical Department and Clinical Lecturer on Medical Electricity at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London. Author of Medtcal Electricity, etc. Handbook.

H. Lu.

HERMANN LUTZ.

German political and historical writer. und der Weltkrieg.

H. M. S.

HERBERT Martin Snow, M.V O.

H. M. V.

HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S A.

:

Author of Der Weg zum Kriege; Lord Grey

ae

Compa;

Internationale des

Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medic:

H. Nisset, F.T.I.

H. No.

Hipryvo Nocucui,

H. Sp.

Howarp SPENCE.

H. T. P.

H. T. Parson.

H. W. C. D.

Henry Wirm{Įm CarLEss Davis, M.A.

Textile Technologist and Consultant.

Wales (i part).

Velvet; \Welvetoen; Vicuñ

Author of Grammar of Textile Design.

M D.

Japanese Bacteriologist. Discoverer of parasite of yellow fever (1918). biographical article. NoGucai, HIDEYo.

See the pYellow Fever.

Managing Director, Peter Spence & Sons, Ltd., Manchester Alum Works.

|Walnut.

President, F. W. Woolworth Company, New York.

|Woolworth Co., F. V

Late, Director, Dictionary of National Biography, Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford, and Regius Professor of Modern History. Fellow of All Souls, Oxford, 1895-

,

an

War Guilt (in part).

,

H. N.

1902.

: . -Yachting (in pari).

prani,

Agent-General, Cie des Wagons-Lits.

Late of Keble College, Oxford Popes; etc.

X-Ray Treatment.

;

Wace, Robert;

`

water ofCoveney

William of N ewburg]

xil H. W. Ga.

INITIALS

AND

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

E

Heatacore Wrizam Garrop, C B.E., M.A., F.RL S.

Author of Wordsworth, William. Professor of Poetry, Oxford University, and Fellow of Merton College. Wordsworth.

E. W.R. H. W. V. T.

, Rev. Henry WHEELER Ropinson, M A., D D. of Church History and the (Zechariah. Principal of Regent's Park College, London Professor 1906-20 Author of Hebrew PsyPhilosophy of Religion, Rawdon College, Leeds, College Essays), etc. chology ın Relation to Pauline Anthropology (ın Mansfield

i a PB a MA, HAroLD WILLIAM VazenIr TOREN; eee of ; Military Peterhouse, Cambridge, ow University Reader in Modern History an Treaty of. Conference, Paris, 1919. Edited, A History of the Peace Con- Versailles,

Adviser RA the Peace

ference of Pars (Vols I. to VI.).

, Vivarini; } Zurbaran, Francisco de.

L A.R.

Irma A. RICHTER. Artist and writer

I. H. H.

Ina HUSTED HARPER, Author of Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony. Joint-Author of History of Women's Suffrage ; ; Isaac Jostin Cox, A.B., Pu D. Professor of History, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill Author of Nicaragua

I. J. C.

and the United States, etc.

J. A. St.

J. A_Srrawan, LL.D.

J. B. P.

J. B. PEARMAN

J. D. Be.

J. D. Bernat, M.A.

J. E. E.

Bricaprer-GENERAL Six J. E Evmonps,

‘Women’s Suffrage (in part).

a. Wilkinson, James. pWill or Testament

Snes

pervs and Crystal Structure.

Lecturer in Structural Crystallography, Catnbridge

CB , C.M.G. FRGS

.

`

f gee) pone we Officer in charge of Military Branch, Historical section, Criminal Investigation Deattles Of, 1914; ’B partment, London, Served in South African and European Wars. Author of Officral yi Battles of, 1915.

pres,

History, of a Mimics e erofessor

No Collegeofof North College University Un

J. F-K.

J. F. W. J. Gal.

o A H 15SAuthor of Wales,ales, B Bangor. Author

JAMES EDWARD TAUSSIG.

}Wabash Railway Company.

President, Wabash Railway Company and also of the Ann Arbor Railroad Company JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrt.D , F.R.Hist.S. Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, University of Liverpool. Author of a History of Spamtsh Laierature.

:

ea one Lope Felix de

i

;

Jonn Forges Warre, M.A., LL.D.

}Velazquez (in pari).

Jomt-Author of Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R S.A.

JEAN GALLOȚTI.

Inspecteur des Arts Indigenes au Maroc.

s

Editor of Hubert Lewis’s Ancient Laws of Wales (in part).

Lakof Wales to the Edwardian Conquest S.

J. E. Ta.

(in part)

Wrestling (in part).

Secretary of the Avi Publishing Company, Incorporated, New York. Author of Heel and Toe Walking

History of the War, etc

J. E. L.

,

;

i

:

Emeritus Professor of Jurisprudence, University of Belfast, Barrister-at-Law Reader of Equity, Inns of Court, London. Author of The Bench and Bar of England.

:

i

Wood-Carving (in part).

Chargé du cours d’histoire de l'art Musul-

man 2 la Faculté des Lettres de Bordeaux.

J. G.K.

Zoology; [conten mer ofof Zoology o Primer Glasgow. Author or of niversity of of Glasgow. font University de T ology, egius AProfesso Jon ei ’ JVertebrate Embryology.

J. G. R.

Joan GE0RGe KORERTEON, M.A., ran

Textbook of Embryology, etc.

y

E

ó

irector 0 London. Literature, University of German Language and rofessor of the Department of Scandinavian Studies Author of History of German Ltterature, Schaller After a Century, etc

i

is

Joun Firrton.

in. i s Wieland, Christoph Martin

}Wage Statistics: Internation

al Comparisons (2 part).

Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London.

Jrro Harapa.

Of the Imperial Household Museums,

Japan

Commissioner to the Panama-Pacific

International Exposition at San Francisco,

Formerly Professor in the Nagoya

College of Technology, and in the 8th Higher School

Imperial Japanese Government

J. Hau.

1915. Author of The Gardens of Japan. Jean Hauvst. Professor of Walloon Dialects in the University of Liege

J. H. Mi.

Jonn Henry Mipvreroy, M.A., Lirt.D., F.S.A., D C.L.

Walloon Literature.

——~

Sometime Slade Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge, and Art Director of the South Kensington Museum, Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated

Manuscripts in Classtcal and Medsaeval Times.

J. H. P.

J.L H.

Se J. HersErT Parsons, C B E , M B., Hon D.Sc, FRCS., FRS. Surgeon, Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital Ophthalmic College Hospital, Member of Medical Research Council.

Surgeon,

l University

j.L. G.

Joun I. Harpy. Senior Anımal Fiber Technologist, United States Department of Agriculture. James Lours Garvin, Litt.D.

J.L. W.

Jessie L. Weston, Litt D.

Editor-in-Chief of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Editor of The Observer, London. Author of Arthurian Romances.

.

p>Wood-Carving (2 part).

Verona (in part); Wren, Sir Christopher.

Vues"

Vision or Sight (i part). my

; }Wool (in pari). ots e

}War Guilt (in part) }Wolfram von Eschenbach.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

xiii

J. M. Ca.

James Morton CALLAHAN, A.M., Pu D. Head of Department of History and Political Science and Dean, West Virginia Uni- WestVirginia.

J.M. F. R.

J M.F, Romem

versity

Author of History of West Virginia; The South in the Maktng of tke Nahon.

Member of the Transit Section of the League af Nations, Geneva.

J. M. La.

J.M Lanors, A.B., LL.B , S.J.D.

J.O.

LIEUTENANT-CÇOLONEL Josam OLDEIELD, M.D., F.R.S.M., D.C L.

J. O.B. J. P. J. P.-B. J. R. B.

Professor of Legislation, eos

Wit Gro

Joun PercivaL, M.A, Sc.D. Proin of Agricultural Botany, University of Reading. nt, etc.

Author of The Wheat pWheat (n pari).

JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. Consulting Editor of The Guardian, London, formerly Editor. J. R. Bonn, M.B.E , M.Sc, N.D A.

}Vernis,Martin.

Contributor to the Journal of the Ministry of Vetch (in part);

eat (in part).

Joun Rocers Commons, A.M., LL.D.

Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin Author of Legal Foundations of Wages: Statistics of United States. Capitalism; History of Labor ın the United. States (with associates); etc Sr Josan Srame, G.B.E. D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.A. Chairman and President of the Executive, London, Midland and Scottish Railway. >

Director of the Bank of England

Member of the British Roya] Commission on | Wealth, National;

Income Tax, 1919, of the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924

British }Wealth and Income,

Representative on the Reparation Commussion’s Committee on German Currency and Finance, 1924, and Member of the Committee of Experts, Paris, 1929. Author of Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers; Wealth and Taxable Capacity.

J. Sw.

Josers SwIRE, F.R.G S.

J. Te.

Committee. Rev. Joun TELFORD, B.A. Wesleyan Methodist Connexional Editor since 1905

Member

J. V. B.

(in pari);

l

Warden of and Senior Physician to the Lady Margaret Frurtarian Hospital, Sitting- }/ Vegetarianism. bourne Author of Dzet 1m Rheumatism; Flesh-Eating a Cause of Consumption Joun OLIvER Bortey, O.B.E., M.A., FLS. |WhaleFisheries. Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London.

Agricultural Organiser for Derbyshire.

J.S.

ahaa

Warrant (in part);

Law School.

Agriculture

J. R. Ço.

wena

Distribution of.

William:

of the Institute of International Affairs, and a Member

of the Balkan

Editor of Wesleyan Methodist

Zogu,Ahmed.

(Wesley (Family);

Magamne, Preacher's Magazine; etc. Author of Life of Fehn Wesley; Wesley's Chapel |Wesley, John. and. Wesley's House, Portratts and Sayings of Charles Wesley.

J. Wil.

James VERNON BARTLET, M.A , D.D. . Professor mentia of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of he >Vinet, Alexandre Rodolphe, postolic Age. LIEUTENANT-COLONEL J. V. DELAHAYE, DS O., M C (retired). 2 f , C R. A North Russian Expedition, 1919 Brıtısh Mılıtary Representatıve, Baltie Woolwich (ż»x part). States, 1920 Staff College, 1921-2; General Staff, War Office, F925-8. James W, MA To MeD: E ESA "i pee eee

K.G. K.G. J.

KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE,

J. V. D.

L. A. T. L.C. L.

Barrister-at-law, Lincoln's Inn Former versity of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln Walls and. Succession; etc.

uls Reader in Roman Law, UniCollege. Author of Law of the Unwersttres,

Karr Frreprich GELDNER.

}Zend-Avesta (in part).

Emeritus Professor of Indian Philology, University of Marburg, Germany.

Sometime Scholar ef Wadbam College, Oxfard.

. , Will or Testament (in part)

;

l

Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. pXavier.

Author of Vasco da Gama and Has Successors.

LAURENCE A, TURNER, F.S.A , Hon.A.R I-B.A. ` Past Master, Art Workers’ Guild. Past President, Master Carvers’ Association.

; >Wood-Carving (1 part).

Author of Decorative Plaster Work 1n Great Briton CHARLES LIDDELL, M.V.O. , ee Sometıme Britısh Consul at Lyons and Copeahag en, Suecegsively Secretary af ajg Trade Advisory

Restriction, of Enemy Supplies Committee, and the Grand Committee on Trade inf

the War, 1914-8.

Committee.

Vickers, Limited;

L. C. M.

Sr Leo CutozzA Money, F.R.Srat.S., F.R.GS.

L. G. B.

Lort G. BIsgor.

Manufacturers,

“oo

“2 i Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advuisary Committee, 1915-8. aires Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8 Charman of the Ton- Westminster Bank, Lid.; nage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economues, Engineering and Indus- |White Star Line; tries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. idSeon Electric Power

ompany.

L. J. $.

a

. J, SpeNcrR, MAn SC-Ru FẸ S., ERS.

by

.

of the Department ofMineralogy, Natural History Museum, South KensingJ Ja ton. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Schalar

Editor of the Maneralogical Magazine.

L. Li.

L. LIEGLER.

L:

f Letanp Ossran Howarp, Px D., M.D., LL.D , Sc.D. Principat Entomologist, United States Department of Agriculture

0. H.

ale

Executive Secretary, Yale University.

.

Author of Karl Krans und sein werk. quitoes. How They Live, The Insect Book

University.

Uni

ite:

aderant Zeolites

g

ty

A a

}Vienna (in part). . Author of Mes~+Woolly Apple Aphis.

INITIALS

XIV L. Ro.

L.

St.

AND

NAMES

LENNOX ROBINSON.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

:

,

weats,William Butler. Manager of the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, 1910-4, 1919-23. Director, Abbey Theatre, | 1923. Editor of Golden Treasury of Irish Verse; Poems of Thomas Parnell.

LEONARD STEIN.

:

.

Political Secretary to World Zionist Executive.

Lronarp T. TROLAND, BS , A.M, Pu.D.

L. V.

Luter VILLaRt.

L. W.

Lucien Worr.

L. Wa.

Lina WATERFIELD, OB E.

L. W. H.

COLONEL LAWRENCE WHITAKER HARrRrIsoN, D.S.O., F.R.C.P.

sare

S

Assistant Professor of Psychology, Harvard University and Director of Research, |yYişual Sensation. Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation, Boston. Author of The Present Status of Visual Science, etc

M. A. M.

lZionism (an part).

Author of Zronism.

L. T. T.

i

i

Italan Vıce-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907 Acting-Consul at Victor Emmanuel Il.; Boston, 1907—10 On the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 1920-3 Author of{ Victor Emmanuel ITI. Italian Life in Town and Country, The Fascist Experyment, The Awakening of Italy.

.

:

President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Represented Anglo-Jewish Zionism (2 part) Community at Paris Peace Conference, 1919 Author of Diplomatic History of the s Jewish Questron.

.

,

part).

Dame Mitucent G. Fawcett, G.B.E., J.P., How LL.D. Author of Some Eminent Women of Our Time; Women's Suffrage; Josephine Butler, ete. See the biographical article: FAWCETT, DAME MILLICENT

I. N.

,

|Women, Education of (in

President of Mount Ilolyoke College, South Hadley, Mass.

M.

.

Special Medical Officer (Venereal Diseases), Ministry of Health, London. Director |Venereal Disease (in part), of Venereal Department and Lecturer on Venereal Diseases, St. Thomas’ Hospital, {Wassermann Reaction. London. MarcareT Arice Murray, F.S.A., F.R.A I. i , Assistant Professor of Egyptology, London University. Fellow of Umversity College. >Witchcraft. Author of Wztch Cult ın Western Europe, etc.

Mary Ewa WootteEy, Lirt D., L H.D., LL D.

M. G.F.

,

Correspondent for the Observer (London), in Rome Member of the Academy of -Venice (in part). Perugia, Author of Home Life ın Italy, The Story of Rome, etc.

Marton I Newatern, D Sc.

Editor of The Scottush Geographical Magamne.

GARRETT.

, Women’s Suffrage (in part).

a

ah

Author of A Geographical Study of the pYugoslavia (in part).

Peace Terms; Medtterranean Lands; etc.

M. J.C.

M, J. Curry. Vice-President, The Western Pacific Railroad Company, New York.

M. J. T.

MARGARET JANSON TuKE, M A.

Praciprl, Becford College for Women, London University.

M. S. D.

Masz

S$ Dorctass, A B., Lite D

Dean, New Jersey College for Women, Rutgers University, New Brunswick.

M. Sh.

Mary SHERMAN.

M. Si.

Max SILBERScHMIDT, Po D, Assistant Professor, Cantonal Technical School, Winterthur, Switzerland. NEWCOMB CARLTON.

N.C.

President, General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 1924-8. Home Department, General Federation.

Now Chairman, American

President of the Western Union Telegraph Company

N. E. C.

Western Pacific Railroad } Corporation, The.

ee

part).

Education of (an i

JWomen; Education of (in part).

Women’s Clubs, The General Federation of. } oa Zurich (om part). iWestern Union Telegraph Company, The.

N. M. P.

Norman E. CRUMP. } Statistical Correspondent to the Financtal Times. Member of the Council of the -¥en. Royal Statistical Society. Jomt Author of Clare's A. B. C. of tke Foretgn Exchanges Nıcuoras G. GEDYE, O.B E., B.Sc, M Insr.C E. Consulting Civil Engineer. Formerly Chief Engineer, Tyne Improvement Commission Served BEF Lieutenant-Colonel (late R.E). Acting Director, Civil Weir; Engineer-in-Chief’s Department, Admiralty. Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Har- Zuider Zee {ım pari). bours and Inland Waterways, Ministry of Transport. MAJOR-GENERAL Sır NEL MALcoLm, K C.B., D S.0.(retired). Served N W. Frontier, India, South African War and World War Editor of The Wilson, Sir Henry Hughes. Scrence of War. Norman Mostry Penzer, M.A., F.R.GS., F.GS.

N.Z.

NATHANIEL ZALOWITZ,

N. Ma.

Author of Cotton in British West Africa, The Tim Resources of the Brisk Empire, The pZinc (in part). Mineral Resources of Burma; Non-Ferrous Metals and Other Minerals; etc.

0. C.S. O.H.T.R 0. W.

P. B.

:

ae

Language and

Editor, English section, Jewish Datly Forward, Chicago. Literature (ın pari). O. C. STe, PE.D. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash- >Wheat (in pari). ington Editor of Journal of Farm Economics; Agricultural Hastory. O. H. T Riswspetu, M.A., F.R.G.S. Victoria (j ot ictoria part); in bord): oa ee Head of the Department of Geography, University Cottege,Wie stock: (in Anetrali ORVILLE WricHt, LL.D., Sc D., M.A. Chairman, Advisory Commission, Daniel Guggenheim School of Aeronautics, New York University Was the first to fly (with his late brother) in a heayier-than-air Wright, Wilbur. machine PIERRE BERNUS. Foreign Editor of the Journal des Débats. Paris correspondent of the Journal de Viviani, René. Genève

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

P.C. M.

Sır PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, C B E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. Author of Outlines of Biology; The

P. Ge.

Pierer GEYL, Litr.D

Childhood of Animals.

P. Gm.

W.

Zoological Gardens.

iiis

;

Professor of Dutch History and Institutions, University of London. }William (The Silent). Percy Groom, M.A, DSc,FRS. Professor of the Technology of Woods and Fibres, Imperial College of Science and pWood. Technology, London.

P.H.

XV

Author of Trees and Their Lıfe Histories; etc.

Percy Henry Winrierp, BA, LL D.

Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple Rouse Ball Professor of English Law, University of } Writ (in part). Cambridge, and Fellow of St. John's College

Percy LoNGHURST.

p

Hon. Secretary, National Amateur Wrestling Association. Hon Secretary and Treasurer, International Amateur Wrestling Federation. Author of Wrestling; Ju Jitsu, Self Defence, etc.

>

.

Wrestling (én part).

P.M. C.

PAuL M. CHAMBERLAIN, B.S., M.E. Consulting Mechanical Engineer Author of varous monographs on engineering and

P. Rn. P. Vi.

P. RENOUVIN. } a Lecturer in the Historical Origins of the World War, University of Paris. War Guilt (in part). Sir Pau Vinocraporr, D.C L., LL.D. Late Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of Oxford F ormerly Hon (Village Communities;

P.Z. C.

MAJOR-GENERAL Sir Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M G., G.CI E , K C.S.I , F.R G.S.

horological subjects.

Professor of History in the University of Moscow. Enghsh Society in the rzih Century, etc.

Author of Villeanage ın England,

Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20, High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, 1920-3, Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, 1914; Consul and Political Agent, Muscat, Arabia, 1899-1904.

>Watches (in part)

Villeinage.

Yezd

°

R. An.

ROBERT ANCHEL

R.C. D.

RomesE Cauwer Dorr, C.I E , F R.S L., M R A.S. Late Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple Author of Economic Hastory of India in the Vidyasagar, Iswar Chandra.

R. E.C.

DAME RACHEL ELEANOR CROWDY.

Archivist, National Archives, Paris

|Vendée, Wars-of the.

Victortan Age, 1837-1900, etc.

R. F.

R. H. Ra.

Chief of Social Questions and Opium Traffic Section, Secretariat, League of Mu R. Firts, MA, Px.D.

Member of the Polynesian Society. Author of Prumtwve Economics of the New Zealand aori. RoserT Heron RastaLr, ScD, FGS University Lecturer in Economic Geology.

R. L. P.

Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge

1896-1927.

Wycliffe, John (în part).

Keeper of the Unıversıty Archıves, 1909-27

Curator of the Bodleian

RoLAndD McKrr, B S. Senior Agronomust, United States Department of Agriculture

R. N. B.

ROBERT NISBET BATN. Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909

Editor of Wychffe

`

.

; |Vetch (in pari).

Author of Scandinavia—The Poht-

cal Hastory of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900, The First Romanovs, I6I3-

1725, Slavonic Europe—The Politecal History of Poland and Russa from 1469 to 1796

A VidHead ol the Scottish of Demtaee Department ofei Geography, U University o f Sheffield. eld. Member Member ofof the Scottis Antarctic Expedition, 1902-4, and of the Scottish Arctic Expeditions to Spitsbergen, 1909-12, 1914 and r919. Author of Spitsbergen.

Vladimir, St; Vorosmarty, Mihaly; Wallqvist, Olaf;

Witowt.

;

Wrangel Island.

Str RICHARD ARTHUR SURTEES PaGET, Hon.A R.I.B A, F.Insr P. Barrister. Assistant Secretary, Admiralty Board of Invention and Research, 1915-8. Author of papers in Proc Royal Socsety and Physical Soctety on the nature and artificial production of speech sounds

R. P. B.

i

}Wolframite or Wolfram.

R. McKe.

R. Pa.

‘Wealth, Primitive.

Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, and Mineralogical Society, 1918

Attached to War Office, 1915-9. Author of Geology of the Metalisferous Deposits Editor of the Geology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. REGINALD LANE Poot, MA,PHD,LL.D,FBA. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford Lecturer in Diplomatics in the University, Tibrary, 1914-26 Author of Wycliffe and Movemenis for Reform, ae Cri, Domir o Liner I. and De Dominio Diino.

R. N. R. B.

.

White Slave Traffic. 2

RuDOLF P. BERLE,

‘Voice Sounds.

A.M., LL.B.

j

;

Attorney, Hale and Dorr, Boston, Mass. Formerly Law Secretary to the Justices of Paar Compensation the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. :

R. Pn.

R. Po.

RALPH PEARSON Lecturer, New School of Social Research, New York. to See Modern Pictures, etc.

Author of Fifty Prints; How

Mrs

Ray Srracuey (Mrs. Oliver Strachey). Author of Life of Frances Willard, Short History of the Women's Movement. tributor to Harmsworth’s Universal History, Nation and Athenaeum.

and

ngraving.

RoscoE Pounp, A.M , Pa D., LL.D. Carter Professor of Jurisprudence and Dean of Law School, Harvard University bbc Author of Interpretation of Legal History, Law and Morals, etc.

R. St.

wees

id Wood

ae ince Position of

n p

Con-

: pWomen's Suffrage (in part).

XVI R. Van O.

R. W. F. H.

INITIALS

NAMES

AND

Mayor R. Van OVERSTRAETEN,

OF CONTRIBUTORS ,

DSO.

of Honour. Aide-de-Camp toWeer,Battle of the (ix part). Member of the Order of Leapald and ef the Legion Staff College. His Majesty the King of the Belgians Graduate of the Belgian ROBERT WILLIAM F. HARRISON. viotnlın part). Society, | Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant Secretary of the Royal London.

R. W. P.

RaymMonp WILLIAM POSsTGATE, of the Encyclopedia Britan~ Author and Journalist Editorial staff of the 14th Edition 1789 ia 1906, The Builders’ nica. Author of The Bolshewk Theory, Revoluteon from

\witkes, John.

Hustory, ed Pervigilium Veneris,

R. W. S.-W.

ondon. University © of London in the the University European HistoryHistory in Central European Seron ofMAON WrtiwProfessor Masaryk Rosset of The Slavonic Founder and Joint-Editor of The New Europe, 1916-20 Joint-Editor Renew.

S.A.C.

STANLEY ArTHuR Coox, Litt.D.

:

University Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic

Synac, Gonville and Cas College, Cambridge. London University, 1904-8

Sh. S. J.

Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and

The Cambridge Ancient History

pZephaniah.

Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic,

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund,

Co-editor of

Author of Religion of Ancient Palestine

LLB., DC. THOMAS SHAW, BARON SHAW OF DUNFERMLINE, P.C., K.C., MA., Lord of Appeal. Lord Advocate for Scotland, 1905-9-

S. K. L.

S. Jones. Assistant, Department of Phonetics, University College, London Samuen K. Lorzrop, A B., Pa D of Tulum. An Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York Author Pottery Archaeological Study of Eastern Yucatan; Pottery of Costa Rica and Nocaragua; Types and Thew Sequence in. El Salvador.

S. L. Ph.

SIDNEY LOVELL PHIPSON, M A.

S. T.H, W.

CAPTAIN S. T, HE Wrrton,

S. Wi.

SPENSER WILKINSON, Hon Litt.D.

T.A.

(Yugoslavia (in bart). (im part) goslavia

etc. Author of The Rese of Nationality 1n the Balkans; The New Slovakza,

,

Yahgan.

Witness (in part).

,

Author of The Law of Evidence.

Late Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple

,

:

Pierre Victurnien (roe (em part). }Voice (in part).

,

R.N.(retired)

Formerly Assıstant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London.

}World War (in pari).

Fellow of All Chichele Professor of Mibtary History, University of Oxford, 1909-23. Souls, Author of The Coming of War, First Lessons in War, etc.

Tuomas Asupy, D.Lirt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.LB.A. Author at Rome Formerly Director of the British School

>War.

Veit; Velletri;

Venetia: Vercelli:

of Turner's Visans of Verona {in part) ?

sy Revised and Vesuvius ( ; Kome Tke Roman Campagna in Classical Tomes, Roman Architecture. : ın par ); late Professor Vi completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the Volterra ; Viterbo; J. B. Plattner) Author of numerous archaeological artıcles

T. Ad.

THOMAS ADAMS.

Director of Plans and Surveys of Regional Plan of New York. Sometime Fawnto Planning Adviser to the Commission of Conservation of Canada and Adviser Zoning. First Town PlanCabinet of Federal Government on Post-War Housing Schemes ning Inspector of Local Government Board (naw Munstry of Health) of England and Wales, 1909-14. THOMAS ATHOL Jovce, M.A., O B E (in pari). Keeper, Department of Ethnography, British Museum Author of Seuss WestIndies

Deputy

American Archaeology, Central American Archaeology; ete

Rev, THEODORE EveLyn Reece Patties, M.A., FRAS., F.R Met.Soc. 1928

Director |venus. Secretary, Royal Astronomical Society, 1919-26; President, 1927 and of The Jupiter section of the British Astronomical Association, President, 1914-6. Joint-Editor of The Splendour of the Heavens, etc.

T. E. Wi. T. F. H.

T. J. E.

}wilson & Co., Inc.

Tuomas E. WILSON.

President, Wilson and Company, Chicago, Ill. Taror F Haw BA R ARCH [nst-uctor 11 -ne Tiston of A catecti re, Columbia U nuversity, New York. Chair- Vault; man, Cims Plin Conwitree of vie Marchants \ssociation, New York, Author of (Window. Tie Trroow r! of arci' ecaro, Tie

imer ocs Su..

nm Arcmiecture,

Major T J. EDWARDS. Secretary to the Honours and Distinctiors Committee

The War Office, London. Author of The Perforated Map; The Nor-Comn .9s.crv: OSeer's Guade to Promohon on the Infantry. °

e

e

i

F.

War Office.

T. P. N.

Vocational Training (in Sir T. Percy Nunn, M.A, D Sc. iversity of part). Principal, London Day Training g College; Education, University eg Professor of Educatio ondaa

T.W.

THOMAS WOODHOUSE.

T: W.-D.

TESODORE WATTS-DUNTON.

Head af Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee,

English Man of Letters. Author of The Renascence of Wonder; The Coming of Love, etc. See the biographical article: WaTrs-DuNToNn, WALTER TREQDORE,

Wi

j ire Rope. si

T. W. F.

THomas Witttam Fox. Do een of Textiles in the University af Manchester. Author of Mechauces of >Weaving (in part).

V. Co.

VAUGHAN CornisH, D.Sc., F.R.G.S,, F.R.C.1.

President, Geographical Association, 1928, and of the British Association, 1923.

phieal Section of the Waves of the Sea.

Author of Waves of the Sea; Waves of the Sand and Snow,

:

Wycherley, William (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

V. E. N.

vV. p Naan, MS., FRCS on Lecturer of Laryngology, King’s Coll

V.M. C.

Mrs. V. M. CAMBRIDGE. President of the Middlesex Ladies’ Athletic Club. Hon. Editor of The British Olympic

of London,

University

at King’s College Hospital Medical Ebook ji

Journal

W. A.

B.

C.

Rev. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F R G.S., Hon Pa.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford

W. A. Bn. W.

A.

H.

W. A. J.F. W. A. P.

Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-9, etc.

W. Arrson PELLIS, M.A.

Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University. bridge Modern History, etc

WILLIAM CROCKER, A.B., D Pe. W. DALTON.

Contributor to The Cam-

Director of the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Yonkers, N. Y.

W. E. Br.

W. E. E.

wW. F.

C.

W.F. R. W. F. Sn. W. H. Bev.

He.

W. Ermer Exesraw, M.A.

Wyandotte Cave;

W. E. WmtEnouse, M.Sc. Lecturer in Geography, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. christ Scholar in Geography. Wrrirr1am Fempen Crates, M A. W. t (i i); Late Barrıster-at-law, Inner Temple, and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King’s College,} atrant (in pari); London. Editor of Archbold’s Crzmanal Pleading. Witness (1m part). Wam F. Rascar, B.Sc., M.A , Pau D ?Vocational Training Director of Personnel, General Motors ‘fruck Corporation, Pontiac, Mich WILLIAM FREEMAN Snow, MA, M.D President, National Health Council. Lecturer, Columbia University. General}Venereal Diseases Director of American Social Hygiene Association Sır Wrrrram Henry BEVERIDGE, K.C B. Barrıster-at-law. Director of London School of Economics and Political Science |War Control of Foo Permanent Secretary, 1919

Author of

WALTER HILL CROCKETT.

Wrrrram Henry.

Vermont.

Late Founder and Chief Secretary of the Royal Life Saving Society. of Swimming; etc

W. K. McC.

Wiriram Kipston McCioure, C.B.E.

Joint-Author

Joen GRUFFYDD, M A.

Professor of Celtic, University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Author of History of Welsh Laterature (1450-1600); etc

Cardiff.

Attached, British Embassy, Rome, as Press Officer. Formerly Correspondent of The Tames (London) in Rome War Correspondent for The Temes on the Italian front, 1915-7- Author of Italy's Part +n the War, Italy wn North Africa, etc.

WILLIAM LEWIS BLENNERHASSETT,

part),

i

Wirm

L. B.

7

Special }Yellowstone Nation Yosemite. -aaen Formerly Gil Zürich (Canton)

W. J. Gr.

wW.

}Weeds

iVingt-et-Un.

Editor of publications, University of Vermont, Burlington. W.

PEIoes

Walth 2 der Vogelweid Š

Wirm Eccres, D.Sc, F.R.S. President of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1926-7 Formerly Professor of |Wireless Telegraph Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering, City and Guilds of London Technical part). College, Finsbury, and University Reader ın Graphics, University College, London WINIFRED ELSIE BRENCHLEY, D.Sc., FLS., F.E.S : Botanist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden. Fellow of University Col- -Weed Destruction. lege, London Author of Weeds of Farmland; etc

Second Secretary, Ministry of Food, 1916-8; British Food Control; etc.

W. H. Cr.

vona

`

Author of Bradge Abridged, or Practical Bridge.

Clark University, Worcester, Mass Assistant Editor, Economic Geography. field of research, agricultural geography and arctic geography.

W. E. Wh.

}Zürich (Town) (in

Second Chief of the Research Department of Messrs, W. T. Avery, Ltd, Birmingham }Weighing Machine W. A. Hanton, M.Sc.TECH aes of the Weaving section, Textile Department, Manchester College of Tech. | Weaving (tn part). nology. WALTER ARMITAGE JusTICE Forp, B A. Professor of Sınging at the Royal College of Music and University of Reading. iWolf, Hugo.

W. Da. E.

i

WinterSports.

W. A. Benton, F.C.S.

W. Cro.

W.

) >Voice ((im part).

and Lecturer

a

D.S.O., O.B.E.

Formerly Acting British Vice-Consul at Kovno, Lithuania. Stock Exchange.

Member of the London

-Water Polo.

Welsh Language a1 Literature. Vittorio Veneto, Bai

:

:

.

-Vilna or Wilno (in

W.M.

Wirrram Miter, M A., F.R HistS., Hon LL D. in the National University of Greece Hon. Student of the British a Archaeological School of Athens Correspondent of The Morning Post (London) in Zaimis, Alexander. Athens and Rome. Author of The Latuns in the Levant, The Ottoman Empire and Its

Wm. Sp.

WILLIAM SPRARAGEN.

wW. 0. S.

Wii1ram Oscar Scrocecs, Pu.D. Editorial Staff, New York World.

Successors, etc.

.

i

Technical Secretary and Editor, American Welding Society. State University, 1913-9

: Professor of Economics and Sociology, Louisiana

i Welding.

Walker, William.

XVIII W.S.L. W. S. L.-B.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS .

\

W. S. Lewis, M Sc., F.R G.S.

Vienna (in part). Professor of Geography, University College, Exeter. WALTER SYDNEY LAZARUS-BARLOW, M D., F. RCP. Exof Professor Formerly Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health perimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University | vivisection g Author of A Manual of General Pathology, Elements of Pathological Anatomy and Histology for Students. Editor of the Medicine section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

:

W. S. Ro.

WILLIAM SPENCE Roperrson, Px.D.

W.T. C.

American Republics, etc. Wrr1am Tuomas Carman, D.Sc, F.R S. Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History).

Professor of History in the University of Illnow.

of “Crustacea” in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology

Author of Rese of the SpantshAuthor

Venezuela (in part). Water Flea: ? Wood-L

ood~Louse.

W. V.B.

W. VALENTINE BALt, O.B.E , M.A. Barrister-at-law. Master of the Supreme Court, King’s Bench Division Author of Venue (in pari). The Law of Label as Affecting Newspapers and Journalists, Bankruptcy, etc.

W. Y. S.

Wirr1am YounG SELLAR, LL.D.

X.

the Republic, Initial used for anonymous contributors.

Late Professor of Humanity, Edinburgh University.

s

:

Author of The Roman Poets of Virgil (in part).

THE

ENCYCLOPA:D BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 23 VASE

TO ZYGOTE

ASE, a vessel, particularly one of ornamental form or decoration; the term is often confined to such vessels which are uncovered and with two handles, and whose height is greater in proportion to their width. (See Pottery AND PORCELAIN )

VASELINE is a term frequently, but

inaccurately, applied to the parafinum molle of the Bntish Pharmacopoeia, also known as petrolatum and petroleum jelly, a commercial product of petroleum largely employed in pharmacy, alone and as a vehicle for external application of medicinal agents, especially when local action rather than absorption is desired; as a protective coating for metallic surfaces and for other purposes. “Vaselme” is the registered trade mark of The Chesebrough Manufacturing Co

word came to acquire a military sense, and in mediaeval French poetry vasselage is commonly used in the sense of “prowess in arms,” or generally of any knightly qualhties. In this sense it became acchmatized in England, but in countnes which were not feudally organized—in Castile, for instance—vassal meant simply subject, and durmg the revolutionary period acquired a distinctly offensive significance as being equivalent to slave See Dictionna:re de ponent langue francaise (1895), and Du Cange, Glossarium, s, “Vassus

VASSAR COLLEGE, a non-sectarian institution for the

higher education of women, two miles east of Poughkeepsie, N.Y , and 75 m. from New York city. In 1861 it was incorporated as Vassar Female college, a name which was changed in 1867 to Vassar college. Immediately after the incorporation, the founder, Matthew Vassar, transferred to a board of trustees of his own (Cons’d), used upon a line of products perhaps the best known selection about $400,000, increased by his will to almost twice that of which is petroleum jelly amount, and 200 ac. of land on which the college was to be built. “Vaseline” petroleum jelly consists of a semi-solid mixture of Three buildings were erected and the college was opened on Sept. hydrocarbons, having a meltmng-point usually ranging fromalittle 20, 1865, but before that time Milo P. Jewett, selected by Mr. below to a few degrees above 100°. It is colourless, or of a pale Vassar as the first president, had resigned, and John Howard Rayyellow colour, translucent, fluorescent, and amorphous. It does mond, one of the trustees, was chosen by the board as his sucnot oxidize on exposure to the air, and is not readily acted on by cessor. To Dr. Raymond fell the task of creating the curriculum, chemical reagents. It is soluble in chloroform, benzene, carbon selecting the entire faculty and planning the organization of the bisulphide and oil of turpentine. It also dissolves in warm ether first adequately endowed and equipped college for women After and im hot alcohol, but separates from the latter in flakes on his death in 1878 Samuel L. Caldwell was called to the presidency cooling. He resigned in 1885 and after one year, during which James VASILKOV, a town of the Ukrainian SSR, in 50° 17 N. Ryland Kendrick served as provisional president, James Monroe 30° 18’ E., lying south of Kiev. Pop. (1926) 20,743. It is an Taylor began a long and successful administration (1886-1914). agricultural centre Founded in the tenth century, it was laid The number of students increased until in 1906 it was decided to waste by the Mongols 1239-42, captured by Lithuania in 1320, and limit them to 1,000; new chairs were established, and many imporlater by the Poles. In 1686 1t was annexed to Russia. tant policies adopted; the preparatory department was abolished VASSAL, the tenant and follower of a feudal lord (see and the department of wardens created. In 1915 Henry Noble FEUDALISM). The etymology of the word after.much discussion MacCracken, who is president now (1929), began his administraremains obscure. Under the Frankish empire the vassi dominici, tion. While maintaining the early high standards and preserving essentially servants of the royal household, were great officers the spirit and ideals of the founder, the has accepted the changed of State, sent on extraordinary missions into the provinces, to conditions of' the times and adopted modern educational policies supervise local administration in the interests of the central power. Increasing powers of self-government have been granted to the Sometimes they were sent to organize and govern a march, students. They share with the faculty the responsibility of mainsometimes they were rewarded with benefices, and as, with the taining the good name of the college, and, through the student growth of feudahsm, these developed into hereditary fiefs, the curriculum committee, they participate in the discussion of educaword vassus or vassallus was naturally retained as implying the

tional ‘problems.

relation to the king as overlord, and was extended to the holders

compulsory attendance at religious services and 3 Community

of all fiefs whether capital or mediate. In course of time the

Voluntary

chapel has been substituted ‘for

Church has been established. The curriculum has been revised so

VASTO—VATICAN

2

that more freedom is given each student in choosing her course of study and more guidance is given by faculty advisers in making her choice A new department is that of euthenics, a word that has been defined as the science of efficient hving Its purpose 1s to apply the arts and sciences to the improvement of living conditions of the individual and the race, and since 1926 there has been held on the college campus a summer institute of euthenics for graduates of Vassar and other colleges, both men and women. The college opened with a faculty of eight professors and 26 instructors and an enrolment of 353 students The first graduating class was that of 1867, and comprised four members, to whom were given temporary certificates stating that they were ‘entitled to be admitted to the first degree of Isberal arts,” the propriety of awarding the degree of bachelor to women being questioned at that time; m 1868 these certificates were replaced by diplomas

bestowing the degree of AB. At present (1929) the college has a faculty of instruction numbering 153, 96 of whom äre of professorial rank, besides 33 other officers of academic administration The first lady principal was Hannah W Lyman (1865-1871), in 1913 the office was abolished and im its place was organized the department of wardens, consisting of the warden, who has a house on the campus, and an associate warden in each residence hall. The wardens are responsible for material hving conditions and the social hfe of the college In 1923 the trustees voted to contmue the policy adopted in 1905 of muting the number of students but to increase the enrolment to 1,150. Candidates are accepted each year according to fitness for college. not to priority of application, the only exception being that candidates who filed their applications before March 1, 1923, are entitled to admission on a non-competitive basis. All applicants must present 15 acceptable entrance units and pass entrance ¢xamunations. The college confers the baccalaureate degree in arts (AB) upon the completion of the regular courses of four years, and a second degret in arts (A.M ) upon bachelors of arts of Vassar or

any approved college who have completed by exammation and thesis a course of advanced non-professional study. In 1928, the endowment was more than $6,300,000 and the funds available for scholarships about $720,000 The present equipment includes about 40 buildings exclusive of faculty houses, and the total area of the college grounds is 1,000-4c , inclusive of a farm of 600 acres The library contains over 150,000 volumes Just west of the campus is the Alumnae house which serves as headquarters for the activities of the alumnae association, including also the offices of the educational secretary and of the Vassar Quarterly, and as a centre for returning graduates The most recent additions are the Georgia Avery Kendrick house which provides apartments and single rooms for about 25 members of the faculty, Cushing hall, named in honour of Florence M. Cushing, a member of the class of 1874 and the first woman elected to the board of trustees, the Mildred R. Wimpfhemmer Nursery school which accommodates 35 children and provides facilities for child study; and the Minnie Cumnock Blodgett hall of euthenics. with classrooms, laboratories and facilities for research There is an open air theatre, capable of seating 3,000 people; an old English garden; and an outdoor botanical laboratory designed to contain specimens of all plants growimg in Dutchess county. Student government, especially in social matters, is in effective

operation, and all undergraduates are members of the Students’ Association empowered by the faculty. (C.Ra) Breviocraray.—Benson J Lossing, Vassar College and its Founder (New York, 1867), Lıfe and Letters of John Howard Raymond (New

Vork, 1881), Frances A Wood, Earliest Years at Vassar (Poughkeepsie, NY, 19090), James Monroe Taylor, Before Vassar Opened (Boston, 1914); James Monroe Taylor and Elizabeth H Haught, Vassar (New York, 1915), Ehzabeth H Haight, editor, The Autobdiography and Letters of Matthew Vassar (New York, 1916), The Feftteth Anniversary of the Openimg of Vassar College (Vassar College, 1916) ; Elizabeth H Haicht, Life and Letters of James Monroe Taylor (New York, 1919), Vassar College, 1860-1877, a lst of books and articles about Vassar College prmted between 1860-1877, Reports of Officers (issued annually)

VASTO

(anc. Hestonium), a fortified town of the Abruzzi,

Italy, in the province of Chieti, about a mile from the Adriatic, 32 m. direct S.E. by E. of Chieti and 131 m. by rail from Ancona,

x23 ft above sea-level Pop (1921) 11,071 (town); (commune) 14,366 Its surrounded by mediaeval walls, and commands views extending to the Tremiti islands and Monte Gargano The ancient Histonwun

was a town of the Frentam,

and an

Oscan inscription of the period of its independence speaks of censors there, probably officers of the community of the Frentan1. It arnears to have flotrishéd im Roman times and also lay on the awe ol lte maea road which prolonged the Via Flaminia to the south-east, and reached the coast here after having passed through Anxanum (Lanciano) It ıs subject tò severe earthquakes

VATICAN, THE, the official residence of the pope, situated upon the Vatican hill in the city of Rome. The article which follows contains sections on history, art, services, organization, representatives’ court, and “Vacancy of the Holy See.” See also Rome, Papacy, etc

HISTORY The Vatican hill, a low emmence on the right bank of the Tiber at the north-west end of Rome, first began to occupy a place in world history at the death of the Apostle Peter In Roman times it was a district occupied by villas and gardens. It probably took its name from the vatzcuma which were pronounced there in the neighbourhood of a famous temple of Apollo The principal building in the ager vatzcanus at the time of St Peter was the circus constructed by Caius Caligula and therefore called Caianum. It was here that in AD 64 and 65 the “great multitude” of Chris-

tians mentioned by Tacitus (Annals xv, 44), who were accused by Nero of having caused the burning of Rome, were martyred with cruel tortures, which the Roman historian describes in detail. Tradition.—According to the most wide-spread and authoritative tradition, the martyrdom of St. Peter took place in av. 67. The disciples obtained possession of his body, as Roman law allowed them to dò, and buried it in 4 tomb near the Via Cor-

nelia, which ran past the Circus not far from the place of martyrdom. The fact of St Peter’s coming to Rome and his martyrdom there, which is attested by strong historical evidence, is strikingly confirmed by a discovery made in ror2 durimg the excavations which were made under the Basilica of St. Sebastian on the Appian Way. A number of incised inscriptions (grafits) were discovered on the walls containing invocations to St Peter and St Paul in Greek and Latin. This entirely corresponds to the

tradition that the bodies of the two Apostles were transported to that spot and remained there soine time, possibly for concealment,

darms the ver'o? wher the percecutone were at their height The wie cién wach p'uces che rrar.sidor of St. Peter on the Vatican hill is also the oldest and the best established; another view, at-

cording to which it took place on the Janiculum near to where the Church of St Peter-in-Montorio now stands, is now to a large extent discredited amongst scholars. An inscription was placed in 1923 on the site of Caligula’s Circus on the small piazza south of the Vatican basilica beside the sacristy The inscription, which was engraved by order of the Collegium Cultorum Martyrum, indicates that the first Roman martyrs suffered death at that spot “under the leadership of the Apostle Peter”

Constantine’s Basilica.—The first successors of St. Peter de-

sired to be buried near his tomb, for this reason his third suc-

cessor, St. Anaclete, was obliged towards the end of the first century A.D. to construct, around the celia which contamed the body of the Apostle, a memoriw large enough to contain not only St. Peter’s tomb but those of his successors. It was only in the third century that it began to be the custom for the popes to be buried in the catacombs The Emperor Constantine I gave free-

dom to the’ Church in 313, and showed it all possible marks of favour. He presented the pope with the palace of the senator Plautius Lateranus as a residence This palace had become imperal property às àa result of its confiscation by Nero Con-

stantine also built the Basilica of the Saviour, now St John Lateran, which betame “the cathedral of the pope” and “the Mother Church and the head of all churches of the city and of the world” '(Urbss et Orbis) According to tradition it was in 324 that he began the construction of a splendid basilica on the

Vatican hill over St Peter’s tomb.

This church was enriched

with valuable ornaments, including a great golden cross. The tomb

VATICAN

3

itself remained untouched

Constantine’s basilica was not com- ito the Church of the Holy Spirit in Sassia, which stands near pleted until 349, ın the reign of Constantius In order to build St Peters. The first kng of the West Saxons to visit Rome rt, it was necessary to demolish what remamed of Caligula’s was Caedwalla, who was only a catechumen when he arrived at Cireus. Nothing was left of the Circus except the central obelisk, Rome under the pontificate of Sergius I (689-701). He was bapwhich was moved to the centre of the piazza of St. Peter’s in tised ın St Peter’s, but died a few days later and was buried in 1586 by order of Sixtus V. the atrium of the cathedral near the tomb of the Emperor Otho II Nothing unfortunately remains of Constantime’s basilica or of King Ina came ta Rome in 720 and visited St. Peter’s. It was the splendid monuments with which ıt was adorned in the course he who founded the hospice for Saxons Queen Frothogitha came of nearly twelve centuries, with the exception of a few remains in 787, Ceolwulf, king of Northumberland, in 758, Ethelwulf in preserved in the crypts (grotte) of the present basilica. The 855—he restored and enlarged the Saxon hospice—and Alfred, Museum Petrianum was built next the basilica during the pon- Ethelwulf’s son, was sent as a child by his father to be anointed tificate of Benedict XV, and was opened in 1925 under Pius XI by Leo IV. and later, in token of his devotion to the Vatican All the monuments relating to the history of St Peter which basihea, required each family in his kingdom to pay a silver com existed in various places have been collected in this museum. ta the pope every year. This was the origin of “Peter’s Pence ” Although the history of the present basilica can easily be The basilica of St. Peter has several times been sacked and traced, that of the ancient basilica ıs extremely difficult to dis- devastated At the time of the barbarian invasions Alaric and cover. Constantine’s basilica had five naves, its walls were Genseric gave orders that it should be respected, but it was not adorned with paintings and mosaics, which were much admired always spared during the civil wars. On some occasions it was by pilgrims; its five doors opened on a great square atrium called occupied by anti-pepes, who endeavoured to resist the legitimate Paradisus, which was surrounded by a colonnade and in which pope. The most terrible devastation suffered by the basilica there gradually accumulated the tombs of all the popes, em- was, however, that of 846, during the Saracen mvasion. It was as perors, kings and princes who expressed a wish to be bured near a result af this event that Pope Leo IV, (847-855) built round St Peter’s tomb the basilica and the Vatican hull a wall called the Leonine Wall The most notable of the buildings erected after the Basilica after him. The same name has heen given to the part of Rome are the Mausoleum, constructed early in the 5th century for the enclosed by the wall Terrible damage was again done yn 1527 burial of Honoris and Theodosius II, in which other members by the Lutheran soldiers of Charles V., commanded by the of the imperiat family were also buried, the oratory of St. Constable of Bourbon, at the time of the famous sack of Rome. Andrew, which was dedicated by Pope Symmachus (498-514) The New Basilica—-When Nicholas V. became pope, Conand destroyed by Pius VI. in 1776 to make toom for the present stantine’s basihca was falkng inte rum. Vain attempts had been sacristy, the Campanile built by Stephen II (752-757). the made during the preceding centuries to restore the edifice, more oratory of Sta Maria Antiqua whose image is preserved in the particularly by the popes who reigned after the return to Rome erypt of the present basilica, and the oratory of John VIE (7a05- fallowing the Western Schism The basilica leaned so much te 707), which was built to contain the Veranica or Portrait of Our one side that the famous architect Leo Baptista Alberti ascerLord The remnants of the decorations of this oratory are pre- tained that the southern wall was 1-75 metres out of the perpenserved in the Museum Petrianum dicular. Drastic action was clearly necessary Nicholas V., on the One of the ornaments of Constantine’s basilica was the fountain advice of Alberti, decided that the best, or indeed the only which was placed in the middle of the atrium for the refreshment remedy, was, to demolish Constantine’s basilica, and to build a of pilgrims It dated from the end of the qth century, but was new one on the same site. The demehtion of the apse was begun, repeatedly improved and restored Nothing remains of it to-day but was suspended by the death of this humanist. pope. except two bronze peacocks and the central pine-apple, also of On April rz, 1506, Julus IZ. laid the first stone of the gilded bronze, from which the water sprang This pme-apple is new basilica, which according to Bramante’s original design, was mentioned by Dante im the 31st canto of the “Inferno.” The to have been in the form of a Greek cross. Work was carried basilica was decorated with mosaies of various periods Among on with great activity until the end of the pontificate of Leo X, the most important were that placed on the facade of the oratory (2521) under the direction of Raphael, who succeeded Bramante of St Mary-in-Turri under Paul I , that situated near the entrance m z514, and that of Guuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo da of the basilica, which represented Our Lord between St. Peter Verona, Baldassare Peruzzi and Antonio da Sangallo, After the and St Paul, and which is at present in the erypt, and that rep- death of Leo X. the work was carried on with less energy until in

resenting St. Peter walking on the water, which was executed

1546 Paul FIT. entrusted its direction to Michelangelo,

by Giotto early in the XIVth century by order of Cardinal Stefaneschi ‘Fhe latter mosaic, which is known as the Naueella, was destroyed when the ancient basilica was demolished Emperors and Kings.—Of the historical events of which the Vatican Basilica was the scene during the Middle Ages, the most

angelo returned to Bramante’s plan, which had been modified by the intervening architects, and added the famous dome, which he himself designed. The work again slackened after the death of Michelangelo (1564), when it was carried on by Vignola, Pirro Ligorio and Giacomo della Porta. Sixtus V., however, took the

famous, and that which had the most influence on the history of the world, was the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, which was founded when Leo III, on Christmas Day 800, crowned Charlemagne as emperor of the West with solemn rites. After that time some of the emperors came to Rome to receive their crown from the pope in St Peter’s The last to do so was Frederick III , who was crowned by Nicholas V on March 19, 1452. Perhaps the most solemn coronation was that of the Emperor Conrad, who came to Rome accompanied by Canute, king of England, Denmark and Norway, and Rudolph, king of Burgundy, and was anointed by John XTX. on Easter Day 1027 Napoleon JF. intended to be crowned in St. Peter’s after having been anointed by Fius VEI at Notre Dame in Paris, but his inten-

tion was not carried out owing to his dispute with the pope

Many kings and princes have made pilgrimages te St. Peter’s tomb in the Vatican Basilica In particular, a number of AngloSaxon sovereigns made this pilgrimage, for mot far from the

Vatican basilica was the Sekola Saxonum. or hospice for English pilgrims

The hospice no longer exists, but it has given its name

Michel-

matter up with his usual energy and appointed his favourite architect, Domenico Foriene .o acz wi'h Giacro deux Porta In 1590, Michelangelo’s great cupola, slightly modified by Giacomo della Porta, was completed after only 22 months’ work. In 1603,

during the reign of Clement VIIE , the new basilica was completed, according to the orginal plan, in the farm of a. Greek cross, Some remains of the ancient basilica weres still left standmg Paul V decided in 1695 to demolish them. He adopted Carlo Maderno’s

plan of giving the basilica the form of a Latin cross hy extending the eastern arm.

The facade, which was designed by Maderno,

was completed in 1612. The new basilica was solemnly consecrated by Urban VEIE on Nov 18, 1626, The majestic beauty of the basilica is completed by the

splendid piazza which gives access to it. In the centre is an obelisk, and on the two sides are two beautiful fountains gonstructed by Maderno in the reign of Panl V. The piazza, is sur-

rounded by the two marvellous semi-circular colonnaces erected by Bernini in 1667 under Alexander VII, They consist of 284 columns of Travertine marble placed in four rows and surmounted

4.

VATICAN

effect proby a balustrade on which are 140 statues. The general duced by the piazza is unequalled throughout the world the spec(to basilica the of left the n Palaces.—O The Papal Symtator’s right) 1s the imposing group of the papal palaces. of account on Vatican, the in reside to machus was the first pope He the occupation of the Lateran by the anti-pope Laurentius. the to other the and left the to one built two episcopal residences,

he reright of the basilica. At the end of the schism, however, turned to the Lateran. Leo III improved the left-hand residence (827-844) IV Gregory 800. in Charlemagne of reception the for to built a mew residence to be used by the pope when he desired spend ‘several days near St Peter’s in order to officiate in the which cathedral Eugenius III. (1145-53) began another palace, was continued by Celestinus ITI. (1191~98) and completed by Innocent III. (1198-1216) Other buildings were constructed by latter Innocent IV (1243-54) and Nicholas II. (1277-80) The pope undertook a great deal of building, and may be regarded as He popes. the of residence the real founder of the Vatican as the laid out the Vatican gardens, which were surrounded with walls to Rome from and towers When the Holy See was transferred Avignon, the Vatican and the Lateran were abandoned and fell his during into dilapidation Urban V. resided in the Vatican temporary return from Avignon in 1367, and Gregory XI. established himself there when the papacy was finally transferred back to Rome. The Lateran was then abandoned, and the Vatican became the official residence of the popes; from the time of Paul V. to that of Pius IX they also resided in the Quirinal

and entrusted Raphael alone with the direction of the work, which

was contmued under Leo X. (1513-21). Raphael died m 1520, and the decoration of the stanze was completed by hus pupils

under Clement VII (1523-34). Paul III (1534-49) recalled Michelangelo and commissioned him to paint the famous “Last Judgment” on the end wall of the Sistine chapel. This painting was completed in 1541. Michelangelo also painted the “Martyrdom of St Peter” and the “Conversion of St Paul” in the Pauline chapel which the pope had just had built from the designs of Antomo da Sangallo. The same architect built the Sala Regza, which was decorated with frescoes by several painters, including Giorgio Vasari, under Paul III and Gregory XIII. (1572-85) Next to this hall were two large rooms which were also adorned with frescoes by the order of Paul IV. (1555-59) and Pius V (1566-72). These rooms were afterwards thrown into one by Bernini and formed the Sale Ducale. The decoration of the lower part of the walls was only completed under Benedict XV. (191422), who had them covered with coloured marbles. Pius IV. (1559-65) commissioned Pirro Ligorio to build hım a summer casino in the Vatican gardens Pius V. ordered the brothers Antonio and Ignazio Danti to pamt maps of the various countries of the world on the walls of the third loggia These maps throw an interesting light on the history of geographical knowledge. Gregory XIII. ordered the same painters to decorate another large gallery

in one of the wings of the Belvedere palace with maps of the various districts of Italy. He constructed the “Tower of the Winds” above the same wing in memory of the reform of the calendar. He extended the three Joggie which shut in the Court of From the 15th to the 17th centuries.—During the Renais- St Damasus on the northern side and had them decorated with The culture. and art of sance period the Vatican became a centre paintings. He also decorated the Sale det Paramenti which formed celebrated humanist, Nicholas V. (1447-55), included all the a continuation of the Sala Ducale. buildings on the left of the basilica in a single palace surrounded Sixtus V had a great palace built from the designs of Domenico intact. still is which of latter the of one towers, and with walls Fontana This is the palace in which the popes ‘reside at the with On the ground floor the placed the library, which he enriched present day. The Joggie, which look out over the court of St enlarged was library The countries all from manuscripts collected Damasus, were decorated by Mantovani under Pius IX. (1846— by Sixtus IV (1471-84) and was transported to the premises 78). Sixtus V. also cut the Belvedere Court in two by building a which 1t now occupies by Sixtus V. in 1588. Nicholas V. com- middle wing connecting the two lateral wings He transferred the missioned Fra Angelico in 1449 to paint frescoes in a chapel in library to this wing, the rooms of which were decorated by Cesare his apartment. Pius II. (1458-64) and Sixtus IV. (1471-84) Nebbia, Paride Nogari and other artists Clement VIII. (1592enlarged and completed the buildings begun by Nicholas V. Sixtus 1605) completed the great palace which had been begun by Sixtus IV. built the Sistine chapel, which was completed in 1483 and V, and commissioned Paul Brill and other painters to decorate adorned with frescoes by Cosimo Rosselli, Sandro Botticelli, the Clementine Hall and the Hall of the Consistorium. Paul V Domenico Ghirlandajo and Pietro Perugino. Half a century later bult two other palaces, one adjoining the palace of the Borgia, Michelangelo also painted frescoes in the Sistine chapel. Paul and the other on the site of the palace of Innocent VIIL, which TI (1464-71) built colonnades round the court in front of the was falling mto decay At this period, however, the popes began palace of Nicholas V and constructed the staircase giving access to prefer the Quirinal to the Vatican The Quirinal palace was to the storey on which the library is situated. Innocent VIII. begun by Gregory XIII, continued by Sixtus V., and completed (1484-92) erected a new structure next to the entrance to the by Paul V. The popes at first used it for a summer residence on papal palace and adjoining the atrium of the basilica On the account of its high and healthy situation. They gradually came side of the Vatican hull which looks towards Monte Mario, he built another palace which was magnificently decorated by Pin- to occupy it more continuously until 1848, and they only resided in the Vatican from time to time when ceremonies were to be turicchio and Mantegna. Little trace now remains of this palace, which was replaced under Pius VI. by new structures intended to celebrated at St Peter’s or on other specially solemn occasions Urban VIII (1628-44) commissioned Bernini to erect the monube used as museums Alexander VI (1492-1503) commissioned Pinturicchio and Mantegna to paint frescoes on the first floor of mental s*-ircise _k-own 1 the Scala Regia, which gives access to Nicholas V.’s palace. These frescoes are one of the glories of the the Vatic.n pa’ace- The Scala Regia was recently restored by Vatican Julius If. (1503-13) ordered Michelangelo to paint orcer of Pizs XT The 18th and 19th Centuries.—From that period until the the ceiling of the Sistine chapel, and invited Bramante to come to Rome. This architect, as well as designing the new Vatican end of the 18th century few additions of any importance have been basilica as stated above, undertook the systematic arrangement made to the Vatican. As there was not sufficient room for the of all the Vatican palaces, reaching from that of Innocent VIII. valuable art collections of the Vatican, Clement XIV. (1769-75) on the Belvedere to that of Nicholas V adjoining the basilica. built a new wing parallel to that of Sixtus V. in the Belvedere This was the origin of the immense and magnificent rectangular Court to contain the museum of sculpture. Pius VI. (1775-99) structure which surrounds the court of the Belvedere, and in and Pius VII (1800-23), notwithstanding the difficult conditions which in course of time the papal art collections were deposited. which prevailed during their rule as a result of the French RevoluThis palace was only completed under Pius V. (1559-65). Bra- tion and the reign of Napoleon I, continued and completed the mante himself designed the three tiers of galleries or Joggie which arrangement of the Vatican museums and galleries with a magniwere later extended around the three sides of the court of St. ficence which may be compared to that of the period of the Medici Damasus, formed by the papal palaces.. Julius II also commis- Even to-day it is difficult to decide whether to admire most the sioned a number of the most famous artists of the day to decorate magnificence of the collections or the:beauty of the buildings in the rooms or stanze in the Vatican. Raphael was one of the artists which they are housed The greatest artists of the day—Camso employed at the suggestion of Bramante Considering hım to poresi, Simonetti, Stern and the immortal Canova—took part in be superior to all the rest, the pope dismissed the other artists this great work Later Gregory XVI (1831-46) founded the

VATICAN Etruscan Museum, and Pius IX. the Egyptian Museum

The

latter pope commissioned Podesti to paint frescoes in the Hall

of the Immaculate Conception next to Raphael’s stanze, built the grand staircase, which gives access to the Court of St Damasus, and the other which leads from that court to the papal apart-

ments.

Leo XIII. (1878-1903) entrusted Seitz and Torti with

the decoration of the Gallery of the Candelabra. Pius X moved the collection of paintings to a new gallery looking over the Belvedere Court.

The Vatican Gardens.—Adjoining the group of palaces on the west are the Vatican gardens (Giardini Vaticani), m which the popes were accustomed to take their walks following the decision not to leave the Vatıcan after the entry of the Italan troops into Rome in 1870. The gardens are traversed by part of the old wall of Leo IV, which includes three great towers. The Vatican Astronomical Observatory (Specola) is installed in these towers. In 1893 Leo XIII commissioned Vespignam to build a small summer palace around the principal tower. He did not, however, occupy it for long, as ıt was found not sufficiently cool and comfortable in hot weather. It was then used as an extension of the Specola. The Vatican Observatory plays an important part in the astronomical world In 1889 it was entrusted with part of the great work of photographing the heavens, which was divided between the principal observatories of the world. Splendid literary and scientific traditions gather round the Vatican gardens. Leo X held literary assemblies there, Clement VII. in 15333 was present at a lecture given by the Austrian Chancellor, John Vidmenstadt, on the theory of the movement of the earth round the sun In token of his satisfaction the pope presented the chancellor with a Greek Codex, now to be seen in the Munich Library. Innocent XII. (1691-1700) was present at the experiments made in the Vatican gardens by the famous doctor and physicist Giorgio Baghvi on barometric pressure. Pius XI. in 1923 installed the Papal Academy of Science, known as the “Nuovi Lincei” in

Pius IV.’s casino. There 1s little to add to the summary of the artistic history of the Vatican which has been given above. The basilica of

St. Peter is full of magnificent works of art In the centre is the colossal bronze baldachino designed by Bernini to the order of Urban VIII. It surmounts the principal altar, below which is the tomb of St. Peter.

The Tomb of St. Peter.—The tomb is the only thing which was scrupulously respected when the old basilica was demolished and the new one built Julius II firmly refused to agree to Bramante’s scheme that 1t should be moved in order that the new edifice might have a different orientation from the old. The tomb still remains buried beneath the earth as it had always been throughout the ages, with the golden cross of Constantine and the bronze slabs with which it had been covered by the popes in order to protect it against injury by the weather or by human agency. Even the Saracens who sacked the basilica in 846 were unable to profane the Apostle’s tomb, so well was it protected The last observation of the tomb was made about 1895 by

Hartmann Grisar, who was authorized to explore all of the tomb that remains visible. He was able to see through the only opening which still remains unblocked, nearly 14 metres below the level of the crypt, the ancient marble slab which covered the tomb at a certain distance. The slab is broken in half, but it is still in its place, and a small heap of débris can be seen at the bottom of the sort of little well which is beneath it. Everything corresponds to the state in which, according to the records of the period, the tomb must have been in the middle ages after the incursions of the Saracens and their attempts to violate it. This shows that in spite of all the vicissitudes through which the basilica has passed, St. Peter’s tomb has been scrupulously respected and has remained intact. At the order of Urban VIII. Bernini also constructed at the far end of the apse the magnificent bronze reliquary containing the cathedra which, according to tradition, was the seat used by St. Peter at religious ceremonies The seat is a simple wooden chair which was adorned with carved ivory plaques during the Carolingian period. Bernini placed four colossal bronze statues to

5

support the reliquary. They represent the four great doctors of the Church, St Augustine and St. Ambrose for the Roman Church, St. Athanasius and St. John Chrysostom for the Greek Church. There are four colossal statues at the feet of the four great piers which support the dome; the statue of St. Longmus is by Bernini, that of St. Andrew by Duquesnoy, that of St Helena by Bolzi, and that of St. Veronica by Mochi. There are four balcomes or loggie placed halfway up the four columns; they were designed by Bernini, who adorned them with the eight columns known as vitinece or torsi, which were taken from the principal altar of the old Basilica In niches cut in the other piers of the Basilica are statues of the founders of the religious orders of the Catholic Church. The statues are of different periods, and of various degrees of artistic value The pictures over the altars of the basilica are all mosaics, and are reproductions of the masterpieces in the Vatican or in various Roman churches and museums. In the first chapel to the night on entering the basilica is the famous Pietà, sculptured by Maıchelangelo to the order of Cardinal de la Grolaye.

Tombs of the Popes.—All along the walls of the basilica are placed the tombs of the popes. These are of incalculable artistic and historical importance; they include the tombs of Paul ITI. by Gughelmo della Porta, Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. by Bernini, Gregory XIII. by Rusconi, Gregory XIV. by Prospero da Brescia, Leo XI by Algardi, Clement X by De Rossi; Innocent XI. by Maratta and Bonnot, Alexander VIII. by San Martino, Innocent XII by Fuga, Benedict XIV by Bracci, Clement XII and Pius VI. by Canova, Pius VIL by Thorwaldsen, Pius VIII by Tenerani, Gregory XVI by Amici, Pius X. by Astorri, and Benedict XV. by Canonica There are also four tombs commemorating members of ruling families, that of Countess Matilde of Canossa by Bernini and his pupils; that of Maria Christhina of Sweden, by Fontana; that of Clementina Sobieski, the wife of James Stuart (the Pretender) by Bracci, and that of the three last Stuarts, James (called the Third), and his two sons

Charles (called the Third) and Henry, duke, then the cardinal of York, by Canova. The Crypt contams a number of sarcophagi from the old basilica. One is that of Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspeare, the only English pope), on which the Norwegian Government has recently placed an inscription commemorating what he did for Scandinavia The others include those of Gregory V , Boniface VIII , Nicholas III , Urban V, Nicholas V., Pius IL., Paul II., Alexander VI, Pius IHI, Juhus IIX., Marcel II. and Innocent IX The Crypt also contams the great porphyry vessel which contained the remains of the Emperor Otho II. Two bronze monuments by the famous sculptor Pollaiuolo also found a place in the new basilica, that of Innocent VIII and that of Sixtus IV The latter was recently moved to the Museum Petrianum. A marble slab, which was set up in 1928 in the atrium of the sacristy, gives a list of the names of the 142 popes from St Peter to Benedict XV, who were temporarily or permanently buried in the cathedral Mention should also be made of the bronze statue of St. Peter which is one of the glories of the, basilica Scholars are not agreed on its period, but there is some ground for assigning it to the pontificate of Symmachus (498-514). On the pavement of the principal nave of the Vatican Basilica are inscribed in bronze letters the dimensions of the largest Christian churches, all of which are smaller than St. Peter’s Reading downwards from St. Peter’s tomb, they are as follows: St Sophia at Constantinople, Westminster Cathedral, St Maryof-the-Angels at Assisi, St Justina at Padua, Antwerp Cathedral, St John Lateran, St. Paul-Outside-the-Walls at Rome, Seville Cathedral, St. Petronius at Bologna, Cologne Cathedral, Mulan Cathedral, Reims Cathedral, Florence Cathedral, St. Paul’s. It would be impossible to give here even a brief description of the works of art contained m the Vatican. The galleries and museums of the Vatican contain a number of priceless masterpieces in addition to those which were mentioned above in the historical survey. It will be sufficient to mention in the gallery of paintings Raphael’s “Transfiguration,” and among more recent pictures the splendid portrait of George IV. by Lawrence, sent

VATICAN

6

by that king as a gift to Paus VIL; mm the galleries of sculpture the Hercules in gilt bronze from the Theatre of Pompeii, the Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, the Belvedere Torso, which Michelangelo admired, and the Augustus and Doryphore of the “Braccio Nuovo”; in the other galleries, the tapestries designed by Ra-

phael and carried out in the workshops of Van Aelot at Brussels, RELIGIOUS SERVICES The religious services carried out in the basilica and in the Vatican palace are of a special character, both by their nature and by the fact that the pope takes part in them The basilica of St Peter does not occupy the first place among Catholic churches from the hierarchical pomt of view. The first Catholic church is the basilica of St Jobn Lateran, which is the cathedral of the popes At the same time, the basilica of St Peter undoubtedly occupies the first place in the minds of

taken out to be sent to new archbishops on their election Relics.—The Vatican basilica also contains certam relics which are specially venerated by Catholics The most famous of these 1s the Veronica This is a veil with which, according to a tradition going back to the first centuries AD a pious woman named Veronica wiped the Face of Our Lord as He went up to Calvary carrying His Cross The Saviour’s Image is believed to have remained imprinted on the vel Another equally famous relic is the lance with which the soldier mentioned ın the Gospels pierced the Heart

of Christ on the Cross. The point of the lance is said to have been preserved by the early Christians and concealed durmg the

It was discovered at Antioch at the period of the first crusade, and fell into the hands of the Mohammedans when they reconquered the Holy Land. The Sultan Bayazet IJ. presented it to Pope Innocent VIII in r492 It was brought by a special messenger and was Catholics and in the tradition of Christendom as a whole, both as received by the pope with a magnificent ceremony which is described with admuration by the chroniclers of the day These relics an object of veneration and as an artistic monument. The Vatican basilica is served by a chapter of canons and by arè preserved ın one of the four smali chapels cut by Bernm m a large body of clergy, at the head of whom is a cardinal with the

title of archpriest.

The archpriest has ordinary or episcopal

jurisdiction over the clergy attached to the cathedral. The canons of the Vatican basilica aré, ın virtue of their office, supernumerary apostolic protonotariės,

28., members

of a special category of

the highest college of the prelacy. As a general rule, some of them are bishops Seventeen popes have been elected from among

their number: Adrian I, (772-795); Leo III. (795-816); Pascal I. (817-824); Leo IV. (847-855); Benedict III. (855-858); Nicholas I, called the Great (858-867); Stephen VI. (885-891); Innocent II., of the family of the Counts of Segni (1198-1216); Gregory IX., of the family of the Counts of Segni (1227-1241); Nicholas III -Orsini (1277-1280), Boniface VIII -Caetam (12941303); Paul Il.~Barbo (1464-1471); Clement IX.-Albani (1700+ ryet); Benedict XIV.-Lambertim (1740-1758); Pius VI -Braschi (1773-1799); Leo XiI.-Della Genga (1823-1829); and the present Pope Pius XI -Ratti, elected in 1922,

In addition to the usual services carried out in the cathedral, certain specially solemn ceremonies, which can only be carried out by the pope, are sometimes held. These are beatifications,

period of the conquest of Palestine by the Mohammedans

the great piers supportmg the dome

They are shown to the con-

gregation in the basilica from the balcony of this chapel at the great festivals of the Church In the case of the Veronica, in particular, this “ostension” has taken place from the earliest days.

Dante refers to the ceremony 1n the 31st canto of his “Paradiso ”

Another ceremony which takes place exclusively in the Vatican basilica 1s the washing (Javamda) of the principal altar with wine and water. This is done on the evening of Holy Thursday after the smngmg of the Tenebrae by the cardinal archptiest and the chapter. Papal Coronations.—The coronation of new popes also takes place as a rule in the basihca of St. Peter One of the most characteristic of the coronation rites is the thrice repeated burning of a wisp of tow before the pope by a master of ceremonies who

chants: “Holy Father, thus passes away the glory of the world.” After the papal Mass, the first cardinal deacon places the tiara

with the three crowns (triregnum) on thè head of the new pope, saying “Receive the tiara with thé three crowns, and know that

thou art the Father of kings and princes, the Pastor of the universe, and the Vicar on earth of Out Lord Jesus Christ, to whom belongs honour and glory, world without end.” The coronation of canonizations, and Holy Years. Beatifications and Canonizations.—Since the time of Alex- Leo XIII (1878) and of Benedict XV. (1914) did not take place m St. Peter’s but m the Sistine Chapel. ander III. beatifications and canonizations have been carried out It should also be remembered that all Catholic bishops are exclusively by the pope. The rite of beatsfication consists in the reading of a papal brief proclaiming the new Blessed, and the obliged to pay periodical visits ad Bmina Apostolorum, that ıs to first act of “cultus”? towards his image and relics. The brief is say to the threshold of the Anostles tomb. In order to do this read ıh the presence of the cardinal archpriest and the Vatican chapter, the cardinal prefect and the other cardmals who are members of the Congregation of Rites In the afternoon of the same day the pope goes to the basilica accompanied by his court and the Sacred College of Cardinals, prays before the statue of the new Blessed, and recerves the Benediction of the Holy Sacrameñt. The rite of canonization is of a much more solemn character. The pope himself proclaims the new saint after three “postulations” made by the “Consistorial Advocates” each of which 1s followed by special prayers asking for the help of the other saints and for ght from the Holy Ghost in the solemn act which the pope is about to carry out After the proclamation of the new saint the pope celebrates the pontifical Mass Holy Years.—The Holy Years or Jubilees take place every 25 years. The special rite which then takes place 1s the passage of the Faithful through a special door called the Holy Door, which exists in the four great basilicas, St John Lateran, St. Peter’s, St. Paul’s-Gutside-the-Walls and St. Mary’s Major. These doors are always walled up except m the Jubilee Year. The Holy

Door of the Vatican basilica is opened at the beginning of the

they go to the basilica of St Peter ard obtain from the canon

who is responsible for this duty a certificate attesting that the visit has been made. European bishops have to make this visit every five years, and bishops in other parts of the world every ten years

Sistine and Pauline Chapels.——tIn the interior of the Vatican

palace, services are held in the Sistine chapel, the Pauline chapel and the pope’s private chapels. The Sistine chapel is reserved exclusively for papal ceremonies, that ıs to say those carried out

by the pope in person ot m his presence. When the Holy See falls vacant, the funeral service of the deceased pope is held in the Sistine chapel, and the meetings at which the votmp for the election of the new pope takes place are also held there The Pauline chapel 18 used exclusively as the place of worship of the inhabitants of the Holy Apostolic palaces, and is for this reason the seat of a special unternal parish existing to provide for their spiritual needs. This parish 1s entrusted to the Augustine

Friars, and the parish priest, who bears the title of papal sacristan, is always of episcopal rank. Sometimes the pope himself attends specially solemn ceremonies in the Pauline chapel, but in such

cases he is not accompanied by his court. The pope’s private chapels are two in number, one in his official blesses the palliums in St. Peter’s. The pallums are white apartments and one in his private apartments. Important perwoollen stoles embroidered with small black crosses which arch- sons, sovereigns or diplomats, are sometimes allowed to hear Mass bishops wear around their necks as a symbol of communion with in the chapel in the pope’s official apartments and to recerve the the Holy See. When the palliums have been blessed by the pope, Sacrament from the pope himself. In the same chapel, on the they are preserved in a coffer near St. Peter’s tomb, and are only fourth Sunday in Lent, the pope blesses the “Golden Rose” This Holy Year and closed at the end of it by the pope in person, On the eve of the Festival of St. Peter in each year, the pope

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View of the Stanza dell’ Incendio showing the “Incendio de! Borgo” painted by Raphael (1483-1520) and his pupils In 1517 Loggia of Gregory XIII, one of the many galleries in the palace 3. Interior of the Sistine chapel built for Sixtus IV by Giovanni di Dolol (d 1486) tn 1473-81 The ceiling frescoes were executed by Michelangelo (1475—1564) tn 1508-10 4 The Throne room In the private apartments of HIs Holiness 5. The Sala Regia, reception room for ambassadors Frescoes are by Vasari (1512-74), Salviati (1510-63) and Zuccar! (1529—66)

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famous Vatican Museums organized by Clement XIV and Plus VI. The torsa was found in the Campo de! Fiori during the pontificate of Julius If and bears the signature of the Athenlan Apollonius

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VATICAN

7

is a spray of roses carved ın gold and supported by a vase, also

of the Holy Office and of the Propagation of the Faith, which have of gold, which the pope presents to a sovereign or a member of a their own palaces. The decisions of the Congregations are always reigning family In the centre of the principal rose is a small phial subject to the approval of the sovereign pontiff in which the pope places a few drops of musk and balsam; he In addition ta the Congregations which exercise its administrathen blesses the rose with a special ceremonial. In former tumes tive power and carry out its decisions, the Vatican has three this ceremony took place once a year, but it is now performed tribunals which exercise its judicial power: the Poenstentiana, a more rarely. Another special ceremony which the pape performs Special court which judges questions of conscience and has no every five years, or more frequently if necessary, is the blessing authority except over the conscience of the individual, the Sacra of the Agnus Dei. These are wax medallions made by the Cister- Romana Rota and the Signatura Apostolica, which possess external cian monks of the Basilica of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem; they authority are then blessed by the pope with special rites, and are then disThe Rota and the Signatura.—The Rota, which has an extributed to the faithful, who hold them im special veneration as tremely brilliant tradition in the legal world, consists of a College pledges of Divine protection of Prelates Auditors who, grouped in threes according to seniority, form a number of judicial commissions which give judgment on ORGANIZATION all matters coming under ecclesiastical law. In addition to its historical and artistic signification, the word Tt is because of its organization in a number of groups that this “Vatican” has a metaphorical sense m which ıt stands for the tribunal is known as the Rota, Most of the cases with which it central authority of the Catholc Church, or in other words the deals are of a matrimonial character, for although the Roman pope, with the hierarchical power vested in his person, the admin- Church maintams without any exception the indissolubility of a istration of the Church, the papal curia, and all the representatives Marriage contracted and consummated, it does not refuse to conof the Holy See throughout the world. sider cases in which it can be shown that there existed at the origin The hierarchical power of the Catholic Church, though shared of the marriage a defect or impediment which made it invalid and in different degrees among those to whom it is entrusted (the null In such cases the Church, though ıt cannot declare a marriage lower clergy and bishops), is centrahzed in the person of the pope dissolved, can declare it null, The Rota meets at the Vatican as its source. It is true that, the Roman Church includes among its every year for the opening of its discussions, After the Mass of dogmas the divine institution of the priesthood in two different the Holy Spint has heen celebrated in the Pauline chapel, the Rota degrees (priests and bishops), and recogmises the validity of is received by the pope, wha makes a speech inaugurating the orders conferred even outside its communion provided that the Juridical year. transmission of the priestly office has not been mnterrupted; but it The tribunal of the Signatura is composed of cardinals, who only admits the transmission as legitimate if 1t is made by a consider appeals lodged against decisions of the Rota. It cannot bishop subject to the supreme authority of the successor of St, decide on the merits of the question, but may consider whether Peter, the prince of Apostles and the vicar of Qur Lord. Thus the there bas been any error of procedure sufficiently important for Vatican, as the place which contains St, Peter’s tomb and the seat the case to be referred back to the Rota, where it will be considof his successors, the bishops of Rome, sums up and symbolizes, ered by other judges than those who dealt with it the first tyme. in the minds of Catholics, all that is connected with the dignity, The Secretariat of State,—Other badies forming part of ‘the authority and power of their Church administrative machmery of the Church are the offices of the Cardinals.—The Vatican, being the actual residence of the Vatican, the chief of which is the secretariat of State, This office pope, is also the legal seat of the Sacred College of Cardinals, is directly controlled by the cardinal secretary of State, whose

singe they are the advisers most closely attached to the pope’s person and form with him a single moral entity. The cardinals were originally the bishops of the districts immediately surrounding Rome, and the priests and deacons of the churches of the city, who formed as 1t were the council of the bishop af Rome Little by little, as the admunistrative machinery was developed and perfected, the highest dignitaries and the most distinguished ecclesiastics of the Catholic Church, not only of Rome and Italy but of all nations, were summoned by the pope (who has the sole right of appointing cardinals) to form part of the Sacred College The cardinals meet at the Vatican whenever they are summaned by the pope to hold a collective council or Consistorium. For-

position in relation to the pope corresponds to that of a prime

minister. The secretariat of State is the most definitely political

organ of the Vatican, With the assistance of the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, which is specially connected with it, it deals with all business connected with relations between the Holy See and the various Governments, The cardinal secretary of State and his office are responsible for everything having te do with the concordats, with diplomatic relations, with the nomination of bishaps, and all matters in which some measure of agreement

with the civil authority is necessary, and with the instructions to

be given to the Faithful on questions relating to national political

life, Every day, before dealing with other business, the pope merly all ecclesiastical affairs of any importance were discussed in receives the cardinal secretary of State or one of the prelates the Consistar1um, where each cardinal] had to state his opinion on responsible for the various branches of the secretariat of State It the subject under consideration, As business accumulated, how- is for this reason that the only cardinal who resides in the Vatican ever, this system gave rise to a number of difficulties, and in 1587 is the secretary of State, and the only ecclesiastical administrative Sixtus V , doing what Paul IIIT had done for the Holy Office and office which has its headquarters at the Vatican is the secretariat Pius IV, for the application of the rules laid down by the Council of State. When in everyday speech reference is made to the of Trent, classified all business into a certain number of categories

and entrusted each category to a group or committee of cardinals selected for their special competence.

attitude or policy of the Vatican, what is meant is generally the activity of the secretariat of State or the papal diplomacy for which the secretariat is directly responsible.

Congregations,—_This was the origin of the Roman CongregaRepresentatives of the Vatican.—The Vatican exercises its tions, which are to this day the usual organs for the administration authority not only through iis central organs, but also through and discipline of the Catholic Church. Their number and organiza- permanent or temporary representatives. tion have frequently varied, In addition to the Congregations set The permanent representatives of the Vatican or, more corup by Sixtus V., Urban VIII. created the Congregation de Propa- rectly, of the Holy See, are divided inta two main categories, ganda Fide, which deals with missions, and Pius VII. that of those of a diplomatic character and those of a purely ecclesiastical “Extraordimary Ecclesiastical Affairs,” which is entrusted with character The first category includes nuncios and inter-nuncios, questions of diplomatic relations with States. The most important and the second the Apostolic delegations. reform in the constitution of the Roman Congregations was that Nuncios.--The distinction between nunciog and inter-nuncies introduced by Pius X in 1908. They are now definitely regulated corresponds to that between ambassadors and ministers-pleniby the code of canon law promulgated by Benedict XV, in 1917. potentiary of lay Governments. Nuncios are of two degrees—~the Meetings of the cardinals belonging to the different Congregations first or the second—according to the actual] or historical imporare always held at the Vatican, except those of the Congregations tance of their post As a general rule they possess the rank of

8

VATICAN

archbishop. Nuncios of the first class complete their diplomatic careers by their elevation to the rank of cardinal According to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815) papal nuncios are regarded as the doyens of the diplomatic corps to which they belong, and therefore have precedence over all other members of the diplomatic corps Since the World War there has been a great increase in the number of nuncios and inter-nuncios, and reciprocally in the number of ambassadors and mmmisters accredited to the Vatican The

important part played by the Vatican during the World War will be remembered. It is for this reason that many of the States which were created or enlarged as a result of the War have shown anxiety to maintain continuous relations with the Head of the

Catholic Church, and that certam Powers which had broken off relations have decided to renew them At the end of 1928 the Vatican had 27 diplomatic representatives: 2x nuncios (Germany, Argentina, Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Spain, France, Hungary, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Prussia, Rumania, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Venezuela, Yugoslavia) and 6 inter-nuncios (Central America [includmg the republics of Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama and San Salvador], Haiti, Netherlands, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg) Thirty diplomatic representatives are accredited to the Vatican. g ambassadors (Germany, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Spam, France, Peru, Poland) and 21 ministers (Austna, Bavaria, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Great Britain, Haiti, Hungary, Latvia, Liberia, Lithuania, Monaco, Nicaragua, Portugal, Prussia, Rumania, San Marino, San Salvador, Czechoslovakia, Venezuela, Yugoslavia) Apostolic Delegates.—The other category of representatives to the Vatican consists of the Apostolic delegates These prelates have, as a rule, the rank of archbishop, and represent the Holy See, not with the civil authorities, but with the bishops of the country to which they are sent At the end of 1928 there were 19 apostolic delegations falling into three categories according to the Roman Congregations to which they are subordinate. the Consistorial Congregation is responsible for the delegations to the Antilles, Canada and Newfoundland, to Estonia, United States of America, Mexico and the Philippines. The Congregation of the Propagation of the Faith is responsible for the delegations to South Africa, Albania, Austraha, Chma, Greece, India, Indo-China and Japan The Congregation for the Eastern Church is responsible for the delegations to Constantinople, Egypt and Arabia, Mesopotamia, Kurdistan and Armenia, Asia Minor, Persia and Syria Other Missions.—The Vatican is sometimes represented in particular parts of the world by prelates who are sent on temporary missions. These are known as Apostolic Visitors. On certain occasions, generally at religious festivals, the Vatican is represented by cardinals sent by the pope with the title of legates

a latere. Sometimes again cardinal-legates have been sent to discuss religious affairs of the highest importance with sovereigns or heads of States. Thus Cardinal Campeggio was sent as legate to Henry VIII. by Clement VII, Cardinal Pole to Mary Tudor by Julius TII and Cardinal Caprara to Bonaparte by Pius VII after the signature of the concordat of 1801 to settle various questions connected with the concordat

palatine” (the Datary and the secretary of State) and those bishops who belong to the papal antechamber, such as the privy almoner and the papal sacristan The latter is the parish priest of the Vatican palace Most of the persons who hold honorary posts in connection with the Vatican belong to both categories When the papal court appears as a whole, in procession before the pope, at specially solemn religious ceremonies, either in the Vatican basilica or mm the Sistine chapel, ıt provides a spectacle of dazzlng splendour, notable both for its variety and for the splendour of the costumes It includes the cardinals and bishops wearing their coppae magnae trimmed with ermine or their goldembroidered ecclesiastical vestments, as well as Roman princes with cloaks edged with priceless lace, chamberlains “‘of cloak and sword” in Spanish 16th century costume, prelates 1n violet

soutanes, knights of Malta in scarlet tunics, officers in armour of steel damascened with gold, and the Swiss Guards in their blue, red and yellow uniform which was designed by Michelangelo Last in the long procession comes the pope, who 1s carried on the sedia gestatoria which ıs a sort of throne on a portable platform, carried on the shoulders of 12 servants wearıng liveries of crimson damask One on each side of the throne are two privy chamberlains carrying flabellz or immense fans adorned with ostrich feathers Above the sedia 1s a canopy of cloth of silver, the golden supports of which are borne by eight prelates All classes and all ecclesiastical, military and civil orders which have relations with the Vatican are represented in this magnificent procession A number of specially chosen bishops assist the pope and constitute the College of Bishops Assistant to the Papal Throne. The Superiors and Procurators of the religious orders also have their place in the procession The heads of the two chief aristocratic Roman families, Prince Colonna and Prince Orsini, take it n turns to assist the pope, and are therefore known as the Princes Assistant to the Papal Throne Other members of the highest anstocracy of Rome also hold hereditary offices Prince Chigi is always Marshal of the Holy Roman Church, and Perpetual Guardian of the Conclave. Prince Massimo is always

Minister of the Papal Posts (in the old sense of the word posts, which referred to the journeys of the pope when he travelled by post), Prince Ruspoli is always Grand Master of Hospitality (that is to say the person responsible for arranging for hospitality to sovereigns or princes who are the guests of the pope), Marquis Sacchetti 1s always Grand Quartermaster, or superintendent of the technical

services

of the Vatican,

Marquis

Patriz

is always

Vexillifer or Standard-bearer of the Church, Marquis Serlupi is always Master of the Horse The protection of the pope’s person is entrusted to the papal guard, which consists of cadets of the noble familes of the former Papal States, and is always commanded by a Roman prince The pope’s escort is the Swiss Guard, a corps instituted by Julius IT. and consisting of Swiss citizens recruited from all cantons of the Swiss Confederation Originally they were only recruited from the canton of Lucerne There is always a guard of honour recruited from among the citizens of Rome (Guardia Palatina d’onore). A corps of police known as the Gendarmeria Ponizficia is responsible for maintaining order ım the Vatican palace.

The papal court also includes a number of ecclesiastical posts which are always entrusted to members of certain religious orders The Master of the Sacred Palaces, or Theologian of the Papal THE VATICAN COURT Court, is always a Dominican, the Sacristan, or priest of the The papal court, which centres round the person of the pope in Apostolic Palaces, is always an Augustine Friar; the Apostolic the Vatican, is essentially of an ecclesiastical character. At the Freacher who preaches the Advent and Lent sermons in the same time, however, it maintas a magnificence of ceremonial presence of the pope and his court is always a Capuchin, the which derives its origin from ancient tradition and from the re- Confessor to the Papal Household 1s always a Servite. lations which the papacy has always maintained with the highest Papal ceremonies are always attended by the diplomatic corps secular powers accredited to the Holy See, the Roman patriciate and nobility, The Vatican court is divided into two main categories; the papal and the Knights of Malta and of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, chapel and the papal household. The first includes the prelates for whom special tribunes are provided and dignitaries who take part in the religious cetemonies which HOLY SEE VACANCY the pope attends, the second consists of those who have other duties to perform in the pope’s entourage. The papal chapel Special interest attaches to the procedure which is followed in naturally includes all the cardinals and bishops, while the papal the Vatican at times when the Holy See is vacant—Sede vacante, household consists solely of the cardinals called the “cardinals in the Latin phrase During such intervals between two pon-

VATICAN tificates the Sacred College of Cardinals takes over the work of ecclesiastical administration. Detailed rules are laid down for what is to be done durmg vacancies; the procedure has repeatedly been modified and improved by successive popes All previous rules were abrogated by the Constitutions of Leo XIII. (May 24, 1882) and Pius X. (Dec. 25, 1904), which are incorporated in the code of canon law.

The Conclave—Under

these constitutions the seat of the

cardmals during the vacancy of the Holy See and the conclave 15 the Vatican palace The cardinal camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, who is the personal representative of the Sacred College in the ordinary administration, takes up his residence there; wherever he goes in the palace he is escorted by the Swiss Guards

Every morning, from the death of the pope to the opening of the conclave, all the cardinals meet in the hall of the Consistorrum to

9

which a number of small thrones, one for each cardinal, have been placed along the lateral walls for the occasion. Each throne is surmounted by a canopy which is violet ın colour in the case of those cardinals created by the deceased pope, and green in the case of those created by previous popes. Immediately after the election has taken place, all the canopies are removed except that over the throne of the cardinal who has been elected pope. In one corner of the chapel there is placed a stove in which the masters of the ceremonies burn the voting papers immediately after each vote. The stove has a small iron pipe which passes out through one of the windows of the chapel. The smoke (sfumata) which issues from the pipe enables the crowd assembled on the Piazza of St Peter to guess how the voting has gone, for when the election is complete, straw is added to the voting papers before they are burned so as to make the smoke thicker and more

visible, and thus to intimate that the new pope has been elected hold a congregation, that is to say to consult on current business As soon as the elected cardinal has accepted the pontificate, the Assembled in that hall they receive the condolences of the diplomatic corps and of the Order of the Knights of Malta. The first cardinal deacon proceeds to the central balcony in the facade general congregation deals with the most important business, and of St Peter’s, and announces to the populace the election of the m addition a special congregation meets daily to transact affairs pope and the name that he has chosen. Soon afterwards the new of minor importance; it consists of the three cardinals who are pope himself, wearing the pontifical robes (for before the first respectively senior in each of the three hierarchical orders repre- vote took place three sets of robes of different sizes were placed sented in the College of Cardinals (bishops, priests and deacons) in readiness in a cabinet adjoining the Sistine chapel) appears at as well as of the cardinal camerlengo At the first general con- the same balcony and gives his first benediction to the crowd gregation the seals of the deceased pope (the Fisherman’s Ring assembled on the Piazza. After 1870, on account of the occupaand the leaden seal of the Apostolic Chancellery used for the tion of Rome by the Italian Government, Popes Leo XIII , Pius sealing of Bulls) are handed over to the Sacred College and are X and Benedict XV. gave their benediction from the interior at once broken balcony of the Vatican basilica. Pius XI. returned to the older On nine consecutive days the obsequies of the pope (called for practice, and gave the benediction from the exterior balcony, this reason movendialsa) are celebrated, on the first six days the stating that he did so as a token of peace towards the whole world services are held in the Vatican basilica and on the last three in On the day that the election has taken place the conclave is opened the Sistine chapel. At the last service the deceased pope’s funeral and the cardinals return to their homes The coronation of the sermon is preached by a prelate Up till the last conclave, at which new pope takes place a few days later in the basilica of St. Peter, Pius XI was elected, the cardinals entered into conclave one day the day being fixed by the pope himself If the new pope does after the sovendialia. In order however to give the cardinals not possess episcopal rank—+the last occasion on which this ocfrom the most distant parts of the world, such as America and curred was the election of Gregory XVI. in 1831—the privilege Australia, time to reach Rome, the present pope has increased of consecrating him belongs to the Cardinal Bishop ei Ostia. ) the interval between the death of the pope and the opening of the E. Pv. conclave to 18 days On the morning of the day on which they THE LATERAN TREATY

go into conclave, the cardinals meet in the Pauline chapel to hear the Mass of the Holy Spirit celebrated by the doyen of the cardinals, and to listen to a sermon preached by a prelate on the

The Lateran treaty between the Holy See and Italy, signed

Feb. 11, 1929, like all reconciliations that need careful exploration of the difficulties to be surmounted, demanded powers of negotiaelection of the pope During the conclave the Vatican palace is closed, and all con- tion of no mean order At the outset, the conditions for such negotact with the outside world is cut off by the walling up of the tiations were of a favourable character, as Mussolim (g.v.) and doors giving access to it. The walls are pierced by rotas or turning- his Government were also animated with the desire to end the boxes similar to those of enclosed monasteries, through which ıt 1s Roman Question, perhaps being not unmindful of the oft-quoted possible to pass objects without seemg the person to whom they words of Crispi, who said that the politician who settled the are passed, and to converse provided that the voice is raised Roman Question would go ‘down in history as Italy’s greatest The guardianship of the rotas is entrusted to the prelates of the statesman. The treaty was ratified June 7, 1920. The Negotiators——While the supreme motive power that different colleges, and m particular to the clerks of the Apostolic Chamber, who carry out minor admuistrative functions in the brought about the historic reconciliation came from Pope Pius Vatican while the Holy See is vacant. These prelates decide in XI and Mussolini, no account of the great event would be comwhat cases persons may be authorized to converse with the plete without acknowledging the work of the negotiators of the cardinals through the rotas zre present at such conversations, and treaty for the Vatican. Cardinal Gasparri, papal secretary of in-pect all obje..s which n is desired to Introduce mo the con- j State; Mgr. Joseph Pizzardo, assistant secretary of State; Mer clave. The conclave is guarded from the outside by the prince Borgongini Duca, secretary of extraordinary affairs; and Prof. marshal of the Holy Roman Church, an hereditary office vested in Francesco Pacelli, legal adviser of the Vatican. If only because he came into the full blaze of the limelight on the Chigi family, and the prelate at the head of the papal court (the major-domo or master of the chamber) Within the Vatican account of being co-signatory with Mussolini of the treaty, are only the cardmals with their secretaries or “conclavists,” the Cardinal Gasparri’s name is the one which is best known to the masters of the ceremomies, certain other ecclesiastics who are general public. But his reputation as a statesman stood very high entrusted with definite duties, doctors, and the service staff. All before this event. Born in 1857 at Capovallanza di Ussita, he matters connected with the conclave are directed by the secretary was ordained in 1877, and subsequently held the position of proof the Sacred College and the prefect of papal ceremonies. The fessor of canon law at the Propaganda college. In 1894 he was admission of each person who resides within the precincts of the created a domestic prelate, and four years later he attained conclave must be considered and approved in advance by the archiepiscopal rank and became apostolic delegate to Peru and general congregation of cardinals. The interior of the Vatican Bolivia Made a cardinal in 1907, Pope Benedict XV. appointed palace is divided into a number of small apartments (cellae) him secretary of State in Oct 1914. In 1922 Pius XI. appointed corresponding to the number of cardinals, each cardinal is allotted him chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church Non-Interference.—Those who fear “Vatican interference” his apartment by lot The Election.—Voting takes place in the Sistine chapel, in as a result of the renewal of papal sovereignty will be able:to set

VATICAN

ILO

CITY—VATICAN

their fears at rest if they will examine the treaty. On the ratification of the treaty, diplomatic relations were established by accrediting an Itahan ambassador to the Holy See and an apostolic nuncio to Italy (See also Papacy; Prus XI; IraLy ) BrBxrrocRaPHy-——E Pistolesi, ZZ Vaticano, descritto ed illustrato (8 vols., 1829—38); F Ehrle et E. Stevenson, Les fresques du Pinturrichia dans les Salles Borgia du Vatican (Rome, 1898), E. M. Philhps,

Frescoes wm the Sistine Chapel (1901), M, K Potter, The Art of the

Vatican (new ed, Boston, 1903); W Amelung, Die Sculpturen des Vaticandschen Museums (2 vols, 1903-8), A. M Allen, Hist of the Vatican (N.¥., 1910) ; E. Hugues de Ragnau, The Vatican, the Centre of Government of the Catholic World (1913), E Begm (ed), The Vatwan. ts History, ts Treasures (NY. 1914), D. B, W. Sladen, How to see the Vatican (N.Y., 1914); G Manfrom, Sulla soglia del Vaticano,, 1870-1901 (2 vols ; Bologna, 1920).

VATICAN

CITY, the title of the State created by the

Lateran treaty of 1929

See VATICAN STATE.

VATICAN COUNCIL, THE, of 1869 and 1870, the last

oecumenical council of the Raman Catholic Church, and the most important event in her historical development since the Tridentine synod The preliminaries were surrounded by the closest secrecy. As early as the end of the year 1864, Pius IX, had commissioned the cardinals resident in Rome to tender him their opmons as to the advisability of a council. The majanty pronounced in favour of the scheme, dissentient voices bemg rare, After March 1865 the convacation. of the council was no longer

in doubt Thirty-six carefully selected bishops of diverse national-

ities were privately interrogated with regard to the tasks which, in their estimation, should be assigned to the prospective assembly, Some of them proposed, inter alsa, that the doctrine of papal infallibility should be elevated to the rank of a dogma. In

public, however, Pius IX. made no mention of his design till the 26th of June 1867, when Catholic bishops from every country were congregated round him in Rome on the occasion of the great centenary of St Peter, On the 29th of June 1868 the bull

Aeterni Patris convened the council to Rome, the date being fixed for the 8th of December 1869. And since the Roman

Cathohc Church claims that all baptized persons belong to her, special bulls were issued, with invitations to the bishops of the Oriental Churches, to the Protestants and to the other nonCatholics, none of which groups complied with the request

The object of the Council was long a mystery

The Bull of

Convocation was couched in general terms, and specified no definite tasks. The first revelation was given, in February 1869, by an article in the Csvilta Cattolca, a periodical conducted

under Jesuit auspices

It was there stated, as the view of many

Catholics in France, that the council would be of very brief

duration, smce the majority of its members were in agreement. As a presumptive theme of the deliberations, it mentioned inter alia the proclamation of papal infalhbility The whole proceeding was obviously an attempt, from the Jesuit side, to gauge the

prevalent opumen with regard to this favaunte doctrine of ultra-

montanism

The repudiation was energetic and unmistakable,

especially in Germany. Certain articles on “The Council and the Ciyilta,” pubbshed by Dollinger in the Allgemeine Zeitung, worked like a thunderbolt. In France also a violent conflict broke out, Here it was principally the writings of Bishop Maret of Paris (Du concile général et de la paix religieuse, 2 vols , 1869), and of Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans, which gave expression to the prevalent unrest, and

led to those literary controversies in which Archbishop Manning

COUNCIL

of “Central Commission’ Among the earliest preliminaries, a number of distinguished theologians and canonists were retamed as consultors to the council, The General Congregations, presided over by cardinals, were employed in considering the sckemata (drafts) submitted to the synod, and provisory votes—not regarded as bimding—were there taken The Sessions witnessed the definitive voting, the results of which were to be immediately promulgated as ecclesiastical law by the pope The form of this promulgation was, in itself, sufficiently characteristic; for the pope was represented as the real agent, while the acknowledgment of the share of the council was confined to the phrase sacro approbante conciso On the 8th of December the first session met, and the council was solemnly opened by Pius IX From beginning to end it was dominated by the “Infalhbility” problem, The first transactions of the council gave proof that numerous bishops held the theory that their convocation implied the duty of serious and united work, and that they were by no means inclined to yield a perfunctory assent to the papal propositions, The Opponents of Infallibility—However, as the Curia could rely upon a complacent majority, it resolved to proclaim a new order of procedure, by means of which 1t would be possible to end these unwelcome discussions and quicken the pace of the council. By the papal decree of the 20th of February the

influence of the committees was increased The main object, however, of this alteration in procedure was to ensure that if the council could not be induced to accept the doctrine of infallibility by acclamation, ıt should at least do so by resolution. From the first the general interest was almost exclusively concentrated on this question, which divided the members of the synod into two hostile camps The presence of stuking personalities, whose devotign to the Church was beyond

question—Archbishop Scherr of Munich, Melchers of Cologne, Bishop Ketteler of Mainz, Bishop Hefele of Rottenburg, Cardinal Schwarzenberg of Prague, Cardinal Rauscher of Vienna, Archbishop Haynald of Kalossa, Bishop Strossmayer of Sirmium, Archbishop Darboy of Pams, Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans, to say nothing of the others—assured this group an influence which, in spite of itself, the opposing faction was bound to feel. The Supremacy of the Church.—Among the secret propositions submutted to the council by the Curia was the schema De Ecclesa Christi, which was distributed ta the members on the 21st of January, and which enunciated the superiority of Church

to State in the same drastic terms as in the Syllabus of Pius IX (1864)——a declaration of war against the modern political and social order, which in its day provoked the unanumous condemnation of pubhc opmion, When, in spite of the injunction of secrecy, the schema became known outside Rome, its genuineness was at first impugned, but as saon as the authenticity of the text was established, this attempt to dogmatize the principles of the notorious Syllabus excited the most general indignation, even in the strongholds of Catholicism-——France and Austria. From the 22nd of February to the 18th of March no meetings of the General Congregations took place, on account of structural alterations in the aula itself. During this interval all uncertainty as to whether the question of infallibility would actually

he broached was dispelled On the 6th of March a supplementary article ta the schema De Ecclesia, dealing with the primacy of the Roman see, was transmitted to the members, and in it the

In Italy the freethinkers con-

much disputed doctrine received formal expression The Triumph of Ultramontanism—Meanwhile, the elaboration of the all-important business of the council had heen

early as the year 1865 a commuttee of cardinals had been formed as a “special directive congregation for the affairs of the future

criticized the dogma from the standpoint of history, adducing the fact that Pope Honorius I had been condemned by the sixth

general council,” a title which was usually abbreviated to that

gecumenical council as a heretic (680). Others were of opinion

of Westminster

and Dechamps

champion the opposite cause

of Mechlin came forward to

sidered the moment opportune for renewing therr agitations on a quietly proceeding. Influenced by the alarming number of amendlarger scale, That the projected dogma had weighty opponents ments to the schema De Ecclesia, and anxious above all to among the higher clergy of Austria-Hungary, Italy and North ensure an early acceptance for the dogma of infallibility, the America was demonstrated durmg the progress of the council; papal Committee resolved to eluvinate everything save the one question of papal authority. hut before it met all was quiet in these countries Organization.-The Roman see exercised a more pronounced In the general debate, begun on the 13th of May, Bishop Hefele influence on the Vatican Counc than upon any previous one As of Rottenburg, author of the well-known Kansiliengeschichte,

VATICAN

STATE—VAUBAN

that the doctrine implied a radical change im the constitution of the Church: one speaker even characterized it as sacrilege. The contention that the dogma was necessitated by the welfare of the Church, or justified by contemporary conditions, met with repeated and energetic repudiation

The champions of infall:bility

were, indeed, confronted with no slight task.—to establish their theory by Holy Writ and tradition, and to defend it against the arguments of history. But to them it was no hypothesis waiting to be verified, but an already existing truth. On the 3rd of June the general debate was closed. In the special debate, which dealt with the proposal in detail, every important declaration with regard to the pope was impugned by one party and upheld by the other; but on the 13th of July 1t was found possible to conclude the debate. On that day the voting in the 85th General Congregation, on the whole schema, showed that, out of 601 members present, 451 had voted placet, 88 non placet and 62 placet iuxta modum. That the number of prelates who rejected the placet would amount to 150 had not been expected. On the 18th of July, in the fourth public session, the dogma was accepted by 535 dignitaries of the Church, and at once promulgated by the pope; only two members repeated their non

II

history of the councils one of the mam sources is Quirinus, Romusche Briefe vom Konsi (Munich, 1870); also J. Frednch, Tagebuck wahrend des Vatikamschen Konztls (Nordlngen, 1871) , Lord Acton, Zur Geschichte des Vatikanschen Konziles (Munich, 1871, Eng in Hist. Essays, 1907); J Fessler, Das Vatikanische Concelium (Vienna, 1871); Manning, The True Story of the Vatican Councit (London,

1877), E. Olivier, L’Eghse et Pétat au concale du Vatican (2 vols, Paris, 1879); Purcell, Life of Cardinal Manning (2 vols, 1896), F Mourrett, Le Concile du Vatecan (1919). (C. Mr; X),

VATICAN STATE, the name created for the territory in

Rome belonging to the Holy See by the Lateran Treaty, signed by Cardinal Gasparti, on behalf of the Pope, and by the representative of the King of Italy, on February 11, 1929. See Papacy. The Renewal of Papal Sovereignty; Iraty. The Vatican State; THe Vatican The Lateran Treaty

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placet, and these submitted in the same session The council continued its labours for a few more weeks, but its main achievement was over, and the remainder of its time was otcupied with affairs of secondary importance When, coincident with the outbreak of the Franco-German War, the papal state collapsed, the pope availed himself of the altered situation, and prorogued the council by the bull Postguam Dei munere (October 20). The Italian government at once protested against his statement that the liberties of the council would be prejudiced by the incorporation of Rome into the kingdom of Italy.

The Pope and the Church.—The resolutions of the Vatican Council entirely revolutionized the position of the pope within the Church. He is first accredited with “complete and supreme jurisdictionary authority over the whole Church, not simply in matters of faith and morality, but also in matters touching the discipline and governance of the Church; and this authority is a regular and immediate authority, extending over each and every Church and over each and every pastor and believer.” Again, the dogma implies a fundamental change ın the positron of oecumenical councils, which, in conjunction with the papacy, had till then been supposed to constitute the representation of the Roman Cathohc Church. The Church and Governments.—In the sphere of politics also the Vaticanum was attended by umportant results. The secular governments could not remain indifferent to the prospect that the proclamation of papal infalibihty would invest the dicta of the mediaeval popes, as to the relationship between Church and State, with the character of inspired doctrinal decisions, and confer dogmatic authority on the principles enunciated in the Syllabus of Pius IX Nor was the fear of these and similar consequences dimunished by the proceedings of the council itself. The result was that on the goth of July, 1870, Austria annulled the Concordat arranged with the Curia in 1855. In Prussia the so-called Kulturkampf broke out immediately afterwards, and in France the synod so accentuated the power of ultramontanism, that, in late years, the republic has taken effectual steps to curb it by completely separating the Church from the State. The general position of Roman Catholicism was consolidated by the Vatican Council in more respects than one; for not only did it promote the centralization of government in Rome, but the process of unification soon made further progress, and the attempts to control the intellectual and spiritual hfe of the Church have now assumed dimensions which, a few decades ago, would have been regarded as anachronistic See also article “Vatican Council” in the Catholic Encyclopedia, The most important collections of the acta are Collectso Lacensts, tome vii (Freiburg, 1890) ; E. Fnedberg, Sammlung der Aktenstucke zum ersten Vattkanisc. Konzi (Tubingen, 1872); J. Friedrich,

Documenta ad dlustrandum Concilium Vaticanum (Nordlingen, 1871). For the dogmatic resolutions see also C Murbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums (ed. 2, Tubmgen, 1901), pp. 371-382. For the internal

THE VATICAN

STATE

VATSAUK (now LAWKSAWE): see Suan States. VATTEL, EMERIC

(Emer) DE (1714-67), Swiss jurist,

the son of a Protestant mmister, was born at Couvet, in the principality of Neuchatel, on April 25, 1714. He studied at Basel and Geneva. Vattel’s reputation chiefly rests on his Droit des gens, ou Principes de la loù naturelle apphgqués a la conduite et aus affaires des nations et des souverans (Neuchâtel, 1758). He

ded at Neuchâtel on Dec. 28, 1767.

VAUBAN, SEBASTIEN LE PRESTRE DE (16331707), marshal of France, was born at Saint-~-Léger-Vauban (Yonne). At the age of ten he was left an orphan in poor circumstances, and his youth was spent amongst the peasantry of his native place. At the age of seventeen Vauban joined the regiment of Condé m the war of thè Fronde He was soon offered a commission whıch he dechned. Condé then employed him in the fortification of Clermont-en-Argonne. Soon afterwards he was taken prisoner by the royal troops, and was converted into a devoted servant of the king He besieged and took his own first fortress, Clermont; in May 1655 he became an ingémeur du rot After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Vauban improved or rebuilt various fortresses Hitherto the characteristic features of his method of fortification had not béen developed, and he followed the systems of preceding engineers. Colbert and Louvois were

profoundly interested in the work, and it was at the request of

the latter that the engineer drew up in 1669 his Mémoure pour

servir & Vinstruction dans la conduite des sièges (this, with a

memorandum on the defence of fortresses by another hand was published at Leiden, 1740). On the renewal of war Vauban con+ ducted the sieges of Rhembergen and Nijmwegen 1672, Maestricht and Trier 1673, Besançon 1674 Vauban’s introduction of a systematic approach to strong places by parallels dates from the siege of Maestricht, and in principle remains to this day the standard method of attacking a fortress Vauban became commissamwe-général des fortifications on the death of De Clerville, and in 1681 rebuilt the fortress of Strasbourg At Saarlouis for the first tume appeared Vauban’s “first system” of fortification He always retained what was of advantage m the methods of his predecessors. In 1682 his “second system,” which introduced modifications designed to prolong the resistance of the fortress, began to appear.

VAUCLUSE—VAUD

I2

In 1687 Vauban chose Landau as the chief place of arms in Lower Alsace But side by sıde with this development grew up the far more important scheme of attack He instituted a company of miners, and the elaborate experiments carried out under his supervision resulted in the establishment of all the necessary formulae for military mining (Trasté des msnes, Paris, 1740, and 1799; The Hague, 1744); at the siege of Ath in 1697 he employed ricochet fire for the first time to break down the defence He had indeed already used it with effect at Philpsburg in 1688 and at Namur, but was bmdered by the jealousy of the artillery After the peace of Ryswick Vauban rebuilt or improved other fortresses, and finally New Breisach, fortified on his “third system”— which he called système de Landau perfectionné His last siege was that of Old Breisach in 1703, which he reduced in a fortnight. On Jan 14, Vauban had been made a marshal of France, a rank too exalted for the technical direction of sieges, and his active career came to an end with his promotion Soon afterwards appeared his Traité de l’attaque des places. But Louis XIV was now on the defensive, and the war of the Spanish Succession saw the gradual wane of Vauban’s influence, as his fortresses were taken and retaken The various captures of Landau, his chef-d’oeuvre, caused him to be regarded with disfavour; he then turned his attention to the defence; but hus work De la défense des places (ed by General Valazé, Paris, 1829) is of far less worth than the Attaque, and his ideas on entrenched camps (Traité des fortifications de campagne) were coldly received, though they contained the elements of the “detached forts” system now universal in Europe He now devoted himself to the arrangement of the manuscripts (Mes oisivetés) which contained his reflections on war, administration, finance, agriculture and the hike. In 1689 he made a representation to the king in favour of the republication of the Edict of Nantes, and in 1698 he wrote his Projet d'une dizme royale (see Economsstes financières du XYIII? siècle, Paris, 1851), a remarkable work foreshadowing

the principles of the French Revolution.

Vauban was impressed with the deplorable condition of the peasantry, whose labour he regarded as the main foundation of

all wealth, and protested against unequal taxation and the exemptions of the upper classes. His dixme. royale, a tax to be impartially applied to all classes, was a tenth of all agricultural produce payable in kind, and a tenth of money chargeable on manufacturers and merchants. This work was published m 1707, and instantly suppressed by order of the king The marshal died heart-broken at the failure of his efforts a few days after the publication of the order (March 30, 1707). At the Revolution his remains were scattered, but in 1808 his heart was found and deposited by order of Napoleon in the church of the Invalides. Brerrocrapuy.—Carnot, Hloge de Vauban (Paris, 1784) (followed by a critical Lettre &@ Pacadémie, published at La Rochelle, 1785, and Carnot’s reply, Observations sur Ja lettre, etc, Paris, 1785); Goulon, Mémoires sur Vattaque et défense d’une place (Paris and Hague, 1740; Amsterdam, 1760, Pans, 1764) ; works by Abbé du Fay (Paris, 1682) and Chevaher de Cambray (Amsterdam, 1689), from which came various works in English, French, etc. For an account of these works and others which appeared subsequently, see Max Jahns, Gesch der Knregswissenschaften, u. 1442-47; also Croquez, La citadelle de Lalle,

chef-d’oeuvre de Vauban, 1668~7o

(1913); Mann, Der Marschall

Vauban und die Volkswirtschaftslehre des Absolutesmus (1914)

VAUCLUSE, a department of France, formed in 1793 out

of the countship of Venaissin, the principality of Orange, and a part of Provence, and bounded by Dréme on the north, BassesAlpes on the east, Bouches-du-Rhéne (from which it is separated by the Durance) on the south, and Gard and Ardéche (from which it is separated by the Rhone) on the west It has also an enclave, the canton of Valréas, in the department of Dréme. Pop (1926) 230,549. Area, 1,381 sq mules. In the department east to west chams of the French Alps die down westwards towards the Rhone; the northernmost includes the Montagne de Lure (5,994 ft.) and Mont Ventoux (6,273 ft ) and is separated from the next, the Plateau de Saint Christol (4,075 ft.) by the Nesque river; the river Coulon separates this plateau ftom the Chaine du Léberon (3,691 ft), which in turn, is bounded on the south by the Durance. The very numerous streams feed irrigation canals. The climate is that of the Mediterranean region The valley of the

Rhone suffers from the mistral, a cold and violent wind from NNW ; but the other valleys are sheltered by the mountains, and produce the oleander, pomegranate, olive, Jujube, fig, and other southern trees and shrubs The winter average temperature us about 41° and the summer average temperature 73°. Wheat and potatoes are the most ımportant crops; sugar-beet, sorghum, mıllet, ramie, early vegetables and fruits, notably the melons of Cavaillon, are cultıvated, and also the vine, olive, mulberry and tobacco The truffles of the regions of Apt and Carpentras, and the fragrant herbs of the Ventoux range, are renowned Sheep are the principal live-stock, and mules are also

numerous Ligmte and sulphur are mmed; nch deposits of gypsum, fire-clay, ochre, etc., are worked Beaumes-de-Venise and Montmuirail have mineral springs. The mdustries include the spinning and weaving of silk, wool and hemp, metal-working, printing (Avignon), tanning and the making of paper, bricks, tiles, pottery, glassware and tobacco The department is served by the PLM railway, and the Rhone is navigable for 40 m within it It 1s divided into 3 arrondissements (Avignon, Carpentras and Cavaillon), 22 cantons and 151 communes Avignon, the capital, is the seat of an archbishop The department belongs to the region

of the XV. army corps and to the académie (educational division) of Aix, and has its appeal court at Nimes. The chief towns are Avignon, Apt, Carpentras,

Cavaillon,

Orange and Vaison (ggv)

VAUD (Ger Waadt), a canton of south-western. Switzerland,

lying mamly between the Lake of Neuchâtel and the Lake of Geneva. It is the fourth canton in point of area (see Varans), and occupies 1,238-6 sqm, of which 85% 1s reckoned as “productive” (forests cover 282-6 sqm, exceeded only by those of Berne and the Gnsons). Vaud, with 149-8 sqm. of water surface of the larger lakes, has over one-quarter of the entire total for Switzerland, this is largely accounted for by its share of Geneva. Parts of Neuchatel and Morat contribute to the total, but the largest. lake entirely in Vaud is de Joux (3-6 sqm). There are over 4 sqm. of glaciers; these and the loftiest summit in the canton (Diablerets, 10,650 ft ) occur in the western Bernese Oberland (S. Vaud). The canton, of very irregular shape, includes nearly all of the northern shore of the Lake of Geneva, and stretches from slightly beyond Bex in the south-east to the Juras on the north-west. A long, narrow eastern tongue extends past Payerne tothe Lake of Neuchatel. Just beyond its tip is the Avenches region, forming an “enclave” in Fnbourg Parts of Fribourg, in turn, form “enclaves” within Vaud along the shore of Neuchatel A strip of the mght bank drainage of the Rhone (from just above Bex to the Lake of Geneva) hes within the canton, but north and north-east of Lausanne the land 1s drained by the Broye and Thiéle, of the Aar-Rhine basin Vaud, with plains near the lakes, is hilly rather than mountainous, and is well supplied with railways, including a part of the main Simplon line through Bex. Lausanne is an important main-lines railway’ centre, and the canton has numerous small-gauge railways and mountain lines, such as those which connect the northeast shore settlements of the Lake of Geneva with the high lying resorts of Les Avants, Mont Pélerin and Caux, and those which link up Bex and Aigle with the Diablerets area. In 1920 the population was 317,498, of whom 269,606 were French-speaking, 32,049 German-speaking, and 9.524 Italian-speaking, while 264,522 were Protestants, 46,640 Catholics and 1,803 Jews. The vineyards (15-4 sqm), though showing a considerable decrease during the 20th century, are still the most extensive in Switzerland White wines predominate; the best come from Yvorne (near Aigle), while the slopes of La Vaux (east of Lausanne) produce both red and white wine Tobacco is grown in north-east Vaud, particularly near Payerne, and cigars are made at Grandson. Manufactures, on the whole, are unimportant, but Ste, Croix, in the Jura, is world-famed for watches, gramophones, musical boxes and jewellery. The Juras produce limestones and sandstones, and the canton-owned salt-beds at Bex provide raw materials for a thriving chemical industry Vaud ıs famed for its health resorts and for its educational establishments, visitors chiefly frequent Lausanne, Vevey, Montreux and Chateau d’Oex

VAUDEVILLE in the upper Saane valley

Lausanne academy (founded 1537)

was raised to university rank in 1890, and several towns are noted

for important schools; the modernized (12th century) castle in Yverdon was the residence and school of Pestalozzi from 1806

to 1825. Lausanne (estimated pop in 1925, 74,250) is the pohtical capital and the fifth town in point of size in Switzerland. The “agglomeration” known as Montreux has 18,250 and Vevey has 12,550. Other important villages or small towns are Vverdon

(8,870), Ste Crom (5,330), Payerne (5,300), Nyon

Morges (4,675), Saanen (4,550), Aigle (3,840) and Chateau(5,300), d'Oex (3,470). Among the interesting historical spots are Avenches (the largest Roman colony in Helvetia), Grandson (scene of the first great victory of the Swiss agaist Charles the Bold in 1476), and the castle of Chillon (where Bonivard, lay prior of St. Victor, near

13

gles, owing to the attempt of the Radicals to turn the Church into a simple department of State, a struggle which ended in the sphitting off (1847) of the “free church” In 1882 the Radicals obtained a great majority, and in 1885 the constitution of 1861 was

revised

(See SWITZERLAND: History )

VAUDEVILLE,

a term that in America is applied to an

entertainment of songs, dances, dramatic sketches, acrobatic stunts, etc, each of which is announced and presented as a separate successive performance. In England the nearest corresponding term is “variety theatre” (qv.), “vaudeville,” rarely used, 1s practically synonymous to what in America 1s generally known as “musical comedy” or “revue”? This article will deal only with vaudeville as it is known in America.

Geneva, was imprisoned from 1530 to 1536 for defending the HISTORY freedom of Geneva against the duke of Savoy) The American theatrical institution of vaudeville originated in The canton is divided mto 19 administrative districts and con1883, ın Boston, Mass., where a former circus employee, Bentains 388 communes The cantonal constitution dates from 1885 The legislature consists of a Grand Conseil of 203 deputies (one Jamin Franklin Keith, opened a small museum and show in a vacant candy store next to the old Adams house in Washington member to every 450 electors) with an executive conseil d’état of seven members, both bodies hold office for four years Six thou- street. He called his first “theatre” the Gaiety Museum, and its principal attractions were Baby Alice, a midget weighing 14 Ib., sand citizens can compel the Government to consider any project, whether legislative or constitutional; this ivet#ative dates back to and an ancient (stuffed) “Mermaid.” Later among his added 1845. Since 1885 the referendum has existed in its “facultative” attractions were “The Circassian Beauties,” a chicken with a form (6,000 signatures required) for certam measures, and in its human face, and a pair of rising young comedians, Weber and Fields, who performed as a team. obligatory form for financial matters. The two members of the Determined to preserve the general plan of the variety show Federal Standerat are named by the Grand Conseil, while the 16 and at the same time give it refinement and even distinction, members of the Federal Nazonalrat are chosen by a popular vote History.—The early history of the main part of the territories young Keith went after the best available stage talent, estabcomprised in the present canton is identical with that of south-west lished strict rules against all forms of vulgarity on the stage, enSwitzerland generally The Romans conquered (58 Bc ) the Celtic couraged women and children to patronize his small theatre and Helvetu and so thoroughly colonized the land that it has remained began to advertise and describe his show as “vaudeville” He put into operation the idea of continuous performances and soon a Romance-speaking district It formed part of the empire of was able to pay his performers more money than they had been Charlemagne, and of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy (888- paid in variety and in this manner began to command the best 1032), the memory of “good Queen Bertha,” wife of King Rudolph talent available In 1885 Edward F. Albee joined Mr. Keith and

IT, being still held in high honour. After the extinction of the house of Zahringen (1218), the counts of Savoy gradually won the larger part of it, especially in the days of Peter II., “le petit Charlemagne” (d. 1268) The bishop of Lausanne (to which place the see had probably been transferred from Aventicum by Marius the Chronicler at the end of the 6th century), however, still maintained the temporal power given to him by the king of Burgundy, and in 1125 had become a prince of the empire (We must be careful to distinguish between the present canton of Vaud and the old mediaeval Pays de Vaud: the districts forming the present canton very nearly correspond to the Pays Romand ) In 1536, both Savoyard Vaud and the bishopric of Lausanne (including Lausanne and Avenches) were overrun and annexed by Bern. Bern in 1526 sent Guillaume Farel, a preacher from Dauphiné, to carry out the Reformation at Aigle, and after 1536 the new religion was imposed by force of arms and the bishop’s residence moved to Fribourg (permanently from 1663). Thus the whole land became Protestant, save the district of Echallens. Vaud was ruled very harshly by bailiffs from Bern Political feeling was therefore much excited by the outbreak of the French Revolution, and a Vaudois, F C de Laharpe, an exile and a patriot, persuaded the Directory in Paris to march on Vaud in virtue of alleged rights conferred by a treaty of 1565. The French troops were received enthusiastically, and the “Lemanic republic” was proclaimed (Jan. 1798), succeeded by the short-lived Rhodanic republic, till in March 1798 the canton of Léman was formed asa district of the Helvetic republic. This corresponded precisely with the present canton minus Avenches and Payerne, which were given to the canton of Vaud (set up in 1803). The new canton was thus made up of the Bernese conquests of 1475, 1475~76, 1536 and 1555, The constitutions of 1803 and 1814 favoured the towns and wealthy men, so that an agitation went on

for a radical change, which was effected in the constitution of 1831.

Originally acting as a mediator, Vaud finally joined the anti-Jesuit movement (especially after the Radicals came into power in 1845), opposed the Sonderbund, and accepted the new federal constitu-

tion of 1848, of which Druey of Vaud was one of the two drafters, From 1839 to 1846 the canton was distracted by religious strug-

organized the Gaiety Opera Company to present at the lowest popular price the then new and sensational Gilbert and Sullivan light operas. In 1886 the first link in what has become the longest chain of theatres in the world was added to the parent Boston house, that of the old museum in Providence, following this was the purchase of the old Low’s opera house in Providence and the Bijou theatre in Boston. In Philadelphia Mr Keith built an up-to-date theatre which, with the three other flourishing houses at his command, made possible longer engagements and better salaries to reputable artists. The four theatres were the nucleus from which was developed during the next 4o years the great chain including almost every city of the United States with a population of 100,000 or more When B. F. Keith died (1921) vaudeville was already the most generally patronized American form of stage entertainment. There were in 1928 approximately 1,000 vaudeville theatres entertaining a daily aggregate of 2,000,000 people with well-chosen acts, feature motion pictures and news reels in every State in the United States and every province of Canada. Early Vaudeville Artists—Among the early-day geniuses of variety who became identified with vaudeville were The Four

Cohans, of whom George M

Cohan was one, Montgomery and

Stone, David Warfield and a number of eminent grand opera

stars from Europe Maurice Barrymore, head of the “Royal Family” of the American stage was one of the early stars of the drama to embark in vaudeville. Ethel arid Jack Barrymore made occasional engagements on the big circuits. Mr. and Mrs. Sidney Drew, Sara Bernhardt, Lenore Ulric, Nazimova, William Faversham and hundreds of other great artists of every branch of the theatre have appenrea J)ramatists begin to write one-act, plays and dramatic sketches for vaudeville, and there began a general accession of legitimate actors in short plays Growth.—Eastern successes of vaudeville found ready and able followers elsewhere Kohl and Middleton started vaudeville in Chicago as early as 1886 ‘That same year Gustave Walters opened the Orpheum theatre in San Francisco and

launched in the Far West a vaudeville circuit which later merged

14

‘

VAUGELAS—VAUGHAN

with the Keith-Albee organization and which spread and succeeded with almost equal rapidity in the Middle and Far West F F. Proctor, manager of the famous Twenty-third Street theatre, New York, changed his policy to contmuous vaudeville in 1893, John J. Murdock opened his Masonic Temple Roof as a vaudeville theatre in 1898, Oscar Hammerstein made his Victora theatre, 42nd street and Broadway, New York, a vaudeville house in 1899; Alex Pantages founded his Northwest Vaudevulle circuit in 1900; F. F. Proctor opened his Fifth Avenue theatre (formerly Miner’s) in 1900, and Gus Sun started a new Ohio circuit of his own in 1905. The Keith and Proctor interests joined forces in 1905 to establish the United Booking Office which became the official clearing house and engagement bureau for the employment and booking of vaudeville acts and artists The great number of minor circuits, independent owners and as yet divergent mterests which had now entered the vaudeville field, made it necessary to organize the managers with a view to stabilizing the business, standardizing contracts, regulating conflicting situations and mequalities as between competing theatres and as between the employers and employees of vaudeville. In 1916 the National Vaudeville Artists’ Association, Inc., was perfected under the sponsorship of leading members of this branch of the profession, Ths organization mm 1928 listed about 15,000 artists and was regarded as the model combination of fraternal beneficiary mdustrial organizations,

With the increasing mterest in motion pictures during the first

three decades of the 20th century, vaudeville houses added picture features, news-reels, comedies, etc , to their programmes. The merger of the two major circwts in 1928—Keith-Albee in the East and the Orpheum in the West—with the simultaneous absorption of some of the foremost motion picture producing companies was one of the greatest developments of the institution of American vaudeville. The miraculous advance of wireless science as apphed to motion pictures, radiography and telephonic and phonographic recording brought to public attention the possibilities of television (gv.). Vaudeville was first to envisage the widening possibilities of this new era of entertainment, The Pathé-De Mille motion picture producing organization was absorbed by Keith-Albee; the Film Booking Offices, a motion picture corporation, was next. With that reinforcement major vaudeville added to its resources not only a vast picture producing unit but also the mames and services of a number of pre-eminent stars of flmdom. The year 1928 witnessed the further expansion of vaudeville with the unification of the Radio-KethOrpheum corporation with the Radio Corporation of America. Operation.—Vaudeville may be classified as major, minor or independent circuits—the theatres of the latter bemg operated localiy in the same manner that local merchants everywhere may be found operating outside of the great store cham systems of trade. The major circuit and its affiliated mmor circuits cooperate through the central metropolitan booking offices; also through the Vaudeville Managers’ Protective Association, in which all classifications of the business are represented. This association is also in harmony with the National Vaudeville Artists’ Association, with which it co-operates through a joint board of arbitration which rules upon contract forms and all

matters of equity as between the employing managers and the artists employed. The cost of acts 1s fixed by these contracts and varies according to the real, or supposed “drawing value” of the attraction so booked, Celebrity, ability and even notoriety are considered in estimating the draw-power of vaudeville attraction, and the higher the cost the more limited must be the engagement on any circuit. The limitation of the tours of highly expensive acts is due to the fact that the small towns, poorer neighbourr hoods and smaller theatres of vaudeville cannot stand the additional “overhead ” The arrangement of the programmes in vaudeville theatres is largely at the discretion of the house manager. The opening act on the stage is usually a silent (technically called “dumb”) act, as of acrobats, tumblers or one in which the arrival of the audience

will not spoil the effect of the performance.

Contrast being

deemed of prime importance, similar acts are not listed next to one another Always there is an effort to build the vaudeville programme towards a climax, so that the most stnking and effective numbers come well down upon the programme. Every modern vaudeville theatre mamtains a complete equipment of stage sets which are at the disposal of visiting artists, although most iumportant acts carry thew own special scenic, mechanical or decorative necessities, such as athletic apparatus, trick furniture and those properties essential to the full effect and success of their own special act These they carry with them on tour, and they are handled and placed by the stage crews which every vaudeville theatre employs. Touring vaudeville artists pay their own transportation and maintenance and their

salaries are paid by the local manager of the theatre upon the conclusion of their ummediate engagement in that a

F.A)

VAUGELAS, CLAUDE FAVRE, Sztcneur nz, Baron

bE Péroces (1595-1650), French grammarian and man of letters, was born at Meximieu (Am), on Jan. 6, 1595. He became gentleman-in-walting to Gaston d’Orléans, and continued faithful to this prince in his disgrace. Vaugelas was among the original Academicians. In his Remarques sur la langue francatse (1647), he maintained that words and expressions were to be judged by the current usage of the best society, of which, as an habitué of the Hétel de Rambouillet, Vaugelas was a competent judge

He

shares with Malherbe the credit of having purified French diction His book fixed the current usage, and the classical writers of the 17th century regulated their practice by it. Towards the end of his life Vaugelas became tutor to the sons of Thomas Francis of Savoy, prince of Carignan He died in Paris in Feb. 1650 See Remarques şur la langua française, edited with a key by V Conrart, and mtroductory notes by A Chassang (Paris, 1880). The principles of Vaugelas’s yudgments are explained ın the Études critiques (7¢ série) of M Bruncticrc, who regards the name of Vaugelas as a symbol of all that was donc in the first half of the 16th century to perfect and purify the French language See also F. Brunot in the

Histowe de la langue et littérature française of Petit de Julleville.

VAUGHAN,

HENRY

(1622~1695), called the “Silurist,”

British poet and mystic, was born of an ancient Welsh family

at Newton St. Briget near Scethrog by Usk, Brecknockshire, on April 17, 1622

From

1632 to 1638 he and his twin brother

Thomas (see next page) were privately educated by Matthew Herbert, rector of Llangattock Anthony à Wood says that Henry was entered at Jesu» colege, Oxford, in 1638, but the statement is uncorroborated. He was sent to London to study law, but turning his attention to medıcme, he became a physician, and settled first at Brecon and later at Scethrog to the practice of his art

He was regarded, says Wood, as an “ingenious person, but

proud and humorous” It seems hkely that he fought on the king’s side in the Welsh campaign of 1645, and was present at the battle of Rowton Heath. In 1646 appeared Poems, with the Tenth Satyre of Juvenal Engltshed, by Henry Vaughan, Gent The poems in this volume are chiefly addressed to “Amoret,” and the last is on Priory Grove, the home of the “matchless Orinda,” Mrs Katharme

Phihps. A second volume of secular verse, Olor Iscanus, which takes its name from the opening verses addressed to the Isca (Usk), was published by a friend, probably Thomas Vaughan, without the author’s consent, in 1651. The preface is dated 1647, and the reason for Vaughan’s reluctance to print the book is to be sought in the preface to Silex Scanitllans: or Sacred Poems and Pious Ejaculations (1650). There he says: “The first that with any effectual success attempted a diversion of this foul and overflowing stream (of profane poetry) was the blessed man, Mr George Herbert, whose holy hfe and verse gained many pious converts, of whom I am the least.” His other works are The Mount of Olives’ or Solitary Devotions, with a translation, Man in Glory, from the Latin of Anselm (1652); Flores Solitudsms (1654), consisting of two prose translations from Nierembergius, one from St. Eucherius and a hfe of Paulmus, bishop of Nola; Hermetical Physick, translated from the Naturae Sanctuarwum of Henricus Nollius: Thalia Rediviva; The Pass-Times and Duwversons of a Country Muse

(1678), which includes some of his

VAUGHAN—VAUGHAN brother's poems.

Henry Vaughan died at Scethrog on April 23,

1695, and was buried in the churchyard of Llansantffraed As a poet Vaughan comes latest in the so-called “metaphysical” school of the 17th century. He is a disciple of Donne, but follows him mainly as he saw him reflected in George Herbert He analyses his experiences, amatory and sacred, with excessive ingenuity, striking out, every now and then, through his extreme intensity of feeling and his close observation of nature, lines and phrases of marvellous felicity , By his mystical outlook on Nature he no doubt exercised great influence on Wordsworth, who is known to have possessed a copy of his poems, and it is difficult to avoid seeing in “The Retreat” the germ of the later poet’s “Ode on Intimations of Immortality.” By this poem, with “The World,” mainly because of its magnificent opening stanza, “Beyond the Veil,” and “Peace,” his fame is assured The complete works of Henry Vaughan were edited for the Fuller Worthies Library by Dr. A. B. Grosart mn 1871 The Poems of Henry Vaughan, Stlursst, were edited mm 1896 (reprint r905) by E K Chambers, with an introduction by Canon H C Beeching, for the Muses’ Library; see also an edition by L C Martin (Oxford, 1914), and by E. Hulton (1904), R Sencourt, Outlyzng Philosophy Vaughan, etc

Vaughan (1922) VAUGHAN,

THOMAS

lated Anthroposophia

Theomagica

(1650);

Amma

Magica Ab-

scondsta (1650); Lumen de Lumine and Aphorisim Magici Eugeniani (1651); The Fame and Confession of the Fraternity of R.C. (1652); and others. Most of these pamphlets appeared under the pseudonym of Eugenius Philalethes. Vaughan was probably, although it 1s by no means certain, not

the famous

who

‘was

alleged to have found the philosopher’s stone in America,

adept known

as Eirenaeus

Philalethes,

and

ex-Palladiste. These formed part of certain alleged revelations as to the practice of devil-worship by the initiates of free-

the subject of an amazing mystification

nm the Mémoires d'une

masonry The author, whose name was given as Diana Vaughan, claumed to be a descendant of Thomas and to possess family papers which showed amongst other marvels that he had made a pact with Lucifer, and had helped to found freemasonry as a Satanic society The inventors of the hoax, which took in many eminent Catholic ecclesiastics, were some Paris journalsts. The Magical Writings of Thomas Vaughan were edited by A

E

Waite in 1888. His miscellaneous Latin and English verses are included im vol. u. of A. B. Grosart’s Fuller Worthies Library edition of the Works of Henry Vaughan (1871). A manuscript book of his, with alchemical and autobiographical jottings made between 1658 and 1662, forms Brit Mus Sloane MS. 1741. Biographical data are mm E. K. Chambers’s Muses’ Library edition of the Poems of Henry Vaughan (1896), together with an account and criticism of the Mémouzres d’une

ex~Palladzste. These fabrications were also discussed by A. E. Waite,

Devil-Worshep in France (1896), and finally exposed by Gaston Méry, La Vérité sur Diana Vaughan.

VAUGHAN, WILLIAM

(1577-1641), English author and

coronial pioneer, son of Walter Vaughan (d. 1598), was born at Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire, his father’s estate, in 1577 He was descended ‘from an ancient prince of Powys His brother, John Vaughan (1572-1634), became rst earl of Carbery; and another brother, General Sır Henry or Harry Vaughan (15871659), was a well-known royalist leader, William was educated at Jesus college, Oxford, and took the degree of LL.D. at Vienna In 1616 he bought a grant of land in the south coast of New-

foundland, to which he sent two batches of settlers.

In 1622

he visited the settlement, which he called Cambriol, and returned to England in 1625 Vaughan apparently paid another visit to his colony, but bis plans for its prosperity were foiled by the severe winters He died at his house of Torcoed, Carmarthenshire, in Aug. 1641.

(2 vols,

~ His chief work is The Golden Grove (1600), a general guide to morals, politics and literature, in which the manners of the time are severely criticized, plays being denounced as folly and wickedness The section ın praise of poetry borrows muck from earher wnters on the subject. The Golden Fleece . . transported from Cambriol Colchis by Orpheus jun, alias Will Vaughan, which contains infoimation about Newfoundland, is the most interesting of his other works

(1622-1666), English alchemist

VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (18;2), British musical composer, was born at Down Ampncy, Glos, Oct. 12,

See the Life of Cardinal Vaughan, by J. G. Snead Cox

VAUGHAN,

solvent, his published writings deal rather with magic and mysticism than with technical alchemy. They also contain much controversy with Henry More the Platonist. Vaughan was called a Rosicrucian, but denied the imputation. He wrote or trans-

(1832-1903), cardinal and arch-

the works..

bishop of Westminster, was born at Gloucester on April 15, 1832, the eldest son of heutenant-colonel John Francis Vaughan, head of an old Roman Catholic family, the Vaughans of Courtfield, Herefordshire His mother, a daughter of John Rolls of The Hendre, Monmouthshire, was intensely religious; and all the daughters of the family entered convents, while six of the eight sons took pnest’s orders, three of them rising to the episcopate, Roger becommg archbishop of Sydney, and John bishop of Sebastopohs Herbert spent six. years at Stonyhurst, and was then sent to study with the Benedictines at Downside, near Bath, and subsequently at the Jesuit school of Brugelette, Belgium, which was afterwards removed to Paris. In 1851 he went to Rome. After two years of study at the Accademia dei nobili ecclesiastici, where he became a friend and disciple of Manning, he took priest’s orders at Lucca in 1854. On his return to England he became for a period vice-president of St. Edmund's College, Ware, at that time the chief seminary for candidates for the priesthood in the south of England Since childhood he had been filled with zeal for foreign missions, and he conceived the determination to found a great English missionary college to fit young pnests for the work of evangelizing the heathen. With this object he made a great begging expedition to America in 1863, from which he returned with £11,000. St Joseph’s Foreign Missionary College, Mull Hill Park, London, was opened m 1869. Vaughan also became proprietor of the Tablet, and used its columns vigorously for propagandist purposes In 1872 he was consecrated bishop of Salford, and in 1892 succeeded Manning as archbishop of Westminster, receiving the cardinal’s hat in 1893 It was his most cherished ambition to see before he died an adequate Roman Catholic cathedral in Westminster, and he laboured untiringly to secure subscriptions, with the result that its foundation stone was laid in 1895, and that when he died, on June 19, 1903, the building was so far complete that a Requiem Mass was said there over his body before it was removed to its resting-place at Mill Hill Park London, 1919)

ment of state, but he continued his favourite studies and actually died of the fumes of mercury at the house of Samuel Kem at Albury on Feb. 27, 1666 Vaughan regarded himself as a philosopher of nature, and although he certaimiy sought the universal

of

..m

(1925); H. W. Wells, The Tercentenary of Henry

HERBERT

15

to whom the Introitus Apertus in Occlusum Regis Palatium (1667) and other writings are ascribed In 1896 Vaughan was

A hterary study of the relgious element H

WILLIAMS

lost his wife mm 1658. After the Restoration he found a patron in Sir Robert Murray, with whom he fled from London to Oxford during the plague of 1665 He appears to have had some employ-

and mystic, was the younger twin brother of Henry Vaughan, 1872 He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge where he became the “Silurist ? He matriculated from Jesus college, Oxford, in Mus Bac in 1894, and at the Royal College of Music, with Parry 1638, took his BA degree m 1642, and became fellow of his college He remained for some years at Oxford, but also held

and Stanford

The

revival of English

folk-song, however,

ın

which he became absorbed, unlocked his latent creative powers the living of his native parish of Llansantffraed from 1640 til The Norfolk Rhapsodses for orchestra (founded on folktunes), 1649, when he was ejected, under the Act for the Propagation and the symphonic impression In the Fen Country, on original of the Gospel in Wales, upon charges of drunkenness, immorality themes of folk-song character, show his development. Other types and bearing arms for the king, Subsequently he lived at his of distinctively national music, notably the Tudor Church combrother’s farm of Newton and in various parts of London, and | posers and Purcell, strengthened his technical resources and helped studied alchemy and kindred subjects He married in 1651 and to determine his own style in the direction of vigorous melodic

VAULT

16

outhne, the free use of model scales, an unflinching contrapuntal texture and a high-handed attitude towards harmony. He wrote the choral works Toward the Unknown Region (Leeds Festival, 1907), A Sea Symphony (Leeds, 1910), the libretto in both cases

beg drawn from Walt Whitman, and the orchestra work, A London Symphony (Queen’s Hall, 1914) His musical work was interrupted by the World War, in which he served first in the RAMC and then as a gunner. His greatest works date from the post war period. The most mmportant are A Pastoral Symphony for Orchestra (Royal Philharmonic Society, 1922), A Mass in G Mmor (Westmmster Cathedral, 1923); an oratorio, Sancta Czvitas (Oxford, 1926). A stage scene from The Pilgrim's Progress, called The Shepherd of the Delectable Mountains; and the ballad opera, Hugh the Drover (words by Harold Child), belong to the earlier period when folklore

Groined Vault, one formed by the intersection of two vaults running in different directions, usually at right angles to each other, in such a manner that the area covered by the groined vault has arches on its four sides, thus allowmg support to be discontinuous and broken up into piers. The lines of the mtersection, generally elliptical, are known as groins. In a single, square, groined vault the direction of the thrust follows the lime of the grom, and ıs on a lme continuing the diagonals of the square. Where, however, two such square bays adjoin each other, the sum of the two diagonal thrusts is at nght angles to the long

dimension of the combmed two bays

In addition to perfect

groined vaults, in which the two elements at mght angles to each other are at the same height and curvature, there are many uses of the groined vault over rectangular, instead of square, bays of which the two intersecting vaults are of different curves and heights The geometrical intersection of such vaults is a warped and folk-songs were the primary mspiration of his work and twisted lime of considerable awkwardness, and various atVAULT, any covering for an enclosed room, formed of small pieces of material, generally wedge-shaped and arranged tempts to simplify the form were made either by slanting and with the under sides forming a generally curved surface, in such warping the surfaces of the component vaults, or by artificially a way that each separate unit 1s held im place by its neighbours altering the geometric intersecting line to make a more pleasant on either side, a continuous arch; also, loosely, any curved ceiling pattern The geometric intersection of a small, low vault, with or covering of a room, irrespective of its material The word 1s a large, high one, 1s called a welsh groin Dome (q.v ), a vault of generally spherical curvature, whose also used for a room or series of rooms built for storing valuables and enclosed with heavy walls, doors and ceilings specially con- bottom is a circle in plan. Pendentive (qu), a small section of spherical vault used to structed to withstand the effect of fire or the attacks of burglars, and entered by a burglar-proof door (see Sares; STRONG fill in the upper corners of a square or polygonal room to form a Rooms), and, by a somewhat simular extension, to a masonry en- circle at the top for the support of a dome’ Clotstered Vault, the inverse of a groined vault, also formed closure in a graveyard, intended either as a permanent tomb or to by the intersection of two vaults at right angles, but so arranged receive bodies until a final grave 1s made Structural Implications—Owing to the action of super- that from the sides of the square, unbroken sections of vault rise incumbent weights upon the wedge-shaped pieces that form it, a to a point in the centre, so that the intersections, instead of provault, like an arch (qv ), exerts side thrust, and unless its lower jecting like groins, are like valleys. Many so-called square and portions are held in place, it will collapse. Even in such nearly octagonal domes are square or octagonal cloistered vaults homogeneous structures as the Roman concrete vaults, this tendRibbed Vault, a vault subdivided by independent ribs or arches; ency is present, and if sufficiently weighted, these vaults, lke also loosely used for any vault with projecting ribs on its survaults made of wedge-shaped voussoirs (g.v.) will fail because face, whether independent and structurally important or not. of the pushing apart of their lower edges The result of this 1s Corbelled Vault, the curved covering of a room, formed not by the development either of very thick walls, whose weight and wedge-shaped pieces of material, in the manner of an arch, but*by strength are themselves sufficient to withstand the thrust of vaults building the covering of horizontal courses, each one of which placed upon them, or else the balancing of thrusts of adjacent projects inward slightly over the one below. This form exerts no walls against each other or the remforcement of supporting walls thrust and is not strictly a vault, although frequently so called.

by buttresses.

Another method

of diminishing

thrusts is to

arrange the vault in such a manner that its haunches, the lower portions on each side, carry a much greater weight than the centre, or crown.

Another peculiarity of the vault, which tremendously affected its design, is the fact that although a vault is rigid when constructed, its component parts, or voussoirs, have to be independently supported ın place in some artificial manner, until the final topmost voussoir, or keystone (g v ) is ın place. This problem of supporting the vault during construction has led to many experiments in the arrangement of the separate stones or bricks of a masonry vault Frequently, for instance, the lower portion

of a vault will be built with horizontal layers or courses, and only the top courses of wedge-shaped blocks In Roman concrete vaults a thin layer of brick, hight and easy to support, sometimes acted itself as the centring for the support of the concrete upon it. The most interestmg development of this structural necessity was the invention of the system of ribbed vaults by the Romans and its epochal development during the late Romanesque and early Gothic periods Essentially, this system broke up a large vault area into smaller elements separated by independent arches, whose support and construction was a comparatively easy matter When once built, these arches themselves served to support the centring for the fillmg in or web of the vault between the arches ‘Types.—Vaults are classified according to their shapes and their construction. Barrel Vault, sometimes called tunnel vault, one whose crosssection is always the same; a continuous arch. Annular Voult, a similar contmuous vault whose supporting walls are concentric circles, like the vault around the apse of some Romanesque churches ,

HISTORY Egypt and the Mesopotamian Valley.—The vault seems to have been independently invented in many parts of the world in the late Neolithic and early Bronze ages. The earliest important evidences of it extant are those of Chaldea and early Egypt, where it appears as early as the beginning of the 4th millennium B.C. In Chaldea, not only were drains vaulted, but vaults were also used to cover tomb chambers and probably halls in temples and palaces as well, The vault holds a dominant place in Mesopotamian architecture through all the vicissitudes of Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian cultures. During the Assyrian period (c. 1000 to 600 BC.) vaults: of unburned brick were the chief method used for covering the long, tunnel-like halls of the Assyrian palaces. The drains which were so important a feature of the palace platforms were roofed with walls of baked brick, and there ıs preserved an ingenious example from Nimroud (oth century BC.) showing one method of obviating the necessity for centring. In this case the drain abuts upon a thick wall through which it passes by an arch. The rings of which the vault is formed, instead of being placed in successive vertical planes, are all inchned at 45°, so that each completed ring furnishes a cer-

tain amount of support for the one built after it. In addition te the barrel vault, the Assyrians were undoubtedly acquainted with

the dome, as many Assyrian reliefs show villages with domed structures, and in some cases the curve of the dome is too flat for it to have been constructed as a corbelled vault. Egyptian vaults were more common in the earlier periods than in the later and examples in tomb passages at Dendereh undoubtedly go back to the earliest dynasties Under Rameses II. a granary built behind the Ramesseum at Thebes also had vaulted

VAULT chambers of which the lower courses were laid horizontal, in order to reduce the span The Egyptians, however, apparently never appreciated the possibility of cut stone vaulting; the nearest approach to it, in the great period, was the so-called vaulted chambers in the temple built by Seti I at Abydos. The Aegean and Greece—In the pre-classic Aegean, the corbelled vault achieved some of 1ts most remarkable expressions, as in the famous tholoi, or beehive shaped tombs (e g , tholos of Atreus, at Mycenae, c. 1200 Bc ), which are probably modelled on tholos type huts of unburned brick, of which many founda-

tions have been discovered in many sites ın Crete and the Grecian islands. Like the Egyptians, the Greeks knew the principle of the arch and the vault, and used it occasionally, although they never gave it an important architectural position, and during the best periods the post and lintel system of construction entirely superseded the vault In the Hellenistic period, probably due to the close touch with western Asia that was such a marked feature of post-Alexandrian culture, the arch and the vault again appear, still, however, in isolated instances, in some of which Roman influence may be already present Thus there is a small hall at Pergamon, Asia Minor, roofed with a gromed vault which two schools of thought date differently, one claiming that it 1s pre-Roman and the other that it is a piece of Roman construction (G Rivoira, Roman Architecture, 1925, p 78) It is incontestable, however, that barrel vaults, both straight and sloping, were used in Hellenistic tombs and city gates. Italy.—It is uncertain when and how the Etruscans first discovered vaults, but as early as the 6th century B.C , a tomb from Orvieto, now in Florence, had a simple barrel vault, and by the 4th century they were common, as in the so-called grotto of Pythagoras in Cortona Moreover, such city gates as those of Falerii, Volterra and Perugia, which date from the 4th and 3rd centuries, BC, reveal not only a definite knowledge of vault construction but an impressive attempt to give it architectural effect. It remained for the Romans to absorb the Etruscan knowledge and develop it into the mam feature of their architectural construction, and to add to the idea of the cut stone vault, vaults of brick mn which the bricks were flat and the radiation taken up in the joints, and vaults of rubble or concrete, roughly dumped upon a wooden centring, whose form it took as it hardened. Vault types were also uncreased, the cloistered vault appearing in the early 1st century, BC, as in the Tabularium at Rome (¢ 80 Bc), the cross or gromed vault, in small square sections supported on arches, so that the whole could be carried by pliers, as m the Septa Julia (27 Bc), independent groined vaults over rooms, common from the time of Nero on (Golden house of

Nero, c AD 6s), and the spherical vault, which appeared first,

tentatively, in niche and apse tops, and reached a climactic flowering in the Pantheon of Hadrian. Under the empire, cut stone vaults were common only in the provinces, like those m Baalbek, Syra or the rıbbed vault of the beautiful so-called temple of Diana at Nimes, France (time of Tiberius). The latter shows one of many interesting experiments made in order to localize thrust and weight; the vault consists of a series of independent stone ribs, on the upper corners of which sinkages are cut to carry stone slabs covering the space between them A similar experimental genius was at work in the Roman province of Syria, where during the 3rd, 4th and sth centuries many cut stone buildings were built, ın which stone arch ribs supported a roof, either of horizontal stone slabs, as in the so-called basilica at Shakka, or following the curves of the arches, as in the delicately designed praetorium at Musmiyeh. In Rome, vaults were usually of brick or concrete, even when the sub-structure was cut stone, and mm the great number of cases, in a combination of the two materials Brick mbs were frequently used in important positions, and were occasionally double, with the two lanes connected by occasional large tiles, forming a light but exceedingly ngid structure In some cases the whole vault centring was covered with tiles laid flat-wise, which acted themselves as centring for the concrete, and were keyed to it by occasional tiles set end-wise. From the time of the Antonines

17

on, vaults were extremely light, and at times daringly thin, strengthened, not only by ribs of brick, but by arches of brick, built in the plane of the vaults between the nbs. This Roman structural ingenuity grew contmuously till the end of the 4th century, long after decorative art had begun to decay. With these ingenious vaults the Romans produced their characteristically large and impressive interiors, and by the use of cross vaults, as in the great halls of the thermae (see BatTus), were enabled to flood them with light from clerestorey windows Not only were all types of barrel and groimed vaults used, as well as the simple dome, but constant experiments were made, almost up to the time of the fall of Rome, m new combinations and novel forms. Many attempts were made to place a dome over a polygonal or square room, thus approaching the pendentive (qv ), and all sorts of scalloped and vaned dome types are found, hke the scalloped dome of the vestibule of the Piazza D’Oro and the niche of the Serapeum, both in the villa of Hadrian, and the daringly delicate so-called temple of Minerva Medica, at Rome, a garden building of the time of Valerian. The earlier vaults were covered with stucco and delicately panelled in relief, occasionally further decorated with colour, as in the tepidarium of the baths of the forum at Pompeu (c. 80 BC), and various rooms m the Golden house of Nero, as well as the remarkably rich subterranean basilca outside the Porta Maggior1 at Rome, which probably dates from the time of Augustus. In the later empire, the custom of coffering, or decorating with deeply sunk geometric panels, like those cut into the dome of the Pantheon at the time of Septimius Severus, became

common. The scale of many

of these Roman

vaults is, even to-day,

astounding. Thus the throne room of the palace of Domutian had a barrel vault 97 ft. in span, 8 ft. wider than the nave of S. Peter’s, the basilica of Constantine, a gromed vault 84 ft. in span, and the domes of the calidarum, in the baths of Caracalla and of the Pantheon, are respectively 116 and 140 ft. in diameter For a thorough discussion of Roman vaulting see G. Rivoira, Roman Architecture, noted above. Byzantine.—The great contribution of the Byzantine builders to vaulting was the final logical development of the pendentive (qv.) through the recognition of the fact that all of the Roman attempts to put a dome on a square plan by means of corbelling were awkward followings of a wrong method, and the discovery of the simplest and most efficient method by substituting triangular sections of a spherical vault. In this way, a dome could be supported on pendentives, which could, in turn, be supported on four great arches, so that the entire weight was brought down upon piers at the corners—a method that at once gave enormous freedom to the planning of a building. The only requirement was that sufficient buttresses should be furnished to withstand the thrust of the great arches There is much discussion as to where and how the pendentive was finally developed; it is very probably an eastern invention, and may have originated in the cut stone work of Roman Syria. Fully developed pendentives occur during the 5th century, e g., the church of S. Sophia at Salonica, but it was in the church of S Sophia at Constantinople (begun 532) that the possibilities of this type of construction were first taken advantage of. The use of great half domes, with smaller domed niches opening from them, at each end of the building, gamed a sense of direction—a long axis—while preserving the dommance of the central dome. The two first domes built on this church both collapsed soon after construction, and it is probably only with the building of the present dome that the circle of 40 windows around the base was introduced, which not only

lightens the weight of the dome but also furnishes a beautiful illumination for the mterior These windows are not placed m a drum, as in later Byzantine work, but pierced through the curving surface of the dome itself, with buttresses between them on the exterior, whose upper sides are swept up in a curve to meet the curve of the dome Little hood arches are thrown across between the buttresses, over the windows, and on the exterior give something of the effect of a drum There is a similar lack

of drum in S Mark’s at Venice (ond half of the rrth century);

18

VAULT

and in many Byzantine churches, even where a marked drum exists on the exterior, there will be little or no drum inside Besides using pendentives to support a dome, the Byzantine designers discovered that a continuous, spherical vault, ending in arches at the walls, could be used over any square or rectangular space This is known as the pendentive dome An early example is m the tomb of Galla Placidia, at Ravenna (c. 440). This type 1s used in combination with all sorts of groined and intersecting vaults in various subsidiary positions The variety and ingenuity of the side aisle vaults of S Sophia at Constantmople 1s remarkable, and 1s matched by the similar variety im the side aisle vaults of such Itahan Byzantine churches as that of S Vitale, at Ravenna

(547) and S. Lorenzo, at Milan (c. 560). In the effort to lighten vaults the Byzantine builders carried to its logical conclusion a method used experimentally by the Romans—that of incorporating in the masonry of a vault, hollow jars or tubes. The dome of S. Vitale, at Ravenna, is built almost entirely of a continuous double spiral of such tubes, shaped so that one fitted into the neck of the next For a simular reason, the dome of S Sophia at Constantmople was built of a special type of exceedingly porous and spongy brick. Mohammedan.—The Mohammedan builders borrowed extensively from Byzantine precedent In Persia, there is an additional legacy from the enormous vaults built by the Sassanians Not only did such colossal vaults as those at Firuzabad (459~485) and Ctesiphon (c 550, 82 ft span) vitally inspire the great vaulted entrances of Persian mosques, but also the wide-spread use of niche-shaped squinches, instead of pendentives under a dome, is without doubt due to the same source But the Mohammedans developed many characteristic vaulting forms of their own Especially noteworthy 1s the multiplication of niche squinches until the stalactite form is achieved, and in the Moorish and Indian styles, the ingenious use of cross ribs, in a square or polygon, to enable it to be covered with a dome of smaller size Examples in Spain are the vaults over the Maksoura, or enclosed

prayer space of the great Mosque at Cordova (11th century), and the even richer vault of the chapel Villa Viciosa, in the same mosque In India the most remarkable example is that of the vast tomb of Mohammed Sikri at Bijapur (1626-60), mn which, by arranging arched ribs in two intersecting squares, to form an eight-pomted star, in plan, a hall 135 ft. square is reduced to a central opening 97 ft in diameter, above which is a dome 124 ft. across, so that there 1s a gallery around the inside of the dome at

1ts spring A similar scheme is used in the great mosque of the same town (c. 1560), in which a square 70 ft across is reduced to a circle 57 ft in diameter China.—The Chinese knew the principle of the arch and vault at an early date, probably having developed it independently Thus vaults occur in the two “Wild Goose” pagodas at Sianfu in the province of Shensi, which are as early as the beginning of the 8th century The most monumental extant uses of the vault, are however, chiefly of the Ming dynasty and later, and in the four northern provinces of Chili, Shantung, Shensi and Shansi Gromed vaults are not used, but barrel vaults are common in city gates (Peking, Sianfu and Taiuanfu), temple and palace entrance halls (imperial palace at Peking, Temple of Heaven, Peking, etc) and in many beautifully designed and carefully executed cut-stone bridges. Barrel vaults are occasionally used over temple halls, set at right angles to the axis of the temple, and entered by smaller barrelled vaults and arched gateways in the thickness of the wall The most remarkable examples of this use occur in the masonry built temple groups of Kin Tze and Shuang la Sze at Taiuanfu, both in Shansi and both dating from the later years of the Ming dynasty Later examples are the many barrel vaults in the great monastery, temple and palace group, built in the 18th century at Jehol Romanesque.—Romanesque vaulting represents the slow development of untrained builders in vaulting a church structure, generally of basilican plan In this development they made use of Roman precedent, they copied Byzantine technique and they used their own native ingenuity The groined vault appeared early in aisles and the annular vault, around apses and for circular

structures; the dome and the octagonal cloistered vault were used for the crossing. The difficulty was with naves, for the buttressing of a nave vault, high in the air, was a troublesome necessity. Barrel vaults were first tried, either semi-circular or pointed, the pointed section being used because it exerted less thrust, and buttressing was largely achieved by means of the triforium gallery vaults, over the side aisles, which were esther semicircular or quadrant shaped, as in the church of S. Sernin, at Toulouse (late rth century) Vaulting was usually of stone, and varied from extremely rough workmanship, covered with plaster, as in S Nectaire, m Auvergne, France (beginning of the rath century), to the beautiful cut stone of such domed churches as that at Cahors, France (1119). The barrel vaulted nave had the drawback of being dark, as only the smallest clerestorey windows —if any—were possible, and the centring required for 1t was unduly heavy The first improvement was the mtroduction of cross ribs, as in Valence cathedral (early 12th century), which strengthened the vault over the piers and simplified the question of centring The matter of lighting was more difficult; an early, interesting experimental solution is that of S Philibert, at Tournus, France, where heavy arches were thrown across the nave at each pier, and walls carried up upon them. Upon these, little barrel vaults were built, running across the nave The result permitted large clerestorey windows and was statically correct, but the interior effect was unpleasantly discontinuous Another remarkable solution was reached in the domed churches of Aquitania, where Byzantine influence was strong, but the most beautiful of these, such as Cahors and Angouléme (1132) have no side aisles, and the difficulty of domed churches with side aisles was just as great as in those with barrel vaults, this may be readily seen in the impressive and gloomy interior of Le Puy en Velay (12th century) The groined vault, which was the obvious answer to the difficulty, was hard to construct because the different widths of nave and aisles, meant that square vaults over the one necessitated oblong vaults over the other And the intersections of the oblong

vaults were twisted and ugly.

Furthermore,

the aisle vaults

around an apse presented difficulties in that the cross vaults were cone-shaped and intersected the annular surface of the aisle vault in unpleasant, twisted lines, with the pomt where the groins crossed below the high point No matter how the surfaces were warped, the problem of the intersection remained The answer to the problem of nave vaulting was first found by the Lombards in S Ambrogio, at Milan (begun in the roth, but probably vaulted about the middle of the 11th century). In this vault, {wo bays of the aisles are made to equal one of the nave, so that all the vaulting bays are approximately square Moreover, the system of ribs, which had only appeared tentatively before, was here applied completely; not only were cross rubs built at each alternate pier across the nave, but in addition, arched ribs were built on the groin lines In this way, a framework of arches was created, easy to construct, and the filling in of the surfaces between, or webs, could be done in sections The cross vaults allowed clerestorey lighting.

The Normans made the next great advance, through the introduction of an additional rib across the nave, on the piers between those that carried the cross arches, and the treatment of each of the two halves of the nave vaulting bay, with its own wall arch and window; the cross vaults thus established, ran obliquely to

the centre The result is the sexpartite or six-part vault (g v). Along with this came the solution of the buttressing problem by means of rudimentary flying buttresses Variations of the six-part vault appear in the two great abbey churches at Caen (Abbaye aux Hommes, Abbaye aux Dames, founded by William the Con-

queror and his wife and vaulted in the rzth century) In the Abbaye aux Dames, the idea is tentative only, and the intermediate rib carries a simple wall up to the ridge of the single cross vault Durham cathedral (1128-1133) has a complete system of groined, ribbed vaults, in which the vaults are four-part instead of six-part, although alternate cross ribs are omitted

French Gothic.—Early French Gothic vaults merely carried

the Norman experiments one step further, by combining with the idea of ribbed and groined vaults the addition of pointed arches,

VAULT

PLATE l

Soe as a oveAPAT ay anra w

BY COURTESY OF (7) SYDNEY PHOTOGRAPHS, (2, 5) EWING

(8) THE ROYAL COMMISSION PITCHER, FRPS, GALLOWAY, (4) PUBLISHERS PHOTO SERVICE, (6)

VAULTS

OF

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HISTORICAL

MONUMENTS

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FRITH AND COMPANY,

ALINARI

CENTURY

1. The great vault at Ctesiphon, c, 550. 2 The Roman barrel vault of the temple of Diana at Nimes, France, built 25 BC. 3 Vault at Rhiwasar Rhargivd In Persla. 4 One of the vaulted halls, and 5 Dome of the mosque of Sultan Achmed at Constantinople, 1609-14 6. Early French

BC.

TO

THE

14TH

CENTURY

AD.

Gothic nave vaulting of the cathedral of Notre Dame at Parls, late 12th century 7 Perpendicular English Gothic vault, Gloucester cathedral, 1377 & Vault of the nave of the Henry VII chapel, Westminster Abbey. 9. Fan vault of King's Collage chapel, Cambridge

PLATE

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Bi

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te

a eS ee ae OG Se DORON

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Epic Poem to the Forgotten, celebrating the great deeds and then the line-vector, OS from the origin, O to the opposite vertex

and New Echo (1917). Vazoff’s most inspired poems and novels of a descriptive character are those relating to the Bulgarian

countryside and village life. He died at Sofia on Sept. 22, rgz2r. His chief novels are. Under the Yoke (Eng. trans. 1894); Svetoslav Terter (1907), Hadji Ahtl and Kazalarskata Tsarttza; and his dramas mclude. Borsslav (1910) and Towards the Abyss VEBLEN, THORSTEIN B. (1857-1929), American author and teacher, was born on July 30, 1857 He graduated at Carleton college in 1880, and studied at Johns Hopkins, Yale and Cornell universities. He was appointed reader in political economy at the University of Chicago in 1893, becoming successively mnstructor and assistant professor. He was associate professor of economics at Stanford university, 1906-09, lecturer in economics at the University of Missouri in 1911—z8, and lecturer in the New School for Social Research, New York city, beginning in 1918 For almost ten years he was managing editor of The Journal of Political Economy. He was distinguished by his contributions to the theory of economics. He died at Menlo Park, Calif, on Aug. 3, 1929. He wrote the Theory of the Lessure Class (1899); The Theory of Business Enterprise (1904); The Instinct of Workmanship (1914); Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution

is denoted by ÕÀ+0È or byÖB+ÕÀ. Thus =- > > > OS=04+0B=0B4+04. => > Jf the line-vectors OA, OB represent any two vectors a, b of like kind, then the sum (or resultant) of a and b is by definition

equal in magnitude (numerically) to the line-vector Os and likedirected. Consequently, if s denote the sum of a and b, s=a+b=b-+a. (x)

The commutative law of addition for two vectors is here expressed.

If a larger number of vectors are to be added, the sum of any two of them may be found as above and added to a third, and so on until the sum of all the vectors is found, the order in which the vectors are added being immaterial With the parallelogram law of addition the physicist is particularly pleased for as a matter of experience he knows that when the vectors with which he deals are added in accordance with,

this law, the sum (in most cases) has a defimite physical meaning For example: The effect upon the motion of a body due to the 4

VECTOR

22

ANALYSIS

action of two forces at some one of its points is the same as would | Products involving more than three vectors may be formed be produced by their resultant or sum as given by the parallelo- but are rarely required. The i, j, k-System of Unit Vectors.—Even after the advent gram law Any vector with a negative sign prefixed represents a vector | of vector analysis writers on physics (the world of vectors) not of the same magnitude as the onginal vector but oppositely |infrequently were accustomed (in effect) to evade the vector directed. It follows that a—b=a-+(—b) and hence that the pro- treatment of vectors with the aid of the famihar Cartesian cess of subtraction of vectors may be reduced to one of addition. | system of axes That they were able to do so was due to the fact

Multiplication of a vector by a number 1m simply increases the ; that three Cartesian scalar equations are equivalent to one vector

magnitude of the vector by the factor m with reversal of direction if m be negative. Furthermore, as is easily proved by elementary

vectors, and not to avoid it, Cartesian reference axes have a very

geometry,

useful place in vector analysis.

į

equation

When used to supplement the vectorial treatment of

Let i, j, k be three line-vectors each of unit length in the mla+b+ --)=ma+mb+ (2) positive directions of the X, Y, Z-axes of a rectangular Cartesian This equation shows that the distributive law of multiplication system ‘Then, in virtue of (3) and (5): is valid in the multiphcation of a sum of vectors by a number i-i=j j=k k=1, i j=j-k=k- i=o, (10) The Scalar Product of Two Vectors.—The scalar product of two vectors a and b is denoted equivalently bya-borb a ixi=jXj=kxXk=o0, iXj=k,jxk=i, kxXi=j, (xz) By definition, Two vectors, a and b, may be expressed in the forms

a-b=b - a=abcos(a, b), (3) where (a, b) denotes the angle between the directions of a andb The definition itself makes valid the commutative law of multi-

plication for the scalar product of two vectors. The distribution law 1s also valid, for example,

(a+b) - (ct+d)=a

cta

d+b

c+b.d.

(4)

a=mi+aj+ak,

(x2)

b=bi+ d.j-+dsk,

(13)

where ai, aj, aK and yi, bej, dsk are the vector components of a and b parallel to the X, Y, Z-axes and ay, de, ag and ki, be, bs are the scalar values of these components. Then a+b= (a1-+b1)i+ (a2-+ be)j++(ast+bs)k. (x4)

The scalar product of two vectors comes naturally inta evidence whenever the cosine of the angle between two directions is In like manner the sum of any number of vectors may be exa matter for discussion. pressed as a sum of i, j, k-components The Vector Product of Two Vectors.—The vector product In virtue of (10) and the distributive law for the scalar product of a vector a into a vector b ıs denoted by axb By definition: of vectors, a - b= (aqi+G2j+ ask) « (bhibej-+-bg aXb=nabsin(a, b), (5) = ail +-dabe-+dab k) s. (15)

where n is a unit vector perpendicular to a and b and such that if a suffer a rotation about n axb toward b, the direction of n and that of the rotation would be related as the thrust and twist of a right-handed screw. Acb ; cordingly, n bxXa=—axXb,

(4)

a Xb= (ai+ aj ask) X (hri+-b2j+dsk)

(17)

+(asbı— abs) j + (a,be— deh) k.

bxa

resenting a and b, (See fig. 2)

Fig 2

In the vector multiplication of sums of vectors the distributive law is valid, provided that in expansion the order of the vectors be maintained; for example,

(a+b) X(c+d)=axXc+aXd+bxXc+bxd

Vector Fields.—A region of space with each point of which is associated a vector is called a vector field Examples of such are the gravitational, electric and magnetic fields of the physicist In the theory of such fields the behaviour of a vector in the neighbourhood of any point is a matter for investigation The attention being fixed upon a particular point P(x, y, 2), let the vector v associated with the point be expressed in the form:

v=v,i-+7,j-+uk,

(18)

(7) where the scalar values of the vector components, 1, v, 03, are

The vector product of two vectors comes naturally into evi-

dence whenever the sine of the angle between two vectors 1s under consideration.

(16)

a-a=a?=a,-+a,7-+03

The vector product of a into b, in virtue of (x1) and the distributive law for vector products, may be expressed as follows: = (azb — azb) i

š

and the commutative law of multıplıcatıon is not valid in the present case ın virtue of the reversal sign ‘The magnitude of aXb or b Xa is numerically equal to the area of a parallelogram constructed upon line-vectors rep-

In particular, if b=a,

ii

now to be regarded as functions of the co-ordinates x, y, z. Let x-+-dx, y-+-dy, 2+dz be the co-ordinates of any neighbouring point where dx, dy, dz represent infinitesimalincrements of v, y, Z. Then, if dv represent the infinitesimal increment in the vector v

The Scalar Triple Product.—An example is furnished by the corresponding to the increments of the co-ordinates, scalar quantity denoted bya -bXc. Evidently, a-bXc=a - nbcsin(b, c)=abecos(a,n) sin(b, c), (8) dv=idy+jdu+kdos, (x9) where n is a unit vector in the direction of aXb. In this product cyclical interchange of the vectors may be made and dot and where dv;, dv, dvs represent the infinitesimal increments in cross may be interchanged without affecting its value; any single U1, Ya, P corresponding to the increments of the co-ordinates, non-cyclical interchange of the vectors simply changes the sign and which may be expressed (see CaLcuLus) as follows: On Ot On of the product. The magnitude of the product is numerically do = a0 tay” + 3 da, equal to the volume of a parallelepipedon constructed upon linevectors representing a, b, c.

The Vector Triple Product——An example is furnished by the

vector quantity denoted by aX(bXc). formula is important:

dv,

Ot,

aa

Au

Au

aX(bXc)=(a-c)b—(a-b)c

Ov

Og

O03

(9)

:

ay dy -+ Fy 78

The following reduction

da= jn tt FyOt By

(20)

VEDANTA

PHILOSOPHY—VEDDER

On

where the symbol —— denotes the rate at which the function 4 Ox would increase with respect to x if x be varied while y and z are held constant, and the other coefficients of the co-ordinate increments have an analogous significance In all there are nine coefiicients of this sort and in terms of them the character of the vector field in the neighbourhood of P can be completely specified

23

and suppose the two vectors so related that:

q= tupit tnp: t tshs, Q= anpi t azpt anpa,

(27)

qa = lapit lsep2 +Assps,

where the a-coefficients are constants or, possibly, functions of

the co-ordinates v, y, z. Then q is called a linear vector function of p. The theory of such functions constitutes one of the most important branches of vector analysis. Q(g, 2:94) By way of example, the vector P may represent the position vector of any point P of a maOv, . Ove ðt * div v= 3x T as terlal body with respect to an ar(21) PÈP, P Ps) + Oz bitrary point O fixed in the body. If we now suppose the body to The other is a vector called the curl of v (curl v) and defined by the equation: undergo a strain, the point of the body originally at P will in Ov, Ov. On Ou\, Om ðn Fic. 4 general occupy a new position Q curly = ay Fz)it dz ae) j+ (nae (22) (see fig. 4) with position vector q relative to O. If the strain is The values of both these quantities can be shown to be in- of the type known as homogeneous then q will be a linear vector dependent of the particular set of i, j, k-axes used in their defini- function of p. The scalar coefficients f1, p2, p3 and q1, go, gs of i, j, K in equations (25) and (26) respectively will then be the tions. Ifv represents the velocity of a moving fluid and p represents its rectangular co-ordinates of P and Q respectively on an i, j, ksystem of axes with origin at O. The precise nature of the homodensity at any given point then geneous strain will be determined by the values of the nine pv is its momentum per unit volume; div pv is a ene of x! a `X ty a-coefficients in equations (27). In a homogeneous stram the the rate at which the flud is leav- T E Pa eae coefficients are constants; straight lines remain straight and parallel lines remain parallel. mg the neighbourhood of the px AN point reckoned per unit volume; Among mathematical subjects having contacts with vector curl V is a measure of the vortical analysis, the more important are: The various geometries, determotion of the fluid In fig. 3, for 17

relativity. The easiest approach to tensor theory is probably by way of vector analysis. means of arrows representing the velocity vector, the flow of a Fig. 3 BrsriocraPpHy.—For begmners: R. Gans, Einfuhrung imn die

The Divergence and the Curl of a Vector.—Two quantities

of fundamental importance in the theory of vector fields will now be defined in terms of these coefficients One of these is a scalar called the divergence of v (div v) and defined by the equation

fluid in the vicinity of four points P, P’, Q, Q’. At the points P

and P’ a finite divergence of the velocity is indicated (+ at P and — at P’), at Q and Q’ a finite value of the curl of the velocity

isindicated

(clockwise at Q and counter-clockwise at Q’). If v denotes the magnetic field intensity at any point (the force which would act upon a positive unit magnetic pole if placed at the point) in a magnetic field due to a distribution of electric currents, then curl v is a measure of the electric current density (current per unit area) at the point.

Scalar and Vector Potential Functions—lIf throughout a given region curl v=o or div v=o, then, as the case may be, vis said to have a lamellar or solenoidal distribution in the region. In the case of a lamellar distribution (curl v=o) it is possible to derive v from a scalar function V of the co-ordinates x, y, z in accordance with the equation

OV +i3y ,.0V ,, vais tt aV J

(23)

and v is called the gradient of V, often abbreviated to grad V or VV. The gradient of V is a vector with a direction determined by that of the greatest space rate of ıncrease of V and a magnitude equal to this rate of mcrease. The function Y is called a scalar potential function. In the case of a solenoidal distribution (div v=o) it is possible to derive v from a vector function G of the co-ordinates in accordance with the equation: v=curl G.

(24)

Vektoranalysis (Leipzig, 1905); J. G. Cofn, Vector Analysıs (1909), L. Silberstein, Elements of Vector Algebra (1919); C. E Weatherburn, Vector Analyss (Elementary) (1921). For advanced students. 0. Heaviside, Electro-Magnetic Theory (1893) chap 1v.; J W. Gibbs, Vector Analysis (New Haven, 1901); C Runge, Vector Analyses (based upon the viewpoint of H. G. Grassmann) trans. H Levy (1923); C. E. Weatherburn, Vector Analysıs (Advanced) (1924), M Lagally, Vektor Rechnung (1928). (A P. Wr)

VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY: see INDIAN PuttosopHy VEDDAS or WEDDAS, a primitive people of Ceylon During the Dutch occupation (1644-1796) they were found as far north as Jaffna, but are now confined to the south-eastern district. They are divided into Veddas, Village Veddas and Coast Veddas. They speak Sinhalese, greatly modified with a few words possibly of their original language. The true Veddas are short (average 60$ n ). They are darkskinned and flat-nosed, with small skulls. The brow ridges are well marked Their black hair is long, wavy, almost curly. They live chiefly by hunting; catch fish by poisoning the water, are skilled in gettmg wild honey; use bows with iron-pomted arrows and breed hunting dogs They dwell in caves or bark huts They count on their fingers, and make fire with the fire-drill twirled by hand They are divided into matrilineal exogamic clans. They are monogamous Their religion is essentially a cult of the dead. See C. G. and B. Z Seligmann, The Veddas (1911)

VEDDER,

ELIHU

(1836-1923), American painter, was

born in New York city, Feb. 26, 1836, He studied under the genre

and historical painter Tompkins H. Matteson (1813-84), at Sherburne, N Y., later under Picot, in Paris, and then, in 1857-61, in Italy. After 1867 he lived in Rome, making occasional visits

The function G is called a vector potential function to America. He was elected to full membership in the National Linear Vector Functions—Let two vectors p and q associ- Academy of Design, New York, in 1865 He devoted himself to ated with a point (x,y, 2) be expressed in terms of their i, j, k- the painting of genre pictures, which, however, attracted only components as follows: modest attention until the publication, in 1884, of his illustrations

P= fiitdoj+dsk,

q=nitgjt+gsk,

(25) (26)

to the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam; these immediately gave him a distinguished place in the art world. Important decorative work

24

VEERE—VEGA

came at a later date, more particularly the pamtmg symbolizing

the art of the city of Rome, in the Walker Art Gallery of Bowdoin College, Maine, and the five lunettes (in the entrance hall) symbohcal of government, and the mosaic “Minerva” in the Congressional Library at Washington He died in Rome, Jan 29, 1923 A few days before his death, his book, Doubt and Other Things, was published

VEERE,

a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the

island of Walcheren 4m. NNE of Middelburg, with which it Is connected by canal (1867—72) Pop (1927) 9,089 It contains several interesting architectural remains of the days of its former prosperity, when it was an important commercial centre.

VEERY

(Aylocichla fuscescens), also called Wilson’s thrush,

a well-known bird of the thrush family (Turdidae) inhabiting eastern North America, where it breeds from New Jersey and

Jilinois north to Newfoundland and Manitoba, a subspecies, the willow thrush (H. f. salicicola), inhabits the Rocky mountains as far north as Bntish Columbia, extending east to the Dakotas and Newfoundland Both forms winter in Central America, the willow thrush, however, also going as far south as southern Brazil About 74 in. long, the veery 1s a uniform cmnamon brown above, white below, with greyish sides and a buff throat and breast faintly spotted with cmnamon brown It has a fine song rich in overtones. The veery lives mainly m woods and feeds largely on insects.

VEGA, GARCILASO

DE LA (1503-1536), Spanish sol-

dier and poet, was born at Toledo At the age of 17 he was attached to the bodyguard of Charles V , fought against the insurgent communeros, and afterwards gained great distinction by his bravery at the battle of Pavia (1525)

In 1526 he married a lady-

in-waiting to Queen Eleanor He took part in the repulse of the Turks from Vienna in 1529, was present at the coronation of the emperor at Bologna in 1530, and was charged with a secret mission to Paris in the autumn of the same year In 1531 he accompanied the duke of Alva to Vienna, where, for conniving at the clandestine marriage of his nephew to a maid-of-honour, he was imprisoned on an island in the Danube Dumng this captivity he composed the fine cancion, “Con un manso ruido de agua corriente y clara.” Released and restored to favour ın June 1532, he went to Naples on the staff of Don Pedro de Toledo, the newly appomted viceroy, by whom he was twice sent on public business of importance to Barcelona, m 1533 and 1534 After having accompanied the emperor on the expedition to Tumis (1535), he took part with him in the invasion of Provence and was mortally wounded while storming a fort at Muy, near Fréjus. His poems, which are among the finest in their language, include three pastorals, which rank among the finest ın the Spanish language, 37 sonnets, five canciones, two elegies, and a blank verse epistle, all mfluenced by Italian models. An English translation was published by J. FL Wiffen m 1823 Garcilaso’s delicate charm has survived all changes of taste, and by universal consent he ranks among the most accomplished and artistic of Spanish poets. See H. Keniston, Garcilaso de la Vega (1922~25)

VEGA, GARCILASO

DE LA, caled “Inca” (c. 1535-

1616), historian of Peru, was born at Cuzco. His father, Sebastiano Garcilaso (d. 1559), was a cadet of the illustrious family of La Vega, who had gone to Peru in the suite of Pedro de Alvarado, and his mother was of the Peruvian blood-royal, a circumstance of which he was very proud as giving him a right to the title which he claimed by invariably subscribing himself “Inca.” About 1560 he removed to Spain, but failed to win the preferment for which he hoped After long service in the army, he turned to literature, solacing himself m his rather meagre circumstances by depicting the riches of the new world. He died in Spain m 1616. He published in r5go a translation of Dialoghi dì Amore of Léon Hebro, but his fame depends upon Le Florida del Ynca (1605) and his history of Peru (Pt. 1, Commentarios Reales que tratan del origen de los Yncas, Lisbon, 1608 or 1609, Pt. 2, Cordova, 1617) This latter work has been translated into English, French, German and Italian and has been utilized by Robertson, Prescott, Mar-

montel and Sheridan. The former work, a history of the De Soto expedition, was long regarded primarily as fiction In spite of 1ts exaggerations as to the numbers and wealth of the Indians, recent

CARPIO

investigations have shown it to possess more ethnological value than had been hitherto supposed. Garcilaso de la Vega wrote before history was regarded as a science, by temperament and circumstances he was inclined to the romantic; nevertheless his

work possesses permanent intrinsic interest and he will be remembered as the first South American in Spanish literature. See the monograph by Juha Fitzmaurice-Kelly (1921) in the Hispanic series, and the Lima edition of the Peruvian history (1918~21)

prepared by H H Urteaga with an mtroduction by Don José de la Riva Aguero.

VEGA, the bright star in the constellation Lyra (qv ), hence its Bayer equivalent, a Lyrae, 1ts magnitude is 0 14, and it is the fourth brightest star in the sky and the brightest in the northern

hemisphere

3

VEGA CARPIO, LOPE FELIX DE (1562-1635), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born in Madrid His father and mother, Felices de Vega and Francisca Hernandez Flores, originally came from the valley of Carriedo in Asturias

Lope began

his studies at the Theatine college in Madrid, and afterwards entered the service of Don Jerénimo Manrique, bishop of Avila, who sent him to the University of Alcalá de Henares, perhaps from 1577-81 He took part in the expedition to the Azores in 1582, and from 1583-87 was secretary to the marqués de las Navas In Feb 1588 he was banished for circulating criminal libels against his mistress, Elena Osorio, whom he has celebrated under the name of Filis He defied the law by returning to Madrid soon afterwards and eloping with Isabel de Urbina, sister of Philip It’s herald; he marned her by proxy on May Io, 1588, and joined the Invincible Armada, losing his brother in one of the encounters in the Channel He settled for a short while at Valencia, where he made acquaintance with a circle of young poets who were afterwards to be his ardent supporters m founding the new comedy He joined the household of the duke of Alva, with whom he remained till 1595 Soon afterwards he lost his wife He was prosecuted for criminal conversation in 1596, became secretary to the marquis de Malpica (afterwards count of Lemos), and in 1598 married a second wife, Juana de Guardo, by whom he had two children (Carlos, who died in 1612, and Feliciana Felix), but she died, shortly after giving birth to the latter, m 1613 Lope then sought a refuge in the church After having been affihated to a tertiary order, he took priest’s orders i At this juncture, about 1614, he was in the very zenith of his glory A veritable dictator in the Spanish world of letters, he wielded over all the authors of his nation a power similar to that which was afterwards exerased in France by Voltaire At this distance of time Lope is to us simply a great dramatic poet, the founder of the Spamsh theatre, but to his contemporanes he was much more Huis epics, his pastorals, his odes, his sonnets, now forgotten, all placed him ın the front rank of authorship. Such was his prestige that he dealt with his noble patrons almost on a footing of equality The duke of Sessa in particular, his Maecenas from 1605 onwards, was also his personal friend, and the tone of Lope’s letters to hum is one of frank famiharity, modified only by some forms of deference Lope’s fame, too, had travelled abroad, foreigners of distinction passing through Madrid made a point of visiting him; papal legates brought him the compliments of their master; mm 1627 Urban VIII, a Barberi, sent him the diploma of doctor of theology in the Collegium Sapientiae and the cross of the order of St John of Jerusalem (whence the poet’s titles of “Doctor” and “Frey”) His last days were full of sadness; the death of his son Lope, the elopement of his daughter, Antonia Clara, wounded him to the soul Montalban tells us that every Friday the poet scourged himself, so severely that the walls of his room were sprinkled with his blood His death, on Aug 27, 1635, was followed by national mourning For a rapid survey of the works of Lope, it is convenient to begin with those which the Spaniards include under the name of Obras Sueltas, the title of the large collection of the poet’s nondramatic works (1776-79) We shall enumerate the most important of these, as far as possible in the order of publication, The Arcadia (1598), a pastoral romance, inspired by Sannazaro, is one of the poet’s most wearisome productions La Dragontea

VEGA

CARPIO

25

(1598), is a fantastic history in verse of Sir Francis Drake’s last

posterity, in spite of the grave defects of his work ın that depart-

expedition and death

ment, would nevertheless place it much higher than La Dragontea

Jstdro (1599), a narrative of the life of

Isidore, patron of Madnid, is called a Castilian poem on account of the rhythm in which it is composed—gzun/zllas of octosyllabic

verse The Hermosura de Angélica (1602), in three books, 1s a sort of continuation of the Orlando Furtoso, in octaves after the fashion of the original poem

Finally, the Remas are a miscellany

of short preces In 1604 was published the Peregrino en su Patria, a romance similar in kind to the Aethiopica of Heliodorus Having imitated Anosto, he proceeded to imitate Tasso; but his Jerusalen Conguistada (1609) has preserved nothing of the art shown in its model and is an insipid performance Next follows the Pastores de Belen (1612) a pious pastoral, dedicated to his son Carlos, which forms a pendant to his secular Arcadza; and incidental pieces published in connection with the solemnities of

the beatification and canonization of St. Isidore in 1620 and 1622 It is enough to mention La Filomena (1621), La Circe (1624) and other poems published about the same date, as also the four

prose novels, Las Fortunas de Diana, El Desdichado por la Honra, La Mås Prudente Venganza and Guzmán el Bravo. The great success of the Novelas exemplares (1613) of Cervantes had stimulated Lope, but his novels have none of the grace, naturalness, or interest which characterize those of his rival. The last important work which has to be mentioned before we leave the narrative poetry of Lope ıs the Laurel de Apolo (1630) This piece describes the coronation of the poets of Spain on Helicon by Apollo, and it 1s more meritorious as a bibliographical manual of Spanish poetry at that time than as genuine poetry. One other obra suelta, closely akin to Lope’s dramatic works, though not, properly speaking, a drama, is La Dorotea (1632) Lope describes it as an “action in prose,” but it is rather a “romance in dialogue”; for, although divided into acts, the narrative is dramatic in form only. Of all Lope’s productions Dorotea shows most observation and study; the style also is unusually simple and easy Of all this mass of obras sueltas, filling more than 20 volumes, very little (leaving Dorotea out of account) holds its own in the judgment of posterity. The lyrical element alone retams some vitality. From the Rimas and other collections of detached pieces one could compile a pleasing anthology of sonnets, epistles, elegies and romances, to which ıt would be proper to add the Gatomaquz, a burlesque poem published along with other metrical pieces in 1634 by Lope under the pseudonym of Tomé de Burguillos It is, however, to his dramatic writings that Lope owes his eminent place in literary history. It is very cunous to notice how he himself always treats the art of comedy-writing as one of the humblest of trades (de pane lucrando), and protests against the supposition that in writing for the stage his aim is glory and not money. The reason is not far to seek. The Spanish drama, which, if not literally the creation of Lope, at least owes to him its definitive form—the three-act comedy—was totally regardless of the precepts of the school, the pseudo-Aristotelianism of the doctors of the period Lope accordingly, who stood in awe of the criticism of the cientificos, felt bound to prove that, from the pomt of view of literary art, he attached no value to the “rustic fruits of his humble vega” In bis Arte Nuevo de kacer comedias en este tiempo (1609), Lope begins by showing that he knows as well as any one the establıshed rules of poetry, and then excuses himself for his inability to follow them on the ground that the “vulgar” Spaniard cares nothing about them “Let us then speak to him in the language of fools, since it is he who pays us.” Another reason which made it necessary for him to speak deprecatingly of his dramatic works is the circumstance that the vast majority of them were written in haste and to order. The poet does not hestitate to confess that “more than a hundred of my comedies have taken only 24 hours to pass from my brain to the boards of the theatre.” Nevertheless, Lope did write dramas in which the plan is more fully matured and the execution more carefully carried out; still, hurned composition and reckless production are after all among the distinctive marks of his theatrical -works. Towards the close of his career Lope somewhat modified the severe and disdainful judgments he had formerly passed upon his

dramatic performances; he seems to have had a presentiment that

and Jerusalen Congurstada, and other works of which he himself thought so much We may certainly credit Lope with creative power, with the instmct which enabled him to reproduce the facts of history or those supplied by the imagination in a multitude of dramatic situations with an astonishing cleverness and flexibihty of expression; but unfortunately, instead of concentrating his talent upon the production of a limited number of works which he might have brought to perfection, he dissipated 1t, so to say, and scattered it to the winds The classification of the enormous mass of Lope’s plays (about 470 comedias and 50 autos are known to us) is a task of great difficulty, inasmuch as the terms usually employed, such as comedy, tragedy, and the like, do not apply here. There is not explicitness enough in the division current in Spain, which recognizes three categories —(1) comedias de capa y espada, the subjects of which are drawn from everyday life and in which the persons appear as sımple caballeros; (2) comedias de rudo or de teatro, in which kings and princes are the leading characters and the action is accompanied with a greater display of dramatic machinery; (3) comedsas druimas or de santos. Some other arrangement must be attempted In the first place, Lope’s work belongs essentially to the drama of intrigue; be the subject what 1t may, ıt is always the plot that determines everything else. Lope in the whole range of his dramatic works has no piece comparable to La Verdad Sospechosa of Ruiz de Alarcon, the most finished example in Spanish literature of the comedy of character; and the comedy of manners is represented only by E? Galan Castrucho, El Anzuelo de Fenisa and one or two others. It is from history, and particularly Spanish history, that Lope has borrowed more than from any other source. But it is to the class of capa y espada —also called novelesco, because the subjects are almost always love intrigues complicated with affairs of honour—that Lope’s most celebrated plays belong In these he has most fully displayed his powers of magination (the subjects being all invented) and his skill in elaborating a plot Among the plays of this class which are those best known in Europe, and most frequently imitated and translated, may be specially mentioned Los Ramulletes de Madrid, La Boba para los Otros y Discreta para si, El Perro del Hortelano, La Viuda de Valencia and El Maestro de Danzar. In some of them Lope has sought to set forth some moral maxm, and illustrate its abuse by a living example, as in Las Flores de Don Juan. Such pieces are, however, rare in Lope’s repertory, in common with all other writers of his order in Spam, with the occasional exception of Ruiz de Alarcon, his sole aim is to amuse and stir his public; not troubling himself about its mstruction The strong point of such writers is and always will be their management of the plot. To sum up, Lope found a poorly organized drama, plays being composed sometimes 1n four acts, sometimes in three; and, though they were written in verse, the structure of the versification was left far too much to the caprice of the individual writer. The style of drama then in vogue he adopted, because the Spanish public liked 1t The narrow framework it afforded he enlarged to an extraordinary degree, introducing everything that could possibly furnish material for dramatic situations—the Bible, ancient mythology, the lives of the saints, ancient history, Spanish history, the legends of the middle ages, the writings of the Italan novelists, current events, Spanish life in the 17th century. Before him manners and the conditions of persons and characters had been barely sketched; with fuller observation and more careful description he created real types, and gave to each social order the lan-

guage and drapery appropriate to it The old comedy was awk-

ward and poor in its versification; he introduced order into the use of all the forms of national poetry, from the old romance couplets to the rarest lyrical combinations borrowed from Italy Hence he was justified in saying that those who should come after him had only to go on along the path which he had traced BreriocrapHy.—Obras, ed. R Academia Esp ed, E. Cotarelo y Mori (1916-20). See H A. Lope de Vega (Glasgow, 1904) ; revised Spanish, and,A, Castro (1919) , M. Menéndez y Pelayo, ʻi

(r890—1913); Obras, Rennert, The Lafe of ed. by H. A. Rennert Hzstoria de las Ideas

VEGETABLE

26 Estét:cas en España, XVIIme sècle (1885).

VEGETABLE,

A. Morel

Fatio, La

Comédie espagnole du (X; J. F-K)

Commercial Production of Principal Vegetables, 1927—Continued Showing acreaze, yield, value and rank of leading States on basis of value

a word used as a general term for plants

(qv ), and specifically, ın popular language, for such plants as can be eaten by man or animals, whether cooked or raw, and whether the whole of such plants are edible, or only the leaves or the roots or tubers. Among such edible or culinary plants or portions of plants, a further distinction 1s made popularly between “fruits” and “vegetables,” for which see Fruit For the botany of vegetables see under the specific names, ë g., Porarto, TURNIP, etc , and also HORTICULTURE, generally. Vegetable Culture in the United States—Vegetables are grown in greater or less variety in every State. The chief sources of production are home gardens, truck farms and greenhouses in the vicinity of large cities, farms devoted to raising vegetables for canning and other manufacture, and also farms in the Southern States and in California for the production of winter and early spring vegetables for northern and eastern markets The accompanying table, prepared from reports in the US Yearbook of Agriculture, gives statistics regardimg the more important vegetables grown for the market In addition, artichokes, beets, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, radishes, rhubarb, squashes, turnips and other minor vegetables are grown commercially, but mostly to a much smaller extent in the country as a whole, though some are locally of considerable importance.

| % of Vegetable and State

% of

pod

Prodye

Unit

Value

Cucumbers

(pickling)

Michigan Wisconsin Cahfornia Indiana Eggplant New Jersey Florida Louisiana Lettuce California Arizona Colorado New York

ornią

10,080|

New Jersey So. Carolina Illinois Asparagus (canning)

10,500 6,400] 3,360|

California

New York Beans, snap (fresh) . Flonda . New Jersey Louisiana . California Beans, snap (canning)

New York

Wisconsin |

j

88,000 320,000 286,000

53,200]

200

100

82,990|

Crates | 10,013,310]

1,341,000

48,500]

48,300]

53,100]

i jj 35

sy 3

29,320

45,300!

Tons

5,100

3

5:530

4,200

1,780 31300 138,370]

New York Louisiana, .

35,080] 13:940}

Texas

18,530|

Wisconsin Carrots

13,500| 26,0co|

Louisiana Califormia . New York

11,600] 3,050] 2,860}

Texas

4,340]

Cauliflower

175340|

Cahfornia New York Oregon

7700)

7 i 4 js

y

3:300 3,000 1,162,000

5 2” 3

447,500] 66,900] 122,300

114,800 8,002,000] 2,448,0c0 2,525,000 1,778,000

998,000

4,299,000]

8,050| 2,452,000 5,060 | 1,270,000 2,100] 420,000

Celery

1,469,600] 1,283,200| 429,000]

3,726,396}

22,500}

6,417,000| Hampers | r1r,207,220|

1,364,000 1,469,000 728,000 484,000

-

3,888,900}

Tons | 3,738,896]

. | 19,490| 11,300] 13,490] 3,120|

Mississippi Maryland Cabbage .

» ,,

Onions

3,682,800} 2,130,050] 1,069,760] 997,040)

99 4 o6

tooo

31-4 180 Qır 84

2,838,951 | 1000

644,567 | 227 382,500)

13°5

169,389| 60 164,760} 58 18,603,000 | 100'0

172 78

3 1,020,904] Bushels | 4,481,120|

5'5 1000

9

3 59 i.

*

1,193,648}

1,248,480} 1,098,000] 822,480}

429,140;

Crates | 5,545,900] oy 3 »

2,452,000] 2,324,100| 495,000]

.

Peas, green (fresh)

New Jersey Peas, green (canning) Wisconsin New York Utah. .

6-4

280 24°5 183

96

r00 0 44°2 419 go

11,354,000]

zooo

Pe

Mıchigan,

58,000] 20,360|

2,663,000} 611,000

8,500]

340,000

2,120]

337,000

7,470|

284,000

.,

E green* Ka F ew Jersey Louisiana North Carolina Potatoes (early)

26,810]

2,497,000

6,940]

923,000

3,780] 4,000]

286,000 360,000

218,880 106,120 34,990

116,700

15,330 3:370

7:500 2,860 630

;

10,300 T,420 327,310}

51,500 4,500 816,000

58,280]

145,700

50,480} 27,420]

151,400 60,309

74,500

Louisiana Aleba na

69,000] 7,728,000

Miss s~ ppl

TAT, 28018 gor coo 23 Rosi 3 606 occ

New York

5,0G0|

1,054,000

55

1,984,800]

175

Mississippi New Jersey orma Maryland

15,360]2,765,000

846,000

5

1,167,480]

Cucumbers (fresh) | 42,400] 6,040,000] Hampers | 7.30% 002' Florida : 4,440| 1,004,000 a 1.927.580 South Carona 4,300} 634,000 is 871,200 North Carolina 4,340| 764,000 z 687,600]

New York

3:950]

55,000]

„

573,300}

103

roo } 204'

9'4

78

312,240 766,800 Tons

.

12,472,150

,689,000

1,861,000 667,616 575,000 4,940,300 2,965,600 1,228,500

398,820 93,000

3,926,400

33:850)

Texas

2° Fs|

yn y Ro

2,040,000 2,045,000

‘Loratoes {t.esh} Lionda

3,760|

RaR ka=3

ws

8,022,000 5,615,000

6,896,730 3,228,500 1,056,000

456,000

387,800

Tons

93 1,000|93,928,000 Bushels vee T233> 02o ' TT 07o mam eqn Te, tore 1c 144 Lore I32,000|10,560,000 99,000! 9,702,000 75,299} 7,359,000

North Carolina Georgia

3,716,310

3,300,020 1,797,140 1,615,420 141, 200

4,200,000

350

:

1,953,000 1,905,750

18,020,140

28,000] 17,780]

3,968,640)

Michigan

2,774,000

Bushels

ccas

27

26:6

1,697,450

wd

8,130] 2,715,000 1,900} 1,520,000 2,130| 1,108,000 II,720 56,000

Maryland

15,380,270 22,908,000 11,728,000

38,690)13,523,000 19,450] 6,457,000

Cahfornia

254,520 139,000 27,537,120

35,000

North Carolina Flonda South Carolina

T

I1,400| 22,700} 7,050|

2,508,000 1,692,000 1,107,000

217

264,000

44,998,050 18,538,320

eh

roo 0

4,098,600 2,503,680

124,000

TAs's ea O47

-R eas

1,908,000

2,566,590|

US

693,480

O*T an OSS

233

ae (fresh) Texas Virginia Cahfornia Maryland Spinach (canning)

2,529,850 549,900

31,500 12,400 11,500 3,890,000 Bushels 1,348,000 1,950,000 289,000

9,510 14,439

Virginia

Sweet corn* (canning) Ilinois Iowa New York Maryland Sweet potatoes

215,000

4,240|

S

total

367,200 326,890 264,120

551120] 4,969,000

Flonda cae

8,850| 1,991,000

Bushels

2,870] 746,000 1,000} 330,000 630] 202,000 890] 139,000 123,310|17,562,000 Crates

10,000] 1,900,000 7,100| 888,000 12,100] 1,815,000 75,610]22,492,000 IL 220] 2,199,000 8,730] 3,016,000 8,460} 3,046,000 8,100] 2,738,000 7,000] 2,352,000

Texas California New York Indiana Ohio g

388

1000

Value

value

47,560] 7,557,000

Colorado

Colorado

14°7 120 43

Unit

13,240] 1,536,000 6,480} 1,147,000 120, 280|15,272,000

Maryland

value

1000

tion

76,410} 9,627,000 14,800] 3,036,000

Califorma Arizona

Cahfornia New York

3207,973| 1,455,075|

255320] 7,407,000];

California

-|

3,441,000]

2

Muskmelons

PEa

$ Asparagus (fresh) | 41,600|

age

$

Commercial Production of Principal Vegetables, 1927 Showing acreage, yield, value and rank of leading States on basis of value

Vegetable and State

Produc-

Acre-

894,350

746,750

147,600

10,795,680 2,073,312 133573544

1,133,040

1,048,960 77,490,600 8,977,500 8,116,800 7,920,000

6,792,000

6,247,000 6,182,400 28,189,700 7,284,120 5355 7;000 2,758,000

2,107,960 885,600

I00*0

25-8 197

9'4 T5 3'I

*Statistics for 1926. {The total crop of potatoes for 1927 was grown ON 3,505,000 ac. yielding 402,149,000 bu‘, valued at $389,603,606,

VEGETABLE

COOKERY—VEGETARIANISM

Commercial Production of Principal Vegetables, 1927—Continued Showing acreage, yield, value and rank of leading States on basis of value | i i > Acre eS j o Vegetable and State} Acreage |Producfar - | Unit: Value jū S. CTE valye Tomatoes (canning, etc)| 246,030} 1,109,000 Calfornia 28,760] 178,000 New Jersey 28,000} 145,600 Maryland 34,000} 151,400:

Indiana

Watermelons Georgia Florida

Texas

42,990}

181,910 54,060 29,420

29,660

Cabfornia,

9,780

163,400} §7,220| 17,570 8,826

8,156 5,241

$ Tons $e = 5

lr 5,881,880| 2,674,500] 2,620,800} 2,161,992}

100-0 168 165 13°6

2,134,004 | 134

Carst | 10,642,920] R 2,828,770| s 2,524,236|

45

j;

1,345,740|

660,156|

100-0 26-6 237

12-6 62

{Cars of r,000 melons

VEGETABLE

COOKERY.

The term “vegetables” other

than pulses and cereals (gg v.) covers those plants which have

edible flowers, fruit or seed, stalks, roots or leaves. Green vegetables are valuable in the diet chiefly on account of their potas-

sium salts and vitamines, cellulose, which supplies the body with bulk or “roughage,” thus assisting digestion; and for their water content (average go-95%). Roots and tubers are heat- and energy-giving foods. The cellulose of vegetables is valuable as roughage in the intestinal tract Green Vegetables.—There are three distinct methods of cooking green vegetables Steaming is one. In the second, only enough water 1s used to prevent the vegetables from sticking to the pan and getting burnt, and the aim is to conserve the natural salts and flavours of the vegetables, The third and more common method of cooking ordinary “greens” is to boil the vegetable in a pan of

fast-boiling salted water with the lid off Soda is frequently added to soften the water and preserve the colour but it destroys the

vitamines and is not recommended. All these methods can be used for most green vegetables with the exception of sorrel and spinach, which have a very high water content and require very little-water in cooking. To cook cabbage first wash well in salt and water to get rid of any insects, trim off outside discoloured leaves and put into a kettle full of boiling water, with at least 1 teaspoon salt to each qt To lessen odor of cooking, do not cover. Whole young cabbage, 25-30 min., old, 30 mmx hr. Quartered, IO-I5 mun, Leaves, 5-10 min. Drain, add x tablespoon butter for each Jb.

Cabbage may be stuffed with forcemeat (see Srurrmncs) or

savoury rice (cooked rice and grated cheese, chopped onion and seasoning) by separating the leaves from a parboiled cabbage and rolling each Jeaf round the forcemeat, or the stuffing may be placed in the centre of the cabbage. If the cabbage is rolled stew in a thickened gravy. Brussels sprouts may be dipped in batter and fried. Single leaf vegetables, ¢ g., spinach, beet-tops, etc., may be cooked until

27

i served au gratin Seakale and asparagus are usually served with | melted butter but may be served with other sauces, mayonnaise, lete All white vegetables may be made into soup by passing | through a sieve, thickening and mixing with milk. Potatoes.—There are innumerable ways of cooking potatoes but for most potato dishes they must be first plain boiled. To boil in their skins, clean thoroughly and place in boiling salted water Simmer until tender (about 30-40 minutes; but see note in. CooxERY on boiling at high altitudes); drain off the water and allow them to steam in the pan for five minutes with the lid on. Remove the ld, allow the steam to escape for a few seconds and use as required. To bake potatoes bake them in their skins or peel and put in a baking-dish with sufficient fat to keep them from burning and place under a piece of roasting meat so that the fat from the meat can drip on to them and so keep them moist while cooking. Mashed potatoes are plam boiled or steamed, mashed with butter and muk, and then beaten with a wooden spoon until creamy Potatoes may be fried either in a frying-pan, or ın a pan of deep fat. Before frying thoroughly dry, then after slicing, cut mto strips or fancy shapes, To cream potatoes for vegetarian dishes add eggs, cream or sauce to mashed potatoes and bake or steam as a souffié,

VEGETABLE MARROW, botanically a variety of Cucurbite Pepe, the most important of the gourds (g.v.), used as an esculent, furnishing m good scasons a very large supply for the table. They are best wher eaten quite young and not overboiled, the flesh being then tender, and the flavour sweet. and nutty

The custard marrows (scallop or patty-pan varieties}, bear a pecuhar-looking flattened fruit with scalloped edges, which has a sweeter and less nutty flavour than the true marrow. The bush marrows are more bushy in habit and taller and more sturdy m

growth. Vegetable marrows require a warm situation and a rich soil free from stagnant moisture. They do well on a rubbish or old-dung heap, or in a warm border on little hillocks made up with any fermenting materal, to give them a shght warmth at starting

The seeds should be sown in a warm pit in April, and forwarded under glass, but in a very mild heat; the plants must be shifted into larger pots, and be gradually hardened previous to being planted out, when the mild weather sets in in May or June. The seeds may be sown early in May in pots under a hand-glass, or towards the end of May in the open ground, if heat is not at

command The shoots may be allowed to run along the surface of the ground, or they may be trained against a wall or paling, or on trellises.

The tropical Bhghia sapida (Sapindaceae), which is cultivated for its edible fruits, 1s also known as vegetable marrow.

VEGETARIANISM, a word which came into use about the

year 1847, as applied to the practice of hving upon foods from which fish, flesh and fowl are excluded. There have from tme to time been various sects or schools of thought that have advocated

narrower views, Some of these have excluded all animal products tender, drained and passed through a sieve, then mixed with but- ~—such as milk and eggs and cheese. Some have excluded all ter, cream, seasoning, and formed inte a purée which can be cooked foods, and have preached the virtues of fruits and nuts garnished with hard-boiled eggs or served on toast Green, purée and grains in their natural ripe state. Some have abstained from soups are made from green vegetables It 1s, of course, of essen- all underground-grown roots and tubers, and have claimed special tial importance in the cooking of vegetables to avoid any over- benefits from using only those fruits and vegetables that are grown. cooking, in the sunlight. Some have given up all grain and pulse foods, and White Vegetables.—To prepare white vegetables for cooking have declared that old age can be best resisted by living entirely wash, scrub or scrape, Celery should be cut up in thm strips upon fruits, salads, nuts, soft water and milk products. Some have lengthwise to facilitate cooking. Have ready a pan of salted boil- added fish fo their dietary; but, speaking generally, all who are ing water, squeeze into it a httle lemon juice to keep the vegetables called vegetarians will be found to abstain from the use of flesh a good colour. In cooking certain blanched vegetables, e.g., aspara- and fowl and almost invariably also from fish as food gus, leeks, etc., it is best to tie the vegetables in bundles. OverThe fact, however, must not be overlooked that while vege. cooking of all white vegetables should be avoided, As a rule, tarian societies claim as “vegetarians” all who abstain from flesh 15~30 minutes (according to the age and type of vegetable being foods, there is a large and growing number of people whe repuboiled) is sufficient time to allow. diate the name of “vegetarian” because of its associations, but Jerusalem artichokes, salsify (oyster plant), etc., may be who none the less, for some of the reasons detailed belaw, abstain through a sieve and creamed, sprinkled with grated cheese and from eating anything that has been killed. sauce and then baked au gratin. They may also be fried in batter The reasons that are advanced for the practice of fruitarianism as fritters Celery can be stewed in milk or brown sauce, or or vegetarianism are very comprehensive, but the chief are the

28

VEGETIUS—VEINS

following — 1 Health—(a) On the ground that ammals are affected by diseases which are communicable, and are actually communicated, to man by the ingestion of their flesh, e g, parasites, tuberculosis; (8) on the ground that the flesh of artificially fed animals is full of excretory substances, and that, therefore, under modern conditions, flesh-eating 1s injurious, and may be the cause of excretory substance and uric acid deposits or rapid tissue-destroying diseases in man; e g , gout, cancer 2. Economy —On the ground that the assimilable nutriment from a given weight of selected frut and grain and nut and vegetable foods will cost less than the same nutriment obtained from flesh foods 3 Socal Economy—On the ground that an acre of cultivable land under fruit and vegetable cultivation will produce from two to twenty times as much food as if the same land were utilized for feeding cattle 4. Ractal Improvement—On the ground that the aim of every prosperous community should be to have a large proportion of hardy country yeomen, and that horticulture and agriculture demand such a high ratio of labour, as compared with feeding and breeding cattle, that the country population would be greatly increased by the substitution of a fruit and vegetable for an animal dietary. 5. Character Improvement.—On the ground that after the virtues of courage and valour and fearlessness have been taught in the lower stages of evolution, the virtue of gentle humaneness and extended sympathy for all tbat can suffer should be taught in the higher cycles of the evolutionary spiral. Flesh-eating entailing necessarily an mmmense volume of pain upon the sentient animal

creation should be abstained from by the “higher classes” in the evolutionary scale.

Organizations have been established to advocate this method of living under the name of “Vegetarian Societies”—chiefly in the United Kingdom, America, Germany, France, Austra, Holland, Czechoslovakia, Scandinaviaand Australia, Propagandismis carned on by lectures, literature, cookery demonstrations and restaurants In England the oldest institution is “The Vegetarian Society” of Manchester; the “London Vegetarian Society” has headquarters at 8 John Street, Adelphi, W. C 2. An attempt at the worldwide organization of vegetarian societies as “The Vegetarian Federal Union” was unsuccessful, and has given place to the “International Vegetarian Union,” the headquarters of which are at Warnsdorf, Czechoslovakia In the religious world the Seventh-Day Adventists (who are connected with many sanatoria and the manufacture of food specialties) and some Bible Christians, the worshippers of Vishnu and the Swami Narang and Vishnoi sects, amongst others, preach abstinence from flesh food The Salvation Army, the Tolstoyans and the Doukhobors encourage it A number of orders in the Roman Catholic church (e g., the Trappists) and ın the Hindu faith (e g., the Dadupanthi Sadus) are pledged abstainers The general question of food values is discussed in the article Dietetics; see also Nutrition. But there is no doubt that, whatever may be the view taken as to the extreme theory of vegetarianism, it has had considerable effect in modifying the excessive meatconsuming régime of previous days, and m introducing new varieties of vegetable cooking into the service of the table Bustiocrapay —The literature on the subject 1s considerable, but the

two classics are perhaps The Ethics of Diet, by Howard Wilhams, and The Perfect Way in Diet, by Dr Anna Kingsford In former years the “Vegetarian Society” was the most active in producing hterature, but about zoor the Order of the Golden Age came to the front with new and up-to-date books, booklets, and leaflets The chief British periodıcals are the Vegetarian News (London), Vegetartan. Messenger (Manchester) and The Healthy Lıfe; among the American periodicals are Good Health (Battle Creek, M.ch) and the Vegetarian and Fruztarian (Lewiston, Ida ). German publications are, Vegetaresche Warte: Vegetarische Presse; Vegetarianen da i

sources, according to his own statement, were Cato, Cornelius Celsus, Frontinus, Paternus

and

the imperial

constitutions

of

Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian The book, a confused and unscientific compilation, has to be used with caution, but is important to the student of the ancient art of war In manuscript, Vegetius’s work had a great vogue from the first, and its rules of siegecraft were much studied m the middle ages It was translated to English, French and Bulgarian before the mvention of printing The first printed editions are assigned to Utrecht (1473), Cologne (1476), Pans (1478), Rome (in Veteres de re mul scriptores, 1437), and Pisa (1488). A German translation by Ludwig Hohenwang appeared in 1475 ‘The fullest modern edition 1s by Karl Lang (1869). An English version was published by Caxton in 1489 For a detailed critical estimate of Vegetius’s works and influence see Max Jahns, Gesch der Kriegswissenschajten, 1. 109-125.

VEX, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, situated about Io m N by W. of Rome by road. It is mentioned in the earhest history of Rome as a constant enemy, being the nearest Etruscan city to Rome, but the site was occupied in the Villanova period, remains of huts having been found on the acropolis (called Piazza d’Arm1) as well as numerous tombs The story of the slaughter of the Fabu, who had encamped in the territory of Veu (perhaps in an effort to cut the communications of Veu with Fidenae) and of

whom but one boy escaped, ıs well known.

After constant war-

fare, the last war (the fourteenth, according to the annalists) broke out m 406 Bc The Romans laid siege to the city, and, after a ten years’ siege, M Furius Camillus took it by storm m 396, by means, so we are told, of a tunnel leading into the citadel According to the legend, the emsssarzwm of the Alban Lake was constructed in obedience to the Delphic oracle, which declared that, until it was drained, Veii could not be taken After the defeat of the Romans at the Allia in 390 BC, a project was broached for abandoning Rome for Ven, which was successfully

opposed by Camillus Veii is spoken of by Propertius as almost deserted, but Augustus founded a municipality there, inscriptions of which have been found down to the time of Constantius Veii was reached by branch roads from the Via Clodia The site is characteristic—a plateau, the highest point of which is 407 ft. above sea-level, divided from the surrounding country by deep ravines, and accessible only on the west, where it was defended by a wall and fosse. Remains of the city walls, built of blocks of tufa 2 ft igh, may be traced at various points in the circuit. The area covered measures about 1 sqm and it was thus only second to Rome in size among the cities in her neighbourhood. The site of the Forum has been discovered on the west side of the plateau; a statue of Tiberius, now in the Vatican; and the twelve Ionic columns now decorating the coJonnade on the W. side of the Piazza Colonna at Rome were found there The acropolis was at the eastern extremity of the site, where the two ravines converge; it is connected with the rest of the plateau by a narrow neck An Etruscan house was found on the north side of the city; while, just outside it on the south a temple of the 6th cent. B.c. with three cellae has been discovered The most famous of the Etruscan tombs is the Grotta Campana which contains paintings on the walls wi.h represen itions of animals, among the earliest in Etruria. There ne clo sever il prominent tumuli To a later period belongs a columbarium cut

in the rock, with niches for urns

(T A)

VEINS, in anatomy. The veins are blood vessels which re-

turn the blood from the capillaries toward the heart As they approach that organ they jom together to form larger and larger trunks. In man and other mammals three venous systems are recognized: (1) the general venous system; (2) the pulmonary

system; and (3) the hepatic portal system. SYSTEM.) General Venous

System.—This

(See also VASCULAR

consists of superficial and

deep veins; the former lie in the superficial fascia and are often visible through the skin They are usually accompanied by lymphatic vessels though not as a rule by arteries, and, sooner or VEGETIUS (Fravrus Vecettus RENATUS) Ut e), later, they empty their blood into the deep veins, often passing military writer. Nothing is known of his life save that in mss through special openings in the deep fascia to do so The deep he is called vir dlustris and also comes, His treatise, Epitoma rei veins always accompany arteries, and are therefore known as malstaris, svue institutorum ret malitaris libri quinque, was dedi- venae comstes. With small and medium-sized arteries there are cated to the reigning emperor (? Theodosius the Great) His two of these venae comites, one on each side, connected by oc-

VEINS casional cross communications, but arteries of a larger calibre have only one companion vein. In the scalp and face the superficial veins accompany corresponding arteries more or less closely because the arteries in this region are very tortuous (see ARTERIES), while the veins run a comparatively straight course Frontal, superficeal temporal, posterior auricular and occipital veins are found in the scalp, their names indicating the areas they drain. Like all other superficial veins, they anastomose freely and also at certain places communicate, through foramina in the skull, with

the intracranial blood sinuses, these communications are known as emussary veins, and act as safety-valves to the smuses ‘The frontal vein on the forehead passes down on the inner side of the eyelids, where it is known as the angular, and then becomes the facial vem, which runs down to an inch in front of the angle of the

jaw, whence it passes into the neck to join the common facial In the greater part of its course 1t hes some distance behind the facial artery The superficial temporal vein runs down in front of the ear, where ıt joms the mternal maxillary vein from the pterygoid plexus and so forms the temporo-maxillary trunk, which passes down, embedded in the parotid gland, to about the angle of the jaw Here it divides into an anterior branch, which joms the facial vein to form the common facial, and a posterior, which

receives the posterior auricular vein, forming the external jugular. The external jugular vem is easily recognized through the skm

on the side of the neck, and eventually pierces the deep fascia above the middle of the clavicle to jom the subclavian vein. The occipital vem sinks deeply into the back of the neck and so forms the beginning of the vertebral vein.

The zntracramal blood sinuses lie between two layers of the dura mater and differ from the vems m having fibrous walls which do not contract or expand. The superior longitudinal sinus runs along the upper margin of the falx cerebri (see Brain), while the inferior longitudinal smus runs along the lower margin, these drain the surface of the brain, and the blood passes backward in both Where the falx meets the tentorium cerebelli, the mferior longitudinal sinus receives the veins of Galen from the interior of the brain and then passes backward as the straight sinus to jom the superior longitudinal smus at the mternal occipital protuberance (see SKULL). This meeting-place 1s known as the forcular Herophili, and from it the blood passes outward and downward through the right and left lateral sinuses, which groove the cranium (see SKULL) until they reach the posterior lacerated foramina, through which they pass to form the beginning of the internal jugular veins Most of the blood from the base of the bram passes into the cavernous sinuses which le in the middle cramal fossa, one on each side of the pituitary fossa. These receive the ophthalmic veins from the orbit in front and, after runnmg backward for about an inch, divide into the superior and Inferior petrosal sinuses, the former of which joins the lateral sinus within the cranium, but the latter runs to the posterior lacerated foramen, after passing through which it joins the lateral sinus, which is now becoming the internal jugular vein (See fig. 5.) The internal jugular vein thus formed runs down at first behind and then to the outer side of the internal and common carotid arteries and at the root of the neck joins the subclavian vein of its own side to form the innominate vein. In its course down the neck it receives the common facial vem and tributaries from the tongue, pharynx, larynx and thyroid body The deep vems of the

head and face tend to form plexuses rather than venae comites; of these, pterygord, deep temporal, pharyngeal and subocczpital plexuses are recognized Veins of the Upper Extremity.—On the dorsum of the hand and in front of the wrist superficial venous plexuses are easily seen through the skm From these the blood passes up the forearm chiefly on its flexor surface by the radial, median and antertor

and posterior ulnar veins. Just below the bend of the elbow the median vein communicates with the deep veins and then divides into two branches lke the hmbs of ay. Of these the inner is the medsan basilic from which patients are usually bled, while the outer is the medran cephalic After a course of an inch or two the median basilic is jomed by the anterior and posterior ulnar veins and the median cephalic by the radial. After this junction the

29

median basilic is continued up the inner side of the arm as the basilic which pierces the deep fascia about the middle of the arm and 1n the axilla joms the venae comites of the brachial artery to form the axdlary vem, which hes on the inner side of its artery The median cephalic vein after joining the radial runs up the outer side of the arm as the cephahc and a httle below the clavicle passes through the costocoracoid membrane to enter the upper part of the axillary vem. At the outer border of the first rib the axillary vein becomes the subclavian, which les in front of and below its artery and is separated from it by the scalenus anticus muscle The arrangement of the superficial veins, especially in front of the elbow, 1s lable to great variation. Veins of the Lower Extremity.—The superficial veins of the lower extremity begin in a venous arch on the dorsum of the foot From the inner extremity of this the internal saphenous vein runs up, in front of the inner ankle, along the inner side of the leg, and, passing behind the mner side of the knee, continues up the thigh, gradually working forward until it reaches the saphenous opening in the deep fascia of the thigh a little below the spine of the pubis Here it pierces the deep fascia (fascia lata) to enter the common femoral vein. In this long course ıt has many valves and receives numerous tributaries, one of which, the saphenous collateral, runs up nearly parallel to it and on its outer side and joins it Just below the saphenous opening From the mner end of the dorsal arch of the foot the external saphenous vein runs up behind the outer ankle along the mid lne of the calf to pierce the deep fascia m the popliteal space behind the knee and open into the popliteal ven Among the deep vems venae comites are found until the popliteal artery is reached, while above this superficzal, deep and common femoral veins accompany their respective arteries, In the groin the common femoral vein lies on the inner side of its artery Veins of the Abdomen.—The common femoral vein, after

passing deep to Poupart’s ligament, becomes the external liac which runs along the brim of the true pelvis and, after a course of some three inches, joins the zmternal tlac which draims the pelvis and so forms the common ilac vein

In front of the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra the common iliac veins of the two sides unite to form the inferior vena cava, a very large trunk which runs up on the right. of the abdominal aorta to an opening in the diaphragm (qgv.). On its way it receives spermatic or ovarian veins from the genital glands, renal vems from the kidneys, and lumbar veins from the abdominal walls Before reaching the diaphragm ıt les ın a groove in the back of the liver (qv) and receives the hepatic veins from that organ The hepatic portal system which lies in the abdomen will be treated later. Veins of the Thorax.—The inferior vena cava, after piercing the diaphragm, has a very short thoracic course and opens into the lower and back part of the nght auricle of the heart (qv ) The rzght and left innominate veins are formed behind the sternal end of the clavicle by the union of the subclavian and internal jugulars of their own side. The left vein 1s much longer than the right and runs nearly horizontally behind the upper half of the manubrium sterni to join its fellow on the right side of that bone just below the first rib, By the junction of these the

superior vena cava is formed, which runs down to the night auncle of the heart The chief tributaries of the innominate veins are the vertebral, the internal mammary and the inferor thyroid. The intercostal veins open into the azygos vems, which begin in the abdomen sometimes by a vertical trunk Joining the lumbar veins known as the ascending lumbar, sometimes on the right side by a communication with the inferior vena cava The nght azygos vein is known as the vena-azygos major and passes through the aortic opening of the diaphragm Entering the thorax, it runs up in front of the thoracic vertebrae, to the right of the aorta and thoracic duct, and recerves the intercostal veins of the mght side. At the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra it arches forward to open into the posterior surface of the superior vena cava On the left side, the upper mtercostal veins join to form the left superior intercostal vein, which opens into the left innominate. Lower down the intercostal veins from the fourth to the seventh spaces form the superior hemiazygos vein, which runs down on

VEINS

30

the left of the spmal column and, crossing it about the level of the eighth or nmth thoracic vertebra, opens into the vena azygos major.

The

lower intercostal veins on the left side join the

inferior hemiazygos ven which runs up and opens either mto the superior hemiazygos or ito the azygos major below the opening of that vein Pulmonary Venous System.—The veins emerging from the lungs bring back the oxygenated blood from those organs to the left ventricle of the heart and also the greater part, 1f not all, of the blood carried by the bronchial arteres to nourish the lungs The existence of bronchial veins 1s asserted, but they are extremely difficult to demonstrate, and if present are quite incapable of returnmg all the blood which the bronchial arteries carry to the lungs There are three pulmonary veins coming out of the

right lung, while on the left there are only two On the right side, however, two of the three veins usually unite in the root of the lung, so that there are, as a rule, two pulmonary veins entering the left auricle of the heart on each side, but it is not uncommon to find three on the nght side or one on the left. The pulmonary veins have no valves Hepatic Portal System.—The veins which drain the blood from the stomach, intestines, spleen and pancreas unite to form a large vein which begins behind the head of the pancreas and ends by dividing into right and left branches ın the transverse fissure of the hver This is the portal vein which lies in front of the inferior vena cava and is about three inches long. Its formative tributaries are the superior and inferior mesenteric and the splenic vems. There are two marked characteristics of the portal system; one is that 1t has no valves and the other that it begins and ends in capillaries, since the two terminal branches of the portal vem branch and rebranch in a manner already described

in the article Liver. In the lower part of the rectum the veins run partly into the portal and partly into the general system, and in this dependent position they are lable to become varicose and to form haemorrhoids or piles. The histology of the vems corresponds very closely to that of

the arteries (qv); their walls are, however, much thinner and there is less muscular and elastic tissue At certain places, sspecially where tributaries come in, the endothelial lining is raised to form semmlunar pocket-like valves In most cases there ure two cusps to each valve, but three or one are sometimes found. The opening of the pocket is arranged so that it shall only be iled when there is a tendency to regurgitation of the blood. EMBRYOLOGY The vstelline or omphalo-mesenteritc vems, returning the blood rom the yolk sac, are the first to appear, and later on, with the ormation of the placenta, the umbilical veins develop. Both hese open into the hinder (caudal) part of the heart, which is ready bemg constricted off as the sinus venosus (see fig 1). While this is going on the veins from the different body segnents are received mto two longitudinal trunks on each side, the interior (cephalic) of which is _—-—— PRIMITIVE JUGULAR ‘he primitive jugular or anterior DUCT OF CUVIER cardinal and the posterior (cauSINUŞ VENOSUS Jal), the posterior cardinal or SEGMENTAL VEINS amply cardinal vein. As the heart |, L

E

s at first situated in the region Which will later be the neck of

=

he embryo, the primitive jugular

eceives

very

few

VITELUINE VEN UMBILICAL VEIN

POSTERIOR CARUINAL

segmental FIG. !—SCHEME OF FORMATION OF

veins and the cardinal very many,

VENOUS SYSTEM,

FIRST STAGE

(hese two trunks join one another on each side and open into the ide of the sinus venosus by a transverse communication the duct if Cuvier. The condition of the venous system at this stage is hown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 1). As the vitelline veins run from the yolk sac to the heart along ach side of the primitive fore-gut they pick up the mesenteric reins from the intestines as well as the splenic and pancreatic eins as soon as these viscera are formed. The liver, however, ig leveloped right across their path, and both they and the umbilial veins break up into a mass of capillaries in it, leaving that

part of them which hes between the liver and the heart to form the primitive hepatic ves (fig 2) While the vitelline veins are lying on each side of the fore-gut (future duodenum) they are connected by three transverse channels, the anterior and posterior of which appear on the ventral side of the gut, the middle on the

dorsal side (see fig 2) This figure of eight does not persist, however, because the anterior (cephalic) part of it on the left and the SINUS VENOSUS PRIMITIVE JUGULAR

PRIMITIVE JUGULAR DUCT OF CUVIER

PRIMITIVE HEPATIC

SINUS VENOSUS

PRIMITIVE HEPATIC

PRIMITIVE CARDINAL

PRIMITIVE CARDINAL

Ductus VENOSUS

Liver

Liver

DUODENUM UMBILICAL

DUODENUM

‘PORTAL

SPLENIC

UMBILICAL

VEINS

SPLENIC

SUPERIOR MESENTERIC

SUPERIOR MESENTERIC

INFERIOR MESENTERIC

RIGHT UMBILICAL

FIGS 2 & 3.—SCHEME OF FORMATION OF VENOUS SYSTEM, ABDOMINAL REGION posterior (caudal) part on the right become obliterated, and what is left forms the portal vez (fig 3) The two umbilical veins unite at the umbilicus (fig 3) and soon all the blood from the placenta passes through the left one, the nght becoming rudimentary The left umbilical vein on reaching the liver now joins the left branch of the portal vem and establishes a new communication with the left hepatic vein This is the ductus venosus (fig 3), and, as soon as it is formed, there is no longer any need that all the blood returning from the placenta should pass through the liver capillanes The development of the cardinal veins must now be returned to. As the heart moves from the neck into the thorax the primitive jugulars elongate and it is now recognized become the internal jugulars in the greater part of ther extent SUBCLAVIAN-

~SUBCLAVIAN

RIGHT INNOMINATE

™

TRANSVERSE COMMUNICATIONS

OBLIQUE CONNECTING Ductus Venosus LEFT Sup CARDINALS)

RIGHT SUB CARDINALS

EXTERNAL, ILIAC

EXTERNAL ILIAC.

INTERNAL eas

L

a

INTERNAL ma Suneria RIGHT [NNOMINATE

INTERNAL

ILIAC

- SUBCLAVIAN LEFT ~~

ee

SUPERIOR

SUPERIOR VENA CAVA

RIGHT AURICLE ~ HEMIAZYGOS KIDNEY—

~ KIDNEY

LUMBAR VEIN -

N LUMBAR VEIN

INTERNAL ILIAC-

- EXTERNAL JLIAC

Figs & & 5--SCHEME OF FORMATION OF VENOUS SYSTEM (SEE TEXT) When the arms begin to bud out subclavian veins are developed (fig. 4) and an oblique connecting vein (figs. 4 and 57) is established between the point of junction of the left subclavian with ‘the primitive jugular and the hinder part of the primitive jugular of the right side This connection becomes the left innominate vein, while the hinder part of the primitive jugular persists as the left superior intercostal vein (fig. 5). On the right side that part of the primitive jugular between the subclavian and the junction with the left innominate becomes the right innominate (figs. 4 and 5) while the hinder (caudal) part of the right primitive jugular and

VEJER DE LA FRONTERA—VELARIUM the right duct of Cuvier become the superior vena cava (figs. 4 and

5). The external jugular is a later formation. The nght and left posterior cardinal veins receive the intercostal and lumbar segmen-

tal veins and are continued into the lower hmbs as the mternal iliac and eventually the sciatic vems, the primitive bloodpath from the thighs. ‘The veins from the primitive kidneys open mto the segmental veins, and when the permanent kidney is formed (see Urinary System) a large renal vein on each side is established. There are, however, many cross communications (fig 4) between the right and left posterior cardinal veins, some of which become very umportant later on, though most of them are transitory. The

probable origin of the zfertor vena cava is to be sought in a pair of veins called subcardinals which have been found in the rabbit embryo lying parallel and a httle ventral to the posterior cardinals (fig 4) and effecting a junction with the renals and transverse

communications as they cross these Posteriorly (caudal) they join the cardinals, but anteriorly the right one establishes a communication with the ductus venosus a little below the point at which that vessel joins the left hepatic. It is from the right one of these that the greater part of the inferior vena cava is formed It will now be seen that the adult vena cava is formed by contributions from four embryonic veins, most anteriorly the hepatic, then the ductus venosus, then the right subcardinal and posteriorly the right posterior cardinal (F T. Lewis, Am J. of Anat vol. 1 j

229, 1902). The anterior (cephalic) part of the right posterior cardinal forms the vena azygos major, and an inspection of fig 4 will show that in the adult this may mse from the renal, from an ascending lumbar vein or, by a cross communication above the renal, from the inferior vena cava. The left posterior cardinal becomes obliterated below and its segmental tributaries find their way by cross communications to the vena cava (fig. 5). Above (cephalad) the left renal vein the left cardinal forms the hemiazygos and, higher still, the hemiazygos accessoria These open into the azygos major by persistent cross communications which ue dorsal to the heart when that organ reaches its permanent posi‘ion. Some modern authorities doubt whether the azygos veins of mammals are really persistent cardinals except quite in their anterior parts, just before they join the ducts of Cuvier The left duct of Cuvier is only represented in the human adult by the dblique vein of Marshall on the dorsum of the left auricle. The sxternal iliac veins become fully developed, like their arteries, when the blood changes its course from the back to the front of he thigh After birth the umbilical vein and the ductus venosus decome converted into fibrous cords and the circulation in the dulmonary veins is established COMPARATIVE

ANATOMY

In the Acrania (Amphioxus), although there is no heart, the dlood vessels returning the blood to the subpharyngeal region are listinctly of a vertebrate type. There is a subintestinal vessel or

vein bringing the blood from the intestine to the liver and break-

ng up into capillaries in that organ just as the portal vein does in he higher forms, From the liver a hepatic vein carnes the blood orward to the region below the pharynx where the heart is formed n Vertebrata There is no renal portal system. In the Cyclotomata (lampreys and hags) the cardmal veins are formed ind the blood from the caudal vein passes directly into the poserior cardinals without any rénal portal system. In fishes the ingle caudal vein divides into two branches, each of which runs orward to the outer side of its respective kidney and ends by faving numerous branches to that viscus. The blood returning rom the kidney passes into the beginning of its own posterior ardinal vein or smus, which lies on the inner side of the kidney. Chis constitutes a renal portal system. The cardinal veins and luċts of Cuvier closely resemble the arrangement already detailed n the human foetus, while the hepatic portal system from the

ntestine to the liver is constant in this and all other vertebrates. In the Diphoi (mud-fish) a pulmonary vein from the lung-like wim-bladder is formed and an inferior vena cava or postcaval

3I

these coalesce and form a median anterior (ventral) abdominal vem which is constant in the Amphibia. Subclavian and iliac veins return the blood from the fins and open respectively into the junction of the anterior and postenor cardınals and mto the caudal vein In the tailed Amphibia (Urodela) the postcaval and posterior cardinal veins are well developed, the former vessel running from the right cardinal vein a little ın front of (cephalad) the kıdney to the hepatic vein, in this way closely foreshadowing man’s embryology. In the Anura (frogs and toads) the posterior cardmmals are usually suppressed, but these are very specialized animals. The anterior abdominal vein in amphibians joins the portal vein close to the liver In the Reptilia the renal portal circulation persists, but is rudimentary in birds and disappears in mammals. The anterior abdominal or epigastric vein of amphibians and reptiles returns the blood from the allantois in the embryo and in higher forms becomes the umbilical vein returning the blood from the placenta, there is, therefore, a continuous lne of ascent from the lateral line veins of the fish to the umbilical vein of man. In reptiles, birds, monotremes, marsupials and many rodents, insectivores, bats and ungulates, a left superior vena cava (precaval vein) is present as well as a right; it passes ventral to the root of the left lung and then dorsal to the left aurıcle of the heart until it reaches the coronary sinus to open into the nght auricle. Its course is indicated in man by the left superior intercostal vein, the vestigial

fold of Marshall (see CozLom AND SzRous Mempranes) and the oblique vein of Marshall It can be readily reconstructed from figs. 4 and § if the transverse communication (L.I.) is obliterated In some mammals the postcaval vern ıs double, especially in its hinder (caudad) part, and this sometimes occurs as a human ab-

normality (see F W. McClure, Am Journ. of Anat. vol. 2, 1903, and vol. 5, 1906, also Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. 29, 1906). Except in Cetacea, one or both azygos veins are always present in mammals. When there is only one it 1s usually the right, though a few forms among the marsupials, rodents and ungulates have only the left (F. E Beddard, P Z.S., 1907, p 181). In many of the lower mammals the external jugular vem is much larger than the internal and returns most of the blood from. the brain. through an opening called the postglenoid foramen, For this reason it was formerly regarded as the representative of the primitive jugular. It ıs now, however, thought-that the internal jugular is that representatıve, and that the arrangement of man, in which the internal jugular drains the interior of the cranium, is

the more generalized and primitive

(F. G. P.)

BrstiocrapHy —F. Hochstetter, Entwickelungeschichte des Gefass-

systems (1891), Beitrage zur Anatomie und Entwickelungeschichte des Bluigefass-Systemes der Krokodile (1906), D. J, Cunningham, TextBook of Anatomy (1902, 1922), A M, Buchanan, Manual of Anatomy (1906, 1925) ; A, V. Meigs, Study of the Human Blood-Vessels (1907) ;

R. Quain, Elements of Anatomy (11th ed, 1908-23); C. © Guthrie,

Blood-Vessel Surgery (1912); J S. Horsley, Surgery of the BloodVessels (1915); J. P. MacMurnch, Development of the Human Body (7th ed, 1923); W. M Bayliss, The Vaso-Motor System (1923); H Gray, Anatomy (23rd ed, 1926). Wm. Harvey, An Anatomical Disquisition on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, ed E. A Parkyn (1906); A Krogh, The Anatomy and Physiology of Capillaries (1922); R. H_ Babcock, Diseases of the Heart and Arterial eee oe L. M. Warfield, Arteriosclerosis and Hypertension 1908, 1920).

For an account of mineral veins see OrE Deposits VEJER DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain,

in the province of Cadiz, on the nght bank of the river Barbate and on the Cadiz-Tarifa railway. Pop. (1920) 14,995. Vejer de la Frontera occupies a low hill overlooking the Straits of Gibraltar and surrounded by orchards and orange groves. The architecture of many of its houses recalls the period of Moorish rule, which lasted from 711 until the town was captured by St Ferdinand of Castile in 1248.

VELA, one of the three southern constellations into which

the large Ptolemaic

constellation Argo (gw)

was

subdivided

rein catries the blood from the kidneys to the heart This is its VELARIUM, the curtam or awning extended above the audirst appearance in the vertebrate phylum. In the lower fishes torium of the Roman theatres and amphitheatres to protect here is a vein of the lateral line on each side, but in the Dipnoi the spectators from sun and rain.

32

VELAZQUEZ

VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA Y (1599-1660), the head of the Spanish school of painting and one of the greatest painters the world has known, was born in Seville and was baptized on June 6, 1599 Hus European fame is of comparatively recent origin, dating from the first quarter of the roth century

Early Lire.—He was the son of Rodriguez de Silva, a lawyer im Seville, descended from a noble Portuguese family Following a common Spanish usage, the artist 1s known by his mother’s name Velazquez He was known to his contemporaries as Diego de Silva Velazquez, and signed his name thus He was mtended for a learned profession, for which he recerved a good traming ın languages and philosophy. But the bent of the boy was towards art, and he was placed under the elder Herrera Herrera was a bold and effective painter, but he was at the same time a man of unruly temper, and his pupils could seldom stay long with him Velazquez soon left Herrera’s studio and betook himself to the learned and pedantic Pacheco, in whose school he remained for five years, seeing all that was best m the literary and artistic circles of Seville Here he fell in love with his master’s daughter Juana de Miranda, whom he married on April 23, 1618 The young painter set himself to copy the commonest things about him—earthenware jars of the country people, birds, fish, fruit and flowers of the market-place Carrying out this idea still further, Velazquez felt that to master the subtlety of the human face he must make this a special study, and he accordingly engaged a peasant lad to be his servant and model, making innumerable studies in charcoal and chalk, and catching his every expression We see this model, probably, in the laughing boy of the Hermitage “Breakfast,” or in the youngest of the “Musicians,” acquired for the Berlin Museum in 1906. The position and fame of Velazquez were now assured at Seville. There his wife bore him two daughters—all his family so far as 1s known ‘The younger died in infancy, while the elder, Francisca, in due time married Bautista

del Mazo, a panter, whose large family is that which is represented in the important picture in Vienna which was at one time called the “Family of Velazquez” This picture 1s now by common consent given to Mazo Of his early Seville manner we have an excellent example in “El Aguador” (the Water-Carner) at Apsley House (London) The brushwork is bold and broad, and the outlines firmly marked As 1s usual with Velazquez at this time, the

no longer extant, and was appointed gentleman usher To this was shortly afterwards added a daily allowance of twelve reals, and ninety ducats a year for dress As an extra payment he recerved (though ıt was not paid for five years) one hundred ducats for the picture of Bacchus, painted m 1629 (Madrid gallery) The spirit and am of this work are better understood from its Spanish name, “Los Borrachos” (the Topers), who are paying mock homage to a half-naked ivy-crowned young man seated on a wine barrel Visit to Italy.—In 1629 Phihp gave Velazquez permission to visit Italy, without loss of salary, making him besides a present of four hundred ducats, to which Olivares added two hundred He sailed from Barcelona in August in the company of the marquis de Spinola, the conqueror of Breda, then on his way to take command of the Spanish troops at Mulan. It was during this voyage that Velazquez must have heard the details of the surrender of Breda from the lips of the victor, and he must have sketched his fine head, known to us also by the portrait by Van Dyck But the great picture was not painted till later In Venice Velazquez made copies of the “Crucifixion” and the “Last Supper” of Tintoretto, which he sent to the king, and in Rome he copied Michelangelo and Raphael, lodging in the Villa Medici till fever compelled him to remove into the city Here le painted the “Forge of Vulcan” (Madrid gallery), in which Apollo narrates to the astonished Vulcan, a village blacksmith, the news of the loves of Venus, while four Cyclops hsten to the scandal. The other work painted at the same time, “Joseph’s Coat,” now hangs in the Escorial At Rome he also painted the two beautiful landscapes of the gardens of the Villa Medici, now in the Madrid

museum, full of light, sparkle and charm. After a visit to Naples m 1631, where he worked with his countryman Ribera, and painted a charming portrait of the Infanta Maria Queen of Hungary and sister of Philip, Velazquez returned to Madrid. Court Painter.—He then painted the first of many portraits of the young prince, Don Baltasar Carlos, the heir to the throne, dignified and lordly even in his childhood, caracoling mn the dress

of a field-marshal on his prancing steed

The Duke of Olivares,

the king’s powerful mmuster, was the early and constant patron of the painter His impassive, saturnine face is familiar to us from the many portraits painted by Velazquez Two are of surpassing excellence—the full-length in the collection of the Hispanic Sociharmony of colours is red, brown and yellow, reminding one of ety, New York, stately and dignified, in which he wears the green Ribera For sacred subjects we may turn to the “Adoration of the cross of Alcantara, the other the great equestrian portrait of the Magi” at Madrid, dated 1619, and the “Christ and the Pilgrims Madrid gallery. In these portraits Velazquez has well repaid the debt of gratitude which he owed to his first patron, whom he stood of Emmaus” in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Life in Madrid.—But Velazquez was now eager to see more by in his fall, thus exposing himself to the risk of mcurring the of the world Madrid, with its fine Titians, held out strong m- anger of the jealous Philip The king, however, showed no sign of ducements Accordingly, in 1622, fortified with letters of mtro- malice towards his favoured painter, whom he visited daily in his duction to Fonseca, who held a good position at court, he spent studio in the palace, and to whom he sat in many attitudes and some months there Here he painted the portrait of the poet costumes, as a huntsman with his dogs, as a warrior in command of his:troops. His pale face and lack-lustre eye, his fair flowing hair Gongora, a commission from Pacheco (in the gallery at Madrid) In the following year he was summoned to return by Olivares, and moustaches curled up to his eyes, and his heavy projecting the all-powerful minister of Philip IV, fifty ducats being allowed Hapsburg under-lip are known in many a portrait and nowhere to defray his expenses On this occasion he was accompanied by more supremely than in the wonderful canvas of the London his father-in-law ‘Next year (1624) he received from the king National Gallery where he seems to live and breathe Here the three hundred ducats to pay the cost of the removal of his family consummate handhng of Velazquez is seen at its best, for it is in to Madrid, which became his home for the remainder of his life his late and most perfect manner From one of the equestrian King Philip remamed for a period of thirty-six years the faithful portraits of the king, painted m 1638, the sculptor Montañes and attached friend of Velazquez By his equestrian portrait of modelled a statue which was cast in bronze by the Florentine the king, painted in 1623, Velazquez secured admission to the sculptor Tacca, and which now stands in the Plaza del Oriente at royal service with a salary of twenty ducats per month, besides Madrid This portrait exists no more; but there is no lack of medical attendance, lodgings and payment for the pictures he others, for Velazquez was in constant attendance on Philip, accommight paint The portrait was exhibited on the steps of San panying him in his journeys to Aragon in 1642 and 1644 and was Felipe, and was received with enthusiasm, being vaunted by poets, doubtless present with him when he entered Lerida as a conqueror among them Pacheco It has unfortunately disappeared. The It was then that he painted the great equestrian portrait (Madrid Prado, however, has two portraits of the king in which the gallery) in which the king is represented as a great commander leading his troops It hangs as a pendant to the great Olivares porharshness of the Seville period has disappeared Tn 1628 Rubens visited Madnd on a diplomatic mission for nine trait—fit rivals of the neighbouring Charles V by Titian At months, and Velazquez was appointed by the king to be his guide Traga in Aragon in 1644 he painted a portrait of the king in

among the art treasures of Spain

In 1627 the king had given for

competition among the painters of Spain the subject of the Expulsion of the Moors Velazquez bore off the palm for a picture

country costume the original of which seems to be in the Frick

collection, New York, while the Dulwich Gallery has a copy

But, besides the portraits of the king, we have portraits of other

VELAZQUEZ members of the royal family, of Philip’s first wife, Isabella of Bourbon, and her children, especially of her eldest son, Don Baltasar Carlos, of whom, besides the equestrian portrait already mentioned, there 1s a full-length at the Vienna Museum, one in hunting dress at the Prado, and one at the Boston Museum with a dwarf The Admiral Pulido Pareja at the National Gallery, ıs said to have been taken by Philip for the hvmg man, nevertheless, A. de Beruete 1s emphatic ın denying Velazquez’s authorship of this

picture, which he attributes to Mazo

The Duke of Modena on a

visit to Madrid was painted by the artist (Modena Gallery) and of the same period are two male portraits at Dresden “The Count of Benevent,” “The Sculptor Martinez Montafiez” in the Madrid gallery, and “The Unknown Man” at Aspley House. One wonders who “the lady with the fan” can be that adorns the Wallace collection, the splendid brunette so unhke the usual fair-haired female sitters to Velazquez. She belongs to this period of his work, to the ripeness of his middle period The touch is firm but free, showing the easy strength of the great master But, if we have few ladies of the court of Philp, we have in great plenty his buffoons and dwarfs Even these deformed or half-witted creatures attract our sympathy as we look at their portraits by Velazquez, who, true to his nature, treats them gently and kindly, as in “El Primo” (the Favourite), whose intelligent face and huge folio with ink-bottle and pen by his side show him to be a wiser and better-educated man than many of the gallants of the court We now turn to one of the greatest of historical works, the “Surrender of Breda,” often known as “Las Lanzas,” from the serned rank of lances breaking the sky, which 1s believed to have been painted between 1638 and 1644 It represents the moment when the vanquished Justin of Nassau in front of his Dutch troops is submissively bending as he offers to his conqueror Spinola the keys of the town, which, with courteous grace, the victor refuses to accept

The greatest of the religious paintings by Velazquez belongs also to this middle period, the “Christ on the Cross” (Madnid gallery).

Palomino says it was painted in 1638 for the convent of San Placido The Saviour’s head hangs on his breast and a mass of dark tangled hair conceals part of the face The beautiful form is projected against a black and hopeless sky ‘The figure stands absolutely alone, without any accessory To the same period belongs the great “Boar Hunt” at the National Gallery, a magnificent work in spite of some restorations

Second Visit to Italy.—Velazquez’s son-in-law Mazo had suc-

ceeded him as usher in 1634, and he himself had received steady promotion in the royal household, receiving a pension of 500 ducats in 1640, increased to 700 in 1648, for portraits painted and to be painted, and being appointed inspector of works in the palace in 1647 Philip now entrusted him with the founding of an academy of art in Spain Rich in pictures, Spain was weak in statuary, and Velazquez was commissioned to proceed to Italy to make purchases Accompanied by his faithful slave Pareja, whom he taught to be a good painter, he sailed from Malaga in 1649, landing at Genoa, and proceeding thence by Milan to Venice, buying

Titians, Tmtorettos and Veroneses A noble example of the painter’s third manner is the great portrait of Innocent X in the Doria

33

in many attitudes. He was specially chosen by the king to fill the high office of “aposentador major,” which imposed on him the duty of looking after the quarters occupied by the court whether at home or in their journeys Hus works of this period are amongst the highest examples of his style The dwarfs “El Bobo de Coria,” “El Niño de Vallecas” and “Don Antonio el Inglés” (the Englishman) with his dog, “Aesop,” and “Menippus,” all in the Madrıd gallery, show his surest and freest manner. To these may be added the charming children’s portraits of the Infanta Margarita in Vienna, among the choicest of his works It 1s Marganta, the eldest daughter of the new queen, that is the subject of the wellknown picture “Las Menifias” (the Maids of Honour), in the Madrid gallery, pamted m 1656, where the little lady holds court, surrounded, by her ladies-in-waiting, her dwarfs and her mastiff, while Vel.zquez is seen standmg at his easel This is the finest portrait we have of the great painter It is a face of much dignity, power and sweetness—like his life The story ıs told that the king pamted the red cross of Santiago on the breast of the painter, as it appears to-day on the canvas Velazquez did not, however, receive the honour till 1659, three years after the execution of this work. Even the powerful king of Spain could not make his favourite a belted knight without a commission to inquire into the purity of his lineage on both sides of the house The records of this commission have been found among the archives of the order of Santiago by M. Villaamil. Fortunately the pedigree could bear scrutmy, as for generations the family was found free from all taint of heresy, from all trace of Jewish or Moorish blood and from contammation by trade or commerce The diffculty connected with the fact that he was a painter was got over by his being painter to the king and by the declaration that he did not sell his pictures. But for this royal appomtment, which enabled him to escape the censorship of the Inqusition, we should never have had his splendid ‘Venus and Cupid,” bought by the National Art Collections Fund for £45,000 for the National Gallery in 1905. On occasions Philip gave commissions for religious pictures to Velazquez—among others, the “Coronation of the Virgm” (Ma-

drid gallery), splendid in colour—a harmony of red, blue and grey. It was painted for the oratory of the queen, in the palace at Madrid Another royal commission for the hermitage of Buen Retiro was the “St Anthony the Abbot and St. Paul the Hermit,” pamted m 1659 (Madrid gallery). The last of his works which we shall name is “Las Hilanderas” or the Spinners (Madrid), painted about 1656, representing the royal tapestry works. In 1660 a treaty of peace between France and Spain was to be consummated by the marriage of the infanta Maria Theresa with Louis XIV., and the ceremony was to take place in the Island of Pheasants, in the Bidassoa Velazquez was charged with the decoration of the Spanish pavilion and with the whole scenic display In the midst of the grandees of the first two courts in Christendom Velazquez attracted much attention by the nobility of his bearing and the splendour of his costume. On June 26 he returned to Madrid, and on July 31 he was stricken with fever. Feeling his end approaching, he signed his will, appointing as his

sole executors his wife and his frm friend Fuensalida, keeper of

palace at Rome, where he was received with marked favour by the pope, who presented him with a medal and gold chain Of this portrait, thought by Sir Joshua Reynolds to be the finest picture in Rome, Palomino says that Velazquez took a copy to Spain. There exist several in different galleries. The handling is rapid but unerring. Velazquez had now reached the manera abreviada, as the Spaniards call this bolder style. His early and laborious studies and his close observation of nature had given to him in due time, as to all great painters, the power of representing what he saw by simpler means At Rome he painted also a portrait of his servant Pareja, probably the picture of Lord Radnor’s collection which procured his election into the academy of St Luke Mcanwhile Philip was wearying for his return; accordingly Velazquez embarked in Genoa for Barcelona in 1651, taking with him many pictures and 300 pieces of statuary, which he afterwards arranged and catalogued for the king Late Life.—Isabella of Bourbon had died in-1644, and the

the royal records He died on Aug 6, 1660, He was buried in the Fuensalda vault of the church of San Juan, and within eight days his wife Juana was laid beside him This church was destroyed by the French in 1811, so that his place of interment is now unknown. Velazquez can hardly be said to have formed a school of paintmmg ‘Yet his mfluence on those immediately connected with him was considerable. In 1642 he befriended young Murillo ọn

king had married Mariana of Austria, whom Velazquez now painted

Picon

his arrival in Madrid, received hym into his house, and directed his studies for three years He helped to lay the foundations of modern painting;

and when centuries later the Impressionists

made it their aim to study the effect of light and atmosphere Velazquez was hailed as their precursor. BIBLIOGRAPHY —In

addition to the standard works by Palomino

(1724), Cean Bermudez

Velazquez and Murdlo

the Artists

of Spain

(1800) and Pacheco (1649), C. B. Curts,

(1883); Sir W

(1891),

The

Stirling Maxwell,

Life

of Velazquez,

Annals of

by

Sir

Walter Armstrong (1896) ; Velazquez, by R A M_ Stevenson (1899) ; The Life and Works of Don Diego Velazquez, by Don Jacinto Octavio

(Madrid,

1899); Days with

Velazquez,

by C

Lewis

Hind

34

VELEIA—VELOCITY

OF LIGHT

(London, 1906); Don A de Beruete’s standard work on the subject, esis, epigram, the breakdown of the periodic sentence. Velazquez (London, 1905), Calvert and Hartley, Velazquez (1908); Editio prmceps, Basle, 1520; early editions by Justus Lipsius, J Cruzada Villamil, Anales dela vida de Casobras de Diego Silva Gruter, N. Hemsius, P Burmann; modern editions, Ruhnken and Velasques (1886); Pedro de Madrazo, Catalogue des tableaux du Frotscher (1830-39), J C Orell: (1835), F Kritz (1840, ed min Musée du Prado (1913) , Randall Davies, Velasquez (1914), A. Bréal, 1848), F Haase (1858), C Halm (1876), R. Ellis (1898) Eng trans Velazquez (1919); C Justi, Velasquez und sein Jakrhundert (3rd ed. by J S. Watson in Bohn’s Classical Library See also J. Wight Duff, 2 vols , Bonn, 1922-23). (j.F.W,xX) Literary History of Rome in the Silver Age (1927).

VELEIA, an ancient town of Aemilia, Italy, situated about 20 m.S of Placentia, mentioned by Phny Its inhabitants were in the census of Vespasian found to be remarkable for their longevity Nothing further was known of it until 1747, when some ploughmen found the famous Tabula alumentaria ‘This, the largest imscribed bronze tablet of antiquity (4 ft. 6 in. by 9 ft 6 fn.) contains the list of estates in the territories of Veleia, Libarna, Placentia, Parma and Luca, in which Trajan had assigned (before AD. 102), 72,000 sesterces (£720) and then 1,044,000 sesterces (£10,440), on a mortgage bond to forty-six estates, the total

VELLETRI

(anc Velitrae), a town and episcopal see of the

province of Rome, Italy, at the south-east foot of the outer ring wall of the Alban crater, 26 m. SE of Rome by rail and 24 by electric tramway, 1,155 ft above sea-level Pop. (1921) 19,660

(town), 25,78 (commune). It is the seat of the bishop of Ostia Good wine is made in the vineyards and there is a government experimental station for viticulture Velletri is the junction of the Terracina lne and a branch to Segni, on the main line to Naples At the highest pomt is the municipal palace The internal facade of the Palazzo Ginetti is finely decorated with stucco, and has a value of which was reckoned at over 13,000,000 sesterces (£130,- curious detached baroque staircase by Martino Lunghi the 000), the interest on which at 5% was to serve for the support of younger The lofty campanile of $ Maria del Trivio, erected in 266 boys and 36 girls, the former receiving 16, the latter 12 ses- 1353, 1Sin the style of contemporary brick campanili in Rome, but terces a month Excavations were begun in 1760, and the forum built mamly of black selce (lava), with white marble columns at and basilica, the thermae and the amphitheatre, private houses, the windows The cathedral, reconstructed in 1660, contains traces etc., with many statues and inscriptions (from 49 BC to AD 276) of the 13th century structure were discovered Most of the objects found are in the museum at The ancient city of Velitrae was Volscian in Republican times, Parma Oil has been extracted in the neighbourhood since r890 and it is the only Volscian town of which an inscription in that See G. Antolim, Le Rovine di Veleza (Milan, 1831). language is preserved (4th century Bc). It mentions the two VELEZ DE GUEVARA, LUIS (1579-1644), Spanish principal magistrates as medix Velitrae was important as comdramatist and novelist, was the author of over 400 plays, of which mandıng the approach to the valley between the Alban and Volthe best known are Reinar despues de morir and Más pesa el rey scian mountains Interesting terra cotta reliefs from a Volscian gue la sangre. He won considerable fame as the author of Ei temple have been found (esp sth cent sc) belonging to the Diablo cojuelo (1641), a fantastic novel which suggested to Le period when it had regained its freedom after its first capture by Sage the idea of his Diable boiteux Rome It was only reduced in 338 and was punished by the VELEZ-MALAGA, a town of southern Spain, m the destruction of its walls and the banishment of its town councillors province of Malaga, finely situated in a fertile valley at the to Etruria, while their lands were handed over to Roman colsouthern base of the lofty Sierra de Alhama, and on the left bank onists It was the home of the gens Octavia, to which the of the small river Velez, 1 m from its mouth and 27 m. by road Emperor Augustus belonged (T A) ENE. of Malaga Pop (1920), 24,893 Velez-Malaga was taken VELLORE, a town of British India, headquarters of the from the Moors in 1487 by Ferdinand of Castile Under Moorish North Arcot district of Madras, on the river Palar and 5 m from rule the citadel was built and the town became an important a station on the South Indian railway, 87 m W. of Madras city tradmg station and fortress Pop (1921) 50,210 It has a strongly built fortress, which was VELIA, an ancient town of Lucania (Gr “Yén, later Eta), famous in the wars of the Carnatic Dating traditionally from the Italy, on the hill now crowned by the mediaeval castle of Cas- 13th century, but more probably only from the 17th, it 1s a fine tellammare della Bruca, 440 ft above sea-level, on the south-west example of Indian military architecture, and contains a finely coast, rm NW of the modern railway station of Ascéa, 25 m. sculptured temple. In 1780 it withstood a siege for two years S.E. of Paestum Remains of the city walls, with traces of one by Hyder Ali After the fall of Seringapatam (1799) Vellore was gate and several towers, of a total length of over 3 m., still exist. selected as the residence of the sons of Tippoo Sahib, and to It is celebrated for the philosophers who bore its name (See them have been attributed the mutiny of the sepoys here in 1806 Exeattc ScHmoor) About 530 Bc. the Phocaeans, driven from VELLUM: see PARCHMENT Corsica, seized it from the Oenotrians. Its coins were widely difVELOCITY OF LIGHT. The fact that light is propagated fused in S Italy, and it kept its independence till 78 Bc. with a definite speed was first brought out, by Ole Roemer at Paris, VELIKA. KIKINDA, a town in the Voivodina, Yugoslavia, in 1676, through observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites Pop (1921) 25,809; about 60% bemg Serbs It is one of the made in different relative positions of the Earth and Jupiter in centres of production of the famous wheat of the Banat their respective orbits It is possible in this way to determine VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, MARCUS (c 19 Bcc. the time required for light to pass across the orbit of the earth AD 31), Roman histoman Although his praenomen is given as The dimensions of this orbit, or the distance of the sun, being Marcus by Priscian, some modern scholars identify him with taken as known, the actual speed of light could be computed (See Gaius Velleius Paterculus, whose name occurs in an inscription on also PARALLAX) Since this computation requires a knowledge of a north African milestone (CJL viii 10, 311). He belonged to the sun’s distance, which has not yet been acquired with certainty, a distinguished Campanian family, and early entered the army. the actual speed is now determined by experiments made on the He served as military tribune in Thrace, Macedonia, Greece and earth’s surface. Were it possible by any system of signals to the East, and in AD 2 was present at the interview on the compare with absolute precision the times at two different staEuphrates between Gaius Caesar, grandson of Augustus, and the tions, the speed could be determined by finding how long was Parthian king Afterwards, as praefect of cavalry and legatus, required for light to pass from one station to another at the he served for eight years (from AD 4) in Germany and Pannonia greatest visible distance But this is impracticable, because no under Tiberius He was quaestor in AD 7, praetor in 15, and was natural agent is under our control by which a signal could be comstill alive in 30. He may have been put to death in 31 as a friend municated with a greater velocity than that of light. It is thereof Seianus He wrote a compendium of Roman history from fore necessary to reflect a ray back to the point of observation and the dispersion of the Greeks after the siege of Troy down to the to determine the time which the light requires to go and come death of Livia (A.D. 29). The period from the death of Caesar to Two systems have been devised for this purpose One is that of that of Augustus is treated most fully, and the disproportion is Fizeau, m which the vital appliance is a rapidly revolving toothed accentuated by the loss of a great deal of the early history Most wheel, the other is that of Foucault, in which the corresponding of the work 1s professedly a compendium; where he allows him- appliance is a mirror revolving of an axis in its own plane

self scope his style shows distinct traces of the Silver Age antith-

Fizeau, 1849.—The principle underlying Fizeau’s method is

VELOCITY shown in the accompanying figs 1 and 2 Fig x shows the course of a ray of hght which, emanating from a lummous point L, strikes the plane surface of a plate of glass M at an angle of about 45°. A fraction of the light is reflected from the two surfaces of the

glass to a distant reflector R, the plane of which is at right angles to the course of the ray. The latter is thus reflected back on its own course and, passing through the glass M on its return, reaches L

tf f

í

|

FIG 1—FIZEAU'S METHOD OF MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT BY MEANS OF A TOOTHED WHEEL a point E behind the glass An observer with his eye at E looking

OF LIGHT

35

emanated. An important point is tbat the return ray will always follow the fixed hne ML no matter what the position of the movable mirror M, provided there 1s a distant reflector to send the ray back Now, suppose that, while the ray is gomg and coming, the mirror M, being set in revolution, has turned from the position ım which the ray was reflected to that shown by the dotted line If œ be the angle through which the surface has turned, the course of the return ray, after reflection, will then deviate from ML by the angle 2 a, and so be thrown to a point E, such that the angle LME=2q@ If the mirror is in rapid rotation the ray reflected from it will strike the distant mirror as a series of flashes, each formed by the hght reflected when the mirror was in the position AB. If the speed of rotation is uniform, the reflected rays from the successive flashes while the mirror 1s in the dotted position will thus FIG, 3 —PRINCIPLE OF FOUCAULT'S

all] follow the same direction ME

METHOD OF DETERMINING THE VE- after their second reflection from

LOCITY OF LIGHT the mirror. If the motion is sufficiently rapid an eye observing the reflected ray will see the flashes as an invariable pomt of light so long as the speed of through the glass sees the return ray as a distant lummous point revolution remains constant. The time required for the hght to in the reflector R, after the light has passed over the course in go and come is then equal to that required by the mirror to turn both directions. through half the angle LME, which is therefore to be measured In actual practice it is necessary to interpose the object glass In practice it is necessary on this system, as well as on that of of a telescope at a point O, at a distance from M nearly equal to Fizeau, to condense the light by means of a lens, Q, sa placed that its focal length. The function of this appliance is to render the L and R shall be at conjugate foci. The position of the lens may diverging rays, shown by the dotted hnes, nearly parallel, in order be either between the luminous point L and the mirror M, or that more light may reach R and be thrown back agam between M and R, the latter being the only one shown in the Conceiving the apparatus arranged in such a way that the ob- figure A difficulty associated with the Foucault system in the server sees the light reflected from the distant mmror R, a fine form in which its originator used it is that if the axis of the mirror toothed wheel WX ıs placed immediately in front of the glass M, ıs at right angles to the course of the ray, the light from the with its plane perpendicular to the course of the ray, in such a source L will be flashed directly into the eye of the observer, on way that the ray goes out and returns through an opening between. every passage of the revolving mirror through the position in two adjacent teeth. This wheel is represented in section by WX in which its normal bisects the two courses of the ray. This may be fig. 1, and a part of its circumference, with the teeth as viewed by avoided by inclining the axis of the murror. the observer, is shown in fig 2. We conceive that the observer sees In Foucault’s determination the measures were not made upon the luminous point between two of the teeth at K. Now, conceive a luminous point, but upon a reticule, the image of which could not that the wheel 1s set in revolution. The ray 1s then interrupted as be seen unless the reflector was quite near the reyolving mirror. every tooth passes, so that what is sent out is a succession of Indeed the whole apparatus was contained in his laboratory. The flashes. Concetve’ that the speed of the wheel is such that while effective distance was increased by using several reflectors; but the flash is going to the distant mirror and returnmg again, each the entire course of the ray measured only zo metres ‘The result tooth of the wheel takes the place of an opening between the reached by Foucault was 298,000 kilometres per second. teeth Then each flash sent out will, on its return, be intercepted Cornu, 1874.—The most elaborate determination yet made by by the adjacent tooth, and will therefore become invisible If the Fizeau’s method was that of Cornu. The station of observation speed be now doubled, so that the teeth pass at intervals equal to was at the Paris Observatory. The distant reflector, a telescope the time required for the light to go and come, each flash sent with a reflector at its focus, was. at Montlhéry, distant 22,910 through an opening will return through the adjacent opening, and metres from the toothed wheel. Of the wheels most used one had will therefore be seen with full brightness. If the speed be con- 150 teeth, and was 35 millmetres im diameter; the other had 200 tinuously increased the result will be sucteeth, with a diameter of 45 mm. The highest speed attained was cessive disappearances and reappearances about goa revolutions per second. At this speed, 135,000 (or of the light, according as a tooth is or is 180,000) teeth would pass per second, and about 20 (or 28) would not interposed when the ray reaches the pass while the light was going and coming. But the actual speed apparatus on its return, The computation attained was generally less than this. The definitive result derived of the time of passage and return is then by Cornu from the entire series of experrments was 300,400 km. very simple. The speed of the wheel being per second. Further details of this work need not. be set forth known, the number of teeth passing in one ae pi I Baeae : because the method is in several ways. deficient in preciston. The eclipses and subsequent reappearamces of the light taking place second can be computed, Foucault, 1862.—The Foucault system T= VELOCITY OF LIGHT

gradually, it is impossible to fix with entire precision upon the is much more precise, because it rests upon the measurement of motnent of complete eclipse. The outcome of the inherent an angle, which can be made with great precision. difficulties of the method is that, although Cornu’s discussion of The vital appliance is a rapidly revolving mirror. Let AB (fig. his experiments is a model in the care taken to determine so far 3) be a section of this mirror, which we shall first suppose at rest.

as practicable every source o£ error, his definitive result is. shown

A ray of light LM emanating from a source at L, is reflected in the by other determinations to hava been toa great hy about qoy direction MQR to a distant mirror R, from which it is perpendicu- part. of its whole. amount.

Michelson, 1878-79-82, and Newcomb, 1881-82.—The larly reflected back upon its original course. This mirror R should he slightly concave, with the centre of curvature near M, so that first marked advance on. Foucault’s determination was made: by

the ray shall always be reflected: back to M on whatever point of R it may fall, Conceiving the,revolving mirror M as at rest, the

return ray will after three reflections, at M, R and M again, be

Albert A. Michelson, then a young officer on duty at the U.S.

Naval academy, Annapolis. The improvement. consisted in using the image ofa slit through which the rays of the sun passed after

returned along its original course to the point L from which it reflection from a hehostat.

In this way 1t was found possible to

36

VELOCITY

OF LIGHT

see the image of the sht reflected from the distant mirror when has its objective under O. It was attached to a frame which could the latter was nearly 600 metres from the station of observa- turn around the same axisasthe mirror The angle through which tion. The essentials of the arrangement are those we have used in it moved was measured by a divided arc immediately below its fig 3, L being the slit It will be seen that the revolving mirror eye-piece, which 1s not shown in the figure The position AB is is here interposed between the lens and its focus It was driven that for receiving the ray during an anti-clockwise rotation of the by an air turbine, the blast of which was under the control of mirror, the position A’B’ that for a clockwise rotation the observer, so that 1t could be kept at any required speed The In these measures the observing station was at Fort Myer, on a speed was determined by the vibrations of two tuning forks One hill above the west bank of the Potomac river The distant reof these was an electric fork, making about 120 vibrations per flector was first placed in the grounds of the Naval observatory, second, with which the mirror was kept in unison by a system of at a distance of 2,551 metres But the definitive measures were rays reflected from it and the fork The speed of this fork was made with the reflector at the base of the Washington monudetermined by comparison with a freely vibrating fork from time ment, 3,721 metres distant The revolving mirror was of nickelto time The speed of the revolving mirror was generally about plated steel, polished on all four vertical sides Thus four reflec275 turns per second, and the deflection of the image of the sht tions of the ray were received during each turn of the murror, about 112-5 mm. The mean result of nearly 100 fairly accordant which would be coincident were the form of the mirror variable determinations was During the preliminary series of measures 1t was found that two images of the return ray were sometimes formed, which would Velocity of hght in air 299,828 km per sec result in two different conclusions as to the velocity of hght, acReduction to a vacuum +82

cording as one or the other was observed The only explanation of this defect which presented itself was a tortional vibration of the revolving mirror, comciding in period with that of revolution In the summer of 1881 the distant reflector was removed from the Observatory to the Monument station Six measures made in August and September showed a systematic deviation of +67 km per second from the result of the Observatory series This difference led to measures for eliminating the defect from which it was supposed to arise The pivots of the mirror were reground, duced to a mmimum, an ordinary telescope of the “broken back” and a change made in the arrangement, which would permit of the form was used to send the ray to the revolving murror effect of the vibration bemg determined and eliminated This 3. The speed of the murror was, as in Michelson’s experiments, consisted in making the relative position of the sending and recompletely under control of the observer, so that by drawing one ceiving telescopes interchangeable In this way, if the measured or the other of two cords held in the hand the return image could deflection was too great in one position of the telescopes, 1t would be kept in any required position In makmg each measure the be too small by an equal amount in the reverse position As a receiving telescope hereafter described was placed in a fixed posi- matter of fact, when the definitive measures were made, it was tion and durmg the “run” the mage was kept as nearly as prac- found that with the improved pivots the mean result was the ticable upon a vertical thread passing through its focus A “run” same in the two positions But the new result differed systematgenerally lasted about two minutes, during which time the mir- ically from both the former ones Thirteen measures were made ror commonly made between 25,000 and 30,000 revolutions. The from the Monument in the summer of 1882. The mean results speed per second was found by dividing the entire number of for the three series were: revolutions by the number of seconds in the “run” The extreme Observatory, 1880-1. V in air= 290,627 deviations between the times of transmission of the lght, as Monument, 1881 V im alr = 299,694 derived from any two runs, never approached to the thousandth Monument, 1882 - Vm alr=299,778 part of its entire amount. The average deviation from the mean The last result being the only one from which the effect of diswas indeed less than g4y, part of the whole. To avoid the injurious effect of the directly reflected flash, as tortion was completely elmunated, has been adopted as definitive well as to render unnecessary a comparison between the directions For reduction to a vacuum it requires a correction of +82 km. of the outgoing and the return ray, a second telescope, turning Thus the final result was concluded to be horizontally on an axis coincident with that of the revolving mirVelocity of light on vacuo =299,860 km. per second, ror, was used to receive the return ray after reflection. This re- This result bemg less by 5o km than that of Michelson, the latquired the use of an elongated mirror of which the upper half ter made another determination with improved apparatus and of the surface reflected the outgoing ray, and the lower other half arrangements at the Case School of Applied Science in Clevereceived and reflected the ray on its return. On this system it was land. The result was not necessary to incline the mirror ın order to avoid the direct Velocity im vacuo = 299,853 km. per second. reflection of the return ray. The So far as could be determined from the discordance of the sepagreatest advantage of this sysJip À rate measures, the mean error of Newcomb’s result would be less tem was that the revolving mirror On Be NP 5 than +10 km But making allowance for the various sources of could be turned in either direc- Cn 0 ‘ systematic error the actual probable error was estimated at tion without break of continutty, B =30 km. so that the angular measures The angle a in Foucault’s experiments cannot be measured with were made between the directions Fig 4-——MICHELSON’S EARLIER the required accuracy by any of the preceding methods, but, as of the return ray after reflection APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING THE was pointed out by Newcomb, this difficulty 1s avoided by giving when the mirror moved in oppo- VELOCITY OF LIGHT the revolving mirror a prismatic form, and making the distance site directions. In this way the speed of the mirror was as good between the two stations so great, that the return light is reflected as doubled, and the possible constant errors ımherent in the refer- at the same angle by the next following face of the prism ence to a fixed direction for the sending telescope were eliminated Michelson, 1924-26, arranged for an attempt to realise such a The essentials of the apparatus are shown in fig. 4 The revolving project between stations on Mt. Wilson and Mt San Antonio, mirror was a rectangular prism M of steel, 3 in. high and 14 in. on near Pasadena, about 22 m. apart. For this distance, given a a side in cross section, which was driven by a blast of air acting on ‘speed of rotation of 1,060 turns per second, the angular displacetwo fan-wheels, not shown in the fig., one at the top, the other at ment of the mirror, during the double journey. will be 90°, or, the bottom of the mirror NPO is the object-end of the fixed send- if the speed were half as great, an angle of 45° would suffice ing telescope the rays passing through it being reflected to the Accordingly, the revolving mirror may have the form of an octamirror by a prism P. The receiving telescope ABO is straight, and gon It is, of course, very important that the angles of the octagon Velocity of light in a vacuum

299,910-+50

Simon Newcomb about this time obtained the official support necessary to make a determimation on a yet larger scale The most important modifications made in the Foucault-Michelson system were the following: 1. Placing the reflector at a distance of several kilometres 2 In order that the disturbances of the return image due to the passage of the ray through more than 7 km. of air might be re-

VELOCITY should be equal, at least to the order of accuracy desired. It has been found possible, by special methods, to produce an octagon on which the average error 1s of the order of one-mullionth, that 1s, about one-tenth to one-twentieth of a second Difficulties arise from the direct reflection and the scattered light from the revolving mirror The former may be eliminated, as already mentioned, by shghtly inclining the revolving mirror,

B

ze

J

r~

AN

\

c

Wey

r

Imm

oZ.

FROM MICHELSON, “STUDIES IN OPTICS” (UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO) FiG 5 —MICHELSON’S LATER APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING

THE

LOCITY

DISPOSI-

OF LIGHT,

THE

TION, AND THE LOWER END IN MORE DETAIL

UPPER

FIGURE

FIGURE,

SHOWING

THE APPARATUS

THE

COMPLETE

VE-

AT THE MOUNT WILSON

but to avoid scattered light, it is essentral that the return ray be received on a different surface from the outgoing Again, in order to avoid difficulty in maimtaming the distant mirror perpendicular to the incident light, the return of the ray to the home station may be accomplished exactly as ın Fizeau’s experiment, the only precaution required being the very accurate focussing of the beam on a small plane (or better, concave) murror at the focus at the distant collimator. Fig 5 shows the arrangement of apparatus which fulfilled these requmrements. In Michelson’s experiments the speed of rotation (529 rev. per second) of the revolving mirror was determined by an electric tuning fork ‘The fork was compared, before, and after every set of observations, with a free pendulum, whose rate was found by

comparison with an invar pendulum furnished and rated by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The 1924 results, gave, for the velocity of hght in air 299,735 km per second, the 1925 results— using the same fork and pendulum—z299,690 km per second; and a third series, in which the electric fork was replaced by a free fork mamtamed by an audition circuit, gave 299,704 km per second Applying the correction of 67 km. for reduction to vacuo gives, finally, 299,771 km per second. Observations with the same lay-out were resumed in the summer of 1926, with an assortment of revolving murrors. The first of these was the small octagonal glass mirror used in the preceding work, the result obtamed this year was 299,813 km, per second The other mirrors were a steel octagon, a glass 12-sided, a steel t2-sided, and a glass r6-sided ‘The final results are summarized in Table A TABLE

Muror

Glass octagon Steel octagon

Glass r2-sıded Steel 12-sided Glass 16-sided Weighted mean-

A

Number of observations

OF LIGHT

37

such as the celestial spaces The question of the relation between the velocity in vacuo, and in a transparent medium of any sort, belongs to the domain of physical optics (see Licut). We shall in the present part of the article confine ourselves to the experimental results With the theory of the effect of a transparent medium is associated that of the possible differences in the speed of light of different colours. The question whether the speed of hght in vacuo varies with its wave-length seems to be settled with entire certainty by observations of variable stars These are situated at different distances, some being so far that light must be several centuries in reaching us from them Were there any difference mn the speed of light of various colours it would be shown by a change in the colour of the star as its light waxed and waned The light of greatest speed preceding that of lesser speed would, when emanated during the rising phase, impress its own colour on that which it overtook The slower light would predominate during the falling phase If there were a difference of 10 minutes im the time at which light from the two ends of the visible spectrum arrived, ıt would be shown by this test, As not the slightest effect of the kind has ever been seen, it seems certain that the difference, if any, cannot approximate to tæp part of the entire speed, The case is different when light passes through a refracting medium. It 1s a theoretical result of the undulatory theory of light that its velocity m such a medium is imversely proportional to the refractive index of the medium This bemg different for different colours, we must expect a like difference in the velocity Foucault and Michelson have tested these results of the undulatory theory by comparing the tyme required for a ray of light to pass through a tube filled with a refracting medium, and through air. Foucault thus found, in a general way, that there actually was a retardation, but his observations took account only of the mean retardation of hight of all the wave-lengths, which he found to correspond with the undulatory theory M)uchelson went further by determining the retardation of light of various wavelengths in carbon bisulphide He made two series of experiments, one with light near the brightest part of the spectrum; the other

with red and blue hght

Putting Vo for the speed in a vacuvm

and V; for that ın the medium, his result was Yellow hght ; Refractive index for yellow : Difference from theory

in vacuo in kms. per sec

576

299,797

195

299,795

270 299,796 218 299,796 504 299,796 299,796- 1 km per second

VELOCITY AND WAVE-LENGTH The experimental measures thus far cited have been primarily those of the velocity of light ın ar, the reduction to a vacuum being derived from theory alone The fundamental constant at the basis of the whole theory 1s the speed of hght in a vacuum,

+o r2

The estimated uncertainty was only 0.02, or 4 of the difference between observation and theory The comparison of red and blue lght was made differentially. The colours selected were of wave-length about 0 62 for red and 0-49 for blue Putting V,- and V» for the speeds of red and blue hght respectively in bisulphide of carbon, the mean result compares with theory as follows: Observed value of the ratio V;, Vs I-0245 Theoretical value (Verdet) g I*025.This agreement may be regarded as perfect ‘Tt shows that the divergence of the speed of yellow light in the medium from theory, as found above, holds through the entire spectrum Lord Rayleigh found the following explanation of the discrepancy. In the method of the

WADAAA| Velocity of light

Vo. Vi=1 758 I 64

toothed wheel the disturbances are propagated

in the form

of

FIG. 6 —DIAGRAM INDICATING THE isolated groups of wave-trains. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WAVE-VE- Let fig 6 represent such a group LOCITY AND GROUP-VELOCITY of wave-trains. The wave-velocity is that required to carry a wave crest A to the position of the crest B in the wave period (T) But when a flash of light hke that measured passes through a refracting medium, the front waves of the flash are continually dying away, as shown at the end of the figure, and the place of each is taken by the wave following A famuliar case of this sort is seen when a stone is thrown into a pond The front waves die out one at a time, to be followed by others, each of which goes further than its predecessor, while new waves are formed in the rear Hence the group, as represented in the figure by the larger waves in the middle, moves as a whole more slowly than do the individual wavés The +

38

VELOUR—VELVET

simplest way of considering such a group analytically 1s to add two simple harmonic wave-trains of shghtly different frequency When the speed of light 1s measured the result 1s not the wavevelocity as above defined, but something less, because the result

depends on the time of the group passing through the medium It can be shown that this applies te measurements made with the revolving mirror method as well as the toothed wheel method

This lower speed is called the group-velocity of hght The relationship of the group velocity to the wave velocity is shown ın the equation: 7?

l

v(

iil

xak

dY Spi

Vo dn

where V’=group velocity, Y=wave velocity, and A}=wave length In a vacuum there is no dying out of the waves, so that the group-speed and the wave-speed are identical The value of

> (:+ >X for carbon disulphide for the mean wave-length of

the visible spectrum is o 93. Hence

Vo _ Vor, A Taht Vi VTP ax -93

x 76

which agrees with the experimental order quoted above. BIBLIOGRAPHY —A good general account of the expermmental determination of the veloaty of lght 1s given in Preston, Tke Theory of (5th ed., 1928) See also A. A Michelson, Studies in Optics (1927). For a detailed account of Michelson’s Mt Wuson experiments see Astrophysical Journal, vol. isv, p 1 (1927). For a discussion of the various determinations see M E. J Gheury de Bray, Nature, vol. cxx (1927). (A AM)

Light, ch xx

vestments, there is a reference, m St Paul’s, London, av. 1295, to the use of “velvet”? with its kindred web “fustian,” for “chasubles” while in that of Exeter cathedral, in 1327, velvet, for the first time 1s mentioned as being “in two pieces not made up, of which some yards had been then sold for vestment making ” Velvet Weaving.—vVelvet fabrics of the hghter textures are woven mm hand-looms and produced from two distinct series of warp threads and one series of weft threads, viz , “ground” threads to form the foundation texture, and “pile” threads to form the pile, arranged mm the fabric ın the order of two ground threads and one pile thread, umformly Also, each system of warp threads is contained on a separate warp beam or roller in order to permit of the tension and rate of delivery of each system being adjusted and controlled independently This provision is essential by reason of the two warps contracting at different rates durmg weaying, that of the pile warp being considerably greater than that of the ground warp, and in the ratio of about 6 or 8 to one, respectively, according to the length or depth of the pile Durmg weaving, the pile 1s developed by raising all the pile warp threads whilst the ground threads remain down, and then inserting through the warp shed thus formed, a long, thin steel wire, having a narrow groove formed in the upper edge, and extending for its entire length ‘This wire, termed a “pile wire” is then beaten-up by the reed right up to the “fell” of the cloth, just

as an ordinary pick of weft, after which (m one velvet structure), three picks of weft are inserted ın succession These mterweave with the ground warp threads on the plain calico principle to produce a firm foundation texture for the tufts of pile Also, for the

first and third of these picks, all pile warp threads are left down, but are raised on the second or intermediate pick, thereby interweaving these threads on the principle known as “fast” or “lashed” pile which binds them very securely to the foundation texture, to union fabrics, that are formed with a short furry nap or fur with less risk of their accidental withdrawal, when the fabric is in on either one side only or on both sides of the fabnc, and de- use After these three picks of weft are inserted, another pile veloped, subsequent to weaving, by operations of mulling and wire 1s inserted in the warp shed, formed, as before, by raising raising. Velour fabrics are characterized by a soft and full “handle” all pile warp threads only and leaving down all ground threads or “feel” and used as dress and costume fabrics, suitings, coatings Then follow the next three ground picks in succession, and so on, and dressing gowns according to the texture Velour is also ap- in the same regular sequence, uniformly plied as a general description of many other varieties of fabrics Producing the Pitle.—From this brief descnption, it will be produced from a mixture both of wool and cotton, and to some apparent that all the pile warp threads simply bend over the varieties of all-cotton fabrics on which there 1s developed the grooved pile wires and thus form a horizontal row of loops extendcharacteristic “velour finish,” after weaving ing across the entire width of the fabric, between the two selThe nap or pile surface of a velour fabric, produced by mulling vedges, while those wires virtually constitute thick picks of weft and raising, 1s not analogous to the velvet or plush pile of true which, along with the three fine picks, are all beaten-up close velvet or plush, nor of velveteen (cotton velvet) m which the together, by the reed, in the usual manner. After the second pile pile is produced by a series of tufts, that stand erect from a wire has been imserted, and followed by the three ground picks, foundation texture, and are developed by severing the pile warp the weaver now releases the first wire by severing, with a knife threads, in velvet and plush fabrics (qv.), and the pile picks of specially adapted for that purpose, all the pile threads that pass weft in velveteen or cotton velvet. over it This wire 1s then removed and mserted ın the next pile VELSEN, a town of Holland, in the province of North Hol- warp shed to be followed by three more ground picks, after which land, close to Ymuiden, with which it forms a single municipal the second wire is also released, and removed to be again mserted administration Pop (1927), 35,103. Velsen 1s situated on the in the next following pile warp shed, and so on, continuously The North sea canal, and forms the port of entrance for Amsterdam. severing of the loops formed by the pile warp threads causes these VELVET. The term “velvet” applies strictly to the true type to stand erect as short tufts and thus produce the pile surface of the plain suk velvet of the lighter textures, constructed with a The instrument employed by a velvet weaver, for cutting the short “velvet” or plush pile surface, which is developed during pile warp threads, consists of a special form of kmife blade, bent weaving by severing certain warp thredds of silk, thereby causing at an angle and fixed adjustably in a frame described as a “trethe severed threads to stand erect in the form of short tufts from vette” This frame serves both as a handle and guide for the a substantial foundation texture of silk, cotton or other textile blade, of which the thin and sharp edge 1s inserted by the weaver material, Velvet has been greatly in the popular favour for many into the narrow groove of the pile wires, and drawn quickly, by

VELOUR. The term velour (French for velvet) refers mn par-

ticular to a large variety of woollen textures, and in general to several varieties both of woollen and cotton textures, and also

centuries as a dress material, also for garments for use on such the right hand, from the left selvedge to the right, with the rear occasions as state, social and religious ceremonies and an mfinite side of the “‘trevette” bearing against the pile wire last inserted, variety of uses such as curtain drapery, hangings and furniture up- to serve as a guide, whilst the knife edge passes along the groove of holstery and many other purposes The richest velvet fabrics are the pile wire nearest the weaver those of Dutch (Utrecht) and Genoese manufacture, and that Types of Velvet.—Velvet fabrics also comprise many other variety known as “collar velvet” for use specially ın making the varieties ranging from the hght, plain textures employed for percollars of men’s overcoats The velvet pile warp consists of pure sonal adornment, to the heavier and stronger figured textures for silk yarn, though the foundation texture may be woven from a furniture upholstery, curtain drapery, mats, rugs, and similar silk warp and cotton weft, or all cotton for both warp and weft, articles of a more durable character These comprise such types as

One of the oldest examples of velvet 1s that forming part of a 4th century embroidered cape in the college of Mount St Mary, Chesterfield In the earhest of the inventories relating to church

Utrecht velvet, “frieze” velvet, “moquette” velvet, and others of a similar kind, Many of these varieties of figured velvets, wıth the pile produced from mohair and wool, are woven inpower-looms

VELVETEEN—VEND furnished with special mechanism adapted to insert the “pile wires” into the warp sheds, and afterwards withdraw them from the cloth, automatically. Figured velvet fabrics are also sometimes embellished with both a cut or “velvet” pile and an uncut (ze, looped or “terry”) pile, with very pleasing effect owing to the lighter and darker

39

interweaving the picks of pile weft with the warp threads in such a manner that the tufts of pile are thereby interlocked or “lashed” more securely ın the foundation texture. Thus, instead of each tuft of pile being looped underneath only one warp thread by the usual method, each tuft ın a “‘lashed-pile” velveteen intersects with three warp threads m succession See E Nisbet, Grammar of Textile Design (1927).

tones of colour resulting from the difference in the reflection of

to be of darker and lighter tones, respectively, although produced from warp threads of exactly the same material, colour and counts of yarn Very beautiful vaneties of figured, plush pile fabrics are

those described as “embossed plush pile fabrics” which are described under SILK FABRICS, ARTIFICIAL (g.v ) (H.N) VELVETEEN. One of the most important varieties of the type of fabrics comprised under the general description of “fustrans’ (qv) Such fabrics are virtually “cotton velvets” constructed with a short weft pile surface and bear a very close resemblance to the true velvets (qv) constructed with a warp

pile of silk

Although “velveteen” and “velvet” have a simular

general appearance, they are each constructed on distinctly differ-

VENAFRUM,

ent principles of fabric structure Before being submitted to the operation of fustian cutting, all velveteen fabrics have a smooth and even weft surface very similar to that of ordinary cotton weft-face satin textures known as “sateen” (qgv.), and may be made to assume, during that operation, either a plain pile surface uniformly, or else a mbbed or corded surface with the ribs extending lengthwise of the fabric, ie, m the direction of the warp threads. Although they comprise several different modifications in respect of their structural details, they all embody the same essential features ın therr construction This consists of the development of a series of short tufts of weft pile on a foundation of the plain calieo, a simple

twill, or other elementary weave structure of a suitable character They consist essentially of one series of warp threads and two

series of weft threads, viz , “face” or pile picks and “back” picks, respectively, of the same kind of weft from a single shuttle. The warp threads and “back” picks are interwoven on some elementary principle to constitute the foundation texture, while the “face” or pile picks are allowed to “float” somewhat freely on the face, as in a sateen fabric, to be afterwards severed by the fustian knife, in order to develop the tufts of pile. Face and back picks may be employed in any suitable ratio ranging from two to aS many as nine pile picks for each ground pick, and with the face picks floating loosely over from three to eleven warp threads chiefly according to the character of texture as regards the length (or depth) and density of the pile and the weight and quality of the fabric and its particular use Forming the Pile—During the operation of fustian cutting, all the floating pile weft is severed by the fustian knife, thereby

(H. N.)

VELVET-WEED (Abutilon Theophrasti), an annual velvety-hairy plant of the mallow famuly (Malvaceae, q v ), known also as Indian mallow, natrve to southern Asia and widely naturalized in the warmer parts of the United States, often becoming a pestiferous weed. It grows from 3 ft. to 6 ft. Ingh, with large, heart-shaped leaves, yellow flowers, and a close head of beaked seed-pods.

hght from the “velvet” and “terry” pile surfaces, which appear

an ancient

town of Campania, Italy, close to the boundaries of both Latium Adjectum and Samnium. Its site BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

IOWA

GEOLOGICAL

is occupied

by

the

modern

Vena-

SURVEY VELVET WEED OR INDIAN MALLow,

fro, a village with 4,353 inhabitants (1921), on the railway from

(ABUTILON

Jsernia to Cajanello,

THEOPHRAST!),

SHOW-

ING ELOWERS AND. SEED:PODS

15 m.

S.W.

of the former, 658 ft. above sea-

level Ancient authors tell us but little about ıt, except that it was one of those towns governed by a prefect sent yearly from Rome, and that in the Social War ıt was taken by the allies by treachery Augustus founded a colony there and provided for the construction of an aqueduct (ef. the long decree relating to it in Corp. Inscr. Eat x. No. 4842) It seems to have been a place of some umportance. Its olive oil was the best in Italy, and Cato mentions 1ts brickworks and iron manufactures. The origmal] lne

of the Via Latina probably ran through Venafrum, making a détour, which the later road seems to have avoided (cf LATINA, Via) Rufrae was probably dependent on it. Roads also ran from Venafrum to Aeserma and to Telesia by way of Allifae Of ancient remains hardly anything is left—some traces of an amphitheatre and fragments of polygonal walls only. (T As) VENAISSIN, formerly a province of France, bounded on the north and north-east by Dauphiné, on the south by the

Durance, on the east by Provence, and on the west by the Rhone. It comprises the present department of Vaucluse. Its capital is Carpentras (g.v ). Venaissin 1s a picturesque territory, varying in scenery between causing that weft to stand erect, and thus form the short tufts of the foothills of the Alps and magnificent plains, which are irrigated by canals supphed by the Rhone, the Durance and the Sorgue pile which lie in close formation and thus develop the characThe Comtat-Venaissin (Comstatus Venassenus), the territory teristic velvet or plush pile over the entire surface of the fabric of the Gallic people the Cavares, belonged first to the counts The picks are cut by the fustan knife, This kmife-blade is formed with a very fine and sharp cutting edge at the extreme of Provence, and then to the counts of Toulouse Ceded to the pope in 1218 by Raymond VII count of Toulouse, and again end of a long, square, steel shank mserted in a wooden haft to be held by the fustian cutter After the velveteen fabric has been in 1274 by Philip the Bold, it was only united to France in prepared in a suitable manner for cutting and stretched taut in 1791. The town of Avignon (qv,), anciently distinct from the a frame for that purpose, the fustian cutter, commencing at one Comtat-Venaissin, was mcorporated in it by Pope Clement VI. selvedge, proceeds to cut that stretch of cloth one “race” or at the beginning of the 14th century, Avignon, a bishopric since the rst century, became an archbishopric in 1475 Carpentras was “run” at a time, taking each “race” in succession

Varieties of Velveteen.—The different varieties of velveteen are distinguished chiefly by the particular weave structure on

which the foundation texture is based Hence, they are described as “plain,” or “tabby-back”; “jean” or “jeanette-back”; and

“Genoa-back” velveteens.

The “tabby-back” variety signifies a

foundation texture based on the plain calico weave; while “jean-

back” signifies those based on the three-end @,) regular twill weave, as indicated in the design fig 3, and “Genoa-back” those

based on the four-end two-and-two (7-3) regular twill weave;

while there are many other weaves employed in them construction. In addition to these variations, some velveteens are also constructed as “fast” or “lashed” pile velveteen, from the method of

a bishopric from. 483 tall 1805.

For history see L. Loubet, Carpentras et le Comtat-Venaissin avant

et après Pannexion (1891)

VENANTIUS: CLEMENTIANUS

see Fortunarus,

VeNANTIUs

HONORIUS g

VEND, LIMITATION OF THE, the name of the oper-

ations of a combmation of north of England colliery owners, which existed between 1771 and 1844, formed for the purpose of limiting the supplies of coal to consumers to raise prices, The system of price control by coal owners using the ports of the Tyne, the Wear and the Tees, began as early as 1665 and became systematic in 1771 The owners established a control office at

40

VENDACE—VENDEE

Newcastle-on-Tyne with what is described by Porter in his Pro- conscription acts for the recruiting of the depleted armies on gress of the Nation as “a very costly establishment of clerks and the eastern frontiers In February 1793 the Convention decreed agents” The governing committee held regular meetings at a levy on the whole of France, and on the eve of the ballot the which the quantities to be sold by each colliery were determined Vendée, rather than comply with this requisition, broke out in In the month of March 1793 the officer comand the prices to the consumer fixed By this means, during a insurrection period of nearly three-quarters of a century, every British coal manding at Cholet was killed, and republicans were massacred at consumer using seaborne coal was heavily taxed Moreover, as the Machecoul and St Florent Guiving rein to their ancient antiplimitation of the vend only applied to coal shipments to London, athy, the revolted peasantry attacked the towns, which were which was then the great market for seaborne coal, and not to hberal ın ideas and republican in sympathies shipments made to foreign countries, the system taxed British These first successes of the Vendéans coimcided with grave consumers while cheapening coal prices to foreign consumers. repubhcan reverses on the frontier—war with England, Holland The hmitation of the vend became the subject of a number of and Spain, the defeat of Neerwinden and the defection of parliamentary enquiries It was examined by parliamentary com- Dumouriez The émzgrés then began to throw in their lot with the mittees in 1800, 1829, 1830 and 1836 and finally expired in 1844 Vendéans Royalist nobles hke the marquis de Bonchamp, CharVENDACE (Coregonus vandestus), a small fish of the salmon ette de la Contrie, Gigot d’Elbée, Henri de la Rochejaquelein and family, from the lakes of Lochmaben, in Dumfriesshire, Scot- the marquis de Lescure placed themselves at the head of the peasland; the name 1s also given to an allied form (C gracilior), from ants Although several of these leaders were Voltairians, they held Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite These differ from other British up Louis XVI, who had been executed in Jan 1793, as a martyr species in having the lower jaw prominent, the scales are larger to Catholicism, and the Vendéans, who had hitherto styled themthan in related species from the Arctic ocean and the countries selves the Christian Army, now adopted the name of the Catholic round the Baltic (See WHITEFISH, SALMON AND SALMONIDAE) and Royal Army The Convention took measures against the émgrés and the VENDÉE, a maritime department of western France, formed in 1790 out of Bas-Poitou, and taking its name from an umm- refractory priests By a decree of March 19, 1793, every person portant tributary of the Sévre Niortaise It ıs bounded by Lorre- accused of taking part in the counter-revolutionary revolts, or of Inférieure and Maime-et-Loire on the north, by Deux-Sèvres on wearing the white cockade (the royahst emblem), was declared the east, by Charente-Inférieure on the south and by the Atlantic an outlaw The prisoners were to be tried by military commussions, ocean on the west for 93 m. Pop. (1926) 395,602 Area, 2,690 and the sole penalty was death with confiscation of property The square miles The islands of Yeu (area, 84 sqm) and Noirmou- Convention also sent representatives on mission into Vendée to tier are included. The department stretches from the Hau- effect the purging of the municipalities, the reorganization of the teurs de la Gâtme (748 ft) in the north-east down the national guards in the republican towns and the active prosecuwooded slopes of the Bocage Vendéen to the plain bordered tion of the revolutionary propaganda These measures proving mtowards the sea by the Marais, largely salt-marshes reclaimed sufficient, a*decree was promulgated on April 30, 1793, for the during the last four centuries The GAtine 1s a south-east to despatch of regular troops; but, in spite of their failure to capture north-west axial line of the Armorican system, and the Bocage Nantes, the successes of the Vendéans continued on its flank is formed mainly of Palaeozoic rocks, but the plain At the end of Aug 1793, the republicans had three armies 1n the on the edge of the Marais is of Jurassic limestone ‘The three Vendée-—the army of Rochelle, the army of Brest and the Mayenchief rivers are the Sèvre Nantaise, draining the GAtine longi- ¢ais; but their generals were either ciphers, like Ronsm, or divided tudinally, the Lay, and, in the south, the Sévre Niortaise The among themselves, like Rossignol and Canclaux They were unclimate is that of the Girondine region, mild and damp, the certain whether to cut off the Vendéans from the sea or to drive temperature rarely rismg above 77° or falling below 18° F, 120 them westwards, and moreover, their men were undisciplined to 1g0 days of rain give an average annual rainfall of 25 in. The Although the peasants had to leave their chiefs and work on the woodland is colder than the plain, and the marsh is unhealthy land, the Vendéans still remained formidable opponents They Vendée is served by the Ouest-Etat railway and has 81 m of were equipped partly with arms supplied by England, and partly navigable rivers and canals. The department forms the diocese with fowling-pieces, which at that period were superior to the of Luçon, has its court of appeal and educational centre at Poitiers, small-arms used by the regular troops, and their intimate knowland is in the district of the XI. Army Corps (Nantes) There edge of the country gave them an immense advantage are three arrondissements (La Roche-sur-Yon, Fontenay-leThe dissensions of the republican leaders and the demoralizing Comte and Sables-d'Olonne), 30 cantons, and 306 communes tactics of the Vendéans resulted in republican defeats at ChanThe chief towns are La Roche-sur-Yon, the capital, Les Sables- tonnay, Torfou, Coron, St Lambert, Montaigu and St Fulgent d’Olonne, Fontenay-le-Comte and Luçon (g.v,) Foussais, Nieul- The Convention resolved to bring the war to an end before Octosur-l’Autise and Vouvant have Romanesque churches; Pouzauges ber, and placed the troops under the undivided command, first has a stronghold of the 13th century, Maillezais has the rums of of Jean Léchelle and then of Lows Turreau, who had as subora 12th century cathedral, Talmont and Tiffauges possess ruined dinates such men as Marceau, Kléber and Westermann On Oct castles; and Le Bernard and Noirmoutier have dolmens 7 the various divisions concentrated at Bressuire, took Chatillon VENDÉE, WARS OF THE, a counter-revolutionary insur- after two bloody engagements, and defeated the Vendéans at rection which took place during the French Revolution (qv), Cholet, Beaupréau and La Tremblaye After this repulse, the not only in Vendée proper but also in Lower Poitou, Anjou, royalists, under Stofflet and La Rochejaquelein, attempted to Lower Maine and Brittany. The district was mainly mhabited rouse the Cotentin and crossed the Loire Beaten back at Granby peasants; it contained few important towns, and the bourgeois ville, they tried to re-enter the Vendée, but were repulsed at were but a feeble minority The ideas of the Revolution were Angers They re-formed at Le Mans, where they were defeated slow in penetrating to this ignorant peasant population, which had by Westermann, and the same officer annihilated the main body of always been less civilized than the majority of Frenchmen, and the insurgents at Savenay (Dec 1793) in 1789 the events which roused enthusiasm throughout the rest |. Regular warfare was now at an end, although Turreau and his of France left the Vendéans indifferent Presently, too, signs of “infernal columns” still continued to scour the disaffected districts discontent appeared. The priests who had refused to submit to After the oth Thermidor attempts were made to pacify the counthe Civil Constitution of the Clergy perambulated these retired try The Convention issued conciliatory proclamations allowing districts, and stigmatized the revolutiomsts as heretics In 1791 the Vendéans liberty of worship and guaranteeing their property two “representatives on mission” informed the Convention of the Gen Hoche appled these measures with great success He redisquieting condition of Vendée, and this news was quickly folstored their cattle to the peasants who submitted, “let the priests lowed by the exposure of a royalist plot organized by the marhave a few crowns,” and on July 20, 1795, annihilated an émigré quis de La Rouérie expedition which had been equipped ın England and had seized The signal for a widespread rising was the introduction of Fort Penthiévre and Quiberon. Treaties were concluded at La

VENDEMIAIRE—VENER Jaunaie (Feb. 15, 1795) and at La Mabillaie, and were fairly well observed by the Vendéans; and nothing remained but to cope with the feeble and scattered remnant of the Vendéans still under

arms, and with the Chouans (g.v.)

On July 30, 1796, the state of

siege was raised in the western departments During the Hundred Days there was a revival of the Vendéan war, the suppression of which occupied a large corps of Napoleon's

army, and in a measure weakened him in the northern theatre of war (See WATERLOO CAMPAIGN ) In 1832 again an abortive insurrection broke out in support of the Bourbons, at the instigation of the duchess of Berry; the Vendéan hero on this occasion was the baron de Charette. There are numerous articles on the Vendéan insurrection of 1793 in the Revue du Bas-Pottou, Revue historique de Anjou, Revue de Bretagne, de Vendée et d'Anjou, Revue historique de PQuest, Revue historique et archéologique du Maine, and La Vendée historique. See also R Bittard des Portes, “Bibhographie historique et critique des

guerres de Vendée et de la Chouannerie” in the Revue du Bas-Portou

(1903 seq), C. L Chassin, Btudes sur la Vendée et la Chouannerie (La Préparaizon de la guerre—La Vendée patriote—Les Pacifications

de V’OQuest)

(Paris, 1892 seq), 1x vols

(the best general work on the

subject), C Port, Les Origines de la Vendée (Paris, 1888); C. Leroux-Cesbron, “Correspondance des représentants en mission à l'armée de louest (1794-95)” in the Nouvelle Revue rétrospective (1898); Blachez, Bonchamps et Uinsurrectton vendéenne (Pans, 1902); P. Mautouchet, Le Conventionnel Philtppeaux (Paris, 1901). On 1815 a modern work is Les Cent Jours en Vendée; le général Lamarque, by B Lasserre (Parıs, 1907); on 1832 see La Vendée, by Vicomte A. de Courson (1909). (R. Aw)

VENDEMIAIRE, the name given during the French Revolution to the first month of the year in the Republican calendar (from Lat vindemia, vintage). Vendémiaire began on Sept. 22, 23 or 24, and ended on Oct. 22, 23 or 24, according to the year, and was the season of the vintage in the wine districts of northern France. See CALENDAR.

41

reign of the Capetian dynasty began, Vendôme was the chief town of a countship belonging to Bouchard, called “the Venerable.” The succession passed by various marriages to the houses of Nevers, Preuilly and Montoire Bouchard VII, count of Vendôme and Castres (d ¢ 1374), left as his heiress his sister Catherine, the wife of John of Bourbon, count of la Marche.

The countship

of Vendôme was raised to the rank of a duchy and a peerage of France for Charles of Bourbon (1515); his son Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, was the father of Henry IV , who gave the duchy of Vendôme in 1598 to his natural son Caesar (1594-1665) Caesar, duke of Vendôme, had as his sons Louis, duke of Vendôme (1612-69), who married a niece of Mazarin, and Francis, duke of Beaufort. The last of the family in the male lne (1654-1712) was Louis XIV.’s famous general, Louis Joseph, duke of Vendôme (qv) Vendôme stands on the Loir, which here divides and intersects the town To the south stands a Inll on which are ruins of the r1th century castle of the counts of Vendôme The abbey-church of the Trinity (12th to r5th century) has a fine facade in the florid Gothic style and a transitional 12th century belfry, with a stone steeple, stands isolated in front of the church Abbey buildings of various periods le round the church The church of La Madeleme (x5th century) is surmounted by a stone spire, an indifferent imitation of that of the abbey Of the church of St. Martin (16th century) only the tower remains The town hall occupies the old gate of St. George, with two large crenelated and machicolated towers, connected by a pavilion The 15th century chapel of the ancient hospital of St Jacques, in the most florid Gothic style, 1s preserved.

VENEER,

a thin sheet of superior wood, covering the sur-

the custom of the family feud, by which the

face of inferior wood. Veneers may be sliced with a knife (Rnifecut) or cut with a saw (sow-cut) from a section of a tree (fizich) The art of producing and using veneers dates back to the

nearest kinsman of a murdered man was obliged to take up the quarrel and avenge his death (Ital. from Lat vindscta, revenge.) From being an obligation upon the nearest, it grew to be an obligation on all the relatives, involving families in bitter private wars In primitive communities, the ımjury done was held to be more than personal, a wrong done to the whole gens The term originated ın Corsica, where the vendetta long played an important part in the social life If the murderer could not be found, his family were lable to fall victims to the vendetta

standard of human development, since efficient veneering has always followed the wake of human progress (See Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, Perrot and Chipiez’ History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria, etc.) Intarsia and marquetry work are closely allied to and mter-dependent upon the art of veneering In the usual process of manufacture, the flitches are steamed before being cut, and the sheet of veneer thus obtaimed is care-

VENDETTA,

VENDOME,

LOUIS

JOSEPH,

Duc ve

(1654-1712),

marshal of France, was the son of Louis, 2nd duke of Vendéme, and the great-grandson of Henry IV. and Gabrielle d'Estrées. Entering the army he distmmgwshed himself m the Dutch wars, and by 1688 had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general In the war of the Grand Alliance he rendered conspicuous service and in 1695, in command of the army operating m Catalonia he took Barcelona. Soon afterwards he received the marshalate In 1702, after the first unsuccessful campaign of Catinat and Villeroi, he was placed in command of the Franco-Spanish army in Italy (See SpaNtsH Succession War) During three campaigns ım that country he proved a worthy antagonist to Prince Eugene, whom at last he defeated at Cassano Next year he was sent to Flanders to repair the disaster of Ramulles with the result that

earliest days of civilization, and it may be looked upon even as a

fully dried Veneers may be cut along the gram, through the log, or from cross-sections of the log, the figure and design of the veneer obtained from the different methods employed vary widely and the art of veneering consists as much in the most effective utilization of the log as m the careful and suitable application and matching of the veneers afterwards Veneers are also produced by means of the rotary cutting process as a raw material for plywood A part of a log is inserted lengthwise between two pins on a rotating lathe. and a knife, pressed against it, peels off an endless mbbon of veneer (See Piywoop) See Sidney J Duly, Timber and Timber Products (1924) ; E Vernon Knight and Meinrad Vulp1, Veneers and Plywood (N.Y., 1927), E Brocard, L’Art de découper le bois comprenant également la Marqueterze et la Sculpture Simple (Paris, 1873) (A Mor)

VENER, the largest lake in Sweden and the third largest in

his successors Marsin and Philip of Orleans were totally de- Europe; area 2,149 sqm.; maximum length 87 m; maximum feated, while in the new sphere Vendéme was merely the mentor “breadth 44 m ; maximum depth 292 ft The surface of the lake is of the pious and unenterprismg duke of Burgundy, and was un- normally 144 ft above the sea but may rise 10 ft or more higher, able to prevent the defeat of Oudenarde He retired in disgust to for the lake receives numerous streams, the largest being the Klar, lis estates, but was soon summoned to take command of the which drains the forests of Vermland and Kopparberg to the army of Philip in Spain There he won his last victories, crown- north It is drained by the Gota river to the Cattegat It is ing his work with the battle of Villaviciosa Before the end of divided into two basins by two penmsulas and a group of islands, the war he died suddenly at Vinaros on June 11, 1712 the western half being Lake Dalbo. The northern shores are VENDÔME, a town of north-central France, capital of an high, rocky and in part wooded, the southern open and low, though arrondissement in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 22 m NW of isolated hills occur, such as the Kinnekulle (1,007 ft ). By means of the Dalsland Canal from Kopmannabro, midway Blois by rail Pop (1926) 7,383 Vendôme (Vindocinum) appears originally to have been a Gallic oppidum, replaced later by on the west shore of Dalbo, the lake, which is busy in the traffic in a feudal castle, around which the modern town arose Christianity | timber iron and agricu'tural produce, has communication with was introduced by St. Bienheuré in the 5th century, and the im- Fredrikshald in Norway , and it is traversed from Venersborg on portant abbey of the Trinity was founded about 1030. When the: the south to S;dtorp on the east by the Gota (g.v) Canal route. r

42

VENERABLE—VENEREAL

The principal lake-ports are—on the north shore Carlstad and Cristinehamn, with 1ron-works and tobacco factory; on the east Mariestad, chief town of the district of Skaraborg; on the south Lidkoping, and Venersborg with its iron foundries, tanneries and match and paper factories.

VENERABLE,

worthy of honour, respect and reverence,

especially a term applied to dignified or honourable age [Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence]. It is specifically used as a title of address given to archdeacons in the Anglican Church. It was naturally a term of respectful address from early times; thus St. Augustme (Epist 76, 88, 139) cites ıt of bishops, and Philip I. of France was styled venerabils and venerandus (see Du Cange, Gloss sv. Venerabilites) In the Roman Church the granting of the title “venerable” ıs the first step in the long process of the canonization of saints (see CANONIZATION).

VENEREAL DISEASES, a general term for the diseases

resulting from impure sexual intercourse Three distinct affections are cluded under this term—gonorrhoea, local contagious ulcers,

known as soft chancres, and syphls

They are three distinct

diseases, due to different causes. Broadly speaking, gonorrhoea attacks the mucous membranes, especially that of the urethra, the vagina, uterus and Fallopian tubes; soft chancres attack the mucous membranes and the skin; syphilis, after a short local manifestation, affects the whole body. Though these three affections generally result from impure sexual intercourse, there are other methods of contagion, as when the accoucheur is poisoned whilst delivering a syphilitic woman, the surgeon when operating on a syphilitic patient, the wet-nurse who is suckling a syphilitic infant, and so on An individual may be attacked by any one or any two of the three, or by all at the same time, as the result of one and the same connection But they do not show themselves at the same time; they have different stages of incubation In gonorrhoea and soft chancre the first symptoms appear as a rule three or four days after inoculation; in syphilis, the period of incubation is twenty-eight days, though it may be much longer GONORRHOEA

Gonorrhoea is a specific inflammation of the mucous membrane of the urethra and other passages caused by M gonorrhoez, a diplococcus discovered by Neisser and often called the gonococcus The germs find entrance during coitus and multiply at enormous rate, spreading to all the glands and crevices of the membrane, and setting free in their development a toxin which causes great irritation of the passage with inflammation and swelling They remain quietly incubating for three or four days, or even longer; then acute inflammation comes on, with profuse discharge of thick yellow matter, with much scalding during micturition, and there

may be so much local pain that it is difficult for the person to move about Microscopic examination of the discharge shows abundant pus corpuscles and epithelial cells from the membrane, together with swarms of intra- and extra-cellular diplococci (gonococci). The inflammatory process may extend backwards and give rise to acute prostatitis (see BLADDER AND PROSTATE, DISEASES OF),

with retention of urine; to the duct of the testes and give rise to acute epididymitis (swollen testicle), and to the bladder, caus~ ing acute cystitis It may also cause local abscesses, or, by irritation, set up crops of warts. In ten days or a fortnight the inflammation gradually subsides,

a thin watery discharge remaining which 1s known as gleet, But inasmuch as this discharge contains gonococci it may, though

scarcely noticeable, set up acute specific inflammation in the opposite sex. In the case of the female the inflammation is apt to extend to the uterus and along the Fallopian tubes, perhaps to give rise to an abscess in the tube (pyosalpinx) which, bursting, may cause fatal peritonitis A lingering gleet may be due to the presence of a definite ulceration in the urethra, and this, being chromic, is accompanied by the formation of much fibrous tissue which contracts and causes narrowing of the urethra, or stricture Thus gleet and stricture are often associated, and the occasional passage of a large bougie

DISEASES

may suffice to cure both Often, however, a stricture of the urethra proves rebellious in the extreme, and leads to diseases of the bladder and kidneys which may prove fatal. One of the most important points in the management of a case

of gonorrhoea is to prevent risk of the septic discharge coming ito contact with the eye

If this happens, prompt and energetic

measures must be taken to save the eye. If at the time of delivery a woman be the subject of gonorrhoea, there is great probability

of the eyes of the fant being affected. The symptoms appear on the third day after birth, and the disease may end in complete blindness

The name of the disease 1s ophthalmia neonatorum

(See BLINDNESS.) By the term gonorrhoeal rheumatism it is imphed that the cocci have been carried by the blood stream to one or more in which an acute inflammation has been set up. It 1s apt to in the third week of the disease, and may end in permanent ness of the joints or in abscess

gonojoints occur stiff-

In rare cases the germs find their way to the cardiac valves, pleura or pericardium, setting up an inflammation which may end fatally. For a man to marry whilst there is the slightest msk of his still being the subject of gonorrhoea is to subject his wife to the probability of mfection, ending with chronic inflammation of the womb or of septic peritonitis Yet it is often extremely difficult to say when a man is cured. That there is no longer any discharge does not suffice to show that he has ceased to be infective Nothing less than repeated examinations of the urethral mucus by the microscope, ending ın a negative result, should be accepted as evidence of the cure bemg complete And these examinations should be made after he has returned to his former ways of eating, drinking and working

LOCAL CONTAGIOUS ULCERS Chancroid, Soft Chancre or Soft Sore is so named in contradistinction to the Hunterian sore of syphilitic infection, the great characteristic of which is its hardness The soft chancre is a contagious ulcer of the genitals, due to the inoculation of the bacillus of Ducrey; and, provided that the specific germ of syphilis is not inoculated at the same time, the chancre is not followed by constitutional affection In other words, the disease 1s purely local, and 1f some of the discharge of one of these ulcers is inoculated on another part of the body of the individual a sore of an exactly similar nature appears This reproduction of the sore can be done over and over again on the same individual, always with the same result, But in the case of the Hunterian sore, moculation of the individual from the primary sore gives no result, becouse the cons‘itrtionel disease has rendered the mdividual proof rgiuinst ivither infection ‘The soft sore 1s often maltyple It appears about three days after the exposure, and as it increases in size free suppuration takes place. Its base remains soft. In individuals broken down in health, the ulceration is apt to extend with great rapidity, and is then spoken of as phagedaenic Just as an individual may comtrect syphlis erd gonorrhoea et the same connection, so also he 217. be mocaleved 67 ul! reosiv with the bacilli of the soft chancre and the spirochaete of syphilis In this case the soft chancres appear, as usual, within the first three or four days, but though passing through the customary stages they may refuse quite to heal, or, having healed, they may

become indurated in the second month, constitutional symptoms

following in due course.

Bubo,—The bacilli from the soft sore may pass by the lymphatic vessels to the glands in the grom, when they set up inflammation. SYPHILIS

The cause of syphilis, whether inherited or acquired, which

can be demonstrated in the primary and various secondary lesions, and in the internal organs, is Sperachaeia or Treponema palhda, a motile protozoon of spiral form, from 4 to 20 win length and iy in diameter, with a flagellum at either extremity. Inoculations of the spirochaete in monkeys have produced the characteristic

primary (Hunterian) sores, which have proved infective to other monkeys

And in the reproduced primary sores, as also in the

VENEREAL

DISEASES

43

secondary lesions following them, the same specific mucro-organism has been demonstrated The organism can also be inoculated

The characteristic physiognomy gradually manifests itself if the child 1s not treated—the flattened nose, the square forehead, the successfully into the testicles of rabbits radiating hnes from the mouth, the stunted figure and pallid face. The syphilitic virus 1s introduced at the seat of an abrasion Dunng the second dentition, the three signs, as pomted out by either on the genital organs or on some other part of the surface Jonathan Hutchinson, may be looked for—the notched incisor of the body It has been conveyed during a fight by abrasion of teeth of the upper jaw, mmterstitral corneitis and syphulttic deafthe skin covering the knuckle against the tooth of an adversary ness. Perforation of the soft or hard palate may occur, and with secondary syphilis. The poison hes quiescent for an average ulcerations of the skin and cellular tissue. Destruction of the period of four weeks. A cartilagmous, button-lke hardness ap- nasal bones, caries of the forehead and skull, of the long bones, pears at the seat of inoculation. If this is irmtated ulceration may also take place. takes place; but ulceration is an accident, not an essential. The Colles’ Law.—A woman giving birth to a syphilitic infant caninfection becomes systemic long before the chancre develops. not be moculated with syphilis by the infant when she 1s suckling The so-called period of quiescence does not emst. From the it; in other words, though the mother may have shown no definite primary seat the system becomes infected The virus, passing signs of syphilis, she is :mmune; whereas the syphilitic infant put along the lymphatic vessels, attacks the nearest chain of lymphatic to the breast of a healthy woman may inoculate her nipple and glands. If the origmal sore is ın the gemital organs, the glands in convey syphilis to her. This is known as Colles’ Law, and it 1s the groin are first attacked, if ın the hand, the glands of the elbow explained by the theory that, the mother’s blood being already or armpit; if on the lip, the glands below the jaw The affected infected, her skin 1s proof against a local cultivation of germs in glands are indurated and pamless; they may become acutely in- the form of a Hunterian sore. flamed, just as the primary lesion may, but this, too, 1s an acciGeneral Remarks.—It by no means follows that because the dent, not an essential In due course the poison may affect the infecting sore is small, ummmportant or quickly healed, the attack, whole glandular system Skin eruptions, often symmetrical, break of which the sore is the first (primary) symptom, will be mild out Irritation of any mucous membrane is followed by papular Indeed, it not infrequently happens that the most serious forms of eruptions with superficial ulceration, and in the later stages of the secondary or tertiary symptoms succeed a sore which was redisease skin-eruptions, scaly, prmply, pustular or nodular in type, garded as of such trivial nature that the individual declined to appear These eruptions do not itch. The individual is as a general submit himself to treatment, or quickly withdrew himself from it rule protected against a second attack of syphilis In weakly peo- to enter a fool’s paradise. The advisability of ceasing from treatple, ın severe cases, or in cases that have not been properly treated, ment should always be determined by the surgeon, never by the syphilitic deposits termed gummata are formed, which are very patient; treatment must be continued long after the disappearance apt to break down and give nse to deep ulcerations. of the secondary eruptions It is the dzsease which the surgeon Gummata.—The most characteristic form of the generalized has to cure, not the symptoms. The patient is apt to think only of syphiltic infection, which may not manifest itself for several the symptoms. years after the reception of the virus, is a nodular inflammatory “Is the disease curable?” The answer is: “Yes; beyond doubt ” formation in various organs—the liver, testes or bram, the But the individual must be made to understand the necessity of muscles (tongue and jaw-muscles especially), the periosteum, the his submitting himself to a prolonged course of treatment A skin and the lungs The deposits are called gummata from the second question is whether, in the course of the disease, his hair tenacious appearance of the fresh-cut surface and of the discharge will fall out, his body will be covered with sores and his face with oozing from it. The structure consists of granulation-tissue in blotches, and if his bones will be attacked. Here, again, the which necrosis occurs at various central points, One remarkable answer is that prompt submission to treatment will render ail feature of the process 1s the overgrowth of cells in the inner coat such calamities extremely improbable. Another question often put of the arteries (see Arteries, Diszases oF), within the affected is whether the disease is contagious or infectious. During the area, which obliterate the vessel and are the chief cause of the primary and secondary stages he is infectious as far as his lesions central degeneration of the gumma Gummata, and the ulcers left are concerned. Obviously, if a man has a primary sore or a secby them, constitute the tertzary manifestations of syphilis. ondary eruption he should use his own pipe, razor, glass, cup or In a large proportion of cases only the secondary symptoms spoon, should refrain from kissing any one, and desist from sexual occur, and not the tertiary, the virus having presumably exhausted intercourse. If due care thus be taken no danger is likely to ensue. Syphilis and Marriage—The question as to how soon it itself or been destroyed by treatment in the earlier manifestations. Inherited Syphilis.—In the syphilis of the offspring it is nec- would be safe for a person with secondary syphilis to marry is of essary to distinguish two classes of effects—there are the effects of extreme importance, and the disregard of 1t may cause lasting general intra-uterine mal-nutrition, due to the placental syphilis mental distress to the parent and permanent physical injury to the of the mother; and there are the true specific effects acqured by offspring. A man who finds himself to be the subject of secondary inheritance from either parent and conveyed in the sperm-ele- syphilis when he is engaged to be married would do well honourments or inthe ovum These two classes of effects are commingled ably to free himself from responsibility. But should a person who in such a way as not to be readily distinguished; but it is prob- has been under regular and continuous treatment desire to marry, able that the ill-organized growth of bone, at the epiphysial line consent may be given when he has seen no symptoms of his in the long bones (sometimes amounting to suppuration), and on disease for two full years. But even then no actual promise can the surfaces of the membrane-bones of the skull (Parrot’s nodes) be made that his troubles are at an end. is a result of general placental mal-nutrition, Lke the correspondThe transmission of syphilis to the third generation is quite posing errors of growth in rickets The rashes and fissures of the skin, sible, but it is difficult of absolute proof because of the chance of the snuffes and such-like well-known symptoms in the offspring there having been intercurrent infection of the offspring of the are characteristic effects of the specific taint; so also ihe peculiar second generation (@Œ.0, X.)

overgrowth in the liver, the interstitial pneumonia alba of the lungs and the hke It is in many cases some months after, birth

before the congenital syphilitic effects show themselves, while

GENERAL

PREVENTIVE

MEASURES

The period since r9ro has been marked by the commencement

other effects come to light during childhood and youth. The moist eruptions and ulcerations about the mouth and anus

of a campaign which has developed into a world-war against.

of the infant, as well as the skin affections generally, are charged

inent part. In 1913 a royal commission was set up to inquire into “the

with the spirochaetes and are highly contagious

venereal diseases. In this work Great Britain has taken a prom-

prevalence of venereal diseases in the United Kingdom, their

From the second to the sixth year there is commonly a rest in the symptoms that are regarded as characteristic, but the tibiae may become thickened from periostitis, or a joint may become

effects on the health of the community, and the means by which those effects can be alleviated or prevented.” The royal commis-

swollen and painful

sion reported in 1916, and their recommendations were imme-

44

VENEREAL

DISEASES

diately acted upon by the Local Government Board of England in the symptoms Another form of treatment which has been in use by a few for and Wales (now the Ministry of Health), and the pubhce measures for combating venereal diseases in England and Wales are a number of years but is only now becoming more general is diathermy. (See ELECTRO-THERAPY) The principle of its use in now as mentioned below, while ın Scotland and Ireland the camgonorrhoea and its complications 1s that the gonococcus 1s very paign is bemg conducted on the same principles sensitive to heat, being killed at temperatures which are supported Legislative Action.—ı. By an Act of Parliament passed in 1917 the treatment of patients for venereal disease by others than with comparative ease by human tissues. Good results have been obtained in gonorrhoea of females by registered medical practitioners and the sale without the prescription of a registered medical practitioner or the advertisement this method, but undoubtedly its best effects are in epididymitis to the lay public of remedies for the treatment or prevention of and in gonorrhoeal rheumatism in men In gonorrhoeal rheumatism and irttis the reservoir from which the joints and eyes are venereal diseases are forbidden 2, There are 193 centres chiefly in voluntary hospitals for the continually being infected is commonly in the prostate and the treatment, free of charge, of persons suffering from venereal seminal vesicles, both situated at the base of the bladder The current 1s applied by means of an electrode placed in the rectum disease 3. Fourteen hostels exist for the care and treatment of females and ıs increased ın strength until the patient feels the part becomwho are infected, and would, unless helped by shelter, become ing uncomfortably hot. Soft Chancre or Chancroid.—The figures showing the new professional prostitutes 4. Seven institutions are specially for the care of pregnant fe- cases which have been seen at treatment centres indicate that chancroid is not now very prevalent in Great Britain The treatmales who are infected s Treatment of venereal disease is also provided in poor law ment 1s now more conservative than formerly The chancroid 1s viewed as possibly harbouring also the germs of syphilis, and institutions 6 Arsenobenzol (salvarsan) compounds are given free of charge with the object of avoiding any action which may prejudice the microscopical search for the more severe disease, the surgeon withto medical practitioners qualified to administer these remedies 7. Specumens from persons suspected to be suffermg from holds for as long as possible the application of antiseptics When a bubo forms in the grom, a comparatively rare event venereal disease can be examined free of charge n 73 laboratories under modern practice, it is more usual now to attempt to secure which have been approved for the purpose. 8 The work of educating the public in the dangers of venereal resolution by protein-shock therapy (see GoNORRHOEA) and by diseases and the mmportance of early and continued treatment is aspiration of the abscess followed by injection into the abscess carried out by the British Social Hygiene Council (formerly the cavity of some drug which will lead to the destruction of the National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases), which re- germs Detection of Syphilis.—Improvements in methods of detectceives from the Government a grant in aid of its expenses Propagandist work is also undertaken by the county councils and county ing the germ, Sferochaeta pallida, under the microscope, viz, by borough councils, either directly or in conjunction with the British dark-ground illumination, have made 1t possible to diagnose the disease very rapidly on the day 1t makes its first appearance For Social Hygiene Council The arrangements for establishment of free treatment facilities the Wassermann and allied tests of blood and cerebro-spinal fluid for distribution of arsenobenzol compounds and for laboratory for the presence of syphilis the article WASSERMANN REACTION examinations are under the control of county councils and county should be consulted. Great strides have been made in treatment since 1910 wher borough councils, which receive from the Government 75% of Ehrlich mmtroduced dioxy-diamino-arsenobenzol dihydrochloride, their approved expenditure on this account Results Obtained.—Some idea of the results obtained may be commonly known as “606” or salvarsan (gv), as a remedy for gathered by comparing the returns of cases seen for the first time syphilis The effect of a single dose of this remedy is usually to in 1920, when the numbers were highest, with those seen for the cause the spirochaetes to disappear from the discharge of syphilitic sores in 24 hours and syphilitic lesions heal with a rapidity which first time in 1924, as presented hereunder — was a source of great wonder to those who had toiled in the treatment of syphilis with the help of only mercury and prepYear Syphilis aoe 5 i Non-ven. Total arations of iodine The original preparation has largely been supplanted by a com1920 42,805 2,442 40,284 19,654 105,185 pound introduced by Ehrlich in 1912 under the name of neosal1924 22,010 1,098 31,272 18,842 73,222 varsan or “g14,” which is much more convenient to use and less The table discloses a substantial reduction mm the number of disturbing to the patient than was the original preparation These cases of syphilis, and the figures indicate that the incidence of advantages are somewhat offset by a lower therapeutic activity of syphilis in the community has declined considerably Similar the newer preparation. Combinations of arsenobenzol with silver results have been reported by other countries which have set up and with zinc are also used The manufacture of arsenobenzol venereal-disease schemes on the principle of treating the infected. preparations spread during the War into the hands of a number The attendance at the centres in 1920 was 1,488,514 and in 1924 of firms each of which has attached to the same chemical comhad increased to 1,645,415 pounds trade names of their own to an extent which may be someGonorthoea.—No outstanding remedy has been discovered what bewildering to the uninitiated. analogous to that of arsenobenzol in syphils, but, particularly Every arsenobenzol compound is made in batches each of which since 1914, improvements in detail have made the diagnosis and receives a distinctive mark and must pass a certain test of toxicity cure of gonorrhoea more certain In diagnosis, improvements in and of therapeutic activity before it can be issued to the public. methods of cultivating the gonococcus on artificial media have The testing in Great Britain is carried out by the Medical Research placed the surgeon on firmer ground when determining the ques- Council. Experience has shown that, although the arsenobenzol tion of cure. In treatment the practice of administering vaccines preparations act very promptly, a number of injections in succesto raise the patient’s resistance has become much more common sive courses must be admunistered to secure eradication of syphilis In complications of gonofrhoea, such as gonorrhoeal rheumatism and that it is advisable to supplement them by administering and iat what is known as protein-shock therapy has proved another metallic compound useful. Arsenobenzol will not penetrate into the nerve tissue of the The remedies employed in this form of treatment are quite brain, and this limitation has led to the introduction of an arsenvaried; for example, colloidal silver or anti-typhoid vaccine in- ical preparation of another order, viz . tryparsamide or n-phenyl jected into a vein; milk or turpentine injected into the muscles. glycine-amido-p-arsonic acid into the therapy of locomotor ataxy They have the immediate effect of raising the patient’s tempera- and general paresis The results show generally that tryparsamide ture and by the next day there is usually a definite improvement is valuable for this purpose

VENEREAL In 1920 Sazerac and Levaditi showed that tartro-bismuthate of potassium and sodium is more powerful than mercury in destroymg the spirochaetes of syphilis, and a large number of bismuth preparations have been placed on the market since it was found that ıt ıs the metal rather than the compound which matters in the therapeutic action Generally it can be said that bismuth

injections effect more towards the cure of syphilis than do mercurial and that preparations of bismuth can be used which cause less discomfort than do any mercurial.

Bismuth is useless for the cure of syphilis if given by the mouth and its injection into veins 1s practised very little on account of its greater toxicity when administered by this route Bismuth 1s generally considered to be an adjuvant rather than a substitute for

arsenobenzol treatment It 1s retained in the tissues for long after a series of injections has been given, and it thus prolongs the anti-

syphihtic effect after all the arsenobenzol has been excreted.

The powerful effect of the arsenobenzol and bismuth compounds on the germ of syphilis has led to a number of experiments to determine whether or not they prevent the development of

syphilis after inoculation

There 1s strong evidence to the effect that a few arsenobenzol

injections given after contammmation with syphilitic virus does protect against the disease Kolle has produced experimental evidence tending to show that the injection of bismuth carbonate

protects against infection resulting from inoculation with syphilitic virus so long as the compound remams m the muscles Rabbits treated thus proved resistant to inoculation with syphilitic material for as long as tog days after injection of the bismuth The disadvantage of injections as a method of preventing syph-

ilis after venereal risk led Levaditi to try an arsemical compound called stovarsol or acetyl-oxyammo-phenyl arsenic acid, which is administered by the mouth There is good evidence that the ingestion of stovarsol in suitable doses prevents infection, but considerably more work on the subject will be necessary before So can safely be given to the public as a prophylactic against syphilis. General Paralysis of the Insane.—A great advance has been made in the treatment of a form of syphilis which is acknowledged to be the most incurable of all, namely general paralysis of the insane. This disease is one which has almost always ended fatally, defying the most intensive treatment by anti-syphilitic remedies. Its course is marked by remissions of varying length, during which the patient may appear to have recovered. It has been known for a century or more that an intercurrent infection ac-

companied by fever often results in a long remission, and this knowledge has led Wagner von Jauregg and his colleagues in Vienna since 1887 to inoculate patients with a variety of substances designed to make their temperatures rise The best of all the agents has proved to be the parasite of benign tertian malaria and since its introduction in 1919 the method has been tested all over the world. The results have been very encouraging The moculation is by injection of malarial blood or by the bites of infected mosquitoes, and eight to twelve attacks of fever are allowed before quinine is given. Brsriocraray —L. W

Harnson, “The Public Control of Venereal

Diseases,” St Thomas’ Hospital Gazette, vol 29, Nos. 7 and 8 (1913) ; L_ W Harnson, The Modern Diagnoss and Treatment of Syphilhs, Chancrotd and Gonorrkoea (1924); W. Kolle and K Zieler, Handbuch der Salvarsantherapie, Bd 1 and 2 (1924 and 1925) , Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report, Cd 8189 (1916); Ministry of Health Reports on Public Health and Medical subjects, No 1. The Complement Fixation Test ın Syphilis, Commonly Known as the Wassermann Test, HMS.O (x920); Mimstry of Health, Annual Reports (Stationery Office, London), Medical Research Counci, Special Report on laboratory diagnosis of gonococcal infections, No. 19, on laboratory tests of syphilis, Nos 14, 19, 21, 25, 45, 47, 55 and 78; on salvarsan, Nos 44 and 66 (Stationery Office, London); D'Arcy Power and J Keogh Murphy, A System of Syphihs, 6 vols (1908-10) ; C H Brownmg and I Mackenzie, Recent Advances in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Sypheks (and ed 1924, bibl); G Luys, A TextBook om Gonorrhea (3rd ed 1922); L W. Harrison, The Deagnosis and Treatment of Venereal Diseases in General Practice (3rd ed. 1926); J E R McDonagh, Venereal Diseases, their Clinical Aspect and Treatment (1920), N. P L. Lumb, Gonococcal Infection in the Male (1920); E Sergent, Traité de Pathologie Médicale, “Syphilis,”

DISEASES

45

vol 19 (1921), C F Marshall and E G. Ffrench, Syphzhs and Venereal Diseases (1921), which is the 4th ed of Syphilology and Venereal Disease (1906), E R T Clarkson, The Venereal Chmic (1022), A R Fraser, A Monograph on Gonorrhea (1923); D Thomson, of Gonococcal Infection by Diathermy (1925) (L. W.H ; X.)

CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES The plan which has been developed in the Umted States for combating the venereal diseases is the result of many years of scientific study. As early as 1912, there were organizations dealing with the venereal diseases and with prostitution, but in rgr4, it was recognized that any plan for combating venereal diseases must combine the social and legal with the medical and public health aspects and a national organization, the American Social Hygiene Association, which combmed im its programme all phases of the problem of combating venereal diseases was established. The entry of the United States mto the World War made it necessary for all medical and public health agencies of the country to consider what special measures could be taken to protect the armed forces of the United States from disability due to the venereal diseases Measures were instituted, therefore, in which the medical services of the army and navy, the U.S. Pubhc Health Service and other Federal Government agencies co-operated with the health departments of the States and cities, and with voluntary agencies such as the American Social Hygiene Association, in combating venereal diseases This plan of control has been continued, with various modifications, and provides for the prevention and treatment of venereal diseases through three mam groups of measures; viz., medical, legal and protective, and educational. Medical Measures.—It is an essential of the plan of control of the venereal diseases that facilities which are adequate, easily available and free when necessary, be provided for diagnosis and treatment. Responsibility for providing such facilities rests primarily upon the official health authorities of the various States and cities, and these are aided by national agencies, such as the U.S Public Health Service (official), and the American Social Hygiene Association (voluntary) In addition, many agencies, both public and private, are engaged in activities aiming through scientific research and better training of physicians and nurses to improve diagnostic and therapeutic materials and procedures Early diagnosis and thorough treatment of all infected persons 1s encouraged, and an organized effort is made to discover infected persons among the famulies and other associates of patients. In many States, reporting, or notification, of cases of syphilis or gonorrhea is required and the law gives the health authorities the power to isolate persons who are known to be infectious and who cannot be controlled by any other means The number of cases of syphilis notified each year approximates 200,000 and of gonorthea 160,000. Syphilis often stands first nm the total number of «cases of infectious diseases notified, outranking even measles; gonococcal infections stand fourth Studies as to the prevalence of syphilis and gonorrhea have been made in certain cities and States and these seem to show that a larger proportion of patients suffering from syphilis than of gonococcal infection place themselves under medical care. There are now in the United States approximately 650 clinics and dispensaries, where syphilis and gonorrhea are treated gratuitously or at nominal cost to the patients. In these clinics alone more than one million patients have been treated during the past eight years, and during the past year nerrly gcc oso sezol’ocical tests for syphilis were made by State laboratories ard $cc coo doses of arsenical preparations were dispensed by State health departments. But various studies indicate that of the patients under treatment the majority are under the care of private physicians. Thus, in New York State, private physicians were treating 61% of the cases of syphilis and 89% of the cases of gonorrhea. '

Educational Measutes.—Instruction of the general public in regard to venereal diseases is, like other phases of public health instruction, a duty of official health agencies, but such agencies as the American Social Hygiene Association, and its affiliated societies, co-operate in demonstrating to educational, social and religious institutions and associations in the United States the means

by which scientific sex instruction can be incorporated in the

46

VENETI—VENETIA

activities of schools colleges, churches, parent-teacher associations, girls’ and women’s clubs, and numerous other organizations. In general, it is the aim of educational measures to promote among the general public a sound knowledge of sex problems and to integrate sex education with all forms of instruction which have for their object the development of sound moral standards as well as a knowledge of the elements of personal hygiene, Specifically, in regard to the venereal diseases, the educational programme aims to make it impossible that any persons should be infected with syphilis or gonorrhea through ignorance of the seriousness of these diseases and the means of their spread, and by making the socially sound uses of sex more appealing through right understanding of their enriching personal bearings The methods and materials used in this educational work include lectures, motion pictures, exhibits and printed matter, and particularly the inclusion of the appropriate sex teaching in such subjects as physiology, hygiene, biology, sociology and psychology, in the schools and colleges Legal and Protective Measures.—These aim to reduce com-

mercialized prostitution and other forms of promiscuous conduct by either sex, because such conduct 1s antisocial and such persons

tend to become carriers and disseminators of venereal diseases. By providing opportunities for the wholesome use of leisure time, and through child guidance clinics, vocational adjustment bureaux, visiting teacher associations, voluntary protective agencies and women police, protective measures aim to prevent young people from forming habits and associations which may lead to promiscuity and prostitution Legal measures ınvolve the passage and enforcement of laws which penalize the recruitment, the exploitation and the traffic in women or girls for prostitution They aim also to repress the activities of prostitutes and of their male customers In addition to the passage of the necessary laws, legal measures include. the adequate training of the police, both men

and women. The responsibility for legal and protective measures rests upon the law enforcement and correctional officials and institutions of the cities, counties and States, and the Federal Government, In addition, numerous voluntary organizations, such as the American Social Hygiene Association, International Association of Policewomen, The Travellers Aid Society, and various local committees scattered about the country, aid and support the Government authorities The duty of supervision and improvement of facilities for recreation and amusements belong to various official agencies, but many voluntary organizations, particularly the Playground and Recreation Association, are engaged in demonstrating that much can be done for the health and morals of the public, and especially of young people, by means of supervised playgrounds, community centers and through the activities of such organizations as the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, the Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations, the Knights of Columbus, Young Men’s Hebrew Association, National W.C T U. and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers The US army and navy have continued plans of control of the venereal diseases, similar to those of the World War period. Conclusions as to Results.—It is too early yet to estimate the results of the public efforts which have been made to reduce and control the venereal diseases, but there are certain mdications of what may reasonably be expected in the future. The death rate from syphilis, locomotor ataxia and general paralysis of the insane combined has declined 20% between the peak in 1917-25 (from 19 8 per 100,000 to 15 8 per 100,000), despite constantly increasing ability to recognize syphilis in all its manifestations Figures from the Metropohtan Life Insurance Company showan even more marked downward trend im the death rate from syphilis The death rate from syphilis of infants under one year of age decreased about one-third during the same period (from 10s per 100,000

years of life to 71). Both army and navy incidence rates show a large net decrease over a period of 20 years or more It 1s reasonable to suppose that the combined medical, educational, legal and

protective measures will in the course of one or two decades give substantial results. Brsriocrapaey—W F. Snow, Venereal Diseases—Medical, Nursmg and Community Aspects (1924), W M. Brunet, Notes Regarding

Venereal Diseases ın the Industries (1926), W M Brunet and M S Edwards, A Survey of Venereal Disease Prevalence tn Detroit (1927) , T

Parran, Jr, the United States Public Smith and S D Collins, Venereal Dzsease

Health Service, We Prevalence tn r4 Com-

munit:es (1928) , the New York State Department of Health actıng ın

co-operation

with

the United

States

Public

Health

Service, Pre-

lminary Report of a One-Day Survey of Syphilis and Gonorrhea Prevalence in Up-state New York (1927), W Healy and A F Bronner, Delinquents and Criminals (1926) , B Johnson, Law Enforcement m Soctal Hygiene (1924), Special Body of Eaperts on, “Traffic in

Women and Children,” Report Pt. 1 and 2, League of Nations (1927) ; C Owings, Women Police (1925); G E Worthington and R Topping, Specialised Courts Dealing with Sey Delinquency (1925), T M_Balhet, Introduction of Sex Education ın Public Schools (New York, 1927), M A Bigelow, The Established Points an Social Hygiene Education (1905-24), M A Bigelow, Adolescence (1924), T W Gallo-

way, Sex and Social Health (1924), T W

Galloway, Parenthood and

Character Tramaing of Children (1927), B C_ Gruenberg, Parents and Sex Education (1923), H B Torrey, Beolugy im the Flementary Schools and Its Contrebution to Sex Education (1927), US Public Health Service, Sex Education a Sympostum for Educators (1927),

C-E the private cult of Vesta and the dz senc’es (q9) m every household, a public cult of a sacred royal hearth, never allowed to go out, tended by girls (Virgines Vestales) whose service begins when they are from six to ten years old (Gellius, i. 12, 1), and lasts onginally for five years (Dion. Hal., i. 76, 3), że, till they are old enough for marrage, or at least bethrothal. The earliest cult of this kind was supposed to he that at Lavinium; the most famous was at Rome. In Republican times, the pontifex maximus took the place of the king for many sacred purposes The Vestals, whose number was six, and whose term of service had now been lengthened to 30 years, were in his charge, being freed from the potestas of their own fathers. They must, when chosen, be of the required age, free-born of free-born and respectable parents (although later, daughters of freedmen were eligible), having both parents alive (patrimae et matrimae), and free from physical and mental defects. The ponttfex took the candidate by the hand, pronouncing a formula of admission to the sacred office; her hair was cut and the cuttings hung on a certain tree, she was dressed in an ancient costume, identical with that of a bride From this it does not follow that she was the wife of either fire-god or king (Klausen, Frazer, Wissowa), but rather that the bride’s dress was that of a virgin. If a Vestal let the fire go out she was beaten On such occasions, and also apparently once a year, when ıt was solemnly extinguished and re-lighted at the New Year (March tr), the fire was re-kindled by friction of wood (the use of a burning-glass, Plut., Numa 9, if Roman at all, ıs çertainly a late innovation). If found guilty of unchastity, she was subjected to an ordeal which amounted to a horrible form of capital punishment; she was shut up with a little food in an

underground cell, which was covered over with earth. The Vestals’ duties, besides the tending of the fire, comprised the

fetching of water from a sacred spring (Vesta would have no water from the city mains), the preparation of sacred food-stuffs (muries, or brine, and mola salsa, coarse meal mixed with salt) for ritual purposes; also the custody of various holy objects, said to include the Palladium (g.v) in the penus Vestoe or storechamber of the shrine of Vesta, which was so holy that no one but a Vestal might enter it. They took part in ceremonies of various kinds, besides Vesta’s own elaborate daily ritual. Further, the privileges accorded to the Vestals, and especially those

which were extended to their semor, the Virgo Maxima, were those of princesses The shrine of Vesta stood in the Forum, near the Regia, or

palace of the kings.

It was not technically a templum but a

round structure, a stone imitation of the primitive “bee-hrve” hut. When Augustus became pontifex maxımus, he built a sec-

ond shrine of Vesta on the Palatine and handed over the Regia to the Vestals. They also had for their quarters the splendid Atrium Vestae, between the shrine and the Velia. Their cult continued in great honour throughout the empire, until the abolition of pagan worship by the Christian emperors. Gratian confiscated the Atrium Vestae in 382. Considerable ruins of both it and the shrine are still to be seen; the former contains numerous

statues (all late) of Vestals. The shrine contamed no statue, the eternal fire serving instead Images of Vesta of any kind are rare; when shown in art she is represented as a woman fully draped, sometimes accompanied by an ass. Her festival, the Vestala, was on June 9; thereafter, until June 15, the shrine was closed for the annual ceremonial cleans. ing. This period was deemed highly unlucky Allied deities were the very old pair of fire-gods, Cacus and Caca, probably belonging to the Palatine settlement, and the later Fornax, spirit of the baker’s oven (hence Vesta’s associa. tion with the ass, which turns the mill; bakers ın early Rome were also millers). Bmærrocrarmy —Besides the hterature given under HESTIA, see A, Wissowa, Relzgion u Kultus, and ın Roscher, art VESTA, these give Frazer, Golden Bough, u, p. 195 ff., H J. Rose, Primsteve Culture wn Italy, p. 81 ff, and in numerous references to earlier literature, J. G

Mnemosyne

(1928), p. 410 ff.

(H.J R)

VESTERAS or Westeris, a town and bishop’s see of Swe: den, capital of the district (Jan) of Vestmanland, on a northern bay of Lake Malar, 60 m NW by W of Stockholm by rail Pop. (1928), 29,160. The original name of the town was Vestra Aros (“western mouth”), in distinction from Östra Aros, the former name of Uppsala Several national diets were held in Vesteras, the most notable being those of 1527, when Gustavus Vasa formally introduced the Reformation into Sweden, and 1544, when he had the Swedish throne declared hereditary in his family. Its Gothic cathedral, rebuilt by Birger Jarl on an earlier site, and consecrated in 1271, was restored in 1850-7 6o, and again in 1896-98. The episcopal library contains the valuable collection of books which Oxenstjerna, the chancellor of Gustavus Adolphus, brought away from Mainz near the end of the Thirty Years’ War. A castle overlooking the town was captured by Gustavus Vasa and rebuilt by him, and again in the 17th century, and remains the seat of the provincial Government. .

VESTINI, an ancient Sabine tribe which occupied the east-

ern and northern bank of the Aternus ın central Italy It entered into the Roman alliance, retaining 1ts own independence, in 304 BC., and issuing coins of its own in the following century. A northerly section round Amiternum near the passes into Sabine country probably received the Caerite franchise soon after. The local dialect, which belongs to the north Oscan group, survived certainly to the middle of the znd century Bc. (see the inscriptions cited below) and probably until the Social War The oldest Latin inscriptions of the district are CJL ix. 3,521, from Furfo with Sullan alphabet, and 3,574, which cannot be earlier than

100 B.C. (see LATIN Lancuace). The Latin first spoken by the Vestini was not that of Rome, but that of their neighbours the Marsi and Aequi (gg v.). The inscription of Scoppito shows that at the time at which it was written the upper Aternus valley must be counted Vestine, not Sabine, in point of dialect. BIBLIOGRAPHY —See PArLIcNI and Sas, and for the inscriptions and further details, R. S. Conway, Italıc Dzalects, pp. 258 et seq.

VESTMENTS,

ceremonial garments worn by priests and

others in performing the offices of religion. Ecclesiastical vestments, to which this article is confined, are the special articles of costume worn by the officers of the Christian Church “at all times of their ministration,” as distinct from the “clerical costume” worn in everyday life. Ecclesiastical vestments may be divided into two categories: (1) liturgical, (2) non-liturgical. Liturgical vestments are again divided, under the completed rules of the Catholic Church, into three classes: (r) Those worn only at the celebration of mass—chasuble, maniple, pontifical shoes and

VESTMENTS gloves, pallium; (2) those never worn at mass, but at other liturgical functions—surplice and cope; (3) those used at both—alb, amice, stole, dalmatic, tunicle

Non-hturgical vestments are those

—e g , cappa magna, rochet—which have no sacred character, have

come unto use from motives of convenience or as ensigns of dig-

nity, and are worn at secular as well as ecclesiastical functions.

Origin of Ecclesiastical Vestments.—The liturgical vestments of the church are not, as was once supposed, borrowed from the sacerdotal ornaments of the Jewish ritual, but were developed out of the articles of dress worn by all and sundry under the Roman empire Thus in the 37th of the so-called “canons of Hippolytus” we

read’ “As often as the bishops would partake of the Mysteries, the presbyters and deacons shall gather round him clad in white,

quite particularly clean clothes, more beautiful than those of the rest of the people ” When, in the year 258, St. Cyprian was led to martyrdom, he wore (see Braun, Die hturgische Gewandung, 1907, p 65) an under tunic (mea), an upper tunic (tumca dalmatıca) and mantle (lacerna, byrrus) ‘This was the ordinary type of the civil costume of the time The tunica, a loose sack-hke tunic with a hole for

100

the popes had succeeded to a share of the power and pretensions of the Caesars of the West, the accumulation of ecclesiastical vestments symbolized a very special dignity: ın the second quarter of the 9th century the pope, when fully vested, wore a camisia girdled (see Rocwet), an alb (nea) girdled, an amice (anagolaum), a tunicle (dalmatica manor), a dalmatic (dalmatsca mayor), stole (orarium), chasuble (planeta) and palhum With the exception of the pallium, this was also the costume of the Roman deacons By this time, moreover, the hturgical character of the vestments was so completely established that they were no longer worn instead of, but over, the ordinary dress. Hitherto the example of the Roman Church had exercised no exclusive determining mnfluence on ritual development even in the West The popes had, from tine to tume, sent the palhum or the dalmatic—specifically Roman vestments—as gifts of honour to various distinguished prelates; Britain, converted by a Roman mission, had adopted the Roman use, and English missionaries had carned this into the newly Christianized parts of Germany, but the great Churches of Spain and Gaul preserved their own traditions in vestments as m other matters From the gth century onwards, however, after the revival of the Roman empire by

Charlemagne, this was changed, everywhere in the West the Roman use ousted-the regional uses The process of assimilation, however, was by no means onesided If Spain and Gaul borrowed from Rome, they also exercised a reciprocal influence on the Roman use; it 1s interesting in civil life, but ıt was retained in the services of the Church and to note, in this connection, that of the names of the liturgical developed into the various forms of the liturgical alb (qv) and vestments a very large proportion are not of Roman origin, and surplice (gv) The tunica dalmatica was a long, sleeved upper that the non-Roman names tended to supersede the Roman in tunic, originating, as its name implies, in Dalmatia, and first Rome itself. Apart from the archiepiscopal pallium, the Churches becoming fashionable at Rome in the 2nd century, it is the origin of Spain and Gaul had need to ‘borrow from Rome only the dalof the liturgical dalmatic and tunicle (see Darmatic) Another matic, maniple and Lturgical shoes The period between the gth and the r3th centuries is that of over-dress of the Romans was the paenula, a cloak akin to the poncho of the modern Spaniards and Spanish Americans, że, a the final development of the liturgical vestments in the West In the oth century appeared the pontifical gloves; in the roth, the large piece of stuff with a hole for the head to go through, hanging in ample folds round the body This was originally worn only by mitre, in the r1th, the use of liturgical shoes and stockings was reserved for cardinals and bishops By the rath century, mitre slaves, soldiers and other people |jand gloves were worn by all bishops of low degree, m the 3rd century, In an age when, with the feudal organization of society, even however, 1t was adopted by fasheveryday costume was becoming a uniform, symbolizing the exact 1onable people as a convenient status of the wearer, it was natural that in the Church the official riding or travelling cloak; and ‘vestments should undergo a similar process With this process, finally, by the sumptuary law dewhich was practically completed in the rrth century, doctrinal creed by the emperor Theodosius ' | developments had little or nothing to do, though from the gth mn 382, it was prescribed as the ‘century onwards hturgiologists were busy expounding the mystic proper everyday dress of senasy™:Lo:isn of garments which hitherto had for the most part no tors, instead of the military Yet m view of later controversies, the q symbolism whatever chlamys, the toga being reserved changes made during this period, notably in the vestments confor state occasions. This was the nected with the mass, are not without significance Hitherto the ongin of the principal liturgical ichasuble had been worn indifferently by all ministers at the euchavestment, the chasuble (g v ) rist, even by the acolytes; ıt had been worn also at processions and As late as the 6th century these other non-liturgical functions, ıt was now exalted into the mass garments were common both to vestment par excellence New vestments took the place, on less the clergy and laity, and, so far solemn occasions, of those hallowed by association with the holy as their character was concerned, ' | sacrifice; thus the processional cope (qv) appeared in the 11th were used both in the liturgy and century and the surplice (g v ) in the 12th. A change, too, came in everyday lfe Meanwhile, ‘| over the general character of vestments. Up to the gth century however, a certain development these had been very plain, what splendour they had was due to had taken place By the 4th CEN- FROM BRAUN, “DIE LITURGISCHE GEWANDUNG tury ‘the garments worn at litur- Im-OCCIDENT e i (HERDEN, FREI their material and the ample folds of their draperies But from this tıme onwards they tend to become more and more elaborately gical functions had been sepa- Fic. 1.—VESTMENTS OF POPE HONrated from those in ordinary use, ORIUS (D. 638), FROM A MOSAIC decorated with embroidery and jeweller’s work (see, e.g, the articles CHASUBLE and CoPE) though still identical in form, IN S. AGNESE IN ROME Very significant, too, is the parting of the ways in the developIt is in the 4th century, too, that the first distinctive vestment makes its appearance, the omophorion worn by all bishops’ ment of liturgical vestments ım the East and West. During the first centuries both branches of the Church had used vestments in the East; in the sth century we find this in use at Rome under the name of pallum (av) as the distinctive ornament of the substantially the same, developed from common originals; the alb, chasuble, stole and pallium were the equivalents of the stistole pope (see fig 1) .\bour the same time the orarsum, or (gz). becomes fixed in L‘urgical use The main development and charion, phenailion, orarion and omophorion. While, however, between the oth and r3th centuries, the Western Church was adding detniuion of the ecclesias.ical vestments, however, took place between the 6th and oth centuries. The secular fashions altered largely to her store of vestments, that of the East increased her

the head, was the innermost garment worn by all classes of Roman citizens under the republic and empire The tunica was originally

of white wool, but in the 3rd century it began to be made of hnen, and from the 4th century was always of linen About the 6th century the long żumca alba (white tunic) went out of fashion

with changes of taste, but the Church retained the dress with the other traditions of the Roman empire

At Rome, especially, where

list by but three, the encheirion, epimanikia (see ManierE) and the sakkos (see DALMATIC).

VESTMENTS

IIO

In the Western Church, though considerable alterations con- | which holds together the two vestments above named; (4) the tinued to be made in the shape and decoration of the liturgical epunanskia, liturgical cuffs, corresponding, possibly, to the ponti. vestments, and mn this respect various Churches developed different fical gloves of the West; (5) the epigonatzon, a stuff lozenge-shaped traditions, the definition of their use was established by the close piece of stuff hanging at the right side by a piece of riband from of the 13th century and still continues im force, Before discussing the girdle or attached to the sakkos, the equivalent of the Western the changes made in the Reformed Churches, due to the doctrinal maniple (g.v ); (6) the sakkos, like the Western dalmatic (q.v,), developments of the 16th century, we may therefore give here a worn instead of the pkainohon, or chasuble; (7) the omophorion, list of the vestments now worn by the various orders of clergy in the equivalent of the Western pallium (g.v,), Besides these, the the Roman Catholic Church and the Oriental Churches bishop wears a pectoral cross Roman Catholic Church,— work on the Remarriage of Hindu Widows. Such a work, from a learned and presumably orthodox Brahman, aroused a storm of indignation He appealed to the British government to declare that the sons of remarried Hindu widows should be considered legitimate heirs The act was passed in 1856, and some years after Iswar Chandra’s own. son was married to a widow In the last years of his life Iswar Chandra wrote works against Hindu polygamy He was as well known for his lavish charity and wide philanthropy as for his educational and social reforms He received the C.LE. in 1880 He died on July 29, 189x (R C.D) VIEBIG, CLARA (1860_—+),German novelist, was born on July 17, 1860, at Trier, and educated at Disseldorf and at the Berlin high school of music She married m 1896 Fritz Cohn, and has one son. She began by writing stories of the Eifel country, in which she was born, Kinder der Esfel (r897) Among the most famous of her earliest novels was Das schlafende Heer (1904), the scene of which is laid in German Poland; in this book there is no extenuation of the faults of either Germans or Poles Among her other works are. Einer Mutter Sohn (1906), Tochter der Hekuba (1917), Unter dem Freiheitsbaum (1924), and Die Passion (1926)

Span , Ital, Ger. and French translations have gone through several editions, Hzstoria do Futuro (Lisbon, 1718), this and the Quinto Imperio and the Clavis Prophetarum seem to be ın essence one and

the same book in different redactions Cartas (Letters) (3 vols, Lisbon, 1735-46). Notzczas reconditas do modo de proceder a Inquesccéo de Portugal com os seus presos (Lisbon, 1821). The Arte de Furtar published under Vieira’s name 1s not his. A badly edited edition of Vieira’s works m 27 vols appeared im Lisbon, 1854-58, there are unpublished mss of his ın the British Museum and Bubliothèque Nationale, and a bibhography will be found in Sommervogel, Bibhothéque de la compagnre de Jésus, vi. 653-85 See also André de Barros, Vzda (Lisbon, 1746), a Jesuit panegyric, D Francisco Alexandre Lobo bishop of Vizeu, “Historical and Critical Discourse,” Obras (Lisbon, 1849), vol’ 1n, a valuable study, Joao Francisco Lisboa, Vda (sth ed, Rio, 1891), be 1s unjust to Vieira, but may be consulted to check the next writer, Abbé E Carel, Viewa, sa vie et ses oeuvres (Paris, 1879) , Luiz Cabral, Vierra, brog, caractère, éloquence (Pans, 1900); tbid, Vieira pregador (2 vols., Oporto, 90r), Sotero dos Reis, Curso de htteratura Portugueza e Brazileira, vii 121-244

VIELLE, a French term, derived from Lat. fidicula, embracing two distinct types of instruments. (1) from the 12th to the beginning of the 15th century bowed instruments having a box-

soundchest with ribs; (2) from the middle or end of the xsth century, the hurdy-gurdy (qv). The most common shape given to the earliest vielles in France was an oval, which with its modtfications remained in favour until the guttar-fiddle, the Italian lyra, asserted itself as the finest type, from which also the violin was directly evolved

VIENNA, the capital of the Austrian republic, has the status

of an autonomous federal province and its municipal council fulfils the functions of a provincial diet The city hes at the eastern foot of the Wiener Wald, on the right bank of the Danube within easy VIEIRA, ANTONIO (1608~1697), Portuguese Jesuit, writer reach of a number of contrasted physical and economic regions and orator, was born at Lisbon on Feb. 6, 1608. He went with Here many of the great routes from north to south and west to his parents to Brazil in 1615, was educated by the Jesuits at east intersect while close at hand runs the hnguistic frontier beBahia, and entered the order, receiving the pnesthood in 1635. tween German, Slav and Magyar From the multiplicity of these He at once made his mark as a preacher He was sent, in 1640, contacts Vienna acquired a cultural leadership that placed ıt in ‘with the viceroy’s son to congratulate John IV of Portugal on the forefront of European cities Only an arm of the river, the his accession, and was employed on various important diplo- Danube canal, passes through Vienna The main river was develmatic missions to England, France, Holland and Italy Vieira was oped between 1870 and 1877, and now has a quay length on the full of new and progressive ideas and advocated in a series of right bank of about 9m with accommodation in a winter harbour, important pamphlets the abolition of the distinction between Old Freudenau, to shelter above 500 barges of ySoo-700 tons cargo and: New Christians, the reform of the procedure of the inquisi- capacity. Navigation is possible for about 300 days per year tion, and the admission to Portugal of Jewish and foreign traders The new channel has an average width of grs ft ; bordering rts ‘As a young man he had determmed to serve the negro slaves left bank is a free flood space about + m. in width, separated by and the native Indians, and on his return in 1653 he resumed a dam from houses that stretch to the old course of the Danube his gréat missionary work among the Indians He was hindered The city is divided into 21 districts of which the Inner Town in every possible way by the Colonial authorities, and decided on the right bank of the Danube canal is the nucleus The fortifithat the only way to ensure the success of his mission was to cations which girdled this old town were removed in 1858-60 secure the withdrawal of the Indians from the jurisdiction of the and replaced by a magnificent boulevard—the Ringstrasse—2 m governors'and to place them under that of the Society In 1654 long and 150 ft. in width, planted with four rows of trees and he sailed to Lisbon, and there secured from the king the necessary lined with splendid buildings and monuments Near the centre of decrees, During the next six years he organized the new control this inner city is the cathedral of St Stephen, a Gothic building

VIENNA

ee

PLATE

Uesetae

F

BY COURTESY

OF

(2) THE AUSTRIAN

TOURIST

OFFICE,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1, 3, 4, 5, 6) PUBLISHERS

SCENES 1. Schonbrunn Palace and gardens on the outskirts of Vienna. Used as a summer residence by the imperial family The Imperial Museums of Fine Arts and Natural History. Bullit 187089, the museums are simllar in their detail 3. A sectlon of the Parllament building. The Greclan style has been adapted to modern requirements A colossal 4. Entrance to one of the many amusement parks In Vienna Ferris wheel seen Inside the gates

2

PHOTO

SERVICE,

(7)

POSTKARTEN-INDUSTRIE,

A

G

IN VIENNA 5. The Hofburg

(Imperial

Palace)

a huge complex

of bulldings

of various

styles and epochs. The oldest part dates from the 13th century

6. The Vienna Opera house Interior vies Opera house of Paris Built 1861-69

7. Spire of St. Stephen’s garded

1860-64

as

one

Cathedral

of the

finest

In sumptuousness

towerlng Gothic

450

spires

with

ft. In the alr and in the

world.

the

re-

Rebullt

VIENNA

L41 VIENNA Scale

1 45000

Scale of| Mile

Scajecf Kilometres

=-ay

a Lt

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dating mainly from the 14th and xr5th centuries, but incorporating | monument. Adjoming the museums to the west is the palace fragments of the original 12th century edifice, destroyed by fire | of justice (2881) burned during mots in 1927, and the houses 1193 Among its many impressive features may be mentioned | of parhament (1883) m modified Grecian style. Beyond these the lofty tower (450 ft ), rebuilt in 1860-64, the catacombs, the | stands the new Rathaus (1873-83), a very large and lavishly groined ceiling, the 35 marble altars and the sarcophagus of Fred- | decorated building separated from the Ring by the Rathaus park erick III This district 1s rich in Baroque buildings, many occu- | This edifice 1s m modern Gothic style which ıs a striking conpied by Government departments, banks and other commercial | trast to the Classical and Renaissance styles so strongly repreorganizations, for it is gradually ceasing to be a residential neigh- | sented in Viennese architecture To the north stands the univerhourhood, here too are situated the larger and most fashionable | sity, an example of Renaissance style (1873-74), even larger than shops, particularly in the Graben thoroughfare the Rathaus. The university, the oldest German foundation South-west of the cathedral and near the Ring is the Hofburg, | (1365), has done much to raise Vienna to its high position as a huge complex of buildings of various periods and styles enclos- | one of the leaders of culture amongst the European nations and ing a number of courtyards, the oldest parts datimg from the| 1ts medical faculty 1s of world-wide reputation. The university 13th century but mcluding extensive additions smce 1887. As a | library with 1,060,000 volumes is very well-equipped. former imperial palace 1t abounds in magnificently appointed pri-| Other important buildings of the Rugstrasse include the Opera vate and State apartments, numerous valuable collections and | (1861-69), in French early Renaissance style. On the eastern the National Library of about 1,200,000 volumes, 34,000 mss., | side lies the Town park, rich in monuments The Inner town 91,000 maps, 81,000 papyri, includmg the famous “Papyrus | and its immediate neighbourhood is still, unlike the older parts Rammer,” and a Jarge collection of musical and dramatic works, | of most European towns, the fashionable quarter, containing The Hofburg is separated from the Ring by handsome and | many of the embassies and legations, the government offices and spacious parks, the Hofgarten and Volksgarten Other notable | the principal hotels; it is also the mchest in handsome buildings buildings in the old town include the r4th century Gothic Augus-} Across the Danube canal and between it and the main stream tine and Maria Stiegen churches, the Minorite church of simular | le Leopoldstadt and Bngittenau, the only districts on the left date and style containing a remarkable mosaic of Leonardo da | bank of the canal The former is the chief commercial quarter Vincr’s “Last Supper” by Raffaeli, the richly-frescoed Baroque | and is still inhabited to a great extent by Jews. Around the Ring churches of St Peter (1702-13) and the university (1625-31), | stretches a girdle of nine inner suburbs once bound to the inner

the Capuchin church, the 13th century Schotten church (restored | town by a second lne of fortifications (1706) known as the 1828-83), the church of St. Ruprecht first built in 740 and the | Lines. These were rased in 1893 and a second wide boulevard old Rathaus (Gurtelstrasse) follows their course around the city.

Beyond the imposing Ring and grouped around it are a num-| Vienna is richly endowed in museums, picture-galleries and other ber of impressive buildmgs and parks Opposite the Hofburg | marks of cultural leadership, stored with masterpieces represenstand the museums of natural history and art, two domed| tative of all types, masters and periods In addition it possesses Renaissance buildings dating from 1872-81, identical in con- | many private exhibitions of note. Every form of intellectual destruction but separated by gardens containing the Maria Teresa | velopment, artistic, musical and scientific in all its branches, has

142

VIENNA

its representative collections supplemented by large libraries belonging to the state, city, private societies or monastic orders In itself it 1s a museum of architecture and a city of open spaces and parks, amongst which may be mentioned the Prater (2,000 ac ), 4 wooded park on the west side of the river between the Danube and the Danube canal Situated at an altitude of about 550 ft above sea-level, it has a healthy and agreeable chmate The mean annual temperature is 49 4° F and the range about 40° F The climate 1s changeable but stimulating, lable to rapid falls of temperature and sudden storms especially in spring and autumn, and the rainfall amounts to 27 in a year. Its water supply is drawn from the Alps by aqueducts Though 1t has suffered loss both in population and trade by the war Vienna has gathered to itself much of the mdustrial lıfe of Austria and still holds a high place amongst the world’s cities as a producer of artistic fancy goods, notably leather, jewellery, objets d'art, silks, clothing, millinery and other luxury goods In addition it has manufactures of optical instruments, metal wares, heavy iron and steel machinery and rolling stock, furniture, paper, beer, textiles and chemicals and is an important publishing centre

which he invested and forced to capitulate, annulling many o

privileges The era of the earlier Habsburgs was generally fortunate; the plague, the visitations of robbers and condoti the financial crisis and monetary depreciation, and the ceas internecine wars of the Habsburgs hit the city hard, yet it mained a wealthy and important centre, and some of the H burgs were its generous patrons, notably Rudolph IV, founded the university (1356) and did much for the reconst tion of the Stefanskirche Under Frederick IV. Vienna at preserved neutrality, but it was the centre of the mover against Frederick led by E1czing, and after Archduke Albr had twice stormed the city in 1458, a radical opposition

formed, and Frederick was besieged in the Hofburg (14 Frederick never liked Vienna, residing for preference in Wi Neustadt, and later in Linz; Matthias Corvinus of Hung

however, after taking Vienna, made 1t his residence. Maximil showed an equal lack of interest in Vienna; and Ferdinanc on atriving in Austria, found Vienna entirely old-fashioned other great fire raged in 1525, and in 1529 the city hac stand a siege from the Turkish troops The suburbs were serted, and more and more inhabitants crowded into the and also has a thriving film mdustry. As a transit centre it is town. Rudolph II, resided in Prague; but Ferdinand II retu recovering its old importance. The revival of the Industrial Fair, to Vienna, which remained the residence of the Habsburgs electrification of the city belt railway, the transformation of The spiritual forces of the Counter-Reformation were what ¢ palaces, even parts of the Hofburg, into offices, shops and public Vienna its most characteristic aspect The period of early baro halls, of old imperial gardens into public parks, schemes of hous- saw the foundation of a number of churches—the Franciscans, ing, these and many other activities for ultimate social welfare Jesuits, the Capucines and many more, including a number | are indicative of a progressive spirit somewhat foreign to popular side the city walls, such as the Barmherziger Bruder, the Paula ideas of the Viennese Schwarzspanier and the Barnabiten, with a smaller output The population of Vienna numbered in 1923 1,866,147 inhabiother buildings such as the Archbishop’s palace The second s tants on an area of 107 sqm., compared with the population of of Vienna by the Turks (1683) was the indirect cause of 2,031,498 in 1910 and 1,841,326 m 1920 By virtue of its situation appearance of the characteristic Viennese cafés, almost sin the population of Vienna has always been of a very cosmopolitan taneously with another no less characteristically Viennese proc character with a preponderance of the German element. The

break up of the empire caused many of the Hungarians, Czechs and other Slavs to leave the city but increased the proportion of Jews, which rose from 9% (1910) to 11%.

of the Orient—the lilac, first planted in Vienna, to spread the

over Western Europe. The disappearance of the Turkish dar ushered in a time of rapid expansion; the Hofburg was rebi its library and stables constructed, together with a number See F. Heiderich, Wien als Europaischer Verkehrsknotenpunkt. buildings ın sumptuous baroque style’ the Karlskirche, the Pet: “Handelsmuseum” (Vienna, 1920), Collection by Vienna University Wien, sein Boden und seine Geschichte (Vienna, 1924); and the vol- kirche, the Reichskanzlei, Hofreitschule and Burgerliches Ze umes of the Heiderich-Festschrift “Zur Geographie des Wiener Beck- haus, the Pestsaule m the Graben, the Josefssaule in the He ens” (Vienna, 1923), which treat of all aspects of the geography of Markt, the Lichtenstein, Starhemberg, Schwarzenberg, Kin: Vienna, League of Nations, The Financial Reconstruction of Austria Esterhazy and Prince Eugen palaces. The Belvedere palace (Geneva, 1926). (WSL) built 1717-24; Schonbrunn was begun about 1695, but HISTORY finished till half a century later The architecture of the le Under the name of Vindobona Vienna was a Celtic settlement 18th century is by comparison sober and practical and later Roman garrison town The Roman fortress stood on the The reign of Francis I. created the typical Viennese of traditi small eminence bounded N. by the modern Salzgries, E by the frivolous, non-political, discontented, easy-going, “Alt-Wien” ¥ Rotenturmstrasse, S by the Graben and W by the Tiefer its waltzes, its Prater and its political spies The revolution Graben Here Marcus Aurelius is supposed to have died (AD. 1848 showed that even the Viennese were not patient for œ 180) During the period of the Great Migrations and the suc- Its main driving forces in Vienna were the students and the wc ceeding centuries its traces were lost; but tradition ascribes the men of the suburbs, in which a dense industrial population had foundation of the St. Peter’s Church to Charlemagne (ap 800), gun to grow up with the development of machmery Again Vie the Church of St Rupprecht being older still. After the estab- suffered a siege; this time from the troops of its own empe lishment of the Ostmark (see AustTRIA) it revived In 1137 by whom it was quickly reduced The modern period un “Wienne” is mentioned as a “crvitas ” Francis Joseph saw another transformation The old ramp: In that year Henry Jasomurgott chose it as capital of the duchy and glacis were levelled, the great Ringstrasse built in therr ple of Austria, establishing his court Am Hof outside the old walls Round it a number of great buildings were erected in van The cathedral (Stefanskirche) was founded in the same year; a styles; the Opera, the new Rathaus, the Parliament, the Bu commercial town grew up round it, and a ghetto round the theater, the new university and the Votivkirche In the lat present Judenplatz Later, under the Babenberger, Vienna became half of the roth century the population of Vienna grew vi an important trading centre, largely thanks to new relations great rapidity. The inner ring of suburbs was entirely inc between East and West established by the Crusades It was also porated with the city, which stretched out beyond the “Vorortlin the centre of a brilliant court life and of an important school to the outer ring, swallowing up many of the vineyards on wh of lyric poetry (Walter von der Vogelweide, etc), while the much of Vienna’s old fame had rested The municipality ag great epics of the Niebelungen and the Gudrun were composed became a powerful political force, and once agam came i near its walls By the end of this period it had grown to about conflict with the emperor, who had twice refused to confirm the size of the present Innere Stadt; many monastic orders were appointment of Karl Lueger as Burgomaster of Vienna established here, ahd many churches built; although owing to After the World War and revolution of 1918, which cau the numerous fires and later rebuilding, none of these have kept untold suffering in Vienna, partially relieved by the general eff their original form of many foreign charitable organizations, the power passed The Habsburg Rule—tThe first Habsburg to enter Vienna the Social Democratic party Vienna became capital of the r as ruler, Albert, carne into immediate conflict with the city, Austrian republic, receiving the status of a province in 1g2r. 1

VIENNA

143

Social Democratic municipality embarked on a far-reaching and ambitious programme of social reform, which mcluded a serious attempt to grapple with the very acute housing problem BrsuiocraPHy —F Tschischka, Geschichte der Stadt Wren (Stutt-

was to be summoned only when all was ready. This was the situation which Talleyrand found when he arrived on Sept. 24 He refused to accept it and was supported by Labrador He denied that either the “four” or the “six” were gart, 1852), M. Bermann, Alt- und Neu-Wien (1880); K Wess, legally constituted bodies, and desired that the congress should Geschichte der Stadt Wien (1883); E Gugha, Geschichte der Stadt Wien (1892), K E Schimmer, Alt- und Neu-Wien, 2 vols. (1904); be summoned to elect a directing committee. If there was any H Tietze, Wien (2nd ed, Leipzig, 1923), R. Kralik, Geschichte der other body which had any nghts it was the “eight” Powers who Stadt Ween (1926) Publications of the “Verem fur Geschichte der had signed the Pans treaties The ‘four’ were much disturbed, Stadt Wien” (formerly Altertumsverein) 1897 et seg (L. LI) for they knew that all the smaller Powers would support TalleyVIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815) The fall of rand if they gave him the chance of appealing to them But they had no intention of giving way, and refused to summon a meeting Napoleon left the disposition of his empire to the four Powers who had overthrown hum—Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain. Other of all the plenipotentiames, A notice was issued that the opening countries, of whom Spain, Portugal and Sweden were the most of the congress was postponed till Nov. 1. No solution could be important and signed the Treaties of Paris, May 30, 1814, had found, however, and after a meeting of the “eight” on Oct. 30 shared in this task, but the four greater Powers were bound to- the opening was again postponed Meanwhile the work of the congress proceeded without the gether by a special alliance (Treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814). Thus though the treaties with France stipulated that all coun- sanction of the main body of plenipotentiaries. The “four” discussed the main territorial problems informally amongst themtres who bad taken part in the war should send plenipotentiaries to a congress at Vienna, the four Powers meant to make the deci- selves. The “eight” assumed the formal direction of the congress; a committee of German states met to draw up a constitution for sions themselves, and, as they could not agree at Paris, bound France by a secret article of the treaties to recognize these deci- Germany, and q special committee on Switzerland was appointed by the “four,” Talleyrand was thus excluded from the main work sions at a future date, The Delegates.—Thus the meeting at Vienna, where repre- of the congress, but his protests on behalf of the smaller Powers sentatives began to arrive towards the end of September, was grew fainter as he realised that the “four” were not in agreement, meant to be merely a convenient assembly to ratify the decisions Castlereagh and Metternich gradually won his confidence and at of the “four.” Nevertheless, all Europe sent its most important last insisted on France being admitted to the “four” The “four” statesmen Metternich, principal minister of Austria since 1809, thus became the “five” and it was this committee of five which naturally represented his Emperor Francis II, a stubborn man was the real Congress of Vienna. Between Jan. 7 and Feb, 13 it who sometimes had a policy of his own Wessenberg, an ambas- settled the frontiers of all territomes north of the Alps and laid sador, Gentz, a journalist of great capacity, who acted as secre- the foundations for the settlement of Italy. In this it was much

tary of the congress, and Hudelist, a permanent official, were his principal assistants. The brillant, but wayward and emotional, Alexander I, of Russia directed his own diplomacy His servants who were mainly foreigners, cluded Capo d’ Istria (a Greek), Stein (the regenerator of Prussia), Nesselrode (of German blood), Laharpe (his Swiss tutor), and Czartoryski (a Pole), The weak Frederick William IIX., of Prussia had as his principal minister Prince von Hardenberg, who had lost credit owing to physical infirmities, but was ably seconded by the celebrated Wilhelm von Humboldt and some efficient civil servants Great Britain was represented by the foreign minister Lord Castlereagh, the creator of the Alhance of Chaumont Waith him were Lord Clancarty, Lord Stewart and Lord Cathcart, He had a small but capable staff including Edward Cooke, under-secretary of State for foreign affairs When Castlereagh had to return to his parlamentary duties the duke of Wellington replaced him and Lord Clancarty was principal representative after the duke’s departure, The restored Louis XVIII. sent the astute diplomatist, Prince Talleyrand, who had only mediocre helpers except La Besnardiére, one of Napoleon’s permanent officials, Spain, Portugal and Sweden also had only men of moderate parts to represent them, in Labrador, Palmella and Lovenheilm. Count Munster, who represented the British Prince Regent as ruler of Hanover, had much influence on German questions Many of the rulers of the minor States of Europe put in an appearance. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries and ladies to enjoy the magnificent hospitality of the almost bankrupt Austrian court. The social side of the congress made a great 1mpression on the age, and on history It was one of the causes of the long and unexpected delay 1n producing a result, for Metternich at least sometimes subordinated business to pleasure. Procedure of the Congress.—This was due to the difficulty and complexity of the problems to be solved. First there was the problem of the organization of the congress, for which there was no precedent The “four” were determined to keep the management of the main problems entirely in their own hands; but since they had rather rashly summoned a congress they must pay some attention to ıt The ministers of the “four” assembled early to

discuss this problem, and finally agreed on Sept. 22 that the “four” should have the “initiative,” by which they meant the “decision” of the future of all the conquered territories. They were then to “communicate” with France and Spain The “congress”

assisted by a statistical committee which Castlereagh had proposed. Meanwhile the committee of “eight” dealt with more general matters. The congress as 4 representative body of all

Europe never met, Poland and Saxony.—The great difficulty which nearly produced war was the disposition of Paland and Saxony By treaties signed in 1813 Alexander had promised that the sovereigns of Prussia and Austria should rule over as many subjects as they had done before they were reduced mm size by Napoleon. He had also promised that the duchy of Warsaw, which Napoleon had constituted out of the Prussian and Austman shares of the Polish partitions, should be divided hetween the three Powers, After the battle of Leipzig, however, he clammed practically all Poland for Russia, and suggested that Austria could find compensation in Italy, and Prussia by annexing all Saxony, whose king had been the most faithful of Napoleon’s vassals. In this plan he was moved by a sincere wish to give the Poles an opportunity for the expression of their nationality; but, af course, he intended te keep Russian sovereignty over all Poland. Metternich was much alarmed, and Hardenberg, while very desirous of Saxony, was not anxious to see Russia’s frontier extended so far. Castlereagh was also, as a true disciple of Pitt, afraid of Russian expansion Accordingly Castlereagh encouraged Austria to agree ta the sacrifice of Saxony to Prussia so that the three Powers could oppose Russia’s demands on Poland. With great difficulty he eventually succeeded in so doing, carrying on himself meanwhile an exceedingly frank controversy with Alexander. But the plan, which included an offer of constituting an entirely independent Poland, which it was known Alexander must reject, faled because Fred-

erick William IJI., who was grateful to the tsar for Hus help in the overthrow of Napoleon, refused to support Hardenherg when the crisis came. Metternich and Hardenherg were, therefore, estranged, and the former withdrew his consent to Prussia’s absorption of all Saxony Prussia then went altogether on to Russia’s

side, and a complete deadlock resulted

Castlereagh’s Diplomacy.—Castlereagh had been much chagrined at the failure of his first plan. Moreover, hts cabinet were alarmed at his activity in European matters, and he was warned

against going too far The difficult negotiations with the United

States, with whom Britain was still at war, also made caution necessary Nevertheless, Castlereagh saw that 1f a European war broke out both France and Britain would certainly be involved

VIENNE

144

before it was over. He had already prepared the way with Talleyrand, and in December both he and Metternich promised Talleyrand that the Bourbon house should be re-established in Naples instead of Murat. Secure of Talleyrand’s support they insisted that France should be admitted to the committee of the “four” When Hardenberg threatened war, Castlereagh drew up a secret treaty of defensive alliance which Talleyrand and Metternich signed on Jan 3, 1815 For a few days the issue was doubtful, but the tsar, who had already obtamed most of Russia’s demands, inchned to peace, and eventually Prussia gave way With Castlereagh acting as mediator, a compromise was arranged on the question of Saxony, and then the rest of the territorial settlement was comparatively easy, especially as Castlereagh reduced the demands of both Hanover and the Netherlands, whose policy was ultimately controlled by Britain

Decisions of the Congress.—Alexander gave back Galicia to Austria, Thorn and a region round it to Prussia, while Cracow was made a free town, The rest of the duchy of Warsaw was incorporated as a separate kingdom under the tsar’s sovereignty. Prussia got two-fifths of Saxony, and was compensated by extensive additions in Westphalia and on the left bank of the Rhine. It was Castlereagh who insisted on her accepting this latter terntory, with which it was suggested the king of Saxony should be compensated, for he wanted Prussia to guard the Rhine against France and act as a buttress to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, which Holland had formed by incorporating Belgium Austria was compensated by Lombardy and Venice She also got back most of the Tyrol. The South German States on the whole did well Hanover was also enlarged. The outline of a constitution, a loose confederation, was drawn up for Germany It was a triumph for Metternich and a defeat for Stein Denmark lost Norway to Sweden but got Lauenberg, while Swedish Pomerania went to Prussia. In Italy, Piedmont absorbed Genoa,

Tuscany and Modena went to an Austrian archduke; Parma was given to Marie Louise, though the young Napoleon’s claims to succeed failed to win British and French approval The papal territory was restored to the pope Murat’s fate was decided even before his rash attempt after Napoleon’s return from Elba, and the Sicilian Bourbons restored to Naples. Switzerland was given a new constitution Valuable articles were included on the free navigation of international rivers and diplomatic precedence. (See Driptomacy ) Castlereagh’s great efforts on behalf of the abolition of the slave trade were only rewarded by a pious declaration. The final act, which included all these agreements in one great instrument, signed on June 9, 1815, by the “eight” (except Spain, who refused as a protest against the Italian settlement) was after-

Geheimpolizet auf dem Wiener Congress (1913); M. H

Well, Les

dessous du Congrés de Vienne (1917); C K Webster, The Congress of Vienna (1919), which was written for the wmformation of the Pans Conference, gives a bibhography. See also Brztzsh Diplomacy (1813~ 15), ed C K Webster (1921), Cambridge Modern History, vol 1x, ch. xix and xxi, with bibhography (1902), Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy (ed A W Ward andG P Gooch, a z » 1922), .K W)

VIENNE,

a department of west-central France, formed in

1790 out of Portou (four-fifths of its present area), Tourame (one-seventh) and Berry, and bounded by Deux-Sèvres on the west, Charente on the south, Haute-Vienne on the south-east, Indre on the east, Indre-et-Loire on the north-east and north and Maine-et-Loire on the north-west. Pop. (1926), 310,474 Area, 2,711 sqm The department includes the basin of the Vienne from the point at which it emerges from the Plateau Central down to its junction with the Creuse, while its extreme southwest corner includes a small part of the course of the Charente

It thus contains the famous gate of Poitou (Seuil du Poitou) be-

tween the Plateau Central and the Gatine, the historic south-west entry into the Paris basin The winter average temperature 1s 39° to 41° F, the summer average temperature being 66° to 68°, The prevailing winds are from the south-west and west The annual rainfall is 24 in in the north to 32 in in the south. Wheat, oats and barley are the principal cereals grown, other important crops being lucerne, sainfoin, clover, mangel-wurzels and potatoes Some colza and hemp are grown The district of Poitiers grows good red wine, and the white wine of TroisMoutiers near Loudun ıs well known ‘The breeding of live stock is fairly active Poitou is famous for its mules, and the geese and turkeys of the department are highly esteemed Among the

fruit trees are the chestnut, walnut and almond In the forests a small number of wild boars and other wild game survives. Freestone is quarried ‘ There are mineral springs at La RochePosay The most important industrial establishments are the national arms manufactory at Chatellerault and the cutlery works near that town The capital of Vienne is Poitiers, and the department is divided into 3 arrondissements (Poitiers, Chatellerault, Montmorillon), 31 cantons and 300 communes, The chief towns are Poitiers, Chatellerault, Loudun, Montmorillon and Chauvigny (gq v ). Sanzay has ruins of a theatre and other GalloRoman remains near by Vienne 1s rich in megalithic monuments.

VIENNE, the chief town of an arrondissement of the depart-

ment of the Isére, France Pop (1926) 21,861 Vienne stands on the left bank of the Rhone just below the junction of the Gére with the Rhone, between the river and low hills, and about zom by raiulS of Lyons Its site is an immense mass of ancient wards acceded to by all the other Powers, and was the most com- débris, which is constantly yielding interesting antiquities On prehensive treaty which Europe had ever possessed the bank of the Gére are traces of the ramparts of the old Roman As a result the lines laid down by the Congress of Vienna city, and on the Mont Pipet (E of the town) are the remams lasted, except for one or two changes, for over 40 years The of an amphitheatre, while the ruined castle there was built in the statesmen had successfully worked out their principle of a balance 13th century on Roman substructures Several of the ancient of power But the idea of nationality had been almost entirely aqueducts (one only is now actually in use) are still to be seen ignored—necessarily so because it was not yet ready for exVienne, originally the capital of the Allobroges, became a pression. Territories had been bartered about without much refer- Roman colony about 47 Bc. under Caesar, who embellished and ence to the wishes of their inhabitants. Until an even greater fortified it A little later these colonists were expelled by the Allosettlement took place 1t was customary for historians to condemn broges; the exiles then founded the colony of Lyons (Lugdunum) the statesmen of Vienna. It is now realised how difficult their It was not till the days of Augustus and Tibertus that Vienne task was, and the fact that they secured for Europe a period of regained all its former privileges as a Roman colony. Later it peace, which was its cardinal need, is fully recognized But the became the capital of the Provincia Viennensis In 257 Postumus statesmen failed to give to international relations any organ by was proclaimed emperor here, and for a few years Vienne was the which their work could be adapted to the new forces of the 19th capital of a short-lived provincial empire It is said to have been converted to Christianity by Crescens, the disciple of St Paul. century, and it was ultimately doomed to destruction. Brsriocrapay —Treaties and acts of the congress may be consulted There were Christians here m 177, as in the Greek letter (prem J. L Kluber, Acten des Wiener Congresses, 9 vols (1817-35); served to us by Eusebius) addressed at that date by the churches Comte d’Angeberg (J L. Chodzko), Le Congrés de Vienne (1863) , British and Foreign State Papers, vol, ii, gives some of the documents in English, and the final act 1s found in many collections. For the diplomacy, Duke of Wellington, Supplementary Despatches, vols 1x. and x. (x858~72) , Viscount Castlereagh, Memozs and Correspondence (ed C, W Vane, 12 vols. 1848-53), C M. de Talleyrand-Péngord,

of Vienne and Lyons to those of Asia and Phrygia mention 1s made of “the” deacon of Vienne. The first bishop certainly known is Verus, who was present at the Council of Arles in 314. About 450 Vienne became an archbishopric and continued one till 1790, when the see was suppressed. The archbishops disputed Memorrs, vole » and m /T3or); the works of E von Gontz, A de la with those of Lyons the title of “Primate of All the Gauls” Garde-ChambonaCz suens di Congres de Vire, ed wnh me'oduction and now Comte Thury (reor) give: an nte'csing siare oÙ Vienne was conquered by the Burgundians in 438, and in 534 the

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VIENNE—VIGEE-LEBRUN by the Saracens, the government of the district was given by Charles the Bald in 869 to a Count Boso, who m 879 was proclaimed king of Provence, and was buried in 887 in the cathedral church of St Maurice Vienne then continued to form part of the longdom of Provence or Arles till in 1032 it reverted to the Holy Roman Empire Vienne was sacked in 1562 by the Protestants under the baron des Adrets, and was held for the Ligue 1590-95, When ıt was taken by Montmorency. The fortifications were demolished between 1589 and 1636 In 1790 the archbishopric was abolished, the title “Primate of all the Gauls” bemg attributed to the archbishops of Lyons Ancient Monuments.—The

monuments

town possesses two fine Roman

One is the temple of Augusta and Livia, a building

of the Corinthian order, built by the emperor Claudius, and mferor only to the Maison Carrée at Nimes From the sth century

to 1793 it was a church (Notre Dame de Vie), and the “festival of reason” was celebrated ın it at the tume of the Revolution The other 1s the Plan de PAsgwlle, a truncated quadrangular pyramid,

about 52 ft in height, resting on a portico with four arches; it is now generally believed to have been part of the spina of a large circus, the outlines of which have been traced The church of St Peter belonged to an ancient Benedictine abbey and was rebuilt m the gth century, in the earliest Romanesque style It has of late years been completely restored, and shelters the magnificent Musée Lapidaire The former cathedral church of St

Maurice (11th to 16th centuries), has three aisles, but no apse or transepts The most striking portion is the W front (1533), which rises from a terrace overhanging the Rhone There are very umportant cloth factories and also distilleries, iron foundries, refinmg furnaces, etc Vienne is the seat of a sub-prefect, of a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of trade-arbitrators

VIENNE, a river of central France, 219 m long, a left-hand tributary of the Loire Rising on the plateau of Millevaches at a height of 2,789 ft., the Vienne flows westward through the hilly country of the crystalline rocks of the Central Plateau of France.

The first large town on its banks is Limoges, below its confluence with the Taurion (right). The river next reaches St. Junien, turns abruptly northwards to Confolens and passes on to the Jurassic rocks to flow through a picturesque and wider valley. Passing Chauvigny, it proceeds to the confluence of the Clam (left), on which stands Poitiers, just above Châtellerault. Below that town it receives the Creuse (night), which rises on the Millevaches Plateau and is 159 m long From near Châtellerault, past Chinon, to its junction with the Loire the Vienne flows across Cretaceous strata There is little river-traffic on the Vienne below its conflu-

ence with the Creuse (30 m.). (See Lore )

VIENNE, COUNCIL OF, an ecclesiastical council, which

in the Roman Catholic Church ranks as the fifteenth ecumenical synod It met from October 16, 1311, to May 6, 1312, under the presidency of Pope Clement V The transference of the Cuna from Rome to Avignon (1309) had brought the papacy under the influence of the French crown, and this position Philip the Fair of France now endeavoured to utilize by demanding from the pope the dissolution of the powerful and wealthy order of the Temple, together with the introduction of a tnal for heresy against the late Pope Boniface VIII. To evade the second claim, Clement

gave way on the first (see Temprars)

On the 22nd of March

the order of the Temple was suppressed by the bull Vox clamantss, while further decisions as to the treatment of the order and its possessions followed later Additional decisions were necessitated by the violent disputes which raged within the Franciscan order as to the observance of the rules of St Francis of Assisi

145

unite at the foot of the hill on which lie Vierzon-Ville (pop [1926] 12,313) and Vierzon-Villages (pop [1926] 6,929); Vier-

zon-Bourgneuf (pop [1926] 2,114) is on the left bank of the Cher

The town has a port on the canal of Berry and is an im-

portant junction on the Orléans railway, there are several large

manufactories for the production of agricultural machines, also foundries, porcelain, brick and tile works and glass works.

VIETA (or Vèrte), FRANÇOIS, SEIGNEUR vz 1a Bicoritre (1540-1603), more generally known as FRANcIscus Viera, French mathematician, was born at Fontenay-le-Comte, in Poitou According to F Rutter, Bolleteno Boncompagni (1868), Vieta was brought up as a Catholic, and died in the same creed, but there can be no doubt that he belonged to the Huguenots for several years, On the completion of his studies in law at Potiers Vieta became an advocate in his native town, and later councillor of the parlement of Bnttany Rohan, the well-known chief of the Huguenots, took Vieta under his special protection After the accession of Henry IV, Vieta became in 1589 councillor of the parlement at Tours, and subsequently a royal privy councillor. We know of one important service rendered by Vieta as a royal officer While at Tours he discovered the key to a Spamsh cipher, consisting of more than soo characters, and thenceforward all the despatches in that language which fell into the hands of the French could be easily read. Philip IJ. was so convinced that his cipher was a safe one that when he found the French were aware of the contents of his letters he complained to the pope that the French were using sorcery against him , Vieta printed at his own expense the numerous papers which he wrote on various branches of this science, and communicated them to scholars in almost every country of Europe Vieta has been called the father of modern algebra All that is wanting in his writings, especially in his Jsagoge in artem analyt:cam (1591), in order to make them look lke a modern school algebra, 1s merely the sign of equahty His Recensio canonica effectzonum geometricarum 1s what we now call an algebraic geometry

He conceived methods for the general resolution of equations of the second, third and fourth degrees different from those of Ferro and Ferrari, with which, however, ıt is difficult to believe him to have been unacquainted He knew the connection existing between the positive roots of an equation (which, in his day, were alone thought of as roots) and the coefficients of the different powers of the unknown quantity He found out the formula for deriving the sine of a multiple angle, knowing that of the simple angle with due regard to the periodicity of sines This formula must have been known to Vieta m 1593 In his Apollonius Gallus (1600) Vieta made use of the centre of ‘similitude of two circles. Lastly he gave an infinite product for the number 7. (See article on CrRcLe ) Vieta’s collected works were issued under the title of Opera Mathematica by F van Schooten at Leyden in 1646

VIGAN, a municıpalty (wıth administration centre and 28 barrios or districts) and the capital of the province of Ilocos Sur, Luzon, Philippine islands, near the mouth of the Abra river, about 200m N by W of Manila. Pop (1918) 17,765. In 1918, Vigan had 38 factories and 45 household industry establishments, with outputs valued at 255,200 and 93,000 pesos respectively. The language is Ilocano

VIGEE-LEBRUN, MARIE-ANNE ELISABETH (1755-1842), French painter, was born in Paris on Apr 16, 1755, the daughter of a painter, from whom she received her first in-

chief seats in the lower Rhine country for the manufacture of Velvets, silks and plush, cotton, paper, boots and cement.

struction, though she benefited more by the advice of Doyen, Greuze, Joseph Vernet and others When only about 20 years of age she had made her name by her portraits of Count Orloff and the duchess of Orleans, and had become a general favourite in society In 1776 she married the painter and art-critic F B P Lebrun, and in 1783 her picture of “Peace bringing back Abundance” (now at the Louvre) gamed her the membership of the ‘Academy. When the Revolution broke out in 1789 she escaped first to Italy, where she worked at Rome and Naples At Rome

Cher, 20 m N.W

the “Lady Hamilton as a Bacchante” now ın the collection of

See Mansi, Collectzo Conciliorum, vol schichte, vol vi pp, 532-534.

xxv., Hefele, Concihenge-

VIERSEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, 11 m by tailS W from Crefeld, and at the junction of lines to MuinchenGladbach, Venlo, etc Pop (1925) 32,037. Viersen is one of the

VIERZON, a town of central France, in the department of she painted the Princesses Adelaide and Victoria, and at Naples of Bourges by rail

The Cher and the Yévre

146

VIGELAND—VIGILANTIUS

Tankerville Chamberlayne. She then visited Vienna, Berlm and St. Petersburg, returnmg to Paris in 1781 In 1782 she went to London, where she painted Lord Byron and the prince of Wales. She was a great traveller, and her portraits are to be found im the collections of many countries She died ın Paris on Mar 30, 1842 at the age of 87, having been widowed for 29 years. Among her many sitters was Mane Antoinette, of whom she pated over 20 portraits between 1779 and 1789 A portrait of

great and complex mass of Icelandic historical sagas, known ag Sturlunga and the Corpus Poetscum Boreale, in which he edited the whole body of classic Scandinavian poetry

VIGIL, in the Christian Church, the eve of a festival. The

vigiliae (pernoctationes, mavvuxldes) were originally the services celebrated during the night preceding the feast The abuses connected with nocturnal vigils led to their being attacked, especially by Vigilantius of Barcelona (c 400), against whom Jerome fulthe artist 1s in the hall of the painters at the Uffizi, and another at minated in this as in other matters The custom, however, perthe National Gallery. The Louvre owns two portraits of Mme sisted until the middle ages, when the nocturnal vigiliae were, exLebrun and her daughter, besides five other portraits, cept in the monasteries, gradually discontinued, the vigil Services, A full account of her eventful life is given m her Souvenirs (1838, with the term itself, bemg transferred to the day preceding the 1837) and in C Pillet’s Mme Vigée-Le Brun (1890). The artists autobiography has been translated by Lionel Strachey, Memoirs of feast The only surviving relic of the older custom, in the Roman Catholic Church, is the midnight mass at Christmas Mme Vigée-Lebrun (New York, 1903), fully illustrated The Church of England has a special collect, gospel and epistle VIGELAND, ADOLF GUSTAV (1869), Norwegian for “Easter Even” only For the other vigils recognized, the sculptor, was born at Mandel in South Norway on Apri 11, rubric directs that the collect appointed for the feast “shall be 1869. In early youth he studied wood engraving and in 1889 at said at the Evening Service next before ” Christiania (Oslo), produced his first work as a sculptor, a relief VIGILANCE COMMITTEE, in the United States, a selfdepicting incidents from the Ikad, He afterwards travelled and constituted judicial body, occasionally organized in the western studied under Skeibrok in Christiania and Bissen in Copenhagen. frontier districts for the protection of lfe and property. The Vigeland’s work deals with the primitive emotion of men He first commuttee of prommence bearing the name was organized forsook his earlier semi-impressionistic form of art and adopted a im San Francisco in June 1851, when the crimes of desperadoes more classic style. His chief work “The Fountain,” begun in who had immigrated to the gold-fields were rapidly increasing 1915, is still unfinished (1926). It was untended, when complete, in number and it was said that there were venal judges, packed to consist of 26 large groups of stone and a multitude of mmor Juries and false witnesses At first this committee was composed figures in bronze; the whole depicting the history of mankind, of about 200 members, afterwards it was much larger The genfrom barbarism to civilisation Vigeland also achieved a wid eral committee was governed by an executive committee and the reputation as a portrait sculptor city was policed by sub-committees, Within about 30 days four See M G Vidalene, L’art norvégien contemporain (1921) desperadoes were arrested, tried by the executive committee and

VIGEVANO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy,

in the province of Pavia, on the nght bank of the Ticino, 24 m, by rail S.W from Milan on the hne to Mortara, 381 ft above sea-level Pop. (1921) 20,920 (town), 30,583 (commune). It is a mediaeval walled town, with an arcaded market-place and a castle of the Sforza family, dating from the 14th century and adorned with a loggia by Bramante and a tower imitatimg that of

Filarete in the Castello Sforzesco at Milan, It is a place of some importance in the silk trade.

VIGFUSSON, GUDBRANDR

(1828-1889), the fore-

most Scandinavian scholar of the 19th century, was horn of a

hanged, and about 30 others were banished Satisfied with the results, the committee then quietly adjourned, but it was revived five

years later. Similar committees were common in other parts of Cahfornia and in the ming districts of Idaho and Montana That in Montana exterminated in 1863-64 a band of outlaws organized under Henry Plummer, the sheriff of Montana City; 24 of the outlaws were hanged within a few months Committees or societies of somewhat the same nature were formed in the Southern States during the Reconstruction period (1865—72) to protect white families from negroes and “carpet-baggers,” and besides these there were the Ku-Klux-Klan (gv ) and its branches, the Knights of the White Camelia, the Pale Faces and the Invisible Empire of the South, the principal object of which was to control the negroes by striking them with terror

good Icelandic family in BreiSafjord. In 1849 he came to Copenhagen university as a bursarius in the Regense college He was, after his student course, appointed sispendsarius by the ArnaMagnaean trustees, and worked for 14 years in the Arna-Magnaean See T. J Dimsdale, Tke Vigilantes of Montana (Virginia City, library till, as he said, he knew every scrap of old vellum and of 1866); H. H Bancroft, Popular Tribunals (San Francisco, 1887), Garnett, ed, Papers of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance Icelandic written paper in that whole collection. During his P. of 1851 (Berkeley, Calif , 1910-19) , Mary Floyd Wilhams, ed., Papers Danish life he twice revisited Iceland (ast in 1858), and made of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance of 185x 1919) ; short tours in Norway and south Germany with frends In 1866, Mary Floyd Wilhams, History of the San Francisco(Berkeley, Commattee after some months in London, he settled down in Oxford, which Vigilance of 1851 (Berkeley, 1921); and Wilham John McConne he made his home for the rest of his hfe He held the office of Fronteer Law (Yonkers-on-Hudson, N Y., 1924) reader in Scandmavian at the University of Oxford (a post created VIGILANTIUS (ff c 400), the presbyter, celebrated as the for him) from 1884 till his death, He was a jubilee doctor of author of a work, no longer extant, against superstitious practices, Upsala, 1877, and received the Danish order of the Dannebrog in which called forth one of the most violent and scurrilous of 1885 Vigflsson died of cancer and was buried in St Sepulchre’s Jerome’s polemical treatises, was born about 370 at Calagurris cemetery, Oxford His memory was remarkable, if the whole of (Cazéres or perhaps Saint Bertrand de Comminges, Hautethe Eddic poems had been lost he could have written them down Garonne), where his father kept a “statio” or mn on the great from memory Roman road from Aquitania to Spain Sulpicius Severus sent By his Tunatdl (written between Oct 1854 and April 1855) he him in 395 with letters to Paulus of Nola On his return to laid the foundations for the chronology of Icelandic history, in a Severus in Gaul he was ordained, and set out for Palestine, where series of conclusions that have not been displaced (save by his he was received by Jerome at Bethlehem Vigilantius was dragged own additions and corrections), and that justly earned the praise into the dispute then raging about Origen, in which he did not see of Jacob Grimm His editions of Icelandic classics (1858-68), eye to eye with Jerome About 403, some years after his return Biskopa Sogur, Bardar Saga, Forn Sogur (with Mobius), Eyrbyg- from the East, Vigilantius wrote his work against superstitious gia Saga and Flateyar-bdk (with Unger) opened a new era of practices, in which he argued against relic worship, as also against Icelandic scholarship, and can only fitly be compared to the Rolls the vigils in the basilicas of the martyrs, the rejection of earthly Series editions of chronicles by Dr. Stubbs for the interest and value of their prefaces and texts. Seven years of constant and goods and the attribution of special virtue to the unmarried state, especially in the case of the clergy Al that ıs known of the severe toil (1866-73) were given to the Oxford Icelandic-English work is through Jerome’s treatise Contra Vigdantium, or, as that dictionary, incomparably the best guide to classic Icelandic, and controversialist would seem to prefer saying, “Contra Dormitana monumental example of single-handed work. His later series of editions (1874-85) included Orkneyinga and Háconar Saga, the tium.” The influence of Vigilantius long remained potent both in France and Spain, as is proved by the polemical tract of

147

VIGILIUS—VIGNY Faustus of Rhegium (d. c. 490).

d'Autrıche, duchesse de Parme, avec Philippe II

VIGILIUS, pope from 537 to 555, succeeded Silverius and was followed by Pelagius I He was ordained by order of Belsanus while Silverius was

still alive, his elevation was

due to

Theodora, who had induced him to promise to disallow the council of Chalcedon, in connection with the “three chapters” controversy But he failed to fulfil his promise, and was summoned to Constantinople, which he reached m 547. There he

issued a document known as his Judicatum (548), m which he condemned indeed the three chapters, but expressly disavowed any intentions thereby to disparage the council of Chalcedon. After some trimmung, he prepared another document, the Constitutum ad Imperatorem, which was laid before the so-called fifth

“ecumenical” council in 553, and led to his condemnation by the majority of that body, some say even to his banishment Ultmmately, however, he was induced to confirm the decrees of the council, and was allowed after an enforced absence of seven

years to set out for Rome.

He died at Syracuse, before he

reached his destination, on June 7, 555.

VIGINTISEXVIRI. This was the collective name which was given m Rome to “26” magistrates of inferior rank. They were divided into six boards, two of which were abolished by Augustus. Their number was thereby reduced to twenty and

their name altered to VicrntIvirr (“the twenty”). The six boards were: (1) Tresvirt capstales (see Tresvirt), (2) Treswrt monetales; (3) Quatuorvirs uns im urbe purgandzs, who had the care of the streets and roads inside the city, (4) Duovii vus extra urbem purgandis (see Duumvrrt), abolished by Augustus;

(5) Decemvir1 stlitibus wdscandis (see Decemvirt),

(6) Qua-

tuor praefecti Capuam Cumas, abohshed by Augustus. See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, u. (1887), p 592

VIGLIUS,

the name

taken by WIGLE

VAN

AYTTA VAN

Zurcgem (1507-1577), Dutch statesman and junst, a Frisian by birth, who was born on Oct. 19, 1507 He studied at various universities—Louvain, Déle and Bourges among others—devoting himself mainly to the study of jurisprudence, and afterwards visited many of the principal seats of learning in Europe. His

great abilities attracted the notice of Erasmus and other celebrated men, and his renown was soon wide and general. Having lectured on law at the universities of Bourges and Padua, he accepted a judicial position under the bishop of Munster which he resigned m 1535 to become assessor of the imperial court of justice (Retchskammergericht) For five years he was professor at Ingolstadt. In 1542 the official connection of Viglus with the Netherlands began. At the emperor’s invitation he became a member of the council of Mechln, and some years later president of that body He was soon one of the most trusted of the ministers of Charles V, whom he accompanied durmg the war of the league of Schmalkalden ın 1546 He was generally regarded as the author of the edict against toleration issued in 1550; a charge which he denied When the emperor abdicated in 1555 Vighus was anxious to retire also, but at the instance of King Philip II he remaimed at his post and was rewarded by being

made coadjutor abbot of St. Bavon, and in other ways In 15509, when Margaret, duchess of Parma, became regent of the Netherlands, Vighus was an important member of the small circle who assisted her in the work of government He was president of the privy council, member, and subsequently president, of the state council, and a member of the committee of the state council called the consulta In 1565 he was allowed to give up the presidency of the state council, but was persuaded to retain his other posts However, he had lost favour with Margaret, who accused him to Philip of dishonesty and simony, while his orthodoxy was suspected When the duke of Alva arrived in the Netherlands Vighus at first assisted him; but he subsequently opposed the duke’s scheme of extortion He died at Brussels on May 5, 1577 He wrote

a Tagebuch

des Schmalkaldtschen

Donaukriegs,

edited

by A von Druffel (Munich, 1877), and some of his lectures were

published under the title Commentarii in decem Institutronum ttulos

(Lyons, 1564)

Hos Vita et opera historica are given m the Analecta

Belgica of C P Hoynck van Papendrecht (the Hague, 1743) See L P Gachard, Correspondance de Phikppe II sur les affaires des Pays-Bas

(Brussels,

1848-79);

and

Correspondance

de Marguerite

one = po 1877-81

(Brussels, 1867-81) ,

Correspondance de cardinal de Granvelle

(Brussels,

VIGNE, PAUL DE (1843-1901), Belgian sculptor, was born at Ghent

His first exhibit was the “Fra Angelico da Fiesole” at

the Ghent Salon in 1868 In 1872 he exhibited at the Brussels Salon. He was employed by the government to execute caryatides for the Brussels conservatoire. In 1876 the Antwerp Salon accepted his busts of E Hiel and W. Wilson, which were afterwards placed in the communal museum. at Brussels.

Until 1882 he lived

in Paris, where he produced the marble statue “Immortality” (Brussels Gallery), and “The Crowning of Art,” a bronze group on the fagade of the Palais des Beaux-Arts at Brussels His monument to the popular heroes, Jean Breydel and Pierre de Coninck, was unveiled at Bruges in 1887. At his death he left unfinished his principal work, the Anspach monument, which was erected at Brussels under the direction of the architect Janlet with the cooperation of various sculptors. Other works are the bronze bust of “Psyche” (Brussels Gallery), of which there is an ivory replica, the marble statue of Marnix de Ste Aldegonde in the Square du Sablon, Brussels, the Metdepenningen monument in the cemetery at Ghent; and the monument to Canon de Haerne at Courtrai See E L. de Taeye, Les Artistes Belges contemporains (Brussels, 1896), and O. G Destrée, The Renazssance of Sculpture in Belgeum

(London, 1895)

VIGNETTE,

m architecture, a running ornament, represent-

ing a little vie, with branches, leaves and grapes, common in the Tudor period, It is also called trayle From the transference of the term to book-illustration resulted the sense of a small picture, vanishing gradually at the edge

VIGNY, ALFRED DE (1797-1863), French poet, was born at Loches Indre-et-Loire) on March 27, 1797. For generations the ancestors of Alfred de Vigny had been soldiers, and he himself jomed the army, with a commission ın the Household Troops, at the age of sixteen But the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars were over, and after twelve years of hfe ın barracks he retired While still serving he had made his mark, if as yet unrecognized, by the publication in 1822 of a volume of poems, and in 1826 by another, together with the famous prose romance of Cimg-Mars, which derived some of its popularity from the enormous vogue of the novels of Scott Some of his most celebrated pieces—Ziloa, Dolorida, Motse—appeared (1822—23) before the work of younger members of the Romantic school whose productions strongly resemble these poems Nor is this originality luted to the point which he himself claimed in

the Preface to his collected Poems in 1837—that they were “the first of their kind m France, in which philosophic thought is clothed in epic or dramatic form” Indeed this clamm is disputable in itself, it 1s in poetec, not philosophic quality, that his idiosyncrasy and precursorship are most remarkable It is quite certain that the other Alfred—Alfred de Musset—felt the influence of his elder namesake, and the verses of Hugo, and even of Lamartine, considerably his elder, owe something to him. His poetry, written for the most part in the earlier part of his life, is small ın volume, but ıt forms probably his chief title to fame Alfred de Vigny, though he belonged to no cénacle, but shut himself up, as the saying went, in a tour d’svoire, belonged to the Romantic movement of the ’thirties, and was stimulated by ıt to drama and to novel-writing. In the year before the revolution of July he produced at the Théâtre Français a translation, or rather paraphrase, of Othello, and an orginal piece, La Maréchale + d’Ancre In 1832 he published the curious book Szello, containing studies of unlucky youthful poets—Gilbert, Chatterton, Chénier—and in 1835 he brought out his drama of Chatterton, which,

by the hero’s suicide, shocked French taste even after five years of Romantic education, but had a considerable success The same year saw the publication of Serustude et grandeur milstaires, a collection of sketches rather than a connected work in which

Vigny’s military experience, his idea of the soldier’s duties, and his rather poetical views of history were all worked m The subjects of Chatterton and Othello, were, of course drawn from

VIGO—VIKING

148

English sources, and in fact Alfred de Vigny knew English well, lived in England for some time and married in 1828 an Englishwoman, Lydia Bunbury In 1845 Alfred de Vigny was elected to the Academy, but made no compromise in his “discourse of reception,” which was unflinchingly Romantic Still, he produced nothmg save a few scraps, and, beyond the work already enumerated, little has to be added except his Journal d’un poéte and the poems called Les Desisnées Vigny died at Paris on Sept 17, 1863. See M. Paléologue, “Alfred de Vigny” in the Grands écrivains francais (1891); L Doron, Alfred de Vigny, poéje-philosophe (1892) and Ux symbole social (1894), G Asse’s Alfred de Vigny et les édttzons originales de sa poésie (1895), E Dupuy’s La Jeunesse des Romantiques (1905), E Lauvriére’s Alfred de Vigny (Paris, Igro), L. Séché, Aljred de Vigny (2 vols, 1916), Anatole France, Alfred de Vigny (1923); M Citoleux, A de Vigny, Perststances classiques et affinztés étrangéres (1924), A V de Vigny, Lettres mnédites à Victor Hugo, 1820-1831 (1925) ‘There are many editions of Vigny’s works; there 1s a critical edition (1914) of his poems, edited by E. Estéve for the Soc des T.xtes francais modernes

descents upon the West Its Scandinavian equivalent early acquired the more specialized sense of “sea-warrior,” and the modern term “Viking age” is a convenient designation of the phase of Scandinavian history which produced the incessant raiding expeditions characteristic of the oth and early roth cen-

turses

Most of our evidence as to the Vikings of this period is

derived from the literature of the lands which they visited, and is therefore essentially hostile. To contemporary chroniclers they were utterly hateful, faithless, cruel and enemies of civi-

lization and the arts of peaceful life Their own side of the story 1s untold, for the men who created the great literature of western

Scandinavia had no certain memory of events or personalities in the true Viking age Their character can only be inferred from the scale upon which their raids were planned, the forms of society which arose in the different lands of their settlement, and

the archaeological evidence which reveals something of their culture Judged in this way they cease to appear as a mere blind force of destruction It becomes clear that they possessed their VIGO, a seaport and naval station of north-western Spain, in own culture, though it was not the culture of the Christian West the province of Pontevedra, on Vigo bay (Ria de Vigo) and Long before the end of the gth century they had learned to peneon a branch of the railway from Tuy to Corunna Pop (1920) trate all the greater water-ways of Europe. And the raids through 53,100 Vigo was attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and which they gained this knowledge were only preluminary to wider r589 In 1702 a combined British and Dutch fleet under Sir voyages through which at last even the New World became known George Rooke and the duke of Ormonde destroyed a Franco- for a moment to men of Scandinavian birth. The Viking Raids—tThe Vikings began by more or less desSpanish fleet in the bay, and captured treasure to the value of about £1,000,000. In 1719 Vigo was captured by the British ultory raids, ın the course of which they seized upon some under Viscount Cobham Vigo bay, one of the finest of the island, which they generally used as an arsenal for attacks on the Galician fjords, extends mwland for 19 m, and is sheltered by mainland At first the raids were made in the summer, and the low mountains and by the islands (Islas de Cies, ancient Znsulae first wintering in any new scene of plunder meant settlement in Siccae) at its mouth The town is built on the south-eastern the country, and some sort of division of territory. After that shore, and occupies a hilly site dominated by two obsolete forts. the northerners assimilated themselves more or less to the natives Vigo owes its importance to its deep and spacious harbour, and of the country This course was followed in the history of the to its fisheries It has developed very rapidly in the 20th cen- Viking attacks on Ireland, the earliest of their continuous series tury, and has more than doubled its population It is a port of call of attacks Thus they began by seizing the island of Rechru for many lines trading between Western Europe and South (now Lambay) in Dublin bay (AD 795) and in 20 years were on America. The town contains flour, paper and sawmills, sugar the northern, western and southern coasts, by AD 825 they ventured raids to a considerable distance mland In ap 832 came a and petroleum refineries, tanneries, distilleries and soap works

VIIPURI, formerly Viborg, a seaport and summer resort of large fleet under Turgesius (Thorgestr) The new mvader extended his conquests till, in AD 842, one-half of Ireland (called Lethcummn or Con’s Half) had submitted, he established his wife,

Finland m 60° 43’ N, 28° 45 E, at the mouth of the Sama canal on the Bay of Viipuri in the Gulf of Finland. Pop. (1925) 48,367 The canal lmks it with a series of lakes Its exports are cement and farm produce, and its mmports coal, fertilizers, foodstuffs and manufactured goods. It 1s picturesquely situated on glaciated, dome-shaped, gramite hills surrounding the bay, which is guarded by the naval station of Bjorko Viipuri is a tourist centre for the Finnish lakes Its castle, built in 1293 by Marshal Torkel Knutson, was the first centre for the spread of Christiamty in Karelia,

VIJAYANAGAR

(vé-jah-yahn’a-gar)

(“the city of vic-

tory”), an ancient Hindu kingdom and rumed city of southern India The kingdom lasted from about 1336 to 1565, forming during all that period a bulwark against the Mohammedan invasion from the north The great part of its history 1s obscure; but its power and wealth are attested by more than one European traveller, and also by the character of the existing runs At the begmning of the 14th century Mohammedan rarders had effectually destroyed every Hindu principality throughout southern India, but did not attempt to occupy the country perma-

nently. In this state of desolation Hindu nationality rose again under two brothers, named Harihara and Bukka, of whom litle more can be said than that they were Kanarese by race. Hence -~ their kingdom was afterwards known as the Carnatic (g.v ). In 1565, on the downfall of the kingdom, the confederate sultans of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda, oyerwhelmed the Vijayanagar army in the plain of Talikota, and sacked the defenceless city. The city has ever since remained a wilderness of immense ruins, which are now conserved by the British Government. See R Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (1900) ; and B. S. Row, History of Vijayanagar (Madras, 1906).

VIKING. A word wicing, “warrior,” corresponding to the O Norse vikingr and the modern vskemg, was current in England at least a century before the earliest recorded Scandinavian

Ota, as a sort of volva, or priestess, in what had been one of Ireland’s most famous hterary monasteries, Clonmacnoise Turgesius was killed soon after, in 845, and though in ap 853 Olaf the White was over-king of Ireland, the Vikings’ power dimimished. In the end, territory was—if by no formal treaty— ceded to their influence, and the (Irish) kingdoms of Dublin

and Waterford were established on the island. This sketch may be taken as the prototype of Viking invasion of any region of Western Christendom which was continuously attacked. Almost simultaneously with the attacks on Ireland came others, probably also from Norway, on the western coasts and islands of Scotland, Plundermgs of Jona are mentioned in AD 802, 806, and in the course of a generation almost all the monastic communities in western Scotland had been destroyed On the Continent there were three distinct regions of attack, The Danes early settled on the island of Walcheren, which had, in fact, been given by the emperor Louis the Pious to a fugitive Danish king, Harald by name, who sought the help of Louis and adopted Christianity From the island the raids extended on either side sometimes eastward as far as the Rhine, and so into Germany proper, at other times westward to the Somme, and thus imto the territory of Charles the Bald, the future kingdom of France. Toward the end of the oth century all Frisia between Walcheren and the German ocean seems to have been possessed by the invaders The serious attacks of the pirates in any part of the empire distant from their own lands began about the middle of the century, when they first wintered in the Seine territory, Their first attack on Paris was in aD 845, inAD 885-887 a much more important but unsuccessful one took place, the invaders receiving

an indemnity for raising the siege and leave to pass beyond Paris

into Burgundy

The settlement of Danes

under Rollo on the

lower Seine, z.¢ , in Normandy, belongs to the next century

149

VIKRAMADITYA The third region is the mouth of the Loire, where the island

point d'appui was Noirmoutier.

The Northmen wintered there

in AD 843 No region was more often ravaged than that of the lower Loire, so rich in abbeys—St Martin of Tours, Marmoutiers, St Benedict, etc But the country ceded to the Vikings under Hasting at the Loire mouth was insignificant and not in permanent occupation Near the end of the oth century, however, the plundering expeditions which emanated from these three sources became so incessant and so widespread that we can signalize no part of west France as free from them, and at the same time much mischief was wrought in the Rhine country and in Burgundy Unfortunately, at this point our best authority ceases; and we cannot well explain the changes which brought about the Christianization of the Normans and their settlement in Normandy as vassals of the West Frankish kings For the Viking attacks in the British Isles, the course of events 1s clearer. In its general features ıt follows the normal course. The Vikings had begun to visit the English coast about the end of the 8th century, but their serious attacks do not begin till 838 Their first wintering was on the contiguous island of Thanet in

AD, 851. In 865 England was visited by a “great army,” which overthrew the ancient kingdoms of Northumbna, Mercia and East Angha Wessex was saved only by Alfred’s victory at Edington, after which Guthrum, the Danish leader, accepted baptism and settled with is men in East Anglia. But the forces defeated at Edington represented but half of the Viking army in England at the tıme. The other half had already settled in Northumbria, and the region between Humber and Welland The six territories which we have signalized—tIreland, Western Scotland, England, the three in West Francia which merge into each other by the end of the goth century—do not comprise the whole field of Viking invasion To the east they twice sailed up

the Elbe (ap 851, 880) and burnt Hamburg Southwards they plundered far up the Garonne, and in the north of Spain; and one fleet of them sailed round Spain, plundering, but attempting mn vain to establish themselves in this Arab caliphate. They plundered on the opposite African coast, and at last got as far as the mouth of the Rhone, and thence to Luna in Italy. In the third quarter of the gth century two distinct tendencies appeared among the Vikings in the West. One section was ready to settle down and receive territory at the hands of the Christian rulers; the other section adhered to a hfe of adventure and of plunder. A large portion of the great army, unable to obtain settlement in England, sailed to the Continent and spread devastation far and wide Under command of two Danish “kings,” Godfred and Siegfried, they were first ın the country of the Rhinemouth or the Lower Scheldt; afterwards dividing their forces, some devastated far into Germany, others extended their ravages on every side in northern France down to the Loire The whole of these vast countries, Northern Francia and part of Burgundy and the Rhineland, were as much at their mercy as England before the battle of Edington, or Ireland before the death of Turgesius But in every country alike the wave of Viking conquest now began to recede. The settlement of Normandy was the only permanent outcome of the Viking age in France In England, under

Edward the Elder and Aethelflaed, Mercia recovered a great portion of what had been ceded to the Danes In Ireland a great expulsion of the invaders took place in the beginning of the roth century. In the following generations the kmgdoms of Denmark and Sweden became consolidated, and the energy of the Nor-

wegian peoples found vent in the settlement of Iceland Severe as were the raids in Europe, and great as was the suffering—on account of which a special prayer, A furore Normannorum hbera nos was inserted in some of the htanies of the West—1f the Vikings had been nothing more than pirates their place in history would be insignificant. But the Viking outbreak has to some extent the character of a national movement While some were

almost put a girdle round the Christian world There is every evidence that they were not a mere lawless folk, but under suitable conditions,

as in their

roth

century

colony

of Jémborg,

could develop an elaborate discipline and a strict code of honour They were not entirely unlettered, for the use of runes dates back considerably earlier than the Viking age The

Viking

Ships.—In

certain material possessions—those

belonging to war and naval adventure—the Vikings were ahead of the Christian nations There is certainly a historical connection between the ships which the tribes on the Baltic possessed in the days of Tacitus and the Viking ships, a fact which would lead us to believe that the art of shipbuilding had been better preserved there than elsewhere

in northern Europe.

Merchant

vessels must, of course, have plied between England and France or Frisia But it is certain that even Charlemagne possessed no adequate navy Nor was any English king before Alfred stirred up to undertake the same task The Viking ships had a character apart They may have owed their origin to the Roman galleys, they did without doubt owe their sails to them

‘Their structure

was adapted to short voyages in a sea not exposed to the most violent storms or dangerous tides They were shallow, narrow in the beam, pointed at both ends, and so eminently suitable for manoeuvring (with oars) in creeks and bays The Viking ship had but one large and heavy square sail, and when a naval battle was in progress it would depend for its manoeuvring on the

rowers Fn saga hterature we read of craft (of “long ships”) with 20 to 30 benches of rowers, which would mean 40 to 60 oars It is not probable that the largest viking ships had more than ten oars a side. As these ships must often, against a contrary wind, have had to row both day and night, it seems reasonable to imagine the crew divided into three shifts which would give twice as many men available to fight on any occasion as to row. Thus a 20 oared vessel would carry 60 men. But some 40 men per ship seems, for this period, nearer the average In 896, it is incidentally mentioned in one place that five vessels carried 200 Vikings, an average of 40 per ship. Elsewhere about the same time we read of 12,000 men carried in 250 ships, an average of 48. The round and painted shields of the warriors hung outside along the bulwarks; the vessel was steered by an oar at the right side Prow and stern rose high; and the former was carved most often as a snake’s or dragon’s head. The warriors were well armed ‘The byynie, a mail-shirt, is often mentioned in Eddic songs; so are the axe, spear, javelin, the bow and arrows and the sword An immense joy in battle breathes through the earliest Norse literature, which has scarce its like in any other literature, and we know that the language recognized a peculiar battle fury, a madness by which men were seized and which went by the name of “berserk’s way” (berserksgangr). The courage of the Viking was proof against anything, even as a rule against superstitious terrors He was unfortunately hardly less marked for cruelty and faithlessness It is also true, however, that they showed a capacity for government, and in times of peace for peaceful organization Normandy was the best-governed part of France in the rith century; and the Danes in East Anglia and the Five Boroughs developed a form of society remarkable for its stability amid changing political conditions. Nevertheless, the significance of the Vikings in the history of western Europe lies less in the communities which they founded than in the stimulus given by their raids to the new mulitary organization of society out of which feudalism was presently to arise Brat wmoerapiry —A good general bibliography is to be found in the Cawrbriage Mediaecc’ History vol ti (1922) See also Munch, Det Norske Forks Ilistere ‘r332; J C H Steenstrup, Normannerne, 4 volh (7351-2), C 1 Keary Zhe Vikings in Western Europe (1:891); A Bugge, Vikingerne (1904-06) and A Mawer, The Vikings (1913).

VIKRAMADITYA, a legendary Hindu king of Uzjain, who

is supposed to have given his name to the Vikram Samvat, the era which is used all over northern India, except in Bengal, and at whose court the “nine gems” of Sanskrit literature are also harrying in the West others were founding Gardariki (Russia) in supposed to have flourished. The Vikram era is reckoned from the East; others were pressing farther south till they reached the the vernal equinox of the year 57 8.c., but there is no evidence eastern empire in Constantinople, so that when Hasting and Bjorn that that date corresponds with any event in the life of an actual had sailed to Luna in the Gulf of Genoa the northern folk had king As a matter of fact, all dates in this era down to the roth

150

VILL—VILLA

century never use the word Vikram, but that of Malava instead,

that being the tribe that gives its name to Malwa The name Vikramaditya simply means “sun of power,” and was adopted by several Hindu kings, of whom Chandragupta II. (Chandragupta Vikramaditya), who ascended the throne of the Guptas about AD. 375, approaches most nearly to the legend See Alexander Cunningham, Book of Indian Vincent Smith, Early History of India (1904).

Eras

(1883);

and

VILL, the Anglicized form of the word villa, used in Latin documents to translate the Anglo-Saxon tun, township Ultimately “vill” and “township” became regarded as equivalent terms, and so remained in legal use until the ecclesiastical parish became regarded as the normal unit of local administration In classical Latin wila had meant “country-house,” “farm,” “villa” (see VILLA), but even by the 3rd century it had acquired the sense of “village” Later ıt eyen displaced civas, for city, thus Rutilius Namatianus in his Jimerarium speaks of villae mgentes, oppida parva, whence the French ville (see Du Cange, Glossarium Jat sv. Villa) In the Frankish empire villa was also used of the royal and imperial palaces or seats with their appurtenances, In the sense of a small collection of habitations the word came into general use in England in the French form “village” From villa, too, are derived villem and villemage (qv).

VILLA, FRANCISCO

(“Pancho”) (1877-1923), Mexican

revolutionary general, born at Rio Grande, state of Durango, Mexico, Oct. 4, 1877 As a youth without a home, roaming and thieving, he gathered around him a band of rough followers and changed his real name, Doroteo Arango, to that of a bandit once notorious in his region He headed a well-organized ring of cattle rustlers operating in the northern states and this caused a price to be placed on his head by the Diaz Government He was, therefore, very willing in 1910 to jom Madero in his revolt against Diaz, Villa was captured by Gen. Victoriano Huerta during the campaign but later escaped into Texas In 1914 he reentered Mexico to jom forces with Gen Venustiano Carranza (gv) against Huerta who had in the meantime overthrown Francisco Madero (g.v.) and seized the presidency. The two generals drove

Huerta from the country but in the moment of triumph could not agree between themselves (Carranza refused to treat with Villa, regarding him as a mere bandit and not trusting his inten-

tions Villa marched into Mexico City and Carranza fled to Vera Cruz. But Obregon (qg v ), Carranza’s chief general, succeeded in driving Villa out of Mexico City and pursued him relentlessly until he took refuge in the mountains of the northern states The United States recognized Carranza’s Government and Villa, feeling he had been duped, developed a hatred for the “gringos” which led to his later outrages On Mar. 9, 1916, with some 400 men

he crossed the U S. border and raided Columbus, N. Mex, killing 16 citizens and partly burning the town The next day President Wilson ordered a force into Mexico to capture Villa and his band It was expected that Carranza would co-operate in the pursuit of his enemy but instead he voiced his objections to the entrance of US. troops and on June 17th notified Gen Pershing that further invasion would be resisted by arms The American troops withdrew without effecting their object Villa ceased to be an international menace but remained under arms until the Federals in 1920 bought his retirement with the gift of a large estate On July 20, 1923, his automobile was swept by a shower of bullets and he and his three companions were killed

DEL

PILAR

most celebrated buildings he had seen during his travels, and the villas of the 16th century on simular sites, such as the Villa d'Este near Tivoh, enable one to form some idea of the exceptional beauty of the positions selected and of the splendour of the structures which enriched them Literary descriptions, as well as existing remains, reveal the house proper of the Roman villa as a rather rambling building designed to take advantage of breeze and view, rather than to be symmetrical Long colonnades were frequent, there were occasional towers, and the building was often on more

than one level. R Lanciani (Ancsent Rome in the Light of Recent

Excavations, 279 ff ) states that the Casino del Ligorio (Villa Pia) in the Vatican gardens (1558-62), by P Ligorio, and the Barberini villa at Castel Gandolfo of all emsting Renaissance villas most closely resemble their Roman prototypes Such villas were not limited to Italy but are found throughout the empire According to Pliny, there were two kinds of villas, the villa urbana, which was a country-seat and the wile rusttca, the farmhouse The Villa Boscoreale near Pompeii, which was excavated m 1893-94, 1s an example of the vella rustica, in which the pnnapal room was the kitchen, with the bakery and stables beyond and room for the wine presses, oul presses, hand mull, etc The villas near Rome were all built on hilly sites, so that the laying out of the ground in terraces formed a very important element in their design, and this forms the chief attraction of the Itahan villas of the 16th century, among which the following are the best known. the Villa Madama, the design of which, attributed to Raphael, was carried out by Giulio Romano mm 1520, the Villa

Medici (1540); the Villa Albani, near the Porta Salaria, the Borghese, the Doria Pamphili (1650), the Villa di Papa Giuho (1550), designed by Vignola, the Aldobrandini (1598-1603) by G. della Porta, the Falcomeri (1546) and the Mondragone Villas

(1573-75) at Frascati, and the Villa d’Este near Tivoh (1549), by P Ligorio, in which the terraces and staircases are of great ingenuity and beauty. In the proximity of other towns in Italy there are numerous villas, of which the example best known 15

that of the Villa Rotunda or Capra, by A, Palladio, near Vicenza, which was copied by Lord Burlington in his house at Chiswick The Italian villas of the 16th and 17th centuries, like those of Roman times, included not only the country residence, but all the other buildings on the estate, such as bridges, casinos, pavilions and small temples, which were utilized as summer-houses, and these seem to have had a certain influence m England, which may account for the numerous imitations in the large parks ın England, as also the laying out of terraces, grottos and formal gardens In France the same influence was felt, and at Fontainebleau, Ver-

sailles (1667-88), Meudon and other royal palaces, Le Nôtre transformed the parks surrounding them and introduced many Itahan features BrstiocrapHy.—Daremberg and Sagho, Dictzonnaire des antiquités grecques et romames

(1877-1919), W R Tuckerman, Dze Gartenkunst der ztahemschen Renasssance-Zett (1884), R. Lancam, Ancient Rome m the Light of Recent Excavations (1889), P, Gusman, La Vzla Impénale de Tibur (1904); J Durm, “Baukunst der Romer,” in Handbuch der Architektur (1905), H I Triggs, The Art+of Garden Design m Italy (1905); R Lancan, Wanderings in the Roman Campagna (1909); Edith Wharton, Italian Villas and thew Gardens (r910)* G Lowe" Ser-Mey Italian Villas and Farmhouses (1916);

H. H. lenver

June V '.s of Phny the Younger (1924).

VILLACH, an old town in Carinthia, Austria, on the Drava

country-house. The word is loosely and incorrectly used, especially in England, for small detached or semi-detached suburban houses In its correct usage, however, it signifies a summer residence of great extent, especially in Italy, or one ın which Italan influence 1s dominant References to the villa are constantly made by Roman writers. Cicero is said to have possessed no less than

at the western end of the basın of Klagenfurt (q.v). Sımce ıt lies on one ọf the through routes from Vienna to Italy a great deal of traffic still passes through the town It 1s the timber trade centre for Italy and manufactures lead wares based upon the very rich lead-mines of Bleiberg, about 9 m west of the town The town is a centre for tourist traffic to the surrounding Alpine highlands ‘The rsth century church of St. Jacob in Gothic style has a tower about 315 ft high Pop (1923), 22,100 Warmbad Villach, a watering-place with hot sulphur baths, and Mittewald, a favourite summer resort, whence the ascent of the Dobratsch can be made, are in the neighbourhood of Villach. Some of the prettiest Carinthian lakes are to be found near Villach, among others the Ossiacher-see

over 7 m long and in which reproductions were made of all the

Asuncion, on the left bank of the navigable river Paraguay.

VILLA, the Latin word (diminutive of vicus, a village) for a

seven villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum; Phny the younger had three or four, two of which he described at length in his letters; that at Tusculum and that near Laurentium. The remains of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoh, which covered an area

VILLA DEL PILAR, a city of Paraguay, 104 m south of Pop

VILLAFRANCA

DI VERONA—VILLAGE

(1929) about 8,000 Villa del Pilar is a thriving city, containing barracks, law courts, a national college, several schools and a branch of the Agricultural Bank It is in a district producing

tobacco, yerba maté, hides and oranges It has a good harbour and is served by steamer and by the Paraguay Central railway

COMMUNITIES

ISI

and six perches of arable and woodland, and 53łac and half a rood of waste land But as a matter of fact the rights of the tenants of the gavell were realized not through the appropriation of definite acres, but as proportionate opportunities m regard to tillage and as to usages in pasture, wood and waste Pastoral

VILLAFRANCA DI VERONA, a town of Venetia, Italy, habits must have greatly contributed to give the system of land-

holding its peculiar character It was not necessary, it would have been even harmful, to subdivide sharply the area on which the herds of cows and the flocks of sheep and goats were grazing. We do not notice any systematic equalization between members the Austrians ın 1859 after the battle of Solfermo Five mules of the tnbal communities of the trevs. In fact, both differences to the N is Custozza, where the Italians were defeated by the in the ownership of cattle and differences of tribal standing, established by complex reckonings of pedigree and of social rank, Austrians in 1848 and 1866 VILLAGE COMMUNITIES, The study of village com- led to marked inequalities But there was also the notion of birthright, and we find in the laws that every free tnrbesman conmunities has become one of the fundamental methods of discussing the ancient history of institutions It will be sufficient sidered himself entitled to claim from his kindred grazing facilities to confine the present inquiry to the varieties presented by nations and five erws for tillage Such a claim could be made unconditionof Aryan race, not because greater importance is to be attached ally only at a time when there was a superabundance of land to to these nations than to other branches of humankind, although dispose of In the 14th century, to which our typical descriptions this view might also be reasonably urged, but principally because refer, this state of things had ceased to be universal Although the Aryan race ın its history has gone through all sorts of ex- great tracts of Welsh land were undoubtedly still in a state of periences, and the data gathered from its historical Lfe can be wilderness, the soil in more conveniently situated regions was beginning to be scarce, and considerable pressure of population tolerably well ascertained The best way seems to be to select some typical examples, was already felt, with a consequent transition from pastoral purin the province of Verona, 11 m

SSW

to Mantua, 174 ft above sea-level

of Verona, on the railway

Pop (1921), 9,968 (town),

12,174 (commune) It has considerable silk industries Here preliminaries of peace were signed between Napoleon ITI and

chiefly from the domain of Celtic, Slavonic and Germanic social history, and to try to interpret them in regard to the general conditions in which communal institutions ongimate, grow and

decay. As the principal problem will consist in ascertaining how far land was held in common instead of by individuals, it 1s advisable to look out for instances m which this element of holding in common is very clearly expressed We ought to get, as 1t were, acclimatized to the mental atmosphere of such social arrangements in order to counteract a very natural but most pernicious bent prompting one to apply to the conditions of the

suits to agriculture. Although there are no rearrangements or redivision within the

tribe as a whole, mside every gavell, representing more narrow circles of kinsmen, usually the descendants of one great-grandfather, ie, second cousins, the shares are shifted and readjusted according to one of two systems. In one case, that of the trevcyvriv or joint-account village, every mah receives “as much as another yet not of equal value’—-which means, of course, that

the members of such communities were provided with equal allotrents, but left to make the best of them, each according to chance and abihty This practice of reallotment was, however, restricted in the rath century to taeog trevs, to villages occupied by halifree settlers The free tribesmen, the priodarw of Wales, held by

past the key of our modern views and habitual notions A certain acquaintance with the structure of Celtic society, more especially the society of ancient Wales, is hkely to make clear from the outset to what extent the husbandry and law of an Aryan race daddenhud, were reallotted shares within the trev on the coming may depend on institutions in which the individual factor is greatly of each new generation or, conversely, on the going out, the dying reduced, while the union first of kinsmen and then of neighbours out, of each older generation In other words: at the demise of the last of the grandfathers in a gavell, all the fathers took equal plays a most decisive part Seebohm called our attention to the mteresting surveys of rank and claimed equal shares, although formerly some of the Welsh tracts of country made in the 14th century, soon after these portions had been distributed equally only between the grandregions passed into the hands of Enghsh lords The fragments fathers or their offspring (steps) ‘The right to claim redivision of these surveys published by him and his commentary on them held good only within the circle of second cousins Another fact which is brought out with complete evidence are very illuminating, but further study of the documents themselves discloses many important details and helps to correct some theories propounded on the subject Let us take up a concrete and simple case, e.g, the description of Astret Canon, a trev or township (villata) of the honour of Denbigh, surveyed in 1334 In the tıme of the native Welsh princes 1t was occupied entirely

by a kindred (progemes) of free tribesmen descended from a certain Canon, the son of Lawaurgh. The kindred was subdivided into four gavells or bodies of jomt-tenants. On the half-gavell of Monryk ap Canon, ¢g, there are no less than 16 coparceners, of whom eight possess houses The peculiarity of this system of land tenure consists in the fact that all the tenants of these gavells derive their position on the land from the occupation of

the township by their kindred, and have to trace their nghts to shares in the ongmal umt. Although the village of Astret Canon was occupied by something lke 54 male tenants, the majonty of whom were settled im houses of their own, 1t continued to form a unit both in regard to the payment of land tax and other

services and payments, and also im respect of the possession and usage of the soll On the other hand, movable property’ is owned in severalty, Services have to be apportioned among the members

of the kindreds according to the number of heads of cattle owned by them

From the descnption of another township—Pireyon—

we hear that gavells ought to be considered as equal shares in

respect of the arable, the wood and the waste of the township If the shares were reduced into acres there would have fallen to each of the eight gavells of Pireyon orac, one rood and àa half

by the Welsh Surveys 1s that the tenure is ascribed to communities of kinsmen and not to chiefs or headmen The latter certainly existed and had exerted a powerful influence on the disposal of common land as well as on government and justice But in the

view of the r4th-century surveys each township is owned not by this or the other elder, but by numerous bodies of coparceners In this way there is a clear attnbution of mghts of communal ownership, and not merely of rights of maintenance. Let us now compare this description of Celtic tribal tenure with Slavonic institutions The most striking modern examples of tribal communities settled on a territorial basis are presented by the history of the Southern Slavs ın the Balkan Peninsula and m Austria, of Slovenes, Croats, Serbs and Bulgarians, but it is easy to trace customs of the same kind in the memories of Western Slavs conquered by Germans, of the Poles and of the different subdivisions of the Russians A good clue to the subject 1s provided by a Serb proverb which says that a man by himself is bound to be a martyr The Slavs of the mountainous regions of the Balkans and of the Alps in their stubborn struggle with nature and with human enemies have clustered and still cluster to some extent in closely united and widely spreading brotherhoods (bratstva) and tribes (plemena) Some of these brotherhoods derive their names from a real or supposed common ancestor, and are composed of relatives as well as of affiliated strangers They number sometimes hundreds of members, of guns, as the fighting males are characteristically called. Such are the

152

VILLAGE

COMMUNITIES

Vukti¢i, Kovacevici,—as one might say in Old English the Vukotings or Kovachevings;—of Montenegro The dwellings, fields, and pasturages of these brotherhoods or kindreds are scattered over the country But there was the closest union in war, revenge, funeral ntes, marriage arrangements, provision for the poor and for those who stood in need of special help, as in case of fires, inundations and the ike And corresponding to this union there existed a strong feeling of unity in regard to property, especially property m land Although ownership was divided among the different famihes, a kind of superior or eminent domain stretched over the whole of the bratstvo, and was expressed ın the participation in common in pasture and wood, in the nght to control

alienations of land and to exercise pre-emption As the Welsh kindreds were subdivided into gavells formed of extended family communities, even so the Bosnian, Montenegrin, Serbian and Slovene tribes fell into house communities, Kucas, Zadrugas, which were built up on the principle of keeping bloodrelatives and their property together as long as possible They consisted generally of some 15 to 20 grown-up persons, some six or seven first and second cousins with their wives and children,

living in a hamlet around the central house of tbe domaćin, the house leader In some instances the number of coparceners increased to 5o or even to 70 The members of the united house community, which ın fact is a small village or hamlet, jomed in meals and work Their rights in the undivided household of the hamlet were apportioned according to the pedigree, ze, this apportionment took account first of the stirpes or extant descendants of former scions of the family, so that, say, the offspring of each of two grandfathers who had been brothers were considered as equal sharers although the strps, the stock, of one was represented only by one person, while the st#irps of the other had grown to consist of two uncles and of three nephews all alive. There was no resettlement of shares, as in the case of Wales, but the life of the house community while it existed unbroken led to work in common, the contributions to which were regulated by common consent and supervised by the leader Grounds, houses, implements of agriculture (ploughs, oxen, carts) and of viniculture—casks, cauldrons for the making of brandy, etc— were considered to be common capital and ought not to be sold unless by common consent. Divisions were not prohibited. Naturally a family had to divide sooner or later, and the shares had to be made real, to be converted into fields and vineyards But this was an event which marked, as it were, the close of the regular existence of one union and the birth of similar unions derived from it. As a rule, the kuća kept together as long as ıt could, because co-operation was needed and isolation dangerous—for economic considerations as well as for the sake of defence. Attention, however, should be called more particularly to the parallel phenomena in the social history of the Russians, where the conditions seem to stand out in specially strong contrast with those prevailing among the mountain Slavs of the Balkans and of the Alps In the enormous extent of Russia we have to reckon with widely different geographical and racial areas among others, with the Steppe settlements of the so-called Little Russians in the Ukraine, and the forest settlements of the Great Russians in the north In spite of great divergencies the economic history of all these branches of Slavonic stock gravitates towards one main type, viz., towards rural unions of kinsmen, on the basis of enlarged households In the south the typical village settlement 1s the dvorisée, the big court or hamlet consisting of some four to eight related families holding together; in the north it is the pecifée, the big oven, a hamlet of somewhat smaller size in, which three to five families are closely united for purposes of common husbandry. ‘Another fact to be notaced is the tendency to form artificial associations on the pattern of the prevailing umons of kinsmen. People who have no blood-relations to appeal to for clearing the waste, for providing the necessary capital in the way of cattle and plough umplements, for raising and fitting out buildmgs, jom in order to carry on these economic undertakings, and also to help each other against aggressors, The members of these voluntary associations, which at once call to mind German, Norse and

English gilds, are called “siabri,” “skladmki,” and the gilds themselves “spdélkie,” zn south Russia

In a district of the Ukraine

called the “Ratensky Sharostvo” there were no fewer than 278 such gilds interchanging with natural kindreds The organization of all these unions could in no way be called patriarchal Even in cases when there is a defimite elder or headman (bolshoy), he was only the first among equals and exercised only a limited authority over his fellows all the important decisions had to

be taken by the council of the community

In Great Russia, in the districts gathered under the sway of the Moscow tsars, the basis of the household community and of the rural settlements which sprang from 1t was modified in another direction The entire agricultural population was subjected to strict supervision and coercive measures for purposes of military organization and taxation Society was drilled into uniformity and service on the principle that every man has to serve the tsar, the upper class in war and civil administration, the lower class by agricultural labour A consequence of the heavy burden lad

on the land and of the growth of a landed aristocracy was a change in the management of land allotments. They became as much a badge of service and a basis for fiscal requirements as a means of hvelihood The result was the practice of reallotments according to the strength and the needs of different famihes The shifting of arable (peredel) was not in this case a reapportionment of rights, but a consequence of the correspondence between rights and obligations Let us now pass to village communities in Teutonic countries, including England A convenient starting-point is afforded by the social and economic conditions of the southern part of Jutland The Saxon or Ditmarschen portion of this region gives us an opportunity of observing the effects of an extended and highly systematized tribal organization on Germanic soil The independence of this northern peasant republic, which reminds one of the Swiss cantons, lasted until the time of the Reformation We find the Ditmarschen organized in the 15th, as they had been in the roth century, in a number of large kindreds, partly composed of relatives by blood and partly of “cousins” who had joined them. The membership of these kindreds is based on agnatic ties—that is, on relationship through males—or on affiliation as a substitute for such agnatic kinship The famihes or households are grouped into brotherhoods, and these again to clans or “Schlachten” (Geschlechter), corresponding to Roman gentes Some of them could put as many as 500 warriors in the field They took their names from ancestors and chieftains, the Wollersmannen, Hennemannen, Jerremannen, etc—7e, the men of Woll, the men of Henne, the men of Jerre. In spite of these personal names the organization of the clans was by no means a monarchical one: it was based on the participation of the fullgrown fighting men in the government of each clan and on a council of co-opted elders at the head of the entire federation Let us notice the influence of this tribal organization on husbandry and property

‘The regular economic arrangement was an

open-field one based on a three-field and simular systems The furlongs were divided into intermixed strips with compulsory rotation on the usual pattern And it 1s mteresting to notice that in these economic surroundings indivisible holdings corresponding to the organic unities required for efficient agriculture arose of themselves In spite of the equal right of all coheirs to an estate, this estate does not get divided according to ther numbers, but either remains undivided or else falls into such fractions, halves or fourths, as will enable the farming to be carried on successfully, The Hufe or Hof goes mostly to the eldest son, but also sometimes to the youngest, while the brothers of the heir exther remain in the same household with him, generally unmarried, or leave the house after having settled with their heir, who takes charge of the holding, as to an indemnity for their relinquished claims,

This evidence is of decisive importance ın regard to the formation of unified holdings; we are on entirely free soil, with no vestige whatever of manorial organization or of coercion of tenants by the lord The Hufe, the normal holding, is preserved intact in order to secure agricultural efficiency. This “Anerben” system 1s widely spread all through Germany The question whether the

VILLAGE

COMMUNITIES

eldest or the youngest succeeds is a subordinate one. Anyhow, manorial authority is mot necessary to produce the limitation of

the nghts of succession to land and the creation of the system of holdings, although this has been often asserted, and one of the arguments for a servile origin of village communities turns on a supposed incompatibility between the unified succession and the equal rights of free coheirs. We need not speak at any length about other parts of Germany, as space does not permit of a description of the innumerable combinations of communal and individual elements in German

153

to the fields on the customary notion that the toft is the mother of the field. The fields are disposed into furlongs and shots, as they were called in England, and divided among the members of the village with the strictest possible equality ‘This is effected by assigning to every householder a strip in every one of the furlongs constituting the arable of the village Meadows were often treated as lot-meadows in the same way as mm England. After such a “solskift” the peasants held their tenements in undisturbed ownership, but the eminent demesne of the village was recognized and a revision of the allotment was possible

After having said so much about different types of village communities which occur in Europe it will be easier to analyse the incidents of English land tenure which disclose the working of in the plains and hulls of Schleswig and Holstem The bonder of similar conceptions and arrangements Features which have been Gudbrandsdalen and Telemarken, the free peasantry tilling the very prominent in the case of the Welsh, Slavs, Germans or Scansoil and pasturing herds on the slopes of the hills from the days dinavians recur in the Enghsh instances sometimes with equal of Harold Harfagr to our own times, sit in Odalgaards, or free- force and at other times in a mitigated shape There are some vestiges of the purely tnbal form of community hold estates, from which supernumerary heirs are removed on recelving some indemnity, and which are protected from ahena- on English soul Many Saxon and Anglan place-names are derived tion into strange hands by the privilege of pre-emption exercised from personal names, followed by the suffix sng, and closely reby relatives of the seller Equally suggestive are some facts on the semble the common patronymics of Saxon and German famulies Danish side of the straits, viz , the arrangements of the bd/s which and kindreds. It is most probable, as Kemble supposed, that correspond to the hides and virgates of England and to the Hufen we have to do in most of these instances with tribal and family of Germany. Here again we have to do with normal holdings settlements, although the mere fact of belonging to a great landindependent of the number of coheirs, but dependent on the owner may have been at the root of some cases. A very noticeable consequence of tribal habits in regard to landrequirements of agriculture—on the plough and oxen, on certain constant relations between the arable of an estate and its out- ownership 1s presented by the difficulties which stood in the way of alienation of land by the occupiers of it. The Old English lying commons, meadows and woods The ból does not stand by itself like the Norwegian gaard, but is fitted into a very close legal system did not ongmally admit of any alienation of folkland, land held by folkright, or, in other words, of the estates union with neighbouring béls of the same kind Practices of coaration, of open-field intermixture, of compulsory rotation of owned under the ordinary customary law of the people. Such land lot-meadows, of stinting the commons, arise of themselves in could not be bequeathed out of the kindred and could not be sold without the consent of the kinsmen Such complete disabilities the villages of Denmark and Sweden We catch a ghmpse, to begin with, of a method of dividing could not be upheld indefinitely, however, in a growing and profields which was considered archaic even in those early times, gressive community, and we find the ancient folknight assailed

law, but we must point out some facts from the range of Scandinavan. customs In the mountainous districts of Norway we notice the same tendency towards the unrfication of holdings as

the so-called “forniskift” and “hamarskift” The two principal features of this method are the irregularity of the resulting shapes of plots and the temporary character of their occupation The first observation may be substantiated by a description hke that of Laasby in Jutland: “These lands are to that extent scattered and intermixed by the jomt owners that it cannot be said for certain what (or how much) they are”? Swedish documents, on the other hand, speak expressly of practices of shifting arable and meadows periodically, sometymes year by year. Now the uncertainty of these practices based on occupation became in process of time a most mconvemient feature of the situation and evidently led to constant wrangling as to rights and boundaries. The description of Laasby which I have just quoted

ends with the significant remark “They should be compelled to make allotment by the cord” This making of allotments by the cord is the process of rebning, from 1¢b, the surveyor’s cord, and the juridical procedure necessary for it was called “solskift”—

because it was a division followmg the course of the sun. The two fundamental positions from which this form of allotment proceeds are (1) that the whole area of the village is common land (faellesyord), which has to be lotted out to the single householders; (2) that the partition should result in the creation of equal holdings of normal size (bdls). In some cases we can actually recognize the effect of these allotments by ancient solskift m the 18th century, at a time when the Danish enclosure acts produced a second general revolution in land tenure

The 12 oldest mhabitants, elected as sworn arbitrators for effecting the allotment, begin their work by throwing together into one mass all the grounds owned by the members of the community, includmg dwellings and farm-buildings, with the exception of some privileged plots There is a close correspondence between

the sites of houses and the shares in the field

The first oper-

ation of the surveyors consists ın marking out a village green for the night-rest and pasture of the cattle employed in the tillage with (fortd), and assigning sites to the houses of the coparceners

orchards appendant to them (tofts), every householder getting

exactly as much as his neighbour. From the tofts they proceed

from different points of view The Church insists on the right of mdividual possessors to give away land for the sake of their souls, the kings grant exemption from folkright and constitute privileged estates held by charter and following in the main the rules of individualized Roman law; the wish of private persons to make provision for daughters and to deal with land as with other commodities produces constant collisions with the customary tribal views Already, by the end of the Saxon period, transfer and alienation of land make their way everywhere, and the Norman conquest brings these features to a head by substituting the notion of tenure—ze, of an estate burdened with service to a superior—for the ancient notion of tribal folkland But although the tribal basis of communal arrangements was shaken and removed in England in comparatively early times, it had influenced the practices of rural husbandry and landholding, and 1n the modified form of the village community it survived right through the feudal period, leaving characteristic and material traces of its existence down to the present day To begin with, the open-field system with intermixture of strips and common rights ın pasture and wood was the prevailing system in England for more than a thousand years. Under the name of champion farming it existed everywhere in the country until the Enclosure Acts of the 18th and xgth centuries put an end to it; it may be found in operation even now ın some of its features in backward districts It would have been absurd to build up these practices of compulsory rotation of crops, of a temporary relapse of plots into common pasture between harvest and ploughing time, of the interdependence of thrifty and negligent husbandmen, from the point of view of individual appropriation. On the other hand, it was the natural system for the apportionment of claims to the shareholders of an organic and perpetual jointstock company. Practices of shifting arable are seldom reported in English evidence. There are some traces of periodical redivisions of arable land in Northumberland: under the name of runrig such practices seem to have been not uncommon in the outer fields, the

non-manured portions, of townships ın Scotland, both among the

154

VILLALBA—VILLAMEDIANA

Saxon inhabitants of the lowlands and the Celtic population of the highlands The joining of small tenants for the purpose of coaration, for the formation of the big, heavy ploughs, drawn by eight oxen, sometimes caused a shifting ın the possession of strips between the coparceners of the undertaking. But, as a rule, the arable was held in severalty by the different members of the township On the other hand, meadows were constantly owned by entire townships and distributed between the tenements entitled to shares from year to year either by lot or according to a definite order These practices are in full vigour in some places even at the present day Any person living in Oxford may witness the

distribution by lot on Lammas day (Aug 1} of the Lammas meadows, that is, the meadows inclosed for the sake of raising hay-grass in the village of Yarnton, some three miles to the north of Oxford Let us, however, return for a moment to the arable. Although held in severalty by different owners it was subjected to all sorts

of interference on the part of the village umon as represented in later ages by the manorial court framing by-laws and setthng the course of cultivation It might also happen that in consequence of encroachments, disputes, and general uncertainty as to possession and boundaries, the whole distribution of the strips of arable in the various fields had to be gone over and regulated anew In such cases, as in the Danish examples quoted before, the strips were apportioned, not to single owners, but to the normal holdings, the hides, and the actual owners had to take them in proportion to their several tights in the hides. This point is very important It gives the English village community its pecuhar stamp It is a community not between single members. or casual households, but between definite holdings constructed on a proportional scale Although there was no provision for the adrheasurement or equalization of the claims of Smith and of Brown,

tion to be decided was how many heads of cattle and how many sheep each hide and yardland had the nght to send to the common pasturage grounds When ın course of time the open-field system and the tenure of

arable according to holdings were given up, the night of freeholders and copyholders of the old manors in which the ancient townships were, as 1t were, encased, still held good, but it became much more difficult to estimate and to apportion such rights In connection with the individuahstic policy of enclosure the

old wnt of admeasurement of commons was abolished in 1837 (3 & 4 Will. IV}

The ordinary expedient ıs to make out how

much commonable cattle could be kept by the tenements claim-

ing commons through the winter It is very characteristic and important that in the leading modern case on sufficiency of commons—in Robertson v. Hartopp—it was admitted by the Court of Appeal that the sufficiency has to be construed as a night of turning out a certain number of beasts on the common, quite apart from the number which had been actually turned out at any given time Now a vested right has to be construed from the point of view of the time when it came into existence The standards used to estimate such rights ought not to be drawn from modern practice, which is generally independent of common of pasture, but ought to correspond to the ordinary usages estabhshed at a time when the open-field system was in full vigour The legal view stands thus at present, but we cannot conceal from

ourselves that after all the inroads achieved by individual appropniation ıt is by no means certain that the reference tò the rights and rules of a previous period will continue to be recognized However this may be, in the present commons we have certainly a system which draws its roots from customs as to the origin of which legal memory does not run We may, in conclusion, summarize very briefly the principal results of our inquiry as to the history of European village comeach hide or ploughland of a township took as much as every munities It seems that they may be stated under the following other hide, each virgate or yardland as every other yardland, each heads. (1) Primitive stages of civilization disclose in human sobovate or oxgarig as every other oxgang Now the proportions ciety a strong tendency towards mutual support in economic matthemselves, although varying ım respect of the number of acres ters as well as for the sake of defence (2) The most natural included in each of these units in different places, were constant form assumed by such unions for defence and co-operation 1s in their relation to each other. The yardland was almost every- that of kinship. (3) In epochs of pastoral husbandry and of the where one-fourth of the hide or ploughland, and corresponded to beginnings of agriculture land is mainly owned by tribes, kindreds the share of two oxen in an éight-oxen plough; the oxgang was and enlarged households, while individuals enjoy only rights of reckoned at one-half of the yardland, and corresponded to the usage and possession (4) In course of time unions of neighbours share of one ox in the same tit of work. are substituted for unions of kinsmen (5) In Germanic societies The natural composition of the holdings has its counterpart, the community of the township rests on the foundation of effias in Schleswig-Holstein and as in the rest of Germany, in the cient holdings—béls, hides, hufen——kept together as far as poscustom of unified succession The English peasantry worked out sible by rules of united or single succession (6) The open-field customary rules of primogeniture or of so-called Borough English system, which prevailed in the whole of Northern Europe for or claim of the youngest to the lard held by us father The nearly a thousand years, was closely dependent on the customs of German examples already adduced teach us that the device is not tribal and neighbourly unions (7) Even now the treatment of suggested primarily by the interest of the landlord Unifed suc- commons represents the last manifestations of ancient communal cession takes the place of the equal rights of sons, because it is arrangements, and it can only be reasonably and justly interpreted the better method for preserving the economic efficiency of the by reference to the law and practice of former times household and of the tenement corresponding to it. There are An indication of the nature of modern work on this subject exceptions, the most notorious being that of Kentish gavelkind, will be found in Vinogradoff, Villainage ın England (1892), The but in agricultural districts the holding remains undivided as long Growth of the Manor (1905) and Enghsh Society wm the rrth as possible, and if it gets divided, the division follows the lines Century (1907) (P. Vi) not of the casual number of coheirs, but of the organic elements VILLALBA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of the ploughlands. Fourths and eighths arise in connection with of Lugo; on the left bank of the river Ladra, one of the headnatural fractions of the ploughteam of eight oxen. streams of the Mifio, and at the junction of the main roads One more feature of the situation remams to be noticed, and from Ferrol and Mondofiedo to the city of Lugo Pop (1920) it is the one which is still before our eyes in all parts of the 15,194 Villalba stands on a fertile plateau 1,500 ft above seacountry, that is, the commons which have survived the wholesale level Cloth and pottery are manufactured, and there 1s some process of enclosure. They were an integral part of the ancient trade in grain and live stock The nearest railway station is Otero, village community from the first, because there exsted the most 15m §. by E on the Lugo-Corunna line.

intumate connection between the agricultural and pastoral part of husbandry in the time of the open-field system. Pasture was not treated as a commodity by itself but was mostly considered as an adjunct, as appendant to the arable, and so was the use of woods and of turf. The problem of admeasurement of pasture was tegulated in the same way as that of the apportionment of arable strips, by a reference to the proportional holdings, the

hides, yardlands and oxgangs of the township, and the only ques-

VILLAMEDIANA,

COUNT

DE

(1580-1622), Spanish

poet, was born at Lisbon, the son of a diplomatist He acquired a bad reputation as a gambler and was banished from court m 1608 On his return to Spain (1617) he proved himself a fearless,

pungent satirist So great was the resentment venomed attacks that he was once more ordered court in 1618. Appointed gentleman in waiting IV.’s young wife, Isabel de Bourbon, daughter $:

caused by his ento withdraw from (1621) to Philip of Henn IV, his

VILLANELLE—VILLANOVANS ostentatious attentions to the queen supphed his numerous foes with a weapon which was destined to destroy him A fire broke

out while his masque, La Glorta de Niquea, was beg acted before the court on May 15, 1622, and Villamediana carried the queen to a place of safety Suspicion deepened and on Aug 21 he was

murdered as he stepped out of his coach

The responsibility for

his death was divided between Philip IV naturally the crime remained unpunished

and Olivares, and

Villamediana’s works contain not only the nervous, blighting

verses which made him widely feared and hated, but a number of

more serious poems embodying the most exaggerated concerts of gongorism But, even when adopting the perverse conventions of the hour, he remains a poet of high distinction, and his satirical verses, more perfect in form, are instinct with a cold, concentrated scorn which has never been surpassed

VILLANELLE, pnmarily a round song taken up by men on

a farm (Lat. villa); originally loose in form, but afterwards arpitranily fixed It was a pastoral, set to a rustic dance, and had,

lical trmes and comes down to 1348

155 The ground covered by the

narrative, especially ın the times near Villani’s own, bears witness

to the author’s extensive travels and to the breadth of his mid. It 1s the cornerstone of the early mediaeval history of Florence. Villani was Guelph, but without passion, and his book is more taken up with an enquiry into what is useful and true than with party considerations. He 1s a chronicler, not an historian, and has but little method in his narrative He provides information on the constitution of Florence, its customs, industries, commerce and arts, and of the chroniclers of his day he 1s perhaps unequalled for the value of his statistical data. The Chronicle has been printed by L A. Muratori ın tome xui of the Rerum I talıcarum

Scriptores (Milan, 1728) and has been edited by I Moutier and F G Dragomanm (Florence, 1844) Other editions appeared at Tneste (1857) and at Turin in 1879 Selections have been translated into English by R. E Selfe (2nd ed 1906). a See P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Florentiner Studen

(Leipzig, 1874); G

Gervinus, “Geschichte der Florentinen Historiographie” m hs Has-

therefore, a regular system of repeated lines The old French villanelles, however, were uregular; the “Rosette, pour un peu d’absence” of Desportes (d 1606), is a sort of ballade, and those of d'Urfé (d 1625) are scarcely less lax, The rigorous form seems

torische Schriften (1833) , U. Balzam, Le cronache Italiane nel medio evo (Milan, 1884); A Gaspary, Geschichte der stalienischen Literatur (Berlin, 1885); O Knoll, Bezir zur ttal Historiographie ım 14. Jahr. (Gottingen, 1876), and O Hartwig, “G, Villam ynd die Leggenda di Bone Gianni di Procida” m H von Sybel’s Hzstorische Zestschrift.

of Jean Passerat (d 1602) several villanelles were found, of which one became so popular as to set the standard for subse-

archaeologists as a distinctive and useful designation for a group of tribes exhibiting a fairly uniform civilization over a great part

to have been settled by accident

Among the posthumous poems

quent poets. It runs thus

2

VILLANOVANS

is merely a conventional term chosen by

of Italy in the Early Iron Age (q.v) Villanova itself, from which the name is derived, is a little village eight kilometres from Bologna, near which, between 1853 and 1855, was excavated a cemetery of previously unknown character The burials were all cremations; the ashes of the deceased being deposited in a large jar of rough hand-made pottery, which was placed in a round

“Pai perdu ma tourterelle’ Est-ce pomt celle que j’o1? Je veux aller après elle Tu regrettes ta femelle? Hélas! aussi fais-je moi J'a perdu ma tourterelle.

hole in the ground, sometimes but not always enclosed in a rectangular cist of unhewn slabs Inside the jar, which was of the very distinctive form, shown m fig 1, were the remains of human

Sı ton amour est fidèle, Aussi est ferme ma foi Je veux aller aprés elle

bones incompletely consumed by the fire, while in the layer of ashes surrounding the jars were bones of animals, together with small objects of use or ornament made of bronze, iron, amber,

Ta plamte se renouvelle?

Toujours plaindre je me dois: J’aı perdu ma tourterelle

En ne voyant plus la belle Plus nen de beau je ne vois. Je veux aller aprés elle.

Mort, que tant de fois y’appelle, Prends ce qui se donne & tol Jai perdu ma tourterelle, e veux aller aprés elle ”

For 300 years the villanelle has been written ın tercets, on

glass or bone. Numerous other cemeteries of similar character have been discovered, first in the neighbourhood of Bologna, then in Etruria and the northern part of Latium The civilization revealed in these was shown. to belong to the first phases of the Iron Age, beginning about the rath or 11th century BC., and the general name of Villanovan was applied to it as descriptive of its homogeneous character All these cemeteries, whatever may be the peculiarities

of their local variation, are united by at

two rhymes, the first and the third being repeated alternately

least one common

ın each tercet It is usual to confine it to five tercets, but that is not essential, 1t must, however, close with a quatrain, the last

all contain cremation burials with at most a very slight percentage of unburned bodies In this respect they are contrasted with all the contemporary cemeteries of eastern and southern Italy, which consist

two lmes of which are the first and third of the orginal tercet Boulmier, who was the first to show that Passerat was its inventor, published collections of these poems in 1878 and 1870, and was preparing another when he died, 1n 1881

When, in 1877,

so many of the early French forms of verse were reintroduced into English, the villanelle attracted much attention; it was simultaneously cultivated by W E Henley, Austin Dobson, Lang and Gosse Henley wrote a large number, and described the form in a specimen beginning “A daimty thing’s the Villanelle” There are several examples in English of humorous villanelles, especially

by Austin Dobson and by Henley. See J Boulmier, Les Villanelles (2nd ed , 1879)

VILLANI, GIOVANNI (c 1278-1348), Florentine chronicler, was born at Florence of a mercantile family, and spent much of his early manhood in travellmg on busmess in Italy, France and the Netherlands He returned definitely to Florence before 1312, and from 1316 onwards held many important offices in his native city, and was employed on various diplomatic missions. In his last years he was involved in the bankruptcy of the Bonaccorsi, and fell into poverty He died m 1348 in the plague epidemic described by Boccaccio His Historie Fiorentine, or Cronica universale, begins with Bib-

bond of custom,

they

exclusively of the inhumations of unburned bodies Occasional examples of jars resembling the Villanovan burial-urn have indeed been found in Apulia and Calabnia, but in these provinces they were never adopted for ceremonial purposes but simFig 1~—TYPICAL VILLA- ply used for carrying water. As all the NOVAN OSSUARY, AFTER tribes of eastern and southern Italy buried

their dead without burning, this difference GOZZADINI of custom implies a difference of religious belief, and probably a divergence of racial origin This inference seems to be justified by a study of the dress, armament, arts and manufactures of the several regions, which shows the Bolognese and Etrurians to be closely allied in the principal details of their material culture, while the Apulians and the Calabrians are notably different and appear to have evolved independently from another inheritance. Territorial Extension.—In the north the territory of the Villanovans began at the river Reno and extended from the Panaro on the west to Rimini on the east. South of Rimini they

156

VILLANOVANS

never inhabited the east coast but on the west of the mountainous | burial urn shown in fig 1 and covered it with a pottery bowl But backbone they extended their sway over the whole of Etruna and on various Etrurian sites this standardized jar was not employed down into Latium as far as the Alban hills Roughly speaking, at all, and on others where it was used the jar was occasionally therefore, they occupied about a third of Italy north of Rome, the | covered with a helmet instead of a bowl To this practice 1s due other two-thirds bemg taken up principally by the kindred civili- the survival of some magnificent examples of gth century bronze zations of the Comacines (q v ) and Atestines (q v.) on the north work, such as the helmet shown here (fig. 2)

and by a hostile block of Picenes on the east (See Picenes.)

It

is useful to distinguish the inhabitants of the Bolognese region as the northern Villanovans, while those of Etruria and the adjoining parts of Latium may be termed

the southern Villanovans Theories of Origin.—As to the ongin and racial affinities of this group of cremating tribes, which exercised such a profound influence upon Italy before the arrival of Etruscans or Greeks, there are two rival theories To neither of these can exclusive preference be given, future discoveries must decide between them, and ıt is not likely that any final decision will be reached for many years But on the most essential pomts the two theories are in complete agreement. Whether the Villanovans were direct lineal descendants of the builders of the Terremare or only a kindred race which did not enter Italy until the dawn of the Iron Age, three points are generally admitted: (zr) that all FIG 2-—~BRONZE HELMET the Villanovans are related by some degree of kinship as members of the same original family, (2) that their ultimate parentage 1s to be traced to the peoples of central Europe then settled on the middle Danube, and (3) that the direction of their occupation of Italy was from north to south. However, while we are very fully informed as to the character of Villanovan culture in Italy itself, yet the nature and degree of its connections with the countries east and north of the Adriatic remain obscure The relationship to Hallstatt in particular 1s far less close than might have been expected To some extent, however, this may be explained by the circumstance that no graves at Hallstatt are as early as the beginnings of the Villanovan period. The very earliest graves of this people in Italy have been found in the mountainous tract of Tolfa and Allumiere on the coast of southern

Etruria. They form a valuable link connecting the cemeteries of the Alban hills and the earliest graves of the Forum at Rome with sites lıke Corneto and Vetulona The cemeteries of Tolfa, Castel Gandolfo, Grottaferrata and two or three graves in the Forum may be assigned to the r2th and rith centuries B.c. The First Benacci sites at Bologna begin

Another alternative form of burial urn used by the south but not in the north was the pottery hut, a miniature model of the dwelling house, of which two examples are shown (fig 3). Neither of those variations from their ceremonial form was adopted by the Bolognese, who retained the standard type of ritual urn with the most rigid conservatism, though the potters somewhat modified its outline in the course of centunes One of the most notable traits common to both branches of the Villanovans 1s their remarkable skill in metal work Helmets such as fig 2, large bronze vessels lke fig

4, or belts like that seen ın fig 8 were FIS

i

4~—OSSUARY

OF

freely made in the oth century Bc by a HAMMERED BRONZE

primitive but extremely effective process The technique consists in the hammermg by hand of thin sheets of copper or bronze, which were then bent round and fastened together with mivets Lines of these rivets generally form the principal decoration, which

SANA

O

ın the rrth century, and are followed in due order by the Second Benacci, dating from 950 to 700 BC, and by the Arnoaldi which covers 700 to 500 Bc, Cemeteries corresponding in date and style to the First and Second Benacci periods of Bo-

logna have been found at various sites scattered over the country between Tolfa Fic

and Florence or Pisa

3 —potrery ossu-

But the third, or ARIES IN FORM OF HUTS

Arnoaldi period, is not represented south of the Arno, because the southern Villanovans had been subjugated by the Etruscans before 700 Bc, and their civilization transformed by their conquerors. In the north the history is different, for as the Etruscans did not cross the Apennines to found any colonies there before the

end of the 6th century, the Bolognese Villanovans survived as a

distinct and highly characterized people till after soo B.c. Local Differences.—In spite of a close family resemblance in

their general character there were many local differences of custom and practice. Thus the northern Villanovans invariably used the

FIG 5—THE FIRST BENACCI PERIOD AT BOLOGNA, SHOWING BRONZE FIBULAE AND PINS, HOOK, TWEEZERS, OBJECT OF UNKNOWN USE WITH BRONZE STAFF AND HEAD, AND DISCS OF AMBER

is extremely simple This process is quite unlike anything used by the people of the Terremare, and it was probably learned by the Villanovans in their origmal transalpine homes ‘That they traded with the Danube region at this date is shown by the bronze swords of Hallstatt type with hilts terminating in spiral volutes, which have been found in small numbers at various places in Etruria as well as farther north. The skill of the Villanovan coppersmuths ex-

VILLANUEVA DE LA SERENA—VILLANUEVA

Y GELTRU

157

plains the rapid development of every form of metal-work when the mnes of Tuscany and Elba were more freely exploited in the

700 E C. the wheel was introduced and with it came new processes of decoration By the 7th century, however, the only Villanovans

sth and following centuries

who retained their independence were the northern branch about

The Etruscans by themselves never

constituted any large number of persons, they formed a small ruling aristocracy but the backbone of the population was always Vil-

Janovan For this reason it is mportant to realize the high grade of that native Italian civilization upon which the Etruscan was grafted Artistic spirit and enterprise, new ideas of decoration and ornament, improvements in technique were all contributed by the Etruscans, but there already existed a high standard of primitive

workmanship and a long tradition amongst the native workmen whom they found m the country The Villanovans m fact had attained a stage of civilization which must be considered quite high long before they came under any influences from the Aegean or the Orient They owed a good deal to their intercourse with central Europe but nothing whatsoever to any of the Mediterranean peoples As early as the roth century B.c the existence of considerable commerce with countries north of the Alps is proved by the presence of Baltic amber as well as of glass beads in the tombs ‘This is the natural contimua= tion of a traffic which began in the Bronze Age, when Italy freely exported her own FIG 6—SECOND BE- models of weapons to foreign countries. NACC] PERIOD AT BOIn its general aspect the whole character LOGNA, SHOWING SWORD, ARMLETS, RAZOR EN- of the civilization recalls that of central GRAVED WITH BOAT AND Europe Art is still mm its infancy, and HAFTED AXE, PIKE, ALL decoration is entirely confined to a few

OF BRONZE

geometric motives

Even on the pottery,

which affords the greatest scope for decoration, the only schemes of ornament are incised rectilinear patterns of the sımplest kind. All over Europe the same geometric school of design 1s dominant, at this period. The first traces of naturalism in Italy begin to appear on a few rare pieces of imported pottery brought in from the Aegean during the 8th century, and on Etruscan bronze work of the same period The everyday life of the Villanovans may to some extent be estimated by the products of their tombs and dwellings It may be inferred that they lhved in small villages composed of wattle and daub huts roofed with wooden beams, Their clothing was of a thick material, doubtless wool spun from the fleeces of their own sheep on their own bronze distaffs and spindles It was fastened with strong fibulae of bronze, or, in the later periods,

of iron

These

fibulae, often decorated

with pieces of bone, amber or glass, follow a distinct course of evolution, which is a great help in tracing the stages of chronology The Villanovans were well ac-

FIG 8 —SECOND BENACCI PERIOD AT BOLOGNA, SHOWING AXES, HORSEBIT, TINTINNABULUM, DISTAFF, GIRDLE, ALL OF BRONZE, AND TWO AXES WITH HANDLES OF BONE piece of Etruscan jewellery from which it is possible to establish some valuable synchronisms of dating When the Etruscans eventually crossed the Apennines and founded their colony of Felsina at Bologna about 500 Bc, they did not expel nor at once absorb the older inhabitants For some generations the two peoples lived side by side, each preserving its own individuality, dwelling in separate settlements and burying their dead in separate cemeteries. It 1s only very rarely at Bologna that an Etruscan object is found in a Villanovan grave or vice versa But gradually the superior civilization ousted the other, and before the Gauls put an end to the existence of both communities at Bologna in the 4th century Villanovanism was practically extinct. Its survival, however, in this northern region for nearly three centuries after 1t had been extinguished in Etruria affords a most valuable study of the process by which, presumably, the Etruscans gradually replaced and dominated the Villanovans in other parts of the country The archaeological history of Bologna has made it possible to solve the principal difficulties which beset students of this subject in the last generation We can now distinguish between the products of the Villanovans and those of the Etruscans and give due value and prominence to the older people whose contribution to the civilization of early Italy had so long been neglected or undervalued See D. Randall-Maclver, Villanovans and Early Etruscans

(1924),

novienne et étrusque (1912), which 1s the most closely detailed study of the northern region; F. von Duhn, /talsche Griberkunde (1924), which deals with the subject incidentally rather than as a correlated whole (D. R-M)

quainted with the horse—bronze bits are

The practice of hunting is vouched for by|

All Etruria and Latium had now been conquered by the

which gives all the original Itahan sources; A. Grenier, Bologne vilia-

very frequent even in the earliest cemeterles—but there 1s no evidence that they

used chariots, which were first introduced by the Etruscans That they were of war- | a lıke character ıs amply proved by the constant occurrence of swords, battle-axes and daggers Defensive armour, however, was rare and confined to the use of helmets

Bologna

Etruscans; but north of the Apennmes the Bolognese continued to develop their provincial life without any interference from the foreigner They entered, however, into peaceful trade relations with their new neighbours and acquired an occasional ornament or

VILLANUEVA

DE LA SERENA, a town of western

Spain, in the province of Badajoz, near the left bank of the river Guadiana, and on the Madnd-Badajoz railway. Pop. (1920) 14,857. Villanueva ıs the chief town of La Serena, locally celebrated for red wine and melons Grain and hemp are also cultivated, and live stock extensively reared in the neighbourhood. >

VILLANUEVA Seg

8

the bones of wild animals found in the Fic. 7—sECOND BEashes of the funeral feasts, and the occurae Tes ene ae one and oxen shows familharity PIBULAE OR SAFETV-PIÑS As manufacturers these tribes were important principally for their metal-work. Pottery was made everywhere, but only for use in Italy, and seldom exported even to a neighbouring community. Until the 7th century it was all hand-made, but about

Y GELTRU, a seaport of north-eastern

Spain, in the province of Barcelona; on the Barcelona-Tarragona section of the coast railway Pop. (1920) 13,720. Villanueva is a busy modern town, with manufactures of cotton, woollen and

linen goods, and of paper It has also iron foundries and an important agricultural trade. The harbour affords safe and deep anchorage, it is a lifeboat station and the headquarters of a large fishing fleet The coasting trade is also considerable. Villanueva has a museum, founded by the Catalan poet and historian, Victor Balaguer (1824~1901), which contains a large library, including

158

VILLARD—VILLARS

not only numerous historical works but also many valuable mss

VILLARD, HENRY

(1835-1900), American journalist and

financier, was born in Speyer, Rhenish Bavaria, Apr 10, 1835 He emigrated to America in 1853 and engaged ın journalistic work for German-American newspapers and later for leading American dailies. He reported the Lincoln-Douglas debates for eastern newspapers, the Pikes Peak gold rush for the Cincinnati Dazly Commercaal and the Civil War from the field of action for the New York Herald and New York Tribune. In 1881 he purchased the Nation and the New York Evening Post Through acting as agent for German bondholders he became interested in railway finance In 1875 he aided in reorganizing the Oregon and Calhfornia Railroad and the Oregon Steamship company and ın 1876 became president of both companies He was receiver of the Kansas Pacific Railroad in 1876-78 In 1879 he organized the Oregon Railway and Navigation Campany which built a line along the Columbia river from Portland to Wallula In 1881 Villard secured control of the Northern Pacific and be-

came

its president

Its transcontinental

line was

completed

under his management but the costs so far exceeded the estimate that both Villard and the road became insolvent in 1883 and Villard was removed from the presidency He later recouped his losses so that from 1889-1893 he served as chairman of the board of directors of the same company In 1890 he bought the Edison Lamp Co at Newark, N.J , and the Edison Machine Works at Schenectady, NY, and formed them into the Edison General Electric Co of which he was president until its reorganization in 1893 as the General Electric Co He died at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y, Nov 12, 1900 See Memoirs of Henry Villard (2 vols , 1904)

VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, LOUIS THOMAS

(1750-

1812), French admiral, was born at Auch He served for some time in the royal guard, but had to leave after killing one of his comrades in a duel He then entered the navy, and in 1773 was lieutenant on the “Atalante” in Indian waters In 1778 after the siege of Pondicherry, he was promoted çaptain

He took part in

the battle of Cuddalore, and in 178r was taken prisoner He was released in 1783, and did not emigrate during the Revolution. In 1791 he commanded the “Prudente” at San Domingo, and in 1794 was appointed rear-admural and assisted the Conventional, St André, in the reorganization of the fleet. Villaret was in com-

His other works include Saggs Crotsct (1868), Arte, Storim, ¢ Filosofia (Florence, 1884), Scritte varw (Bologna, 1894); another volume of Saggz Cratece (Bologna, 1896); Dsscusstoni cr tiche e discorsi (Bologna, 1905), containing his speeches as president of the Dante Alighieri Society, Lettere Meridional contam-

ing the first exposure of conditions in south Italy (Turin, 188s), Scritti sulla quest:one sociale in Itaha (Florence, 1902); L'Italia da Carlo Magno alla Morte di Arrigo VII. (Milan, 1910, Eng, trs 1910) and Storia, politica e istruzione (Milan, 1914) See F. Baldasseroni, Pasquale Villarz (Florence, 1907)

VILLA RICA, the largest city in the mterior of Paraguay, on the ralway from Asuncion (7o m. NW) to Encarnacion Pop (1927) about 25,000 Situated in a nich agricultural region watered by the upper Tepicuary, with finely timbered mountains extending to the E and W, Villa Rica has an important trade m

tobacco, oranges and yerba maté. It ıs to a great extent primitive, but contains

some

attractive

buildings,

including

a college, a

church, schools and a branch of the Agricultural Bank VILLARREAL, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Castellón de la Plana, 4 m. from the Mediterranean sea, near the right bank of the rıver Mijares, and on the Barcelona-Valencia railway Pop (1920) 16,770 Villarreal has a station on the light railway between Onda and the seaports of Castellén de la Plana and Burriana fPalm-groves, churches with blue-tiled cupolas, and houses with flat roofs and view-turrets (miradores) to some extent preserve the Moorish character of the town Under Moorish rule, and up to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1609, it was the headquarters of a flourishing trade

There are extensive

orange-groves, watered by the irrigation canal of Castellén, which

is a good example of Moorish engineering skill factures of paper, woollen goods and spirits

There are manu-

VILLARS, CLAUDE LOUIS HECTOR DE, Pruvce vr Marticnes, Marquis AND Duc DE VILLARS AND VICOMTE DE Metun (1653-1734), marshal of France, one of the greatest generals of French history, was born at Moulins on May 8, 1653,

and entered the army through the corps of pages in 1671. He served in the light cavalry in the Dutch wars, and distinguished himself by his daring and resourcefulness But in spite of a long record of excellent service under Turenne, Condé and Luxembourg, and of his aristocratic birth, his promotion was but slow, for he had incurred the enmity of the powerful Louvois, and although he had been proprietary colonel (mestre de camp) of a cavalry regiment since 1674, thirteen years elapsed before he was made a maréchal de camp In the interval between the

mand of the French fleet at the battle of the First on June, He was a member of the Council of the Ancients in 1796, and was sentenced to deportation ın 1797 on account of hbis royalist sym- Dutch wars and the formation of the League of Augsburg, Villars pathies He then lived in obscurity at Ọléron In r8ọr he com- was employed in an unofficial mission to the court of Bavaria, and manded the squadron which transported the French army to there became the constant companion of the elector, with whom San Domingo, and in 1802 was made captain-general of Mar- he took the field against the Turks and fought at Mohacs. He tinique, which he surrendered to the English in 1809 In 1811 he returned to France in 1690 and was given a command in the cavbecame governor-general of Venice alry of the army in Flanders, but towards the end of the Grand VILLARI (villahr-i), PASQUALE (1827-1917), Italian Alliance War he went to Vienna as ambassador. His part im the historian and statesman, born at Naples Oct 3, 1827, studied with next war (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE), beginning Luigi la Vista under Francesco de Sanctis, Implicated ın the riots with Friedlingen (1702) and Hochstett (1703) and ending with of May 15, 1848, at Naples, against the Bourbon government, he Denain (1712), has made him immortal For Friedlingen he retook refuge in Florence where he published his Storia dz Giro- ceived the marshalate, for the pacification of the mnsurgent Célamo Savonarola e de’ suoi tempi (2 vols 1859-61). It was fol- vennes the Saint-Esprit order and the title of duke Fnedlngen lowed by a work of even greater critical value, Niccold Machta- and Héchstett were barren victories, and the campaigns of which vells e i suoi tempi (1877-82). Both these works have been they formed a part, records of lost opportunities Villars’s glory through many editions, the latest in 1927 Meanwhile Vilları had thus begins with the year 1709 when France, apparently helpless, been professor of history at Pisa, and now obtained the chair of was roused to a great effort of self-defence by the exorbitant dephilosophy of history at the Institute of Studii Superiori in Flo- mands of the Coalition In that year he was called to command rence He was also a member of the council of education (1862), the main army opposing Eugene and Marlborough on the northand in 1869 was made under-secretary of state for education In ern frontier. During the famine of the winter he shared the 1884 he was nominated senator, and in 1891-92 minister of educa- soldiers’ miserable rations When the campaign opened the old tion. His collected essays on Florentine history were published as J Marshal Boufflers volunteered to serve under him, and after the primi due secoli della storia di Firenze (1893-94), and in rgor his terrible battle of Malplaquet (qv ),,in which he was gravely Le Invasioni barbariche in Italia, a popular account of the events wounded, he was able to tell the king: “If it please God to give following the dissolution of the Roman empire All these works your majesty’s enemies another such victory, they are rmmed” have been translated into English by his wife. Vilları died at Two more campaigns passed without a battle and with scarcely Florence on Dec. 5, tory Villari’s historical, political and social any advance on the part of the invaders, but at last Marlborough writings exercised a deep influence on his generation, and most of manoeuvred Villars out of the famous Ne plus ultra limes, and the Italian historians of to-day have been his pupils the power of the defence seemed to be broken But Louis made

VILLARS—VILLEHARDOUIN

159

where Villars took Landau, led the stormers at Freiburg and

Founded m 1212 by Guichard IV, count of Beaujeu, Villefranche became in the 14th century capital of the Beaujolais Edward It was forced to surrender the Beaujolais to the duke of Bourbon Among its industries the chief are the manufacture of working clothes, the manufacture, dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics, including surgcal dressings, Lmngs, the spinning of cotton thread,

period as the principal opponent of Cardinal Dubois, and only

cultural implements The wines of Beaujolais, hemp, cotton cloth, Imen, cotton thread, drapery goods and cattle are the principal

a last effort, the English contingent and its great leader were

qithdrawn from the enemy’s camp, and Villars, though still suffermg from his Malplaquet wounds, outmanoeuvred and decisively defeated Eugene ın the battle of Denain This victory saved France, though the war dragged on for another year on the Rhine,

negotiated the peace of Rastatt with Prince Eugene He played a conspicuous part in the politics of the Regency

the memories

of Montmorency’s

rebellion prevented lis being

He took the field for the last time

made constable of France.

in the War of the Polish Succession (1734), with the title “mar-

shal-general of the king’s armies,” that Turenne alone had held

before him. But he was now over eighty years of age, and the war was more diplomatic than earnest, and after opening the campaign with all the fire and restless energy of his youth he died at Turin on June 17, 1734

©

Villars’ memoirs show us a “fanfaron plem d'honneur,” as Voltaire calls him He was indeed boastful, with the gasconading

habit of his native province, and also covetous of honours and wealth But he was an honourable man of high courage, moral

and physical, and a soldier who stands above all his contempo-

raries and successors in the 18th century, on the same height as Marlborough and Frederick The memoirs, part of which was published in 1734 and afterwards several times repubhshed mm untrustworthy versions, were for the first time completely edited by the Marquis de Vogue in 1884-92 *

VILLARS

(VILLARS-SUR-OLLON),

a Swiss winter

sports

centre, frequented in summer also, situated at over 4,t0oft above sea-level, on a narrow gauge railway that branches from the Lausanne-Bnig main line at Bex, about 84m. beyond the point at which the railway leaves the Lake of Geneva It is some distance above Gryon and commands a fine view of the Dent du

copper

founding and the manufacture

of machinery

and agri-

articles of trade An old Renaissance house 1s used as the town hall The rsth century church of Notre Dame des Marais, has a 16th century tower and spire (rebuilt m 1862), standing to the right of the façade Viullefranche is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of commerce and a chamber of commerce

VILLEHARDOUIN, GEOFFROY DE (¢ 1160-¢ 1273),

the first vernacular historian of France, and perhaps of modern Europe, who possesses hterary merit, is rather supposed than known to have been born at the chateau from which he took his name, near Troyes, in Champagne, about the year 1160 Not merely his literary and historical importance, but almost all that 1s known about him, comes from his chronicle of the fourth crusade, or Conquéte de Constantmople. He was one of a list of knights of Champagne who with their count, Thibault, took the cross at a tournament held at Escry-sur-Aisne in Advent 1199 The next year six deputies, two appointed by each of the three allied counts of Flanders, Champagne and Blois, were despatched to Venice to negotiate for ships Of these deputies Villehardouin was one and Quesnes de Béthune, the poet, another. They concluded a bargain with the seigmiory for transport and provisions at a fixed price Villehardouin had hardly returned when Thibault fell sıck and died. Villehardoum made another embassy into Italy to prevent if possible some of his fellow-pilgrims from breaking

the treaty with the Venetians by embarking at their ports and

Midi and the western Alps, and the Grand Muveran (3,061 metres) nearby ‘The railway runs on to Chesiéres, another resort which, m its turn, has road vehicles to Ollon, a station on the light railway from Monthey, which joins the Lausanne-Brig main hne at Aigle

employing other convoy. Villehardouin does not tell us of any direct part taken by him

province of Oviedo, on the Rio de Villaviciosa, an estuary formed by the small river Villaviciosa which here enters the Bay of Biscay Pop (1920) 20,712 The town is the headquarters of a large fishery, and has some coasting trade Its exports are chiefly agricultural produce

ever, that the marshal of Champagne, who was one of the leader: and inner counsellors of the expedition throughout, sympathizec with the majority, and it is fair to point out that the temptatior of chivalrous adventure was probably as great as ‘that of gain He narrates spiritedly enough the dissensions and discussions ir the winter camp of Zara and at Corfu, but is evidently much more at ease when the voyage was again resumed, and, after a fair pass age round Greece, the crusaders at last saw before them the grea city of Constantinople which they had in mind to attack When the assault was decided upon, Villehardouin himself wa: in the fifth “battle,” the leader of which was Mathieu de Mont morency But he does not tell us anything of his own prowess After the flight of the usurper Alexius, and when the blind Isaac whose claims the crusaders were defending, had been taken by th Greeks from prison and placed on the throne, Villehardouin, witl Montmorency and two Venetians, formed the embassy sent t arrange terms He was again similarly distingmshed when it be came necessary to remonstrate with Alexius, the blind man’s so) and virtual successor, on the non-keeping of the terms. Indee Villehardouin’s talents as a diplomatist seem to have been held 1 very high esteem, for later, when the Latin empire had become fact, he was charged with the delicate business of mediating be

VILLAVICIOSA,

a seaport of northern Spain, in the

VILLEFRANCHE-DE-ROUERGUE, a town of France,

capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, 36 m W of Rodez by road Pop (1926) 5,557. Villefranche, founded

about 1252, owes its name to the numerous immunities granted by its founder Alphonse, count of Toulouse (d 1271), and in 1348 it was so flourishing that sumptuary laws were passed Soon afterwards the town fell into the hands of Edward, the Black Prince, but was the first place in Gwenne to rise against the English New privileges were granted to the town by King Charles V, but these were taken away by Louis XI In 1588 the inhabitants repulsed the forces of the League.

Villefranche, which has

a station on the Orléans railway, lies amongst the hills on the

right bank of the Aveyron at its junction with the Alzou

One

of the three bridges that cross the river is of the 13th century, and there are many houses of the 13th and 14th centuries The church of Notre Dame is flanked by a massive tower, beneath

self in the debates on the question of interfermg or not in the disputed succession to the empire of the East—debates in whict the chief ecclesiastics present strongly protested against the diver sion of the enterprise from its proper goal It is quite clear, how

the porch of which passes one of the chief streets The fine woodwork in the choir dates from the rth century The 15th and 16th tween the emperor Baldwin and Boniface, marquis of Montferrai century buildings (notably the fine refectory and two cloisters, the in which task he had at least partial success. He was als smaller a gem of late Gothic work) of a Carthusian monastery appointed marshal of “Romanie”—a term very vaguely used, bt stand above the town on the left bank of the Aveyron

Quarries

of phosphates and mines of galena and blende are worked near

Villefranche

Villefranche is an agricultural centre with minor

industries, and is the seat of a sub-prefect.

VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAONE, @ manufacturimg town

of east-central France, capital of an arrondissement m the department of Rhone, on the Morgon near its junction with the Saône, 21 m N. by W. of Lyons by rail. Pop (1926) 16,427.

apparently signifying the mainland of the Balkan Peninsula, whil his nephew and namesake, afterwards prince of Achaia, took great part in the Latm conquest of Peloponnesus Villehardown himself before long received an important con mand against the Bulgarians He was left to mamtain the sieg of Adrianople when Baldwin advanced to attack the relievir

force, and with Dandolo had much to do in saving the defeate crusaders from utter destruction, and in conducting the retreat, `

160

VILLEINAGE

which he commanded the rearguard, and brought his troops in safety to the sea of Rodosto, and thence to the capital. As he occupied the post of honour in this disaster, so he had that (the command of the vanguard) in the expedition which the regent Henry made shortly afterwards to revenge his brother Baldwin’s defeat and capture. And, when Henry had succeeded to the crown on the announcement of Baldwin’s death, it was Vulehardoum who fetched home his bride Agnes of Montferrat, and shortly afterwards commanded under him in a naval battle with the ships of Theodore Lascaris at the fortress of Cibotus In the settlement of the Latın empire after the truce with Lastaris, Villehardoum received the fief of Messinople from Boniface of Montferrat, with the record of whose death the chronicle abruptly closes Villehardouin reappears for us once, but once only, in the chronicle of his continuator, Henri de Valenciennes. There is a great gap in style, though none in subject, between the really poetical prose of the first historian of the fifth crusade and the Latin empire and the awkward mannerism (so awkward that it has been taken to represent a “disrbhymed” verse chronicle) of his follower. But the much greater length at which Villehardown appears on this one occasion shows us the restraint which he must have exercised in the passages which deal with himself in his own work He again led the vanguard in the emperor Henry’s expedition against Burlas the Bulgaran, and he is represented by the Valenciennes scribe as encouraging his sovereign to the attack in a long speech Then he disappears altogether, with the exception of some brief and chiefly diplomatic mentions. Du Cange discovered and quoted a deed of donation by him dated 1207, by which certain properties were devised to the churches of Notre Dame de Foissy and Notre Dame de Troyes, with the reservation of life mterests to his daughters Alix and Damerones, and his sisters Emmeline and Haye, all of whom appear to have embraced a monastic life. A letter addressed from the East to Blanche of Champagne is ated, and a papal record of 1212 styles him still “marshal of Romania ” The next year this title passed to his son Erard; and 1213 is accordingly given as the date of his death It would be out of place to attempt any further analysis of the Conquête here. But it is not impertinent, and ıs at the same time an excuse for what has been already said, to repeat that Villehardoum’s book, brief as it is, is in reality one of the capital books of hterature, not merely for its merit, but because it is the most authentic and the most striking embodiment in contemporary literature of the sentiments which determined the action of a great and important period of history There are but very few books which hold this position, and Villehardouin’s is one of them If every other contemporary record of the crusades perished, we should still be able by aid of this to understand and realize what the mental atti*:de of crusaders o* Teutonic krigh'- and the rest was ant wiclou- thi we should lack ie ciles; the most undoubtecly genaime end the mo-! char.c.cri-.ie of cal such records, Ihe very inconsistency wi. which Ville. rdewr 13 chargeable,

the absence of compunction with which he relates the changing of a sacred religious pilgrimage into something by no means unlike a mere filibustering raid on the great scale, add a charm. The book appears to have been known in the ages immediately succeeding his own; and, though there is no contemporary manuscript in existence, there are some half-dozen which appear to date from the end of the 13th or the course of the 14th century, while one at least appears to be a copy made from his own work in that spunt of unintelligent faithfulness which 1s much more valuable to posterity than mole pragmatical editmg The first printed edition of the book, by a certain Blaisc de Vigenére, dates from 1585, is dedicated to the seigmiory of Venice (Villehardouin, it should be said, has been accused of a rather unfair predilection for the Venetians), and speaks of either a part or the whole of the memoirs as having been printed twelve years earher Of this earher copy nothing seems to be known A better edition, founded on a Nether-

landish ms, appeared at Lyons m r6or

But both these were com-

pletely antiquated by the great edition of Du Cange in 1657, wherem that learned writer employed all his knowledge, never since equalled, of the subject, but added a translation, or rather paraphrase, into modern French which 1s scarcely worthy either of himself or his author Dom Bria] gave a new edition from different ms sources in 1823, and the book figures with different degrecs of dependence on Du Cange and Bnal in the collections of Petitot, Buchon, and Michaud and Poujoulat

All these, however,

have been superseded for the modern

student

by the editions of Natalis de Wally (1872 and 1874), mm which the text 1s critically edited from all the available mss and a new transla. tion added, while there 1s a still later and rather handier one by E Bouchet (2 vols, Pars, 1891), which, however, rests mainly on

N de Wailly for text The charm of Vullehardoum can escape no reader; but few readers will fail to derive some additional pleasure

from the two essays which Sainte-Beuve devoted to him, repnnted in the ninth volume of the Causertes du lund: See also A Debidour, Les Chronsqueurs (1888) There are English translations by T Smith Sore and (more hterally) Sur F. T. Marzials (Everyman’s Library, 1908

VILLEINAGE (VILLAINAGE, VILLENAGE), a mediaeval term (from villa, villanus), pointing to serfdom, a condition of men intermediate between freedom and slavery It occurs in France as well as in England, and was certainly imported into Enghsh speech through the medium of Norman French

The materials for the formation of the villem class were already in existence in the Anglo-Saxon period On the one hand, the Saxon ceorls (twzhyndemen), although considered as including

the typical freemen in the earlier Jaws (Aethelberht, Hlothhere and Edric, Ine), gradually became differentiated through the action of political and economic causes, and many of them had to recognize the patronage of magnates or to seek hvelhood as tenants on the estates of the latter. These ceorls, sittmg on gafolland, were, though personally free, considered as a lower order of men, and lapsed gradually into more or less oppressive subjection to the lords of whom they held their land It is character-

istic in this connection that the West Saxon laws do not make any distinction between ceorls and laets or half-freemen as the Kentish laws had done. this means that the half-free people were, 1f not Welshmen, reckoned as members of the ceorl class Another remarkable indication of the decay of the ceorl’s estate 1s afforded by the fact that in the treaties with the Danes the twihynde ceorls are equated with the Danish leysings or freedmen It does not mean, of course, that their condition was practically the same, but in any case the fact testifies to the gulf which had come to separate the two principal subdivisions of the free class —the ceorl and the thegn The Latin version of the Rectitudies Singularum Personarum, a document compiled probably in the Irth century, renders geneat (a peasant tenant of a superior kind

performing lighter services than the gebur, who was burdened with heavy week-work) by villanus; but the gebur came to be also considered as a villanus according to Anglo-Norman terminology The group designated as geburs in Anglo-Saxon charters, though distinguished from mere slaves, undoubtedly included many freedmen who in point of services and economic subjection were not very much above the slaves Both ceorls and geburs disappear as separate classes, and it is clear that the greater part of them must have passed into the rank of villeins In the terminology of the Domesday Inquest we find the villems as the most numerous element of the English population Out of about 240,000 households enumerated in Domesday 100,000 are marked as belonging to villeins They are rustics performing, as a rule, work services for their lords But not all the inhabitants of the villages were designated by that name Villeins are opposed to socmen and freemen on one hand, to bordarii, cottagers and slaves on the other The distinction in regard to the first two of these groups was evidently derived from their greater freedom, although the difference is only one in degree and not m

kind

In fact, the villein is assumed to be a person free by birth,

but holding land of which he cannot dispose freely The distinction as against bordari and cottagers is based on the size of the holding: the villeins are holders of regular shares ın the village —that is, of the virgates, bovates or half-hides which conststute the principal subdiyisions in the fields and contribute to form the plough-teams—whereas

the bordarw hold smaller plots of some

five acres, more or less, and cottarii are connected with mere cottages and crofts Thus the terminology of Domesday takes note of two kinds of differences in the status of rustics. a legal

one in connection with the right to dispose of property in land, and an economic one reflecting the opposition between the holders of shares in the fields and the holders of auxiliary tenements ‘The feature of personal serfdom is also noticeable, but it provides a

VILLEINAGE hasis only for the comparatively smati group of serv, of whom only about 25,000 are enumerated m Domesday Book The con-

trast between thıs exceptionally sıtuated class and the rest of

the population shows that personal slavery was rapidly disappearing in England about the time of the Conquest It ıs also to be noticed that the Domesday Survey constantly mentions the terra villanorum as opposed to the lord’s demesne, and that the land of the rustics is taxed separately for the geld, so that the distinction between the property of the lord and that of the peasant dependent on him is clearly marked The Domesday Survey puts before us the state of things in England as it was at the very beginning of the Norman and at the close of the Saxon period The development of feudal society, of centrahzing kingship and ultimately of a system of common law, brought about great changes which all hinge on the fundamental fact that the kings, while increasing the power of the State im other respects, surrendered it completely as regards the relations between the peasants and their lords. The protection of the assizes was tendered in civil matters to free tenants and refused to villeins. The royal courts refused to entertain suits of villeins agaist their lords, although there was a good deal of vacillation before this position was definitely taken up. Bracton

speaks in his treatise of the possibility of mterference by the courts against mtolerable cruelty on the part of the lord in-

volving the destruction of the villein’s waynage, that 1s, of his tillage, and in the Notebook of Bracton may be found a couple of cases which prove that 13th century judges occasionally allowed

themselves to entertain actions by persons holding in villeinage

against their lords. Gradually, however, the exception of villeinage

became firmly settled

As the historical and practical position

was developing on these lines the lawyers who fashioned English common law in the 12th and 13th centuries did not hesitate to apply to it the teaching of Roman law on slavery. Bracton fits

his definition of villeinage into the Romanesque scheme of Azo’s Summa of the Institutes, and the judges of the royal courts made sweeping inferences from this general position To begin with,

161

estates which had belonged to the crown before the Conquest, had a standing-ground even agamst their lords as regards the tenure of their plots and the fixity of their services Technically this nght was limited to the mhabitants of manors entered in the Domesday Survey as terra regis of Edward the Confessor. On the other hand the doctrine became effective if the manors in question had been granted by later kings to subjects, because if they remained in the hand of the king the only remedy against ejectment and exaction lay in petitionmg for redress without any definite right to the latter If, however, the two conditions mentioned were forthcoming, villeins, or, as they were technically called, villem socmen of ancient demesne manors, could resist any attempt of their lords to encroach on thew rights by depriving them of their holdmgs or increasing the amount of thew customary services Their remedy was to apply for a httle writ of right in the first case and for a writ of monstraverunt in the second These writs entitled them to appear as plaintiffs against the lord in his own manorial court and, eventually, to have the question at issue examined by way of appeal, on a writ of error, or by reservation on some legal points in the upper courts of the king. A number of cases arising from these privileges of the men of ancient demesne are published mthe Notebook of Bracton and in the Abbreviatio placitorum This exceptional procedure does not simply go back to the rule that persons who had been tenants of the king ought not to have their condition altered for the worse in consequence of a royal grant If this were the only doctrine applicable in the case there would be no reason why similar protection should be denied to all those who held under grantees of manors escheated after the Conquest A material point for the application of the privilege consists in the fact that ancient demesne has to be proved from the time before the Conquest, and this shows clearly that the theory was partly derived from the recognition of tenant right m villeins of the Anglo-Saxon period who, as we have said above, were mostly ceorls, that is, freeborn men

In view of the great difference in the legal position of the free the relation between the villein and his lord was regarded as a man and of the vuilein in feudal common law, it became very important to define the exact nature of the conditions on which stock villein of born Everyone one. praedial personal and not a belonged to his master and was bound to undertake any service which might be imposed on him by the master’s or the steward’s command, The distinction between villeins mm gross and villems regardant, of which much is made by modern writers, was suggested by modes of pleading and does not make its appearance in the Year-Books before the 1sth century. Secondly, all independent proprietary rights were denied to the villein as against his lord, and the legal rule “quicquid servo acquiritur domino acquiritur” was extended to villeins The fact that a great number of these serfs had been enjoying protection as free ceorls in former ages made itself felt, however, in three directions, (x) In criminal matters the villem was treated by the King’s Court respectively of any consideration as to his debased condition More especially the police association, organized for the keeping of the peace and the presentation of cruminals—the frankpledge groups—were formed of all ‘‘worthy of were and wite,” villeins as well as freemen (2) Politically the villems were not elminated from the body of citizens; they had to pay taxes, to serve in great emergencies in the militia, to serve on inquests, etc , and although there was a tendency to place them on a lower footing in all these respects yet the fact of their being lesser members of the commonwealth did not remove the fundamental quahfication of citizenship (3) Even in civil matters villeins were deemed free as regards

third persons.

They could sue and be sued in their own name,

and although they were able to call in their lords as defendants when proceeded against, there was nothing in Jaw to prevent them

from appearing in their own right. The state even afforded them

protection against extreme cruelty on the part of their masters in respect of hfe and mb, but in laying down this rule English lawyers were able to follow the precedents set by late Roman

jurisprudence, especially by measures of Hadrian, Antonine and Constantine the Great

of villeins.

the status of a villein depended ‘The legal theory as to these conditions was somewhat complex Of course, persons born from villein parents in lawful wedlock were villeins, but as to the condition of legitimate children there was a good deal of hesitation There was a tendency to apply the rule that a bastard follows the mother, especially in the case of a servile mother In the case of mixed marriages, the condition of the child was determined by the free or villein condition of the tenement in which it was born This notion of the influence of the tenement is in accord with feudal ideas and makes itself felt again in the case of the pursuit of a fugitive villem He can be seized without further formalities if he is caught in his “nest,” that 1s, in his native place If not, the lord can follow him in fresh pursuit for four days; once these days are past, the fugitive is maintained provisionally in possession of his hberty, and the lord has to bring an action de nativo habendo and has to assume the burden of proof. So much as to the proof of villeinage by birth or previous condition But there were numbers of cases when the discussion as to servile status turned not on these formal points but on an examination of the services performed by the person claimed as a Villein or challenged as holding in villeinage In both cases the courts had often recourse to proof derived not from direct testimony but from indirect indications as to the kind of services that had been performed by the supposed villein Certain services, especially the payment of merchet—the fine for marrying a daughter—were considered to be the badge of serfdom Another service, the performance of which established a presumption as to villemage, was compulsory service as a reeve ‘The courts also tried to draw a distinction from the amount and regularity of agricultural services to which a tenant was subjected. Bracton speaks of the contrast between the irregular services of a serf, “who could not know in the evening what he would have to do in the morning,” and services agreed upon and definite in their

There was one exception to this harsh treatment arrangements of the work of villeins, The rustic tenantry in manors of ancient demesne, that 1s, in amount. The customary

162

VILLEINAGE

however, render this contrast rather fictitious. The obligations of downright villeins became so far settled and regular that one of the ordinary designations of the class was custumart Therefore in most cases there were no arbitrary exactions to go by, except

perhaps one or the other tallage imposed at the will of the lord. The original distinction seems to have been made not between arbitrary and agreed but between occasional services and regular agricultural week-work While the occasional services, even when agricultural, m no way established a presumption of villeinage, and many socmen, freemen and holders by serjeanty submitted to them, agricultural week-work was primarily considered as a trait of villeinage and must have played an important part in the process of classification of early Norman society. This point brings us to consider the matter-of-fact conditions of the villeins durmg the feudal period, especially in the 12th, 13th and z4th centuries As is shown by the Hundred Rolls and countless other records of the same kind, the customary conditions of villeinage did not tally by any means with the identification of villeimage with slavery suggested by the jurists It 1s true that in nomenclature the word servi is not infrequently used (e g, in the Hundred Rolls) where villani might have been mentioned, and the feminine nief (nativa) appears as the regular parallel to villanus, but m the descriptions of usages and services we find that the power of the lord loses its discretionary character and is in every respect moderated by custom As personal dependents of the lord native villeins were liable to be sold, and we find actual sales recorded. Glastonbury Abbey, eg, sells a certain Philipp Hardyng for 20 shillings. But such transfers of human chattels occur seldom, and there is nothmg during the English feudal period corresponding to the brisk trade in men characteristic of the ancient world Merchet was regarded as a badge of serfdom in so far as it was said to imply a “buying of one’s own blood” (servus de sanguine suo emendo). The explanation is even more characteristic than the custom itself, because fines on marriage might be levied and were actually levied on people of different condition, on the free as well as on the serf. Still the tendency to treat merchet as a distinctive feature of serfdom has to be noted, and we find that the custom spread for this very reason in consequence of the encroachments of powerful lords; in the Hundred Rolls it is applied mdiscrimmately to the whole rustic population of certain hundreds in a way which can hardly be explained unless by artificial extension Herzot, the surrender of the best horse or ox, is also regarded as the common incident of villein tenure, although, of course, its very name proves its intmmate connection with the outfit of soldiers (here-geatu) Economically the institution of villeinage was bound up with the manorial organization—that 1s, with the fact that the country was divided mto a number of districts m which central home farms were cultivated by work supplied by villern households. The most important of villein services is the week-work performed by the peasantry Every virgater or holder of a bovate has to send a labourer to do work on the lord’s farm for some days inthe week Three days is indeed the most common standard for service of this kind, though four or even five occur sometimes, as well as two. It must be borne in mind in the case of heavy charges, such as four or five days’ week-work, that only one labourer from the whole holding is meant, while generally there were several men living on every holding—otherwise the service of five days would be impossible to perform Jn the course of these three days, or whatever the number was, many

requirements of the demesne had to be met

The principal of

these was ploughing the fields belonging to the lord, and for such ploughing the peasant had not only to appear personally as a labourer, but to bring his oxen and plough, or rather to join

with his oxen and plough in the work imposed on the village; the heavy, costly plough with a team of eight oxen had to be made up by several peasants contributing their beasts and implements towards its composition. In the same way the villagers had to go through the work of harrowing with ther harrows, and of removing the harvest in their vans and carts. Carriage duties in carts and on horseback were also apportioned according to the time they took as a part of the week-work. Then came in-

numerable varieties of manual work for the making and keeping up of hedges, the preservation of dykes, canals and ditches, the threshing and garnering of corn, the tending and shearing of sheep, and so forth All this hand-work was reckoned according to customary standards as day-work and week-work But besides all these services into which the regular week-work of the peasantry was differentiated, there were some additional duties

The

ploughing for the lord, for instance, was not only imposed m the shape of a certain number of days in the week, but took

sometimes the shape of a certain number of acres which the village had to plough and to sow for the lord irrespectively of the time employed This was sometimes termed gafolearth Exceedingly burdensome services were required in the seasons when farming processes are at their height—in the seasons of mowing and reaping, when every day is of special value and the working power of the farm hands is stramed to the utmost At those

times it was the custom to call up the whole able-bodied population of the manor, with the exception of the housewives, for two, three or more days of mowing and reaping on the lord’s fields: to these boon-works the peasantry was asked or invited by special summons, and their value was so far appreciated that the villagers were usually treated to meals in cases where they were again and again called off from their own fields to the demesne The liberality of the lord actually went so far, in exceptionally hard straits, that ale was served to the labourers By the 14th century this social arrangement, based pnmarily on natural economy, had given way, the time of commercial, contractual, cash intercourse was fast approaching If we now turn to the actual stages by which this momentous passage from the manorial to the commercial arrangement was achieved, we have to notice first of all a rapid development of contractual relations. We know that in feudal law there was a standing contrast between tenure by custom—villem tenure—and tenure by coniract—free tenure. While the manorial system was in full force this contrast led to a classification of holdings and affected the whole position of people on the land Still, even at that time it might happen that a freeholder owned some land in. villeinage by the side of his free tenement, and that a villem held some land freely by agreement with his lord or with a third person. But these cases, though by no means infrequent, were still exceptional As a rule people used land as holdings, and those were rigidly classified as villem or free tenements The mteresting point is that, without any formal break, leasing land for hfe and for terms of years is seen to be rapidly spreading durmg the

13th century, and many small tenancies are created which break up the disposition of the holdings From the close of the 13th century countless transactions on the basis of leases for terms of years occur between the peasants themselves Any suitably kept set of 14th century court rolls contains entries in which such and such a villem is said to appear in the Aalimote and to surrender for the use of another person named a piece of land belonging to the holding The number of years and the conditions of payment are specified Thus, behind the screen of the normal shares a number of small tenancies arise which run their economic concerns in independence of the cumbersome arrangements of tenure and service, and, needless to add, all these tenancies are burdened with money rents. Another series of momentous changes took place in the arrangement of services Even the manorial system admitted the buying off for money of particular dues in kind and of specific performance of work. A villem might be allowed to bring a penny instead of a chicken, or to pay a rent instead of appearing with his oxen

three times a week on the lord’s fields. Such rents were called mal or mail m contrast with the gafol, ancient rents which had been imposed independently, apart from any buying off of customary services There were even whole bodies of peasants called Molmen, because they had bought off work from the lord by settling with him on the basis of money rents. As time went on these practices of commutation became more and more frequent. There were, for both sides, many advantages m arranging their mutual

relations on this basis The lord got clear money—a much-coveted means of satisfying needs and wishes of any kind—instead of

VILLELE cumbrous performances which did not come always at the proper moment, were carried out in a half-hearted manner, yielded no

mmediate results, and did not admit of convenient rearrangement

The peasant got md of a hateful drudgery which not only took

up his time and means in an unprofitable manner, but placed lum under the arbitrary control of stewards or reeves and gave occasion to all sorts of fines and extortions With the growth of intercourse and security money circulated more freely and the number of such transactions increased in proportion But ıt must be kept in mind that the conversion of seryices into rents went on very gradually, as a series of private

163

often noticed at that tıme But these are only survivals of an arrangement which has been destroyed in its essence by a complete change of economic and political conditions BrsriocrapHy-—-F Seebohm, The Enghsh Village Commumty (1883); P Vinogradoff, Vzllamage in England (1892), Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law (1895) , E. W Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond (1897); A Savine in the English Historical Review, xvul (1902) ; n the Transactzons of the Royal Hvstorical Society, xviL. (1903); and m the Economic Quarterly Review (1904); P. Vmogradoff, Growth of the Manor (1905); Englsh Society in the XIth Century (1908), W. S Holdsworth, Hzstory of Enghsh Law, (1909)

See also LAND TENURE

(P Vr)

agreements, and that it would be wrong to suppose, as some scholars have done, that it had led to a general commutation by the

VILLELE, JEAN BAPTISTE GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE SERAPHIN, Comte ve (1773-1854), French states-

middle or even the end of the 14th century. The 14th century was marked by violent fluctuations in the demand and supply of labour,

man, was born at Toulouse on April 14, 1773 and educated for the navy He joined the “Bayonnaise” at Brest in July 1788 and served in the West and East Indies Arrested in the Isle of Bourbon under the Terror, he was set free by the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794) He acquired some property in the island, and married in 1799 the daughter of a great proprietor, M Desbassyns de Richemont, whose estates he had managed. The arrival of General Decaen, sent out by Bonaparte in 1802, restored security to the island, and five years later Villéle, who had now realized a large fortune, returned to France He was mayor of his commune, and a member of the council of the Haute-Garonne under the Empire At the restoration of 1814 he at once declared for royahst principles He was mayor of Toulouse in 1814-15 and deputy for the Haute-Garonne 1n the “Chambre Introuvable” of 1815 Villéle, who before the promulgation of the charter had

and particularly the tremendous loss in population caused in the middle of this century by the Black Death produced a most serious crisis No wonder that many lords clung very tenaciously to customary services, and ecclesiastical mstitutions seem to have been especially backward ın going over to the system of money rents There is evidence to show, for instance, that the manors of the abbey of Ramsey were managed on the system of enforced labour right down to the middle of the rsth century, and, of

course, survivals of these customs in the shape of scattered services ved on much longer A second drawback from the point of view of the landlords was that commutation for fixed rents

gradually lessened the value of the exactions to which they were entitled

Money

not only became

less scarce

but ıt became

cheaper, so that the couple of pence for which a day of manual

written some Observations sur le projet de constitution opposing

work was bought off in the beginning of the 13th century did not

it, as too democratic in character, naturally took his place on the extreme right with the ultra-royalists In the new Chamber of 1816 Villéle found his party in a mmority, but his personal au-

fetch more than half of their former value at its end. As quit rents were customary and not rack rents, the successors of those who had redeemed their services were gaining the whole surplus in the value of goods and labour as against money, while the successors of those who had commuted their right to clam services for certain sums in money lost, all the corresponding difference These inevitable consequences came to be perceived in course of time and occasioned a tendency to revert to services in kind which could not prevail against the general movement from natural economy to money dealings, but was strong enough to produce social frictzon. The economic crisis of the 14th century has its complement in the legal crisis of the 15th. At that time the courts of law

began to do away with the denial of protection to villeins which,

thority nevertheless increased. He was looked ọn by the ministerjalists as the least unreasonable of his party, and by the “ultras” as the safest of their leaders Under the electoral law of 1817 the Abbé Grégoire, who was popularly supposed to have voted for the death of Louis XVI m the Convention, was admitted to the Chamber of Deputies. The Conservative party gained strength from the alarm raised by this incident and still more from the shock caused by the assassmation of the duc de Berri. The duc de Richelieu was compelled to admit to the cabinet two of the chiefs of the Left, Villéle and Corbiére Villéle resigned within a year, but on the fall of Richelieu at the end of 1821 he became the real chief of the new cabinet, in which he was minister of

as we have seen, constituted the legal basis of villeinage. This finance. Although not himself a courtier, he was backed at court is effected by the recognition of copyhold tenure (see CopyHoLD) by Sosthénes de la Rochefoucauld and Madame du Cayla, and It ıs a fact of first-rate importance that in the 15th century in 1822 Louis XVIII. gave him the title of count and made him customary relations on the one hand, and the power of govern- formally prime minister. ment on the other, reached a stage of development at which the He immediately proceeded to muzzle opposition by stringent judges of the king began to take cognizance of the relations of press laws, and the discovery of minor Liberal conspiraciesafforded the peasants to their lords The first cases which occur in this an excuse for further repression Forced against his will into sense are still treated not as a matter of common law, but as a interference in Spam, he reaped some credit from the campaign manifestation of equity. As doubtful questions of trust, of of 1823 Meanwhile he had persuaded Lows XVIII. to swamp wardship, of testamentary succession, they were taken up not in the Liberal majority in the upper house by the nomination of the strict course of justice, but as matters in which redress was twenty-seven new peers; he availed himself of the temporary popsorely needed and could only be given by the exceptional power ularity of the monarchy after the Spanish campaign to summon a of the court of chancery. But this mterference of 15th century new Chamber of Deputies This new and obedient legislature, to chancellors paved the way towards one of the greatest revolutions which only nineteen Liberals were returned, made itself into a in the law; without formally enfranchising villeins and villein septennial parliament, thus providing time, it was thought, to tenure they created a legal basis for 1t in the law of the realm In restore some part of the anczen régime. Villéle’s plans were asthe formula of copyhold—tenement held at the will of the lord sisted by the death of Louis XVIJI and the accession of his and by the custom of the manor—the first part lost its significance bigoted brother, Prudent financial administration since 1815 had and the second prevailed, in downright contrast with former made possible the conversion of the state bonds from 5 to 4%. times when, on the contrary, the second part had no legal! value It was proposed to utilize the money set free by this operation and the first expressed the view of the courts One may almost to indemnify by a milliard francs the émigrés for the loss of their be tempted to say that these obscure decisions rendered unneces- lands at the Revolution, it was also proposed to restore their Both these sary in England the work achieved with such a flourish of trumpets former privileges to the religious congregations propositions were, with some restrictions, secured Sacrilege was in France by the emancipating decree of Aug. 4, 1789 _ The personal condition of villeinage did not, however, disappear made a crime punishable by death, and the ministry were preat once with the rise of copyhold. It lingered through the 16th paring a law to alter the law of equal inheritance, and thus create

century and appears exceptionally even m the 17th, Deeds of anew the great estates, These measures roused violent opposi-

emancipation

and payments

for personal enfranchisement

are

tion ın the country, which a new and stringent press law, nick-

164.

VILLENA—VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT

named the “law of justice and love,” failed to put down

The

peers rejected the law of inheritance and the press law, it was found necessary to disband the National Guard, and ın Novem-

ber 1827 seventy-six new peers were created, and recourse was had to a general election The new Chamber proved hostile to

Villéle, who resigned to make way for the short-hved moderate munistry of Martignac The new ministry made Villéle’s removal to the upper house a condition of taking office, and he took no further part in public affairs At the time of his death, on March 13, 1854, he had advanced as far as 1816 with his memoirs, which were completed from his correspondence by his family as Mémoures et correspondance du comte de Villéle (Paris, 5 vols , 1887—90) See also C de Mazade, L’Opposition royaliste (Pans, 1894), J. G Hyde de Neuville, Notzce sur le comte de Viléle (Paris, 1899); and M Chotard, “L’Qeuvre financiére de M de Villéle,” in Annales des scrences polatzques (vol v, 1890)

VILLENA, ENRIQUE

DE (1384-1433), Spanish author,

sometimes wrongly called marqués de Villena About 1402 he married Maria de Castilla, who speedily became the recognized mustress of Henry III , the complaisant husband was rewarded by being appomnted master of the military order of Calatrava in 1404, but the nomination was rescinded ın 1415. Villena 1s rep-

obvious that Villeneuve had from the first no confidence in the success of the operation He knew that the French were not efficient, and that their Spanish allies were in a far worse state than themselves It required a very tart order from Napoleon to drive him out of Paris in October 1804 He took the command in November For the details of the campaign see TRAFALGAR Having undertaken to carry out a plan of which he disapproved, 11 was clearly his duty to execute the orders he received But Villeneuve could not free himself from the conviction that it was his business to save his fleet even if he rumed the emperor's

plan of invasion Thus after he returned to Europe and fought his confused action with Sr R Calder off Ferrol on July 22,

1805, he first hesitated, and then, n spite of vehement orders to come on, turned south to Cadiz His decision to leave Cadiz and give battle in October 1805, which led directly to the battle of Trafalgar, cannot be justified even on his own principles He foresaw defeat to be inevitable, and yet he went out solely because he learnt from the Minister of Marine that another officer had been sent to supersede him At Trafalgar he showed personal courage, but the helpless incapacity of the allies to manoeuvre gave him no opportunity to influence the course of the battle He was taken as a prisoner to England,

but was

soon

released

He

committed

suicide at

resented by a fragment of his Arte de trobar (1414), an indi-

Rennes, on April 22, 1806

gestible treatise composed for the Barcelona Consistory of Gay Science, by Los Trabajos de Hércules (1417), a pedantic and unreadable allegory, by his Tratado de la Consolacién and his handbook to the pleasures and fashions of the table, the Arte cisoria, both written in 1423, by the Lzbro de Aojameento (1425), a ponderous dissertation on the evil eye and its effects, and by a translation of the Aenezd, the first ever made (1428). His treatise

The correspondence of Napoleon contains many references to Villeneuve Accounts of the naval operations m which he was concerned will be found in James’s Naval History Troude, ın his Batailles navales de la France, vol m, publishes several of his letters and orders of the day X

on leprosy exists but has not been published Villena’s writings do not justify his extraordinary fame; his subjects are devoid of charm, and his style is so uncouth as to be almost unmtelligible Yet he has an assured place im the history of Spanish literature, he was a generous patron of letters and his translation of Virgil marks him out as a pioneer of the Renaissance

VILLENA, a town of eastern Spam, in the province of Alicante, on the right bank of the river Vinalapd, and at the junction of railways from Valencia, Alicante, Albacete and Yecla Pop (1920) 16,544 Viullena contams some interesting examples of Moorish domestic architecture It is dominated by a Moorish castle. The surrounding hills are covered with vines, and to the east there is an extensive salt lagoon Silk, linen, flour, wine, brandy, oil, salt and soap are the chief mdustrial products VILLENEUVE, PIERRE CHARLES JEAN BAP-

TISTE SILVESTRE

(1763-1806), French admiral, was born

at Valensoles (Provence) on Dec 31, 1763. He entered the French royal navy as a “garde du Pavillon,” and received rapid promotion, being named post-captain in 1793, and rear-admiral m 1796 At the close of the year he took part in the unsuccessful expedition to Ireland He accompanied the expedition to Egypt, with his flag mm the “Guillaume Tell” (86) She was the third ship from the rear of the French line at the battle of the Nile, and escaped in company with the “Généreux” (78). Villeneuve reached Malta on Aug. 23. His conduct was severely blamed, and he defended himself by a specious letter to his colleague Blanquet-Duchayla on Nov 12, 1800, from Paris. In a letter written to him on Aug 2x, 1798, Napoleon says that the only thing with which Villeneuve had to reproach himself was that he had not retreated sooner, since the position taken by the French commander-in-chief had been forced and surrounded. But, in dictating his account of

the expedition to Egypt to General Bertrand at St. Helena, the ex-emperor attributed the defeat at the Nile largely to the “bad conduct of Admiral Villeneuve ” Villeneuve failed in the execution of the scheme for the mvasion of England m 180s. Nevertheless, Napoleon selected him to succeed Latouche Tréville at Toulon on his death in August 1804 The duty of the Toulon squadron was to draw Nelson to the West Indies, return rapidly, and in combination with other French and Spanish ships, to enter the Channel with an overwhelming force It is quite

VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Gard on the nght bank of the Rhône opposite Avignon Pop (1926) 2,618 In the 6th century the Benedictzne abbey of St André was founded on Mont Andaon, and the village which grew up round it took its name In the 13th century the monks, acting ın concert with the crown, established a bastzde, or ‘new town,” which came to be called

Villeneuve The town was the resort of the French cardinals during the sojourn of the popes at Avignon, and was important till the Revolution Villeneuve preserves many remains of its mediaeval importance The hospice, once a Franciscan convent, and the church and other remains of the Carthusian monastery of Val-de-Bénédiction, founded in 1356 by Innocent VI, are notable A 17th century gateway and a rotunda, built as shelter for a fountain, are interesting On the Mont Andaon, a hill to the north-east of the town, stands the fort of St André (r4th century), with a fortified entrance gateway and a Romanesque chapel and remains of

the abbey of St André

VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT,

2 town

of south-western

France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-etGaronne, 22m

N by E of Agen ona branch line of the Orléans

railway Pop (1926) 7,174 Villeneuve was founded im 1254 by Alphonse, count of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX , on the site of the town of Gajac, which had been deserted during the Albigensian crusade The river Lot divides the town into two parts The chief quarter stands on the right bank and is united to that on the left bank by a 13th century bridge On the left bank portions of the 13th century ramparts, altered and surmounted by machicolations in the 15th century, remain, and high square towers rise above the gates to the north-east, the Porte de Paris, and south-west, the Porte de Pujols Arcades of the 13th century surround the Place La Fayette, and there are old houses of the 13th, rath and rsth centuries mm various parts of the town On the left bank of the Lot, 2m SSW of Villeneuve, are the 13th-century walls of Pujols The buildings of the ancient abbey of Eysses, about a mule to the N.E., mainly 17th century, remain Villeneuve has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of commerce It is an important agricultural centre and has a very large trade ın plums (prunes

dente) and in the produce of the market gardens which surround

it, as well as in cattle, horses and wine. The preparation of preserved plums and the tinning of peas and beans occupy many hands; there are also manufactures of shoes and tin boxes

165

VILLEROI—VILLON VILLEROI, FRANCOIS DE NEUFVILLE, Duc vz (1644-1730), French soldier, was the son of Nicolas de Neufville, Marquis de Villeroi, marshal of France (1598-1685) His father, created a duke by Lows XIV, was the young king’s governor, and the boy was thus brought up in close relations with Louis An intimate of the king, a finished courtier and a man of great

gallantry, Villeroi was marked out for advancement in the army and in 1693 was made a marshal In 1695, when Luxembourg died, he obtained the command of the army in Flanders, and

William III found him a far more complaisant opponent than the “httle hunchback ” In 1701 he superseded Catinat in Italy and was soon beaten by Eugene at Chiar:

(See SPANISH SUCCESSION

War) In the winter of 1701 he was made prisoner at Cremona, and the wits of the army made

at his expense

the famous

rhyme. á

Par la faveur de Bellone, et par un bonheur san égal. Nous avons conservé Crémone—et perdu notre général.

In the following years he was pitted against Marlborough in the Low Countries, and in 1706 the duke defeated him at Ramillies (gv). Lows superseded him in the command, and henceforward Villeroi ved the hfe of a courtier. He died on July 18, 1730 at Paris

VILLERS LA VILLE, a village of Belgium in the province

of Brabant, 2m

E of Quatre Bras, with a station on the direct

lne from Louvain to Charleroi Pop (1920) 1,059 It is chiefly interesting on account of the fine rus of the Cistercian abbey of Villers founded in 1147 and destroyed by the French in 1795.

VILLIERS, BARBARA: see CLEVELAND, DUCHESS OF. VILLIERS

DE

GUSTE MATHIAS,

L*ISLE-ADAM,

PHILIPPE

AU-

Comte pr (1838-1889), French poet,

was born at St Brieuc in Brittany and baptized on Nov 28, 1838 He may be said to have inaugurated the Symbolist movement in French literature, and Axel, the play on which he was engaged during so much of his life, though it was only published after us death, 1s the typical Symbolist drama He began with a

volume of Premséres Poésies (1856~58). This was followed by a wild romance of the supernatural, Js (1862), and by two plays in prose, Elen (1866) and Morgane (1866) La Révolte, a play in which Ibsen’s Doll’s House seems to be anticipated, was repre-

sented at the Vaudeville in 1870; Contes cruels, his finest volume of short stories, in 1883, and a new series in 1889; Le Nouveau Monde, a drama in five acts, in 1880, L’Eve future, an amazing piece of buffoonery satirizing the pretensions of science, in 1886; Tribulat Bonhomet in 1887; Le Secret de Péchafaud m 1888; Axel in 1890 He died in Paris, under the care of the Fréres Saint-Jean-de-Dieu, on the 19th of August 1889. Villiers has left behind him a legend probably not more fantastic than the truth Sharing many of the opimons of Don Quixote, he shared also Don Quixote’s life

He was the descend-

ant of the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, famous in history, and his pride as an aristocrat and as an idealist were equal He hated mediocrity, science, progress, the present age, money

and “serious” people. He remains a rematkable poet and a remarkable satirist, imperfect as both. He improvised out of an abundant genius, but the greater part of his work was no more than improvisation.

He was accustomed to talk his stories before he wrote them. Sometimes he talked them mstead of writing them But he has left, at all events, the Contes cruels, in which may be found every classic quality of the French comfe, together with many of the qualities of Edgar Allan Poe and Ernst Hoffman; and the

drama of Axel, in which the stage takes a new splendour and a new subtlety of meanmg Villiers’s mfluence on the younger French writers was considerable. It was always an exaltation, No one in his time followed a lterary ideal more romanti-

cally

(A. Sy)

See also R. du Pontavice de Heussey, Villiers de PIsle-Adam (1893), a biography, English trans. (1904) by Lady Mary Loyd; S$ Mallarmé, Les Miens Villiers de VIsle-Adam (1892); R Martineau, Un uvant et deux morts (roer) b.blizzraphy A selection from his stories, Ristowes souierames, was ade by bis fnends (Brussels, 1899) ; there a eras of the Contes cruels by Hamish Miles (Sardome Tales, 1927),

VILLON, FRANCOIS

(1431-c

1463), French poet, was

born m 1431, and, as it seems, certainly at Paris. He was entered

on the books of the university of Paris as Francois de Montcorbier, but was always known by the name of his patron, Guillaume de Villon. It appears that he was born of poor folk, that his father died in his youth, but that his mother, for whom he wrote one of his most famous ballades, was alve when her son was thirty years old. Villon was received into the house of Guillaume de Villon, chaplain in the collegiate church of Saint-Benoit-le-Bestourné, and a professor of canon law, who was probably a relative The poet became a student in arts, no doubt early and took the degree of bachelor in 1449 and that of master in 1452 On June 5, 1455, being in the company of a priest named Giles and a girl named Isabeau, he met, in the rue Saint-Jacques, a certain Breton, Jean le Hardi, a master of arts, who was with a priest, Philippe Chermoye or Sermoise or Sermaise. A scuffle ensued; daggers were drawn; and Sermaise, who started the broil, died of his wounds Villon fled, and was sentenced to banishment-—a sentence which was remitted in January 1456, the formal pardon being extant in two different documents, in one of which the culprit 1s described as “Francois des Loges, autrement dit Villon,” in the other as “Francois de Montcorbier” By the end of 1456 he was again in trouble In his first broil “la femme Isabeau” is only generally named, and it is impossible to say whether she had anything to do with the quarrel In the second, Catherine de Vaucelles, of whom we hear not a little in the poems, is the declared cause of a scuffle in which Villon was so severely beaten that, to escape ridicule, he decided to flee to Angers, where he had an uncle who was a monk. As he was preparing to leave Paris he composed the Petit Testament WHutherto Vullon had been rather injured than guilty But on the eve of leaving Paris he was concerned, just before Christmas 1456, in robbing the chapel of the college of Navarre from which five hundred gold crowns were stolen, The robbery was not discovered till March 1457, and in May the police came on the track of a gang of student-robbers owing to the indiscretion of one of them, Guy Tabarie A year more passed, when Tabarie, being arrested, turned king’s evidence and accused Villon, who was then absent, of being the ringleader, and of having gone to Angers, partly at least, to arrange for similar burglaries there. Villon, for this or some other crime, was sentenced to banishment: and he did not attempt to return to Paris. For four years he was a wanderer, apparently a pedlar for some part of the ‘ira: rrd be mor bove becn as each of his friends Regnier de Moartig^s a d Co. n ce- Cepe ix certamly was, a member of a wandering thieves’ gang It is certain that at one time (ın the winter of 1457), and probable that at more times than one, he was m correspondence with Charles d’Orléans, and visited that prince’s court at Blois He made his way to Bourges where he was again in trouble, and had a taste of prison From Bourges he went to the Bourbonnais, where he found shelter for a brief period with Jean Il de Bourbon. Thence, if his own words are to be taken literally, he wandered to Dauphiné He was in prison at Orleans, put to the question and under sentence of death, when ne was released on the passage of the little princess of Orleans through the town on July 17, 1460 He had spent the summer of 1461 in the bishop’s prison of Meung, Villon owed his release to Louis XI, who passed through Meung on a royal progress and freed prisoners on Oct. 2. It was now that he wrote the Grand Testament, the work which has immortalized him Although he was only thirty nothing appears to be left him but regret, his very spirit has been worn out by excesses or sufferings or both. In the autumn of 1462 we find him once more living in the cloisters of Saint-Benoît, and in November he was in the Châtelet for theft. In default of evidence the old charge of the college of Navarre was revived, and even a royal pardon did not bar the demand for restitution. Bail was, however, accepted, but Villon was present at a street quarrel from which he hastily got away Nevertheless he was arrested, tortured and condemned to be hanged, but the sentence was commuted to banishment (for ten years) by the parlement on Jan. 5, 1463 From this time he disappears from history. Villon’s two Testaments are made up of eight-line stanzas of

166

VILNA

eight-syllabled verses, varied in the case of the Grand Testament by the insertion of ballades and rondeaux The sense of the vanity of human life pervades the whole of Villon’s poetry. It 1s the very keynote of his most famous and beautiful piece, the Ballade des dames du temps jadis, with 1ts refrain, “Mais où sont les

neiges d’antan?”, of the ballade of La Grosse Margot, with its burden of hopeless entanglement in shameless vice, and of the equally famous Regrets de la Belle Heaulnwére, m which a woman, once young and beautiful, now old and withered, laments her lost charms So it is almost throughout his poems, including the grim Ballade des pendus, and hardly excluding the very beautiful Balade que Villon feist a lg requeste de sa mère, pour prier Nostre-Dame, with its sincere and humble piety. In Vullon’s verse mediaeval Paris lives Villon himself was beloved by the Pans of his day His bright keen intellect, the exquisite polish of his verses and his realism, make him one of the great forces in French poetry His influence on the moderns has been very great His certainly genume poems consist of the two Testaments with their codicil (the latter containing the Ballade des pendus, or more properly Epitaphe en forme de ballade, and some other pieces of a similarly grim humour), a few miscellaneous poems, chiefly ballades, and an extraordinary collection (called Le Jargon ou jobehn) of poems in argot, the greater part of which is now totally unintelligible, if, which may perhaps be doubted, 1t ever was otherwise Several poems usually printed with Villon’s works are certainly, or almost certainly, not his The chief are Les Repues Franches, a curlous series of verse stories of cheating tavern-keepers, etc., having some resemblance to those told of George Peele, but of a broader and coarser humour These, though in many cases “common form” of the broader tale-kind, are not much later than his time, and evidence to reputation if not to fact. The first dated edition of Villon is of 1489. Before 1542 there

Lakes Narocz and Dryswiaty

are the largest.

The climate jg

slightly tempered by the proximity of the Baltic sea, but m wmter the thermometer descends as low as —30° F. The flora and

fauna are intermediate between those of Poland and central Ryssia Agriculture and forestry are the main occupations of the inhabitants The province is backward, and grows mainly tye and oats. It has a considerable export of timber. There are few towns, the chief of them being Vilna (pop 128,900), Oszmiana, Swienciany, Molodeczno, Wilejka, Disna and Braslaw Near Krewo are the ruins of an old castle; at Trok, to which Gedymin moved his capital from Krewo, are the rums of his castle, standing picturesquely over the lake

VILNA or WILNO, a town of Poland, capital of the province of the same name, 436 m SSW of Leningrad, at the inter. section of the railways from Leningrad to Warsaw and from Libau to the mouth of the Don Pop (1921) 128,900 With its suburbs Antokol, Lukishki, Pogulyanka and Sarechye, it stands on and around a knot of hills (2,450 ft ) at the confluence of the

Vileika with the Viliya Its streets are in part narrow and not very

clean; but Vilna is an old town, rich in historical associations Its imperial palace, and the cathedral of St. Stanislaw (1387, restored 1801), containing the silver sarcophagus of St Casimir and the tomb of Prince Vitoft, are fine buildings There is a second cathedral, that of St Nicholas, built in 1596-1604; also several churches dating from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The Ostra Brama chapel contains an image of the Virgin greatly venerated by Orthodox Greeks and Roman Catholics alike The museum of antiquities has valuable historical collections The ancient castle of the Jagellones is now a mass of ruins The old university, founded in 1578, restored (1803) by Alexander I, but closed in 1832 for political reasons was reopened in 1920. Vilna is an archie-

piscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church and an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church The city possesses a botanical of Clément Marot, one of whose most honourable distinctions is garden and a public library It is an important centre for trade the care he took of his poetical predecessors. The Pléiade move- in tumber and grain, which are exported; and has theological ment and the classicizing of the grand siécle put Villon rather out seminaries, both Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic (X) of favour, and he was not again reprinted till early in the 18th History.—Vilna was founded in the roth century, but became century, when he attracted the attention of students of old French important as the capital of Lithuania (qv) under Gedymun in like Le Duchat, Bernard de la Monnoye and Prosper Marchand. 1323 In the early part of the 15th century, Lithuania and The first critical edition in the modern sense—that is to say, an Poland coalesced, but owing to their cultural superiority the Poles edition founded on mss (of which there are in Villon’s case several, gradually absorbed Lithuania although in point of territory it was chiefly at Paris and Stockholm)—was that of the Abbé J H. R three times the size of Poland Vilna became a centre of Polish Prompsault m 1832. The next was that of the “Biblophile Jacob” (P. Lacroix) in the Bibliothéque Elzévivienne (Pans, 1854). The erudition and had a printing-press as early as 1519, but politically ceded pride of place to Warsaw. In the long struggle between standard editions are Oeuvres complètes de François Villon, by M Auguste Longnon (1892), a revision of this text by Lucien Foulet, Russia, Poland and Sweden which filled the 17th century, the city François Villon: Oeuvres (1923); and L Thuasne, Francois Villon; was nearly ruined Russia finally retained it in 1795, after the Oeuvres: édition critique (1923), based on the Stockholm ms of 1470, the ms. Fr 20041 of the Bibhiothéque Nationale, and Levet’s text of partition of Poland In 1803 a university was established there, 1489 M Marcel Schwob discovered new documents relating to the but suppressed for political reasons in 1832. The Polish inpoet, but died before he could complete his work, which was post- habitants took part in the abortive risings of 1831 and 1863. The humously published in r905 The researches of Schwob were com- town remained the capital of what was now the province of

were very numerous editions, the most famous being that (1533)

pleted by P

Champion in his Franço

Villon, sa vie et son temps

(1913). See also A Longnon, Etude biographigue sur Francois Villon

(1877) ; Gaston Paris, Fran¢ois Villon (190r) , D B Wyndham Lewis, François Villon, A Documented Survey (1928), with preface by H Belloc, which contains renderings of the individual poems by Rossetti,

Swinburne and Henley, and a full survey of the documents.

VILNA or WILNO, a province of Poland, having the province of Nowogródek on the south, Russia on the east, Latvia on

the north and Lithuania on the west Area 10,965 sqm; pop. (1921) 983,000, of whom 574% are Poles, 254% White Russians, 5-6% Lithuanians, 8 2% Jews and 3.4% other nationalities The national struggle has always been fierce in this area, whether between Lithuanians and White Russians, or the persecution of Poles by Russians, or the present feud between Poles and Lithuanians. The district 1s a Polish island, in White Russian territory, which for centuries formed the centre of the great Lithuanian Ruthenian principality The World War and its sequel, the Polish Lithuanian feud, has retarded the development of the province It forms an extension of the Baltic uplands towards the Valdai plateau. The north part 1s drained by the Disna and just touches the Dvina; the south part is drained by the Wilija Numerous lakes and marshes, partly covered with forests, and scarcely passable, except when frozen, occupy a great patt of the province

Vilna and became a first class fortress

As such, it fell into Ger-

man hands after an ephemeral resistance in the autumn of 1915 The question of the political disposal of Vilna therefore did not arise until Poland and Lithuania re-emerged as separate States after the World War of 1914-18 No definite frontier existed

between them, but on Dec. 8, 1919, the Supreme Council of the Alles in Paris laid down a provisional eastern frontier for Poland, the so-called “Curzon Line” which assigned to Poland most territories where the Polish element was in a majority, but excluded mixed and doubtful districts, the principal among these being Vilna city and province which the Bolsheviks, with whom the Lithuanians were then at war, had succeeded in capturing for themselves The provisional Lithuanian Government fled to Kaunas (Kovno) Three months later, the Lithuanians by arrangement with the Poles were on the point of recapturing Vilna when it fell to Polish troops Obviously, in time of war, this important strategic position at the confluence of two rivers and

at the intersection of three railway lines had to be secured quickly. Lithuania made peace with Russia (July 1920), her claim to Vilna being recognised by the Soviet—now that the Poles held it Soon after, the Poles, fighting Russia single-handed, lost not only Vilna, but nearly all their country Nevertheless the face of

167

VIMEIRO—VINCENNES the war changed, and the Poles drove back the Bolsheviks who, Lithuanian no longer able to hold Vilna themselves, handed it to

mounted the and Charlot to attack Vimeiro hill, while Brennier at once eastern ridge and swept along it from the east. Wellesley Vimeiro

overlook sent five brigades on to the eastern ridge, two to troops (end of Aug. 1920), and from that time forth Onremained crest The Oct 9, hill and three to stop Brennier’s advance along its claim. Lithuanian the of recognition their in was to be the

consistent the attack on Vimeiro hill followed a course that Polish troops under the “rebel” general Zeligovski recaptured war. The in the pattern for many such engagements throughout the having town thereby breaking the agreement signed at Suvalki of French advanced in solid columns on a narrow frontage, League of the wrapping line, in them presence of the military control commission received the thus little fire power; the British Nations two days earlier, whereby the Poles recognised columns, withered the of flanks and head the round s the themselve Since then and. Lithuanian occupation of Vulna and Vilna region. them with volleys of musketry, charged with the bayonet ceased to protest against the Polish Lithuanians have never of their historic occupation of their historic capital, of two-fifths alienation of nearly half their historic popula-

territory and the of Nations. ton They had the sympathy of the League But on Jan 15, 1923, the Lithuamans, imitating the conduct

of Zeligovski at Vilna, seized Memel (g.v ) by a coup de mam,

ın consideraOn March 15, 1923, the Conference of Ambassadors, Soviet Russia and tion of the peace treaty of Riga between refused to Poland, assigned Vilna definitely to Poland. Lithuania signed in Paris accept the ruling, even though the convention

(May 8, 1924) gave her Memel and area—the economically valu“latent war” able “Lithuania Minor”’—and maintained a state of relations nor with Poland ever since, neither regular diplomatic the end of by resumed even direct postal communications being apart from the year 1928 This manner of conducting policy, gravely has meidents the danger to Europe arising from frontier have hurt Vilna As a result, sympathies which were Lithuanian been lost secure to Nations of League the by attempts Among the many the question an equitable settlement, two struck at the root of the proThe first, m 1921, was the taking of a plebiscite under the respectection of an international force It failed because perilous so im involved being tive governments would not risk

it a casus an experiment, once Soviet Russia threatened to make its frontier. belli if an mter-European force was assembled near

The second, Vilna was to canton with mihtary and

attack by swept them down the hill with heavy loss. A second fate, though two four battalions of grenadiers met with a similar only were and village Vimeiro into way ther fight battalions did e Brennier dislodged after heavy hand-to-hand fighting. Meanwhil but ridge, eastern the of north ravines had lost himself among struck correctly Solignac, who had been sent to reinforce him, British three into d blundere and westwards along the ridge brigades in line Within a few minutes Solignac’s brigade had of the British chased practically ceased to exist, but as the bulk joyfully along the ndge m pursuit of the survivors Brennier’s them and roughly behind brigade came up from the valley to guard Solignac’s handled two battalions that had been left d mn time s abandoned guns Fortunately their comrade returne a general ripe for to scatter Brennier’s men The moment was Sir Harry but advance and pursuit of Junot’s beaten army, from WellesBurrard at this point arrived to take over command Junot had lost half ley and timidly ordered hostilities to cease. loss being only 750. his guns and a quarter of his men, the British

a suburb 7 kilometres east of Notre Dame de

VINCENNES, plateau Pop Paris, in the department of Seine, on a wooded. situated to the south of (1926), 41,836. Its celebrated castle, de Vincennes, Bois the of border the town and on the northern Louis VII m 1164, was formerly a royal residence, begun by

ly visited by Louis ~ and more than once rebuilt It was frequent Chapelle at Paris, IX, The chapel, an mmitation of the Sainte by Charles VI. and d continue was begun by Charles V in 1379, times. In Francis I, consecrated in 1552 and restored in modern to the memory of the sacristy is the monument erected in 1816 shot in the castle moat in 1804. was who the duke of Enghien, afraid lest she be a second time absorbed by the Louis XI, made the castle a state prison in which Henry of

also in 1921, was the Hyman’s proposal whereunder come under Lithuanian sovereignty as an autonojnous special guarantees It presupposed a permanent economic alliance between the two states—of which

Iathuania is culturally superior Poles schemes The underlying idea of both these and all other similar the national is the settlement on the basis of the sovereignty of guaradequate be—with majority—whichever it might prove to consider antees for the racial minorities. However, whether we n populatio of the Russian census of 1897 (which the movement t reasonduring the war has strongly vitiated), or any subsequen Vilna of ably far statıstics, one thing ıs clear. wıthın the hmits within the City the Poles are in a majority. On the other hand, to Polish area of the former Russian province, live, according Kovno the to according s, Lithuanian admission about 80,000 includes authorities not less than half a million But the latter permeant are which by ns so-called “denationalized” Lithuania abandoned their sons of Lithuanian origin who have long ago was it revival, language for the reason that, until its post-war is furlittle more than a primitive peasant-tongue The question within ther complicated by the existence of pure Polish “islands” large the very the admittedly Lithuanian areas, not to mention

distinguished perNavarre, the great Condé, Mirabeau and other added an armoury, sons were afterwards confined. Louis XVIII. a new fort to

Lous Philippe numerous casemates and

and undet has a school the east of the donjon were constructed. Vincennes ure and the horticult of mubtary administration and catries on manufacture of ironware, rubber goods, chemicals, etc.

a city of S W. Indiana, U SA, on the Wabash

VINCENNES, settlement of river; the county seat of Knox county, the oldest a municipal the State It is on federal highways 41 and 50, has the Big Four, airport; and 1s served by the Baltimore and Ohio, nia railways. the Chicago and Eastern Ilhnois, and the Pennsylva 1930 by the (1920) 17,160 (94% native white), 17,564 in

Pop al region, SutFederal census Vincennes is in a rich agricultur structural rounded by vast coalfields. Its manufactures include Wabash), the from steel, pearl buttons (from mussel shells taken and flour, moulds, ice-cream fertilizer, glass, shoes, ploughs, Vin-

on the site of ketchup A French trading post was established 1731 a fortification cennes probably as early as 1702, and about Vincennes, around Russian settlements was erected by Francois Margane, Sieur de Journal remained under See POLAND; LITHUANIA; also League of Nations Official which a permanent settlement soon grew Up It Press Bureau’s The Lithuanin(spec Suppl 4) and the Lithuaman Pohsh Dispute (3 vol 1922)

(W LB)

by the British and French sovereignty until 1777, was occupied was captured

F ebruary 25, 1779, it g upon Lisbon pamed Fort Sackville. On after his expedition to KasVIMEIRO, BATTLE OF, 1808. Advancin landing of by George Rogers Clark, returning of Indiana Territory from the cover to halted y Wellesle WAR), LAR PENINSU (see from kaskia. Vincennes was the capital in 1839 and became borough reinforcements at the mouth of the Alcabrichella. Two mules a as ated incorpor was It which it 1800-13 interest still standing (1929) the sea this river cuts its way through a high ridge, southern a city in 1856 Buildings of historic divides into a western and an eastern section, at the Vimeiro include: the house in which the first Territorial legislature met on of by William Henry entrance of the gorge thus formed hes the village July 9, 1805; the Governor’s mansion, built

upon the western Wellesley’s force, 20,000 strong, was encamped governor of the territory; and Vincennes a knoll just south of Harrison, the first in 1806, now a junior college. The county ridge, with two brigades upon Vimeo hill, University, opened learned y Wellesle 1808, 21, to the pioneers Aug, of morning the village, On the court-house was built in 1873-4 as 4 memorial advancing to attack him Junot, and that Junot, with 13,000 men, was soldiers of Knox county. of Thomiéres brigades the directed ridge, western ignoring the

VINCENT—VINCENT

168

VINCENT (or Vincenttus), ST., deacon and martyr, whose festival is celebrated on Jan 22 In several of his discourses St. Augustine pronounces the eulogy of this martyr, and refers to Acts which were read in the church It 1s doubtful whether the Acts that have come down to us (Acta Sanctorum, January, ii 394-397) are those referred to by St Augustine, since it is not certain that they are a contemporary document According to this account, Vincent was born of noble parents in Spam, and was educated by Valerius, bishop of Saragossa, who ordamed him to the diaconate Under the persecution of Diocletian, Vincent was arrested and taken to Valencia He was subjected to excruciating tortures and thrown mto prison, where angels visited him, lighting his dungeon with celestial hght and relieving his suffermgs His warders, having seen these wonders through the chinks of the wall, forthwith became Christians He died in an interval when new torments were being prepared Hus body, exposed to the wild beasts in vain, was thrown into the sea, but was recovered and buried outside Valencia See T Rumart, Acta martyrum sincera (Amsterdam, 1713), PP 364-366, Le Nam de Tllemont, Mémowes pour servir à Phistorre eccléstastique (Paris, 1701, seg), V 215-225, 673-675

VINCENT,

GEORGE

EDGAR

(1864~-

), American

educationalist, was born at Rockford, Ill, on March 21, 1864 After graduating at Yale in 1885, he engaged in editorial work and m 1886 was made hterary editor of the Chautauqua press He was president of the Chautauqua institution from 1907 to 1915 and thereafter honorary president In 1892 he was appomted fellow at the University of Chicago He taught at Chicago as instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and from 1904 to torr as professor of sociology He was dean of the junior colleges from 1900 to 1907, and then for four years was dean of the faculties of arts, hterature and sciences From 1911 to 1917 he was president of the Umiversity of Minnesota He became a member of the General Education Board m 1914, and from 1917 to 1929 he was president of the Rockefeller Foundation Vincent has

OF LERINS

was probably a native of Beauvais The exact dates of his birth and death are unknown A tolerably old tradition, preserved by Louis a Valleoleti (¢ 1413), gives the latter as 1264, but Tholomaeus de Luca, Vincent’s younger contemporary (d 1321), seems to reckon him as living during the pontificate of Gregory X (1271-76) If we assume 1264 as the year of his death, the immense volume of his works forbids us to think he could have been born much later than 1190 Very httle is known of his career It is certain, however, that he at one time held the post of “reader” at the monastery of Royaumont (Mons Regals), not far from Paris, on the Oise The Speculum Mazus, the great compendium of all the knowledge of the middle ages, as it left the pen of Vincent, seems to have consisted of three parts only, viz, the Speculum Naturale, Doctrinale and Historwle Such, at least, 1s Echard’s conclusion, derived from an exammation of the earliest extant mss All the printed editions, however, consist of four parts, the additional one being entitled Speculum Morale This has been clearly shown to be the production of a later hand, and 1s ascribed by Echard to the period between 1310 and 1325 The Speculum Naturale is divided into thirty-two books and 3,718 chapters It is a vast summary of all the natural history known to western Europe towards the middle of the 13th century

Tt 1s, as it were, the great temple of mediaeval science, whose

floor and walls are inlaid with an enormous mosaic of skilfully

arranged passages from Latin, Greek, Arabic and Hebrew authors The Speculum Doctrmale, in seventeen books and 2,374 chapters, is a summary of all the scholastic knowledge of the age. It is intended to be a practical manual for the student and the official ahke, and, to fulfil this object, ıt treats of the mechanic arts of life as well as the subtleties of the scholar, the duties of the prince and the tactics of the general It also treats of mathematics, under which head are included music, geometry, astronomy, astrology, weights and measures, and metaphysics It is noteworthy that in this book Vincent shows a knowledge of the written Tke Socal Mind and Education (1897), and with Albion Arabjc numerals, though he does not call them by this name The fastbook (xvii) treats of theology or mythology, and winds W Small An Introduction to the Study of Socsety (1894). VINCENT DE PAUL, ST. (1576-1660), French divine, up with an account of the Holy Scriptures and of the Fathers, founder of the “Congregation of Priests of the Mission,” usually down to Bernard of Clavaux and the brethren of St Victor. As the fifteenth book of the Speculum Doctrinale is a summary known as Lazarites (gv), was born on April 24, 1576 at Pouy, near Dax, in Gascogne, and was educated by the Franciscans at of the Speculum Naturale, so the Speculum Historiale may be regarded as the expansion of the last book of the same work It Dax and at Toulouse He was ordained priest in 1600 Voyaging from Toulouse to Narbonne, he was captured by Barbary pirates, consists of thirty-one books divided into 3,793 chapters It who took hun to Tunis and sold him as a slave He converted his brings history down from the creation to the crusade of St Lous third master, a renegade Italian, and escaped with him to Aigues- Four of the mediaeval historians from whom he quotes most Mortes near Marseilles in June 1607. After short stays at frequently are Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugh of Fleury, Helnand Avignon and Rome, Vincent found his way to Paris, where he of Froidmont, and William of Malmesbury. Vincent has hardly any claim to be reckoned as an onginal became acquainted with Pierre de Bérulle (g v ), who found him a curacy at Clichy near Paris (161x) He then became tutor to writer But it is difficult to speak too highly of his mmmense inthe count of Joigny at Folleville, ın the diocese of Amiens, where dustry in collecting, classifying and arranging these three huge his success with the peasants led to the “missions” with which his volumes of 80 books and 9,885 chapters. The undertaking to name is associated. In 1617 he became curate of Chtillon-lés- combme ali human knowledge into a single whole was im itself Dombes (or sur-Chalaronne), and the countess of Joigny supplied a colossal one and could only have been born in a mind of no him with money to found his first confrérie de chartté, an associa- mean order Indeed more than six centuries passed before the idea was again resuscitated; and even then it required a group tion of women who ministered to the poor and the sick Among the works of benevolence with which his name is of brilliant Frenchmen to do what the old Domimucan did unaided A list of Vincent’s works, both ms and printed, will be found m associated are the establishment of a hospital for galley slaves at the Hestoire hitéraire de France, vol xvui., and in Jacques Echard’s Marseilles, the institution of two establishments for foundlings Scriptores ordıms praedicatorum (1719—21) The Tractatus consolaat Paris, and the organization of the Filles de la Charité, to torius pro morte amici and the Leber de eruditione fikorum regalium

supplement the work of the confréries, whose members were

(dedicated to Queen Margaret)

mainly married women with domestic duties He died at Paris on Sept. 27, 1660, and was buried in the church of St. Lazare

1480.

He was beatified by Benedict XIII. in 1729, and canonized by Clement XII in 1737 The Society of St Vincent de Paul was founded by Frédéric Ozanam and others in 1833. ' Lives by Maynard (4 vols, Paris, 1860), Bougaud (2 vols, Paris,

r891), E. de Broghe (sth edition, Pars, 1899); Letters (2 vols., Panis, 1882); A Loth (Paris, 1880), H Simard (Lyons, 1894) ; E. K. Sanders, V. de Paul, priest qnd philanthropist (1913)

VINCENT

OF BEAUVAIS,

or Vincentrus BELLOVA-

CENSIS (¢. 1190-c. 1264), the encyclopaedist of the middle ages,

were printed at Basle m December

See J B. Bourgeat, Études sur Vincent de Beauvais, théologien, philosophe, encyclopédiste (Pars, 1856), E. Boutanc, Examen des sources du Speculum hstoriale de Vincent de Beauvais (Paris, 1863), and m tome xvu of the Revue des questior: historrques (Paris 1978)" W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschich'se uilen, xo} n (Ra B Hauréau, Notices .. de MSS latins de I B huo nèque Nin ' tome v. (1892) , and E Mâle, D'art rehgieux du XIe vesie en Frarre

VINCENT OF LERINS, ST., or VINCENTIS LERINENSIS (d. c. A.D 450), theologian, was a native of Gaul, possibly brother of St Loup, bishop of Troyes He became a monk and priest at Lerinum (Lerins), an island off Cannes, and died in or about 450 The monastery of Lerms produced many eminent churchmen, -

VINDELICIA—VINE among them Hilary of Arles. In 434, three years after the council of Ephesus, he wrote the Commonitorvum adversus profanas omnium

haereticorum

novitates,

m

which

he ultimately

at Augustine’s doctrine of grace and predestmation

ams

In ıt he

discusses the “notes” which distinguish Catholic truth from heresy, and (cap 2) lays down and applies the famous threefold test of orthodoxy—quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab ommbus

creditum est

The Commonztorium has been edited by Baluze (Pars, 1663, 1669 and 1684), by Klupfel (Vienna, 1809), and by R S Mozon (1915)

169

the vine 1s grown with success In the Alps it is profitably cultivated up to an altitude of 1,000 ft , and in the north of Piedmont as high as 3,000 ft At the present time the hmit of profitable cultivation in Europe passes from Brittany, lat 47° 30’, to beyond the Rhine by Liége and through Thuringia to Silesia in lat 51° 55’ In former centunes vines were cultivated farther north Apart from their economic value (see CURRANT, RAISIN, WINE), vines are often cultivated for purely ornamental pur-

Tt also occurs m vol

ı of Migne’s Patrol Ser Lat (1846). A full summary 3s given in A Harnack’s History of Dogma, ui 230 ff See

also F H

Stanton, Place of Authority im Religion, pp

167 ff, A

Cooper-Marsdin, The School of Lerins (Rochester, 1905).

VINDELICIA, in ancient geography, a country bounded on the south by Rhaetia, on the north by the Danube and the Vallum Hadriani, on the east by the Oenus (Inn), on the west by the terntory of the Helvetu It thus corresponded to the northeastern portion of Switzerland, the south-east of Baden, and the south of Wurttemberg and Bavaria Together with the neigh-

bouring tribes 1t was subjugated by Tibermus in r5 pc, and towards the end of the rst century AD was made part of Rhaetia

VINDHYA,

a range of mountains in Central India. They

form a well-marked, though not continuous, chain with the river

Narbada Deccan edge of Kammur

on the south and separate the Ganges basin from the Starting on the west in Gujarat, they cross the southern the Malwa plateau and, continued by the Bhanrer and ranges, abut on the Ganges valley near Benares. They

have an elevation of 1,500 to 4,500 ft , nowhere exceeding 5,000 ft

They are built of the “Vindhyan formation” (part of the Pre-

Cambrian rocks of India)

Traditionally they formed the boundary between the Madyadesha of the Sanskrit mvaders and the non-Aryan Deccan VINE. The grape-vine, botanically Vztis (family Vitaceae), 1s a genus of about 4o species, widespread in the north temperate zone, but richest in species in North America. The best known and longest cultivated species is the old-world grape-vine, Vetus vinifera; a variety of this, silvestris, occurs wild in the Mediterranean region, spreading eastwards towards the Caucasus and northwards into southern Germany, and may be regarded as the

parent of the cultivated vine History and Distribution.—It 1s of interest to note that grape-stones have been found with mummies in Egyptian tombs not less than 3,000 years old. The seeds have the characteristics of those of V. vuufera, but show some very slight variations from the type of seed now prevalent. Among the Greeks in the time of Homer wine was in general use. The cultivation of the vine must also have been introduced into Italy at a very early period In Virgil’s time the varieties in cultivation seem to have been exceedingly numerous; and the varied methods of traming and culture now in use in Italy are in many cases identical with those described by Columella and other Roman writers Grape-stones

have been found among the remams of Swiss and Italian lake dwellings of the Bronze period, and others m tufaceous volcanic deposits near Montpellier, not long before the historic era. The Old Wort spccics is elso extensively cultivated in Califorma, but the gree incu-t1y of the eastern United States has

been developed from native species, chiefly V. Lebrusca (northern fox grape), V. aestivalis (summer grape) and V rotundifoha (southern fox grape, giving the muscadine grapes with the well ' known variety scuppernong), and thar hybrids with V. vinifera Some of the American varieties have been introduced into France

and other countries infested with Phylloxera, to serve as stocks on which to graft the better kinds of European vines, because their roots do not suffer so much injury from the attacks of this insect as do European species The vine requires a high summer temperature and a prolonged

period ın which to mpen its fruit. Where these are forthcoming,

it can be profitably cultivated, even though the winter temperature be very low Tchihatchef mentions that at Ervan in Russian

Armenia the mean winter temperature is 7°1 C and falls in January to -30° C, and at Bukhara the mean temperature of

January is 4° C and the minimum —22° C, and yet at both places

FROM KOEHLER, “MEDIZINAL PFLANZEN” VINE (VITIS VINIFERA), SHOWING

BRANCHES WITH FLOWERS AND FRUIT

poses, owing to the elegance of their foliage, the rich colouration they assume, the shade they afford, and their hardihood Vegetative Characters.—Vines have woody climbing stems, with alternate, entire or palmately lobed leaves, provided at the base with small stipules Opposite some of these leaves springs a tendril, by aid of which the plant chmbs The flowers are small, green and fragrant, and are arranged in dense clusters Each has a small calyx in the form of a shallow rim, sometimes five-labed or toothed; five petals, which cohere by their tips and form a cap or hood, which is pushed off when the stamens are ripe, and five free stamens, placed opposite the petals and springing from a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the ovary; each bears a twocelled anther The ovary bears a sessile stigma and 1s more or less completely two-celled, with two erect ovules in each cell This ripens into the berry and seeds The seeds or grape-stones are somewhat club-shaped, with a narrow neck-like portion beneath, which expands into a rounded and thickened portion above On the mner or central side of the seed 1s a ridge bounded on either side by a shallow groove This ridge indicates the point of umion of the “raphe” or seed-stalk with the seed, it serves to distinguish the varieties of V. vinifera from those of other species In endeavouring to trace the fihation and affinities of the vine, the characters afforded by the seed are specially valuable, because they have not been wittmngly mterfered with by human agency.

Cultivation Under Glass.——When the plant is grown under glass, the vine border should occupy the interior of the house and also extend outwards in the front, but it is best made by instalments of 5 or 6 ft. as fast as the previous portions become well filled with roots, which may readily be done by packing up a turf wall at the extremity of the portion to be newly made, an exterior width of r5 ft will be sufficient Inside borders require frequent and thorough waterings In well-drained localities the border may be partially below the ground level, but m damp situations ıt should be made on the surface; in either case the frm solid bottom should slope outwards towards an efficient drain. A good bottom

170

VINE

may be formed by chalk rammed down close. On this should be the plants should be shifted from 3-inch pots into those of 6 laid at least a foot thick of coarse, hard, rubbly material, a layer 12 or 15 in. in diameter, in any of which larger sizes they may be of rough turf, grass side downwards, being spread over it to fruited in the following season, but, to be successful in this, the prevent the compost from working down. The soil itself, which young rod produced must be thoroughly matured after ıt has should be 24 or 3 ft. deep, never less than 2 ft., should consist of reached its limit of growth. The penodical thorough cleansing of five parts rich turfy loam, one part old lime rubbish or broken the vine stems and every part of the houses is of the utmost bricks, including a little wood ashes or burnt earth (ballast), one importance to keep down insect pests. (X) part broken charcoal, and about one part of half-inch bones, the Grape Diseases.—A]] cultivated, as well as wild grapes, are whole being thoroughly mixed, and kept dryish till used. subject to diseases. These diseases are due either to plant parasites ‘Young vines raised from eyes, 7 e., buds having about 4 in wood or physiological disturbances caused by abnormal or unfavourable above and 1 in below, are generally preferred for planting. The environment. The causative factors involve nutrition, soul and eyes being selected from well-ripened shoots of the previous year climate are planted about the end of January, singly, in small pots of light The principal fungus diseases are black rot, caused by Gum loamy compost, and after standing ın a warm place for a few days gnardia bidwellii; downy mildew, caused by Plasmopara viticola; should be plunged in a propagating bed, having a bottom heat of powdery mildew, caused by Uncinula necator; anthracnose, caused 75°, which should be increased to 85° when they have produced by Sphaceloma ampelinum; ripe rot, caused by Glomerella cmseveral leaves, the atmosphere being kept at about the same tem- gulata; dead arm, caused by Cryptosporella viticola; bitter rot, perature or higher by sun heat during the day, and at about 75° caused by Melanconium fuligineum; white rot, caused by Comoat night. As soon as roots are freely formed the plants must be thyrium dsplodtella; crown gall, caused by Bacterium tumefaciens, shifted into 6-inch pots, and later on into 12-inch ones The and rougeot, caused by Pseudopeziza tracheiphila Most of these shoots are trained up near the glass, and, with plenty of heat (top diseases are found wherever grapes are cultivated, except in irrand bottom) and of water, with air and light, and manure water gated, arid regions, where powdery muldew 1s the principal trouble occasionally, will form firm, strong, well-rrpened canes in the The so-called physiological or non-parasitic diseases are most course of the season To prepare the vine for planting, 1t should frequently found in such regions also. The principal non-parasitic be cut back to within 2 ft of the pot early in the season, and only diseases are known as California vine disease, Spanish measles three or four of the eyes at the base should be allowed to grow and Little-leaf Their exact cause has not yet been determined on The best time for planting is in spring, when the young shoots and satisfactory methods of prevention are not known The prinhave just started ‘The vines should be planted inside the house, cipal means of control of the fungus diseases is the application of from 1 to 2 ft from the front wall, and from 6 ft to 8 ft apart, Bordeaux mixture. Sulphur dust 1s used for powdery mildew m the roots being placed an inch deeper in the soul than before. When the shoots are fairly developed, the two strongest are to

be selected and trained in. When forcing is commenced, the vinery is shut up for two or three weeks without fire heat, the mean temperature ranging about 50° Fire heat must be at first applied very gently, and may range about 55° at might, and from 65° to 70° by day, but a few degrees more may be given them as the buds break and the new shoots appear. When they are in flower, and onwards during the swelling of the berries, 85° may be taken as a maximum, running up to 90° with sun heat and the temperature may be lowered somewhat when the fruit 1s ripe. As much ventilation as the state of the weather will permit should be given. A due amount of moisture may be kept up by the use of evaporating troughs and by syringing the walls and pathways two or three times a day, but the leaves should not be syringed Pruning.—There are three principal systems of pruning vines, termed the long-rod, the short-rod and the spur systems, and good crops have been obtained by each of them. The spur system has, however, become the most general, In this case the vines are usually planted so that one can be tramed up under each rafter, or up the middle of the sash, the latter method being preferable The shoots are cut back to buds close to the stem, which should be encouraged to form alternately at equal distances right and left, by removing those buds from the original shoot which are not conyeniently placed. The young shoots from these buds are to be gently brought to a horizontal position, by bending them a little at a time, and tied in, and usually opposite about the fourth leaf the rudiments of a bunch will be developed The leaf directly opposite the bunch must in all cases be preserved, and the young

arid regions.

(CLS)

Injurious Insects.—A list of the insects which subsist wholly or in part on the fruit, foliage, roots or other parts of the grape in the various countries of the world where the fruit is grown would comprise probably not Jess than 1,000 species. Fortunately, these insects are still mostly restricted to the respective countries where they are indigenous, since, with but few exceptions, there has been but little exchange of grape insects between countries by commerce or otherwise An important exception is the grape Phylloxera, a plant louse native to central and eastern North America, occurring on various wild grapes. This insect found its way to Europe as early as 1868, where its injuries to the roots of vinefera or European grapes seriously threatened the vine-growing industry. Later it appeared m California, perhaps direct from Europe, where great damage was done to vsfera varieties, Injuries are now fairly well avoided in Europe, and also in California, by using for grafting purposes the roots of resistant American vines. In America the outstanding grape pests are the Phylloxera (Phylloxera viticola) in winefera districts, leafhoppers (Typhlocyba spp.); the berry moth (Polychrosis vite-

ana), root worm

(Fidia viticida); rose chafer (Macrodactylus

subspinosus); caterpillars of various moths (Desma funeralis, Alypia octomaculata, Memythrus polistıforms, Pholus achemon), certain beetles, as Haltıca chalybea, Craponiųs inaequalis and Adoxus obscurus. (A.L. Q)

GRAPE CULTURE IN EUROPE The cultivation of the vine is an umportant industry jn all the countries of southern Europe, where its product is chiefly conshoot is to be topped at one or two joints beyond the incipient verted into wine. The production of good table grapes is more fruit, the latter distance being preferable if there is plenty of dificult and also more limited. As a result they are m demand ' room for the foliage to expand If the bunches are too numerous and profitably raised under glass in the more northerly countries, they must be thinned before the flowers expand, and the berries the indoor product also being usually superior in size and somealso must be properly thinned out and regulated as soon as they

are well set. Cultivation in Pots—This is very commonly practised with good results, and pot-vines are very useful to force for the earliest crop, The plants should be raised from eyes, and grown as strong as possible in the way already noted, in rich turfy loam mixed with about one-third of horse dung and a little bone dust. The temperature should be gradually increased from 60° to 80°, or 90° by sun heat, and a bottom heat a few degrees higher must be maintained during their growth. As the roots require more room,

times in quality to outdoor table grapes.

Great Britain.—The vine is hardy in Great Britain so far as regards its vegetation, but it is not hardy enough, except when cultivated under glass, to bring its fruit to satisfactory maturity, so that for all practical purposes the vine must be regarded as a tender fruit. Planted against a wall or a building having a south aspect, or trained over a sunny roof, such varieties as the Black Cluster, Black Prince, Pitmaston White Cluster, Royal Muscadyne, Sweetwater, etc,, will ripen in the warmest English summers so as to be very pleasant eating; but in cold summers

171

VINE the fruit is not eatable in the raw state

Country

France.—France continues to rank second among all countries

in the world in the area of her vineyards, although they have decreased from 24 milion hectares ın 1874 to 136 mullion hec-

tares in 1924 Holdings are usually small

Of the 1,565,000 vine-

growers reporting in 1924 over 70% reported vineyards of less

than one hectare ın extent. The harvests of wine (not counting Alsace-Lorrame) for the 6 years, 1919-24, averaged 58,100,000 hectoltres (1,535 million gal) The production for 1927 was 48,890,000 hectohtres, an amount considerably below normal In volume the Mediterranean counties produced over half the entire amount The second wine region in point of output 1s the Bordeaux area, chiefly ın the valleys of the Garonne, Dordogne and Charente rivers In this region are grown the grapes from which the two most famous French brandies, cognac and armagnac, are

distilled The eastern area, covering about ro counties, comprises the regions in which the well-known Burgundy, Beaujolais and

Area, in vineyards

Rumania

Yugi ay

i Wine production

695,000 acres

Switzerland

191,260,000 gal.

Hao y | 31,407,618 gaase ”” reib7s :

;

a

ae

9,246,000

”

BrsriocrAarHy-—R Builhard, La vigne dans Vantiqusté (1913), E Chancrin, Viticulture moderne (1919) , L Duchem, Manuel de vitecul-

ture practigue (1914); P Pacottet, Viteculture (1917), A I Perold, A Treatze on Vittculture (1927), C Rodier, Le vin de Bourgogne (1920), W Ruthe, Der deutsche Wein (1926) , Ottavio-Marescalch1, I principe della viticoltura (1909) , Viala-Vermorel, Trasté générale de

viticulture (7 vol , 1901~10) GRAPE

CULTURE

(X)

IN THE

UNITED

STATES

In the United States the term grape is generally used to denote Macon wines are produced. The yield of the Loire region (prin- not only the frut but also the plant that produces ıt; the word vine when used alone means any twinmg or climbing plant and cipally vns rosés, white and sparkling wines) has grown less, amounting to but 354,000 hectolitres m 1927. The grapes from not, as in England, meaning solely the grape-producing plant History.—When the early discoverers visited North America which champagne is made are grown almost entirely in the Marne county The product of Alsace-Lorraine comprises mainly white wines of the Rhine and Moselle types and amounted in 1926 to

224,000 hectolitres The output of Algeria, of which the bulk ıs consumed in France, amounted to 12,400,000 hl, in 1925 and 8,400,000 hi, in 1927; that of Tunis was about goo,000 hl of which about 550,000 hl, were exported to France The quantity of production bears no relation to the quality, and the latter varies greatly in different localities even in the same year Damp weather and lack of sun seriously affect the sugar and alcoholic content of the wine France imports more wine than she exports, importing much from Spain, Algiers, and Greece for blending Better wines from Spam, Portugal and Italy are wmported to be consumed without blending, or for dessert or hqueur wines. Spain and Portugal—The acreage devoted to vineyards has increased mn both Spain and Portugal in recent years That of Span, 135 milion hectares, closely approaches that of France and gives the country a ranking of third among grape-producing countries The wine crop was abundant in Spain in 1927 amounting to 28,325,192 hl as compared with 15,753,538 hl in 1926 The average production is about midway between. The industry gives employment to between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 people

Seville, Barcelona, Andalusia and Tarragona are the principal producing districts Exports of Malaga and Almeria grapes are heavy, while over half of the Malaga crop 1s made into high quality raisms which are widely distributed over the world and furnish the chef competition for the raisins of Califorma An unofficial estimate placed the production of wine in Portugal at 6,273,200 hl

for 1927, an amount about one-third greater than normal The area under vintage in 1926 was 345,000 hectares Exports of port

wihe amounted

$14,073,000

in 1927 to $11,142,000 and of other wine to

Italy and Eastern Europe—lItaly has a larger area given over to vineyards than any other country in the world, the total being in the neighbourhood of two million hectares The total production of grapes in 1927 was 57,958,000 metric quintals as against a s-year average of 68,164,000 metric quintals. Wine production was 35,650,000 hectolitres, also less than average The year saw poor crops in southern Italy, especially in Latium, Apuha and Sicily

wild grape vines were so prominent that thé region was repeatedly called vineland John Adlum’s vineyard near Georgetown, DC, planted in 1820, first produced grapes successfully on the Atlantic

coast Adlum’s introduction of the Catawba into general culture and improvement gave to the world valuable new fruits In 1860 nine-tenths of the 5,600 ac of vineyard established east of the Rocky Mountains were Catawba grapes and little was then known regarding such varieties as Concord, Delaware, Hartford, Iona, Adirondack and Rogers hybrids, From 1860 to 1870 there was rapid increase ın acreage of improved varieties derived from native American grapes Concord became and still remains the leading variety of American origin commercially grown The Mission Fathers in California were the first to grow successfully a wariety (the Mission) of the Old World grape

(V vmfera) in the United States. They brought ıt to San Diego, Calıf , in 1769 The Mission remained the leading variety grown until 1860, when the choicest European kinds were introduced Grape Regions.—Viticulture in the United States comprises three regions which are distinguished by the grape species grown

in each The Vinifera Region, in which forms of the Old World vine (V vinifera) are grown for all purposes, is almost entirely in California. Eighty-five per cent of the viticultural output of the United States are vinifera grapes ‘These are usually planted 8X8, 9X9, 8X10 or 8X12 ft apart Cane or spur renewal

pruning with vines trained to stakes is practised with all varieties excepting Sultanina and Emperor, which are pruned to a fourarm renewal system and trained on a two-wire upright trellis In untrellised vineyards cross ploughing methods are employed The American Euvitis Region, in which improved varieties and hybrids of the more northern hardier American species with vinifera are grown, covers in its broadest sense the entire United States It is most extensive, however, mn the States west of the Hudson and north of the Ohno rivers, in States bordering on the Great Lakes and in the more central States of the Mississippi valley These grapes are mostly pruned to the four-arm renewal system and trained to a two-wire upright trellis, of late years, however, the modified Munson system 1s rapidly gaining favour The Muscadine Regton is the area in which improved varieties of V rotundifoha are grown for commercial purposes These are native varieties which thrive under suitable conditions throughout the Coastal Plain from the James river to Flonda, reaching well up into the Blue Ridge mountains, and along the Gulf coast to Texas and northward along the Mississippi river to southeastern Missouri and the Tennessee river These vines are usually grown on an overhead arbour trellis and planted 20X20 ft apart In 1927 there were about 900,000 ac of vineyard in the

Vineyards also form, one of the principal industries of Greece The country produces enough wine to meet its local needs and exports a quantity which has increased from 60,000 tons in 1925 to 139,000 tons in 1927 Two-thirds of the vineyards are in old Greece Due to phylloxera the cultivation of the vine all but died out in Macedonia where the industry is now being revived by refugee settlers The government is aiding both by loans and by the distribution of plants and cuttings The total grape production United States, of which 675,000 ac. were in California, the next of Greece was 275,000 metric tons in 1927 A comparative view of the importance of the vine in other largest acreages were in New York, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, countries of Europe is shown in the following statistics of produc- and Missouri, in the order named

tion for 1927:

The Grape Industry—The

1889 grape crop was valued at

172

VINEGAR— VINELAND

$2,846,748 Of this 42% was converted into wine and brandy, |ful and liable to various disturbing factors, such as the develop47% used as table grapes and 11% cured as raisms and dried ment of vinegar eels The Modern Process.—The more modern and efficient process grapes The use of grapes in the fresh state and cured into raisins had then become important In 1899 there was nearly 100% ın- is that of malt vinegar manufacture, the first stages of which are crease over 1889 in vineyard acreage and grape crop In 1909, closely similar to those used in the preparation of beer A quan2,571,065,205 Ib. of grapes were produced, which furnished tity of malt—about one quarter per 150 gallons—is crushed and 52,912,396 gal. of wine and unfermented juice, 6,393,150 gal extracted with hot water in the mash tun or tank at a temperature brandy, 24,470 cases canned grapes, 104,400,000 Ib. raisins and of about 68° C (155° F), the whole mash being well raked over dried grapes and 18,640 cars of table grapes During the decade so that all the soluble sugars may be extracted After runnmng ending with 1909 the commercial manufacture of unfermented off the mfusion the grain 1s “sparged”’ by a stream of hot water grape juice had become an industry In 1919 the grape output of America from 320,000 ac was 2,513,680,861 Ib, used m 32,551,937 gal of wines and juices, 1,802,421 gal of brandy, 104,446 cases canned grapes, 28,495 car loads fresh grapes shipped and 395,000,000 Ib of raisins. The

from perforated revolving pipes arranged over the top of the mash tun The liquid or gyle so prepared, which should have a specific gravity of about 1,060, ıs run over a refrigerator to reduce the temperature to about 21° C (70° F), then fermented by “pitching” with yeast The yeast begins to ferment or attenuate

adoption of the Prohibition Amendment caused many radical changes in the utilzation of grapes In 1927 the total grape crop of the United States from 710,000 ac amounted to 2,604,712 tons, valued at $65,000,200 Of this California produced 2,404,000 tons or 924%, Michigan, 51,700 tons, New York, 51,526; Ohio,

the gyle and is allowed to operate for about 3 days, by which tıme all the sugar ıs converted into alcohol and the specific

phere to form acetic acid—a change represented by the chemist by the expression

from the bottom back agam, so that a continuous percolation is obtained Acetification 1s complete in a fortnight or three weeks as compared with as many months in the slow process In theory 6% alcohol should yield 75% of acetic acid but m practice there is always some loss so that the vinegar coming from the acetifier seldom contains more than about 6% of acid It appears on the market at various strengths from 4% to 6% or more Two common sources of disturbance in the acetifier are ‘‘mother” and eels The former 1s a slimy film, sometimes called “tripe,” which gradually forms on the twigs, due to a peculiar socalled zoogloeal condition of the bacteria, which impairs the efficiency of the acetifier so that it ultimately has to be emptied and cleaned out The vinegar eel is a curious creature resembling a thread worm, which may often be seen near the surface of vinegar which has been exposed to the air Its presence much reduces the activity of the acetifiers but is not of any physiological importance from the point of view of the consumer Special Vinegars.—In addition to wine vinegar and ordinary malt or table vinegar, there are various special kinds Artificial

gravity is reduced to 1,005 or lower, the gyle now contains about 6% of alcohol The yeast 1s skimmed off and the wash stored until required for acetification, prolonged storage 1s advantageous 20,000, Pennsylvama, 14,850; Missouri, 7,000; Iowa, 5,329, The acetifier is essentially a large vat with a false bottom on North Carolma, 5,135; Kansas, 3,735; Oregon, 3,500; Illinois, which 1s packed beech twigs, lump pumice stone, corncobs, beechwood shavings, coke, rattan, excelsior, or basket work, previously 3,440, Washington, 3,200, and Arkansas, 3,000 tons. (G C H) well cleaned, and through which vinegar has been percolated The See A. F Barron, “Vines and Vine Culture,” Roy Hort Soc. (1900) , acetic bacilli grow on the twigs and begin to operate when the EH W. Ward, The Book of the Grape, V P. Hedrick, “The Grapes of gyle is sparged or sprinkled over them The essential conditions New York,” N Y. Agrıc Expt Sta vol m (1905), W W_ Robbins, are an adequate supply of air and a suitable temperature The Botany of Crop Plants (Philadelphia, 1924) , L H Batley, Manual of latter 1s maintained by the reaction itself, and is regulated by the eet Plants (1924) and Standard Cyclopaedia of Horticulture air supply which 1s obtained by means of holes round the sides I9I4~27 VINEGAR. There can be no doubt that vinegar was first of the vat below the false bottom, and 1s adjusted so that the obtained by the natural sourmng of fermented wine, whence it temperature rises to about 41° C (106° F) at which the acetificareceived its name, the alcohol natural to wie or beer, under tion 1s most efficiently effected The gyle 1s sprinkled on to the appropriate conditions, readily becomes oxidized by the atmos- twigs from the top, trickles through the mass and is pumped

CH3sCH.OH

Alcohol

+

O:

Oxygen

—

CH:COOH

Acetic Acid

+

H0

Water

The interesting mechanism of this change has only been understood of quite recent years. Just as the alcohol ın wine or beer 1s produced by livmg agency (see FERMENTATION), so the subsequent acetous fermentation ‘is due to a micro-organism, the vinegar bacillus or Bacterzum acetz The curious and complicated recipes of mediaeval writers for the preparation of vmegar owed their success to the fact that they unwittmgly involved infection with and the promotion of these organisms. Distinguished scientists, such as Liebig and Doberemer, had chemical theories for acetification but the truth was not discovered until Pasteur in 1864 confirmed experimentally the view put forward in 1837 that the hving cells which formed a scum on the beer were really responsible for the changes observed. Hansen in 1878 described for the first time the three species of vinegar bacilli Vinegar brewing as a separate industry dates from about the 17th century when it was established in France. Prior to that it was just a by-product of the wme producer and the brewer. The connection between the brewing and vinegar industry in England is shown by the Revenue Acts which, in the reign of Charles II. charged different duties on beer and on vinegar-beer There ate two well-known methods of manufacture, the slow process and the quick one, the latter has now almost superseded the former except for the preparation of pure wine vinegar as distinct from ordinary or malt vinegar. In the slow process the alcoholic wash, whether prepared from wie or not, must contain 10% of alcohol; it ıs filled ito casks holding 50 or roo gallons, which are half-full of beech shavings and have previously been

impregnated with vinegar. In these casks it 1s exposed to the atmosphere, by the simple expedient of leaving the bung-holes open until all the alcohol has been converted into acetic acid The exposure was formerly in a field or yard but 1s now often in a special building so that the casks may be kept shghtly warm, the acetified gyle is filtered and stored This process is chiefly used in the Orleans district of France and has the merit of producing a vinegar of peculiarly fine aroma, it is, however, slow and waste-

or wood vinegar is an entirely factitious product, made by diluting acetic acid, manufactured by various synthetic processes, with

water and colouring ıt with caramel, ıt has neither the food value nor the aroma of the genuine article Cider vinegar ıs manufactured on a considerable scale in America and on a small scale in parts of England by processes analogous to that of malt vinegar Wine vinegar is prepared mainly in France and varies in colour according as red or white wine has been used as the raw material Spirit vinegar is a product manufactured from diluted alcohol which is acetified and coloured The question of a standard for vinegar ıs a vexed one, in the United States and Australia there ıs a legal minimum of

4% acetic acid, in England a standard of 4% was suggested by the Local Government Board and 1s generally enforced See C A Mitchell, Vinegar: sts Manufacture & Tramins'eon (1927) Brannt, Venegar (1914). QI L C)

VINELAND, a borough of Cumberland county, New Jersey, US.A,35 m S of Philadelphia, served by the Central of New Jersey and the Pennsylvania railways Pop, (1930) 7,556 It has an area of x sqm, laid out in unusually broad streets, straight

VINER—VINLAND and well shaded

frut, poultry and sweet potatoes, and the borough has a great yariety of manufacturing industries It ıs the seat of the New

Jersey traming school for backward children (1888), the State Home for the care and tramıng of feeble-minded women

(1888)

and the State Home for disabled soldiers, sailors, marmes and ther wives Vineland was founded in 1861 by Charles K Landis (1835-1900) The village was incorporated in 1880

VINER, SIR ROBERT

(1631-1688), lord mayor of Lon-

don, was born in Warwick He was apprenticed in London to his uncle, Sir Thomas Viner (1558-1665), a goldsmith, who was lord mayor of London ın 1653-54

Robert became a partner in

his business, and was chosen lord mayor in 1674

Suir Robert, who

was knighted 1n 1665, was appointed the king’s goldsmith in 1661, and lent large sums of money for the expenses of the state

and the extravagances of the court; over £400,000 was owing to tum when the national exchequer suspended payment in 1672, and he became bankrupt

He obtained from the state an annuity

of £25,000. Viner died at Windsor on Sept 2, 1688

See Viner a Family History, published anonymously

VINET,

a73

The surrounding country is devoted largely to The deal passes to the player who turns up the natural, unless it

ALEXANDRE

RODOLPHE

(1885).

(1797-1847),

French critic and theologian, of Swiss birth, was born near Lausanne on June r7, 1797 He was educated for the Protestant ministry, being ordamed ın 1819, when already teacher of French

language and literature in the gymnasium at the whole of his life he was ttérateur as well literary criticism brought him into contact with recognized his quality Vinet’s Chrestomathe

Basel; and during as theologian. His Sainte-Beuve, who francaise (1829),

Études sur la littérature frangaise au XIX™# siécle (2849-51),

and Histotre de la littérature francaise au XVIII srécle, together

with his Etudes sur Pascal, Etudes sur les moralsstes aux XV Ime

et XVIIme siècles, Histowre de la prédication parms les Réformés de France and other works, show wide knowledge, moral seriousness, and a fine faculty of appreciation. As theologian he gave a fresh impulse to Protestantism especally m French-speaking lands, but also in England and else-

where. Lord Acton classed him with Rothe. He built all on conscience, as that wherein man stands in direct personal relation with God, and as the seat of a moral individuality which nothing can nghtly infringe Hence he advocated complete freedom of religious belief, and to this end the formal separation of Church and State, in his Mémoire en faveur de la lberté des cultes (1826), Essa sur la conscience (1829), Esen: sur la manifestation des convictions relgveuses (1822) \.coicug.\ when in 1845 the civil power in the canton of Vaud interfered with the church’s auton-

omy, he led a secession which took the name of L'Église libre. A considerable part of his works was not printed till after his death at Clarens, May 4, 1847 ‘They were re-edited with notes by Ph Bridel in r9r2 (Lausanne) His hfe was written in 1875 by Eugéne Rambert, who re-edited the Chrestomathie 1n 1876

See aso L M, Lane, Lıfe and Writings of A.

VINGT-ET-UN

(colloquially, “Van John”), a round game

Vinet (1890), L. Moline- / ade «r Alexandre Vinet (Pars, 1890) , V Rivet, Études sur lis igi ts Ce 'a pensée religieuse de Vinet (Pans, 1896), A Schumann, Avex Vinel (1907), E A. L SeJbère, A Vinet, historien de la pensée française (1925) A uniform edition of his works dates from 1908 (J. V. B.)

of cards, 'at which any number of persons may play, though five

or six are enough The right to deal having been decided, the dealer gives one card face downwards to each person, including himself. The others thereupon look at their cards and declare their stakes—one, two, three or more counters or chips—according to the value of their cards When all have staked, the dealer looks at his own card and can double all stakes if he chooses The amount of the original stake should be set by each player opposite his card, Another card ıs then dealt, face downwards, all round; each player looking at his own The object of the game is to make 21, by the pips on the cards, an ace counting as r or 1r, and the court cards as ro each Hence a player who receives an ace and aten-card scores 21 at once This is called a “natural”; the holder receives twice—sometimes thrice—the stake or the doubled stake

If the dealer has a natural too, the usual rule is that the other

natural pays nothing, ın spite of the rule of “ties pay the dealer.”

occurs in the first round of a deal or the dealer has a natural too If the dealer has not a natural, he asks each player m turn, beginning with the player on his left, 1f he wishes for another card or cards, the object still bemg to get to 21, or as near up to it as possible The additional cards are given him one by one, face upwards, though the original cards are not exposed If he requires no additional card, or when he has drawn sufficient, he says, “Content,” or “I stand” If a player overdraws, ze, if his cards count more than 21, he pays the dealer at once When all are either overdrawn or content, the dealer may “stand” on his own hand, or draw cards, till he 1s overdrawn or stands All the hands are then shown, the dealer paying those players whose cards are nearer to 21 than his own, and receiving from all the others, as “ties pay the dealer” If the dealer’s cards, with the additions, make exactly 21, he receives double the stake, or doubled stake; if a player holds 21, he receives double hkewise, but tues still pay the dealer If a player receives two similar cards he may put his stake on each and draw on them separately, receiving or paying according as he stands successfully or overdraws, but the two cards must be simular, 1 ¢ , he cannot draw on both a knave and a queen, or a king and a ten, though their values are equal for the purpose of counting A natural drawn in this way, however, only counts as 21, and does not turn out the dealer Simularly a player may draw on three cards, or even four, should they be dealt him A player who overdraws on one of such cards must declare and pay immediately, even though he stands on another After a hand is played, the “pone” (Latin for “behind’’)—the player on the dealer’s right—collects and shuffles the cards played, the dealer dealing from the remainder of the pack, till it is exhausted, when he takes the cards the pone holds, after the pone has cut them It is a great advantage to deal (W Da)

VINITA, a city of north-eastern Oklahoma, USA, on fed-

eral highways 66 and 73, and served by the Frisco and the Missourl-Kansas-Texas railways, county seat of Craig county Pop

(1930) 4,263. Vinita is the trade centre and shipping point of a farming, dairying, stock-raising, and fruit-growing region It has a creamery and a canning factory The city was founded in 1870 and chartered in 1898

VINLAND

or WINELAND.

This was the southernmost

of the countries discovered by Leif Ericsson (qv), the ScandiRavian discoverer, on his voyage from Norway to Greenland in the year 1000, and it was later visited also by Thorfinn Karlsefni (qu), probably ın the year tooq It derived its name from the wild grapes which the discoverer found there It is first mentioned in writing by Adam of Bremen (qv ) in his description of the northern countries, about 1075, his informant bemg King Svem Estridsson of Denmark The fullest mformation about this country, as well as about these voyages in general is to be found in the Saga of Ertc the Red and the Tale of the Greenlanders. All these sources agree as to the general characteristics of the country. wild grapes, self-sown wheat, and -very mild winter. In some Icelandic writings the name Vinland the Good occurs, and this led Dr Fridtjof Nansen to assume that the story about Vinland was merely a transformation of the old legends about the Isles of the Blest (gv) Hus arguments have not been generally accepted, although 1t 1s possible that the epithet “the good” may have later been added under the influence of these legends. The historicity of the discovery can hardly be disputed, nor that Vinland was a part of the American continent, but more definite location is difficult. If we are to accept the account of the wild grapes as authentic, the location of Vinland must fall within the northern limits for this plant which, on the Atlantic coast, are generally put at Passamaquoddy bay Of the principal writers who have dealt with the problem, C C. Rafn placed Vinland round Mount Hope bay, in the State of Rhode Island, Gustav Storm in Nova Scotia, where the existence of wild grapes is, however, doubtful. W H Babcock and W Hovgaard have practically reverted to Rafn’s view, while G M. Gathorne-Hardy looks for 1t at the mouth of the Hudson river. For bibFographv of the subject wee the articles on AMERICA, PreColumbi-n Discoverie, and I -1t I REON (H. He)

174

VINOGRADOFF— VIOLET

VINOGRADOFF, SIR PAUL GAVRILOVICH

(1854-

1925), Anglo-Russian scholar, was born at Kostromo, near Moscow, and educated at the University of Moscow. As a young man he travelled widely, and obtained a working knowledge of at least seven modern languages, before beng appomted a professor in his own university. He then mterested himself in the Zemstvo movement, and sought to improve the provision for the education of the Russian people. His activities, however, were displeasing to the authorities, consequently he resigned his professorship and in 1902 settled m England, where he had already made frends with many Enghsh scholars In 1903 he was appointed Corpus professor of jumsprudence at Oxford, and there he remained until his death on Dec. 19, 1925 Vinogradoff’s first book was on The Origin of Feudalism in Italy (1887). This was written in Russian, but his later works were appropriately written m Englısh, and he became recognized as probably the first authority on the early laws and customs of England. His standard work is Volleinage in England (1892), im which he put forward the theory that the Anglo-Norman manor descended not from a condition of serfdom, but from a free village community. His article “Folkland,” published in The Enghsh Historical Review m 1893, enunciated an entirely new theory on this subject His other works include: English Society wm the Eleventh Century (1908); The Growth of the Manor (1905), Roman Law in Medsaeval Europe (1909), Self-government m Russia (1915) and Outhnes of Historical Jurisprudence

(1920-22). He also contributed to the Encyclopedia Britannica and The Cambridge Modern History VINTON, FREDERIC PORTER. (1846-1911), American portrait painter, was born at Bangor, Maine, on the 29th of January 1846. He was a pupil of Duveneck, of Wilham M. Hunt mm Boston, of Léon Bonnat and Jean Paul Laurens in Paris, and of the Royal Academy of Munich. In 1891 he was elected a full member of the National Academy of Design, New York He died ım Boston, Mass., May 19, 1921.

VIOL, a generic term for the bowed precursors of the violin (qv), but in England more specially applied to those immediate predecessors of the violin which are distinguished in Italy and Germany as the Gamba family The chief charactenstics of the viols were a flat back, sloping shoulders, “‘c’”-shaped sound-holes, and a short finger-board with frets All these features assumed different forms in the violin, which was derived rather from the guitar-fiddle than from the viel, the back becoming delicately arched, the shoulders reverting to the rounded outline of the guitar, the shape of the sound-holes changing from “c” to “f” and the finger-board being carried considerably nearer the bridge The viol family consisted of treble, alto, tenor and bass instruments, being further differentiated as da braccio or da gamba according to the positions in which they were held, against the arm or between the knees VIOLA, a member of the violin family standing in point of size between the violin and the violoncello. It 1s known variously as the tenor and the alto member of the famuly, the latter termobtaining in France and Italy and bemg derived from the fact that in earher days, before the full development of the violm, the highest part was usually assigned to it Having regard to its pitch moreover, which is a fifth below that of the violin, the term seems equally appropriate, the violoncello being then regarded as the real tenor of the family, with the violn and the double-bass completing the quartet as the treble and the bass respectively To which it may be added that alto was origmally the true and only name of the viola, there having been then another and a larger instrument, now obsolete, which was known as the tenor Apart from its greater size, the construction of the viola is the same as that of the violin. Its tone lacks the brilliance and incisiveness of the latter, being much more dark and veiled in quality, and for this reason it is less effective as a solo instrument than the violin ’ But it 1s capable of producing fine results when played by a master, while in the orchestra and in chamber music it 1s invaluable. For full discussion of struments of the violin family see Viorin

VIOLET.

The violets comprise a large botanical genus

(Viola), in which about 250 species have been described, found

principally ın temperate or mountain regions of the Northem Hemisphere, they also occur in mountainous districts of South America and South and Tropical Africa, while a few are found

in Australasia

The species are mostly low-growing herbs with

alternate leaves provided with large leafy stipules. The flowers which are solitary, or rarely in pairs, at the end of slender axillary flower-stalks, are very irregular in form, with five sepals

BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL FROM CHURCH, “TYPES OF FLORAL MECHANISM" (CLARENDON PRESS)

HISTORY)

(A,

B & C)

VIOLET (VIOLA ODORATA), SHOWING WHOLE PLANT

A. Fruit.

B. Floral diagram

C,. Longitudinal seotion through flower

prolonged at the base, and five petals, the lowest one larger than the others and with a spur, in which collects honey The irregular

construction of the flower is connected with fertilization by insect agency. (See POLLINATION ) In the sweet violet (V odorata) and other species, inconspicuous permanently closed or “cleistogamic” flowers occur of a greenish colour, so that they offer no attractions to insect visitors and their form 1s correspondingly regular;

they are self-pollmated (See PoLLxvaTion.) Several species of Vzola are native to Great Britam Viola camına ıs the dog violet, many forms or subspecies of which are recognized; V. odorata, sweet violet, is highly prized for its fragrance, and in cultivation numerous varieties have originated Other species known in gardens are. V altazca, flowers yellow or violet with yellow eye; V. biflora, a pretty little species 3 to 4m high with small yellow flowers, the large petal being streaked with black; V. calcarata, flowers hght blue or white, or yellow m var flava; V cornuta, flowers pale blue—there are a few good varieties of this, mcluding one with white flowers; V. cucullata, a free-flowering American species with violet-blue or purple flowers; V. Munbyana, a native of Algera, with large violet or yellow flowers; V. pedata, the bird’s-foot violet, with pedately divided leaves and usually bright blue flowers The garden pansies or heartseases are derivatives from V tricolor, a cornfield weed, or

V. aliasca, a native of the Altai mountains About

(See Pansy)

75 species of Viola are native to North America, of

which about so occur from the Rocky Mountains eastward, and the remainder chiefly on the Pacific coast They are all herbaceous and fall into two general groups: (1) the leafy-stemmed and (2) the stemless violets While the distinctive characters in many species are sharply marked, the determmation of numerous others is very difficult, because of the profusion of natural hybrids These hybrids were made the subject of intensive experimental

study by E V Brainerd

Representative North American violets are the bird’s-foot violet

(V. pedata), the early blue violet (V palmata), the bog blue violet (V cucullata), the arrow-leaved violet (V sagzttata), the meadow blue violet (V papıkonacea), the southern wood violet (V. villosa), the striped violet (V strzata), the sweet white violet (V. blanda), the beaked violet (V. rostrata), the Canada violet (V. canadensis), the round-leaved violet (V. rotundsfolia) and the hairy yellow violet (V pubescens), of the eastern States and Provmces, the prairie yellow violet (V Nuttallii), of the Great Plains region; and the pine violet (V Jobata), the mountain violet

VIOLIN (V. purpurea), the yellow pansy (V pedunculata), the western heart's-ease (V. ocellata) and the wood violet (V. sarmentosa)

175

lower part, after a common practice of the great makers, and is cut from very handsome wood, the ribs are of the same wood,

while the belly ıs formed of two pieces of soft pine of rather fine and beautifully even grain The sound-holes, cut with perfect precision, exhibit much grace and freedom of design The scroll, Bull 224 (1922) and “Some Natural Violet Hybrids of North America,” which is very characteristic of the maker’s style and beautifully 1b, Bull. 239 (1924) modelled, harmonizes admirably with the general modelling of the VIOLIN, the smallest and highest-pitched of one of the most instrument. The model is flatter than in violins of the earlier important families of ‘stringed musical instruments, to which it period, and the design bold, while displaying all Stradivari’s migivesitsname It consists essentially of a resonant box of pecuhar croscopic perfection of workmanship The whole is coated with a form, over which four strings of different thicknesses are stretched very fine orange-red-brown varnish, untouched since it left the across a bridge standing on the box in such a way that the tension maker’s hand in 1690, and the only respects in which the instruof the strings can be adjusted by means of revolving pegs, to which ment has been altered since that date are in the fittg of the they are severally attached at one end The strings are tuned, by longer neck and stronger bass-bar necessitated by the mecreased means of the pegs, in fifths, from the second or A string, which is compass and raised pitch of modern violin music. Acoustic Principles—The acoustics of the violin are extuned to a fundamental note of about 435 vibrations per second ca tremely complex Certainly so far as the elementary principles at the modern normal pitch, thus giving G it as the four which govern its action are concerned, it follows sufficiently fa= mihar laws (see Sounp) The different notes of the scale are proopen notes To produce other notes of the scale the length of the duced by vibrating strings differmg in weight and tension, and strings is varied by “stopping” them—+e, pressing them down varying in length under the hand of the player, The vibrations of with the fingers—on a finger-board, attached to a “neck” at the the strings are conveyed through the bridge to the body of the inend of which is the “head” in which the pegs are mserted. The strument, which fulfils the common function of a resonator in restrings are set in vibration by drawing across them a bow strung inforcing the notes initiated by the strmgs So far first principles with horse-hair, which is rosined to increase adhesion carry us at once But when we endeavour to elucidate in detail The characteristic features which, in combination, distinguish the causes of the peculiar character of tone of the violin family, the violin (including in that family name its larger brethren the the great range and variety in that character obtained in different viola and violoncello, and in a lesser degree the double-bass) from instruments, the extent to which those quahties can be controlled other stringed instruments are the restriction of the strings to four, by the bow of the player, and the mode in which they are influand their tuning in fifths; the peculiar form of the body, or reso- enced by minute variations in almost every component part of the nating chamber, especially the fully moulded back as well as front, instrument, we find ourselves faced by a series of problems which or belly; the shallow sides or “ribs” bent into characteristic have so far defied any but very partial solution. curves, the acute angles of the corners where the curves of the The distinctive quality of the musical tones of the violin is genends and middle “bouts” or waist mbs meet; and the position and erally admitted to be due largely to its richness in the upper harshape of the sound-holes, cut in the belly By a gradual process of monic or partial tones superimposed on the fundamental notes development in all these particulars the modern violin was evolved produced by the simple vibrations of the strings. The characterfrom earlier bowed instruments, and attained its highest perfection istic tone and its control by the player are undoubtedly conditioned at the hands of the great Italian makers ın the 16th, 17th and early in the first place by the peculiar response of the vibrating string 18th centuries, since which time, although many experiments have under the action of the rosined bow. This takes the form not of a symmetrical oscillation but of a succession of alternating bound and free movements, as the string adheres to the bow according to the pressure applied, and, releasing itself by its elasticity, rebounds. The hghtness of the material of which the strings are made conduces to the production of very high upper partial tones which give briliancy of sound, while the low elasticity of the gut causes these high constituents to be quickly damped, thus soften‘oe ing the ultrmate quality of the note. In order that the resonating body of the instrument may fulfil ee its purpose in reinforcmg the complex vibrations set up by the aS strings, it is essential that the plates, and consequently the body ry pe of air contained between them, should respond sensitively to the selective impulses communicated to them, and it is the attainment of this perfect selective responsiveness which marks the construction of the best instruments Many factors contribute to this reTEE ES sult—the thickness of the plates in different parts of their areas. the size and form of the mterior of the body, the size and shape of the sound-holes through which the vibrations of the contained air are communicated to the external air, and which also influence the THE “HELLIER'’ STRADIVARI, DATED 1679, DISTINGUISHED BY JTS ELABnodal points in the belly, according to the number of fibres of the ORATE INLAID ORNAMENTATION AND SLIGHTLY LARGER AND HEAVIER wood cut across, varying with the angle at which the sound-holes THAN THE MASTER'S OTHER MODELS been made, no material improvement has been effected upon the cross the grain of the wood And all these important factors are influenced by the quality and elasticity of the wood employed form and mode of construction then adopted. Old Instruments’ Superiority—Many speculations have The following are the exact principal dimensions of a very fine been advanced with regard to the superiority in tone of the old specimen of Stradivari’s work, which has been preserved m perItalian mstruments aver those of modern construction After fect condition since the latter end of the 17th century — taking into account the practical identity in dimensions and conLength of body r4in full struction between the classical and many of the best modern Width across top . 64pm. bare. models, the conclusion suggests itself that the difference must be

of the Pacific coast

Numerous species are transplanted

For further details regarding the North American species see E, P Brainerd, “Violets of North America,” Vermont Agric Exper Sta.

4 aah

Ganee =o

Width Height Height The

across bottom. Sain. of sides (top) 138,10 of sides (bottom) Tygin back is in one piece, supplemented a little in width at the

attributed un part to the nature of the materials used and in part

to the method of their employment as influenced by local conditions and practice, The argument, not infrequently advanced, that.

the gréat makers of Italy had special local sources of supply can

VIOLIN

176

hardly be sustained Undoubtedly they exercised great care in the selection of sound and handsome wood; but there is evidence that some of the finest wood they used was imported from across the Adriatic in the ordinary course of trade, and the matter was for them, in all probability, largely one of expense There 1s good reason to suppose, indeed, that a far larger choice of equally good

material 1s accessible to modern makers There remains the varnish with which the completed instrument is coated This was an item in the manufacture which received most careful attention at the hands of the great makers, and much importance has been attached to the superiority of their varnish to that used in more recent times—so much so that its composition has been attributed to secret processes known only to themselves But that the Italian makers individually or collectively attempted, or were able, to a preserve as a secret the composiitt dg tion of the varnish they used is unlikely. Instruments exhibiting similar excellence in this respect were too widespread in their range, both of pernod and local- THE ‘ALARD,’ ONE OF THE MOST

ity, to justify

the assumption

FAMOUS OF STRADIVARI’S VIOLINS,

that the general composition of MAPEI ZIS the finest varnısh of the early makers was not a matter of common knowledge in an industry so flounshing as that of violin-making in the 17th and early 18th centuries. The excellence of an instrument m respect of its varnish depended on the quality of the constituent materials, on the proportions ın which they were combined, and, perhaps mainly, on the

method of its application The most enduring and perfect varnish used for violins is an oil varnish, and the best results therewith can only be obtained under the most advantageous conditions for the drying process In this respect there can be no doubt that the southern climate placed the makers whose work lies in higher latitudes at a disadvantage Ina letter to Galileo in 1638 concerning a violin which he had ordered from Cremona, the writer states that “it cannot be brought to perfection without the strong heat of the sun”; and all recorded experience indicates the great importance of slow drying of the varnish under swtable conditions Stradivari himself wrote to account for delay in the delivery of an instrument because of the time required for the drying of the varnish That a perfect varnish conduces to the preservation of a fine tone in the instrument is generally admitted, and its operation in chis respect is due, not merely to the external protection of the wood from deterioration, but especially to its action, when applied under favourable conditions to wood at a ripe stage of seasoning (when that process has proceeded far enough, but not so far as to allow the fibres to become brittle), in soaking into the pores of the wood and preserving its elasticity This being so, successful varnishing will be seen to be an operation of great delicacy, and one in which the old masters found full scope for their skill and large experience It seems not unreasonable to conclude, therefore, that the varnish of the old instruments contributed probably the most important single element of their superiority in tone History. The immediate ancestors of the violins were the viols, which were the principal bowed instruments in use from the end of the rsth to the end of the 17th century, during the latter part of which period they were gradually supplanted by the violns; but the bass viol did not go out of use finally until towards the later part of the 18th century, when the general adoption of the’ larger pattern of violoncello drove the viol from the field which it had occupied so long The sole survivor of the viol type of instrument, although not itself an original member of the family, is the double bass of the modern orchestra, which retains many of the characteristic features of the viol, notably the flat, back, with an oblique slope at the shoulders, the high bridge and deep

ribs

Excepting the marine trumpet or bowed monochord, we find in Europe no trace of any large bowed instruments before the ap-

pearance of the viols, the bowed mstruments of the middle ages being all small enough to be rested on or against the shoulder during performance The viols probably owe their origin directly to

the mmnesinger fiddles, which possessed several of the typical features of the violin, as distinct from the guitar family, and were sounded by a bow These in their turn may be traced to the “gu.

tar fiddle” (gv ), a bowed instrument of the 13th century The parentage of the fiddle family may safely be ascribed to the rebec, a bowed instrument of the early middle ages, with two or three strings stretched over a low bridge, and a pear-shaped body pierced with sound-holes, having no separate neck, but narrowed at the upper end to provide a finger-board, and (judging by pictorial representations, for no actual example ıs known) surmounted by a carved head holding the pegs, ın a manner simular to that of the violin The bow, which was short and clumsy, had a considerable curvature So far it is yustrfiable to trace back the descent of the violin in a direct line; but the earher ancestry of this family is largely a matter of speculation The best authorities are agreed that

stringed instruments in general are mamly of Asiatic origin, and

there is evidence of the mention of bowed instruments in Sanskrit documents of great antiquity. Too much genealogical importance has been attached by some writers to similarities in form and construction between the bowed and plucked instruments of ancient tumes They probably developed to a great extent independently, and the bow is of too great and undoubted antiquity to be regarded as a development of the plectrum or other devices for agitating the plucked string The two classes of instrument no doubt were under mutual obligations from time to time in their development From Viol to Violin.—The viol was made in three mam kinds, similar to the cantus, medius and bassus of vocal music. Each of these three kinds admitted of some variation in dimensions, especially the bass, of which three distinct sizes ultimately came to be made—(rz) the largest, called the concert bass viol, (2) the division or solo bass viol, usually known by its Italian name of viola da gamba, and (3) the lyra or tablature bass viol

The earliest use of the viols was to double the parts of vocal con-

certed music; they were next employed in special compositions for the viol trio written in the same compass, and finally they were employed as solo instruments, the methods of composition and execution being based on those of the lute Most lute music is in fact equally adapted for the bass viol, and vice versa Subsequently the viols were further developed structurally, such instruments as the quinton and the viola d'amore resulting The chief defect of the viols was their weakness of tone; this the makers thought to remedy in two ways first by additional strings in unisons, fifths and octaves, and secondly by sympathetic strings of fine steel wire, laid under the finger-board as close as possible

to the belly, and sounding mm sympathy with the notes produced on the bowed strmgs This system of reinforcement was applied to all the various sizes of viols. The mmprovements which resulted in the production of the violin proceeded on different lines They consisted in increasing the resonance of the body of the instrument, by making it lighter and more symmetrical, and by stringmg it more lhghtly. These changes transformed the body of the viol into that of the violin, and the transformation was completed by rejecting the lute tuning with its many strings, and tuning the instrument by fifths, as the fiddle had been tuned. The tenor viol appears to have been the first instrument in which the change was made, and thus the viola or tenor may probably be claimed as the father of the modern violin family The viola and violoncello are made on the same general model and principles as the violin, but with modifications Both are, relatively to their pitch, made in smaller proportions than the violm, because, if they were constructed to dimensions having the same relation to pitch and tension of strings as the violin, they would not only have an overpowering tone but would be unmanageable from their size These relatively-diminished dimensions, both m the size of the instrument and in the thickness of the wood and

VIOLLET-LE-DUC—VIPERS 177 VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGENE EMMANUEL (1814a graver and darker

strings, give to the viola and violoncello

quality of tone To some extent the reduced size 1s compensated by 1879), French architect and writer on archaeology, was born in Paris on Jan 21, 1814 and died at Lausanne on Sept. 17, 1879 giving them a greater proportional height in the ribs and bridge,

an increase hardly perceptible in the viola but very noticeable in the violoncello To lighten the tension and thus allow greater free-

dom of vibration to the belly on the bass side, as with the lowest

He was a pupil of Achille Leclére, and in 1836-37 studied Greek and Roman architecture in Sicily and Rome His chief interest was in the art of the Gothic period, and he was employed to restore some of the chief mediaeval buildimgs of France, his earliest works of restoration bemg the abbey church of Vézelay, St. Michel at Carcassonne, the church of Semur ın Côte-d'Or, and the Gothic town halls of Samt-Antonin and Narbonne, be-

string of the violin, the two lowest of the viola and violoncello are made of thin gut, covered with fine metal wire, thus providing the necessary weight without inconvenient thickness Many other instruments of the violin family, of various sizes tween 1840 and 1850 From 1845 to 1856 he restored Notre tuning, have and designs, and correspondingly different pitch and of Dame in Pars m conjunction with Lassus, and the abbey of St existed at various times, such as the viola pomposa (a kind Denis; in 1849 he began the restoration of the fortifications of

piccolo (an small violoncello invented by Bach), the violoncello the arpegmstrument half the size of the ordinary violoncello), ‘one or guitar violoncello (a six stringed mstrument for which

Carcassonne and of Amiens cathedral.

supposed from time to time, no fewer than six, designed to fill recent gaps in the existing quartet, having been invented within

francazs (1858-75), L’Architecture militaire au moyen Age (1854) , Entretiens sur Varchitecture (1863—72), Cités et rumes américaines

the Brescian is, however, somewhat misleading to denommate it

P. Gout, Viollet-le-Duc m Revue de PArt Chrétien Supplements III. (1914); A. Fontamas and G. Gromont, Histoire Générale de VArt Franças, vol u (1925).

As a writer on mediaeval

architecture

and the kindred

arts

and he takes the highest rank His two great dictionanes are the Schubert wrote a sonata), the cellone (a deeper violoncello) now standard works in their class, and are most beautifully illustrated the octobass (a deeper doublebass), but all of these are His principal literary works were the Dictzonnaire de Varchitecture appearance their make to francaise du XI au XVI stécle (1854-68) , Dictronnasre du mobiler obsolete None the less others continue

(1863) ; Mémorre sur la défense de Paris (1871) ; Habitations modernes years by a French violin maker, Léo Sir (1874-77); Histoire d'une mawon (1873), Histowe d'une forteresse Makers—As regards makers, the early Italan school 1s (1874) , Histore de Vhabitation khumame (1875) , Le M assıf du Mant GioSalò, da Gaspar makers, Brescian the by Blanc (1876) , L’Art russe (1877) , Histowe d'un hôtel-de-ville et Fune chiefly represented It cathédrale (1878) , La Décoration appliquée aus édifices (1879) See vannı Paolo Maggim, Giovita Rodiani and Zanetto Peregrino

of school, for its characteristics are shared by the earliest makers curves Cremona and Venice To eyes familar with the geometrical makers these of violins the of most school, Cremona later the of the model have a rude and uncouth appearance The height of general varies, the pattern 1s attenuated, the f-holes share the Amati Andreas rudeness of design, and are set high mm the pattern imsome effected name, that of maker eldest of Cremona, the most to provements on this primitive model, but the violin owes introThey partners were who his sons, Antonio and Geronimo, Brescian duced the substantial improvements which developed the , violin into the modern instrument Nicholas Amati (1596-1684)his and s improvement further slight some made Geronimo, of son typical the settled finally pupil Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) ever since Cremona pattern, which has been generally followed (del Only less famous than the last named is Giuseppe Guarnieri

VIOLONCELLO, the third largest member of the violm fam-

ily, standing midway, therefore, in point of size and pitch between the viola and the double-bass Although the word violoncello is a diminutive, signifymg “‘small violone,” or double-bass, the instrument is really a bass violin, formed on a different model from the violone, which has the sloping shoulders, and flat back of the viol family, whereas those of the violoncello are rounded as in the violin It may be

the disJest) one of several makers of the same name (wherefore finished tinguishing “del Jest”) whose instruments 1f Jess carefully their of boldness the for remarkable are than those of Stradivari

.\

oa,

A

into existence soon after the violin and

took the place of the viola da gamba, or bass viol, which, however, ıt only supplanted very gradually Its construction is the same as that of the violn but on a larger scale, the total length of the instrument bemg 484in, though the earliest

them have been design and their powerful tone, so that the finest of himpreferred by some of the great players to those of Stradivari self, Paganmi among others habitually played on one Jacob by adopted was model Among non-Italian makers a high n pattern Stamer.of Absam, near Hall in Tirol, whose well-know and Germany, was chiefly followed by the makers of England, Tirol

it fell mto disuse, down to the middle of the 18th century, when violin. The owing to the superior musical qualities of the Cremona groups (x) successive three into divided be may English makers

own (Rayman, an antique English school, having a character of its Oxford, etc), Urquhart, Pamphilon, Barak, Norman, Duke, of Wams(2) mutators of Stainer, at the head of whom stands Peter etc ); (3) a Norns, Aireton, ley (Smith, Barrett, Cross, Hull, Duke of later school which leaned to the Cremona model (Banks, Parker, HarHolborn, Betts, the Forsters, Gilkes, Carter, Fendt, makers ris, Matthew Hardie, of Edinburgh, etc ) The early French Guersan, Pierray, have little merit or interest (Bocquay, Gavinies, Al(Lupot, models Cremona the of copyists later etc), but the , etc ) dric, Chanot the elder, Nicholas, Pique, Silvestre, Vuillaumenext in rank which of some s, instrument produced admirable merit to the first-rate makers of Cremona Brsriocrapey —G Hart, The ments a archet (1876) and La Engel, Researches ento the Early E. Heron-Allen, Violin-making Schlesinger, The Precursors of

Violin (1875), A. Vidal, Les InstruLuthere et les luthiers (1889) , Carl History of the Violin Family (1883); K. as it was and ts (1884-1900), the Modern Violin Family (1896) ;

Straeten, “The Viola’ Hil, Antonio Stradıvarı (1902), E. van der the Violoncello (1916) , (in The Strad, 1912-16) and The History of A. C_ White, The W von Wasielewski, Dze Veolzne (6th ed 1920),(RW FH;X) Double-Bass.

added that as the word violoncello is a diminutive the adoption of the second half of it, ’cello, as a contraction, is hardly a happy procedure The violoncello came

BY COURTESY OF HILL & SONS THE VIOLONCELLO WHICH SUPERSEDED THE VIOLA DA GAMBA IN THE 18TH CENTURY

instruments were somewhat larger. Although at first the viola da gamba continued to be preferred by connoisseurs to the violoncello, which was considered suit-

able only for accompaniment purposes, the violoncello established its superiority in due course and to-day, alike in concerted music and for solo purposes, ranks second only to the violin among Its full rich tone lends itself especially class. its the instruments of to the execution of expressive cantabile passages (See VIOLIN, ) VIONVILLE, a village of Lorraine, near Metz, celebrated

as the scene of the battle of Vionville (also called Rezonville or Mars-la-Tour), fought on Aug 16, 1870 between the French and the Germans (see Metz and Franco-GerMan War)

VIPERS, snakes of the family Viperidae, which is character-

ised by the presence of poison fangs on a moyable upper jaw The fangs are simply enlarged teeth perforated longitudinally for the passage of the venom and, like those of all other snakes, they are fused to the supporting bones. In this family, however, there are no other teeth on the upper jaw and the bone itself is movable so that the fangs are folded down parallel with the roof of the mouth when not in use. Venom 1s secreted by a pair of glands, situated behind the angle of the mouth, and is carried to the fangs by a short duct which

178

VIPER’S

BUGLOSS—VIRCHOW

presence of a deep pit on the side of the head between the eye which surrounds them, within this fold of skin there is also a and the nostril This pit 1s lmed by scales, similar to those of the rest of series of reserve fangs in different stages of development and, should one of the functional fangs be broken, the largest of these the head, and has a rich nerve supply but its function is quite reserve teeth moves into its place and becomes fused to the jaw. unknown Two American genera of this series are equipped with Vipers, as a rule, are stout sluggish creatures with a broad, flat- a “rattle” on the end of the tail and are more fully described tened head, and lack the large head shields so characteristic of in the article on Rattlesnake (qv) Of the remainder Agkistrodon is distinguished by the possession of large shields on the head the majority of other poisonous and 1s found through S Asia and Central and N America, the ee snakes; most of them are terAmerican species are semi-aquatic, the Cotton Mouth (A, pisrestrial though there are aquatic, |#. civorus) rather more so than the Copperhead (A. mokasen), but arboreal and burrowing species. |* the Asiatic species (including A kypnale of S India and Ceylon A few lay eggs but the majority and A halys of the Caspian region) are terrestrial Also occurproduce fully developed young. rng im SE Asia are a number of arboreal species of the genus All the viperidae are very poi3 . Trimeresurus, the commonest and most widely distributed being sonous and the bite of most of |. | Bens Oe gta

opens close to their hase inside a fold of skin (the vagina dentis)

ATASSAR sen maT me

them, 1s dangerous to man; the f. toxicity of the venom varies with 1,

pda aes a

covsresy or me NY

ZCDOLCG'CAL

each species and the virulence of SHE AFRICAN PUFF ADDER (BITIS any bite depends, not only on the ARIETANS) species of snake responsible for

it, but also on the amount of venom injected, the position of the brte and the physical condition of the snake. In composition viperine venom resembles that of the back-fanged Colubrids, rather than that of the cobras and their allies, and its action consists largely m the destruction of the blood corpuscles and vessels

The family is subdivisible into two well-defined groups .— (1) Viperinae—The true vipers or adders, confined to the Old World and characterised, by the absence of a pit between the

nostril and the eye.

The majority of the snakes of this series are terrestrial, though Atractaspis of Tropical and South Africa is a genus of small burrowing creatures with enlarged shields on the head; ‘the Night Adders (Causus), of the same region, have the head similarly covered Axboreal forms are represented by Atheris, of the forests of tropical Africa, which is equipped with a prehensile tail and is usually green ox olive in, colour to harmonise with its surroundings, The colours of the terrestrial species, on the other hand, are more frequently shades of grey, hrown or black to harmonise with the rocky or sandy localities which they frequent. The

Puff Adder (Bitis. arietans), which: occurs throughout the drier areas of Africa, 1s a sluggish, heavily-built creature which may

grow to a length af four ox five feet; it ıs usually pale brown

with a series of regular, dark, chevron-shaped cross-bars along the back, a colouring which harmonises so well with sandy soil that many accidents occur through people failing to notice the amma] until they actually tread. upon it, The Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica), unlike its relative, is an inhabitant of the forested regions of Africa and exhibits a geometrical “camouflage” colour pattern of blyes, reds and yellows, Many desert species show the feature so characteristic of desert-dwelling animals and plants,

the development of spines, Bitis nasicornis has a pair of hornlike scales on the tip of the snout and Cerastes cornutus, the Horned Viper of Egypt and northern Africa, has a promment spine above each eye Cerastes and Echis, the latter found through

northern Africa and southern Asia, including India, exhibit a specialisation for desert life not found elsewhere; the scales of

the sides are small and have pronounced, serrated ridges which

act, through lateral shovelling movements of the body, as scoops to dig up loose sand and throw it onto the creatures’ backs, and so enable them to bury themselves completely. In Europe, the family is represented by the genus, Vipera of which the Adder

T. grammeus, a bright green creature with a yellow stripe along the flanks and with the tip of the prehensile tail red In America some of the most dangerous poisonous snakes belong to this

family, they include the dreaded Bushmaster (Lachesis mutus)

which sometimes attains a length of 12 feet, the Fer-de-Lance (Bothrops atrox), the Jararaca (B. jararaca) and the Jararacussu (B yjararacussu), large forms which inhabit the tropical parts of

Central and South America. VIPER’S BUGLOSS (Echium vulgare), a hairy herb of the borage family (Boraginaceae), indigenous to Europe, including Great Britain, and western Asia. The flowers are brillant blue when expanded, but the buds are reddish Viper’s bugloss, called also blue-weed, has become widely naturalized mm the United States and Canada, from Nova Scotia to Ontario and Nebraska and southward to North Carolina; in some sections it is a troublesome weed. It prefers dry soil. The genus Echium contains about 30 species, all found in Europe.

VIRBIUS, an old Italian divinity, associated with the worship

of Diana at Aricia (see Diana) Under Greek influence, he was identified with Hippolytus (qv.), who after he had been trampled to death by his own horses was restored to life by Asklepios and removed by Artemis to the grove at Ancia, which horses were not. allowed to enter. Virbius was the oldest priest of Diana, and the first Rex Nemorensis, “king of the grove.” See Virgil, Ae, vii. 761 and Servius, lc; Ovid Fasti, m. 263, vi, 737; Metam, XV. 497; Suetomus, Cabgula, 35; Strabo V. p. 239, G. Wissowa, Religon und Kultus der Romer (2nd ed 1912), J G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (3rd ed); A B Cook, Zeus (1925)

VIRCHOW, RUDOLF

(1821-1902), German pathologist

and politician, was born on Oct. 13, 1821, at Schivelbem, in Pomerania. In 1843 he received an appointment as assistant-surgeon

at. the Chanté Hospital, becoming pro-rector three years later In 1847 he began to act as Privatdozent in the university, and founded with Reinhardt the Archiv fur pathologssche Anatome und Phystologte, which, after his collaborator’s death in 1852, he carried on alone. In 1848 he went as a member of a government commission to investigate en outhreak of ty~hus m upper Silesia About thi: ume having shown tov ofcn symparchy with be rev o-uL.on-z}

or reforming tendencies, he was for political reasons obliged to leave Berlm and retre to the seclusion of Wurzburg, the medical school of which profited enormously by his labours as professor of pathological anatomy, In 1856 he was recalled to Berlin as ordinary professor of pathological anatomy. As director of the Pathological Institute he formed a centre for research whence flowed a constant stream of original work.

Pathology.—Wide as were Virchow’s studies, and successful as

(V. berus) is the best known species, it, 1s an inhabitant of the he was in all, yet the foremost place must be given to his achievenorthern, countries and is the only venomous serpent in. Britain. ments in pathological investigation In his book on CellularIn southern Europe an alhed species V. aspis, is more common, pathologse, published at Berlin in 1858, he established what Lord characterised by a “snub-nose” and this feature is even more Lister described as the “true and fertile doctrine that every morpronounced in V. latastet of the Therian Peninsula, whilst in F. brd structure consists of cells. which have been derived from preammodytes of SE Europe the tsp of the snout is prolonged existing’ cells as a progeny * Virchow made many important conupwards mto a definite scaly appendage. In India the commonest tmButions to histology and morbid anatomy and to the study of

and most dangerous viper is the Dahoia or Tic Polonga, (V. particular diseases

russelli) which reaches a length of 5 feet. (2) Crotalinae.—Pit vipers and rattlesnakes, centred in Amer-

iça but extending into southern Asia and distinguished by the

The classification inte epithelial organs, con-

nective tissues, and the more specialized muscle and nerve, was largely due to him; and he proved the presence of neuroglia in

the brain and’ spinal cord, discovered crystalhne haematoidine, and

VIRE—VIRGIL made out the basic structure

of the umbilical

cord

Among

the books he published on pathological and medical subjects may be mentioned Vorlesungen uber Pathologie, the first volume of which was the Cellular-pathologie (1858), and the remaming

three Die Krankhaften Geschwulste (1863-67), Handbuch der

speziellen Pathologie und Therapie (3 vols , 1854-62), m collabo-

ration with other German surgeons, Vier Reden uber Leben und Kranksem (1862); Untersuchungen uber die Entuncklung des

Schadelgrundes (1857); Lehre von den Trichmen (1865); Ueber den Hunger-typhus (1868); and Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus

dem Gebtete der offenthchen Medizin und der Seuchenlehre 1879) einoh lory -Anike science which Virchow cultivated with conspicuous success was anthropology In ethnology he published a volume of essays on the physical anthropology of the Germans, with special reference to the Fnsians, and at his instance a census, which yielded remarkable resulis, was carried out among school children throughout Germany, to determine the relative distribution of blondes and brunettes. His archaeological work included the investigation of lake dwellmgs and other prehistoric structures, he went with Schhemann to Troy in 18709, fruits of the

expedition bemg two books, Zur Landeskunde der Troas (1880) and Alt-trojamsche Graber und Schadel (1882); m 1881 he visited the Caucasus, and on his return published Das Graberfeld von

Koban 1m Lande der Osseten Politics.—In 1862 Virchow was elected a member of the sian Lower House He was a founder and leader of the schrittspartei, and the expression Kulturkampf had its in one of his electoral manifestos. For many years he was

PrusFortorigin chair-

179

the Jai is known except the following (first printed by Père Mourgues in his Trasté de la Poésie) “Sur Pappu du monde Que faut-zl qu’on fonde D’espoir? Cette mer profonde Et débris féconde Fait voir Calme au matin Ponde Et lorage gronde Le Soir.”

But this seems to be a mere fragment of a virelay, which proceeds by “veering” the two rhymes ad libitum This is the velai ancien, of which examples are rare in recent hterature. There is also the virela: nouveau, which was used by Alain Chartier in the 15th century. In French the old and popular Adieu vous dy triste Lyre is a perfect example; and in English we have one admirable specimen in Austin Dobson’s “Good-bye to the Town, good-bye ” A so-called Virelay is found among Chaucer’s spurious works (Skeat, vii, 448) The New Virelay 1s written on two rhymes, and begins with two lines that recur throughout as refrains, and (reversed in order) close the poem in a couplet The Virelay is a vague and invertebrate form of verse, and one of little importance.

VIREO, the common name of birds of the American passerine

family Vzreonidae. There are about 50 species of these insectivorous birds, which have characteristic and often very musical songs Twelve species inhabit the Umted States, all building deep, pendent, cup-shaped nests, usually hung between the forks of a

branch The red-eyed vireo (V olivaceus) breeds from the Gulf States to Labrador and British Columbia, wintering in Central and South America, West of the Cascade mountains, it is replaced by Hutton’s vireo (V. huttont), with three subspecies, man of the finance committee, and m that capacity was chief lacking the slate crown of V. olivaceus. The warbling vireo founder of the constitutional Prussian Budget system In 1880 (V. gulvus) of eastern US A, and Canada has a fine song. he entered the Reichstag as representative of a Berlin constituVIRGIL (Pusrivs Vercrztus Maro) (70-19 B.c) the great ency, but was ousted in 1893 by a Social Democrat. In the Roman poet, was born on Oct 15, 70 B.C., on a farm not far from Reichstag he became the leader of the Opposition, and a vigorous the town of Mantua In the region north of the Po a race of more antagonist of Bismarck In the local and municipal politics of imaginative susceptibility than the people of Latium formed part Berlin again he took a leading part, and as a member of the of the Latin-speaking population. It was favourable to his develmunicipal council was largely responsible for the transformation opment as a national poet that he was born and educated during which came over the city in the last thirty years of the xoth the mterval of comparative calm. between the first and second Civil century. It was his unceasing efforts that secured for its inhabi- Wars, and that he belonged to a generation which, as the result of tants the draimage system, sewage farms and good water-supply. the Social War, first enjoyed the sense cf an Italian nationality. It Of his writings on social and political questions may be mentioned is remarkable that the two poets whose imagination seems to have Die Erziehung des Wesbes (1865); Ueber die nateonale Entwicklung und Bedeutung der Naturwissenschafiew (1865); Die Aufgaben der been most powerfully possessed by the spell of Rome—Ennius Naturwissenschafien in dem neuen nationalen Leben Deutschlands and Virgil—were born outside the pale of Roman citizenship. (1871); De Fre:hert der Wissenschaft ım modernen Staat (1877), Like his friend and contemporary Horace, he sprang from the

m which he opposed the ıdea of Haeckel—that the prnnoples of evolution should be taught im elementary schools—on the ground that they were not as yet proved, and that it was mischievous to teach a hypothesis which still remamed m the speculative stage. See Lives by Becher (Berlin, 1894) and Pagel (Leipzig, 1906); Rudolf Virchow als Patholog by Marchand (Munich, 1902); Rudolf Virchow als Arzt by Ebstem (Stuttgart, 1903), Gedachtmsrede auf R Virchow (Berlin, 1903), and Briefe Virchows an seme Eltern 1839-1864, by Marie Rabl (Leipzig, 1907) A bibliography of his works was published at Berlin in rgor

VIRE, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Calvados 44 m SW of Caen by rail Pop. (1926) 5,466 Vire -..1dsona hil sartorrded on three sides by the Vire and crowned by the remains of a r2th-century

chateau The church of Notre Dame (13th to rsth century), and the picturesque Tour de IlHorloge (13th century), beneath which runs the chief street, are the principal buildings Vire grew up around a castle built in the 12th century by Henry I of England, and in the middle ages was one of the important strongholds of Normandy South-west of the town 1s the gorge called Vaux-de-Vire, where stood the mull of Olivier Basselin (15th century), the fuller and reputed author of the satiric songs, hence

known as “vaudevilles” (See BASSELIN, OLIVIER) Vire is an important market town, with trade in horses and cattle, and has various small manufactures It is the seat of a sub-prefect and a tribunal of commerce.

VIRELAY, the title applied to more than one fixed form of

verse {virer, to turn), Its history and character are very obscure It may be connected with the Provencal Jey Historians agree that it is a modification of the mediaeval Jat; but no example of

class of yeomen, whose state he pronounces the happiest allotted

to man and most conducive to virtue and piety. At the age of twelve he was taken for his education to Cremona, and from an expression in one of his minor poems it may be inferred that his father accompanied him. Afterwards he removed to Milan, where he continued to study till he went to Rome two years later. After studying rhetoric he began the study of philosophy under Siron the Epicurean. One of the minor poems written about this

time in the scazon metre tells of his delight at the immediate prospect of entering on the study of philosophy; at the end of the poem, the real master-passion of his life, the charm of the Muses, reasserts itself (Catalepton v.). Our next knowledge of him is derived from some allusions in the Eclogues, and belongs to a period nine or ten years later Of what happened to him in the interval, during which the Civil War took place and Julius Caesar was assassinated, we have no

indication from ancient testimony or from his own writings. In 42 BC., the year of the battle of Philippi, we find um “cultivating lus woodland Muse” under the protection of Asinius Pollio, govemor of the district north of the Po In the followmg year the famous confiscations of land for the benefit of the soldiers of the triumvirs took place Of the impression produced on Virgil by these confiscations, and of their effect on his fortunes, we have a vivid record m the first and ninth eclogues Mantua, in conse-

quence of its vicinity to Cremona, which had been faithful to the cause of the republic, was involved in this calamity; and Virgil’s father was driven from his farm By the influence of his powerful

friends, and by personal application to the ‘young Octavian, Virgil

VIRGIL

180

[ECLOGUES

AND

GEORGICS

obtained the restitution of his land. In the meantime he had taken

imagined the place of Dante vacant in modern Italian, and that of

his father and family with him to the small country house of his old teacher Siron (Catalepton x ). Soon afterwards we hear of him hving in Rome, enjoying the favour of Maecenas, intimate with Varius, who was at first regarded as the rising poet of the new era, and later on with Horace His friendship with Gallus, for whom he indicates a warmer affection and more enthusiastic admuration than for any one else, was formed before his second residence in Rome, in the Cisalpine province. The pastoral poems, or “eclogues,” commenced in his native district, were finished and published in Rome, probably in 37 BC. Soon afterwards he withdrew from Rome, and lived chiefly in Campamia, either at Naples or m the neighbourhood of Nola. He was one of the companions of Horace in the famous journey to Brundisium; and it seems not unlikely that, some time before 23 BC, he made the voyage to Athens which forms the subject of the third ode of the first book of the Odes of Horace. The seven years from 37 to 30 BC. were devoted to the composition of the Georgics In the following year he read the poem to Augustus, on his return from Asia The remaining years of his life were spent on the composition of the Aenezd In 19 BC, after the Aene:d was finished but not finally corrected, he set out for Athens, intending to pass three years in Greece and Asia and to devote that time to perfecting the poem At Athens he met Augustus, and was persuaded by him to return with him to Italy. While visitmg Megara under a burning sun, he was seized with Illness, and; as he continued his voyage without interruption, he grew rapidly worse, and died on Sept. 21, 19 BC, a few days after landing at Brundisium In his last illness he called for the cases containing his manuscripts, with the mtention of burning the Aeneid. He had previously left directions in his will that his hterary executors, Varrus and Tucca, should publish nothing of his

Goethe in German literature. Virgil’s fame as a poet rests on the three acknowledged works of his early and mature manhood—the pastoral poems or Eclogues,

which had not already been given to the world by himself. A passage from a letter of his to Augustus is also quoted, in which he speaks as if he felt that the undertaking of the work had been

a mistake. This dissatisfaction with his work may be ascribed to his passion for perfection of workmanship, which death prevented him from attaining The command of Augustus overrode the poet’s wish and rescued the poem Virgil was buried at Naples, where his tomb was long regarded with religious veneration Horace is our most direct witness of the affection which he inspired among his contemporaries. The qualities by which he gained their love were, according to his testimony, candor—sincerity of nature and goodness of heart—and pietas—the union of deep affection for kindred, friends and country with a spirit of reverence The statement of his biographer, that he was known in Naples by the name “Parthenias,” 1s a testimony to the exceptional purity of his life in an age of licence. The seclusion of his life and his devotion to his art touched the imagination of his countrymen as the finer qualities of his nature touched the heart of his friends. It had been, from the time of Cicero, the ambition of the men of finest culture and most original genius in Rome to produce a national literature which might rival that of Greece; and the feeling that at last a poem was about to appear which would equal or surpass the greatest among all the works of Greek genius found a voice in the lines of Propertius— Cedite Romani scriptores, cedite Graii, Nesco quid marus nascitur Ihade.

The veneration in which his name was held between the overthrow of Western civilization and the revival of letters affords testimony of the depth of the impression which he made on the imagination of the ancient world ‘The traditional belief in his

the Georgscs and the Aeneid—all written in that hexameter verse

which Tennyson has called The stateliest measure ever moulded by the lps of man,

Eclogues.—The pastoral poems or Eclogues—a word denoting short selected pieces—were composed between the years 42 and 37 BC His expressed aim is to pay in the Latin language to the Itahan countryside the tribute of Theocritus to Sicily

The earliest poems in the series were the second, third and fifth; and these, along with the seventh, are the most purely Theocritean in character, The first and mnth, which probably were next in order, are much more Italian in sentiment, and have a much more

direct reference both to his own circumstances and the circumstances of the tıme. The first is a reflex of the distress and confusion which arose out of the new distribution of lands The nmth contains the lines which seem accurately to describe the site of Virgil’s farm, at the point where the range of hills which accompany the river Mincio for some distance from the foot of the Lago di Garda sinks into the plain about 14 or 15 m above Mantua, The sixth is addressed to Varus, who succeeded Pollo as governor

of the Cisalpine district. Its theme is the creation of the world, and the oldest tales of mythology The fourth and eighth are both closely associated with the name of Virgil’s earliest protector, Pollio The fourth celebrates the consulship of his patron in 40 B.c , and also the prospective birth of a child, though 1t was disputed in antiquity, and still is disputed, who was meant by this child whose birth was to be coincident with the advent of the new era, and who, after fillmg the other great offices of state, was to “rule with his father’s virtues the world at peace” The main purpose of the poem, however, 1s to express the longing of the world for a new era of peace and happiness, of which the treaty of Brundisium seemed to hold out some definite hopes Some of the phraseology of the poem led to a belief in the early Christian church that Virgil had been an unconscious instrument of inspired prophecy. The date of the eighth is fixed by a reference to the campaign of Pollio against the Dalmatians in 39 pc. It brings before us two love tales of homely Italian life. The tenth repro-

duces the Daphnis of Theocritus, and is a dirge over the unhappy love of Gallus and Lycoris There is no important work in Latin literature, with the exception of the comedy of Terence, so imitative as the Eclogues But they are not purely exotic They are rather composite, partly Greek and partly Italian, and, as a vehicle for the expression of feeling, hold an undefined place between the objectivity of the Greek idyll and the subjectivity of the Latin elegy For the most part, they express the sentiment inspired by the beauty of the world, and the kindred sentiment inspired by the charm of human relationships. The supreme charm of the diction and rhythm 1s universally recognized Georgics.—It is stated that Maecenas, acting on the principle of employing the poets of the time in favour of the conservative and restorative policy of the new government, directed the genius of Virgil to the subject. of the Georgics. No object could be of more consequence to a supporter of Augustus’ policy leaders than the revival of the great national industry, which had fallen into abeyance owing to the long unsettlement of the revolutionary era as well as to other causes Virgil’s previous life and associations made it natural for him to identify himself with this object, while his genius fitted him to enlist the imagination of his countrymen in its favour His aim was to describe with realistic fidelity, and to surround with an atmosphere of poetry, the annual round of labour in which the Italian yeoman’s life was passed; to bring out the intimate relation with nature into which man was brought in the course of that hfe, and to suggest the delight to heart and

pre-eminence has been on the whole sustained, though not with absolute unanimity, in modern times The effect of this was a juster estimate of Virgil’s relative position among the poets of the world Lucretius, it may be thought was individually the greater poet But it can hardly be questioned. imagination which he drew from it; to contrast the simplicity, on a survey of Roman hterature that the position of Virgil is security and sanctity of such a life with the luxury and lawless central and commanding, while that of Lucretius is in a great passions of the great world, and to associate the ideal of a life of measure isolated If we could imagine the place of Virgil in rustic labour with the beauties of Italy and the glories of Rome.

Roman literature vacant, 1t would be much the same as if we

This larger conception of the dignity of his subject separates the

VIRGIL

AENEID]

181

didactic poem of Virgil from all other didactic, as distinct from

not of Roman origi but of a composite growth, had long been familiar to the Romans, and had been recognized by official acts of

of didactic, as in the Aeneid he has produced a new type of epic,

senate and people The subject enabled Virgil to tell again of the fall of Troy, and to weave a tale of sea-adventure similar to that of the wanderings of Odysseus It was also recommended by the claim which the Julii, a patrician family of Alban origin, made to descent from Iulus, the supposed son of Aeneas.

philosophic, poems

He has produced nm the Georgics a new type

etry

The subject is treated in four books, varying in length from 514

to 566 hnes

The first treats of the tillage of the fields, of the

constellations, the mse and setting of which form the farmer’s calendar, and of the signs of the weather, on which the success of his labours largely depends The second treats of trees, and especially of the vine and olive, two great staples of the national wealth and industry of Italy, the third of the rearing of herds

and flocks and the breeding of horses, the fourth of bees Hesiod Virgil regarded as his prototype, he supplied the outline of the form

‘The Alexandrian scientific poets provided him

with examples for his method of treatment

But a more powerful

influence on the form, ideas, sentiment and diction of the Georgics

The Aenezd 1s thus at once the epic of the national life under its new conditions and an epic of human character The true keynote of the poem is struck in the line with which the proem. closes— Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem

The idea which underlies the whole action of the poem is that of the great part played by Rome in the history of the world, that part being from of old determined by divine decree, and carned out through the virtue of her sons

The idea of universal empire 1s

thus the dommant idea of the poem With this idea that of the unbroken continuity of the national life 1s intimately associated The reverence for old customs and for the traditions of the past was a large element in the national sentiment, and has a prominent place in the Aeneid. So too has the feeling of local attachment as any speculative idea underlying the details of the Georgics can and of the power of local association over the imagination. The be detected, it is one of which the source can be traced to Lucre- poem is also characteristically Roman in the religious behef and Behind all the conventional tius—the 1dea of the struggle of human force with the forces of observances which it embodies nature. In the general plan of the poem Virgil follows the guid- machinery of the old Olympic gods there is the Roman apprehenance of Lucretius rather than that of any Greek model The sion of a great inscrutable power, manifesting itself by arbitrary distinction between a poem addressed to national and one ad- sgns, exacting jealously certam observances, working out its own dressed to philosophical sympathies is marked by the prominence secret purposes through Roman arms and Roman counsels. The idealization of Augustus is no expression of servile adulaassigned in the one poem to Caesar as the supreme personality of the age, in the other to Epicurus as the supreme master in the tion It is through the prominence assigned to him that the poem realms of mind In the systematic treatment of his materials, and is truly representative of the critical epoch in human affairs at the mterspersion of episodes dealing with the deeper poetical and which ıt was written The cardinal fact of that epoch was the human interest of the subject, Virgil adheres to the practice of the substitution of personal rule for the rule of the old commonwealth over the Roman world. Virgil shows the :maginative significance older poet. The Georgics is not only the most perfect, but the most native of that fact by revealing the emperor as chosen from of old in the of all the works of the ancient Italian genius Even where he bor- counsels of the supreme ruler of the world to fulfil the national rows from Greek originals, Virgil makes the Greek mind tributary destiny, as descendant of gods and heroes of old poetic renown Virgil’s true and yet idealizing interpretation of the impenal to his national design The Georgics, the poem of the land, 1s as essentially Italan as the Odyssey, the poem of the sea, is essen- idea of Rome 1s the basis of the greatness of the Aenerd as a representative poem It is on this representative character and on the tially Greek Aeneid.—The work which yet remamed for Virgil to accom- excellence of its artistic execution that the claim of the dened to plish was the addition of a great Roman epic to literature This rank as one of the great poems of the world mainly rests The had been the earliest effort of the national imagination, when it inferiority of the poem to the Ziad and the Odyssey as a direct first departed from the mere imitative reproduction of Greek representation of human life is so unquestionable that we are in originals, The work which had given the truest expression to the danger of underrating the real though secondary mterest which the genius of Rome before the time of Virgil had been the Annales poem possesses as an imitative epic of human action, manners of Ennius. This had been supplemented by various historical and character. In the first place it should be remarked that the poems but had never been superseded It satisfied the national action is chosen not only as suited to embody the idea of Rome, It imagination as an expression of the national life ın its vigorous but as having a peculiar nobleness and dignity of its own prime, but it could not satisfy the newly developed sense of art; brings before us the spectacle of the destruction of the city of greatest name in poetry or legend, of the foundation of the 1mand the expansion of the national hfe since the days of Ennius, and the changed conditions into which it passed after the battle of perial city of the western seas, in which Rome had encountered Actium, demanded a newer and ampler expression It had been her most powerful antagonist m her long struggle for supremacy, Virgil’s earliest ambition to write an heroic poem on the traditions and that of the first rude settlement on the hills of Rome itself, of Alba Longa, and he had been repeatedly urged by Augustus to It might be said of the manner of lıfe represented in the Aeneid, celebrate his exploits The problem before him was to compose a that ıt is no more true to any actual condition of human society work of art on a large scale, which should represent a great action than that represented in the Eclogues. But may not the same be of the heroic age, and should at the same time embody the most said of all idealizing restoration of a remote past in an age of advital ideas and sentiment of the hour—which jn substance should vanced civilization? The life represented in the Oedipus Tyrannus glorify Rome and the present ruler of Rome, while m form it or in King Lear is not the hie of the Periclean nor of the Elzashould follow closely the great models of epic poetry and repro- bethan age, nor is it conceivable as the real hfe of a prehistoric duce all their sources of interest It was his ambition to be the age, Where Virgil is least real, and most purely imitative, is in the battle-scenes of the later books Homer, as he had been the Theocritus and Hesiod, of his country But the adverse criticisms of the Aeneid are chiefly based on Various objects had thus to be combined in a work of art on the model of the Greek epic. the revival of mnterest m the heroic fore- Virgil’s supposed failure in the crucial test of the creation of chartime; the satisfaction.of national sentiment; the expression of the acter. And his chief failure is pronounced to be the “pious deeper currents of emotion of the age, the personal celebration Aeneas ” Is Aeneas a worthy and interesting hero of a great poem of Augustus A new type of epic poetry had to be created. It of action? Not, certainly, according to the ideals realized in was desirable to select a single heroic action which should belong Achilles and Odysseus, nor according to the modern ideal of heroto the cycle of legendary events celebrated in the Homeric poems, ism Virgil wishes to hold up in Aeneas an ideal of pious obedience and which could be associated with Rome. The only subject which and persistent purpose—a religious ideal belonging to the ages of in any way satisfied these conditions was that of the wanderings faith combined with the humane and self-sacrificing qualities of Aeneas and of his final settlement in Latium The story, though belonging to an era of moral enlightenment His own sympathy was exercised by the great philosophical poem of Lucretius, of which Virgil had probably been a diligent student since the time of its first appearance, and with which his mind was saturated when he was engaged ın the composition of the Georgics So far

VIRGIL

182

is with his religious ideal rather than with that of chivalrous romance. He felt that the deepest need of his time was not miitary glory, but peace, reconciliation, restoration of law, and piety, In Dido Roman poetry has added to the great gallery of men and women, created by the imaginative art of different times and peoples, the ideal of a true queen and a true woman On the episode of which she is the herome the most passionate human mterest is concentrated It has been objected that Virgil does not really sympathize with his own creation, that he gives his approval to the cold desertion of her by Aeneas. But 1f he does not condemn his hero, he sees in the desertion and death of Dido a great tragic

issue in which a noble and generous nature is sacrificed to the larger purpose of the gods Virgil brought the two great instruments of varied and continuous harmony and of a rich, chastened and noble style to the iighest perfection of which the Latin tongue was capable The rhythm and style of the Aenezd 1s more unequal than the rhythm and style of the Georgics, but 1s a larger and more varied instrument The note of his supremacy among all the poetic artists of his country is that subtle fusion of the music and the meaning of language which touches the deepest and most secret springs of emotion He touches especially the emotions of reverence and of yearning for a higher spiritual life, and the sense of nobleness in human affairs, in great institutions and great natures; the sense of the sanctity of human affections, of the ımagınatıve spell exercised by the past, of the mystery of the unseen world. This is the secret of the power which his words have had over some of the

deepest and greatest natures in all ages.

(W.Y S; X.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY —Appendix» Vergthana —Under this collective name there are current several poems of some httle length and some groups of shorter pieces, all attributed to Virgil im antiquity. Virgil wrote a

Culex, but not the Culex now extant, though it passed for his half a century after his death The Aetna, the Cris and the Copa are clearly not Virgil’s The Moretum is said to have been translated by him from a Greek poem by his teacher Parthenius, it 1s an exquisite piece of work, familiar perhaps to English readers mm Cowper’s translation, The case of the Catalepton (xara derrdv) 1s peculiar

Two of these httle poems (Ite hinc mnanes and Villula, quae Sirontseras) are generally accepted as Virgils, opinion varies as to the rest, with very little to go upon, but generally rejecting them. The whole are printed in the larger editions of ba For English readers the most obvious edition 1s that of Robinson Ellis (1907), who has also edited the Aetna separately Manuscripts —Gelhus (Noctes Attecae, ix. 14, 7) tells us of people who had inspected zdzographum brum Vergilii, but this has of course in all probability long since perished, There are, however, seven very ancient MSS of Virgil, (1) The Mediceus at Florence, with a note purporting to be by a man, who was consul in 494, to say he had read it (2) The Palatinus Vaticanus of the 4th or 5th century. (3) The Vaticanus of the same period (4) The “‘Schedae Vaticanae.”

(5) The “Schedae Berolinenses,” perhaps of the 4th century

{LEGEND

Page, Sidgwick and Papillon. question the best in English Translattons —Famous

Conimgton’s work, however, 1s without

English

translations

have

Dryden and by a host of others since his day

been

made

by

Since the middle of

the 19th century the most important are Conington (Aenezd in verse, whole works in prose), J W Mackail (Aenezd and Georgucs in prose) ,

Wilham Morris (Aenezd ın verse), Lord Justice Bowen (Eclogues and Aeneid, 1—vi mm verse), Canon Thornhill (verse), C J Bullson (verse, 1906); J Rhoades (verse, new ed, 1907). For essays on translating Virgil, see Conington, Miscellaneous Works, vol 1, R Y Tyrrell, Latın Poetry (appendix). Avrsoritizs—For full bibliographies of Virgil consult Schanz, Gesch. der Romeschen Literatur (1899) Gn Iwan von Muller’s series, Handbuch der Klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft), and Teuffel, History of Roman Literature, edited by L Schwabe and tr by G C. W. Warr (1900). On the life of Virgil: Nettleship’s Anczent Lives of Vergil (1879) discusses the authorities, printing one of the lives, which he shows to be by Suetomus. On the Eclogues: Glaser, V als Naturdichter u, Therst (1880) , Cattault, Etude sur les Bucoliques de V. (1897) On the Georgics’ Morsch, De Graecis în Georgias a V, expressis (1878), Norden, “V-studien” (in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893) (Norden has little patience with “aesthetic criticism”). On the Aenezd: Schwegler, Rom. Gesch, vol. i. (1853) ; Cauer, De fabulis Graecis ad Roman conditam pertinentibus, Hild, La Légende d’Enée avani V (1883) , Forstemann, Zur Gesch des Aeneasmythus; H de la Ville de Mirmont, Apollonios de Rhodes et Virgile (1894) (rather too long); Pluss, V u. die epische Kunst (1884), Georgi, Die politesche Tendenz der Aen (1880) , Boissier, Nouvelles promenades archéologiques (1886) (trans. under title Tke Country of Horace and Virgil, by D. Havelock Fisher, 1895) ; Gibbon, Critical Observattons on the Sixth Book of the Aeneid (1470) ; Bossier, La Religion romatne d’Auguste aux Antonins (1884) (with section on sixth Aeneid); Ettig, Acherunteca (Leipziger Studien, 1891) , Norden, “V -studien” (in Hermes, vol 28, 1893), on sixth Aeneid, and papers in Neue Jahrbucher fur kl, Altertum (xr901) ; Dieterich, Nek-yza (1893) (on Apocalypse of Peter and ancient teaching on the other life—a valuable book), Henry, Aenezdea (1873-79) (a book of very great learning, wit, sense and literary judgment; the author, an Insh physician, gave twenty years to it, examining MSS, exploring Virgil’s country, and reading every author whom Virgil could have used and nearly every ancient wnter who used Virgil). Virgil-literature: Sainte-Beuve, Étude sur Virgile (one of the great books on Virgil), Comparetti, Vergzlo nel medto Evo (1872)— Eng, tr, Vergil in the Middle Ages, by E. F.M Benecke (1895) (a book of very great and varied mterest), Heinze, Vergzl’s epische Technik (1902), W VY Sellar, Roman Poets of the Augustan Age’ Virgil (2nd ed ape) ; Glover, Studies im Virgil (1904). Essays in the following. EW Myers, Essays [Classical] (1883), the most famous English essay on Virgil; J. R Green, Stray Studies (1876) (an excellent study of Aeneas), W Warde Fowler, A Year with the Birds (on Virgil's

bird-lore); Nettleship, Essays in Loti Literature (1884); Tyrrell,

Latium Poetry (1898) , Patin, Essais sur la poésie Latine (4th ed, 1900) (one of the finest critics of Latin literature); Goumy, Les Latins (1892)

(a volume

of very

bright

essays);

J

W

Mackail,

Latium

ILrterature (3rd ed 1899), H W Garrod, Vergi? (1912), T. Frank, Vergid. A biography (1922), J. W. Mackail, Vorgil and his meaning to the world of to-day (1923)

(6) The

THE VIRGIL LEGEND Virgil’s great. popularity ın the middle ages is to be partly explamed by the fact that he was to a certain extent recognized by the Church. He was supposed to have prophesied the coming of Ancient Commentators —Commentaries on Virgil began to be written Christ in the fourth Eclogue, and by some divines the Aeneid was at a very early date. Suetonius, V Verg. 44, mentions an Aeneidomastix of Çarvılıus Pictor and other works on Virgil’s “thefts” and “faults,” held to be an allegory of sacred things This position was suffibesides eight “volumina” of Q. Octavius Avitus, setting out in parallel ciently emphasized by Dante when he chose him from among all passages the “hkenesses” (duowdrnres was the name of the work) the sages of antiquity to be his guide in the Divina Commedia between Virgil and more ancient authors M Valerius Probus (latter Ancient poets and philosophers were commonly transformed by part of ist century aD) wrote a commentary, but it is doubtful for mediaeval writers into necromancers; and Virgil and Aristotle how much of what passes under his name he is responsible, if for any of it, At the end of the 4th century come the commentaries of Tiberius became popularly famous, not for poetry and science, but for Claudius Donatus and of Servius, the former writing as a teacher of their supposed knowledge of the black art. Naples appears to rhetoric, the latter of style and grammar The work of Servius was have been the home of the popular legend of Virgil, which repre-

“Schedae Sangallenses” (7) The “Schedae rescriptae Veronenses” ——the last three of insignificant extent. For a fully detailed account 3 the MSS., see Henry, Aeneidea, i, and Ribbeck, Prolegomena ad erg.

afterwards expanded by another scholar, whose additions greatly added to its worth, as they are drawn from older commentators and give us very valuable information on the old Roman religion and constitution, Greek and Latin legends, old Latin and Jinguistic usages, In this

enlarged

Macrobius

form the commentary

of Servius

and the Saturnaha

(also of the end of the 4th century)

of

are both of great

interest to the student of Virgil There are, further, sets of Scholia in MSS at Verona and Bern, which draw their material from ancient commentaries See H Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature, xi. and

sented him as the special protector of the city, but was probably never quite independent of learned tradition. One of the earliest references to the magical skill of Virgil ocours mn a letter of the impenal chancellor Conrad of Querfurt (1194). reproduced by Arnold of Lubeck in the continuation of the Chronica

Slavorum

of Helmold

John of Salisbury alludes to the brazen fly

fabricated by Virgil; Hélmand

(d 1227) speaks of similar marvels

in a work from which Vincent of Beauvais has borrowed, and Gervase Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages (1875, trans, 1895), ch. 5 (1885; of Tilbury, in his Ota Imperialia (1212), and Alexander of Neckam (d. 1217), in De Naturis Rerum, have reproduced these traditions 2nd series, 1895). Editzons —The editions of Virgil are innumerable, Heyne (1767—, Many current tales of magic were referred to Virgil, and gradually 1800), Forbiger (1872—75) and Ribbeck (1839-66) ın Germany, developed into a completely new life, strangely different from that of Benoist (1876) in France, and Conington (completed by Nettleship, the real hero. They were collected in French under the title of Les Faitz Merveilleux de Virgille (c. 1499), a quarto chapbook of ten and edited by Haverfield, 1898, etc) m England, are perhaps the most important Good school editions in English have been produced by| pages, which became extremely popular, and was printed, with more or

VIRGIL—VIRGINIA fess additional matter, m other languages The English version, begmning “This 1s resonable to wryght the mervelus dedes done by Virgillus,” was printed about 1520 We are told how Virgil beguiled the devil at a very early age, in the same fashion as the fisherman persuaded the jmnee in the Arabian Nights to re-enter Solomon’s casket. Another reproduction of a widely spread tale was that of the lady who kept Virgil suspended in a basket. To revenge the affront the magician extinguished all the fires m the city, and no one could rekindle them without subjecting the lady to an ordeal highly offensive

to her modesty Virgil made for the emperor a castle in which he could see and hear everything done or said in Rome, an ever-blooming orchard, statues of the tributary princes which gave warning of treason or rebellion, and a lamp to supply hght to the aty He abducted

the soldan’s daughter, and built for her the city of Naples upon a

secure foundation of eggs At last, having performed many extraordinary things, he knew that his tme was come In order to escape the common lot he placed all bis treasures in a castle defended by ymages unceasingly wielding wron fails, and directed his confidential servant to hew him im pieces, which he was to salt and place in a barrel in the cellar, under which a lamp was to te kept burning The servant was assured that after seven days his master would revive,

a young man The directions were carried out; but the emperor, missing his medicine-man, forced the servant to divulge the secret

and to quiet the whirling flails The emperor and his retinue entered the castle and at last found the mangled corpse. In his wrath he slew the servant, whereupon a httle naked child ran thrice round the barrel, crymg, “Cursed be the hour that ye ever came here,” and vanıshed.

For the legends connected with Virgil see especially D Comparetti,

Vırgılzo nel med:o evo (2nd ed , Florence, 1896, Enghsh trans E F. M Benecke, 1895). The chief origmal source for the Neapohtan legends 1s the 14th-century Cronica dz Partenope. See further W J. Thoms, Early Eng Prose Romances (1858); G. Brunet, Les Fartz mervetlleux de Virgile (Geneva, 1867) , E Duméril, “Virgile enchanteur” (Mélanges archéologiques, 1850) ; Gervase of Tilbury, Otza Imper., (ed Liebrecht, 1856) , P Schwubbe, Vergilius per mediam aetatem (Paderborn, 1852) , Siebenhaar, De fabults quae media aetate de Virgilio circumf (Bern, 1837); J. G T Graesse, Bettrage zur Liu u Sage des Mittelalters (1850) , Bartsch, “Gedicht auf d Zaub Virgil” (Pfeiffer’s Germania,

182

VIII. down to the birth of Edward VI. (October 1538), was added to the third edition of 1555. It 1s mainly from the time of Henry VI. that Polydore’s work is useful Polydore’s Adagia (Venice, April 1498) was the first collection of Latin proverbs ever printed, 1t preceded Erasmus’s by two years, and the shght misunderstanding that arose for the moment out of rival claims gave place to a sincere friendship A secorid series of Biblical proverbs (353 in number) was dedicated to Wolsey’s follower, Richard Pace, and 1s preceded by an mteresting letter (June 1519), which gives the names of many of Polydore’s English friends, from More and Archbishop Warham to Linacre and Tunstall. The De Inventoribus treating of the origin of all things whether ecclesiastical or lay (Paris, 1499), originally consisted of only seven books, but was increased to eight in rs2r It was exceedingly popular, and was early translated mto French (1521), German (1537), Englısh (1546) and Spamısh (xr551) All editions, however, except those following the text sanctioned by Gregory XIII in 1756, are on the Index Expurgatorius. The De Prodigits also achieved a great populanty, and was soon translated into Italian (1543), English (1546) and Spanish (1550).

VIRGINAL or PAIR OF VIRGINALS, a name applied in England (and also recognized on the Continent of Europe) to the spinet as bemg pre-emunently an instrument for girls. (For further particulars see PIANOFORTE and SPINET)

VIRGINIA or VERGINIA, in Roman legendary history, daughter of L Virginius, a plebeian centurion. Her beauty attracted the notice of the decemvir Appius Claudius, who instructed Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, to claim her as his slave. Marcus accordingly brought her before Appius, and

asserted that she was the daughter of one of his female slaves, who had been stolen and passed off by the wife of Virginius as her own child. Appius, refusing to listen to any argument, declared Virginia a slave and the property of Marcus Virginius thereupon stabbed her to the heart m the presence of Appius and

the people. A storm of popular indignation arose and the decemvirs were forced to resign The people for the second time K L, Roth, “Über d Zaub Virgilus” (Qbid iv 1859), W Victor, “seceded” to the Sacred Mount, and refused to return to Rome “Der Ursprung der Virgilsage” (Zen, f rom Phil i 1877); A. Graf, until the old form of government was re-established. Roma nella memoria e nelle imaginazton: del medzo evo (Turm, 1882) ;

iv 1859), F. Liebrecht, “Der Zauberer Virgihus”

(ibid. x

1865),

F W. Genthe, Leben und Fortleben des Publis Virgtlus Maro als Dichter und Zauberer (2nd ed , Magdeburg, 1857)

See Livy m. 44-58; Dion Halic. x1 28-45, whose account differs in some respects from Livy’s, Cicero, De finibus, 1i 20; Val Max. vi. 1, 2; for a critical examination of the story and its connection with the downfall of the decemvirs, see Schwegler, Rom Gesch, bk. xxx 4,5, E Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History (Eng. trans. £906), p. 185.

VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555), English historian, of Italian extraction, otherwise known as P, V CaSTELLENSIS, VIRGINIA, “The Old Dominion,” is the most southerly of was a kinsman of Cardinal Hadrian Castellensis, a native of Castro in Etruria. His father’s name is said to have been George the middle Atlantic group of States in the United States of AmerVirgil, his great-grandfather, Anthony Virgil, “a man well skuled ica, and les between 36° 30’ and 39° 37’ N. lat, and 75° 15” and in medicine and astrology,” had professed philosophy at! Paris, as did Polydore’s own brother and protégé John Matthew Virgil, at Pavia, in 1517 A third brother was a London merchant in r5rr. Polydore was born at Urbino, is said to have been educated at Bologna, and was probably in the service of Guido Ubaldo, duke of Urbino, before 1498, as in the dedication of his first work, Liber Proverbiorum (April 1498), he styles himself this prince’s client. Polydore’s second book, De Inventoribus Rerum, is dedicated to Guido’s tutor, Ludovicus Odamus, from Urbino, in Aug 1499. After being chamberlain to Alexander VI. he came to England in tsor as deputy collector of Peter’s pence for the cardinal As

83° 4o’ W long from Maryland,

The Potomac river separates it on the north except east of Chesapeake bay where the

boundary is a parallel of latitude

Another parallel of latitude separates it on the south from North Carolina and Tennessee On the east lies the Atlantic ocean, along which the State possesses a tidal shore-line, following indentations, of 780 mules The States of Kentucky and West Virgima form the western boundary. The total area is 42,627 sqm, of which 2,365 sqm. are water surface included in land-locked bays and harbours, rivers and lakes. In length east and west along the southern boundary the State measures about 440 m, its extreme breadth north and Hadrian’s proxy, he was enthroned bishop of Bath and Wells south is about 200 miles The State is the remnant of a much im Oct 1504. It was at Henry VII’s instance that he commenced greater area named by Sir Walter Raleigh “Virginia” in honour his Historia Anglica (1534), on which he had been engaged for of Queen Elizabeth, who was known as “The Virgin Queen.” Physiography.—Virginia ıs crossed from north-east to southneatly 30 years. A rash letter, reflecting severely on Henry VIII and Wolsey, was intercepted early in 1515, after which Polydore west by three distinct physiographic provinces, which, named was cast into prison for several months, and supplanted m his col- from east to west, are (1) The Coastal plain or Tidewater relectorship (March and April) In 1525 he published the first gion, including the Eastern Shore, (2) The Piedmont plateau, edition of Gildas, dedicating the work to Tunstall, bishop of Lon- (3) the Appalachian Mountain province The latter is sometimes don Next year appeared his Liber de Prodigiis, dedicated from subdivided (from east to west) unto the Blue Ridge, Great valley London (July) to Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino Somewhere and Alleghany ridges The Tidewater province occupies about 11,000 square miles. Once the plain of which it is formed wa: about 1538 he left England, and remained in Italy for some time About the end of 1551 he went home to Urbino, where he appears raised to a higher elevation above sea level than now, and it When it was subsequently de to havė died in rss5 He had been naturalized an Englishman in was much dissected by streams Oct rszo, and had held several clerical appointments in England. pressed, the sea invaded these stream valleys to form the branch In 1508 he was appointed archdeacon of Wells, and in 1513 preb- ing bays which characterize the region Chief of these are thi endary of Oxgate in St Paul’s cathedral, both of which offices long estuaries of the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York anc James rivers Chesapeake bay, into which these flow, is itsel he held after his return to Urbino The first edition of the Historia Anglica (26 books) was printed the drowned lower course of the Susquehanna The land betwee at Basle in 1534; the 27th book, dealing with the reign of Henry these arms of the ocean 1s relatively flat In the south-east, wher

VIRGINIA

184

the dramage is particularly poor, 1s the Great Dismal Swamp (qv), a fresh-water marsh covering 700 square miles Along the shores of Chesapeake bay and the Atlantic ocean are low, sandy beaches, often enclosing lagoons or salt marshes Westward the Tidewater province reaches to the “fall-lme’” of the rivers, approximated by a hne drawn north and south through Richmond

The largest of the physiographic provinces, the Piedmont plateau, extends from an elevation of 150 to 300 ft along the “fallline” westward to an elevation of 700 to 1,200 ft along the foot of the Blue Ridge It varies in width from 40 m in the north to about 175 m. along the southern border The sloping surface 1s gently rolling, and has resulted from the uplift and dissection of a nearly level plain of erosion developed on folded crystalline rocks Occasional hard rock ndges rise to a moderate elevation The mountain belt known as the Blue Ridge, from 3 to 20 m in breadth, passes entirely across the State from north-east to south-west and forms the division between the Piedmont plateau and the Great valley In elevation 1t varies from 1,460 ft. at Harper’s Ferry, where the Potomac breaks through it in a picturesque water-gap, to 5,719 ft in Mt. Rogers, Grayson county, the highest point mn the State. In the north the range is narrow,

but southward it broadens toward a greater expansion in west North Carolina and east Tennessee Most of the rivers flowing through the Piedmont district to the Tidewater region have their origin on the eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, but two of the largest, the James and Roanoke rivers, have cut passes through from the Great valley where they have their origin The Great valley is in its general configuration one contiuous valley between the two great mountain ranges extending diagonally across the State, but ıt is drained by five separate rivers, each with its separate valley The Shenandoah river drains the northern one-third and flows north into the Potomac at Harper’s Ferry

The middle one-third 1s drained by the upper tributaries of the James and Roanoke rivers which break through the Blue Ridge and flow east The southern one-third of the valley is drained by the New river, which breaks through the Allegheny ridges to the west and flows to the Ohio, and by the Holston river, which flows south-west into Tennessee. The valley averages from 25 to 30 m in width and rises in elevation from 300 ft at Harper’s Ferry to about 1,700 ft in south-west Virgima. Its formations are mostly of limestone, which accounts for the many remarkable caves in the region, and the famous Natural bridge, 215 ft hugh, in Rockbridge county The altitude of the mountainous ridges to the west of the Great valley varies from 1,500 to above 4,000 feet. Some of the valleys and slopes are of sandstone, some of slates and shales, some of limestone, so that they present a great variety of surface. The rainfall is everywhere sufficient for farming Snowfall ıs confined almost entirely to the three winter months and in the Piedmont and Tidewater region snow is infrequent and of short duration. In the mountains it often becomes very deep. Flora.—The Coastal plam is covered with pine forests, which merge westward with the hard woods of the Piedmond

section,

where oaks formerly prevailed, but where a second growth of pine now constitutes part of the forest The Blue Ridge and Allegheny regions are covered with pine, hemlock, white oak, cherry and yellow poplar; while toward the south-west corner of the State there are still groves of walnut and hickory. The cypress grows in the Dismal swamp, the river birch along the streams of the coastal plain, and sweet gum and black gum where the ground 1s swampy. Characteristic plants of the coastal region are the cranberry, wild rice, wild yam, wax myrtle, wistaria, trumpet flower, passion flower, holly and white alder. Many of these continue into the Piedmont section. Rhododendron, moun-

tain Jaurel and azaleas are common in the mountains. Population.—In 1790, the year of the first Federal Census,

Virginia ranked first among the States in population, with 747,610 mhabitants. By 1860, just before the Civil War, population had

about doubled

The separation of West Virginia during the Civil

War lowered the total to 1,255,163 in 1870, but in 1900 it was 1,893,820, in 1gr0, 2,061,612 and in 1920, 2,309,187 The popu-

lation April 1, 1930 was given by the Federal Census at 2,421,851.

[GOVERNMENT

The density increased

from 461 per sqm

in 1900 to 574 per

sqm ın r920, and 6o 2 ın 1930 Of the total ın 1920 1,617,909 were of the white race, 690,017 were negroes, 824 Indians and 437 of other races The percentage of negroes had decreased from 35 6 in 1900 to 326 in 1910 and 299 in 1920 They were most numerous in the Tidewater region and ın the south-eastern counties of the Piedmont district Of the white population

born of native parentage

1,534,494, or 948%, were natives—

Thosé born of foreign or mixed parent-

INHABITANTS

2 250 000

2,000 000 1,750 000

1 500 000 1 250 000 1 000 000

ar

750 000 500 000 250 000

1730

1800 1810 1820

GRAPH SHOWING THE GROWTH NEGRO ELEMENT PERCENTAGE

S

OF

8

1860

1870

POPULATION

22 8 IN VIRGINIA,

1910 1920

AND

THE

age numbered 52,630 and those who were born in foreign lands numbered 30,785 The percentage of illiteracy among the population over 10 years of age amounted for the State as a whole to rz 2; among the native whites it was 5-9%, among the negroes 23:5% The proportion of the population living in cities of more than 2,500 inhabitants increased from 18-3 ın 1900 to 231 In 1910 and 292 in 1920 ‘The chief cities with their population according to the 1910, 1920 and 1930 censuses, are given ın the following table | City Richmond

Norfolk

1910

1920

1930

127,628

171,667

182,929

129,710

Roanoke

34,874

67,452

115,777

Portsmouth Newport News .

33,190 22,622

54,387 35,596

Lynchburg Petersburg

29,494 24,127

50,842

30,070 31,012

609,206

45,704 34,417

40,661 28,564

Government.—Virgimia has had six State Constitutions the first was adopted in 1776, the second in 1830, the third in 1851, the fourth in 1864, the fifth in 1869 and the sixth, the present, in 1902 Amendments to the present Constitution may be proposed in either house of the general assembly, and if they pass both houses of that and the succeeding general assembly by a majority of the members elected to each house and are subsequently approved by a majority of the votes polled at the next general election they become a part of the Constitution. A majority of the members in each house of the general assembly may at any time propose a convention to revise the Constitution and, if at the next succeeding electton a majority of the voters approve, ‘he general assenuly mus. provide for the election of delegates lo ne enzitled to vote one must be a citizen of the United States and 2x years of age; have been a resident of the State for one year, of the county, city or town for six months, and of the election precinct for 30 days next preceding the election. The general assembly consists of a senate and a house of delegates. Senators and delegates are elected by single districts (into which the State is supposed to be apportioned once every ten years according to population), the senators for a term of e aa e

VIRGINIA

AGRICULTURE]

185

Of this aggregate debt $19,539,000 was funded Education.—The Virginia free school system, established in 1870, is controlled by the State board of education, composed of seven Members appointed by the governor The chief executive of the system is the superintendent of public instruction also appointed by the governor The Constitution provides that members of each house concur in extending it white and coloured children shall be taught in different schools The governor, leutenant-governor and attorney-general are Attendance is compulsory for children from 8 to 14 years of age, elected for a term of four years The governor appomts the except for pupils of high school grade The school census of secretary of the commonwealth, treasurer, superintendent of public 1925 recorded 701,534 children in the State from 7 to 19 years buildmgs, commissioner of agriculture, controller and numerous of age, of whom 216,802 were coloured Of the total 551,475 officers with the concurrence of the general assembly He has the were enrolled in public schools during the 1925-26 session In power of vetoing legislative bills or any 1tem of an appropriation addition there were approximately 35,000 in private and parochial bdi (a bill can be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote schools of which Virgima has a large number. The average length of the members present in each house), and has authority to of school term was 16x days ‘There were 12,770 school rooms inspect the records of officers or to employ accountants to do so, devoted to white children and 3,602 for coloured children Acand to suspend, during a recess of the general assembly, any credited four year high schools numbered 369 and accredited executive officer at the seat of government except the heutenant- junior high schools 12 There were 58,676 pupils enrolled in high governor. schools and 2,459 high school teachers A consolidation and reorganization of administrative bodies Between 1915 and 1926 one-roomed schools had decreased in was effected by a legislatuve act in 1927 which created 12 admin- number from 4,666 to 3,460, two-roomed schools had increased istrative departments, namely, the departments of taxation, fi- from 1,082 to 1,529 and schools over two rooms had increased nance, highways, education, corporations, labour and industry, from 988 to 1,317 The value of school sites and buildings had agriculture and immigration, conservation and development, increased from $15,206,000 to $45,893,000 School expenditures health, public welfare, law, and workmen’s compensation for 1925~26 amounted to $23,788,215 of which $4,108,176 was The administration of justice is vested in a supreme court of for further capitalization leaving $19,680,039 for operation, mamappeals, circuit courts, city courts and justices of the peace tenance and instruction Annual expenditures per child 5 to 17 The supreme court of appeals consists of seven judges, but any yrs of age inclusive averaged $28 85 in 1925 three of them may hold a court or they may sit ın two divisions Institutions for higher learning receiving State support are of not less than three judges each except in cases involving con- the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, the College of Wilstitutional questions, when the full court 1s required They are lam and Mary at Wilhamsburg, the Virgima Polytechnic instichosen for a term of 12 years by the joimt vote of the two houses tute at Blacksburg, the Medical college of Virginia at Richmond, of the general assembly. The court sits at Richmond, Staunton the Virginia Miltary institute at Lexmgton, four State teacher’s and Wytheville Provision is made for a special court of appeals colleges for women, located at Farmville, Fredericksburg, Harwhere the majority of the judges of the supreme court may not risonburg and Radford. These are for whites The State supports four years, the delegates for a term of two years The membership of both the senate and the house was in 1927 at the maxmum allowed by the State Constitution, 40 senators and 100 delegates The general assembly meets regularly at Richmond on the second Wednesday in January of each even-numbered year The length of a regular session 1s limited to 60 days unless three-fifths of the

properly sit or where the docket of that court is too crowded to be disposed of “with convenient dispatch” The State 1s divided into 34 judicial circuits and in each of these a circuit judge is chosen for the term of eight years by a jomt vote of both houses of the general assembly Simular to the circuit court is the corporation court ın each city having a population of more than 10,000, the judge of which is also chosen by a joimt vote of both houses for a term of eight years Finance.—The value of all tangible property increased from $1,288,000,000 ($666 per caput) 402,000,000 ($1,140 per caput) ım 1912 and ($2,050 per caput) in 1922 as estimated by the Bureau. The valuation of property assessed for taxation purposes in 1925 amounted to $2,119,643,765, of which $1,048,AGRICULTURE, 188,000 was real estate In 1926 FORESTRY,

the rates of taxation per $100

assessed valuation were 25 cents for real estate and tangible personal property, and 50 cents on mtangible property, except capi-

AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

in the State has in 1904 to $2,$4,892,000,000 Federal Census

MANUFACTURING AND MECHARICAL OCCUPATIONS

tal, which was $r oo, bonds of counties, cities and towns which were 35 cents and shares of bank OCCUPATIONS OF THE 833,576 stock which were 25 cents PERSONS TEN YEARS OF AGE AND Receipts and disbursements of OVER ENGAGED IN GAINFUL EM-

the State treasury during the PLOYMENT, 1920

fiscal year ending June 30, 1926, amounted to $32,721,421 and

$32,371,260 respectively

The chief items of expenditure were

for the construction ond miintenrnce of rorcs $14 757 ¥26° for the support of ree pu'slic schools $5 r42 77o for eCuca 10r’] and

charitable mstitutions, $2,272,162; for expenses and salaries of officers of the Government, $1,088,367; for hospitals for the msane and for epileptics, $1,082,843, and for pensions to soldiers, sailors, marines and their widows, $947,507

The total outstanding

one normal school for coloured teachers at Petersburg, and in

addition there is the Hampton Normal and Industrial institute at Hampton, supported by endowment Special schools are the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind at Staunton, and the Virginia School for the Coloured Deaf and Blind at Newport News Important private institutions of higher learning are: for men, Washington and Lee university at Lexington, Roanoke college at Salem University of Richmond, which includes Westhampton college (for women), Emory and Henry college at Emory, Hampden-Sidney college at Hampden-Sidney, Bridgewater college at Bridgewater, Randolph-Macon college at Ashland and Lynchburg college, for women, Hollins college at Hollins, Randolph-Macon Woman’s college at Lynchburg, and Sweet Brar college at Sweet Brar Virginia Union university at Richmond is for coloured students For theological education there are the Theological seminary at Alexandria (Episcopal) and the Union Theological seminary at Richmond (Presbyterian). Charities and Corrections.—The department of public welfare has for its duties the mmspection of all State, county, muni-

cipal and private institutions of a charitable or correctional nature, or those which have to do with the care or trainmg of defective, dependent, neglected or criminal classes. It also enforces the juvenile and probations laws, inspects maternity hospitals, childplacing agencies, children’s, nurseries and orphan homes and admunisters mother’s aid to widows with children under 16 years of age. The State penitentiary is located at Richmond, and there is a State penitentiary farm at Lassiter There is a State home and industrial school for white girls at Bon Air and for coloured girls at Peaks Turnout, a State industrial school for white boys at Beaumont and for coloured boys at Hanover.

Agriculture and Live Stock.—Agriculture is an important

industry of Virgima, Its fluctuating fortunes are revealed by the following figures. The value of all farm property amounted in īọro to $625,065,000, In 1920 to $x,196,556,000 and in 1925 to $999,466,000. The amount of land m farms decreased from 19,908,000 ac in 1900 to 18,561,000 ac in 1920 and 17,210,000 ac.

State debt amounted in 1925 to $26,870,000, or $11.03 per caput. | in 1925 or from shghtly more than three-fourths the area of the

186

VIRGINIA

State in 1900 to approximately two-thirds the area in 1925. Despite this loss in acreage the number .of farms increased from 186,242 in 1920 to 193,723 in 1925, their average size decreasing from 997 ac. in 1920 to 88-8 ac in 1925 The average value per acre of farm land decreased in the same five years from $40 75 to $34.90 Farm population was 1,064,417 (461% of the total) mm 1920 and 980,162 (39-4% of the total) in 1925 Of the 193,723

1839 MILLIONS POUNDS OF

TOBACCO CROP EACH YEAR, 1909—1927, ALSO IN 1839—1859, INDICATED BY THE HORIZONTAL LINES CROSSING THE FIGURE farms m 1925, 143,587 were operated by their owners, 48,898 by tenants and 1,238 by managers White farmers numbered 143,576 and coloured farmers 50,147. The yield of all crops was better than average in 1926 and the production of all crops, with the exception of peanuts and pota-

toes, was greater than in 1925 The total value of all crops in 1926 was estimated to be $178,348,000 ($112,703,000 in money crops sold direct, $65,645,000 ın crops fed to hve stock), compared with $164,784,000 m 1925 Virginia in 1926 ranked first among States in the production of early potatoes, spinach and in shipments of sweet potatoes; second in the production of peanuts; third in the production of tobacco and commercial apples; and fifth ın the total value of truck crops The 1926 acreage of leading crops was as follows. corn, 1,694,000, hay, 979,000; wheat, 687,000; tobacco, 188,000; oats, 186,000, peanuts, 138,000; white potatoes, 134,000, cotton, 101,000; sweet potatoes, 43,000,

rye, 43,000 The leading crops in order of value were as follows corn, $39,597,000; tobacco, $25,412,000; tame hay, $19,344,000; white potatoes, $18,070,000; wheat, $14,850,000, apples, $r0,450,000, sweet potatoes, $5,375,000; peanuts, $5,244,000, cotton, $3,135,000, oats, $3,047,000, peaches, $1,176,000; sorghum {for syrup), $1,140,000. Of minor value were rye, soy beans, barley, buckwheat, pears and cow peas ‘The great acreage of tobacco, potatoes and truck crops gives Virginia a high rank in the average value per acre of all crops Tobacco 1s the most important strictly money crop, With few exceptions its cultivation is confined to the section east of the Blue Ridge and west of the fall-lne, and, excepting portions of a half-dozen counties, south of the James river. The Great valley and the Alleghany valleys are unsurpassed hay regions Clover, timothy, herdsgrass or redtop, and alfalfa grow anywhere in the State Long seasons and abundant rainfall give several cuttings Wheat is the principal money crop in the Shenandoah and Rappahannock river valleys. Cotton and peanuts are grown almost entirely in the south-eastern counties, where they constitute a large share of the farm income. During 1926 141,410 ac. were devoted to truck crops valued at $x9,215,000, the chief items, besides potatoes, being strawberries ($2,904,000), spinach, cabbage, beans, tomatoes and cucumbers The number and value of live stock on farms Jan. 1, 1927, were as follows. horses, 224,000, $14,784,000, mules, 103,000, $8,755,000; milch cows, 340,000, $15,300,000; other cattle, 367,000, $10,680,000, sheep, 380,000, $3,914,000; swine, 558,000, $7,254,000; chickens, 9,972,000, $9,174,000 ‘The estimated value of dairy products in 1926 was $14,918,000, of poultry prodycts

$28,137,000, of live stock sold or slaughtered $31,345,000, of

sqm of tidal waters bay where commercial season’s catch totalled 1925 1t amounted to value the 1925 catch

exceeded that of all other Atlantic and Gulf States, except Mas-

sachusetts

1859

[INDUSTRIES

honey, $650,000 and of wool $664,000 Fisheries.—Virginia has about 3,000 along the eastern coast and in Chesapeake fishing proves very profitable In 1920 the 471,219,089 Ib valued at $8,541,724 In 276,227,784 lb valued at $9,084,641 In

The season 1s usually about 54 months m the spring

and summer, and employs about 30,000 men Chesapeake bay produces more oysters than any other body of water in the world, and Maryland and Virginia lead all States in oyster production with over 5,000,000 bu annually There were ın Virgima in 1925 56,744 ac of recorded oyster-planting grounds, the chief locations beside Chesapeake bay being Chincoteague bay, the western shore of Accomac and Northampton counties, and the Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James rivers. Mines and Quarries.—Virginia’s mineral resources are abundant and varied Many are as yet undeveloped In 1926 there were 142 mines and quarries which employed 18,223 workers, Capital invested totalled $51,949,594 The value of output amounted to $33,522,630, compared with $41,038,000 m 1925 and $29,363,000 m 1919. Chief in point of value was coal, m the mining of which in 1926 15,413 men (exclusive of office help) were engaged ‘There were 88 mines operating an average of 234 days each during the year Their output was 13,949,224 short tons valued at $27,098,734 Coal is found mm Virginia in three important districts The Pennsylvania coal measures extend into the seven Alleghany counties in the extreme south-western corner and it 1s from here that the bulk of the output comes. In Taze well county is the famous Pocahontas bed which produces one of the highest grades of coking and steam coal to be found in the United States There ıs a coal field of Mississippian age in the counties of the Great valley bordermg the New river, mn which production 1s still light, but rapidly increasing Just a short distance west of Richmond 1s a third bed, one of the first in the United States to be mined, and still a steady producer There are

rich deposits of iron ore in the Alleghanies and western slopes of the Blue Ridge and iron miming has been carried on since the t7th century. Rocks quarried for various uses included granite, hmestone, marble, sandstone, slate and basalt, and of all there are practically unlimited quantities Manufactures.—In this branch of industry there has been rapid growth In 1914 there were 5,508 establishments employing 102,820 wage-earners and having an output valued at $264,039,000 In 1927 there were 3,680 establishments employing 132,647 wage-earners, and turning out products valued at $782, 425,841 Wages paid increased from $44,873,000 in 1914 to $126,440,387 n 1927 Compared with 1926 there were in 1927 1,112 more establishments, 34,723 more wage-earners, $26,007,512 more paid in wages, $265,165,710 more mvested 1n capital, and $114,575,404 additional value of output The total capital vested in manufactures was estimated at $733,482,337 Of the wageearners 124,050 were male and 39,010 were female, 112,845 were white and 50,215 were coloured The chief manufactures were those connected with tobacco The State ın 1927 ranked fourth in the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes, and third m the production of chewing and smoking

tobacco and snuff. In that year the value of tobacco products reached Second products 640,382

$182,071,911, an increase over 1926 of $37,461,987. in importance were the textile mdustries, cotton mill being valued at $30,380,994, silk mill products at $29,and woollen mull products at $3,193,104 Lumber and wood products are probably third in importance as a class The output of sawmills in the State was valued at $10,569,083, of sash and door factories at $17,991,711, of furniture factories at $23,199,968, of box and crate factories at $14,088,611, of cooperage, barrels and staves, at $2,756,152 An output valued at $32,071,124 gives iron and machinery manufactures fourth place in importance. Other products ranking high among the manufactures of the State were those of abattoirs and meat packing establishments $16,687,275; automobile accessories, $24,668,520, paper and pulp mill products, $27,571,434, shipbuilding, $31,745,895; and flour

VIRGINIA

HISTORY] and grist mill products, $20,419,833.

The chief manufacturing city in 1927 was Richmond with 621 establishments, 31,881 wage-earners, and products valued at $29,052,593 Tobacco products predominate and Richmond in

1927 had the largest cigar factory in the world

It was the loca-

uon also of large locomotive and wood work plants Far behind in the value of their products were Norfolk, $35,454,000, Roan-

oke, $32,013,000, Lynchburg, $25,579,000, Newport News, $19,719,000 , Petersburg, $17,342,476; Danville, $12,303,000, and Portsmouth, $11,230,000 At Hopewell the first unit of the

$125,000,000 Atmospheric Nitrogen Plant is (1928) in production Virgmia has the advantages of excellent transportation, highgrade steam coal and abundant water-power resources

the Tidewater region joins the Piedmont

Where

section there is an

abrupt rocky ledge that forms falls and rapids in the rivers that pour over it. At this fall-line with its excellent power sites are

the cities of Petersburg, Richmond

and Fredericksburg, while

Alexandria is located near the falls of the Potomac

Transportation and Commertce.—Five Jarge railway systems

practically origmate in the State and radiate to the south and west

The Southern railway, with its main line traversing the

State m the direction of its greatest length leaves Washington to run south-west through Charlottesville, Lynchburg and Danville to the North Carolina line with connections to Richmond and Norfolk on the east, the Atlantic Coast lme with its main lines runs south from Richmond and Norfolk, the Seaboard Air line also has its main lines running to the south from Richmond and Norfolk, the Norfolk and Western crosses the State from east to west mn the southern part with Norfolk its eastern terminus and the Chesapeake & Ohio crosses from east to west farther north from Newport News on the eastern coast through Richmond to the West Virgimia line Of more recent construction 1s the Virginia railway, opened for traffic ın 1909, which connects the coal

region of West Virginia with Norfolk

The Baltimore & Ohio has

a line down the Shenandoah valley to Lexmgton Connection between Richmond and Washington 1s over the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac, controlled by the Southern, Atlantic Coast lme, Seaboard Air lme, Chesapeake & Ohio, Pennsylvania and Baltrmore and Ohio railways. Hampton Roads, at the mouth of the James river, which forms the harbour “for the leading ports of the State, Norfolk and Newport News, affords one of the best anchorages of the Atlantıc coast, giving shelter not only to vessels plying to its adjoming ports but serving often as a harbour of refuge for shipping bound up or down the coast It 1s frequently used for the assembly of naval fleets There is a large foreign commerce and regular steamship service to Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia and Savannah There is bay and river steamship service from Nor-

187

able climatic conditions and the mexperience of the colonists delayed the growth of the new community. John Smith became the head of the government in Sept 1608, governed with firmness and ability, built a church and prepared for more extensive agricultural and fishing operations In 1609 the London Company was reorganized, other colonists were sent out and the boundaries

of the new country were fixed, according to which Virginia was to extend from a pomt 200 m south of Old Point Comfort, at the mouth of Chesapeake bay, to another pomt 200 m. north, “west and northwest to the South Sea.” Before the arrival of the new governing body and additional settlers the original Colony was reduced to the direst straits Capt Christopher Newport, Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, the new authorities, reached Jamestown at last with 150 men, but

things were ın such a deplorable state that all agreed (June 10, 1610) to give up the effort to found a colony on the James and set sail for home. At the mouth of the river they met Lord Delaware, the governor-in-chief, who brought other colonists and plentiful supplies, and they returned, set up a trading post at what is now Hampton and undertook to bring the hostile natives to subjection, In 16x11, 650 additional colonists landed, the James and Appomattox rivers were further explored and “plantations” were established at Henrico and Bermuda Hundred New colonists were constantly being sent over and many “indentured” servants were imported as labourers Struggles for Self-government.—At the beginning Virginia colonists had held their land and improvements in common But in 1626 the Jand was parcelled out and the settlers were scattered along the banks of the James and Appomattox rivers many mules inland The rapid expansion of tobacco culture soon made the community self-supporting The year 1619 that saw the first negroes brought in also saw the first representative assembly in North America, the Virginia House of Burgesses, a meeting of planters sent from the plantations to assist the governor and council in reforming and remaking the laws of the Colony. In 1621, a Constitution was granted whereby the London Company appointed the governor and a council, and the people were to choose annually from their counties, towns, hundreds and plantations delegates to the House of Burgesses. The popular branch, lke the English House of Commons, granted supplies and

originated laws, and the governor and council enjoyed the right of revision and veto as did the king and the House of Lords at home Later the council also originated bills The council sat also as a supreme court to review the county courts and had in important cases original jurisdiction This system remained unchanged throughout the colonial period but in 1624 the king took the place and exercised the authority of the London Company On March 22, 1622, the Indians fell upon the whites and slew folk, Old Pomt Comfort and Newport News to Baltimore, Wash- 350 persons Sickness and famine once again visited the Colony, and the population was reduced by nearly one-half. These ington, Fredericksburg, Richmond and Petersburg. There were in 1926 59,080 m of public highways in Virginia, losses were repaired, however, the tobacco industry grew in 5,210 of which constitute the State highway system and 12,000 a importance and the settlers built their cabins far in the mterior of State aided system Of the State system 3,839 m. were surfaced lowland Virginia This rapid growth was scarcely retarded by a Expenditures by the State highway department mn 1925 were second Indian attack, in April 1644, which resulted in the death $14,072,000, and by local political divisions for rural roads of several hundred settlers By 1648 the population was 15,000,

$22,576,000. Motor vehicles numbered 322,614 in 1926, averaging 128 per 1,000 population HISTORY

Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in North America From 1583 to 1588 attempts had been made by Sir Walter Raleigh and others to establish colonies on the coast of what is now North Carolina The only result was the naming of

In her attitude toward the war in England between King Charles and parliament, Virginia sympathized with the king. However, though Sir Wiliam Berkeley, who had been governor since 1641, was absolutely loyal to the crown, it was considered the part of wisdom to surrender to a fleet sent over by parliament in 1652, after a slight show of resistance; but substantial acknowledgments were made by the parliamentary commissioners of Virginia’s rights, Richard Bennett, a Puritan, now ruled the province He

But glowing ard His Periton successors Edwerd Dicges «nd Samuel Mathews, accounts were brought back by the early adventurers, and mn made no seio: s change m rhe adminu 10n of the Colony The 1606 an expedition was sent out by the London Company, which return of Berkeley, who was restored to power in 1660, was the

the country Virginia in honour of Queen Elzabeth

was chartered with rights of trade and settlement between 34° and 41° N, lat It landed at Jamestown on May 13, 1607, and

effected the establishment of many plantations along the James tiver The purpose of the company was to build up a profitable commercial and agricultural community,

and also to hold the

country against Spain, but the hostility of the natives, unfavour-

beginning of a reaction which concentrated authority in the hands

of the older familhes and thus created a privileged class

The

governor, supported by the privileged families, retained the same House of Burgesses for 16 years lest a new one might not be submissive ‘The increasing mass of the population who dwelt . along the western border and on the less fertile ridges developed

188

VIRGINIA

a feeling of hostility towards the oligarchy They desired a freer land-grant system, protection agaist the mroads of the Indians along the border and frequent sessions of an assembly to be chosen by all the free-holders In 1676 the Indians again attacked the border farmers, but the governor had refused assistance, being willing, it was charged, that the border population should suffer while he and his adherents enjoyed a lucrative fur trade with the Indians. Under these circumstances Nathaniel Bacon (1647-76), took up the cause of the borderers and severely punished the Indians at the battle of Bloody Run Berkeley meanwhile had outlawed Bacon, whose forces now marched on the capital demanding recognition as the authonzed army of defence This was refused and cvil war began, ın which the governor was defeated and Jamestown was burned But Bacon fell a victim to malaria and died in October in Gloucester county Berkeley closed the conflict with wholesale executions and confiscations. Censured by the king, he sailed to England to make his defence, but died in London in 1677 without having seen Charles Until the accession of William and Mary there was continued unrest in Virginia and a bitter struggle between the popular party in Virginia and the English Government seeking to reduce the privileges of the House of Burgesses In many respects the Government came off victorious but the House retained the all important power of levying taxes. In 1689 James Blair was made commussary in Virginia of the Bishop of London and throughout a long life did valiant

service for the Colony. In 1692 he obtained the charter for William and Mary college and became its first president. It was founded at Williamsburg, which in 1699 was made the capital. Westward Expansion.—-By 1700 the population of Virgima had reached 70,000, of whom 20,000 were negro slaves The majority of whites were small farmers, who constantly encroached upon the Indian lands in the Rappahannock region or penetrated the forests south of the James, several thousand having reached North Carohna. Between 1707 and 1740 many Scottish mmigrants (traders, teachers and tobacco-growers) settled along the upper Rappahannock, and, uniting with the borderers in general, they offered strong resistance to the older planters Tobacco-growing was the one vocation of Virginia, and many of the planters were able to spend their winters in London or Glasgow and to arrange for their sons to attend the fimshing schools of the mother country Negro slavery grew so rapidly during the first half of the 18th century that the blacks outnumbered the whites in 1740. In 1716 an expedition of Governor

Alexander Spotswood over the mountains made known to the world the rich back-country, now known as the Valley of Virginia A migration thither from Pennsylvania and from Europe followed m course of time which revolutionized the province The majority of blacks over whites soon gave way before the influx of white immigrants, and ın 1756 there was a population of 292,000, of whom only 120,000 were negroes, and the small farmer class had grown so rapidly that the old tidewater amstocracy was in danger of being overwhelmed The “West” had now appeared in American history. This first West, made up of the older small farmers, of the Scottish settlers, of the Germans from the Palatinate and the Scottish-Irish, far outnumbering the people of the old counties, demanded the creation of new counties and proportionate representation in the Burgesses They did not at first succeed, but when the Seven Years’ War came on they proved their worth by fighting the battles of the community against the Indians and the French. When the war was over the prestige of the up-country had been greatly enhanced, and its people soon found eastern leaders in the persons of Richard*Henry Lee and Patrick Henry, In the meantime the Presbyterians, who had been officially recogmzed in u i Virginia , under the Toleration Act m 1699, and had been guaran-

[HISTORY

their stipends, and, appealing to the king against the assembly entered the courts to recover damages from the vestries, Patrick

Henry at Hanover court in 1763 easily convinced the Jury and the people that the old church was well-nigh worthless From this time the old order was doomed The passage of the Stamp Act hastened the catastrophe and gave the leaders of the new combina. tion, notably Henry, an opportunity to humiliate the British ministry, whom not even the tidewater party could defend The Townshend scheme of mdirect taxation displeased Virginia quite as much as had the former more direct system of taxation When

the burgesses undertook m May 1769 to discuss the right and power of taxation, the governor hastily dissolved them only to find the same men assembling in the Raleigh tavern in Wilhamsburg

and issuing resolutions in defiance of executive authority

The Struggle for Independence.—The struggle with England reached a crisis Virginia, supporting with zeal the revolutionary

movement, took the lead in the Continental Congresses which directed the succeeding war (see UNITED STATES: History). In

April 1775, Patrick Henry at the head of the Hanover minute men, who had been joined by others, compelled Governor Dunmore (qv) to pay for the Colony’s powder removed by the governor's order to a British war vessel. On June 8, Lord Dunmore and hs family took refuge aboard an English man-of-war lying off York. town When the Continental Congress issued the famous Declaration of Independence, Virginia had already assembled ın convention to draft a new Constitution

A draft of a Constitution con-

taming universal suffrage, proportional representation and religious freedom was sent to the convention by Jefferson, but the convention rejected ıt The system which was adopted allowed the older counties a large majority of the representatives in the new assembly, on the theory that the preponderance of property (slavery) in that section required this as security against the nsing democ.

racy. The franchise, though not umiversal, was generously bestowed; it was a very liberal freehold system Of actual fighting there was not a great deal in Virginia till the

later years of the war, for Lord Dunmore was soon driven out of the State, not, however, before he had done much damage along the seaboard and the largest town in the State, Norfolk, had been burned The British came again in May 1779, took Portsmouth and Suffolk, burning the latter and plundering the swirounding country In Jan. 1781, Benedict Arnold captured Richmond, now

the capital His force was not large but 1t was composed of regulars, and Jefferson, who was then governor, found it impossible to collect a sufficient force in time to offer effective resistance, Later in the year, Cornwallis came up with his troops from the south and made a junction with the British already in Virginia A masterly campaign by the Americans, supported by a French army and fleet, resulted in the surrender of Cornwallis and his forces at Yorktown on Oct 19, 1781. This was the closing scene of the struggle of American 1ndependence In the meantime George Rogers Clark, in command of Virginians, had conquered that vast domain known later as the North-west Territory.

Virginia and the Federal Constitution.—Virginia leaders,

including Henry, were the first to urge the formation of a national governrrer* with adectzate nowere +o supersede the lame confederacy Iu t7*7 Ure, Ae pre- .ency of Washuigton, the National Convention sat in Philadelphia, with the result that the present Federal Constitution was submitted to the States for ratification during 1787-89 In Virginia the tidewater leaders urged adoption, while the up-country men, following Henry, who thought that the Federal Government was given too much power, opposed; but after a long and bitter struggle in *he su~™er of 1788 the'new instrument was accepted, rhe lov -1o. u.ry wing by a majority

| of ten votes, partly through the influence of James Madison teed religious autonomy in the Valley by Governor Gooch in 1738, | In 1784, Virgmia ceded to the Federal Government the Northhad sent missionaries into the border counties of eastern Virginia. | west Territory which it held under the charter of 1609 and also The Baptists somewhat later entered the Colony both from the | by conque-*, im 1792 another large strip of the territory of Vir-

north and the south and established scores of churches

The new | gin'a become an irdevercent State under the name of Kentucky

denominations vigorously attacked the methods and immunities Bu- the peop'e of twe cessions, especially of Kentucky, were of the estabhshed church, whose clergy had grown somewhat luke- | closely allied to the great up-country party of Virginia, and warm m zeal and a few of them lax in morals When the clergy, | altogether they formed the basis of the Jeffersonian democracy, refusing to acknowledge the authority of the burgesses in reducing | which from 1794 opposed the chief measures of Washington’s

VIRGINIA admmistration, and which on the passage of the alien and sedition laws in 1798 precipitated the first great constitutional crisis in

189

armies, ratified the 14th and 15th amendments to the Federal

Constitution and governed the community until 1869. Then the Federal politics by the adoption m the Kentucky and Virgmia secessionists and Union men of 1861 united and regamed control. legislatures of resolutions strongly asserting the right and duty Virginia was readmitted to the Union on Jan 26, 1870. of the States to arrest the course of the National Government The 20 years following the end of the war mn 1865 were years of whenever in their opinions that course had become unconstitu- humiliation, poverty and political strife, also years of economic tional The election of 1800 rendered unnecessary all further readjustment In many cases farms were deserted by their owners, agitation by putting Jefferson in the president’s chair. The up- who moved to the cities or left the State entirely. The general country party im Virginia, with their alles along the frontiers of poverty was augmented by a State debt of over $45,000,000 that the other States, was now in power, and the progressives of 1776 had been contracted before the Civil War for works of internal shaped the policy of the nation during the next 25 years Virginia improvement Bya bill passed in 1872 two-thirds of the debt was held the position of leadership mn Congress, and controlled the funded into bonds, and the remaming one-third was allotted to cabmet. Virginia also gave to the Supreme Court its greatest West Virginia as her fair share, though that State refused to admit chief justice, John Marshall the obligation. For two decades the debt settlement was the chief A Constitutional Convention was called in 1829 to revise the issue 1n Virginia pohtics and the main subject of legislative delbfundamental law in such a way as to give the more populous eration Educational and other improvements, badly needed, were counties of the west their legitimate weight in the legislature The allowed to drift m the meantime. Final settlement was not arrived result was failure, for the democracy of small farmers which the at until 1891-92 A bill establishing a State-wide system of public east feared would have taxed slavery out of emstence was denied free schools was passed in 1870 Some educational progress had proportionate representation. The slave insurrection under Nat been made when the payment of the public debt began to absorb Turner m 1831 led to a second abortive effort, this time by the the school revenue. From 1870 to 1879 $1,544,765 was diverted legislature, to do away with the fateful institution The failure from school funds for this purpose In the latter year enrolment of these popular movements led to a sharp reaction in Virginia, as in the schools dropped from 202,244 to 108,074 and 1n some counin the whole South, in favour of slavery ties every school was closed After 1882 the State began to repay - Secession and Reconstruction.—In the national elections of this money, and schools reopened, but their work was still handi1860 Virginia returned a majority of umionist electors as against capped by irregular attendance and lack of good teachers the Democratic candidates, Breckimridge and Lane. The governor Recovery and Progress—-One of the most encouraging ecoof Virginia called an extra session of the legislature soon after the nomic developments after the Civil War was the gradual extension Federal election, and this in turn of railways ‘These in their turn served in tıme to aid in the develae § called a convention to meet on opment of other industries By 1885 the railways had extended en NTF Yie Feb. 13, 1861 The majority of down the Eastern Shore, down the peninsula, into the Great valley this body consisted of Unionists, and across the Piedmont region between Lynchburg and Danville This railway development accelerated the growth of many villages but the convention passed the and brought others into existence Newport News came into exsordinance of secession when the tence as a shipping point during the decade 1880-90, The mineral Federal Government (April 17) wealth of the south-west began again to be developed on a large called upon the State to supply scale and agriculture to be intensively practiced The recovery its quota of armed men to supincreased in momentum as the 20th century ushered in a more press “insurrection” in the lower prosperous era The new constitution of 1902 largely eliminated Southern States. An alliance was the negro from poltics by laying down literacy and property made with the provisional govqualifications for voting With this issue gone the Republicans ernment of the Confederate were free to take up the regular réle of an opposition party and States on April 25, without waitas such gradually gained strength, especially in the miming regions ing for the vote of the people on of the south-west. The Democrats retained control, however, from the ordinance. The Convention 1870 until the election of 1928 when events combined to throw called out 10,000 troops and appomted Col Robert E. Lee of BY COURTESY OF ERNEST CRANDELL, WASH. the State’s presidential vote into the Republican column. BrsirocraPHy —For physical description see W B Rogers, Geology the United States army as com- INGTON, DC mander-in-chief. On May 23, the HARPER'S FERRY, A HISTORIC TOWN of Virginia (1884 reprmt of =x annurl renerts 1926: H Gannett, people of the eastern counties IN VIRGINIA, SCENE OF THE FAMOUS almost unanimously voted ap- ATTACK OF JOHN BROWN, AMERICAN ABOLITIONIST, IN 1859 proval of the acts of the conven-

tion, and some of the people of the north-western counties took steps to form the State of West Virginia Richmond soon became the capital of the Confederacy

The Civil War had already begun, and Virginia was of necessity the battle-ground Of the six great impacts made upon the Confederacy, four were upon Virginia soil. the first Manassas campaign (186x), the Pemmsula battles and battles around Richmond

(1862), second Manassas (1862), Fredericksburg and Chancellors-

ville (1862~63)

and the great Wilderness-Petersburg

series of

attacks (1864~65) With the surrender of the Confederate army under Gen. Lee to Grant at Appomattox the task of reconstruction began. Governor

Francis H Pierpoint set up in Richmond a government based upon the Lincoln plan and supported by President Johnson, who, however, was in conflict with the majority m Congress, which passed over his veto a radical Reconstruction Act According to

the new policy Virginia, on March 2, 1867, became miltary district No. ıt Gen Jobn M. Schofield was put in charge, and under his authority a Constitutional Convention was summoned which bestowed the suffrage upon the former slaves. These, led by a small group of whites, that had come into the State wıth the invading

“Gazetteer of Venna” m US Geol Survey Bu 252 tyo G'I Surface, “Phs=iogranhy of Vircn a m tmericen Geosrapmictl Society Bulleten, vol asasit (10005 and Geogr. phy of Vagina im PI ede phia Geographical Society Buletin, vol v. (1907); and Virgima, a handbook of the department of agriculture and iummigration—last edition published in 1928 For mineral resources see T. L. Watson, Mineral Resources of Virginia (1907) and Bulletins and Annual Reports of the Virginia Geological Survey Yor government consult H L McBain, Government and Politzcs 1n Virginia (1922), R Page, Government in Virginia (1924) , Report of Commission on Simplification and Economy of State and Local Government (1924), and Organization and Management of the State Government of Virgema (1927), a study of the bureau of municipal research For education consult C J Heatwole, History of Education in Virginia (1916); Virginia Education Commission, Verginia Public Schools, a Survey (1920-22) , and M V O’Shea, Public Education ın Virginia (1928) The best general history of Virginia is P A Bruce, L G Tyler and R. L Morton, History of Virginea (1924) Other general works but covering a more limited period are R R Howson, History of Virgina (1849), C Campbell, History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia (1860), and J E Cooke, Vzrgzia (1903) Special historical works are A Brown, The First Republic in America (1898) and Genesis of the United States (1890) , John Fiske, Old Virginza and Her Neighbors (1897), P A Bruce, Economic History of Virgmmia in the Seventeenth Century (1895), Soctal Life of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (1907), Instetutional History of Virginea in the Seventeenth Century (1910) and History of the Unzversity of Verginza (1920-22) ,

T J Wertenbaker, The Planters of Colonial Virgenza (1922) and Vir-

ginta under the Stuarts (1914); P. S. Fhppin, The Royal Government in Virginia (1919), L K Koontz. The Virginia Frontter, 1754-63

VIRGINIA—VIRGIN

IQO

(1925); H.R McIlwaine, Struggle of Protestant Dissenters for Rehgrous Liberty in Virgıima (1894); Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virgenia (1787, and later editions), J. S Bassett, ed, Tke Writmgs of Colonel Wilkam Byrd of Westover (1901), A J Morrison, ed, Travels in Virginia ın Revolutionary Times (1922), L G Tyler,

ed, Narratives of Early Vergenia (1907), C. M Andrews, ed., Narra-

tives of the Insurrectzons (1915), M M P Stanard, Colonial Virginia,

ws People and zts Customs

(1917)

and The Story of Vurgenza’s

Furst Century (1928), C H Ambler, Sectzonalsm in Vurginia, 1776-1861 (1910), H. J Eckenrode, The Revolutzon in Virgıma

(1916); J. C Ballagh, A History of Slavery ın Virginia (1902); R L.

Morton, The Negro in Virginia Poletecs (1919) , T. N, Page, Socal Life

in Old Vergima (1897), C. C Pearson, Readjuster Movement in Virginia {*31%) and Purquc

V'~e'r ia Tlistorical Society, Collectzons (12 vol 1833-92) Wuys2 ve of History and Biography (1893 et seq) , Wil-

liam vrd Hory Coiige quarterly (1892 Historical Papers (vol 1, ú, 1915-17); (1919 et seq.); John P Branch Historical College (1901-18) Much is to be found

et seg), Richmond College Tylers Quarterly Magazine

Papers of Randolph-Macon im editions of the collected writings of Virginia statesmen, notably Washington, Jefferson and Madison Two good bibliographies have been published: W. C Torrence, A Trial Bibhography ot Colonial Virgina (1908), and E G. Swem, Bzbhography of Virginia (1916~19}). (H. F. By.)

VIRGINIA, a city of St Louis county, Minnesota, USA, 60 m NW. of Duluth, at an altitude of 1,500 ft, in the heart of the Mesaba iron range and the vast playground of “the Arrowhead country” It is served by the Duluth and Iron Range, the Duluth, Missabe and Northern, the Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific, and the Great Northern railways. Pop (1920) was 14,022 (34% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 11,963, Mining and lumbering are the principal industries. Within the city limits are three sawmills, one of which (the largest in the world handling white pine) employs 3,500 to 4,000 men, and ships annually 200,000,000 ft of lumber The six iron mines of the immediate vicinity (worked by the stripping or open-pit method) employ r,500 men and ship annually 5,000,000 tons of ore. The city owns and operates the water, gas, electric light and power plants, and also a steam plant which heats 94 blocks, serving 1,400 customers. Virginia was founded in 1892 and incorporated in r905

VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY

OF, a State institution for

higher education, situated at Charlottesville, Va, among the foot-hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains Its buildings, arranged around a large rectangular lawn, were erected from a plan prepared by Thomas Jefferson The university comprises 26 mdependent schools, but the courses of instruction given in these are so co-ordinated as to form six departments; two academic—the college and the department of graduate studies; and four professional—law, medicme, engineering and education The institution owns (1928) 522 acres of land, has productive endowment funds amounting to Src occ ccs and receives from the State an annual appropriation at Sicccoo Tse oct budget of the umversity for 1927 was $1,363,000. It is governed by a rector, chosen by and from nine visitors, and a board of visitors appointed by the governor, and two visitors ex officio, the State

ISLANDS

After the gift of $500,000 by Andrew Carnegie there were estab. lished ın 1909 the Andrew Carnegie School of Engineering, the James Madison School of Law, the James Monroe School of In. ternational Law, the James Wilson School of Political Economy, the Edgar Allan Poe School of English and the Walter Reed School of Pathology. Under Jefferson’s plan only two degrees were granted. “Gradpate” to any student who had completed the course of any one

school; and “Doctor” to a graduate in more than one school who had shown powers of research degree the faculty substituted,

degree of Master of Arts

But m 1831, for the doctor's following British custom, the

The college now grants the customary

university degrees See J S Patton, Jeferson, Cabell and the University of Virgina (1906).

VIRGINIA

(E. A. Az.)

COWSLIP

(Mertensia virgimca), a North

American plant of the borage family (Boraginaceae), called also bluebells, Roanoke-bells, and tree-lungwort It grows in low meadows and in open woods along streams from New York and Ontario to Minnesota and southward to South Carolina and Kansas. The plant 1s a smooth perennial, with a usually erect simple or somewhat branching stem, 1 ft, to 2 ft. high, with large, oblong, long-stalked, very veimy basal leaves In early spring 1t bears at the top of the stem showy clusters of blue-

purple flowers

These are pink in the bud but when expanded” are about an inch long and trumpet-shaped, with a purple tube and a blue bell This beautiful plant, one of the most popular wild flowers of the eastern States, transplants well and is often cult. vated. See BORAGINACEAE, MERTENSIA.

VIRGINIA

CREEPER

(Parthenocissus),

a well-known

genus of climbing plants, containing ten species ın temperate Asia and America, of which P, irzcuspedata, native to China and Japan, and P quinquefola, of eastern North America, are cultivated Parthenoctssus belongs to the family Vitaceae and climbs by means of sucker-like tendrils, The leaves are split into leaflets, P tricuspidata (Boston ivy) having three, and P quinquefolia (Virginia creeper) five. The beautiful reds and yellows assumed by the leaves in autumn add to the attractiveness of the plants, which are commonly grown for covering walls.

VIRGINIA REEL, a lively American country-dance, for-

merly very popular mm the United States, derived from the Sir Roger de Coverley. Originally intended for six couples only, in longways formation, it later became common practice to form in

one long set, the men and women in separate lines facing each other The steps mclude the usual country-dance, march and galop steps, best danced to the musıc of the violin, with the fiddler “calling” the figures, the partners advanċing and swinging

each other and other couples in turn, in a pattern in which the reel is most prominent,

VIRGIN ISLANDS, a group of small islands ın the West

superintendent of public instruction and the president of the Indies, about 100 in number, mostly uninhabited. They extend university The corporate name of the university 1s “The Rector E from Porto Rico, lymmg between 17° and 18° 50’ N, and 64° and Visitors of the University of Virginia” In 1927 the faculty to’ and 65° 30’ W_ total area about 465 sqm. The islands are and officers numbered 257, the students 2,174 (2,056 men, 118 rocky, or sandy and barren, but the cultivated portions yield women), and the number of volumes im the libraries 200,000 cotton, sugar and the usual W, Indian food-crops Guinea grass The university traces its begumnmg to an act of the legislature grows abundantly on the hillsides, and good cattle are reared in January 1803 for incorporating the “Trustees of Albemarle The coasts abound with fish The climate is healthy and the heat academy” In 1814, before the site of this proposed istitution moderate Culebra and Vieques or Crab Islands were acquired by had been chosen, Thomas Jefferson was elected a trustee, and the United States from Spain in 1898 with Porto Rico under his influence the legislature, in February 1816, authorized Of the British Islands, 32 im all with an area of 58 sqm, the the establishment of Central college m leu of Albemarle academy principal are Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Jost van Dyke, The corner-stone of Central college was laid in October 1817, Peter’s Island and Salt Island With the exception of the island and Jefferson, who was rector of its board of trustees, evolved of Sombrero they form one of the five presidencies in the colony a plan for its development into the University of Virginia, The of the Leeward Islands The inhabitants are peasants who raise legislature, thanks to the efforts of Joseph Carrington Cabell, a cattle and burn charcoal Some are fishermen and boatmen The close personal friend of Jefferson, adopted the plan in 1818 and chief town is Roadtown (pop 400) at the head of a fine harbour 1819, and seven independent schools—ancient languages, modern on the S. of Tortola, and trade is mostly with St Thomas Somlanguages, mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, brero is maintained as a hghthouse by the British government. chemistry and medicine—were opened to students in March 1825. Population of the presidency, mostly negroes (1921) 5,082 A school of law was opened in 1826 In 1837 the School of MediThe Virgin Islands were discovered by Columbus in his second cme became a department of three individual schools; and in Voyage, 1n 1493, and named Las Virgenes, ın honour of St Ursula 1850 the School of Law became a department of two schools, and her compamons In 1666 the British occupied Tortola, and

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VIRGINIUS

IQI

RUFUS—VISBY

have held 1t ever since. In the 17th century the Virgin Islands were favourite resorts of the buccaneers The islands of St

Thomas and St John were taken by the British from Denmark in

duced a colony in the 4th century 3.c. During the first Punic War (265-41 BC) the Issaeans helped the Romans, who in turn defended them from the Illyrians Later, when Illyria became a Roman province, Vis was mcorporated in ıt, and many Roman re-

1801, but restored in the following year In 1807 they surrendered to the British, and continued in their hands till 1815, when they were again restored

mans have been found or the island

In 1917, after various unsuccessful negotiations begun before 1867, the three islands, St Croix, St Thomas and St John, were bought from Denmark by the United States of America for

the Ragusans, but mn 1278 Venice had re-established herself there Velo Selo, then the chief settlement, was destroyed by Ferdinand of Naples in 1483, and by the Turks in 1571 The present city rose

$25,000,000 St Thomas and St. John form one admmistrative municipality, St Croix another and each has a local legislative council The inhabitants of these islands have become (1927) citizens of the United States They numbered 26,051 in 1917 and 22,012 n 1930, the decrease being largely due to emigration to the United States In 1917, 92 6% of the population was negro, or coloured The combined area of the American islands is 133 sqm

In 1930 the Federal

census gave St

St Thomas 9,834 and St John 765 inhabitants

Croix 11,413,

Charlotte Amalie

(now St. Thomas), with a population of 7,036 in 1930, is the

largest town and the seat of government, it has a fine harbour and 1s 1,442 m from New York and 1,029 m from the Panama canal, Admunistrative officers for the islands are appomted by the United States Navy Department St Crom (towns Christiansted and Fredericksted) produces sugar, molasses and hides St John and St Thomas have little agriculture, but from the

Pimenta acris is produced bay-oil and bay rum.

The export of

bay rum in 1927 totalled 60,494 gallons VIRGINIUS RUFUS, LUCIUS (ap 15-97), Roman soldier, three times consul (A.D. 63, 69, 97), was born near Comum. When governor of upper Germany under Nero (68), after he had put down the revolt of Iulus Vindex in Gaul, he was urged by his troops to assume the supreme power; but he refused, declaring that he would recognize no one as emperor who had not been chosen by the senate Galba, on his accession, aware of the feelings of the German troops induced Virginius to accompany him to Rome After the death of Otho, the soldiers again offered the throne to Virgimius, but he again refused 1t They then attacked him, and he had to escape through the back of his tent Under Vitellius, one of Virginius’s slaves was arrested and charged with the design of murdering the emperor Virginius was accused of beng implicated in the conspiracy, and his death wás demanded by the soldiers Vitellius refused to sacrifice him to the army’s resentment, and Virgmuus subsequently lived in retirement, chiefly in his villa at Alsium, on the coast of Etruria, till his death in 97, in which year he held the consulship, together with the emperor Nerva At the public burial with which he was honoured, the historian Tacitus (then consul) delivered the funeral oration See Tactus, Hist 1 11, Dio Cassius Ixni 24-27, lav. 4, Ixvni. 2; Plny, Epp ui 1, vi. ro, Juvenal vin 221, with Mayor's note, L. Paul in Rhemisches Museum (1899), liv. pp. 602-30

VIRGO (‘the virgin”), in astronomy, the sixth sign of the zodiac, denoted by the symbol np. The Greeks represented this constellation as a virgin, but different fables are current as to the identity of the maid She is variously considered to be. Iustitia, daughter of Astraeus and Ancora, who lived before man sinned,

and taught him his duty, and who when the golden age ended returned to heaven; according to Hesiod the virgin is the daughter

of Jupiter and Themis, others make her to be Erigone, daughter of Icarıūs, or Parthene, daughter of Apollo, The constellation contams a first magnitude star, Spica,

VIRTUE: see CARDINAL VIRTUES,

‘VIS, an island im the Adniatic, forming part of Dalmatia, Yugoslavia (Itahan, Lissa) Pop (1921) 5,139, divided between two villages, In Vis, the capital, which has an excellent harbour, 1s the

old palace of the Counts Gariboldi, the monastery of the Mm-

orites, several large churches and a hotel. The chief mdustries are viticulture, the distillation of rosemary oil, and sardine fishing.

Komiza, the other village, has a large sardine factory. The grotto on the island of Bi¥evo (Italian Bust) is said to be finer than that of Capri Iron ore is found on the island. To the west of the capital he the ruins of the ancient city of Issa, traditionally founded by settlers from Lesbos, the Issa of the Aegean. The Parians intro-

Stull later, it was ravaged by

the pirates of Almissa, taken by Venice in 996, then captured by

shortly afterwards During the Napoleonic wars the French held Vis until 1811, and by the cheap sale of captured merchandise, brought prosperity to the islanders, and the trebling of its population In 1811 the French were defeated by the British and thenceforward the island smuggled British goods into Dalmatia In 1812 the British established an admunistrative system under native officials, in Vis and the adjoming islands of Koréula and Lagosta They built a lne of forts along the heights of Vis, and made a cemetery for the sailors killed during the Napoleonic wars Twenty years later the Italians bombarded Vis during the War of Liberation, but were defeated in a naval engagement with the Austrians, who had held the island since 1815. At the close of the World War (1914-18) the Italians occupied ıt

VISALIA, a city of south-central Calhfornia, USA, 160 m N by E of Los Angeles, the county seat of Tulare county It has a municipal airport, and 1s served by the Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific and electric railways, and motor-coach lines. Pop (1920) 5,753 (85% native white), m 1930 by the Federal census 7,263. It is the trading centre and shipping pomt for a rich farming, dairying and poultry-raising region, where fruits, vegetables

and other agricultural products (including cotton) are grown in great variety. Thirty miles east is the Sequoia National park of 604 .8qm , containing over 1,000,000 trees, 12,000 of which are ro ft or more in diameter Visalia was founded in 1852 and mcorporated in 1874

VISBY, the capital of the Swedish island and administrative

district (dn) of Gottland, in the Baltic sea. Pop (1927) 10,103. The name Visby is derived from the old Norse ve (sanctuary) and by (town) ‘This was ho doubt a place of rebgious sacrifice

in heathen times. At any tate it was a notable trading-place and emporium as early as the end of the Stone Age, and long continued to enjoy its importance as such, as 1s proved by the large

number of Arabic, Anglo-Saxon and other coins found.

Visby 1s the seat of a bishop, the port of the island, and a favourite watering-place. It 1s picturesquely situated on the west coast, rom S by E of Stockholm by sea The houses cluster beneath and above a chff (kknt) 10o ft bigh, and the town is thoroughly mediaeval ım appearance The remains from its pernod of extraordinary prosperity from the rzth to the r4th century are of the highest mterest Its walls date from the end of the 13th century, replacing earlier fortifications, and enclose a space much larger than that now covered by the town Massive towers rise at close intervals along them, and nearly forty are in good preservation Between them are traces of bartizans The cathedral church of St. Mary dates from 1190-1225, but has been much altered in later times, ıt has a great square tower at the west end and two graceful octagonal towers at the east, and contains numerous memorials of the 17th century ‘There are ten other churches, in part ruined Among those of chief interest St Nicholas’, of the early part of the 13th century, formerly belonged to a Dominican monastery. It retains two beautiful rosewindows in the west front ‘The church of the Holy Ghost , (Helgeands-Kyrka) in a late Romanesque style (c 1250) 1s a

remarkable structure with a nave of two storeys. The Romanesque St Clement’s has an ornate south portal, and the churches of St Drotten and St Lars, of the 12th century, are notable for their huge towers St. Catherine’s, of the middle of the 13th century, is Gothic, with a pentagonal apse Galgberget, the place of execution, ‘has tall stone pillars still standing; and there 1s a

stone labyrmth at Troyeborg Modern buildings include the Gottland museum of antiquities. The artificial harbour, somewhat

exposed, lies south of the ancient Hanseatic harbour, now filled up. See GOTTLAND and Sta LAWS

192

VISCACHA—VISCHER

VISCACHA or BISCACHA, a large South American burrowing rodent belonging to the family Chinchilhdae The viscacha (Viscaccia) is distinguished from the other members of that group by having only three hind toes, it ıs the heaviest-built and largest member with smaller ears than the rest It has a long tail and shaggy fur, the general colour of the latter bemg dark grey, with black and white markings on the face. Viscachas inhabit the South American pampas between the Uruguay river and the Rio Negro mm Patagonia, where they dwell m warrens covering from roo to 200 sqft and forming mounds penetrated by numerous burrows. The ground around the “viscachera” is cleared from vegetation, the refuse of which is heaped upon the mound Anything the rodents meet with on their journeys, such as thistlestalks or bones, are deposited on the viscachera In frequented districts they seldom emerge till evening. Their chief food is grass and seeds, but they also consume roots (See RODENTIA)

VISCERAL SENSATIONS, the sensations that arise from

the viscera and other internal bodily organs and tissues. The visceral sensations belong to the general class of organic sensations (qv) and are distinguished among them only by the seat of their origin They are characterized by their paucity of qualitative variety and by their functional :mportance ın consciousness On the side of quality they include only cold and warmth, and the dull pressures and the aches that come from muscle and other tissue beneath the skin (Cf CutTangous Sensations) On the side of function they constitute the sensory basis for many of the vague awarenesses or “conscious attitudes” that are ever present in the mental hfe For instance, recognition is a perception coloured by a feeling of familiarity, and this feeling often has its seat in the viscera although it has no fixed sensory basis. Visceral sensations are also functionally important as carrying much of the conscious organic reverberation that is characteristic of strong emotion. The oesophagus and stomach are sensitive to pressure on distension and to ache on extreme distension, as well as to warmth and to cold This fact can be brought out only by research, because the stomach is ordinarily not often distended without distension of the bodily walls and is altered appreciably in temperature only by large quantities of hot or cold material The common. belief in the insensitivity of the oesophagus comes about because its sensations are ordinarily localized as above or below the bony chest wall, z¢., ether in the throat or m the stomach The intestines are less accessible to experimentation, but it is probable that they are sensitrve to pressure and pain like the stomach, but that excitation of these sensations is rare Tt is well known that in surgical operations the viscera appear to be almast entirely insensitive The meaning of this finding is that cutting and ordinary pressure are not adequate stimuli to the sensations that they arouse on the skin Apparently distension or muscular contraction of the viscera themselves are the proper stimuli The peritoneum, its extension in the mesentery, and possibly the pleura are very sensitive to pain, even upon cutting. The more usual attack upon the problem of visceral sensations has been by way of the perceptions which they mediate These perceptions seem to involve no unique qua’ “ies 3u. nevertheless to carry very specific significance for the orgiiism =Thorst arises from dryness of the membranes of the oral cavity, and is ordinarily caused by a lack of water in the system It ıs no more a new quality than is the perception of dryness on the skin Hunger is an ache of a peculiar temporal pattern, for it is caused by certain slow rhythmic contractions of the stomach that appear in the absence of stomachic contents or at regular intervals by habit, Any substance introduced into the stomach to inhibit these contractions abolishes hunger. The alimentary experiences of fullness, repletion and nausea, and the experiences of the excretory processes, are simply internal perceptions, in terms of pressure or pain, of the states or processes to which they correspond Appetite is the desire for food in the absence of hunger, and

ım the instincts and habits, although of course the eater perceives

his desire for food by perceiving his behaviour toward it Some psychologists have thought that there are sensations of oppression from the heart and of stuffiness from the lungs, but the matter remains undetermined Sexual experience involves unique perceptual patterns of pressure and pain Like appetite, however,

the psychology of sex 1s best understood functionally as an instinctive urge and a form of behaviour, although to the mdividual the earlier perceptions of bodily state may seem to be the causes of subsequent behaviour That emotion involves visceral sensations is well known, but we are still ignorant of their degree and nature, although a great deal is now known of the visceral

state during emotion (q v)

See A F. Hertz, Senš:bilty of the Ahmentary Canal (1911); A J, Carlson, Control of Hunger in Health and Disease (Chicago, 1916), W B. Cannon, Bodily Changes in Pam, Hunger, Fear and Rage

(London and New York, 1915), E

G Boring, American Journal of

Psychology, vol xxv1, pp. 1—57, 485-494 (1915); vol xxv, pp 443453 (1917) , Psychological Review, vol xxu, pp. 306-331 (1915)

(E. G Bor.)

VISCHER, the name of a famly of Nuremberg sculptors, who contributed largely to the masterpieces of German art in the 15th and 16th centuries x Hermann, the elder, came to Nuremberg as a worker in brass in 1453 and there became a “master” of his gild There 1s only one work that can be ascribed to him with certainty, the baptismal font in the parish church of Wittenberg (1457) This ıs decorated with figures of the Apostles 2 His son, Peter, the elder, was born about 1455 in Nuremberg, where he died on the 7th of January 1529 He became “master” in 1489, and in 1494 was summoned by the Electoral Prince Philipp of the Palatinate to Heidelberg He soon returned, however, to Nuremberg, where he worked with the help of his five sons; Hermann, Peter, Hans, Jakob and Paul. His works are: the tomb of Bishop Johannes IV, in the Breslau cathedral (1496),

the tomb of Archbishop Ernest, in Magdeburg cathedral (1497);

the shrine of Saint Sebald in the Sebalduskirche at Nuremberg, between 1508 and 1519, a large grille ordered by the Fugger brothers ın Augsburg (lost), a relef of the “Crowning of the Blessed Virgin” in the Erfurt cathedral (a second example in the Wittenberg Schlosskirche, 1521), the tombstones for Margareta Tucherin in the Regensburg cathedral (1521), and for the Eisen family in the Agidienkirche at Nuremberg (1522), the epitaph for the cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg ın the collegiate church at Aschaffenburg (1525); the tomb of the electoral prince Frederick the Wise in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg (1521); the epitaph of the duchess Helene of Mecklenburg in the cathedral at Schwerin Besides these works there are a number of others ascribed to Peter the elder with less certainty In technique few bronze sculptors have ever equalled him, but his designs are marred by an excess of realism and a too exuberant fancy His chief early work, the tomb of Archbishop Ernest in Magdeburg cathedral (1495), is surrounded with fine statuettes of the Apostles under semi-Gothic canopies, 1t is purer in style than the magnificent shrine of St Sebald, a tall canopied bronze structure, levishh cecors-cc with reliefs and statuettes. The general form of he skrine 1s Gothic, but the details are those of the 16thcentury Italian Renaissance treated with much freedom and orginahty Some of the statuettes of saints attached to the slender columns of the canopy are modelled with much grace and even diety of forr A small portrait figure of Peter himself, intro-

daced a. one end uf the base, is a marvel of clever realism he has repre-cried himsel, as a stout, bearded man, wearing a large leathern apron and holding some of the tools of his craft This gorgeous shrine is a remarkable example of the uncommercial spirit

which animated the artists of that time, and of the evident delight which they took in their work Dragons, grotesques and little figures of boys, mixed with graceful scroll foliage, crowd every possible part of the canopy and its shafts, designed in the most free and unconventional way and executed with an utter disregard of the time and labour which were lavished on them

is ordinarily associated with all normal food-taking, since the first food that enters the stomach inhrbits the hunger contractions Appetite, however, seems to have no peculiar sensory or See R. Bauer, Peter Vischer und das alte Nurnberg (1886) ; C. Headperceptual basis at all. Its mechanism 1s purely unconscious as SSeS lam, Peter Vischer (1901).

VISCHER—VISCONTI VISCHER, FRIEDRICH

THEODOR

(1807-1887), Ger-

man writer on the philosophy of art, was born at Ludwigsburg on June 30, 1807, the son of a clergyman He was educated at Tubingen, and began life in his father’s profession In 1835 he

pecame Prevatdozent in aesthetics and German literature at his old umversity, was advanced 1n 1837 to extraordinary professor, and m 1844 to full professor In consequence, however, of his outspoken inaugural address, he was suspended for two years by the Wurttemberg government, and 1n his enforced leisure wrote the first two volumes of his Aesthetik oder Wissenschaft des Schonen (1846), the fourth and last volume of which did not appear till 1857 Vischer threw himself heartily mto the great Ger-

man political movement of 1848-49, and shared the disappomtment of patriotic democrats at its failure In 1855 he became professor at Zurich

In 1866, his fame being now established, he

was invited back to Germany with a professorship at Tubmgen combined with a post at the Polytechmkum of Stuttgart. He died at Gmunden on Sept 14, 1887. Vischer was not an original thinker, and his monumental Aesthetsk, ın. spite of industry and learning, has not the higher qualities of success Still, he had a thorough knowledge of every branch of art except music, and much valuable material 1s buried m his volumes. His writings include literary essays collected under the titles Knitsche Gange and Altes und Neues, poems, an excellent critical study of Goethe’s Faust (1875), and a successful novel, Auch

Einer (1878, 25th ed, 1904).

See O Keindl, F IT Vischer, Erinnerungsblatter (1888) , J. E. von Gunthert, F. T Vischer, ein Charakterbrid (1388) .I Frapan. VischerEnnnerungen (1889), T Ziegler F T Vicner (Vortrag) (1893), J. G. Oswald, F. T Vischer als Dickter (1896).

VISCONTI, the name of a celebrated Italian family which long ruled Milan, they claimed descent from King Desıderus, and in the r1th century possessed estates on Lakes Como and Maggiore A certain Ortone, who distinguished himself in the First Crusade, 1s mentioned in 1078 as viscount of Milan. The real basis for the family’s domimidn was laid, however, by another

OTTONE (d 1295), a canon of Desio, appointed archbishop of Milan by Pope Urban IV. m 1262 through the influence of

Cardinal Ubaldini

The Della Torre family, who then controlled

the city, opposed the appointment, and not until his victory at Desio in 1277 was Ottone able to take possession of his see. He imprisoned Napoleone Della Torre and five of his relatives. His nephew, Matteo, born at Invorio on Aug 15, 1255, succeeded him as political leader of Milan, and although an uprising of the Della Torre in 1302 compelled him to take refuge at Verona, the emperor Henry VII, restored him to Milan in 1310 and made him imperial vicar of Lombardy He brought under his rule Piacenza, Tortona, Pavia, Bergamo, Vercelli, Cremona and Alessandro An able general, he yet relied for his conquests more on diplomacy and bribery, and was esteemed as a model of the prudent Italian despot Persevering in his Ghibelline policy, and quarrelling with Pope John XXII over an appointment to the archbishopric of Milan, he was excommunicated by the papal legate Bertrand du Puy in 1322 He at once abdicated ın favour of his son Galeazzo, and died at Crescenzago on June 24 GALEAZZO I (1277-1328), who ruled at Milan from 1322 to 1328, defeated the Holy Army which the pope had sent against

the Visconti at Vaprio on the Adda (1324), with the aid ‘of the emperor Louis the Bavarian

In 1327 he was imprisoned for a

short time by the emperor at Monza because he was thought

guilty of making peace with the church By his wife Beatrice d'Este he had the son Azzo who succeeded hm His brother Marco commanded a band of Germans, conquered Pisa and Lucca and died in 1329. Azzo (1302-1339), who succeeded his father in 1328, bought the title of imperial vicar for 25,000 florins from

the same Louis who had imprisoned Galeazzo I He conquered

ten towns, murdered his uncle Marco (1329), suppressed a revolt

led by his cousin Lodrisio, reorganized the administration of his estates, built the octagonal tower of S Gottardo, and was succeeded in turn by his uncles Lucchino and Giovanni LuccHINo

made peace with the church in 1341, bought Parma from Obizzo

193

d’Este and made Pisa dependent on Milan. He was poisoned m 1349 by his wife Isabella Fieschi. GIOVANNI, brother of the preceding, archbishop of Mulan and lord of the city from 1349 to 1354, was one of the most notable characters of his time He befriended Petrarch, extended the Visconti sway over Bologna (1350), defied Pope Clement VI, annexed Genoa (1353), and died on Oct. 5, 1354, after haying established the rule of his family over the whole of northern Italy except Piedmont, Verona, Mantua, Ferrara and Venice. The Visconti from the time of Archbishop Giovanni were no longer mere rivals of the Della Torre or dependants on imperial caprice, but real sovereigns with a recognized power over Milan and the surrounding territory. The State was partitioned on the death of Giovanni among his brother Stefano’s three sons, Matteo I, Galeazzo II and Bernabo Marrteo II., who succeeded to Bologna, Lodi, Piacenza and Parma, abandoned himself to the most revolting mmorality, and was assassinated in 1355 by direction of his brothers, who thenceforth governed the State jointly and with considerable ability Gatrazzo II., who held his court at Pavia, was the patron of Petrarch, the founder of the University of Pavia, and a gifted diplomat. He married his daughter Violante to the duke of Clarence, son of Edward ITI. of England, giving a dowry of 200,000 gold florms; and his son Gian Galeazzo to Isabella, daughter of King John of France. He died in 1378 BERNABO, who held his court at Milan, was involved in constant warfare, to defray the expenses of which he instituted very oppressive taxes He fought Popes Innocent VI and Urban V, who proclaimed a crusade against him, and the emperor Charles IV, who declared the forfeiture of his fief He endeavoured to exercise sole power in the State after the death of his brother, but

his young nephew Gian Galeazzo put hım to death (1385). Gian GALEAzzO, the most powerful of the Visconti, became joint ruler of the Milanese territories on the death of his father in 1378 and sole ruler on the death of his uncle seven years later. He founded the cathedral of Mulan, built the Certosa and the bridge across the Ticino at Payia, improved the University of Pavia and established the library there, and restored the university at Piacenza. He was an able and economical administrator, and was reputed to be one of the wealthiest princes of his time Ambitious to reduce all Italy under the sway of the Visconti, he conquered Verona in 1387; and in the following year, with the aid of the Venetians, took Padua, He plotted successfully against the rulers of Mantua and Ferrara, and finally turned his attention to Tuscany. In 1399 he bought Pisa and seized Siena The emperor Wenceslaus had already conferred on him the title of duke of Mulan for 100,000 florins, reserving only Pisa, and refused to take arms against him. Gian Galeazzo took Perugia, Lucca and Bologna (1400-01), and was besieging Florence when he died of the plague (Sept 3, 1402). His sons, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria, were mere boys at the time of his death, and were taken under the protection of the celebrated condottiere Facino Cane de Cesale; but. most of Gian Galeazzo’s conquests were lost. GIOVANNI Marra was proclaimed duke of Milan in 1402, displayed an insane cruelty, and was killed in 1412 by Ghibelline partisans FIıLrero Marra, who became nominal ruler of Pavia mn 1402, succeeded his brother as duke of Milan Cruel and extremely sensitive about his personal ugliness, he nevertheless was a great politician, and, by employing powerful condottieri, managed to recover the Lombard portion of his father’s duchy. From his marriage with the unhappy widow of the abovementioned Facino Cane he received a dowry of nearly half a million florins He died in 1447, the last of the Visconti in direct male line, and was succeeded in the duchy, after the shortlived Ambrosian republic, by Francesco Sforza, who had married his

daughter Bianca in 1441. (See SFORZA) There is a contemporary history of the principal members of the family by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, which may be had in several editions See J Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renassance ın Italy, trans by S G C., Middlemore (London, 1898); J A Symonds, Age of the Déspots (New York, 1888), C Magenta, I Visconti e glì Sforza nel Castello di Pavia (1883); A. Medin, I Visconti nella poesia contemporanea (Milan, 1891); F. Muemuer, “Lettres des Visconti de Mulan” m Mémoires et documents de la

194

VISCONTI-VENOSTA—VISCOSITY

société savoisienne series (1896).

d’histoire et d’archéologie, vol. x. of the second

VISCONTI-VENOSTA,

EMILIO,

Marouis

(1829-

ester known as viscose. For particulars of the process see Snx FABRICS, ARTIFICIAL and CELLULOSE.

VISCOSITY.

All bodies, whether solids, hquids or gases

t914), Italian statesman, was born at Milan on Jan 22, 1829 A oppose a resistance to deformation or relative displacement of disciple of Mazzi, he took part in all the anti-Austrian con- portions of the body against one another This resistance may be spiracies until the ineffectual msmg at Milan on Feb 6, 1853, of different kinds, 1t may, for instance, increase as the velocity of which he had foretold the failure, induced him to renounce with which parallel planes a fixed distance apart are displaced his Mazzinian allegiance Continuing, nevertheless, his anti- relatively to each other increases, and in that case, which is of Austrian propaganda, he rendered good service to the national great importance in nature, it is said to be due to viscosity The cause He was obhged in 1859 to escape to Turm, and during the definition will become clearer war with Austria of that year was appomted by Cavour royal » when we consider the viscosity of commissioner with the Garibaldian forces Elected deputy in liquids, which is readily observed 1860, he accompanied Farim on diplomatic missions to Modena and was the first in point of time and Naples, and was subsequently despatched to London and to be investigated both matheParis to acquaint the British and French Governments with the matically and experimentally, course of events m Italy Cavour gave him a permanent appointThe Viscosity of Liquids— ment in the Itahan foreign office, and he was subsequently apa, We imagine two indefinitely ex. pointed under-secretary of State by Count Pasolini. Upon the tended parallel plates A and B latter’s death he became minister of foreign affairs (March 24, Fig 1 (fig 1) between which a liqud 1863) in the Minghetti cabinet, in which capacity he negotiated 1s contained, and keep plate A moving in its own plane with a the September Convention for the evacuation of Rome by the constant velocity v, indicated by the length of the arrow, while French troops. Resigning office with Minghetti ın the autumn plate B remains at rest. The liquid in contact with A moves with of 1864, he was in March 1866 sent by La Marmora as minister 1t, while that ın contact with B stands still, as the velocity in the to Constantinople, but was almost immediately recalled and re- liquid changes contmuously, we can imagine it to consist of thin appointed foreign minister by Ricasoli Assuming office on the sheets or laminae, each moving with the velocity mdicated by the morrow of the second battle of Custozza, he succeeded in pre- arrows in fig 1. A certain force must be applied to A to keep the venting Austna from burdening Italy with a proportion of the velocity v constant, and Newton made the assumption that this Austrian imperial debt, in addition to the Venetian debt proper. force was proportional to the area of the plates and to the The fall of Ricasoli in Feb. 1867 deprived him for a time of velocity with which adjoiming laminae passed over each other, in his office, but in Dec 1869 he entered the Lanza-Sella cabinet as other words to the velocity gradient, v/d These assumptions are foreign minister, and retained his portfolio in the succeeding purely intuitive, but all subsequent investigations have fully conManghetti cabinet until the fall of the Right in 1876. During this firmed them Other things being equal, the force varies greatly long period he was called upon to conduct the delicate negotia- | in different liquids, and to make comparison possible, it 15 usual tions connected with the Franco-German War, the occupation to state the force required per unit area to keep A moving with of Rome by the Italians, and the consequent destruction of the unit velocity when d = unit distance and the space between the

temporal power of the pope, the Law of Guarantees and the visits of Victor Emmanuel IT, to Vienna and Berlin, In 1894, after 18 years’ absence from active political life, he was chosen to be Italian arbitrator in the Bering Sea question, and in 1896 once more became foreign minster in the D1 Rudini cabinet at a juncture when the disasters in Abyssinia and the indiscreet publication of an Abyssinian Green Book had rendered the international position of Italy exceedingly difficult His first care was to improve Franco-Italian relations by negotiating with France a treaty with regard to Tunis. During the negotiations relating to the Cretan question and the Graeco-Turkish War, he secured for Italy a

worthy part ın the European Concert, and joined Lord Salisbury in saving Greece from the loss of Thessaly. Resigming office in

May 1898, to private of foreign hold office

on a question of internal policy, he once more retired life, but in May 1899 again assumed the management affairs in the second Pelloux cabinet, and continued to ın the succeeding Saracco cabet until its fall ın Feb.

rgor. During this period his attention was devoted chiefly to the Chinese problem and to the maintenance of the equilbrium in the Mediterranean and in the Adnatic In regard to the Mediterranean he established an Italo-French agreement, by which France undertook to leave Italy a free hand in Tripoh, and Italy not to interfere with French policy in the interior of Morocco. Prudence and sagacity, coupled with unequalled experience of foreign policy, enabled him to assure to Italy her full portion of influence m international affairs, and secured for himself the wmammous esteem of European cabinets. In recognition of his services he was created Knight of the Annunziata by Victor Emmanuel ITI. on the occasion of the birth of Princess Yolanda Margherita of Savoy (June 1, r901) In Feb. 1906 he was Italian delegate to the Morocco conference at Algeciras. After this he retired into

private life He died m Rome on Nov. 28, 1914.

An account of Visconti-Venosta’s early life (down to 1839) is » è « given im ah interesting volume by his brother Giovanni ViscontiVenosta, Ricords dz Gioventé (Milan, 1904). vee

VISCOSE.,

In 1928, nearly nine-tenths of the world’s entire

output of artificial sulk was based on the sodium xanthogenite

plates is filled with a particular liquid, this quantity is called the coefficient of viscosity of the hquwd The units generally employed in physics for force, length and time are used to express viscosity coefficients, viz., the dyne, centimetre and second Two parallel plates with a liquid between them constitute an arrangement from which we can easily deduce a definition of the viscosity coefficient, but one which cannot be realized experimentally. Arrangements are, however, possible which fulfil the essential condition that the liquid should behave as if ıt consisted of thin laminae each moving with a constant velocity—a type of motion which is, for that reason, called “laminar” We can, for instance, “roll up” the two parallel planes of fig x into two concentric cylinders and rotate the outer one with constant velocity, while the inner one is at rest (fig 3) Each circle in the ring of liquid then rotates with a constant velocity, the mner cylinder tends to follow the motion and from the torque exerted on it the coefficient of viscosity « can be deduced < Laminar motion is also set up when a liquid flows through a at ` cylindrical tube of small bore and sufficient length, as long as the velocity does not exceed a certain limit The liquid flows as if it consisted of thin concentric Fig. 2 tubes, each moving with a constant velocity which increases from the wall towards the axis (fig. 2) The coefficient of viscosity can be deduced from the dimensions of the tube and the quantity of liquid forced through it ii unit time by a known pressure, It is, finally, possible to determine the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid by observing the velocity with which a small sphere of known diameter and mass falls in it. It was shown by Stokes that a small sphere falling in a viscous medium soon attains a constant velocity (in a medium offering no resistance its velocity

is uniformly accelerated) given by the following equation:

VISCOSITY s 27° (p—p £ on

195

mark m4 measured by a stop watch reading to 4 second, The liquid

is then forced up the opposite mb, the procedure reversed and the time from m, to m, taken; the two times are averaged

The

in which the symbols mean: v the velocity of fall per second, r the volumes L and R between the marks are accurately known, and yadius of the sphere,p and p’ the density of the sphere and of the

from them, the times, pressures and dimensions of the capillary,

nquid respectively, g the acceleration of gravity=98z

cm/sec?

the viscosity coefficients in absolute measure are calculated by

coefficient of viscosity and the velocity of fall are mversely proportional Measuring the flow through a capillary tube was the first vismethod used for determining cosities, and is still the most generally employed The law

In another instrument, designed by Wilhelm Ostwald and called after him, which 1s very generally used, the pressure producing the flow 1s produced simply by the column of liquid itself (fig 5). A constant volume of liquid 1s charged mto the wide kmb from a pipette and is drawn through the capillary into the bulb well above the mark A, it is then allowed to flow out and the time between the marks A and B is taken with a stop watch This is done once and for all for a standard hquid, the viscosity no and density pe of which, at a convenient temperature, are accurately known, the time ft 1s found as the average of several determinations As the same volume of hquid is always used, the effective column of liquid is always of the same height, so that the pressures producing the flow are directly proportional to the densities If therefore the time of efflux for another hquid of density pi is found to be ¢, its viscosity m, is, by Poiseuille’s formula:

and

the coefficient of viscosity

Other things being equal, the Poiseuille’s formula

governing the flow through capillanes was found experimentally by Poiseuille ın a classical investigation published

in 1842

i

He

found that the volume of liquid which passed through a capillary n unt time was (1) proportional to the pressure, (2) proportional to the fourth power of the radius

Fig 3

In and (3) mversely proportional to the length of the tube , symbols, 1f Q=volume discharged in unit time, P=pressure R=radius and L=length of the tube

Q= cre

4

L

where C is a constant characteristic for each liquid, which always increases with rising temperature Poiseuille did not deduce coefficients of viscosity, but this was done by several physicists who treated the problem mathematıcally by working out the conditions of flow for one of the elementary tubes described above and integrating, the equation thus obtained is known as Por-

TasrEI

Water at

seuille’s formula: Q= awPR* ~ 8nk

data As has been mentioned, the coefficient of viscosity 1s expressed in cm-gmsec units; the coefficient 7 = 1000 in u

at 20° C. is almost exactly a centipoise.

this ratio is called the relative Capillary Viscometers.—A instruments have been designed uring viscosity by means of

;

m,

1-7921

Oe

T0050

o 367

Formic acid,

T782

Acetone

sn 50

0' 5494

Acetic

Ethyl alcohol Methyl ,, Chloroform Carbon tetrachloride

I*Ig2 o' 59I 0564. 0 969

Benzene Toluene O-xylene

„o

ao

Carbon disulphide

1:3077

ay

y I0

7) css

fen oer 100% Sulphuric acid, Olive oil Glycerin at 25° Castor oil at 25° Turpentine

o 2838

y

Propionic acid.

03225

T219

11099 0649 o' 586 0897

Cratescwte of Toelrcecd Doge -ds cr Cort senses wee? bres Ou re we Ses

24 2 80 8 7350 6ar‘o 146

Shale ol Spindle oul Rumanian fuel oil at 25° '

7°70 2°0 S15°0

2 375

Viscosity and Temperature.—Two

fairly typical examples

of the variation of viscosity with temperature are given in fig 6, in which the viscosity coefficients of water and of mercury are plotted against the temperatures (lower scale for water, upper for mercury) The viscosity decreases throughout the whole range, but the decrease per degree is much greater at low than at high temperature The viscosity of water decreases by about

through a capillary; they all have this in K,

by suitable marks, is forced through a capillary by a known pressure A type of historical interest 1s that used by Thorpe RODGERS, IN and Rodger in a famous investigation on som THORPE ® eee eeioNs”

of pure orgamic liquids ccounci, oF tHe rovaL so-

(fig 4). CD is the capillary, the bore and “*™

»

Viscosity Coefficients of Pure Liquids in Centipoises Temperature 20° Unless Otherwise Stated

©

“Standard White” parafin

viscosity. number of for measthe flow

common, that a constant volume, defined

ar

Taste II

these units is called a poise (in honour of Poiseuille) and ıts hundredth part a centipowe The viscosity coefficient of water A convenient alternatıve method of expressing the viscosity 71 of a liquid 1s to state the ratio 71/no, where 70 1s the viscosity of a suitably chosen standard hquid;

a

a

where 7 is the coefficient of viscosity, which can therefore be calculated from Poiseuille’s experimental

a large number

As has been mentioned, and will be discussed more fully below, the viscosity of all liquids decreases with msing temperature, and Measurements are therefore carried out in a thermostat, ie, a bath of suitable liquid, the temperature of which is kept constant by a regulating device The viscosity coefficients of a number of pure liquids are given in Table I, and those of a number of liquids of technical interest, which are not so well defined, in Table IT.

Fic. 4

length of which are accurately known. A definite volume of liquid 1s introduced into the right hand limb with a fine pipette reaching down to R, air pressure is then applied

to the left hand limb, until the liquid stands at K, any excess at the same time overflowing into the trap T, A known pressure, measured by a water manometer, 1s then applied to the right limb, and

the time which the hquid takes to fall from the mark ms to the

27% per degree between o° and 10°, by about 2% per degree between 10° and 20°, etc, while the decrease is much more uniform for mercury No general law connecting viscosity with temperature has yet been found, although for any given liquid the variation can be represented with fair accuracy by one of a number of interpolation formulae Viscosity and Pressure—The viscosity of all liquids so far examined, except water, increases with pressure and may attain enormous values when the pressure becomes very high This has been demonstrated by Bridgman, who investigated over 40 liquids at pressures up to 12,000 atmospheres and at two temperatures,

196

VISCOSITY

30° and 75°. Earlier workers had examimed a few liquids at pressures up to 3,000 atmospheres Up to this limit the viscosity generally increases in approximately linear ratio with the pressure, but beyond it the mcrease becomes much more rapid This is well shown in fig 7, in which the relative viscosities (the viscosity at atmospheric pressure being taken as unity) of (A) ether and (B) carbon disulphide are plotted against the pressures. at 12,000 atmospheres the viscosity

of ether is about 46 times, and that of carbon disulphide about x5 times that at atmospheric pressure These are, however, liquids in which the effect of pressure is comparatively small; in many others the viscosity at the highest attainable pressures is many hundred and even thousand times as high as at atmospheric pressure

As mentioned, Bridgman determined the viscosities at 30° and at 75°, at the same pressure the viscosity at the higher temperature is always smaller than at the lower The hqud at the higher temperature, however, occupies a greater vol-

ume than at the lower, when the pressures are equal, and sınce it is very natural to assume that the change in viscosity caused by either temperature or pressure is merely a consequence of the accompanying change in volume, it is of great interest to compare the viscosities at equal volumes. The volumes corresponding to different pressures up to 12,000 atmospheres were determined by Bridgman in an earlier mvestigation; they are plotted m fig. 8 as abscissae and the viscosities at 30° and 75° corresponding to them as ordinates The viscosity at 30° is always higher than that

at 75° and at the same volume; in other

of potassium, ammonium, rubidium and alcohol, which, between certain limits of centration, have viscosities lower than that The viscosity of all solutions, like that of with rismg temperature, the effect 1s even the latter, especially at high concentration

are plotted against the temperature, the viscosity of the 60% solution at o° 1s over 70 times, and that of the 40% solution about 15 times the respective values at 100°, for water this ratio is about 6 3

It has so far been impossible to find the law connecting the viscosity of a solution with its concentration, and none of the empirical formulae which have been proposed fits more than a limited number of solutions There are hardly any muxtures the

viscosity of which 1s the mean calculated from the viscosities and percentages of the two components, if the viscosity of a mixture of chemically quite indifferent liquids 1s plotted against the percentage of one component, a slightly sagged curve (fig 10) ıs the nearest approach to the straight line (dotted) which would repre-

sent the viscosity of the “ideal” mixture

It frequently happens,

however, that the curve has a maximum (fig 12) or a mimimum (fig 12), in other words, the viscosity of the mixture, at certam ratıos of the components, 1s greater or smaller than the viscosity of either alone The maxmum or minimum may occur at the same concentration at all temperatures (fig 11) or 1t may shift with changing temperature (fig 12) Maxima and minima frequently occur at ratios, at which other physical constants, lke the specific volume or the boiling point, also show extreme values;

thus Poisemlle and Graham already observed, that the viscositymaximum of the alcohol-water mixture occurred at the same ratio as the greatest contraction on mixing It has not so far been possible to formulate any molecular theory of the viscosity of liquid which accounts even qualitatively 40

80

120

160

200

words, the viscosity is not determined by the volume alone, as has been assumed ın several theories. The point is of fundamental importance and still awaits explanation Water behaves anomalously, as it does FIG 5 in respect of other physical properties At temperatures below about 30° the viscosity at first decreases with increasing pressure and shows a mmimum at about 1,000 atmospheres, which is the more marked the lower the temperature. At temperatures above 30° water behaves like other liquids, z.¢., the viscosity increases with the pressure throughout the whole range Viscosity and Chemical Constitution.—Thomas Graham,

the founder of colloid chemistry, who carried out a great number of viscosity measurements by Poiseuille’s method, was the first to suggest that the viscosity of compounds of similar constitution might increase in a regular manner with the number of molecules or groups contained m them Several investigations have been directed towards establishing such a connection, the best known of which was carried out by Thorpe and Rodger They found that in any homologous series the viscosity increased with the molecular weight, the mcrease being fairly regular with the higher members, while the first two or three behaved anomalously—as they do in regard to other physical properties Series like the alcohols and the fatty acids show considerable irregularitaes which are ascribed to association, 7¢., to their consisting, not ‘of single molecules, but of complexes of such, which break up|

caesium in water or

temperature and cop. of the solvent pure liquids, decreases more marked than This 1s well shown in fig 9, in which the viscosities of 40 and 60% cane sugar solutions

240

280

820°

MERCURY

50 `

100

" 180°

FIG. 6

for the variations with temperature and pressure. The kinetic with rising temperature. There is other evidence of association, theory of gases. on the other hand, led to some very strikmg and the anomalies of water are ascribed to the same cause | conclusions regarding the viscosity of gases, which were subseViscosity of Solutions and Mixtures.—The investigations | ee verified by experiment and must now be described on both these have been extremely numerous Solutions of all nonrelly

electrolytes and of electrolytes with certain well-known exceptions have viscosities higher than that of the solvent, the increase for equal increments of dissolved substance becoming higher at high concentrations The exceptions are solutions of certain salts

The Viscosity of Gases.—A few years after the publication of Pouseuille’s paper Thomas Graham investigated very carefully the flow of gases through capillaries The times in which equal volumes of different gases passed through the same tubes under

VISCOSITY

197

the same pressure were different and were expressed as “tran- investigators The viscosity coefficients of a few gases at o° are spiration coefficients,” the time for oxygen beig taken as unity. given below in centipoises, it will be noticed that the viscosity Graham found the same transpiration coefficients with different | coefficient of air at that temperature 1s almost exactly sia of tubes, so that they represented a constant characteristic of the

gas itself. Maxwell in developing the kinetic theory of gases deduced an expression from which it follows immediately that (1) the viscosity of a gas 1s independent of the pressure, and (2) 40

that of water at o°.

Tasir II. Viscosity Coeficients of Gases in Centrpoises Temperature o° 0 OL719 Carbon dioxide . 001382 O 01073 Sulphur dioxide o o1168

Atmospheric air Oxygen Hydrogen Carbon monomde

0:00849

Ammonia

000957

0 01665

It has also been shown that Stokes’s formula applies to the fall of spheres mm gases as well as in liquids, provided the spheres are not small compared with the mean free path. It is a matter of common experience that very finely divided matter stays suspended in air for a considerable time, and Stokes’s formula can

35

be used to calculate the size of particles of a given material, eg, droplets of water, which will sink at a given rate. If this 1s to be say I cm, per hour, the diameter of the globule must not exceed 138a (1 L = qoo mm) The striking prediction that the viscosity of gases, unlike that of liquids, increases with rismg temperature, has also been verified experimentally The viscosity ıs not, however, proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, as theory requires, but increases much more rapidly. The discrepancy has been

30

25

15

16

30°

10

w

5,000 Fig

10,000

5

7

it increases with rising temperature in linear ratio with the square root of the absolute temperature (See Kinetic THEORY OF MATTER ) The first of these very striking and unexpected conclusions was verified experimentally by O E Meyer and subsequently with improved apparatus by Maxwell himself The method used was

one which had been applied to liquids before

a set of three

0.7

0.8

0.9

LO

11

circular discs A (fig 13) suspended from a fine wire was made to oscillate round its axis between four fixed discs A’; the FIG 8 viscosity of the air damps the oscillations and can be deduced from explained by Sutherland, who found the actual law of the variation the decrease in their amplitudes The viscosity of air was in this with absolute temperature to be way found to be constant between pressures of 760 mm of mercury (normal barometric pressure) and r millimetre There VT are considerable deviations from this law at high pressures, and diaa 1+C/T at very low pressures, when the mean free path of the molecules becomes comparable to the dimensions of the vessel, the viscosity where C is a constant for each gas, known as Sutherland's diminishes very considerably This property has been utilized in constant The Viscosity of Solids.—The first physicist to put forward the construction of gauges for extremely low pressures (See and to define the concept of viscosity in solids, more especially in Vacuum.) Meyer also deduced from the kinetic theory that the flow of “tnghly elastic solids within the hmits of high elasticity” was Sir gases through capillaries followed Poseuille’s law, and calculated William Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin); he did so in a paper from Graham’s “transpiration coefficients” and the dimensions published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1865 and of his tubes the viscosity coefficients of a number of gases The afterwards included im the article “Elastiaty” in the 4th edition capillary method has also been used very generally by later of the Encyclopedia Britannica, The. concept is a difficult one,

198

VISCOSITY

but the difficulty is not so much that of defining viscosity or viscous flow as that of defining a solid Stokes, e g, suggested that “there seems no line of demarcation between a solid and a viscous fluid”, Maxwell, on the other hand, considered any body which exhibited flow at all stresses as a liquid, whereas bodies which didnot flow until a certain minimum stress had been exceeded, were plastic solids It has become quite usual to describe, in accordance with

The difficulty encountered in studying viscous flow 1m solids ig

in fact, that of separating it from other types of deformation,

which may precede or accompany it The most successful pro.

100

20

40

60 FIG

80

100

10

cedure for doing so is that adopted by Andrade, who measured the rate of elongation of metal wires stretched by constant stress If a wire 1s stretched, as is often done, by a constant load, the 40

100° FIG

9

Maxwell’s view, glass as a “supercooled qud” (although, unlike liquids, it is capable of transverse vibrations) and to confine the term solid to crystallme bodies or, more strictly still, to smgle crystals

If one follows Stokes rather than Maxwell it is easy to find such transitions, viz , bodies which at ordinary temperature maintain their shape and vibrate when touched with a vibrating tuning fork, but under continued low stress flow Pitch 1s representative of this class and has been much mvestigated ; it has been shown that at ordinary temperature, when it is “solid,” it can be forced through a capillary and exhibits purely viscous flow m accordance with Poiseuille’s law At 13-3° the coefficient of viscosity 1s about 5,000 million poises, and at 99 9° about 120 poises; the decrease ım viscosity 1s quite contmuous The viscosity coefficient of substances like pitch, which at low temperatures keep their shape, can be determined by methods not apphcable to liquids; it can, for example, be deduced from the rate at which a cylinder, to one end of which a constant torque 1s applied, 1s twisted The method was used by Trouton and Andrews, who tound that even in pitch there were some elastic effects, the cylinder untwisting to a small extent when the torque was removed Thomson studied the decrement of the amplitude of torsional oscillations performed by wires from which heavy masses were suspended, with a view to finding whether the damping could be completely accounted for by an internal resistance of the nature of viscosity, but arrived at a negative result

70

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40

10°

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2.0 3

20°

:

s

_ 80°

10

20

:

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poe 30

40

50 Fic

60

70

80

90

100

n

stress, że , the load per unit area, keeps increasıng, as the crosssection becomes smaller when the wire becomes longer Andrade decreased the load in the same ratio in which the cross-section was “reduced by giving the weight, which stretched the wire, a

VISCOUNT—VISION suitable profile became longer. be divided into an initial flow

and allowing it to sink into He found in this way that three parts an immediate which decreases with time

seen

a liquid, as the wire the elongation could extension on loading, and 1s therefore not

TS

65°

ar

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ow

`

L£

/

60

`

f

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/

755 4

/

50

/

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45

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0.5 i

0°

a

15° 35°

0 FROM

85

13°

04

FAUST,

SCHAFT,

2 IN

“ZEITSCHRIFT

° FUR

40

In Normandy vwcomtes appeared at a very early date as deputies

60

PHYSIKALISCHE

CHEMIE”

80

of the counts (afterwards dukes) of the Normans When local Norman counts began in the zzth century, some of them had

100

(AKADEMISCHE

vicomtes under them, but the normal vscomte was still a deputy of the duke, and Henry I largely replaced the hereditary holders

of the wcomtés by officials

VERLAGSGESELL-

LEIPZIG)

FIG. 12

viscous, and then a constant flow, during which the rate of elongation per unit length is constant up to the breaking point; this is the purely viscous flow A wide Soe region of viscous flow was found with lead, copper and fuse (leadtin alloy) wire at ordinary temperature. Other metals were

found to behave like lead when a

$

suitable temperature was chosen.

a wire of frozen mercury at — 78°

gave time-extension curves intermediate between those of lead at 160° and 17° while iron wire at 444° behaved like lead at 16°

The higher the temperature the

more does viscous flow predomi-

nate

199

no more than the status of lieutenants, either calling themselves sumply vice-comztes, or adding to this title the name of the countship from which they derived their powers It was not till the r2th century that the universal tendency to territorialize the feudal domimions affected the viscountcies with the rest, and that the viscounts began to take the name of the mast important of their domams, Thus the viscounts of Poitiers called themselves viscounts of Thouars, and those of Toulouse viscounts of Bruniquel and Montelar. From this time the significance of the title was extremely various. Some viscounts, notably ın the duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Toulouse, of which the size made an effective centralized Government impossible, were great barons, whose authority extended over whole provinces, and who disputed for power with counts and dukes, Elsewhere, on the other hand, e.g, ın the Te de France, Champagne, and a great part of Burgundy, the vecomtes continued to be half feudatories, half officials of the counts, with the same functions and rank in the feudal hierarchy as the chatelains, their powers were jealously lumited and, with the organization of the system of préudéts and balhs m the 12th century, practically disappeared In the royal domains especially, these petty feudatories could not maintam themselves against the growing power of the Crown, and they were early assimilated to the prévéts

i

.

A

1

o

TA t

FIG 13

“By the time of the Conqueror the

judicial functions of the viscount were fully recognized, and extended over the greater part of Normandy” Eventually almost

the whole of Normandy was divided into admunistrative viscountcies or hailiwicks by the end of the rath century, When the Normans conquered England, they apphed the term wscounte or

vicecomes to the sheriffs of the Enghsh system, whose office, however, was quite distinct and was hardly affected by the Conquest. Nearly four centuries later “viscount” was introduced as a peerage style into England, when its king was once more Jord of Normandy. John, Lord Beaumont, K G, who had been created count of Boulogne in 1436, was made Viscount Beaumont, Feb. I2, 1440, and granted precedence over all barons, which was doubtless the reason for his creation The oldest viscountcy now on the roll is that of Hereford, created in 1550; but the Irish viscountcy of Gormanston is as old as 1478. See Forms oF

ADDRESS. VISHNU

[Sanskr, the “active one”], in the Indian Rig-Veda

a minor deity, who takes three strides, vi-kram, the last and

No viscosity coefficients have been deduced from the highest beyond mortal ken; these probably denote the three

experiments just described

Brstrocrapay —M, Brillouin, La Viscosité (Paris, 1907), L Graetz, “Rebung” ın Wmkelmann’s Handbuch der Physik, vol, 1, (Leipzig, 1908), A. E Dunstan and F. B Thole, Tke Viscosity of Liquds

(1914); E, ÇC. Bmgham, Fluidtty and Plasticity (x922); E Hatschek,

The Viscosity of Liquds (1928), J, L M. Poseudle, Mém. Savants Étrangers, 9, 433 (1846), G G, Stokes, Trans, Camb Phil Soc 1x, 8 (1851), Coll Papers vol, 1 (1901), T Graham, Ann. der Chem u,

Pharm , 123, 90 (1863), J C Maxwell, Phil Trams, 156, 249 (1866) , Wm, Thomson, Math and Phys. Papers, vol m. (1890); T. E Thorpe

and J. W. Rodger, Phi. Trans, A, 185, 397 (1894), E. N da C Andrade, Prog Rayal Soc A, 84 (1910), 90, 329 (1914) ; P. W, Bridgman, Proc, Nat, Acad Amer., rr, 603 (1945). (E H)

VISCOUNT, the title of the fourth rank of the European

nobility. In the British peerage it intervenes between the dignities of earl and baron. The title 1s now purely one of honour, having long been dissociated from any special office or functions. In the Carolingian epoch the vice-comstes, or missi comatis, were the deputies or vicars of the counts, whose official powers they exercised by delegatign, and from these the viscounts of the feudal period were undoubtedly denved, Soon after the counts

became hereditary the same happened 1m the case of their heu-

tenants; eg., in Narbonne, Nimes and Alby the viscounts had, according to A, Molinier, acquired hereditary rights as early as the

beginning of the roth century. Viscountcies thus developed mto

actual fiefs Viscounts, however, continued for some time to have

divisions of the universe. Closely allied with Indra in his fight with Vuitra, the drought-dragon, and against the Dasas, the dark aborigines, Vishnu in the Epic mythology developed into the Preserver god, one of the Hindu triad with Brahma, the creator, and Siva, the destroyer; and as such he has saved man-

kind in ten incarnations. His special devotees, the Vaishnavas,

have evolved numerous sects.

VISION or SIGHT, the function, in physiology, of the

organ known as the eye (qv.). The sense of vision is excited by the influence of light on the retina, thé special terminal organ connected with the optic nerve. By excitation of the retina, a change 1s induced in the optic nerve fibres, and is conveyed by these to the brain, the result being a lumimous perception, or what we call a sensation of light or colour, If light were to act uniformly over the retina, there would be no image of the source of the light formed on that structure, and consequently there would be only a general consciousness of light, without reference to any particular object One of the first conditions, therefore, of vision for useful purposes 1s the formation of an image on the retina. To effect this, just as in a photographic camera, refractive structures must be placed in front of the retina which will so bend lummous rays as to bring them to a focus on the retina,

and thus produce an image ‘Throughout the animal kingdom various arrangements are found for this purpose; but they may

VISION

200

be all referred to three types, namely—(1) eye-specks or eyedots, met with m Medusae, Anneldae, etc.; (2) the compound eye, as found in insects and crustaceans; and (3) the simple eye, common to all vertebrates The eye-specks may be regarded simply as expansions of optic nerve filaments, covered by a transparent membrane, but having no refractive media, so that the creature would have the consciousness of ight only, or a simple luminous impression, by which it might distingwsh light from

darkness.

The compound eye consists essentially of a series of

transparent cone-like bodies, arranged in a radiate manner against the inner surface of the cornea, with which their bases are united, while their apices are connected with the ends of the optic filaments As each cone is separated from its neighbours, 1t admits

only a ray of light parallel with its ams, and its apex represents only a portion of the mage, which must be made up, like a mosaic-work, of as many parts as there are cones in the eye The size of the visual field will depend on the size of the segment of the sphere forming its surface The eyes of many insects have a field of about half a sphere, so that the creature will see objects before and behind it as well as those at the side On the other hand, m many the eyes have scarcely any convexity, so that they must have a narrow field of vision. For numerous anatomical details, and various diseases connected

2. OPTICAL

ARRANGEMENTS

OF THE EYE

xr General.—When light traverses any homogeneous transparent medium, such as the alr, 1t passes on in a straight course with a certain velocity, but 1f 1t meet with any other transparent body of a different density, part of ıt is reflected or returned to the first medium, whilst the remainder 1s propagated through the second medium in a different direction and with a different veloc.

ity

Thus we may account for the phenomena of reflection of

light and of refraction (q v ) Before a ray of light can reach the retina, it must pass through a number of transparent and refractive surfaces The eye 1s a nearly spherical organ, formed of transparent parts situated be. hind each other, and surrounded by various membranous struc. tures, the anterior part of which is also transparent ‘The trans.

parent parts are—(1) the cornea; (2) the aqueous humour, found in the anterior chamber of the eye, (3) the crystalline lens, formed by a transparent convex body, the anterior surface of which 35 less convex than the posterior, and (4) the vitreous humour, fillmg the posterior chamber of the eye The ray must therefore traverse the cornea, aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour

As the two surfaces of the cornea are parallel, the rays prac.

tically suffer no deviation in passing through that structure, but they are bent during their transmission through the other media 2. The Formation of an Image on the Retina.—This may with the eye, see Eve, the pathological aspects of vision itself are. be well illustrated with the aid of a photographic camera If treated at the conclusion of this article. properly focused, an inverted image will be seen on the glass plate at the back of the camera It may also be observed by

1. PHYSICAL

CAUSES

OF VISION

A luminous sensation may be excited by various modes of irritation of the retina or of the optic nerve. Pressure, cutting

or electrical shocks may act as stimuli, but the normal excitation 1s the influence of light on the retina. From a physical pomt of view, light is a mode of movement occurring in a medium, termed the aether, which pervades all space, but the physiologist studies the operation of these movements on the sentient organism as resulting in consciousness of the particular kind which we term a luminous impression. Outside of the body, such movements have been studied with great accuracy, but the physiological effects depend upon such complex conditions as to make it impossible to state them in the same precise way. Thus, when we look at the spectrum, we are conscious of the sensations of red and violet, referable to its two extremities the physicist states that red is produced by 392 billions of impulses on the retina per second, and that violet corresponds to 757 billions per second, but he has arrived at this information by inductive reasoning from facts which have not at present any physiological explanation. Below the red and above the violet ends of the spectrum there are vibrations which do not excite lumimous sensations. In the first case, below the red, the effect is to raise the temperature, and above the violet the result is to cause chemical activity in the substance by which the radiation is absorbed Thus the method of dispersion of light, as is followed in passing a ray through a prism, enables us to recognize these

general facts. (x) rays below the red excite thermal impressions; (2) from the lower red up to the middle of the violet, the thermal rays become gradually weaker until they have no effect; (3)

from the lower red to the extreme violet, they cause luminous

impressions, which reach their greatest intensity in the yellow; and (4) from about the end of the yellow to far beyond the extreme violet, the rays have gradually a less and less luminous effect, but they have the power of excitmg such chemical changes as are produced in photography. In general terms, therefore, the lower end of the spectrum may be called thermal, the middle luminous, and the upper actinic or chemical; but the three merge mto and overlap one another It may be observed that the number of vibrations in the extreme violet is not double that of the low red, so that the sensibility of the eye to vibrations of light does not range through an octave. The ultra-violet rays may act on the retina in certain conditions, as when they are reflected by a solution of sulphate of quinine, constituting the phenomenon of fluorescence Far above the violet are the Rontgen radiations, + rays, etc

bringing the eyeball of a rabbit near a candle flame. The action of a lens in forming an mverted image 1s illustrated by fig 1, where the pencil of rays proceeding from a 1s brought to a focus at a’, and those from b at b’; consequently the image of ab is

inverted as at b’a’. The three characteristic features of the retinal image are: (1) it is reversed; (2) it 1s sharp and well defined if it be accurately focused on the retina, and (3) its size depends on the visual angle If we look at a distant object, say a star, the rays reaching the eye are parala A ,| lel, and in passing through the

F A

5 E P

A

è | refractive media they are focused at the posterior focal point a | —that is, on the retina A lme PE from the luminous point on the

retina passing through the nodal point is called the visual lune If the luminous object be not nearer than, say, 60 yd the image is still brought to a focus on the retina without any effort on the part of the eye Within this distance, supposing the condition of the eye to be the same as in lookmmg at a star, the image A LENS

would be formed somewhat behmd the posterior focal point, and the effect would be an indistinct impression on the retina. To obviate this, for near distances, accommodation, so as to adapt the eye, ıs effected by a mechanism to be afterwards described When rays, reflected from an object or coming from a luminous point, are not brought to an accurate focus on the retina, the image is not distmct im consequence of the formation of circles of difusion, the production of which will be rendered evident by fig 2 From the pomt A luminous rays enter the eye m the form of a cone, the kind of which will depend on the pupil. Thus it may be circular, or oval,

FIG

2.—FORMATION

OF CIRCLES or even triangular

If the pencil

OF DIFFUSION 1s focused n front of the retina, as at d, or behind it as at f, or, in other words, if the retina, in place of being at F, be in the positions G og H, there will be a luminous circle or a lummous triangular space, and many ele-

ments of the retina will be affected The size of these diffusion circles depends on the distance from the retina of the point where the rays are focused the greater the distance, the more extended will be the diffusion circle Its size will also be affected by the greater or Jess diameter of the pupil Circles of diffusion may be

VISION studied by the following experiment, called the experiment of Schemer, fg 3Let C be a lens, and DEF be screens placed behmd ıt Hold in front of the lens a card perforated by two holes A and B, and allow rays from a luminous pomt a to pass through these holes

The pomt o on the screen E will be the focus of the rays emanating from a, 1f a were removed farther from the lens, the focus would be on F, and if it were brought near to C, the focus otia la p | would then be onD The screens ho s F and D show two images on the m [5 point @ If, then, we close the upper opening in AB, the upper imFIG 3—DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING age m on F and the lower image THE EXPERIMENT OF SCHEINER n on D disappear Suppose now DEF

Zor

the lens are such that the one corrects, to a certain extent, the action of the other, and (4) the structure of the lens 1s such that its power of refraction diminishes from the centre to the circumference, and consequently the rays farthest from the axis are less refracted (6) Astzgmatism—Another common defect of the eye is due to different meridians having different degrees of curvature This defect 1s known as astigmatism. It may be thus detected. In the cornea the vertical meridian has generally a shorter radius of curvature, and 1s consequently more refractive than the

that the retina be substituted for the screens D and F, the contrary will take place, in consequence of the reversal of the retinal mage If the eye be placed at o, only one image will be seen, but if it be

placed either in the plane of F or D, then two mages will be seen,

as at mm, or nn; consequently, in either of these planes there will

be circles of diffusion and indistinctness, and only in the plane E will there be sharp definition of the image

Owing to the optical conditions and defects of the eye (vide infra) a mathematically punctate image is never formed upon the retna, even m a normal eye To understand the formation of an image on the retna, suppose a line drawn from each of its two extremities to the nodal pomt and contmued onwards to the retina, as in fig 4, where the visual angle ıs x It is evident that Its size will depend on the size of the object and the distance of the object from the eye Thus, also, objects of different sizes, c, d, e in fig. 4, may be included in the same visual angle, as

FIG.

6—DIAGRAM

ILLUSTRATING

ASTIGMATISM

horizontal The meridians of the lens may also vary; but, they are at different distances as a rule, the asymmetry of the cornea ıs greater than that from the eye The size of the of the lens The optical explanation of the defect will be unretinal image may be calculated 1f derstood with the aid of fig 6 Thus, suppose the vertical we know the size of the object, meridian C A D to be more strongly curved than the horizontal its distance from the nodal point F A E, the rays which fall on C A D will be brought-to a focus, o, and the distance of the G, and those fallmg on F A E at B. If we divide the pencil of nodal point from the posterior rays at successive points, G, H, I, K, B, by a section perpenfocus. The smallest visual angle dicular to A B, the various forms it would present at these points in which two distinct points may are seen in the figures underneath, so that if the eye were placed be observed 1s approximately at G, it would see a horizontal line a a’, if at H, an ellipse with 60 seconds; below this, the two the long axis a a’ parallel to A B, if at I, a circle, 1f at K, an sensations fuse into one, and the ellipse, with the long axis, b c, at right angles to A B; and if at FIG 4-—-THE VISUAL ANGLE size of the retinal image correB, a vertical lne bc The degree of astigmatism is ascertamed by sponding to this angle 1s 004 mm., about the diameter of a single measuring the difference of refraction in the two chief meridians, retinal rod or cone. The images of two luminous points, ¢ g., and the defect is corrected by the use of cylindrical glasses, the stars, must therefore be separated by the diameter of one cone, curvature of which, added to that of the mmmum meridian, ie , the two cones stimulated must be separated by one unstimu- makes its focal length equal to that of the maximum meridian lated cone A very minute image, if thrown on a single retinal ele(c) Chromatic Aberration —When a ray of white light traverses ment, is sufficient to excite it if the illumination is sufficiently a lens, the different rays composing it, being unequally refrangible, intense. are dispersed the violet rays (see fig 7), the most refrangible, are 3 The Optical Defects of the Eye.—As an optical instru- brought to a focus at e, and the red rays, less refrangible, at d If ment; the eye is defective. These defects are chiefly of two kinds— a screen were placed at e, a series of concentric coloured circles (1) those due to the curvature of would be formed, the central bethe refractive surfaces, and (2) ing of a violet, and the circumferiit those due to the dispersion of ence of ared colour The reverse hight by. the refractive media. effect would be produced if the (a) Aberration of Sphericity. B screen were placed atd Imagine —Suppose, asim fig 5, MAK to FIG 7—DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING the retina in place of the screen be a refractive surface on which THE DISPERSION OF LIGHT BY A M the two positions, the sensa-

parallel rays from L to S impinge, it will be seen that those rays passing near the circumference are brought to a focus at F}, and those passing near the centre at F*—intermediate rays being focused at N Thus on ea

FIG. 5 SPHERICAL ABERRATION

the portion of the axis between F! and F* there will be a series of

focal points, and the effect will be a blurred and bent image

In

the eye this defect 1s to a large extent corrected by the fol-

lowing arrangements: (x) the iris cuts off the outer and more strongly refracted rays; (2) the curvature of the cornea is flatter at the periphery, and consequently those farthest from the axis are least deviated; (3) the anterior and posterior curvatures of

LENS

tional effects would be those just

mentioned Under ordmary circumstances, the error is not observed, as for vision at near distances the interval between the focal point of the red and violet rays is very small. If, however, we Jook at a candle flame through a bit of cobalt blue

glass, which transmits only the red and blue rays, the flame may appear violet surrounded by blue, or blue surrounded by violet, according as we have accommodated the eye for different distances Red surfaces appear nearer than violet surfaces situated in the came plane (d) Diffraction —The rays are best at the edge of the pupil, breaking up the hght into a series of concentric spectra This

VISION

202

contributes to the imperfection of the image The effect is greatest with a small pupil, but is practically negligible with a pupil of 3 mm diameter or more Chromatic aberration and diffraction tend to counteract each other (e) Defects Due to Opacities, etc., n the Transparent Media — When small opaque particles exist in the transparent media, they may cast their shadow on the retina so as to give mise to images which are projected outwards by the mind into space, and thus appear to exist outside of the body. Such phenomena are termed entoptic. They may be of two kinds: (1) extra-retinal, that is, due to opaque or semi-transparent bodies in any of the re-

fractive structures anterior to the retina, and presenting the appearance of drops, striae, lines, twist-

E ed bodies, forms of grotesque FIG 8—PURKINJE'S FIGURES shape, or minute black dots dancing before the eye, and (2) intraretinal, due to opacities, etc , ın the layers of the retina, in front of the rods and cones The intra-retinal may be produced in a normal eye in various ways. (1) Throw a strong beam of light

on the edge of the sclerotic, and a curious branched figure will be seen, which is an image of the retinal vessels The construction of these umages, usually called Purkwnje’s figures, will be

understood from fig 8. Thus, in the figure to the left, the rays passing through the sclerotic at b”, m the direction b” c, wal throw a shadow of a vessel at c on the retina at 0’, and this will appear as a dark line at B. If the light move from b” to a”, the retinal shadow will move from b’ to a’, and the line in the field of vision will pass from B to A. It may be shown that the distance c b’ corresponds to the distance of the retinal vessels from the layer of rods and cones. If the light enter the cornea, as in the figure to the right, and if the light be moved, the image will be displaced in the same direction as the light, if the movement does not extend beyond the middle of the cornea, but in the opposite direction to the light when the latter 1s moved up and down. Thus, if a be moved to a’, d will be moved to g’, the shadow on the retina from c to c’, and the image b to b’. If, on the other hand, e be moved above the plane of the paper, d will move below, consequently c will move above, and Bb’ will appear to sink. (2) The retinal A vessels may also be seen by looking at a strong light through a š minute aperture, in front of which a rapid to-and-fro movement is made. Such experiments B prove that the sensitive part of

or the

Mechanism of Adjustment for Different Distances,— When a camera is placed in front of an object, it is necessary to focus accurately in order to obtain a clear and distinct mage

sensitive

plate.

This

on the

may

and consequently the accommodation This sighted For ordinary distinctly in everyday corrected by the use

rays must be made more convergent by kind of eye is called hypermetropic, or fardistances, at which objects must be seen life, the fault of the myopic eye may be of concave and of the hypermetropic by

convex glasses In the first case, the concave glass will move the posterior focal pomt a little farther back, and ın the second the convex glass will bring ıt farther forward, ım both cases, however, the glasses may be so adjusted, both as regards refractive index and radius of curvature, as to bring the rays to a focus on the retina, and consequently secure distinct vision From any point 65 metres distant, rays may be regarded as almost parallel, and the point will be seen by the emmetropic eye without any effort of accommodation This pout, either at this distance or in infinity, 1s called the punctum remotum, or the most distant pomt seen without accommodation In the

myopic eye 1t 1s much nearer, and for the hypermetropic there is really no such point, and accommodation 1s always necessary If an object were brought too close to the eye for the refractive media to focus it on the retina, such circles of diffusion would be formed as to cause indistinctness of vision, unless the eye possessed some power of adapting itself to different distances

That the eye has some such power of accommodation is proved by the fact that, if we attempt to look through the meshes of a net at a distant object, we cannot see both the meshes and the object with equal distinctness at the same time Again, if we look continuously at very near objects, the eye speedily becomes fatigued Beyond a distance of 65 metres, no accommodation 1s necessary, but within it, the condition of the eye must be adapted

to the diminished distance until we reach a pomt near the eye which may be regarded as the mut of clear vision for near objects, This point, called the punctum proximum, varies according to the age of the individual The range of accommodation 1s thus the distance between the punctum remotum and the punctum prox mum

The mechanism of accommodation has been much disputed, but there can be no doubt it is chiefly effected by a change in the curvature of the anterior surface of the crystalline lens. If we hold a hghted candle in front and a little to the side of an eye to be examined, three reflections may be seen in the eye, as represented in fig. 10. The first, a, is erect, large and bright, from the anterior surface of the cornea; the second, b, also erect, but dim, from the anterior surface of the crystalline lens; and the third, ¢, inverted, and very dim, from the posterior surface of the lens, or perhaps the concave surface of the vitreous humour to which the convex surface of the lens is adapted Suppose the three images to be in the position shown in the figure for dis-

tant vision, 1t will be found that the middle image b moves

the retina is its deepest and most external layer (the rod and cone layer).

4, Accommodation,

ject must be brought nearer to the eye A third form is seen in C, where the focal point, for ordmary distances, 1s behind the retina,

FIG

9.—A

be MAL EYE;

EMMETROPIC

OR

NOR-

B. MYOPIC OR SHORT-

done by moving either the lens or SIGHTED EYE, C HYPERMETROPIC the sensitive plate backwards OF LONG-SIGHTED EYE or forwards so as to have the posterior focal point of the lens corresponding with the sensitive plate. For smmlar reasons, a mechanism of adjustment, or accommodation for different distances, is necessary in the human eye In the normal eye, any number of parallel rays, coming from a great distance, are focused on the retina Such an eye is termed emmeitropic (fig 9) Another form of eye (B) may be such that parallel rays are brought to a focus im front of the retina This form of eye is myopic or short-sighted, masmuch as, for distinct vision, the ob-

towards a, on looking at a near object The change is due to an alteration of the curvature of the lens, as shown in fig rz The changes occurring during accommodation are: (z) the curvature of the anterior surface of the crystalline lens increases, the radius of curvature changing from ro mm. to a minimum of 6 mm, and (2) the pupil contracts. An explanaa b tion of the increased curvature of the an- Fie. 10.—REFLECTED terior surface of the lens durmg accommo- IMAGES IN THE EYE dation has been thus given by H. von Helmholtz. In the normal condition, that is, for the emmetropic eye, the crystallme lens is flattened anteriorly by the pressure of the anterior layer of the capsule; during accommodation, the radiating fibres of the ciliary muscles pull the ciliary processes forward, thus relieving the

tension of the anterior layer of the capsule, and the lens at once bulges forward by its elasticity. By this mechanism the radius of curvature of the anterior surface of the lens, as the eye accommodates from the far to the near point, may shorten from ro mm, to 6 mm. The ciliary muscle, however, contains two sets of fibres, the outer, longi-

VISION tudinal or meridional, which run from before backwards, and the inner, circular or equatorial (Muller’s muscle). Direct obseryation on the eye of an animal immediately after death shows

203

the light acting on the retina. A strong light causes contraction of the pupil; with hght of less intensity, the pupil will dilate

In the human bemg, a strong light acting on one eye will cause contraction of the pupil, not only in the eye affected, but in the other eye. These facts indicate that the phenomenon is of the nature of a reflex action, in which the fibres of the optic nerve There is still some difficulty in explaining the action of the act as sensory conductors to a centre in the brain, whence influequatorial (circular) fibres Some have found that the mcreased ences emanate which affect the pupil The centre 1s in the neighbourhood of the nucleus of the third nerve, beneath the anterior pair of the corpora quadmgemina Osn the other hand, the dilating fibres are derived from the sympathetic, and ıt has been shown that they come from the lower part of the cervical, and upper part of the dorsal, region of the cord ‘The iris in some animals is directly susceptible to the action of light. The pupil contracts under the influence—(1) of an increased

that stamulation of the ciliary nerves actually causes a for-

ward movement of the ciliary processes, and there can be little doubt that the explanation above given applies to man

mtensity of light, (2) of convergence of the two eyes, as in accommodating for a near object; and (3) of such active sub-

stances as nicotine, morphia and physostigmine, It dates under the mfluence—(r) of a diminished intensity of hght, (2) of vision of distant objects, (3) of a strong excitation of any sensory nerve, (4) of dyspnoea, and (5) of such substances as atropine and hyoscyamine The chief function of the iris is so to moderate the amount of hght entering the eye as to secure sharpness of FIG, 11—MECHANISM

OF ACCOMMODATION

convexity of the anterior surface of the lens takes place only in the central portions of the lens, and that the circumferential part of the lens is actually flattened, presumably by the contraction of the equatorial fibres. Seeing, however, that the central part of the lens 1s the portion used in vision, as the pupil contracts durmg accommodation, a flattening of the margins of the lens can have no optical effect During accommodation the pupil contracts, and the pupillary edge of the irs, thinned out, spreads over the anterior surface of the capsule of the lens, which it actually touches, and this part of the iris, along with the more convex central part of the lens, bulges mto the anterior chamber, and must thus displace some of the aqueous humour. To make room for this, however, the circumferential part of the iris, related to the hgamentum pectinatum, moves backwards very slightly, while the flattening of the circumferential part of the lens facilitates this movement Helmholtz succeeded in measuring with accuracy the sizes of the reflected mages by means of an instrument termed an ophthalmometer, the construction of which 1s based on the following optical principles

definition of the retinal image. This it accomplishes by (1) cutting off the more divergent rays from near objects and (2) preventing the error of spherical aberration by cutting off divergent rays which would otherwise 1mpinge near the margins of the lens, and would thus be brought to a focus in front of the retina.

3. SPECIFIC INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE RETINA The retina is the terminal organ of vision, and all the parts in front of it are optical arrangements for securing that an mage will be accurately focused upon it The natural, so-called adequate, stimulus of the retina is light It is also excited by mechanical and electrical stimuli. It is said that such stimuli applied to the optic nerve behind the eye produce a luminous impression, but the evidence on this pomt is not conclusive. Pressure or electrical currents acting on the eyeball stimulate the retina and cause the sensation of flashes of light (phosphenes). The stimulus acts primarily upon the rods and cones (vide supra Purkinje’s experiment), where it sets up nervous impulses which traverse successively the layers of the retina and the optic nerve fibres 1, Adaptation.—We are all familiar with the experience that s Absorption and Reflection of Luminous Rays from the when we pass from a brightly-lighted room into a dimly-lighted Eye.—When light enters the eye, it is partly absorbed by the one, we are unable for a time to distmguish the objects in the black pigment of the retina and choroid and partly reflected room After a few minutes the brighter objects emerge and as The reflected rays are returned through the pupil, not only follow- time goes on, More and more can be distinguished This is due ing the same direction as the rays entering the eye, but uniting to the fact that the sensitivity of the retima increases It becomes to form an image at the same point im space as the luminous maximal after the eyes have been kept completely shaded from object. The pupil of an eye appears black to an observer, because all hght for 30-40 mmutes This adaptation to dim light is called the eye of the observer does not receive any of these reflected dark adaptation Tf the sensitivity is accurately measured by derays. If, however, we illuminate the retina by a mirror held termining the feeblest illumination which is capable of arousing close to the eye the retina can be seen through a hole in the the visual sensation, it is found that the rise is very rapid durmirror This is the principle of the ophthalmoscope originally ing the first 5 to ro minutes and ultimately becomes many invented by Babbage in 1848, and re-discovered by Helmholtz thousand times greater than that of the eye adapted to strong in 1851. Eyes deficient in pigment, as in albinos, appear luminous, daylight illumination (light adaptation) If the spectrum produced by a very feeble illumination is reflecting hght of a red or pmk colour; but if we place in front of such an eye a card perforated by a round hole of the diameter viewed by the dark adapted eye it is seen to be colourless The of the pupil, the hole will appear quite dark, like the pupil of neutral grey band, however, varies in brightness, the brightest an ordinary eye. In many animals a portion of the fundus of the part corresponding to about 530 up, a part which under ordinary eyeball has a special reflecting membrane, which presents an iri- ulumination appears green Vision under these conditions has descent appearance. This is called a tapetum It probably renders been called scotoptic or twilight vision If the wWumination is increased the eye rapidly becomes light adapted, and the colours the eye more sensitive to light of feeble intensity 6 Functions of the Iris—The iris constitutes a diaphragm appear in the spectrum (photoptic vision). The brightest part of which regulates the amount of light entering the eyeball The the spectrum is then found to be about 580 yy in the yellow. If in a similar manner one takes a monochromatic light, say in aperture in the centre, the pupil, may be dilated by contraction of a system of radiating fibres of mvoluntary muscle, or con- the green or blue, and gradually increases the intensity from zero tracted by the action of a circular system of fibres, forming a there is a considerable range of intensity before the colour apsphincter, at the margin of the pupil The radiating fibres are pears This is called the photochromatic interval, and it varies controlled by the sympathetic, while those of the circular set are according to the wave-length of the light It is so small at the excited by the third cranial nerve The variations in diameter red end of the spectrum that it is very difficult to prove its of the pupil are determined by the greater or less intensity of existence.

204.

VISION

The shift of brightness, which is so striking, from the green | for the normal sighted the colourless grey spectrum of scotoptic region of the achromatic scotoptic spectrum to the yellow of the vision becomes suffused with all the colours of the rambow as chromatic photoptic spectrum manifests itself throughout the the intensity of the hght is increased For the totally colour. spectrum, For instance, a red of 670 up viewed under conditions blind, although the brightness increases under these conditions, of hght adaptation with moderate intensity of Ulumination may no colours are seen Moreover, there is no shift of the maximum, be ten times as bright as a blue of 480 uu whereas 1f the brightness from the green to the yellow region of the spectrum, illumination 1s decreased and the eye dark adapted there is a such as occurs in the normal reversal of the relative brightnesses, and the blue is now 16 times On the Duplicity theory the congenital night-blmd may be re. as bright as the red This phenomenon was discovered by Pur- garded as having only cone vision, and the totally colour-bling kinje, and is known as Purkinje’s phenomenon only rod vision There are, however, difficulties in accepting this These are the changes which account for the difference ın ap- simple explanation 2. The Visual Purple.—The facts relating to dark adaptation pearance of the colours in the landscape when twilight falls, or at dawn. As the light fails the reds disappear first, and geraniums and the alteration in sensitivity of the retina on exposure to light and other red flowers look black, while violet and blue flowers throw some ghmmer of light on the fascinating question how the retain some colour and appear relatively brighter than in daylight physical stimulus is transformed into a physiological Impulse Next, the greens fade away and the fields and hedges look grey which gives rise to the visual sensation The obvious analogy of The facts already mentioned suggest that vision under low the photographic film predisposes one to the hypothesis that the illumination is carried out by a mechanism which differs from radiant energy is absorbed by chemical substances in the retina, that of vision under Ingher illumination. and this view 1s sup- the alteration ın these substances causing a transformation of ported by other facts, energy into the physiological impulse—in other words, that the Thus, we have seen that under ordinary illumination stimula- first step n the process 1s photo-chemical tion of the central part of the retina, especially the fovea and In 1851 H Miiller found a remarkable purple substance in the surrounding macula lutea, gives rise to by far the most the rods of the frog’s retina which had been protected from the acute visual impressions. The reverse 1s the case under dim influence of hght In 1876 Boll discovered that this substance illumination and dark adaptation The macular region becomes was bleached when exposed to light. Kuhne, in 1878 and the the least sensitive, and is mdeed “mght blind” This fact was succeeding years, investigated the substance exhaustively, and discovered by astronomers long ago. If one looks directly at the it was shown that after bleaching it became regenerated if the Pleiades only four or five stars can be seen, but if one fixes a eye was again protected from hght, but only if the retma was point a little to one side a number of weaker stars become visible kept ın contact with the still hving or “surviving” cells of the One can easily see on any starlight night that any star becomes retinal pigment epithelium It would appear, therefore, that the unmistakably brighter if one looks at it slightly eccentrically substance 1s formed—or at any rate certain necessary precursors The famous French astronomer, Arago, expressed the fact para- of the substance are formed—by the activity of the pigment cells, doxically by saying that “in order to perceive a very dimly lighted and that it 1s then absorbed by the rods. object it is necessary not to look at 1t” More minute investigation of the process of bleaching of this This phenomenon has a very important bearing upon the pick- so-called visual purple or rhodopsin has proved to be of great

ing up of lights at sea at night, as was shown by some experiments of the late Prof. Gotch Thus he found that “in the dark

adapted eye red hght is recognized as red over an area whose radius is three or four times that observed with green light; yet the red light is not seen at all outside this larger area On the other hand, green (or blue) light, whilst it is only recognizable as green over the much more restricted central area, 1s seen as a bright light of a dazzling white type over a very extensive area ” If the mechanism which subserves scotoptic vision is different from that subserving photoptic the night blindness of the macular region should afford some clue as to its nature. Now the macular region is characterized by the absence of rods from the neuroepithehum. It seems probable, therefore, that dim illumination excites the rods but fails to excite the cones, and that it 1s only when the intensity of the light is increased that the cones respond If this be so, then the rods are the organs of scotoptic and the cones of photoptic vision This is the so-called Duphcity Theory. It is further supported by some facts of comparative anatomy. In fact, it was first suggested by Schwalbe as the result of observations on the eyes of nocturnal animals, such as owls, which he found to have only rods in their retinae The rate at which the eyes become adapted to dim light varies somewhat in normal people, and there are diseased conditions in which it is very slow or almost absent Such people are mghtblind. They are practically incapacıtated in dull hghts, and cannot get about after dark In one rare group the eyes appear to be otherwise normal and the disease is transmitted from one

theoretical interest It is found with the nature of the light, so monochromatic light of different ing values can be determined

that the rate of bleaching vanes that 1f samples are bleached by wave-lengths the relative bleachThe wave-length 530 uu is the most active, the values falling off on each side We have already found that this wave-length is sigmficant in another respect It 1s the brightest part of the achromatic scotoptic luminosity curve, and if this curve is similarly plotted it is found that the two curves are identical within the limits of experimental error It is umpossible to resist the conclusion that so striking a com-

cidence must have a very definite meaning, viz , that the stimulation of the retina which gives nse to scotoptic vision 1s the result of the bleaching of the visual purple We have seen that when the intensity of the light 1s increased the eye becomes light adapted and the spectral colours appear, further, that the brightest part shifts to the yellow These facts are less easily explained on the basis of a photo-chemical reaction in the visual purple, although such an explanation is not impossible If the indications which give nse to the duplicity theory are correct, photoptic vision 1s carried out by the cones Kuhne and most other observers have failed to find any evidence of visual purple in the cones, and it is a striking fact that the part of the retina which contains only cones, viz , the rod-free macular area, is “night-blind,” że., it shows hitle power of adaptation to low illumination. Moreover, most observers agree that Purkinje’s Phenomenon is absent when the stimuli are confined to the rodgeneration to another. The most famous and most extensive free area of the macula. The macular region, however, is not completely irresponsive to adaptation It may be that the cones pedigree of any diseased condition is that of some congenitally contain only a small amount of visual purple or that some night-blind people in the Montpellier district in the more south of complex reactions occur in it when strong light France The pedigree was started by Cunier n 1838 stimuli are apand brought plied It is highly improbable that rod and cone responses are up to date in 1907 by Nettleship. It consists of ten generations fundamentally different in their mechanism. Both are doubtless of 2,121 persons, 135 of whom were night-blind. Much com- Photo-chemical reactions, but the exact explanation has not yet moner is the night-blindness assomated with the disease of the been satisfactorily elicited retina called retinitis pigmentosa 3 Electrical Changes.—Granted, however, An interesting antithesis to night-blindness is found that a photocases of congenital total colour-blindness As already in the rare chemical change is the first step m the production of the physimentioned, ological impulse, we are not much farther advanced in our knowl,

VISION edge of that impulse

We know that nerve impulses in other

nerves, both motor nerves, the stimulation of which sets muscles in

activity, and other sensory nerves, such as those which subserve touch, are accompanied by a change in electrical potential which

sets up electrial currents

These bave been very thoroughly inves-

tigated by Keith Lucas and Adrian, who have proved that a stimulus either produces no electrical response at all or else the maxiRecently mum response—the so-called ‘‘all-or-none principle”

Adrian has investigated the optic nerve of the conger eel in the same manner, and has shown that so far as the electrical response is concerned it agrees with that of other nerves So that we now know something about the photo-chemical change and something about the changes which occur in the optic nerve Interposed between them, however, 1s the very complex nervous mechanism of the retina, and it was long ago shown by Holmgren that the stimulus of hght on the eye causes electrical changes of a complex nature in the retina Holmgren, Dewar, M’Kendrick, Gotch and others, have shown that when ght falls on the retina it excites a variation of the

electrical current obtained from the eye when placed on the cushions of a sensitive galvanometer One electrode touches the vertex of the cornea and the other the back of the eyeball The corneal vertex is positive to the back of the eye, or to the transverse section of the optic nerve. Consequently a current passes through the galvanometer from the cornea to the back Then the zmpact of hght causes an increase in the natural electrical

current—durmg the continuance of light the current diminishes slowly and falls in amount even below what it was before the mpact—and the withdrawal of light is followed by a rebound, or second increase, after which the current gradually returns to normal It was also observed in these researches that the amount of electrical variation produced by hight of various intensities corresponded

pretty closely to the results expressed by Fechner’s law, which regulates the relation between the stimulus and the sensational effect in sensory impressions ‘This law is, that the sensational effect does not increase proportionally to the stimulus, but as the logarithm of the stimulus Thus, supposing the stimulus to be 10, 100 or 1,000 times increased, the sensational effect will not be 10, Loo or 1,000 times, but only 1, 2 and 3 times greater 4 Regional Effects.—The retina is not equally excitable in all its parts At the entrance of the optic nerve, as was shown by E Manotte in 1668, there is no sensibility to light Hence, this part of the retina is called the band spot If we shut the left eye, fix the right eye on the cross seen m fig 12, and move the book towards and away from the eye, a position will be found when the round spot disappears, that 1s, when its image falls on the entrance of the optic nerve, There is also complete insensibility to colours at that spot The diameter of the optic papilla is about 18 mm, equivalent to a visual angle of 6°; this angle determines the apparent size of the blind spot in the visual field, and it 1s sufficiently large to cause a human figure to disappear at a distance of two metres , The yellow spot or macula lutea in the centre of the retina is the most sensitive to light, and it is chiefly employed m direct vision. Thus, if we fix the eye on a word

in the centre of this line, it is distinctly and sharply seen, but the words towards each end of the line are vague

ee

If we wish

to see each word distinctly, we “run the Fie

© >

12—DIAGRAM

FOR

eye” along the me—that is, we bring SUC- THE STUDY OF THE BLIND

cessive words on the yellow spot

SPOT

,

,

5 Persistence of Retinal Impressions.—To excite the retina, a feeble stimulus must act for a certain time; when the retina is

excited, the impression lasts after the cessation of the stimulus; but if the stimulus be strong, it may be of very short duration Thus the duration of an electrical spark 1s extremely short, but

205

pressions of red on the same area of retina succeed each other so rapidly that before one disappears another 1s superadded, the result being a fusion of the successive impressions into one continuous sensation. This phenomenon is called the persistence of retinal impressions, An impression lasts on the retina from to sy, of a second The cimematograph owes its effects to persistence of retinal impressions The macular region is oval in shape, the vertical axis being about z mm. and the horizontal 3 mm, corresponding to visual angles of 4° and 12°. In the centre of it 1s a pit, the fovea centralis, which is the point of most distinct vision It 1s 0-3 mm m diameter, equal to a visual angle of 1°, and 1m it the layers of the retina are reduced to httle but the neuroepithelium, which here consists only of slender elongated cones. Around the fovea 1s a PA ER area of about o8 mm diameter, equal to a visual angle

of 3

Visual acuity 1s sharpest at the pomt of fixation of the eye, the image of which falls upon the fovea Here two mathematical points of light, such as two stars, can be discriminated as separate points if they subtend a visual angle of about so seconds of arc. This ıs equivalent to a retinal image of about 3-24, which 1s the mean diameter of the foveal cones Good visual acuity therefore agrees with the theoretical resolving power of the eye as an optical instrument and the fineness of grain of the recipient screen

This is, however, not the maximum power of discrimination of the eye, for contours, such as the appreciation of difference of breadth of two bright lines, may be discrimmated to about 10 seconds (=o 73) or less Contour discrimination is used m physical measurements in the vermer With binocular vision a break in the contour separating white and black surfaces can be discriminated if 1t subtends only 2 or 3 seconds of arc The explanation 1s to be found in the greater sensitivity to change or difference in brightness of the parts of the diffusion circles which are always formed These account also for swrad:ation, whereby a white square on a black background looks larger than the same sized black square on a white background The field of vison around the point of fixation extends more than 90° outwards, 70° downwards, 60° inwards and 50° upwards It is smaller for colours of ordmary intensities, but the colour fields can be increased almost to the limits of the white field by suitable increase in the intensity of the light With ordinary illumination and patches of coloured paper of 20 sq mm the blue field ıs about 10° smaller than the white, yellow rather smaller than blue, red 20° smaller than white, and green smaller sull Most colours change in hue as they pass from the fixation point towards the periphery; but certain spectral colours can be found which merely become paler or less saturated These were called by Hess invariable colours With them the blue and yellow are complementary colours (vide mfra), and have the same sized field; and similarly the red and green 6 Recurrent Vision and Flicker.—Not only is the response to an instantaneous flash of hight longer than the stimulus, but ıt is often recurrent In 1872 C. A Young noticed that when a discharge from a powerful electric machine momentarily uluminates a room the objects may be seen not once only, but two or even three or four tumes mm rapid succession; although the spark 1s single and instantaneous ‘The stimulus gives rise to series of pulses of sensation of diminishing intensity rapidly succeeding one another, They have been specially studied by William McDougall and others. The curves of sensation differ somewhat in time relations, which accounts for the occasional sensations of colour derived

from pure black and white stimuli, as in Benham’s top Tf the oscillations produced by intermittent stimulation are not sufficiently rapid to cause complete fusion, a sensation of flickering is felt If black and white sectors are rotated with gradually

increasing velocity there is first separate vision of the individual sectors This is followed by a peculiarly unpleasant coarse flickering, which passes into a fine tremulous appearance, after which the impression on the retina is so powerful, and remains so long,

as to make the spark visible

If we rotate a disk having white

and black sectors we see continuous dark bands Even if we paint on the face of the disk a single large round red spot, and rotate rapidly, a continuous red band may be observed, Here the m-

complete fusion occurs A large amount of work has been done upon flicker

Among

the earlier researches the work of an Eton schoolmaster, T, Ç. Porter (1898) may be mentioned With simple apparatus he

206

VISION

showed conclusively that what 1s called the critical frequency, ie, the rate of alternation of two lights of different intensity at which the sensation of flickering just disappears, 1s dependent entirely upon the luminosities of the lights and 1s independent of their colours or wave-lengths. This fact has been fully confirmed by Ives and many other observers, and is accepted as the principle of the flicker photometer. For obviously we have here an excellent method of hetero-chromatic photometry. It is much easier to say when flickering disappears than it 1s to say when two colours of different hue reach the same brightness—the so-called equality Moreover, each coloured hight can be of brightness method separately flickered against a knowa white light

7. Induction.—The sensitivity of an area of the retina which is stimulated by light 1s thereby altered, so that a second stimulus applied to the same area does not have the same effect as it other-

wise would have (successive contrast) Thus, if a square patch of red paper lying on a grey background is viewed for a few seconds and the gaze 1s then directed to a white surface a greenish patch will appear on the white surface It follows that the stumulation with one colour makes the area less sensitive to that colour and more sensitive to the complementary colour In fact, if the retina is stimulated with the purple light which is complementary to 4 particular green wave-length of the spectrum and is then stimulated with that green, an extremely vivid green—much greener than is ever experienced by any other means—is seen If the eye is kept closed in a dark room the sensation is not that of utter darkness, but a kind of very dark grey, due to what is called “the intrinsic hght of the retma.” If now a bright patch 1s looked at for a few seconds and the eyes then closed, an afterimage of the same brightness as the origmal presentation may be seen, but is usually transitory (positive after-umage) TIt is followed, or entirely replaced by a megatrve after-image, which appears as a much blacker patch in the midst of the surrounding grey. If the stimulus is coloured the positive after-image is of the same, the negative of the complementary hue The effects of induction are not hmited to the area of retina stimulated The sensitivity of the surrounding areas, and especially of those contiguous, are altered, and that in the opposite direction to that of the area stimulated Hence a white patch on a black background looks brighter than when it is surrounded by grey,

The part played by the ght illuminating the surface ang

colour

the way in which the colours of mixed pigments are produced are

discussed under Cozour Every colour has three qualities (1) hue, or tint, such as red, green, violet, (2) degree of saturation, or purity, according to

the amount of white mixed with the tint, as when we recog. nize a red or green as pale or deep, and (3) lummosity, or brightness as when we designate the

tint of a red rose as dark or

FIG

13——DIAGRAM

SPECTRUM

PARTIALLY

DOUBLE

bright Two colours are said to be identical when they are in agree. ment as to these three qual. ities When we examine a spectrum,

SUPERPOSED

we see a series of colours merg-

OF

ing by insensible gradations the one into the other, thus Red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. These are termed simple colours

If two or more coloured rays of the spectrum act simul-

taneously on the same spot of the retina, they may give nse to sensations of mixed colours.

These mixed colours are òf two

lands: (x) those which do not correspond to any colour in the spectrum, such as purple and (2) those which do emst im the spectrum White may be produced by a mixture of two simple colours, which are then said to be comtlemertery Thus rod ena ena imerco ble _-

greenish blue, orange and cyanic blue, yO

greenish yellow and vidlet all produce white

Purple is produced

by a mixture of red and violet, or red and bluish violet If we mux two simple colours not so far separated m the spectrum as the cormmplementary colours, the mixed colour contains more white as the mterval between the colours employed 1s greater, and if we mix two colours farther distant in the spectrum than the complementary colours, the mixture 1s whiter as the interval ıs smaller 2 Modes of Mixing Colour Sensations.—Various

methods

have been adopted for studying the effect of mixing colours (a) By Superposing Paris of Two Spectra, fig 13 (b) By Method of Reflection —Place a red wafer on b, m fig 14, and a blue wafer on d, and so angle a small glass plate a as to transmit to the eye a re

flection of thé blue wafer on din

and the black itself looks blacker than if there were no white patch

the sarmmé line as the rays transrutted from the red wafer on b Similarly, a red patch on a grey background causes the grey to S The sensation will be that of purlook greenish These effects, from the physiological point of view, e ple; and by using wafers of difare analogous to the reciprocal innervation of musclés which was discovered by Sir Charles Sherrmgton He found that when a J \ ferent colours, many experiments 7 may thus be performed movement is made, e g, with the arm or eyes, the muscles which, when stimulated, cause the opposite movement are not merely pasN (c) By Rotatmg Discs Which sively relaxed but are actually mbhubited, so that they becomé 3 Quickly Superpose on the Same ad | Area of Retwma the Impressions of slacker than usual. It is clear that this reciprocal action of one area of retina upon Different Wave-lengths —Such FiG 14——DIAGRAM SHOWING LAM. discs may be constructed of cardthe neighbouring areas will facilitate the disctimination of contours It will, in fact, have the same practical effect as if the BERT'S METHOD OF MIXING SENSA- board, on which coloured sectors retinal image were very much more sharply defined than it TIONS OF COLOUR are painted, representing diateally is grammatically the arrangement attributed to Sir Isaac Newton The angles of the sectors were thus given by him: 4. SENSATIONS OF COLOUR Red 60° 45 8’ Green 60° 4s 8! r. General Statement.—Colour (qv) is a special sensation Orange 34° 10s’ Blue 54? 4! Yellow 54°41’ Indigo ; 34° 105! excited by the action on the retina of rays of light of a definite ~ Violet . . 60° 45 8! wave-length On the most likely hypothesis as to the physical With sectors of such a size, grey will be produced on rotating nature of light, colour depends on the rate of vibration of the luminiferous dether, and white light is a compound of all the the disc rapidly. This méthod has béen carried out with great colours in definite proportion When a surface reflects solar hght efficiency by the colour-top of J. Clerk-Maxwell. It 1s a flat top, into the eye without affecting this proportion, it is white, but if on the surface of which discs of various colours may be placed 1t absorbs all the light so-as to reflect nothing, it appears to be Dancer has added to it a method by which, even while the top 1 black. If a body held between the eye and the sun transmits rotating rapidly and the sensation of a mixed colour is strongly light unchanged, and is transparent, it 1s colourless, but if trans- perceived, the eye may be able to sée the szmple colours of which lucent st is white If the medium transmits or reflects some rays it is composed. This is done by placing on the haridle of thé top, and absorbs others, it is coloured Thus, if a body absorbs all a short distance above the coloured surface, & thin black disc, the rays of the spectrum but those which cause the sensation of perforated by holes of various size and pattern, and weighted a green, we say the body is green in colour, but this gréen can only httlé on one side The disc vibrates to and fio rapidly, and break: be perceived if the rays of light falling on the body contain rays the continwty of the colour impression; and thus the constituent having the special rate of vibration reqmred for ths special colours aré readily seen.

“g

207

VISION The Laws of Colour Mixtures——The mixture of pure, ze,

spectral, colour stimuli has been exhaustively studied by Newton, Grassmann, Clerk-Maxwell

and many others, and has elicited

the fact that nar mal colour vision- ıs irechromatic

Thus, if three

spectral hues are chosen, so far apart in the spectrum that neither

can be reproduced by admixture of the other two, every con-

ceivable light or light mixture gives rise to a sensation which can

violet we add green, which has a rate of vibration about midway between red and violet, we obtain a sensation of white Red, ma and violet are therefore regarded as the three fundamental colours 5. Physiological Characters of Colours.—Colour physiologi-

cally is a sensation, and it therefore does not depend only on the physica] stimulus of light, but also on the part of the retina af-

be accurately matched by the sensation produced by the mixture of swtable amounts of these three hues The only exceptions to

this law are that brown and olive green cannot be so reproduced without the assistance

of successive contrast, which is equiva-

lent to a mixture with black And further, although accurate matches of hue are produced the hue produced by the admixture

of the three lights is generally less saturated, in other words, a perfect match 1s only obtained by adding white to the comparison hght it is thus possible to obtain innumerable colour equations representing accurately the results of such admixtures with a given spectrum Hence, various methods for representing colours geometrically can be devised. The

Geometric

Representation

of Colours.—Colours

may be arranged in a linear series, as in the solar spectrum

Each

pomt of the line corresponds to a determinate impression of colour, the hne ıs not a straight line, as regards luminous effect, but 1s better represented by a curve, passing from the red to the violet. This curve might be represented as a circle in the circumference of which the various colours might be placed, in which case the complementary colours would be at the extrem-

ities of the same diameter. Sir Isaac Newton arranged the colours in the form of a triangle, as shown in fig 15 If we place three of the spectral colours at three angles, thus—green, violet and

red—the sides of the triangle include the intermediate colours of the spectrum, except purple. The point S corresponds to white, consequently, from the intersection of the lines which jom the complementary colours, the straight mes from green to $, RS and VS represent the amount of green, red and violet necessary to form white, the same holds good for the complementary colours, for example, for blue and red, the lme SB=the amount of blue, and the lne SR=the

amount of red required to form white Agam, any point, say M, on the surface of the triangle, will represent a mixed colour, the composition of which may be obtained by mixing the three funda-

mental colours in the proportions represented by the length of the lmes M to green, MV and MR But the Ime VM. passes on to the yellow Y; we may then replace the red and green by the GREEN yellow, m the proportion of the

15 —-GEOMETRICAL

TATION

OF THE

FROM

E SIR

PARSON,

SINTAQDUCTION

SITY PRESS) FIG, 16 —COLOUR

TO

THE

TRIANGLE,

W

TA

m

49

560

STUDY

OF

WHITE,

1

L

51 52 COLOUR

R

t

VISION’

RED,

1

I

:

et SR

563 54 55 56 5T58

G.

(CAMBRIPGE

GREEN,

B.

UNIVER-

BLUE

The numbers are those of an arbitrary scale of the spectrum of the Aro Light (Abney & Watson)

fected The power of distinguishing colours is greatest when they fall on, or immediately around, the yellow spot, where the num-

ber of cones is greatest

In these regions more than two hundred

different tints of colour may be distinguished

As already men-

tioned, outside of this area lies a middle zone, where fewer tints are percerved, mostly confined to shades of yellow and blue If intense coloured stimuli are employed, colours may be perceived even to the margin of the periphery of the retina, but with weak stimuli coloured objects may seem to be black, or dark

like shadows In passmg a colour from the periphery to the centre of the yellow spot, remarkable changes m hue may be observed. Orange is first grey, then yellow, and it only appears as orange when it enters the zone sensitive to red Purple and

length of the hne MY, and mix bluish green are blue at the periphery, and only show the true it with violet in the proportion of tnt in the central region Four tints have been found which do SV The same colour would thus change: a red obtained by adding to the red of the speczaV, | also be formed by mizing the not trum a little blue (a purple), a yellow of 574:5 A, a green of 495 À

PURPLE

RED

FIG

G

REPRESEN-

RELATIONS

COLOURS AS SHOWN BY NEWTON

amount MY of yellow with MS of white, or by the amount RM

oF Of red with the amount MD of

greenish, blue,

and a blue of 471A, The question now arises, How can we perceive differences in colour? We might suppose a molecular vibration to be set up in, the nerve-endings synchronous with the undulations of the

The triangle shown is purely diagrammatic If measurements aether, without any change in the chemical conare made with any given spectrum the general form of the curve 1s luminiferqus stitution of the sensory surface, and we might suppose that where triangular, the purples being strictly rectilinear. The lines from red to green and from green to violet, however, will be curved asın fig 16 The following list shqws characteristic complementary colours,

with their wave-lengths (\) in millionths of a millimetre, Red, A656 Blue-green, M92. Orange, A608, Gold-yellow, 4574 Yellow, 4567 Greenish yellow, 4564.

Blue, 4490 Blue, 482, Indigo-blue, 4464. Violet, 4438

By combining colours at opposite ends of the spectrum, the effect

various series of waves n the aether corresponding to different colours act together, these may be fused together, or to interfere so as to give rise to a vibration of modified form or rate that corresponded in some way to the sensation Or, to adopt another

line of thought, we might suppose that the effect of different rays

(rays differmg in frequency of vibration and in physiological

effect) is to promote or retard chemical changes in the sensory

surface, “which agai so affect the sensory nerves as to give rise to differing states in the nerves and the nerve centres, with differ-

ing concomitant sensations,” The former of these thoughts is

of the intermediate colours may be produced, but the lowest and the highest red and violet, cannot thus be formed These

the foundation of the Young-Helmholtz theory, while the latter 1s applicable to the theory of E, Hering,

are therefore fundamental or primary colours, colours that cannot be produced by the fusion of other colours If now to red and

cepted by physicists was first proposed by Thomas Young and

6 The

Young-Helmholtz

Theory——A

theory widely

ac-

208

VISION

afterwards revived by Helmholtz It is based on trichromatism of normal colour vision and the assumption that three kinds of nervous elements exist in the retina, the excitation of which give respectively sensations of red, green and violet These may be regarded as fundamental sensations Homogeneous hght excites all three, but with different mtensities according to the length of the wave Thus long waves will excite most strongly fibres sensitive to red, medium waves those sensitive to green, and short waves those sensitive to violet. Fig 17 shows diagrammatically the irritability of the three sets of fibres Helmholtz thus applies the theory

From the psychological point of view,

of red and blue or violet

therefore, there appear to be four, rather than three, fundamental colours. Moreover, these four are two pairs of complementary colours, and may therefore be regarded as in some sense opposed to each other Psychologically, black 1s opposed to white, but whereas the 80 70

1 Red excites strongly the fibres sensitive to red and feebly the other tuo—sensation Red. 2 Yellow excites moderately the fibres sensitive to red and green, feebly the violet—sensation Yellow 3. Green excites strongly the green, feebly the other two—sensation: Green 4 Blue excites moderately the fibres sensitive to green and violet, and feebly the red—sensation Blue , gs Violet excites strongly the fibres sensitive to violet, and feebly the other two—sensation Violet , 6 When the excitation 1s nearly equal for the three kinds of fibres, then the sensation 1s White,

According to the Young-Helmholtz theory, there are three fundamental colour sensations, red, green and violet, by the combination of which all other colours may be formed, and it ıs asRO Y G B Y sumed that there exist in the retina three kinds of nerve elements, each of which is specially responsive to the stimulus of | , waves of a certain frequency corTesponding to one colour, and much less so to waves of other frequencies and other colours If waves corresponding to pure red | 2 alone act on the retina, only the corresponding nerve element for red would be excited, and so with green and violet But if waves of 8 RO Y G B Y¥ different frequencies are mixed (corresponding to a mixture of FIG. 17 —DIAGRAM SHOWING THE colours), then the nerve elements IRRITABILITY OF THE THREE KINDS will be set in action in proportion OF RETINAL ELEMENTS to the amount and intensity of the constituent excitant rays m the colour Thus if all the nerve elements were simultaneously set in action, the sensation is that of white hight; if that corresponding to red and green, the resultant sensation will be orange or yellow; if mainly the green and violet, the sensation will be blue and indigo No such nerve fibres or elements are known, but the theory is equally vald if the stimul affect three photo-chemical substances, etc Seeing that the Trichromatic theory or Three Components theory, as the Young-Helmholtz theory ıs better termed, depends upon the trichromatism of normal colour vision it is clear that the three so-called sensation curves can be deduced from colour equations This was first done by Clerk-Maxwell, and at a later date by KGnig, an assistant of Helmholtz They have since been worked out by Abney by a different method, dependent upon the fact that the brightness of the unanalysed white light is equal to the sum of the brightnesses of all the individual wave-lengths of the spectrum Abney’s curves are shown in fig 18 None of the curves extends at both ends to the limits of the spectrum, as is demanded by the theoretical curves, but 1t must be remembered that at the ends of the spectrum it 1s extremely difficult to make accurate matches, owing to the low lummosity 7 The Opponent Colours Theory.—If one regards the spectrum psychologically and independent of any physical preconceptions one notes that there are only four fundamentally unique colour sensations, viz., red, yellow, green and blue The intermediate spectral colours partake of the nature of each of their neighbours, eg., orange, which manifestly arouses a sensation reminiscent of both red and yellow, yellowish-green, greenishblue; etc. Violet to most people resembles blue mixed with a tinge of red, and the purples outside the spectrum are all mixtures +

60 50 40 80

LNB

55 FROM

ABNEY,

“RESEARCHES

IN COLOUR

VISION”

(LONGMANS

GREEN

&

CO

"6

e?

)

FIG 18 —ABNEY’S R G & B EQUAL AREA SENSATION CURVES The sums

of equal ordinates

of the three curves

at any

point represent the

sensation of the unanalysed white light

greys form a continuous series from white to black, no such contmuous series links red with green, or yellow with blue The facts of induction—simultaneous and successive contrast—elicit the opponent effects of these pairs of toned or col-

oured and untoned or colourless sensations On grounds of this nature, Hering propounded his theory of colour vision, which may be called the Opponent Colours theory. It ıs really a part of a more general metabolic theory of physiological processes Hering hypothecates three different visual substances, white-black, red-green, and yellow-blue substances, which exist somewhere in the sub-cortical visual paths He supposes that when a living substance is protected from external stimuli 1t undergoes spontaneous autonomous metabolic changes Some molecules break down or undergo dissimilation (or katabolism), fresh ones are built up or undergo assimilation (or anabolism) When the two processes balance each other the substance ıs in a state of autonomous equulbrium. It is to be noted that autonomous equilibnum does not necessarily mean physiological mactivity Fresh formative matter may be brought from the blood in the exact quantity necessary to replace the formed matter which is poured out into the blood. If the substance 1s acted upon by an external stimulus allonomous metabolic changes are set up They may be either anabolic or katabolic, but they mduce a spontaneous tendency in the opposite direction so as to reproduce autonomous equilibrium, 2e, allonomous katabolism, for example, induces autonomous anabolism With constant stimulation the autonomous anabolism becomes equal to the allonomous katabolism, and a new condition of equilibrium at a lower potential is set up, which is called allonomous equilibrium Upon removal of the stimulation autonomous anabohsm will prevail for a time until autonomous equilibrium is again set up Hering supposes that when rays of a certain wave-length fall on visual substances assumed to exist in the retina, katabolic changes occur, whle roys having other wave-lengths cause constructive or

anibouc ch.t.ces Sup ose that in a red-green substance katabolic anc a behe chenge~ occur in equal amount, there may be no sensation, but-when waves of a certam wave-length or frequency cause katabolic changes in excess, there will be a sensation of red, while shorter waves and of greater frequency, by exciting anabole changes, will cause a sensation of green and so on

8 The Two Theories Compared.—Hermg’s theory accounts

satisfactorily for the formation of coloured after-images Thus, if we suppose the retina to be stimulated by red light, katabolism takes place, and if the effect continues after withdrawal of the red

VISION stimulus, we have a positive after-image

Then anabohc changes

occur under the influence of nutrition, and the effect is assisted by

the anabolic effect of shorter wave-lengths, with the result that the

negative after-image, green, is perceived Perhaps the distinctive feature of Hering’s theory 1s that white is an independent sensation, and not the secondary result of a muxture of primary sensations, as held by the Young-Helmholtz view. The greatest diffi-

culty ın the way of the acceptance of Hering’s theory is with reference to the sensation of black. Black 1s held to be due to anabolic changes occurring in the white-black substance Suppose that anabolism and katabolism of the white-black substance are in equilibrium, unaccompanied by stimulation of either the red-

green or the yellow-blue substances, we find that we have a sensation of darkness, but not one of intense blackness This “dark-

ness” has still a certain amount of lummosity, and it has been termed the “intrinsic light” of the retina. Sensations of black differing from this darkness may be readily experienced, as when

we expose the retina to bright sunshme for a few moments and then close the eye We then have a sensation of intense blackness, which soon, however, 1s succeeded by the darkness of the “intrinsic

hght ” The various degrees of blackness, if it 1s truly a sensation, are small compared with the degrees m the intensity of whiteness

Jn the consideration of both theories changes in the cerebral centres have not been taken into account, and of these we know next to nothing

It 1s, perhaps, natural that the three components theory has always appealed most strongly to physicists, while physiologists have in the past been inclined most to support the opponent colours theory ‘The latter can be made to explam the facts of induction, but, even though it is obviously founded largely upon these facts, 1t has to be strained considerably to account for their details It does not, however, so satisfactorily explain the facts of colour mixture On the other hand, the Young-Helmholtz theory accounts admirably for the facts of colour mixture, upon which ıt was founded, whereas Helmholtz had to resort to psychological 1llusions of “Judgment” to make it account for the facts of mduction As McDougall, however, has shown, it accounts quite well for most of these facts also. Space does not permit of a description of the many other theories

of colour vision which have been brought forward (See Parsons, An Introduction to the Study of Colour Vision, and ed , Cambridge, 1924). g. Colour-blindness.—It has long been known that many per-

sons show peculiarities of colour vision distinguishing them from the normal ‘The earliest reference in the literature is that of Turberville ın the Transactions of the Royal Society (1684) The first case exhaustively studied was that of John Dalton, the chemist, and colour-blindness was long known as “Daltonism.” Nearly all these people have difficulty in discrimmating between reds and greens and other colours at this end of the spectrum.

209

colour-blindness. A few cases of uniocular congenital colour-blindness have been described, but none is sufficiently well authenticated to decide the question as to exactly what are the sensations which the colourblind experience. We have no means of discovering the sensations of other people except by comparison with our own responses and inferences derived therefrom. We are all eqmpped with an extensive vocabulary of colour names, and the colour-blind, guided by shapes, variations in brightness, and other adventitious aid, often call objects by their right colours. They never call a strawberry green, but they may have the greatest difficulty in finding the strawberries on the plants, and they find 1t more economical to use yellow pegs to tee their ball at golf than red ones. Hence, in the investigation of the nature of the defect in any individual, little credence is to be attached to the colour nomenclature they employ, though the expert examiner will obtain some evidence from it On the other hand, in determining the fitness of sailors and railway men colour naming is important, for a man who calls a red light green is obviously unfit to be an engine driver. One of the most efficent means of testing the sensations of the colour-blind is to compare ther matching of colours with that of the normal person. Owing to the complexity of the hght reflected from different coloured objects false deductions are easily made if these are used They will suffice to discover colourblindness in bad cases, but may fail to reveal it in others. Hence, no examination is exhaustive unless spectral colours are employed to. Dichromatic and Trichromatic Vision.—If a large number of cases is examined in this manner a group of very bad cases can be segregated which have this common characteristic —

Two monochromatic lights can be found such that, mixed in varıous proportions, the mixtures will match every wave-length throughout the spectrum and also the unanalysed white light In order to get perfect matches it will be necessary only to alter the relative brightnesses of the pure and the mixed stimuli. In this group two well-marked sub-groups can be distinguished, as was discovered by Seebeck (1837). They differ in the proportions of the two mixed hghts which are required for the matches Since normal individuals require three colours to make such matches, and are hence called trichromatic, these colour-blind people are aptly called dichromats As much confusion has arisen from the names applied to the two groups, we will temporarily call them A and B.

Since white light can be matched by the dichromat with a suitable mixture of two monochromatic lghts, and since all spectral colours can be matched by mixing the same two colours in

varinus proportions, 1t follows that there 1s some spectral colour which will match white This is called the neutral pomt of the dichromatic spectrum. In group A, it is at about 489 uu, in group B The most pronounced cases fall into two groups: in one vivid reds at about 500 wu: both neutral points are therefore in the bluish are confused with dark greens; ım the other greens are confused green region of the spectrum. Since there is a purple, outside the with red, orange and yellow of more equivalent brightness spectrum and composed of a suitable mixture of red and violet, In 1881 Lord Rayleigh discovered that many people with ap- which is complementary to this green, it is obvious that there must parently normal colour vision require different amounts of red or be a neutral point in the purples; and such is found to be green in making colour matches. His crucial test was the match- the case. ing of the yellow of the sodium lime (589 wy) with a mixture of A further discovery of profound theoretical importance was hthrum red (670 uu) and thallium green (527 uy). This is the test made by Seebeck, viz , that all colour equations valid for normal vision are also valid for dichromatic vision, or colour matches used in Nagel’s Anomaloscope All these varieties, and possibly some others, are of congenital which are valid for the trichromatic are also valid for the dichroorigin and incurable The statistics are very unreliable, but the matic eye. Hence it follows that the dichromat possesses no grosser cases affect about 4% of males and 0.4% of females The variable which the trichromat lacks, but lacks a variable which the disease is hereditary and generally transmitted through the female, trichromat possesses. In other words, dichromatic vision is a reduction form (von Kries) of normal vision, and not a fundawho 1s herself not usually affected Owing to the use of red, green and white lights for signalling on mentally different kind of vision. from If the spectral matches of dichromats with mixtures of red (645 colour-blind railways, ships, etc., the elimination of the candidates for posts of engine driver, navigating officers, and so on, up) and blue (461 wu) are plotted with the spectral wavelengths as abscissae and the amounts required (on an arbrtrary 18 of the utmost importance. Defects of colour vision—acquired colour-blindness—occur in scale) as ordinates, it is found that no blue is required on the red various diseases of the visual apparatus, notably m toxic amblyopia side of 530 pu (von Kries). The two groups are sharply disproduced by tobacco and other drugs In these cases the defect tinguished In the A group the red maximum is at 571 wy and is often muted to the area around the fixation point—central falls rapidly towards the red end, showing the low stimulus value colour scotoma—and in all cases differs materially from congenital for long-wave light. This is shown in many cases by an actual

210

VISION

Abney and Watson have described a group of anomalous tri. inability to see the red end of the spectrum as seen by the normal —shoriening of the red end of the spectrum, Jn the B group the chromats which differs fundamentally from all other cases of red maximum is at 603 my and falls more slowly towards the colour-blindness described above, in that they are not a reducred end. Hence Rivers (1900) mtroduced the terms scoferythrous tion form, All the comparatively small number of cases hitherto and photerythrous to distinguish the 4 and B groups, Et 1$ wn- investigated can be explained by a shift of the normal “green”

fortunate that these terms have not been generally adopted, since sensation curve 2 or 34 towards the red end of the spectrum, It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss the many they are purely descriptive and are independent of any theory. Tt follows, and has been amply confirmed by experiment, that the other theories of colour vision and their relation to colour. luminosity curve of the spectrum of the B group resembles blindness The Young-Helmholtz theory has fulfilled the essen. nearly that of the normal trichromat, whereas the maximum of tial function of a scientific hypothesis m inspiring new modes of the luminosity curve of the A group is displaced towards the vestigation, Whether it be ultimately proved to embady the fundamental truth er not it possesses the merit of having elicited een. T Theories of Colour-blindness.—Most investigators of more knewledge on the subject than any other theory. Other colour-blindness have been imbued with some particular theory of theories must be evaluated in the hight of those facts. 2 Tests for Colour-blindness.—These should be considered colour vison and have expressed their views in terms of the theory Thus, Helmholtz, deeply impressed hy the fact that di- according to ther am, whether ıt be that. of defining accurately the scientific nature of the type of colour-blindness, or merely to chromatic vision 1s a reduction form of trichromatic and that trichromatic colour equations are valid for the dichromats, con- determine whether the individual 1s suited for a particular oceucluded that this form of colour-blndness could be explained by pation, In most cases they are designed for the latter purpose, the absence of one of the three components. The sensation curves but ıt cannot be too strongly insisted that, though many cases are usually denominated by the colour region of their mammum of colour-blindness are easy to detect, others, which are equally effects—red, green and blue. Hence he concluded that m the A dangerous, may need the most exhaustive investigation The matching of pigments in the form of coloured skeins of group the red component was absent, ın the B group the green If this were the case, there might theoretically be two other forms of wool (Holmgren’s test), etc, will often reveal bad cases, and mn colour-blindness. In one the blue curve would be absent (C the hands of an expert examiner will raise suspicions in milder group), and m the other all the three curves might be fused in a cases which further tests will confirm. The prejudice agamst central curve (D group). If such were the case, the C group Holmgren’s woals is to some extent justified. Sailors object to a would have relatively normal colour reactions as regards the red test so “unpractical” and savouring of effeminacy. Moreover, and green parts of the spectrum, but would confuse blues and yel- as already mentioned, pigments do not pravide very satisfactory lows In the D group the individuals would merely have varying test objects. sensations of brightness and no capacity for distinguishing colours Lantern tests have found greater favour, but may easily prove at all. Now, there is a well known group of people who are totally fallacious ‘The chief adventitious aid to the discrimination of colour-blind, and these fit in well with the theory. More recent re- colours hy the colour-blind is their relative brightness. Thus, 1f search tends to show that they cannot all, at any rate, be explained a red light is shown amongst others to a member of group A, it m this manner. A relatively small number of cases has been will appear to him very dull, and he will probably name it cor. described which conform ta the requirement of the C group rectly In the Board of Trade lantern this adventitious aid was It was, perhaps, natural that the three groups of partial colour- eliminated by making all the lights af the same luminosity A

blinds should be denommated red-blind, green-blind and blueblind by upholders of the Young-Helmholtz theory It has, however, had the most disastrous results and has Jed to endless ambiguity. For in the obvious meaning of the terms these people

are not red-, green- or blue-bind.

They simply have different

responses from the normal when their retinae are stimulated with

similar effect can be produced in the Edridge-Green lantern by combining the coloured glasses with dimming glasses. Stilling’s isochromatic plates are a useful rough test

Ishiwara’s

are mteresting in that they have designs which can be discrimi-

nated by the colour-blind but not by the normal Nagel’s anomaloscope is a convenient method of applying Lord Rayleigh’s test It ıs liable to give erroneous results with people who are not accustomed to looking through a telescope In difficult cases—-and there are many such—examination with various spectral tests is necessary ‘hese may fittingly begin by the candidate delimiting with shutters the number of monochromatic patches in the spectrum, as advocated by Edmndge~ Green More detailed tests by various spectral matches are best carried out by a projection method, such as Abney’s, which eliminates the errors liable to arise with telescopic observation

these particular regions of the spectrum. The attempt of von Kries to eliminates the ambiguity by calling the conditions protanapa, deuteranopia and trifanopia failed in its object, and seems anly to have infuriated opponents of the Young-Helmholtz theory. The explanation of the ordinary cases of partial colour-blindness on the Hering theory is that both groups, A and B, are due to absence of the red-green substance, the differences in the groups being attributed to differences in macular pigmentation It 1s easy to prove that physical absorption by a pigment in the retina could not account for the facts, and no satisfactory explanation (X; J H P) a terms of this theory has yet been brought forward 5. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EYE There is no doubt that wide variations ın the degree of partial colour-blindness occur, and the majority ef the colour-blnd I1. General Statement.—The globe of the eye has a centre people cannot make perfect matches of monochromatic spectral af rotatzon, which igs not, exactly in the centre of the optic axis, hues with only two fundamental colours. In other wards, they but a little behind it On this centre it may move round axes of are not completely dichromatic. Most fall inte the category of rotation, of which there are three—-an antero-posterior, a verthose discovered by Lord Rayleigh, but it is highly probable that tical and a transverse In normal vision, the two eyes are always this group 3s really composite They are obviously trichromatic, placed in such a manner as to be fixed on one point, called the but most of them shaw, on exhaustive exammation reactions fixed port or the point of regard, A line passing from the centre which approximate them to ane or other group of dichromats, of rostio“ +o tHe “otat of rezire is called the line of regard The chiefly to group B They also can be found to have no new vari- (BO ones olier id form cr angle a. the point of regard, and the able, and normal trichromatie matches are valid for them. They base is formed by a line passing from the one centre of ratation can therefore be explained on the Young-Helmholtz theory on to the other, A plane passing through both lines of regard is called the hypothesis that their responses to one or other of the funda- the plane of regard With these definitions we can now describe mental components are less intense than normal; ie., while two the movements of the eyeball, which are of three kinds: (1) First of the sensation curves are normal, the third, either the “red” position The head is erect, and the line of regard is directed or the “green” is abnormally low. These cases are aptly called towards the distant horizon (2) Second position ‘This indicates anomalous trichromats, and are sub-divided, in the terminology all the movements round the transverse and horizontal axes When of von Kries, into pretanomalous and deuteranomalous the eye rotates round the first, the lne of regard is displaced

VISION above or below, and makes with a line indicating its former posi-

tion an angle termed by Helmholtz the angle of vertical displacement, or the ascensional angle, and when it rotates round the vertical axis, the line of regard is displaced from side to side, forming with the median plane of the eye an angle called the angle of lateral displacement

(3) Third order of positions. This

includes all those which the globe may assume in performing a rotatory movement along with lateral or vertical displacements This movement of rotation is measured by the angle which the plane of regard makes with the transverse plane, an angle termed

the angle of rotation or of torsion The two eyes move together as a system, so that we direct the two lmes of regard to the same pomt in space

The eyeball is moved by six muscles, which are described in

the article Eve (Anatomy) The term visual field 1s given to the area intercepted by the

extreme visual lines which pass through the centre of the pupil, the amount of dilatation of which determines its size. It follows

which are projected on retinal points

211 While geometrically it

may be conceived as simple, as a matter of fact ıt 1s generally a line of double curvature produced by the mtersection of two hyperboloids, or, mm other words, 1t 1s 4 twisted cubic curve formed

by the intersection of two hyperboloids which have a common generator The curves pass through the nodal point of both eyes. An infinite number of lines may be drawn from any point of the horopter, so that the pomt may be seen as a single point, and these lmes lie on a cone of the second order, whose vertex is the pomt. When we gaze at the horizon, the horopter is really a horizontal plane passing through our feet The horopter in this stance is the ground on which we stand. Experiments show “that the forms and the distances of these objects which are situated in, or very nearly m, the horopter, are perceived with a greater degree of accuracy than the same forms and distances

would be when not situated in the horopter” (M’Kendrick, Lzfe of Helmholtz, 1899, p. 172 et seq.). An object which is not found ın the horopter, or, in other

words, does not form an image on corresponding poimts of the retinae, 1s seen double. When the eyeballs are so acted upon by their muscles as to secure images on non-cotresponding points, and consequently double vision, the condition is termed strabzsmus, or squinting, of which there are several varieties treated of object with both eyes, having the optic axes parallel, its image ın works on ophthalmic surgery It ıs important to observe that falls upon the two yellow spots, and it is seen as one object If, in the fusion of double images we must assume, not orly the however, we displace one eyeball -by pressing ıt with the finger, correctness of the theory of corresponding points of the retina, then the 1mage in the displacéd eye does not fall on the yellow but also that there are corresponding points ım the brain, at the spot, and we see two objects, oné of them being less distinct central ends of the optic fibres Such fusion of imagés may occur than the other It is not necessary, however, ın order to see a without consciousness—at all events, it is possible to imagine that single object with two eyes that the two images fall on the two the cerebral effect (except as regards consciousness) would be yellow spots; an object is always single if 1ts image falls on the same when a single object was placed before the two eyes, in the proper position, whether the individual were conscious or corresponding points in the two eyes The eye may rotate round three possible axes, a vertical, hori- not On the other hand, as we are habitually conscious of a zontal and antero-posterior These movements are effected by single image, there is a psychical tendency to fuse double images four straight muscles and two oblique The four straight muscles when they are not too dissimilar 4 Binocular Perception of Colour.—This may be studied as arise from the back of the orbit, and pass forward to be mserted into the front part of the eyeball, or its equator, if we regard follows Take two No 3 eye-pieces of a Hartnack’s microscope, the anterior and posterior ends of the globe as the poles. The or two eye-pieces of the same optical value from any microscope, two obliques (one originating at the back of the orbit) come, place one in front of each eye, direct them to a clear window in as it were, from the nasal side—the one goes above the eyeball, daylight, keep them parallel, and two lummous fields will be the other below, while both are imserted into the eyeball on the seen, one corresponding to each eye Then converge the two eyetemporal side, the superior oblique above and the inferior oblique pieces, until the two lummous circles cross, and the central part, below The sxx muscles work in pairs The internal and external hke a bi-convex lens, will appear clear and bright, while the outer rectt turn the eye round the vertical axis, so that the line of segments will be much less intense, and may appear even of a vision is directed to the right or left The superior and inferior dim grey colour Here, evidently, the sensation is due to a fusion recti rotate the eye round the horizontal axis, and thus the line of impressions in the brain. With a similar arrangement, blue of vision 1s raised or lowered The oblique muscles turn the eye light may be admitted by the one eye-piece and red by the other; round an axis passing through the centre of the eye to the back and on the convergence of the two, a resultant colour, purple, of the head, so that the superior oblique muscle lowers, while the will be observed ‘This may be termed the binocular vision of inferior oblique raises, the visual hne It was also shown by Helm- colours It is remarkable that by a mental effort this sensation holtz that the oblique muscles sometimes cause a slight rotation of a compound colour may be decomposed into its constituents, of the eyeball round the visual ams itself These movements are so that one eye will again see blue and the other red (Xx, C Go.) under the control of the will up to a certam point, but there are slighter movements that are altogether mvoluntary. Helmholtz 6. VISUAL PERCEPTION studied these slighter movements by a method first suggested by Visual umpressions play a4 more amportant part than sensations F C Donders By this method the apparent position of afterimages producedl by exhausting the retina, say with 4 red or green of any other mode in guiding our interpretations of the external object, was compared with that of a line or fixed point gazed at world and our orientation therein (a) Visual Perception of Movement.—Response td movewith a new position of the eyeball The ocular spectra soon vanish, but a quick observer can determine the coincidence of ment is the most primitive of all visual reactions An observer imes with the spectre After procucing an after-image with the may respond to visually presented movement, with only the head in the erect po-ition he hei’ may be placed into any vaguest apprehension of thé direction and extent of the moveinchned position, and 1¢ the 2t.c7 10n 1; then fixed on a diagram ment, and with no appreciation of the size, contours or colour having vertical lines ruled upon it, 1t can easily be seen whether of the moving object The visual appreciation of movement probably depends prithe after-image coincides with these lines. As the after-image must remain in the same position on the retina, it will be evident marily upon the setting up of specific functional relationships between two or more groups of retinal sensory elements If a that if it coincides with the vertical lines there must have been the movements of the eye, and is displaced with it Each point

in the visual field has a corresponding point on the retina, but

the portion, as already explained, which secures our attention 1s that falling on the yellow spot 2. Simple Vision with Two Eyes.—-When we look at an

a shght rotation of the eyeball, Such a coincidence always takes

place, and thus it is proved that there is an mvoluntary rotation This mmute rotation enables us to judge more accurately of the position of external objects. 3. The Horopter.—This is the locus of those points of space

retinal area is stimulated by a stationary point source, and thereafter a neighbouring area is similarly stimulated, and if the time

and space relations between the two stimuli are suitably arranged, there results an impression, not of two stationary points, but of a single point in motion.

VISION

212

Most of the other functions of vision, the “object” reference, the localisation of objects, the attribution of size, contour and distance may be regarded as in some way bound up with the response to movement. In the course of development, however, they come to have independent status. (b) The “Object” Reference in Vision——When we see anything, normally a large number of visual impressions are involved These are synthesised, or integrated, treated as having some common origin, and referred to an external source which we call the “object.” There is no real explanation of this “object” reference which appears to be inherent in visual response; it 1s bound up with the ultumate “projicient” character of all visual experience.

(c) Visual Localisation.—In general visual :mpressions are interpreted as referring outward to some position in space There are three principal directions, the transverse, giving us breadth, the vertical, giving us height, and the sagittal, giving us depth or distance Broadly speaking localisation in any of these directions is possible only when the point or area localised has a background out of which other points may be selected and used as points of reference Some of the data for such locahsation are given by the afferent sensations which arise as the eyes move from one point to another over this background, or the lens is accommodated for nearer or farther points in the field of view Such movements and accommodation are automatic and practically reflex, but if they are to be made at all accurately there must be some retinal, or at least visual, cue to them Thus it is often assumed that for each point or group of pots of retinal stimulation there must be a “local sign,” by virtue of which any stimulus affecting them is at once given a position above or below, to the right or to the left, and, in reference to some point of fixation, forward or backward. Obviously this affords no explanation of visual localisation, but is only a way of stating how fundamental is such “positional” reference 1n vision A single luminous point exposed in a dark room can still to some extent be localised For all of such observations every adult observer has a more or less definite preformed visual “scheme,” and this may give him his necessary points of reference even though the latter are not, strictly speaking, visually presented Monocular perception of depth, distance or solidity is mm any case exceedingly faulty. It is here that the development of bmocular vision has its most important function The data are given by sensations of convergence and divergence of the two eyes, by accommodation of the lens, and by the “local sign” system in relation to a point of fixation.’ For anything but fairly near distances, however, it is inaccurate to speak of perception Judgment then, comes into play, based upon all sorts of facts such as the clearness of the atmosphere, the apparent size of objects, the nature of intervening objects, the knowledge that we have already gained in other ways as to the spatial characteristics of whatever 1s being localised

(d) Apparent Size in Vision—For small objects apparent

size depends in part, though less than might be expected, upon the size of the retinal image, as determined by the visual angle. Accommodation factors come in also, and normally contrast effects, derived from the relation of the object to its surroundings, N are important. In the case of larger objects, eye movements may help to de- |N
°, Els and Macleod, Vital factors of foods, vitamins and 7 «ruin Co's]} (London, 1923); V. G and R H.A Phmmer, Vitamins and the chore of Food (London, 1922) and Food and Health (London, De ta

VITEBSK,

a town of the White Russian SSR, situated

on hoth banks of the western Dwina (Daugava), and on the railway, in 55° 10’ N., 30° 11 E. Pop (1926), 91,202 Its industries include the manufacture

of glass, agricultural machinery,

boots and shoes, sewn goods, sewing needles, spectacles and bristles.

There is a large Jewish element in the town

Vitebsk (Dbesk, Vitbesk and Vitepesk) is mentioned for the

e+e parity fror the Lombard perad The streets are paved with hk ge ava Slecke oi siucn Le town 1s also built The Piazza S Pellegrino 1s said to be the best example in the country of a 13th century piazza The citadel (Rocca) itself, erected by Cardinal Albornoz in 1345, is now a barrack The cathedral, a fine basilica, of the 12th (?) century, with columns and fantastic capitals of the period, originally flat-roofed and later vaulted, with 16th-century restorations, contains the tomb of Pope Jobn XXI, and has a Gothic campanile in black

and white stone. Here Pope Adran IV (Nicholas Breakspear) compelled the emperor Frederick I. io hold his stir-

rup as his vassal

The old episcopal palace with a double loggia

built on to it (recently restored to its onginal form) 1s a Gothic building of the 13th century, The church of S Rosa exhibits the

embalmed body of that saint, a natrve of Viterbo, who died

first time in 1021, when it belonged to the Polotsk principality. im her eighteenth year, after working various miracles and having Eighty years later it became the chief town of a separate princi- distinguished herself by her imvectives against Frederick II pality, and so continued until 1320, when it came under the (1251), some ruins pf whose palace, destroyed after his death, dominion of the Lithuanians In the 16th century it fell to exist S Francesco, a Gothic church (1236), contains the fine Poland Under the privileges granted to the city by the Polish Gothic tombs of Popes Clement IV. and Adrian V., and has sovereigns it flourished, but it soon began to suffer from the wars an external pulpit of the rsth century S Maria della Cella is between Russia and Poland, during which it was thrice taken by noteworthy for one of the earliest campanili in Italy (oth centhe Russians and burned Russia annexed it finally ın 1772. tury). The town halj, with a mediaeval tower and a 15th-century ?-1502), Italan con- portico, contains some Etruscan sarcophagi and a few paintings VITELLI, VITELLOZZO ( dottiere Together with his father, Niccolò, tyrant of Citta di Close by is the elegant Gothic façade of S Maria della Salute, Castello, and his brothers, who were all soldiers of fortune, he in white and red marble with sculptures, The Gothic cloisters instituted a new type of infantry armed with sword and pike of S Mari in Gredi ard of S Mariz della Verità just outside the to resist the German men-at-arms, and also a corps of mounted tew* aie sKImgy De witar Tre Iter church contains frescoes infantry armed with arquebuses. Vitellozzo took service with by Lorenzo da Viterbo (1469) and an interesting museum. Florence against Pisa, and later with the French in Apulia (1496) Viterbo is by some identified with Surrina nova, which is only and with the Orsini faction against Pope Alexander VI. In 1500 mentioned in inscriptions while some place this to the west of ViVitelli and the Orsin. made peace with the pope, and Vitelli terbo on the line of the Via Cassia, which was jomed here by the entered the service of Cesare Borgia But, thwarted by Borgia in Via Ciminia, passing east of the Lacus Cimimus, while a road hts desire for vengeance on the Florentines, he conspired against branched off to Ferentum (See, however, MonTEFIASCONE } It is him with other captains They were captured by Borgia’s agents, not an unhkely assumption (hat here, as elsewhere, the mediaeval and Vitelli was strangled (Dec. 31, 1502). See vol fi of E Rucotti’s Storia della compagnie di ventura (Turin, town occupies an Etruscan site It was fortified by the LomIt is the centre of the territory of the 1845), in which Domenichi’s ms Vzta dz Vitellozzo Vitelli ıs quoted, bard king Desiderius C. Yriarte, César Borgia (Paris, 1889); P Villar, Lzfe and Times of “patrimony of Peter,” which the countess Matilda of Tuscany N. Macinavella (English ed,London, 1892) ; see also under ALEXANDER VI. and Cesare Borcra.

VITELLIUS, AULUS, Roman emperor Jan 2~Dec. 22, A.D. 69, was born on Sept 24, aD Vitellius, who

15. He was the son of Lucius

had been consul and governor

of Syria under

gave to the papal see in the rath century; in the 13th century it

became a favourite papal residence

(T A)

VITOLS, JOSEPH (1863), professor, Latvian composer and musician, For the last 30 years Vitols has played a

large part in the musical hfe of Latvia Although he studied and

Tiberius. Aulus was consul mp 48, and (perhaps in 60-62) pro- lived for a long time > St. Petersburg (from 1886-1918) as proconsul of Africa Under Galba, to the general astonishment, at fessor of the composition classes of the local conservatory, he has the end of 68 he was chosen to command the army of Lower Germany His good nature, which was fatal to discipline, made

always shown a very special interest in his native country

Al-

ready, during the summer of 1928, before the proclamation of

223

VITORIA—VITRE Latvia’s dependence,

Vitols came

this hne could be at once seized; that the centre was not strongly held, and that all bridges were left intact. The Allies (nearly 80,000, with go guns), under Wellington,

back and took over the

administration of the Lettish opera A year latet (t9r9) he was

given the office of rector of the musical conservatory of Riga, but

sill continued the supervision of the theory and composition classes Besides his creative and teaching work Vitols has held, both ın Russia and Latvia, numerous posts where he has been able to make full use of his great musical ability He has been member of the prize distributing commuttee, president of several musical committees in the Ministry of Education, musical cntic, etc. He 1s director of the Latvian State Music Conservatory.

had moved from the river Bayas at daylight to attack Joseph, 1n four columns, the nght bemg under Hull (20,000, including Moril-

Vitoria was founded in 581 by Léovigild, king of the Visigoths; but its importance dates from the roth century In 1181 Sancho

in retreat Hull after a sharp contest gained the Puebla heights, too weakly held, and pushing through the pass carried the village

los’s Spamards), the right centre and left centre under Welhngton (30,000) and the left under Graham (20,000, including Longa’s Spaniards). As the columns marched across the intersected country between the Bayas and Zadorra, extending from

neat Puebla de Arganzon to the Bilbao-Vitoria road, they kept

Zadorra the battle VITORIA, an episcopal city of northern Spam, and capital touch with each other, and as they neared theWellington’s instrucAM. of the province of Alava; on the Miranda de Ebro-Alsasua opened all along the line soon afterno10manoeuvre which would sepundertake to were Graham section of the Northern railways, among the southern outliers tions to the right; but, with this proviso, to of the Cantabrian mountains, and on the left bank of the river arate his column from those on appeared decidedly gadorra, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro. Pop (1920) 34,785. seize the Vitoria-Bayonne road if the enemy

of Subijana de Alava. The nght centre column having reached Villodas, was waitmmg for Hill to gain further ground, when the

the Wise of Navarre granted it a charter and fortified it. The

aty is built on a hill 1,780 ft. high, and overlooks the plain of

bridge at Tres Puentes was observed to be unguarded, probably south bank; and, the French been considerably spoiled by late additions: the church of San because it was commanded from the beautiful a has it attention being now turned towards their flanks, it was surprised century; Miguel also dates from the 12th division, supported altar, carved in wood by J. Velazquez and G. Hernandez, in the and rushed by Wellington with the Laghtmaintained themselves who 16th century Vitoria, from its favourable position on the main quickly by cavalry and other troops, partially forced, while his lines from Madrid to France and to the port of San Sebastian, is on the south batik Joseph’s centre was Gazan and D’Erlon an important centre of trade in wine, wool, horses, mules and left was hard pressed by Hill, and, fearing that to withdraw to a them ordered he Reille, from off cut be might hardware. in front. Here Arinez holdiig did, they Battle of Vitoria.—For the operations which preceded the ridge farther back, which had now passed pattle of Vitoria see PENINSULAR War On June 21, 1813, the there was no hard fighting; but, as Wellington however, from (which, cavalry French army in Spain (about 65,000 men with 150 guns), under three divisions, mahy guns and the little used) across the King Joseph Bonaparte, held an extended Position in the basin the nature of the ground could be but to the Allies fell scon of Vitoria, south (with the exception of the extreme right) of Zadorra, Margarita, Hermandad and Arinez heights north òf the On the left, Graham, having turned the the river Zadorra The left rested on the heights of Puebla, north

Álava. The cathedral of Santa Maria dates from 1181, but has

Zadorra with Longa’s Spaniards, seed Gamarta Menor close to the Bayonne road He also with heavy loss carried Gamarta Mayor and Abechuco, but the bridges south of these villages, though more than once taken, ‘were always recaptured by Reille.

of the Puebla Pass, and Puebla de Arganzon, through which ran

the Miranda-Vitoria~Bayonne road, Joseph’s line of comtnunication with France Thence the hne stretched to the ridge of Mat-

garita, the troops so far being under Géneral Gazat, with à second supporting line under D’Erlon between Arinez and Hermandad

At length, when a brigade from the Aled centre had been pushed

up from Hermandad against Reille’s flank, he withdrew from the obstinately defended bridges, and before this Gazan and D’Erlon had also fallen back, fighting, to a third position on a ridge between Armentia and Ali west of Vitoria. Here, at about 6 bm, they made a last stand, being compelled in the énd to yield; and as Graham, having now crosséd the bridges, was close to the Bayonne road, the main body of Joseph’s army fled by a bad crosstoad towards Pampeluna, abandoning artillety, vehicles and baggage (of which an enormous quantity was parked near Vitoria),

Reille afterwards joming it through Betonia

The Allies then oc-

cupied Vitoria and pursued the French until nighttall

All Jo-

seph’s equipages, ammunition and stores, 143 guns, a million sterhng um money, and various trophies fell into Wellington’s hands, the French loss in men being nearly 7,000, that of the

Allies over 4,000, of whom 1,600 were Portuguese and Spaniards

UW X

ac! `

= ~

This decisive victory practically freed Spain from French domi-

a

É

nation

s

Ady

z

|

$

r

(C.W Ro.)

in the department

a towti of north-western France, AIYIA» Aes = mal of VITRE, Ille-et-Vilaine, on a hill above the leit bank of the Vilaine, pn! ~ la Stes’ “% fe elas -5l Tet Ahes Pes,"1070740d. 2 ia| egrsa S 24m E of Rennes by rail, Pap. (1926) 6,584 Vitré belonged m F ae h: Erg ish M les in the roth century to the youtiger bratich of the counts of Rennes 1a ca. ra | Guy IX., baron of Laval, on his marriage aq E

i

In 1295 it passed to with the heiress, and afterwards suctessively belonged to the

fez la de Angarzc7

and a reserve behind Arinez. The right under Reille guarded the Bilbao-Vitoria road There were no troops between Hermandad and Ariaga, except certain a mass of cavalry near Ali. The Zadorra, fordable in spots only, was spanned by bridges at Puebla de Arganzon,

Nanclares, Villodas, Tres Puentes, Mendoza,

families of Rieux, Coligny and La Trémoille. It was seized by Charles VIII in 1488. Protestantism spread under tħe rule of the houses of Rieux and Cöligny; Vitré becamė a Huguenot

stronghold; ard a Protestant church was established, which was suppressed at the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 The

ana of Léon Abechuco and estates of Brittany, over which the barons of Vitré alternately presided, met here several times The town largely

some Gamarra Mayor, which French guns commanded; but, for reason, mone of these had been destroyed The faults of the extension, its were it of occupation their and French position that xt was in prolongation of and (on the right especially) very close to their line of retreat, sò that 1f the right were driven back

tetams its mediaeval aspect ‘The ramparts on the north side and on the west, consisting of a machicolated wall with towers at intervals, are still standing. Only one gateway remains of the original rth century castle, the rest was rebuilt in the 14th and

224

VITRIFIED

FORTS—VITTORIO

1sth centuries and restored in recent times

VITRIFIED FORTS, the name given to certain hill-forts

of which the defences consist entirely or to some extent of walls which have been subjected in a greater or less degree to the action of fire. Their form is determined by the contour of the summits which they enclose and generally the plan is simple The walls vary in size, the vitrified portion being usually confined to a core extending from the top downwards, though vitrifaction has been met with on the sides of the wall only, and in one known instance a narrow wall consolidated by vitrifaction was found in the heart of an earthen rampart As a rule the vitrified mass appears to have been supported by a wall of unvitrified stone built up on one or both faces. No lime or cement has been found in any of these structures, all of them presenting the peculiarity of being consolidated to a greater or less extent by the fusion of the rocks of which they are built This fusion, caused by the application of mtense heat, is not equally complete in the various forts, or even in the walls of the same fort. In some cases the stones are only partially melted and calcmed, 1n others their adjoining edges are fused so that they are firmly cemented together. In many instances pieces of rock are enveloped in a glassy enamel-lke coating which binds them into a uniform whole; and at times, though rarely, the entire length of the wall presents one sold mass of vitreous substance Some so examples have been discovered in Scotland widely distributed. They are also found m Ireland, Lusatia, Bohemia, Silesia, Saxony and Thurmgia, in the provinces on the Rhine, especially in the neighbourhood of the Nahe, ın the Ucker Lake, m Brandenburg, where the walls are formed of burnt and smelted bricks; um Hungary; and in several places in France They have not been found in England or Wales

VENETO

VITRIOL, a name given to sulphuric acid and to certain sul-

phates Oul of vitriol 1s concentrated sulphunc acid, COV and BOV being abbreviations for “commercial” and “brown” oil of vitriol, respectively Blue or Roman vitriol ıs copper sulphate, green vitriol, ferrous sulphate (copperas), white vitriol, zinc sul-

phate, and vitriol of Mars 1s a basic iron sulphate VITRUVIUS (Marcus Virruvius Porto), Roman architect and engineer, author of a celebrated work on architecture Nothing 1s known of him except what can be gathered from his writings Owing to the discovery of inscriptions relating to the gens Vitruvia

at Formiae in Campania (Mola di Gaeta), ıt has been suggested

that he was a native of that city, and he has been less reasonably

connected with Verona on the strength of an arch of the 3rd century, which is inscribed with the name of a later architect of the same family name—“Lucius Vitruvius Cerdo, a freedman of Lucius” Vitruvius himself says that he was appointed, in the reign of Augustus, a superintendent of balsstae and other military engines (De Archwtectura,i pref ) In another passage (v r) he describes a basilica and adjacent aedes Augusti, of which he was the architect To a great extent the theoretical and historical

parts of his work are compiled from earlier Greek authors, of whom he gives a hst ati 1 and vm

3. The practical portions are evidently the result of his own professional experience, and are written with much sagacity, and in a far clearer style Vutruvius’s name is mentioned by Frontinus im his work on the aqueducts of

Rome, and most of what Pliny says (Hst. Nat xxxv and xxxvi) about methods of wall-painting and practical details in building 1s taken from Vitruvius, though without any acknowledgment The treatise De Architectura Libra Decem is dedicated to Augustus Lost for a long time, it was rediscovered ın the rsth century at St Gall, the oldest existing ms dates from the roth century ‘Throughout the period of the classical revival Vitruvius was the chief authority studied by architects, and in every point

The following facts may be noted —(1) The idea of strengthening walls by means of fire 1s not singular, or confined to a distinct race or area, as is proved by the burnt-earth enclosure his precepts were accepted as final. Bramante, Michelangelo, of Aztalan, in Wisconsin, and the vitrified stone monuments of Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects were careful students of the the Mississippi valley. (2) Many of the Primary rocks, particu- work of Vitruvius. The be-t ed:t'on of the De wtreritec.ura i= by Rose (2nd ed, Leipzig, larly the schists, gneisses and traps, which contain large quantities 18c)), see «leo Noli, Irdev Viruci us (1876), Jolles, Vetruvs of potash and soda, can be readily fused in the open air by means Aesthetik (1906), Sonthermer, Vztruv und seme Zert (1908) For of wood fires—the alkali of the wood serving in some measure as translations, see that by Gwilt (1826, reprinted 1874) , and by M H, a flux. (3) The walls are chiefly vitrified at the weakest points, Morgan, with illustrations (Cambridge, USA, 1914) the naturally inaccessible parts being unvitrified. (4) When the VITRY-LE-FRANCOIS, a town of north-eastern France, forts have been placed on materials practically infusible, as on the capital of an arrondissement in the department of Marne, on the quartzose conglomerates of the old red sandstone, as at Craig right bank of the Marne, 20m SE of Chilons, on the railway Phadraic, and on the limestones of Dun Mac Uisneachain, pieces from Paris to Strasbourg. Pop (1926) 8,314 The Marne-Rhine of fusible rocks have been selected and carried to the top from a canal, the Haute-Marne canal, and the lateral canal of the Marne considerable distance. (5) Many of the continental forts are so unite at Vitry The present town was bult ın 1545 on a uniconstructed that the fire must have been applied internally, and at form plan by Francis I to replace the older one of Vitry-enthe tme when the structure was being erected (6) Daubrée, in Perthois, 24 m to the north-east, burned in the previous year an analysis of vitrified materials taken from four Fren a forts, by Charles V During the early weeks of the World War Joffre which he submitted to the Academy of Paris in Feb. 1881, found had his headquarters at Vitry-le-Francois, and it was taken and the presence of natron in such abundance that he inferred that retaken in the battle of the Marne (1914). sea-salt was used to facilitate fusion (7) In Scandinavia, where VITTEL, a watering-place of north-eastern France, in the there are hundreds of ordmary forts, and where for centuries a department of Vosges, 31 m W. of Epinal by rail Pop (1926) system of signal fires was enforced by law, no trace of vitrifaction 2,693 The cold saline and chalybeate waters are bottled and has yet been detected. exported in large quantities. They are prescribed in cases of BreriocrarHy.—John Williams, An Account of some Remarkable arthritis, dyspepsia, etc. Vittel is a fashionable resort Ancient Ruins (1777) ; J. Anderson, Scotland 1m Pagan Times (1886) ,

VITTORIA, a town of Sicily in the province of Ragusa, Christison, Early Forizficatzons in Scotland; Proceedings of Soc Antig Scot vols vui, xxxix., xl, xlvui ; the mventories of the Royal Com- 95m WS W. of Syracuse by rail (42 m. direct), founded in the mission on the Ancient and Histoncal Mor ments of Scotland: r7th century. It ıs a prosperous town in the centre ofa fertile Proceedings of Royal Insh Academy; R Muaro Prehistoric Scot'ard , district, with the largest wine trade in Sicily. Pop (1921) 31,249 (1899) » Leonhard, Archzv fur Mineraiogr, vol 1, Verckou, Z! chr fiir Ethnologie, vols ii and iv, Schaatiheuzen Vernundlunoen der (town), 31,997 (commune). VITTORIO VENETO, a town and episcopal residence of deutsch anthrop Gesellschaft (1881), Kohl, Verhand a deutsch anthrop. Gesellschaft (1883); Thuot, La Forteresse vitrifiée du Puy the province of Treviso, Venetia, Italy, 25m by rail N of Treviso, de Gaudy, etc; De Nadaillac, Les Premiers Hommes, vol i; 466 ft. above sea-level Pop (1921) 16,162 (town), 24,400 (comMémoires de la Soc Antiq de France, vol xxxvm , Hildebrand, De It is a summer resort, with sulphur and saline springs forhistoriska folken 2 Europa (Stockholm, 1880); Behla, Dze vorge- mune) schichtlichen Rundwalle ım östhchen Deutschland (Berlin, 1888) ; (518° to 59° F), and was formed mm 1879 by the union of Oppermann and Schuchhardt, Atlas vorgeschichtlcher Befestigungen Ceneda (the episcopal see) and Serravalle The cathedral conin Niıedersachen (Hanover, 1888-98) , Zschiesche, Dre vorgeschicht- tains paintings by Pomponio Amalteo (a pupil of Pordenone) Bechen Burgen und Walle im Thurmger Zentralbecken (Halle, 1889), At Serravalle is a church with a fine altar-piece Bug, Schlesische Hedenschanzen (Grottkau, 1890), Gohausen, Die and Tiepolo (1547) by Titian and a number of Gothic and Renaissance houses. Befestigungsweisen der Vorzett und des Mittelalters (Wiesbaden, coe j oo of the Buteshire Natural History .Society (1914- It is a seat of the silkworm breeding and silk-throwing industries. To the north are important hydroelectric plants.

VITTORIO VITTORIO VENETO, BATTLE OF. This is the ttle given to the battle or, more truly, campaign in which the Austrian forces on the Itahan front were finally overthrown m Oct. 1918 Diaz’s plan for the bigger offensive finally decided upon was

VENETO

225

VIII. Army, who attacked towards Sernagha, gamed about a mile But the right wing of the Army (VIII. Corps) was unable to throw its bridges, and only a detachment of storm-troops reached the left bank There was a gap of some 6m between the left wing of the VIII Army and the British XIV Corps, which formed the left wing of the X Army, and the chief move in the

to concentrate on the Piave front between Pederobba and Fagaré (east of Treviso), to cross the river and break through by way of Conegliano to Vittorio Veneto, dividing the Austrian V and VI. general manoeuvre was checked The VIII Corps had been deArmies which held the river line from the sea to Valdobbiadene. tailed to push straight for Vittorio Veneto, and the fact that it The attack was fixed for Oct the Piave caused a delay

16, but bad weather andarise of

Italian Plans——lIt was decided to open the action with an at-

tack by the IV Army (nine divisions) in the Grappa sector, with the double object of drawing the enemy reserves from the Feltre sector and of breaking through in this direction The attack on the Piave was to be carried out by three armies, the XII, VIII.

and X, of which the first and last had been formed specially for this offensive The XII Army (one French division and three Itahan) was commanded by Gen Graziani, the commander of the French troops in Italy, and the X Army (two British divisions and two Italan) by Lord Cavan The main drive was to be made by the VIII Army (14 divisions), attacking from below Pederobba to Ponte della Priula The XII Army was to advance northward outside the Pave, while the X Army was to attack the right wing of the Austrian V Army

and form “a defensive flank to cover and protect the principal manoeuvre of the VIII. Army” (Gen Diaz’s report) On the battle front from the Brenta to Fagaré were massed 41 divisions, 22 m

line and 19 in reserve

Against this force the Austrians had 23

divisions in line and immediate reserve, and ro more divisions within reach The Piave-Grappa front was divided between two army groups’ Boroevié’s Piave Group (V and VI Armies), from the sea to Valdobbiadene, and the newly formed Belluno Group,

under Gen Gogha, from Valdobbiadene to the Brenta. The dispo-

had been unable even to start 1ts advance threatened to throw the whole battle out of gear No better fortune attended the efforts made on the following night to bridge the river east of the Montello The swift current and the enemy guns defied all attempts to establish the bridges, and the engineers suffered very heavy casualties In spite of the mitial successes, the situation was unsatisfactory, but after the first failure to cross the mver east of the Montello, Gen. Cavigha, who commanded the VIII Army and had the general direction of the attack, had detached the XVIII Corps from his reserves to pass under the command of Lord Cavan, cross by the X. Army bridges, push north and clear the front of the troops who were held up The move was entirely successful. The XVIII Corps under Gen Basso crossed the river in the early hours of Oct 28 and attacked northward, while the rest of the X. Army continued its advance Position on Oct. 29.—At the close of Oct 28 the XVIII Corps had gained nearly 4m and had crossed the railway north of the Priula bridges The British XIV Corps had gone right through the Austrian positions and had patrols out on the Monticano, while the Itahan XI Corps was threatening the enemy troops on the Lower Piave ‘The bridgehead was rom. wide and 4m deep The XII Army and the left wing of the VIII had also made good progress, and at last the VIII Corps was crossing the river, between Nervesa and Ponte di Priula The prospects of the following day were bright, for the separation of the Austrian V and VI Armies was effected, and the VI Army, heavily attacked

sition of the Austrian troops and guns showed a fear for the Grappa positions and a failure to divine the direction of the main Italan attack In the Grappa sector the Belluno Group had eight a front, was seriously threatened on its left by Basso’s XVIII divisions 1n line and three in immediate reserve, while the infantry orps On the evening of Oct 29 an Italian flying column entered the was backed by some 1,200 guns The Austrian VI Army, on the other hand, with seven divisions ın lme and two m support, had town of Vittorio Veneto The attacking armies had already taken 33,000 prisoners, and the situation of the Austrian troops on the only about 500 guns against a mass of over 2,000 Opposite Lord Cavan’s X Army the mght wing of the Austrian V Army had Piave was hopeless Next day resistance broke down, and the general retirement ordered on the 29th became a complete rout three divisions in ne and one ın support Allied Attack Opens.—The Italian IV Army, under Gen. The troops on Monte Grappa had hitherto held firm agaist the Giardino, attacked at dawn on Oct 24, and though some headway repeated attacks of the IV. Army, and had made many counterwas made the enemy put up a very stubborn resistance Already attacks. But here too, on the mght of Oct. 30, a retreat began that a very fine piece of work had been carried out by British troops was to turn into a flight. Austrian Collapse and Armistice.—Late on the evening of of the X Army, who in the early hours of the same day occupied the northern part of the long shoal island of the Grave di Popo- Oct. 30 the Austrian command announced that in view of the discussions regarding an armistice which were being conducted bedopoh, crossing the main channel in small flat-bottomed boats punted by Itahan specialist troops (pontiers), and driving back tween Germany and the United States, “our troops fighting on Italian soil will evacuate the occupied region ” On the same day or capturing the enemy outposts The general attack should have followed the next night, but a sudden mse m the nver, which was the order for a general retreat was given, and that evening, in the coming down in heavy flood at 7m an hour, counselled delay. It Val Lagarina, Gen. Weber von Webernau, commander of the was not until the night of Oct 26, when the southern part of the Austrian VI Corps, made a formal demand for an armistice Next Grave di Popodopoli had also been occupied by Italan troops of day he and his staff were taken to the Villa Giusti, near Padua, the X. Army, that the bridges began to be thrown across the river and discussions were begun. It was, of course, necessary to communicate with Versailles, where the Allied War Council was disfor the main attack The Crossing of the Piave.—Eleven crossing points were se- cussing a reply to Germany’s demand for an armistice. Meanwhile the fightng continued, and the Austrian armies lected, one at Pederobba for the nght wing of the XII Army, seven on the VIII. Army front, and three for the X Army, at the crumbled away. The Itahan VI. and I Armies attacked in the Grave di Popodopoli. The XII and X Armies threw their bridges Trentmo, and the III Army, which had crossed the Piave two successfully, but on the VIII Army front only two of the seven days before, was already taking part m the pursuit of Boroevic’s sets of bridges could be established, both on the north of the Mon- broken divisions On the night of Nov 2-3, although the Armistello Next day three bridgeheads were established opposite Pede- tice was not yet signed, the Austrian command issued an order robba, north of the Montello, and opposite the Grave di Popodop- for the cessation of hostilities. It was at first revoked by the oi The most important advance was made mm the latter sector, Emperor Charles, but was reissued and reached the front on the where the X Army succeeded in advancing to a depth of over 2m. morning of Nov 3. The terms were only agreed on verbally on ' ona front of about 4m. The British XIV Corps took 3,500 prison- the afternoon of Nov. 3, and signed at 6,30 P.M. Conclusion.—When hostilties ceased at 3 PM on Nov 4, ers and 2,100 were captured by the Italian VI. Corps. This was the most successful advance of the day. The bridges Italian troops were far up the Trentino and into Cadore, and to of the VIII and XII Armies were all destroyed during the day the east the line of the old frontier was passed and the middle At Pederobba some headway was made, and the troops of the waters of the Isonzo were reached. On Nov 3 Trieste had been

VITUS—VIVES

226

occupied from the sea, and half an hour before the expiration of the term fixed by the Armistice an Italian force was landed at Zara More than 300,coo prisoners had already been counted by the Ttalans, and the total figure was in the region of 500,000 A number of troops who had been cut off were allowed to pass the frontier after being disarmed, but not much more than half of the Austro-Hungarian troops on the Italian front reached the territory of the crumbling empire. All material was left behind, including some 7,000 guns The Austro-Hungarian armies, in spite of bad food and growing depression, began by putting up a stout resistance. The troops in the Grappa sector in particular not only resisted firmly but counter-attacked with great vigour, and punished the Italan IV Army very heavily Giardino lost over 23,000 men, more than three-fifths of the total casualty lst, which exceeded 35,000. BrsiiocRAPRY.—lItalian Supreme Command, Report on the Battle of Vittorio Veneto (1919) ; Itaban Official Papers, Dero Della Guerra d'Italia (1923), A Tosti, La Guerra Italo-Austriaca, 1915-18 (1925). See also Wortp War Brbliography (W K McC)

VITUS, ST. (German, Veit, French, Guy)

According to the

legend, where he is associated with Modestus and Crescentia, by whom he had been brought up, St. Vitus suffered martyrdom at a very early age under the emperor Diocletian. Son of a Sicilian nobleman who was a worshipper of idols, Vitus was converted to the Christian faith without the knowledge of his father, was denounced by him and scourged, but resisted all attacks on his profession. Admonished by an angel, he crossed the sea to Lucania and went to Rome, where he suffered martyrdom His festival 1s celebrated on June 15. The Passton of St. Vitus has no historical value, but his name occurs in the Martyrologium hieronymianum. In 836 the abbey of Corvey, m Saxony, received his relics, and became a very active centre of his cult In the second half of the oth century, the monks of Corvey, according to Helmold’s Chronsca Slavorum, evangelized the island of Rugen, where they built a church in honour of St Vitus The islanders soon relapsed, but they kept up the superstitious cult of the samt (whom they honoured as a god), returning to Christianity three centuries later. At Prague, too, there aré some relics of the samt, who

is the patron of Bohemia and also of Saxony, and one of the fourteen “protectors” (Nothhelfer) of the church in Germany Among the diseases against which St. Vitus is invoked is chorea, also known as St. Vitus’ Dance. See Acta sanctorum, June, 11. tor3—42 and vi 137-140, Beblzotheca

hagiographica Latina (Brussels, 1899), n: 8711-23; J. H Kessel, “St. Veit, seme Geschichte, Verehrung und bildliche Darstellungen,” in Jahrbiicher des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunden im Rheinlande (1867), pp. 152-183.

(H. DE.)

VIVALDO, UGOLINO and SORLÉONE DE (f 1291-

1315), Genoese explorers, connected with the first known expedi-

tion in search of an ocean way from Europe tò India. Ugolmo, with his brother Guido or Vadmo Vivaldo, was in command of this expedition of two galleys, which' he had organized in conjunction with Tedisio Doria, and which left Genoa m May 1291 with the purpose of going to India “by the Ocean Sea” and bringing back useful things for trade Planned primarily for commerce, the enterprise also aimed at proselytism With two Franciscan friars and well-armed galleys, Ugolno sailed down the Morocco coast to Gozora (Cape Nun), in 28° 47’ N, after

which nothing more was heard of him. Early in the next (14th)

century, Sorleone de Vivaldo, son of Ugolino, undertook a search for his father, and even penetrated, it is said, to Magadoxo on the Somali coast

In 1455 another Genoese seaman, Antoniotto

i

2); Belgrano,

“.

. Annali

di Caffaro,” i

OE ET a am 124, etc, and m Ati: della Soc be di Storia Patria, xv 320 (1881), W Heyd, Hz:storre du commerce du Levant (the ımproved French edition of the Geschichte des Levantehandels), u 140-143 (1886), C R Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, v1 413-419, 551 (Oxford, 1906).

VIVARINI, the surname of a family of painters of Murano (Venice), who worked in Venice in the 15th century and played an important part in the development of the Venetian school The family appears to have come to Murano from Padua ANTONIO VIVARINI (1415-1484) worked at first in conjunction

with his brother-in-law, Johanes Alamanus, who appears to have been a German by birth They were the founders of the school

of Murano The Venice academy contains their chief joint work, “The Madonna Enthroned with the Doctors of the Church,”

painted for the Scuola della Carita in 1446 Other works are in the churches of S Zaccaria (1443) and S Pantaleone (1444) In

1447 they worked ın Padua on paintings no longer extant, and m the following yea undertook the decoration of the ceiling of the Ovetari chapel in the Eremitani church in that city The National Gallery has two wings with “Saints” of an altarpiece of which the central panel is now in the Poldi Pezzoh collection, Milan On the

death of Johanes (¢ 1450) Antonio worked with his younger brother, Bartolommeo on the altarpiece now in the Gallery of Bologna (1450) BARTOLOMMEO VIVARINI (active 1450-1499), Was a pupil of his brother Antonio and of Johanes Alamanus. He also studied in

Padua, and Paduan influences appear in the altarpiece at Bologna

mentioned above, which he executed with his brother in 140 But he soon outstripped his elder brother and became the head of

the school of Murano His earliest work extant is “The Virgn and Child” of the Hugh Lane collection, signed and dated 1448

The St John Capistrano of 1459 in thé Louvre displays the statu-

esque qualities typical of his style The ornate character of the settings, the gold work and the festoons which he often introduces,

recall the school of Padua, and in the ’6os he seems to have come under Mantegna’s influence (altarpiece in the Venice academy [1464] and the “Virgin Enthroned” in the Naples museum [1468]). He reached his height in the stern and majestic “St Augustine” (1473) in SS Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Atvise Vivarini (c. 1446-1503) was a pupil of his uncle, Bartolommeo, whose influence is évident in his early work the polyplyth of 1475 at Montefiorentino His style, however, is more elegant and refined He learned much from Antonello da Messina,

as is evident in the exceedingly plastic male portraits in the

Carrara collection at Bergamo and m the National Gallery, London The most important work of his éarlier years is “The Virgin Enthroned and Saints” (¢ 1485) mm the Berlin museum

His later pamtings imitate Giovanni Bellini, as for itstance the Madonnas in the Vienne ttseuri (1420) and in the churches of thé Redentore and S§ Grovarri in Bisgore. Venice. In the latter church is a “Resurrection,” interesting for its unusual and decorative composition. Seé L. Testi, Storia della Pittura Venesiana (Bergamo, prp

VIVERO, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; on the Ria de Vivero, an estuary formed by the river Landrove, which here enters the Bay of Biscay. Pop (1920) 12,490. Vivero is an old-fashioned town, connected with the opposite bank of the estuary by a bridge of twelve arches and a causeway Its fishing fleet, its coasting trade and the agncultural products of the fertile country aroutd ate important

VIVES, JUAN LUIS (1492-1545) So2a1-h scholar, was Uso di Mare, sailing with Cadamosto in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, claimed to have met, near the born at Valencia on March 6 :292 He =:ecied at Paris from mouth of the Gambia, the last descendant of the survivors of 1509 to 1512, arid in 1319 was appointed professor of humnanities at Louvain At the instance of his friend Erasmus he published the Vivaldo expedition See Jacopo Doria, “Annales”

in 1522 an elaborate commentary on Augustine’s De Civstate Dei (1863); the with a dédication to Hehry VIII Soon afterwards he was inJimencz de Ja vited to England, and is said to have acted as tutor to the prim E-pada im t'.c Boletm of the Geographical Seas or Madd vol, ii No. 2. PP 11r tis T17-uT8 (Medma teb 1857), Cara, Degli cess Mary, for whomi he wrote De ratione studsi puerilis epistolae anitch: navice.ort e scoprror? Genucei (Gero, milf) G 1l Pertz, dua (1523) He resided at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, Der alteste Versuch zur Ensdeckung des Secueces p h Ostindien where he was made doctor of laws and lectured on philosophy.

menta Germaniae Conocimiento

historia

(under Ap

Striptores,

de todos los Remés”

ed

1297) in Pertz, Monu-

xvm.

338

Marcot

(1856) , Annulr dì Gvograñu ¢ di S.cussice compos 2 , . . Ua Gracomo

Having declared himself against the king’s divorce from Catherme

VIVIANI—VIVISECTION of Aragon, be lost the royal favour and was confined to his house for sx weeks On his release he withdrew to Bruges, where he

phate Fea(PO4)2+-8H:0, crystallzing in thẹ mọnochnic s3

the preponderant authority of Aristotle. His chief work is the

flexıble and sectile

Bacon’s Organon, In 1538 Vives published the De anima et vita,

oxide, the mineral is colourless, but on exposure to the li very soon becomes of a characteristic indigo-blue colour. tals were first found in Cornwall by J G. Vivian, after the species was named in 1817, The mineral had, however earlier known as a blue powdery substance, called “blue earth,” met with in peat-bogs, mm bog iron-ore, or with fossil

wrote numerous works, chiefly directed against scholasticism and

De Gauss corruptarum artium, which has been ranked with

one of the first modern works on psychology, Neither Descartes (1596-1650), nor Francis Bacon (1561-1626), were the first Renaissance writers to give their attention to psychological theory, as 18 commonly supposed Bacon, it is true, was the most inflyential advocate of the empirical scientific method of the 17th century, but Vives preceded him in emphasizing induction as a method of philosophical and psychological discovery. In his preface to the De anima, Vives accuses the ancients of having myolved themselves in great absurdities, and in the first book he

The crystals possess a perfect cleavage parallel to thẹ pla symmetry and are usually bladed m habit; they are very

When unaltered and cọntaming no

and shells.

VIVISECTION. The term popularly applied to experi on animals (see ANIMALS, EXPERIMENTS ON) Even in the days of legislation on the subject when physiology was

infancy, the name was only in a measure accurate, as ¢ experiments formed but a portion of the experiments on ar Investigations on body temperature, respiration, digestio action of drugs, in many instances involved no cutting operat mporttance ” And in his discussion of the mind he continued his any kind; still they were included under the general name o pomt of view, he did not refer ta the essence of mind but con- section, because they were carried out on living ammals. cerned himself with the actions of the mind. His central idea is present time, though the number of animal experiments in that, knowledge is of value only when it is put to use He then Britam and the civilized world generally has mcreased f discusses association of ideas, the nature of memory, a proposed tionately with the modern greater pursuit of medical knowl law of forgetfulness, the method of reçall of an idea; he explained all its branches, cutting experuments form an msignificant p the principle of mnemonics, and even touched on animal psy- tion of the whole Probably it is true to say that the procer chology In the second book he describes in detail the functions over 90% of so-called vivisection experiments consists in r of the ssmplex intelgeniza (simple apprehension); and in the more formidable than a prick with a hypedermic needle a third book, he examines the emotions or passions, The De disci- injection of a small quantity of fluid or of solid tissue bene, plims (1531), and the Linguae latmae exercitatio (1539), are the skin of a mouse, rat, guinea-pig or rabbit. ‘That, in some ins great. pedagogical works of Vives, the former probably the greatest a disease is thereby conveyed to the animal, is true, but Renaissance book on education Juan Luis Vives died at Bruges only a stage in the endeavour to elucidate the nature of t on May 6, 1540 ease in question, and to devise a means for combating it y

abjures the traditional manner of asking the metaphysical ques-

hon, “What is the soul?” by saying, “What the soul is, is of no concern for us to know, What its manifestations are, 1s of great

A complete edition of his works was published by Gregorio Mayans y Siscar (Valencia, 1782). Adolfo Bonilla y San Martm’s Lurs Vines y la filosofia del renacemiento (Madrid, 1903) 1s a valuable study with

an exhaustive bibliography Juan Lus Vives (roor)

See also G Hoppe, Die Psychologie von

VIVIANI, RENE (1863-3925), French pohbtician, was born at Sidi-bel-Abbés, Algeria, on Nov 8, 1863 Whuile still a young man, he made a considerable reputation as a lawyer, and in 1893 was elected Socialist deputy for Paris It was not until the close of his life that he left the Chamber to enter the Senate In Oct 1906 he was placed by Clemenceau at the head of the recentlycreated ministry of labour. In the followmg month he made a famous speech in the Chamber, in which he affirmed his atheistic behef For these views he was often severely criticized subsequently. “We have put out the lights of heaven,” he said, “and they will never be lit again”

Viviani was responsible for the law

with regard to workmen’s pensions In July 1909 when Briand succeeded Clemenceau as premier, Viviani continued to be minister of labour In Oct. 1910, in consequence of the attitude adopted by the Government in regard to the threatened railway strike, he tendered his resignation. In Dec. 1913 he became minister of public mstruction ın the Doumergue cabinet In June 1914 Vivian became premier and minister for foreign

affairs.

He was

on his way back from Russia with Poincaré

when the Austrian ultimatum was issued against Serbia on July 23. He immediately withdrew the French troops ro km behind the frontier to prove France’s peei*c cttitude When Germany declared war he moce ¢ magiicett speech m the chamber which had an electrifying effect on his audience On Oct 29, 1915 he was succeeded as premier by Briand, in whose Government he

became mmister of justice After the fall of the Briand cabinet in March 1917 he lived in retirement, but he accompanied M Briand to the Washington Conference in 1921 as one of the leading French delegates He died at Clamart (Seme) on Sept 7, 1925, after a long and painful illness. Viviant’s eloquence, with its wealth of umagery and brilliant metaphor, has seldom if ever been equalled in the French Parliament But it was, above all, the réle he played during the tragic events of July and Aug 1914 which caused his name to go down to history (P B)

VIVIANITE,

a mineral consisting of hydrated iron phos-

the disease be one affecting man or one of the domestic a

That expermment in the broadest sense is necessary advancement of knowledge, cogitation alone being insufficie been shown by every branch of science. Indeed, it has be that without experument no substantial advance in knowl the physical sciences has occurred and the example of v

action bas been adduced. We know, to-day, little mere con volcanoes than was known centumes ago because we experiment with volcanoes; such additional knowledge as ° sess depends upon experiments on explosives conducted on

scale

In the case of medical science lying men and anin

concerned. In the case of human disease an earlier in tion has almost always been carried out on lower anm examples may be given the antitoxin treatment of diphthe prophylactic vaccine inoculation for typhoid and para fevers, the insulin treatment of diabetes. By most persc held that the testing of a hypothesis in medicine should first instance, be carried out on lower animals. By some 11 sidered that the attainment of manual dexterity in the p ance of surgical operations should also be carried out by on lower animals, but this is forbidden by law in Great The essence of “‘vivisection” consists in the fact that the ment is conducted in the pursuit of knowledge and tl has lost, to a large extent, 1ts etymological meaning of with a kmfe and, mn general, implies experiments on living carried out for the advancement of medical knowledge |!

and feeding experiments carried out by the farmer improvement of his stock, operations such as gelding, and de-horning are not included under the term. The extent to which the British law on animal exper applicable is shown by the following example In the | treatment of sewage at a certain town the effluent was that an ornamental pool was made and some goldfish wer

therem It was held that this constituted an animal ex) under the act masmuch as it was not known that the fis not be wyured thereby The example is useful as shor vigilance of the authorities over the unquestioned rights animals as determined by Ilaw. No account of animal experiment would be complete reference to the opposition that such experiments have ai

228

VIZAGAPATAM—VLACHS

certain countries, In England “anti-vivisectionists” have formed a society and published a journal There are two hnes of thought, one that aims at total abolition, another that wishes experiments on dogs to be prohibited To combat these views the Research Defence Society was founded in 1908 and issues literature on the subject from time to tre. The main argument of anti-vivisectionists is that man is not morally justified in profiting by experlments at the expense of lower animals. Arising from this principle it is contended (1) that the friendship of the dog and the cat for man and their trustfulness render experiments on them particularly undesirable, (2) that such experrments tend to injure the moral character of the operator, (3) that many of the beneficial results ascribed to animal experiments have been dependent upon other causes than the experiments, (4) that in numerous instances there is difference of opinion even amongst experimenters; and (5) that lower animals and man differ so greatly that application of results obtained in lower animals to man is unjustifiable These contentions are controverted by the other party Probably natural mental attributes ultimately determme whether anımal experiment is viewed with approval or disapproval, but either view to be respected must be based upon extensive and accurate knowledge, accurate statement and sincerity Unfortunately these are not always manifested by protagonists (W S L-B)

VIZAGAPATAM, a town and disfrict of British India, mn

the Madras presidency The town stretches along the coast, and has a station on a short branch of the East Coast railway, 484

m NE

of Madras.

Pop. (1921) 44,711

It hes on a small bay

The town or fort, as it 1s called, is separated from the southern promontory, the Dolphm’s Nose, by a small nver, which forms a bar where it enters the sea The port 1s growing in importance, as the only protected harbour on the coast, though large vessels have to lie 1 m off shore A harbour was in course of construction in 1929. It will be developed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway company, under government control, to supply an outlet

for the fertile east coast area. An English factory was estabhshed here early in the 17th century, which was captured by the French ın 1757, but shortly afterwards recovered. The town owes much to the muntficence of the neighbouring raja of Vizianagram

A water supply has been provided Waltair at the north end of the bay is the European quarter and a health resort The exports by sea include manganese

ore, ground nuts and sugar

The District or Vizacapatam has an area of 4,568 square miles. It is a picturesque and hilly country, but for the most part unhealthy. The main portion is occupied by the Eastern Ghats, whose slopes are clothed with luxuriant vegetation and forest trees The drainage on the east is carried by numerous streams direct to the sea, and that to the west flows into the Godavari through the Indravati or through the Sabari and Siller rivers To the west of the range 1s situated the greater portion of the extensive zamindari of Jaipur, which is for the most part very hilly and jungly. In the extreme north a remark-

able mass of hills, called the Nimgtris, rise to a height of 5,000 ft here are great varieties of chmate. The average annual rainfall at Vizagapatam exceeds 40 inches, Pop (1921r) 2,231,874 The principal crops are rice, millets, pulses and oil-seeds, with some sugar-cane, cotton, spices and tobacco Manganese is largely mined, and a little bauxite worked On the dissolution of the Mogul empire Vizagapatam formed part of the territory known as the Northern Circars, which were ceded to the East India Company by treaties in 1765 and 1766 The Agency, a hilly mland tract which formed more than twothirds of the district, has recently been incorporated with the agencies of Ganjam and Godavari into a new division

VIZETELLY,

HENRY

(1820-1894), English publisher,

‘was born in London on July 30, 1820, the son of a printer He was early apprenticed as a wood engraver, and one of his first blocks was a portrait of “Old Parr.” Vizetelly started and conducted several illustrated papers, and then acted as correspondent of the Illustrated London News in Paris and then in Berlin In 1887 he established a pubhshing house in London, issuing numerous

translations of French and Russian authors.

In 1888 he was

prosecuted for publishing a translation of Zola’s La Terre, and was

fined £100, and when he reissued Zola’s works in 1889 he was

again prosecuted, fined £200 and imprisoned for three months, He died on Jan

r, 1894

See lis Glances back through Seventy Years (1893)

VIZEU or Visev, a Portuguese episcopal city at the terminus of a branch of the Figueira da Foz-Guarda railway

Pop

(x911)

8,167 The city stands near the ruins of the ancient Vacca, or Cava de Viriato, a Roman mulitary colony founded by Decius

Brutus and captured by Viriathus (2nd century Bc)

The ad-

ministrative distnct of Vizeu coincides with the central and northern parts of the ancient province of Beira (qu) Pop

(1920), 404,864, area, 1,937 sqm

VIZIANAGRAM, a town of British India, in the Vizagapa-

tam district of Madras, 17 m from the seaport of Bimlpatam, on the East Codst railway, 522m NE of Madras Pop (1921 )

39,299

It has a small military cantonment

It contains the resi-

dence of a zamindar of the same name, who ranks as the first Hindu nobleman of Madras His estate covers about 3,000 sqm, with a population of 900,000 VIZIER, more correctly Vizir (Arabic Wazir), literally “burden-bearer” or “helper,” originally the chef minister or representative of the Abbasid caliphs (see MoHAmMMeEDAN InstrrvTIONS, CALIPHATE; and BARMECIDES)

VLAARDINGEN, a river port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on the Maas, 6m W of Rotterdam by rail Pop (1927), 27,236 A very old town and the seat of a former margraviate belonging to the counts of Holland, Vlaardingen is now chiefly important as the centre of the great herrmg and cod fisheries of the North Sea VLACHS, The Vlach (Wallach) or Ruman race constitutes a distinct division of the Latm famıly of peoples, widely disseminated throughout south-eastern Europe, both north and south of the Danube, and extending sporadically from the Bug to the Adriatic The total numbers of the Vlachs may be approximately estimated at from 9,000,000 to 11,000,000 Of these the vast majority reside in the kingdom of Rumania, as enlarged by the World War South of the Danube, a now diminishing number are

scattered over northern Greece under the name of Kutzo (“Jame”)Vlachs, Tzintzars or Aromam: In Serbia this element is preponderant in the Timok valley, while ım Istria it is represented by-the Cici, at present largely Slavonized, as are now entirely the kindred

Morlachs of Dalmatia

In Bulgaria Vlachs are found chiefly m

the western Rhodopes A detailed account of the physical, mental and moral charac-

teristics of the Vlachs, their modern civilization and their historical development, will be found under the headings RUMANIA and Maceponra. All divisions of the race, whether inhabitants of the kingdom of Rumania or not, prefer to style themselves Romam, Romeni, Rumeni or Aromani The name “Vlach” (Slav Volokh or Woloch, Greek Vlackor, Magyar Olóh, Turkish Ifiók), which is now used by the Rumans themselves, represents a Slavonic adaptation of a generic term applied by the Teutonic races to all Roman provincials during the 4th and sth centuries. The Vlachs claim to be a Latin race in the same sense as the Spaniards or Provencals—Latin by language and culture, and, in a smaller degree, by descent This claim is generally accepted by ethnologists The language of the Vlachs is Latin in structure and to a great extent in vocabulary, their features and stature would not render them conspicuous as foreigners in south Italy, and that their ancestors were Roman provincials is attested not only by the names “Vlach” and “Ruman”

but also by popular

and literary tradition In their customs and folk-lore both Latm and Slavonic tradıtıons assert themselves Of ther Roman traditions the Trajan saga, the celebration of the Latin festivals of

the Rosala and Kalendae, the belief in the strega (witch), the names of the months and days of the week, may be taken as typical examples Some Roman words connected with the Christian rehgion, lke biserica (basilica) =a church, botez=baptizo, dumimnca=Sunday, preot (presbyter) =priest, pont to a continuous tradition of the Illyrian church, though most of their ecclesiastical terms, like their liturgy and alphabet, were derived from the Slavonic. In most that concerns political organization the

VLACHS Slavonic element is also preponderant, though there are words

ike mpărat=ımperator, and domn=dommus, the old stock

which pomt to

Many words relating to kinship are also Latin, some,

like vitrig (vitricus)=father-m-law, being alone preserved by this branch of the Romance family The centre of gravity of the Vlach race is at present unques-

tionably north of the Danube in the almost circular territory between the Danube, Theiss and Dniester; and corresponds roughly with the Roman province of Dacia, formed by Trajan in ap 106

From this circumstance the popular idea has arisen that the race itself represents the descendants of the Romanized papulation of Trajan’s Dacia, which was assumed to have maintained an unbroken existence in Walachia, Transylvania and the neighbouring

provinces, under the dominion of a succession of invaders

The

Vlachs of Pindus, and the southern region generally, were re-

garded as later mmigrants from the lands north of the Danube Jn 1871, E R Roesler published at Leipzig his Roméanische Siudsen, in which he absolutely denied the claim of the Rumanian Vlachs to be regarded as autochthonous Dacians He laid stress

on the statements of Vopiscus and others as implying the total withdrawal of the Roman provincials from Trajan’s Dacia by Aurean, in AD 272, and on the non-mention by historians of a

Latin population in the lands on the left bank of the lower Dan-

ube, during their successive occupation by Goths, Huns, Gepidae, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and other barbarian races He found the first trace of a Ruman settlement north of the Danube in a

Transylvanian diploma of 1222

His conclusions had to a great

extent been already anticipated by F J Sulzer in his Geschichte des Transalpinıschen Daciens, published at Vienna in 1781, and at a still earlier date by the Dalmatian historian Lucius of Traù in his work De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae (Amsterdam, 1666). They found a determined opponent in Dr J Jung, of Innsbruck, who upheld the continuity of the Roman provincial stock m

Trajan’s Dacia, disputing from historic analogies the total withdrawal of the provincials by Aurelian; and the reaction against Roesler was carried still farther by J.L Pit, Prof A D. Xenopol of Jassy, B P. Hasdeu, D. Onciul and many other Rumanian writers, who maintain that, while their own race north of the Danube represents the origmal Daco-Roman population of this region, the Vlachs of Greece are similarly descended from the Moeso-Roman and Illyro-Roman inhabitants of the provinces lymg south of the river On this theory the entire Vlach race occupies almost precisely the same territories to-day as in the 3rd century. On the whole it may be saıd that the truth lies between the two extremes Roesler is no doubt so far right that after 272, and throughout the early middle ages, the bulk of the Ruman people

Nestor, writing about 1100, makes the same invaders fight : Slavs and Vlachs in the Carpathians. So far from the first m of the Vlachs north of the Danube occurring only in 1 appears from a passage of Nicetas of Chonae that they wer found already in 1164 as far afield as the borders of Galici a passage in the Nzbelungenlied, which mentions the Vlachs their leader RAmunc, in association with the Poles, cannot ` later than 1200 Nevertheless, through the early middle ages the bulk of t man population lay south of the Danube. It is here that tt Ilfyrian Romance race first rises to historic prominence. £ in the 6th century, as we learn from the place-names, s Sceptecasas, Burgualtu, etc, given by Procopius, the Rum. guage was assuming, so far as its Latin elements were con ts typical form In the later campaigns of Commentiolus and Priscus, against the Avars and Slavs, we find the Latin ing soldiery of the Eastern emperor making use of such Rx expressions as żorna frate! (turn, brother!), or sculca (out i apphed to a watch (cf. Ruman @ se culca=Italian cor ex-[s-] privative). Next we find this warlike Ruman pot largely incorporated in the Bulgarian kingdom, and, if to judge from the names Paganus and Sabinus, already su it with rulers in the 8th century. The blending and close during this period of the surviving Latın population w Slavonic settlers of the peninsula impregnated the langua its large Slavonic ingredient. The presence of an importan element in Albanian, the frequent occurrence of Albaniar in Rumanian, and the remarkable retention by both langu a suffix article, may perhaps imply that both alike too characteristic shapes in the same region. Byzantium, which had ceased to be Roman, and had Romanic, renewed its acquaintance with the descendants Latin provincials of Dlyricum through a Slavonic medit applied to them the name of Vlach, which the Slav hims

borrowed from the Goth. The first mention of Vlachs in a tine source is about the year 976, when Cedrenus (ii 439) the murder of the Bulgarian tsar Samuel’s brother “by Vilach wayfarers,” at a spot called the Fair Oaks, between ( and Prespa From this period onwards the Ruman inhabi

the Balkan peninsula are constantly mentioned by this na we find a series of political organizations and territorial ¢ connected with the name of Viachia A short synopsis given of the most important of these, outside the li Rumania itself Political and Territorial Divisions—-1. The Vlach Emptre—After the overthrow of the older B tsardom by Basil “the Bulgar-slayer” (976-1025), th lay south of the Danube But it is reasonable to suppose a Latin- population of Thrace, Haemus and the Moesian lands pas speaking population continuing to exist in the formerly thickly more under Byzantine dominion; and in 1185 a heavy ta colonized area embracing the present Transylvania and Little in kind on the cattle of these warlike mountain shepherd: the Viachs to revolt against the emperor Isaac Angelus, a Walachia, with adjoining Carpathian regions. Early Migrations.—We may therefore assume that the Latin the leadership of two brothers, Peter and Asen, to foun race of eastern Europe never wholly lost touch with its former Bulgaro-Vlachian empire, which ended with Kaliman IT trans-Danubian strongholds It was, however, greatly diminished The dominions of these half-Slavonic half-Ruvran cmp there The open country, the broad plas of what is now Rumania tended north of the Danube over a grea deal of wi’ and the Banat were in barbarian occupation. The centre of gravity Rumania, and it was during this period that the Vlach px of the Roman or Romance element of Illyricum had now shifted north of the river seems to have been most largely reinfor: south of the Danube By the 6th century a large part of Thrace, 13th-century French traveller Rubruquis speaks of all the between the Don and Danube as Asez’s land or Blakia, Macedonia and even of Epirus had become Latin-speaking 2. Great Walachia (MeyaAn Braxla)—It is from An What had occurred in Trajan’s Dacia in the 3rd century was consummated in the 6th and 7th throughout the greater part of nena, in the second half of the r1th century, that we firs the South-Illyrian provinces, and the Slavonic and Avar conquests a Vlach settlement, the nucleus of which was the moi severed the official connection with eastern Rome The Roman region of Thessaly. Benjamin of Tudela, in the succee tury, gives an interesting account of this Great Walac element was swept hither and thither by the barbarian flood Nomadism became an essential of independent existence, while completely independent It embraced the southern an large masses of homeless provincials were dragged as captives to ranges of Pindus, and extended over part of Macedo be distributed in servile colonies They were thus in many cases including the region in which the Roman settlers men transported by barbanan chiefs—Slav, Avar and Bulgarian—to the Acts of St. Demetrius had fixed their abode. After trans-Danubian and Pannonian regions The earliest Hungarian conquest of Constantinople in 1204, Great Walachia was historians who describe the Magyar invasion of the gth century in the enlarged despotat of Epirus, but after passing 1 speak of the old mhabitants of the country as Romans, and of the yoke of the Serb emperor Dushan and other Serbian rul country they occupied as Pascua Romanorum; and the Russian 14th century, was finally conquered by the Turks in 13¢

230

VLADIKAVKAZ—VLADIMIR

ot their old privileges were accorded to the mbabitants, and their taxes were limited to an annual tribute. 3 Little Walachia (Mucpd BAaxia) was a name applied by Byzantine writers to the Ruman settlements of Aetola and Acarnama, and with it may be included “Upper Walachia,” or ’Avw. Bhaxia Its inhabitants are still represented by the Tzintzars of the Aspropotamo and the Karaguni (Black Capes) of Acarnania 4. The Morlachs (Mavrovlacht) of the West-——These are already mentioned as Negrs Latem by the presbyter of Dioclea (€ 1150) in the old Dalmatian httoral and the mountains of Other colonies Montenegro, Herzegovina and North Albania extended through a great part of the old Serbian interior, where is a region still called Stara ViaSka or “Old Walachia” The great commercial staple of the east Adnatic shores, the republic of Ragusa, seems in its origin to have been a Ruman settlement, and many Vlach traces survived in its later dialect In the 14th century the Mavrovlachi or Morlachs extended themselves towards the Croatian borders, and a large part of maritime Croatia and northern Dalmatia began to be known as Morlacchia A Major Viachia was formed about the triple frontier of Bosnia, Croatia and Dalmatia, and a “Little Walachia” as far north as Pozega The

Morlachs have now become Slavonized (see DALMATIA) 5 Cict of Istria.—The extreme Ruman offshoot to the northwest is still represented by the Cici of the Val d’Arsa and adjomnmg Istrian districts, They represent á 15th-century Morlach colony from the isle of Veglia, and had formerly a wider extension

Vladimir attacked Polotsk, slew Ragvald and took Ragnilda by force Subsequently (980) he captured Kiev also, slew Yaropolk by treachery, and was proclaimed prince of all Russia In 981 he conquered the Chervensk cities, the modern Galicia, n 983 he subdued the heathen Yatvyags, whose territories lay between Lithuania and Poland, 1n 985 he leda fleet along the central nverg of Russia to conquer the Bulgars of the Kama, planting numeroys

fortresses and colonies on his way At this time Vladimir was a thoroughgoing pagan. He increased the number of the trebishcha or heathen temples, offered up Christians (Theodore and Ivan,

the protomartyrs of the Russian Church) on his altars, had eight hundred concubines, besides numerous wives; and spent his whole leisure in feasting and hunting He also formed a great council out of his boyars, and set his twelve sons over his subject principalities, In the year 987, as the result of a consultation with his boyars, Vladimir sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighbourmng nations whose representatives had been urging hım to embrace their respective faiths. The result 1s amusingly described by the chronicler Nestor Of the Muslim Bulgarians of the Volga

the envoys reported “there is no gladness among them, only sor-

row and a great stench, their religion is not a good one” In the temples of the Germans they saw “no beauty”, but at Constant.

nople, where the full festival ritual of the Orthodox Church was

set in motion to impress them, they found their ideal “We no longer knew whether we were in heaven or on earth, nor such beauty, and we know not how to tell of 1” If Vladimir was imto Trieste and the counties of Gradisca and Gorz The Cici have pressed by this account of his envoys, he was yet more so by the almost entirely abandoned their native tongue, which is the last offer of the emperor Basil II to give him his sister Anna in marremaining representative of the old Morlach, and forms a con- riage. In 988 he was baptized at Kherson in the Crimea, taking the necting lnk between the Daco-Roman (or Rumanian) and the Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brotherIllyro- or Macedo-Roman dialects in-law, the sacrament was followed by his marriage with the 6 Rumans of Transylvania and Hungary —As already stated, Roman princess Returning to Kiev in triumph, he converted his a large part of the Hungarian plains were, at the coming of the people to the new faith with no apparent difficulty. Magyars in the gth century, known as Pascua Romanorum Ata The remainder of the reign of Vladimir was devoted to good later period privileged Ruman communities existed at Fogaras, works. He founded numerous churches, including the splendid where was a Selva Viachorum, at Marmaros, Deva, Hatzeg, Hun- Desyatinnuy Sobor or “Cathedral of the Tithes” (989), established yad and Lugos, and in the Banat were seven Ruman districts Two s*hools protected the pror ond introdreed ecclosi-stical courts of the greatest figures in Hungarian history, the rs5th-century Wan ris neig™yeurs he heed it peeve he mcursior~ o7 the savage rulers Jobn Corvinus of Hunyad and his son King Matthias, were Petchenegs alone disturbing his tranqumllity His nephew Svyatdue to this element For its later history see TRANSYLVANIA polk, son of his brother and victim Yaropolk, he married to the See J L. Pit, Uber die Abstammung der Rumanen (Leipzig, 1880) ; daughter of Boleslaus of Poland. He died at Berestova, near Kiev, A. D. Xenopol, Les Roumams au moyen fge (Jassy, 1886), B. P while on his way to chastise the insolence of hus son, Prince YaroHasdeu, “Stratii $i Substratii: Genealogia poporelorii balcanice,” in Annalele Academiet, ser 11, vol 14 (Bucharest, 1893), D Onciul, slav of Novgorod. The various parts of his dismembered body were distributed among his numerous sacred foundations and weré “Romani m Dacia Traiana,” etc, m Enciclopedza Romédna, vol it (Bucharest, r902), A. J. B Wace and M. S. Thompson, The Nomads venerated as relics of the Balkans (1914).

VLADIKAVKAZ, a town of Russia in the North Caucasian

area, in 43° 3 N, 44°47 E Pop (1026) 73,603 Its name means

“Key of the Caucasus,” and it stands on a plateau 2,345 ft high on both sides of the Terek river, where the latter issues from the Darial gorge Towering above the town is the famous Kasbek

peak. A small fort was established here in 1784, but the expansion of the town dates from the completion of the great Georgian miltary road southwards through the gorge to Tiflis, which was bezun in 1811 and opened in 1864 Later a railway lnk was made

See Memorials (Rus ) published by the Commussion for the exammation of ancient documents (Kiev, 1881, etc); I Komanim and M Istomm, Collection of Historwal Matertals (Rus) (Kiev, 1890 etc,),

O Partitsky, Scandinaviamem

ir Ancient Ruse

(Rus)

(Lemberg,

1897); A Lappo-Dan lv-.w sty er 400 gare (Rus) (St Petersburg, 1887), J Macquart, Osteuropazsche u ostastatesche Stresfauge (Leipzig, 1903) ; L_ C. Goetz, Das Kzever Hohlenkloster als Kulturzentrum des vormongolschen Russlands (Passau, 1904) (R N B)

VLADIMIR, a province of the Russian S F.S R , surrounded

by those of Moscow, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Nizhegorod and Ryazan, not comciding with the pre-1917 province of the same through Beslan to the Rostov-Baku line to the north The great name, Area 30,104 sq kilometres Pop (1926) 1,319,836 It 1s gorge has much historic importance for the region, through it part of the Central Russian plateau (800-950 ft ) and 1s grooved came Persian armies and, later, Timur and his Mongol hordes, by tiver valleys to a depth of 300 to 450 ft, giving the province and its mihtary road brought about the pacification of the warring a hilly appearance. Caucasian frontier tribes and gave Russia her foothold in the The soil is for the most part unfertile, save m the district of Caucasus Yuriev, wheté are patches of black earth, which have occasioned i VLAD ST. (¢. 956-1015), grand duke of Kiev and of a good deal of discussion among Russian geologists Iron ore is all Russia, was the youngest son of Svyatoslav Ï. and his mistress widely diffused, and china clay and gypsum are met with in several Malushka In 970 he received Great Novgorod as his apanage places The chmate 1s contmental, with 5 months’ frost, an averÒn the death of Svyatoslav in g7z, a long civil war took place age January temperature of 16° F and July 66.5° F, average rainbetween his sons Yaropolk and Oleg, in which Vladimir was in- fall 18 to 20 inches. The provitice 1s drained by the Oka and its volved. From 977 to 984 he was in Scandinavia, collecting as tributary, the Klyazma, which is navigable to Kovrov, and in many of the viking warriors as he could to assist him to recover some parts of summer to Vladimir Forest, mainly comferous, Novgorod, and on his return marched against Yaropolk On his covers 43-7% of the province, and marshes cover vast areas m the way to Kiev he sent ambassadors 10 Ragvald, prince of Polotsk, to east There are many small lakes Tver is supphed with elecSue for the hand of his daughter Ragnilda The haughty princess tricity from 2 rest-using station o1 ‘he Great Ursov bog refused to affiance herself to “the son of a bondswoman,” but Ploughed iurd occunics three tics the ares under pasture, and

VLADIMIRESCU—VOCATIONAL cattle xaismg and dairying are of less importance than in the surrounding provinces

The

chief crops are rye

(481%),

oats

(23 1%), and potatoes (11-6%) Buckwheat, flax, hemp, grass, orchard fruits, especially chermes and apples, and berries are cultivated. Flax cultivation, which demands much labour, 1s more developed than in Moscow province, where the peasants

TRAINING

231

SKI, a town in the province of Volhynia, Poland VLADIVOSTOK (vyiah-dé-vés-ték’), a port of Asiatic Rus-

sia, in 43° 11’ N,, 131° 53 E

It stretches along the northern

leave the soil and drift to the factories, but even in Vladimmr it

shore of the Golden Horn, on the slope of a ridge of hills extending westwards to the shore of Amur bay, It is the most important town in the Far Eastern Area, though not the administrative centre, and its easily accessible harbour 4 m long by 1 m broad, kept open

ment of koustar (peasant) textile industries, mcluding the making

naval and commercial centre on the Russian Pacific coast.

s not cultivated in the factory areas There is a great develop-

of Inen and woollen piece stuff and knitted goods Leather, sheep skn and felt are prepared, wooden utensils of every kind, and lapts or shoes made of lime-tree bark, The painting of sacred pictures (ikons) still continues, though there is far less demand for them since the revolution There are smelting, textile, paper, glass, dyeing, timber, cardboard and boot factories There are hotler-shops and seed-pressing mills, Vladimir ıs a region of ancient human settlement Numbers of Palaeolithic stone 1mplements intermingled with bones of the

mammoth and the rhinoceros, and still greater numbers of Neolithic stone umplements, have been discovered

‘There are burual

mounds belonging to the Bronze and Iron periods, and containing decorations in amber and gold; nearly 2,000 such burial-mounds are scattered round Lake Pleshcheyevo, some of them belonging to the pagan period and some to the early Christian. The descendants of Karelian families, settled by Peter the Great around Lake Pereyaslavl, still preserve their language and customs, otherwise the province is entirely Great Russian During

all the winter by ice breakers, has made it the most important Pop

(1926) 102,454. The commercial port occupies the western part

of the Golden Horn and there is a stone mole about 5,200 ft, long for herthing and unloading ships; the pontoon stages are 6,300 ft long, there ıs storage capacity for 340,000 tons The docks include two dry and a floating one and there are nine floatmg cranes (30 to 159 tons), one bridge crane and engineering and repairmg yards for ships Soya bean oil is an important export, and a tank oil storehouse (capacity 1,900 tons), with four çonveyers, each having a capacity of 50 tons per hour, has been constructed. The cargo turnover of the port 1s between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 tons, the exports are mamly soya beans, soya bean oil, bean cake, seeds, timber and fish. Much of both import and export trade 1s of a transit character to and from Manchuria, notably soya beans, tea and salt Efforts are being made to develop

the fishing industry and a hydrobiological station was established at Basargin penmsula

in 1925.

On some

islands near Vladi-

vostok breeding grounds for reindeer, elk, roebuck and other animals have been established recently Muraviev selected the site after the Treaty of Aigun (1858) the rath century the principalities of Vladimir, Suzdal and Rostov were united under one grand prince In the 13th century the by which the district was ceded to Russia; a railway via ManMongols under Batu Khan overran the district and ruled it till churia and the Trans-Bazka] district reached the town in 1897, though the final hnk with the trans-Siberian was not completed 1328, when it was annexed to Moscow VLADIMIR, the chief town of the above province, known in till 1917. The full effects of this link have not yet heen felt owmg lustory as Vladimur-on-the-Klyazma, to distinguish ıt from Vladi- to the destruction consequent on the prolonged post-1g17 fighting mir in Volhynia It is picturesquely situated on the Klyazma and along the railway Wireless stations have been established and Lybed, in 56° 8’ N, 40° 20° E Pop (1926) 35,319. The town there is cable connection to Japan The opening of the Odessa to 18 a trading centre on the railway and river between Moscow and Vladivostok sea route gave a marked impetus to colomsation, Nizhniy-Novgorod ‘There are factories for knitted goods, fruit which still goes on via this route to the eastern parts of Siberia. juice and bricks, and there are oul-pressing and saw-mulling indusVOCATIONAL TRAINING, Logically, the term vocatries Extensive cherry orchards occupy the surrounding slopes, tional traming should mclude preparation for the practice of medicine, Jaw and other professions; but it iş convenient to and m each ıs a small watch-tower, with cords drawn im all directions to be shaken by the watcher when birds alight The citadel restrict 1t to courses of regular instruction intended to fit boys stands on a hill and contains two very old cathedrals—the Uspen- and girls for commerce, damestic life or some branch of industry. skiy (1259, restored mn 1891), where all the princes of Vladimir The rapidly growing complexity of mdustry and commerce and have been, buried, and the Dmitrievskry (1197; restored in 1834- the intensity of mternational competition compelled all the pro35). Several churches date from the rath century Viacimur first comes into notice in 1151, when Andrei Bogolyubskiy secretly left Vyshgorod——the domain of his father in the principahty of Kiev—and migrated to the newly settled land of Suzdal, where he became (1157) grand prince of the principalities of Vladimir, Suzdal and Rostov. Although Ivan Kalita (1328~-

41) made Moscow the real head of the Rus States, Vladimir re-

gressive nations to consider the provision of vocational training,

in this sense, to replace or to supplement the methods of apprenticeship (g.v) which sufficed m simpler times It is, moreover, widely held that under the conditions of modern life, especially in great cities, some form of education, continued through the critical years of adolescence, is needed to preserve the physical, intellectual and moral health of the masses of the people, and

I were crowned here VLADIMIRESCU, TUDOR (?-1821), Rumanian leader, is first heard of leading a corps of Rumamian volunteers against

vocational traming, with its appeal to the practical interests of young wage-earners, is regarded as particularly effective. Administration.—In some countries vocational schools are administered as part of the general educational system In EngJand, for instance, they are provided by the ordinary local

the Turks m the wars of 3812 For hus services he received a Russian decoration and the rank of major After the war the

Education, In other countries vocational training is treated rather

mained the coronation city of the grand princes until 1431, and Simeon the Proud, Ivan the Good, Dmitri of the Don and Vasili

privileges of the Pandours whom Vladimirescu had led were an-

authorities for education and subsidized through the Board of

as a distinct educational function

nulled, but he retained his influence as a national leader In 1820 he was approached by Georgaki, the assistant of Prince Alexander Ypsilanti (gv) with a request to organize a rebellion to assist the Greek rising Vladimurescu raised a Rumanian irregular force, and although he led this to join Ypsilanti, he preached a Rumanian national crusade, directed precisely against the Phanariot Greek priests and boyars The Rumanian peasantry flocked round him By Jan 1821r he was master of all Oltenia, and marched to Bucharest Russia, however, failed to support Ypsilanti; instead, the Turks moved against him. Ypsilanti, finding that Vladimirescu

Types of Courses.—In the chief countries many large cities provide vocational schools offering “all-day” courses lasting from two to four years, sometimes in combination with a modified form of trade apprenticeship These prepare pupils for office, business and other commercial activities, or serve mdustries such as agriculture, engineering, furmture making, upholstery, dressmaking (see TECHNICAL EDUCATION; CONTINUATION SCHOOLS), which offer scope for highly trained skill or taste, scientific or technical knowledge and capacity for leadership But by far the greatest amount of vocational training is given everywhere

was aiming at anything rather than a pro-Greek movement, had him arrested and allowed him to be assassinated at TArgoviste. VLADIMIR VOLHYNSKIY:: see Wiopztmierz-WoLyn-

the elementary schools and have already entered upon some occu-

in part-time continuation classes. ĉe., classes which provide a few hours of instruction per week for boys and girls who have left

232

VODENA— VOGEL

pation In parts of Germany and Czechoslovakia attendance at continuation classes, generally in the evening and on Sundays, was long ago imposed upon elementary school leavers, but the modern tendency, largely influenced by the pioneer work of Kerschensteiner at Munich, 1s to require employers to release their young employees for instruction during working hours. In England and Germany laws making this system universal and compulsory have been adopted since the World War, but financial difficulties m both countries retarded the development In some countries “works schools,” maintained by employers for the training of their employees, are an important supplement to the public provision for vocational education. They are especially numerous and well-organized in Germany, but in England met with some disfavour on political and educational grounds. Finally, it should be noted that programmes of vocational training almost always include some teaching intended to continue and widen the student’s general education Instruction in the duties of citizenship is common, and in many cases attention is given to physical trammg and hygiemc teaching (T P.N)

must be taught to the apprentice; how much time ıs to be given to each unt of mstruction; what compensation and bonus, if The State industrial commussion supervises all apprentice relationships, and no contracts may be broken except by State consent Wisconsin’s successful experience with this form of trade train. ing may be gleaned from the fact that Milwaukee, the metropolis

any, are to be paid, and the length of the apprenticeship

of the State, with 763 indentured apprentices in Jan

1922, had

1,532in Jan 1926 The vocational guidance movement has gradually extended unt] it is now recognized in the United States as a responsibility by nearly all the schools and colleges and many organizations such as the Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, as well as many business organyzations BrstiocraPpHy-——C C A

R

Allen, The Foreman and His Job

(1922):

Prosser and C R Alen, Vocatzonal Education m a Democracy

(1925), C A Bennett, Hestory of Manual and Industrial Education up

to 1870 (1926). (W F R) VODENA, a city of Greek Macedonia in the province of Pella on the railway from Salonika to Monastir Pop about 25,000,

UNITED STATES consisting of 14% Slavs and 86% Greeks It is the ancient Trade and industrial trainmg is secured by workers in various Edessa (gv) The town stands on a rocky height commanding ways: (1) learmng on the job by the pick-up method without views of Pindus and Olympus and is the see of an archbishop, VODEYSHANKAR, GOWRISHANKAR (1805-1892), educational supervision, (2) learning in shop-training departments or vestibule schools maintamed by employers, (3) learning as in- native minister of the state of Bhaunagar in Kathiawar, Bombay, dentured apprentices, (4) learning in trade, technical high, con- was born on Aug 21, 1805, of a family of Nagar Brahmans. He tinuation or evening schools and (5) learning in shops and schools rose from bemg a revenue officer to be state muster in 1847, according to some co-operative arrangement between industrial His success in this capacity was such that on the death of the reigning chief, m 1870, he was appointed joint admmustrator mn establishments and the schools. Vocational education received its first great stimulation in concert with a British official The experiment was in every re1906 when the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial spect successful Gowrishankar received the CSI in 1877 He Education was organized for the purpose of extending vocational helped to establish the Rajkumar College at Rajkot, for the edueducation throughout the United States. This society was very cation of native princes, and also the Rajasthanik Court, which, influential and succeeded within a decade of years in marshalling after setthng numerable disputes between the land-owning classes sufficient legislative support for a national law (the Smith-Hughes and the chiefs, has since been abolished In 1879 Gowrishankar Act passed Feb 23, 1917), fostering and aiding vocational educa- resigned office, and devoted himself to the study of the Vedanta tion. Under the terms of this act, Federal financial aid 1s granted philosophy which had been his constant solace and guide In to public schools offering approved vocational, agricultural, home 1884 he wrote a work called Svarupanusandhan, on. the umon of economics and trade and imdustrial education courses of less the soul with Deity He died, much revered, in December 1892 ao Javerital U Vajmk, Gowrishankar Udayashankar (Bombay, than college grade to pupils 14 years of age and older. Support is also given to teacher-tramning institutions preparing vocational 1889). teachers, to civilan rehabilitation training and to special vocaVODKA, VODKI or WODKY, the Russan national spirtional researches The law gives no aid to commercial education ituous beverage. Originally vodka was made almost entirely from The law is administered by a Federal Board for Vocational rye, barley malt to the extent of 15 to 20% beimg used to effect Education, which includes representatives of labour, agriculture, saccharification (see Spirits), but at the present day potatoes manufacturing and commerce. This board operates through State and maize are the staple raw materials from which this spirit 1s boards designated by the respective State legislatures to prepare manufactured, and, as a rule, green rye malt is now used instead and develop vocational education programmes which meet with of barley During the World War the sale of vodka was prohibited, Federal approval The passage of the act greatly extended voca- and after the revolution of Nov 1917, the soviets made an attional education throughout the United States as may be noted tempt to enforce general prohibition, but failed from the following tableVOGAN, BORIS ANDREYEVICH: see Punvax Number

Date

Š

ey

units

naber ot

Number

VOGEL, SIR JULIUS

of pupils

Federal aid

enrolled

1927

8,696

18,900

784,986

$6,730,305 25

IQIS

I,74I

5,257

164,186

832,426 82

Increase

6,955

13,643

620,800

5,897,878 43

A significant trend in trade and industrial education is the growing interest in trade apprenticeship While the old craft apprenticeship no longer exists, there is a very marked mcrease in the number of indentured apprentices learning trades Apprenticeship conforming to modern conditions has been best developed in the State of Wisconsin, where it has had a legal status since 1915. Here a contract must be entered into between the employer and the apprentice whenever employment of a, minor 16 to ax years of age is undertaken with the definite understanding that learning the trade is one of the benefits to be conferred upon the employee In such cases the employer agrees to furnish the practical instruction. The contracts always state what

(1835-1899), British colomial states-

man, son of Albert Leopold Vogel, was born in London on Feb 24, 1835, was educated at University College school, London, and emigrated to Victoria during the excitimg years which followed

the discovery of goldfields there He became editor of a newspaper at Maryborough, stood for the Legislative Assembly and was defeated, and in 1861 left Victoria, carried in the mining rush to Otago, New Zealand, where much gold had just been found Settling in Dunedin, he bought a half-share in the Otago Daily Times, and was soon its editor and a member of the Otago Provincial Council He made his paper the most mfluential in the

colony, and was returned to the House of Representatives

In

1866 he was head of the Otago Provincial Executive, by 1869

he had made his mark m the New Zealand parliament, and was treasurer im the ministry of Sir Wilam Fox. He brought forward schemes for the construction of trunk railways and other public

works, the purchase of Jand from the Maori tribes, and the introduction of immigrants, all to be done with money borrowed in London For the next six years he was the most powerful man in the colony. In 1875 he was knighted. In 1874 Vogel, until that time a supporter of the Provincial

VOGHERA—VOICE

233

system, decided to abolish it In this, with the aid of Sr E W Stafford and Sir H A Atkinson, he succeeded In the struggle,

the emperor by a Vogt (bailiff or steward), and was, in the middle ages, known as terra advocatorum

however, he broke with many of his old alles, and in 1876 suddenly quitted New Zealand to take the post of agent-general in London The last years of his hfe were spent in England He died there, at East Molesey, on March 13, 1899 VOGHERA (anc Iria), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the

1910), French author, was served in the campaign of war entered the diplomatic attaché to the legations at

province of Pavia, and 19 m by ral SSW of that city, 305 ft above sea-level, on the Staffora (a tributary of the Po) Pop. (1921) 20,810 (town); 26,069 (commune) It 1s on the old mam Ime from Genoa to Milan via Novi (though the direct line from Arquata Scrivia to Tortona does not touch it) and a branch di-

verges here to Piacenza

VOGLER, GEORG JOSEPH (1749-1814), usually known as Abbé or Abt (Abbot) Vogler, German organist and composer, was born at Pleichach in Wurzburg on June 15, 1749. His father, a violin maker, while educating him im the Jesut college, encouraged his musical talent, and at ten years old he could play

the organ, the violin and other instruments In 1771 he went to Mannheim, where he composed a ballet for the elector Karl Theodor, who sent him to Bologna in 1774 to study under the Padre Martini

He soon left Martini and went to Valottı and

Padua for five months,

after which

he proceeded

to Rome.

There he became a priest, was admitted to the famous academy

of Arcadia and was made a knight of the Golden Spur On his return to Mannhem in 1755 Vogler was appointed court chaplain and second “maestro di cappella.” In 1778 the elector removed his court to Munich Vogler followed in 1780, but presently went to Paris, where his new system was eventually recognized as a contmuation of that

started by Rameau His organ concerts at St Sulpice attracted considerable attention For the queen, he composed the opera Le Patriotisme, which was produced before the court at Versailles His travels were wide, and extended over Spam, Greece, Armenia, remote districts of Asia and Africa, and even Greenland, m

search of uncorrupted forms of national melody In 1786 he was appointed Kapellmeister to the king of Sweden, founded his second music school at Stockholm, and attained extraordinary celebrity by his performances on an instrument called the “orchestrion”—a species of organ invented by himself. In 1790 he brought this instrument to London, and performed upon it with great effect at the Pantheon, for the concert-room of which he also constructed an organ upon his own principles The abbé’s pedal-playing excited great attention His most popular pieces were a fugue on themes from the “Hallelujah Chorus,” composed after a visit to the Handel festival at Westminster abbey, and A Musical Picture for the Organ, by Knecht, contaming the imitation of a storm Browning’s poem has made his name famuliar

VOGUE,

EUGENE

MELCHIOR, born at Nice 1870, and on service, being Constantinople

tary at St Petersburg (Leningrad)

Comte

ve

(1848-

on Feb 25, 1848 He the conclusion of the appointed successively and Cairo and secre-

He was almost the first to

draw French attention to Dostoievski and his successors. He became a member of the French Academy in 1888 He died in Paris on March 24, 1910 His works include Hizstowes orentales (1879); Portraits (1883) ; Le Fils de Prerre le Grand (1884) , Histocres d’haver Le Roman russe (1886), Regards historeques et lettéraires Coeurs russes (1894), Devant le siècle (1896) ; Jean d’Agréve Le Rappel des ombres (1900); Le Maitre de la mer (1903); Gorky (1905).

du siécle (1885) , (1892), (1898) , Masame

VOICE is the sound produced by the vibrations of the vocal cords, two ligaments or bands of fibrous elastic tissue situated in the larynx. It is to be distinguished from speech, which is the production of articulate sounds intended to express ideas. (See Sincinc; and for speech see PHONETICS ) Physiological Anatomy.—The larynx is a valve guarding the entrance to the trachea. In man it is used as the organ of voice. It is situated in the neck, where it forms a well marked promi-

nence in the middle line (see details under RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). It consists of a framework of cartilages, connected by elastic membranes or ligaments, and it contains two important structures known as vocal cords The latter, if brought into apposition can be blown apart ; by an expiratory blast of air; there is con4) sequently a fall in pressure in the trachea, 5} which allows the cords to come into contact again; repetition of this action allows puffs S| of air to escape rhythmically from the 1o| larynx into the pharynx and out by the 11} mouth or nose with the production of a 12} Mote. The cartilages form the framework of the larynx. They consist of three single

13] pieces (the thyroid, the cricoid and the

began to collaborate with Joseph Massolle and Dr Engl, and this led to the formation of the Triergon-Arbeitsgemeinschaft, which aimed at the creation of the speaking film On Sept 17, 1922, the first public exhibition of the speaking film was held at the Alhambra in Berlin The voice ıs photographed directly on to the film band after conversion of the acoustic oscillations, which

cartilage of the epiglottis) and of three pairs (two arytenoids, two cornicula laryngis or cartilages of Santorini, and two BY COURTESY OF THE CONSERVAcuneiform cartilages or cartilages of WrisTOR OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS berg), see figs rand 2 The epiglottis, the FIG 1.—CARTILAGES AND cornicula lJaryngis, the cuneiform cariilLIGAMENTS SEEN FROM ages and the apices of the arytenoids are BEHIND, 2 NAT SIZE I1. Enpiglottis; 2. lesser composed of yellow or elastic fibro-cartulcornu of hyoid bone; 3. age, whilst the cartilage of all the others is greater cornu of hyold; 4. of the hyaline variety, resembling that of lateral thyro-hyoid ligament: 5. cartilago triticea; the costal or mb cartilages These cartilages 6 upper cornu of thyrold; are bound together by ligaments, some of 7 = thyro-epiglottic Iigawhich are seen in figs 1 and 2, whilst the ment; & cartilages of SanThe torini: 9. arytenoid cartil- remainder are represented in fig. 3 ages; 10. left lamina of structures specially concerned in the prothyroid; 11. muscular procduction of voice are the inferior thyroess of arytenold cartilage; 12. Inferior cornu of thy- arytenoid folds, or true vocal cords These roid; 13. first ring of are composed of fine elastic fibres attached trachea; 14, posterior membranous wall of trachea; behind to the anterior projection of the 15 lamina of cricoid cer- base of the arytenoid cartilages, processus

are taken with an inertialess microphone (kathodophone), and are changed by a photoelectric cell mto hght pulsations Reproduction is effected by an electrostatic telephone with mica mem-~

dle of the angle between the wings or laminae of the thyroid cartilage. They are continuous with the lateral cricothyroid liga-

He continued to work hard to the last, and died suddenly of apoplexy at Darmstadt on May 6, 1814.

VOGT, HANS (1890-

), German inventor, was born on

Sept 25, 1890, at Worlitz, Bavaria, Germany He began his career as an inventor in the sphere of high frequency technology, telephone research

brane (statophone)

VOGTLAND

and earth current

telegraphy

In 1918 he

ttage

vocalis, see fig. 3, and in front to the md-

ments which form the conus elasticus, see fig. 3

or VOIGTLAND, a district of Germany,

forming the south-west corner of the Republic of Saxony, and also embracing parts of Thuringia, It is bounded on the north by the former principalities of Reuss, on the south-east by Czechoslovakia, and on the south-west and west by Bavaria. Its character is generally mountainous, and geologically it belongs to the Erzgebirge range It is extremely rich in mineral ores—silver, copper, lead and bismuth The name denoted the country governed for

The cavity of the larynx is divided into an upper and lower portion by the narrow aperture of the glottis or chmk between the edges of the true vocal cords, the rima glotttdis Immediately above the true vocal cords, between these and the false vocal cords, there 1s on each side a recess or pouch termed the ventricle of Morgagni, and opening from each ventricle there is a still smaller recess, the laryngeal saccule, which passes for the space of half an inch between the superior vocal cords inside and the

234

VOICE

thyroid cartilage outside, reaching as high as the upper border of | postreus muscles are relaxed, but if the arytenoid cartilages that cartilage at the side of the epiglottis The upper aperture of | are braced back contraction of the muscle increases the elasticity the Jarynx is bounded in front by the epiglottis, behind by the of the margins of the glottis (3) The posterser and lateral cricosummits of the arytenoid cartilages and on the sides by two folds arytenoid muscles have antagonistic actions, and may be considered together. The postertor arise from the posterior surface of of mucous membrane, the aryteno-epiglottic folds The rima glottid:s, between the true vocal cords, in the adult the cricoid cartilage, and passing upwards and outwards are attached to the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid, On the male measures about 23 mm, or nearly an inch from before backother hand, the Jateral arise from the upper border of the cricoid as far back as the articular surface for the arytenoid, pass backwards, and from 6 to 12 mm wards and upwards, and are also inserted into the outer angle of across its widest part, according to the degree of dilation In fethe base of the arytenoid before the attachment of the posterior crico-arytenoid, Imagine the pyramidal form of the arytenoid males and in males before pucartilages To the inner angle of the triangular base are attached, berty the antero-posterior diameas already described, the true vocal cords, and to the outer angle ter is about 17 mm and its transthe two muscles in question. The posterior crico-arytenoids draw verse diameter about 4mm. The the outer angles backwards and inwards, thus rotating the inner vocal cords of the adult male are angles, or processus vocalis, outwards; the innermost fibres of in length about 15 mm, and of the muscles draw the arytenoids away from one another and the adult female about 1: mm any “i widen the rima glottidis This action is opposed by the lateral] The larynx is lined with a layer of crico-arytenoids, which draw the outer angle forwards and outepithelium, which 1s closely adwards, rotate the inner angles inwards, and thus approximate herent to underlying structures, the cords (4) The arytenaids pass from the one arytenoid more especially over the true vocartilage to the other, and in action these cartilages will be ap. cal cords The cells of the epitheproximated and shghtly depressed (5) The aryteno-eprglotindean lium, in the greater portion of the muscles arise near the outer angles of the arytenoid, their fibres larynx, are of the columnar cilipass obliquely upwards, decussate and are inserted partly into the ated variety, and by the vibratory action of the cila mucus BY COURTESY OF THE CONSERVATOR OF THE outer and upper border of the opposite cartilage, partly nto the is driven upwards, but over the ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS true vocal cords the epithelium FIG. 2—CARTILAGES AND LIGAis squamous. Numerous mu- MENTS OF THE LARYNX (Front), (A) epiglott!ss; (B) hyold cous glands exist in the limng bone; (C) small cornu of hyoid bone; membrane of the larynx, more (D) middle thyro-hyold Hgament; (E) great cornu of hyold bone; (F) especially in the epiglottis. In smal! nodules of cartilage (cartilago each laryngeal pouch there are tritlecea); (G) lateral thyro-hyold from sixty to seventy such glands. ligament; (H) left lamina of thyroidThe Muscles of the Larynx.

cartilage;

(1) cricold oartiiage;

(J)

tower corny of thyrold-partilage,

(K)

—We are now in a position to part of oricold united to thyrold by understand the action of the mus- middle crico-thyrold Jigament; (L) cles of the larynx by which the second ring of trachea vocal cords, forming the rima glottidis, can be tightened or relaxed, and by which they can be approxmated or sẹparated Besides certain extrinsic muscles—sterno-hyojd, omohyoid, sternothyroid and thyro-hyoid—which move the larynx as a whole, there Hoi BONE are intrinsic muscles which move CARTILAGE OF EPIGLOTTS THYROID the cartilages on each other. CARTILAGE

These muscles are (a) the crico-

ARY-EFIGLOTTIC FOLD

thyroid, (6) the posterior crico-arytenoid, (c) the lateral crico-arytenoid, (d) the thyro-

arytenoid, (e) the arytenoid, and (f) the aryteno-epiglottidean, Their actions will be readily understood with the aid of the diagrams m fg. 4- (1) The criço-

FROM

BEAUNIS

AND

BOUCHARD,

FIG,

“PRINCIPAUX

ELEMENTS

4,—-DIAGRAMS

D*ANATOMIE”

(BAILLIERE

RT CIE)

OF LARYNX

Dotted lines show position taken by cartilages and true vooal cords, arrows show general direction {n whioh the musoular fibres act. (A) Action of erlcothyroid; J, orlegld cartilage; 2, arytenold cartilage; 3, thyrold cartilage; 4,

thyroid is a short thick triangular

muscle, its fibres passing from oF the cricoid cartilage obliquely up- THYRO-ARYTENOID true vocal oord; 5, thyroid oartllage; 6, true vooal cord; (B) Aotion of G GRICOID, CARTILAGE arytenoid" 1, section; 2, arytenoid; 3, posterior border epiglottis; 4, true wards and outwards to be in- Conys ELAsticus vooal cord; 5, direction of musoular fibres; 6, arytenoid; 7, true vocal cord; serted into the lower border of (C) Action of lateral crico-arytenoid: same desoription as A and B; 8, KRAUSE, “HANDBUCH DER MENSCH. posterior border of epiglottis; 9, arytenoid; (D) Action of posterior cricothe thyroid cartilage and to the FROM LICHEN ANATOMIE” arytenoid; same description outer border of its lower horn. FIG, 3,—RIGHT HALF OF LARYNX When the muscle contracts, Slightly oblique, vertical section aryteno-epiglottic fold, and partly jom the fihres of the thyrothe cricoid and thyroid cartilages are approximated (2) The arytenoids In action they assist m bringing the arytenoids tothyro-arytenoid has been divided by anatomists into two parts gether, whilst they also constrict the upper aperture of the larynx —~one, the internal, lying close to the true vocal cord, and the The Voice Registers.—The voice may be divided into the other, external, immediately within the ala of the thyroid lower or chest register, the higher or head register, and the small cartilage, Many of the fibres of the anterior portion pass or falsetto Tegister. In singing, the voice changes in volume from the thyroid cartilage with a shght curve (concavity in- and in quality in passing from one register into another There wards) to the processus vocalis at the base of the arytenoid car- 1s remarkable diversity of opinion as to what happens in the tilage. They are thus parallel with the true vocal cord, and larynx when the voice passes through the various registers. A

yy

1

when they contract the arytenoids are drawn forwards if the There has also been much discussion as to the production of

VOICE falsetto tones. In the lower registers the membranous vocal cords vibrate, while the arytenoids remain stationary and in appo-

sition. The whole mass of inferior thyro-arytenoids fold—consist-

ing of mucous membrane, fatty elastic connective tissue and underlying muscle—vibrates In the falsetto voice the vocal cords are

235

pressure through the glottis causmg the vocal cords to move rhythmically, thereby producing a musical note This musical note

18 a tone-complex of simple harmonic vibrations some of which are modified by the supraglottal cavities acting as resonators. It 1s

blown apart and the rima glottis is of an elliptical shape, only the

the train of sound waves thus modified, issumg from the mouth, which gives rise to those elements of speech termed vowels and

register is à variant of the falsetto; m it only a part of the mem-

produced to a limited extent by an in-drawn current of air actuat-

pranous glottis 1s blown open The pitch of the voice appears to depend on the relation of the elastiaty of the glottal margins—as determined by the degrée of contraction of the thyro-arytenoid muscles—to the pressure of air expelled from the trachea, The pitch can be raised by an increase

ing the vocal cords. To what extent the infraglottal cavities, e g., the trachea and chest cavıty, influence the quality of the glottal note has not been determmed, but they certamly do affect it Investigators are however agreed that among the supraglottal cavities the effect of the sinuses, e g , the maxillary sinus, the ethmoidal cells, sphenoidal sinus and frontal sinus, 1s negligible owing to their small size, unfavorable positions, and minute openings. The expression “‘sinus tone‘production” would thus appear to bé devoid of justification. Nor can there be any question of directing the voice to a definite point in the buccal cavity, as the dimensions of the mouth cavity, in comparison with the wave-length of sound, are too small for reflexion to be possible. Attributes of Voice.—Voice may be defined in terms of certain attributes, że , (1) duration, (2) pitch, (3) quality or timbre, (4) loudness. Duration.~The duration of voice in vowels varies with the speed of utterance. In words of two or more syllables, results show that for English spoken at an average speed, the duration of socalled short vowels may vary from -047 to -og5 of a second, while that of so-called long vowels may vary from 12 to -255 of a second.

margins of the inferior thyro-arytenoid folds vibrate The small voiced consonants. Such sound waves can be, and sometimes are

of the former while the latter remains almost unchanged or vice-

yersa; probably an increase of elasticity 1s accompanied by slightly raised air pressure in the changes of pitch in the chest register. In the head register it appears that the innermost fibres only of the

thyro-arytenoid muscles are in contraction, rise of pitch being produced principally by rise of air pressure. The Laryngoscope.—By means of the laryngoscope it is pos-

sible to see the condition of the rma glottidis and the cords in passing through all the tanges of the voice. In 1807 Bozzini first showed that ıt was possible to see into the dark cavities of the

body by illuminating them with a rutror and m 1829 W Bohisc-

ton first saw thè glottis ın zus w1} In T8sa Giron javetag ic! his own larynx and that of other smgers, end niee year: luor

Turck and especially J. N. Czermak, perfected the construction of the laryngoscope

In 1883 Lennox Browne and Emil Behnke ob-

„izd %ho.our: dhs of the glottis in the lviig man

By using the

: -paosope Ori.e! Museliold, Flatau, Hegener and PanconcelliCalza have in recent years endrmously improved the technique

Pitch —The pitch of the glottal note, z¢., the lowest tone of of laryngoscopy. The endoscope devised by Flatau and the auto- the complex, is determined by the frequency, or number of cycles phonoscope originated jointly by Panconcelli-Calzia enable one the vocal cords execute in one second, frequency and pitch bemg to carry out extensive observations on the larynx while the mouth physical and sensory aspects of the same thing. The conditions determining pitch are the mass, length and elasticity of the 1s closed. Other apparatus employed for investigating the mechanism of cords, and the pressure actuating them. Increase of pressure in the the voice includes the breathing flask of Gutzmann, the spirometer, expiratory current leads to a raising of pitch, but the pitch of the the stethograph and pneumograph (used in connection with the resonance cavities appears to have no effect on the pitch of the manometer and the phonetic kymograph), all of which are em- glottal note. The vocal cords are tightened if the arytenoid cartilages be ployed for investigating breathing. For observing the action of the vocal cords there are employed, in addition to the laryngoscope, braced back by contraction of the crico-thyroid, and posterior thyro-arytenoids will then give elasticity to the margins of the the strobolaryngoscope and the endoscope, manometric flames, the Polsterpfeife of Wethlo, resonators, gramophones, microphones glottis so that they will recoil after being blown apart The greater and oscillographs. For studying the supraglottal resonators radio- the degree of contraction the higher will this elasticity become. All the muscles except the thyro-cricoid (which is mervated by the grams are taken. Attion of the Vocal Cords.—The best view of the larynx is superior laryngeal) recerve nerve filaments from the infenor obtainéd with the tongue flat, while attempting to sing the vowel laryngeal branch of the vagus, the fibres being derived from the ac“ee,” for this opens out the cavity immediately above the larynx. cessory roots, Both the abductor and adductor nerves come thereNow suppose the larynx is examimed stroboscopically. The vocal fore from the inferior laryngeal, In men, by the development of the larynx the cords become cords até seen to be alternately opening and closing along the ligamentous portions in the chest notes In falsetto the glottis is more elongated than in women, in the ratio of 3 to 2, so that the permanently open with the edges of the cords vibrating. In whis- male voice is of lower pitch and is usually stronger At the age of per the space between the arytenoids is open Should this occur puberty the larynx grows rapidly, and the voice of a boy breaks in during phonation, 1t constitutes a faulty mechanism producing

what is called breathy voice, which is particularly to be avoided mm. singing J Wyllie showed in 1865 that the false vocal cords play the chief part in the closure of ‘be giot‘15 durme expiration Lauder Brunton and Cash confirmed J Wy le ~ rcsut.s and furio .hougz:

consequence of the lengthening of the cords, gencrally falling an octave or so in pitch A similar change but less in amount occurs at the same tme in the female. The pitch compass of the human voice generally ranges from

E to e” (80~to 320~) in Bass voices and c to a” (256~ to 853 ~ m Soprano voices (The sign ~ is used to denote the number of that the function of the false vocal cords was to close the glottis cycles a second This unt is sometimes called a “hertz” after the These limits are greatly exceeded by and thus fix the thorax for muscular effort. From the evidence great German physicist) of comparative anatomy, and from observations made on men, it many singers Réthi and Fréschels report the abnormal case of a has been demonstrated in recent years that in fixation of the singer with a compass of five octaves, ie., F (42~) to f’” 4 thorax, the vocal cords are the important factor. By means of (1,408 ~ )z Timbre-—As has already been stated above, the voice is comtheir closure air is prevented from entering the lungs and as the thorax is to a certain extent unable to expand, because of this posed of a fundamental and a series of over-tones in harmonic obstructive mechanism, the ribs tend to come to rest whereby a relation to it. The quality or timbre is determined by the relative fixed origin is afforded to the various groups of muscles which strength of these overtones. The phase relationship between them appears to be of little importance for quality Difference bemove the arms. The conditions that define the attributes of the human voice tween vowels is essentially a difference of quality Thus when are in essontiels s>4ilar +o those of musical instruments in general. speaking the vowel [a] certain partials in the region g” (767~) le sou.ce of ere ay 1s he lungs. By them the aur 1s forced under and d’” (1,147 ~) receive preferential treatment from the supra-

236

VOICE

glottal cavities while the prominent partials in [i] are in the region

f’ (342~) and f”” (1,579~ ).

The decay in mtelhgibility of vowels on the suppression of certain partials, has been investigated by Stumpf and Fletcher A quotation from the latter relating to this is illuminating. Incidentally it shows also that the fundamental may be only subjective “The vowel ‘ah’ sung on a pitch d’ (145 ~) is affected only shghtly in either pitch or quality when the fundamental and first two overtones are eliminated Even with the fundamental and first six overtones eliminated, the pitch still very definitely corresponds to the pitch of a pure tone with the frequency of the fundamental, namely, 145~ . The harmonic analysis of this filtered tone shows no frequencies below 1,000~. Eliminatmg all the overtones above the sixth changes the quahty by about the same amount as eluminating the fundamental and first and second overtones. The data also indicate that if the fundamental and all of the upper and lower harmonics except the third, fourth and fifth, are eluminated, the remaining compound tone has the same pitch as the fundamental, although the quality of the sound is very different from that of the sound ‘ah’” A rich baritone or contralto appears to be affected neither in pitch nor n quality by elimmating the fundamental and first two or three overtones ‘The filtering out of higher partials, even of those above the rsth, however, noticeably affects the musical quality of the voice. High harmonics do not appear to be so essential to good quality in sopranos, as in bass, baritone and contralto. Loudness —Loudness, which is the sensory relation to the physical property of intensity, depends on the energy in its various component partials. The rate of energy output in the case of an ordinary voice is extremely small, beng about 125 ergs per second, i ¢, less than a fiftieth of a millionth of a horse-power Loudness is a function of pitch and the amplitude of the movements of the vocal cords If the response of the ear were of a linear character, the intensity of the auditory impressions would be proportional to the square of the product of the amplitude and pitch, to which the term “physiological intensity” has been applied But at intensities considerably above minimum audibility, there 1s no proportionality between sound pressure and aural response, for effects are produced in the ear which are not present in the voice which excites them ‘This degree of non-hnearity varies with different persons. Moreover there occurs a masking of one tone by another A loud tone of low pitch can obscure a weak high tone, but an intense high tone has but little masking effect on low ones Methods of Investigation.—Among the methods and apparatus for investigating the attributes of voice, the following may be mentioned. For duration and pitch, a phonetic kymograph with tambours and an electrically-driven tuning fork of roo~ are the instruments generally employed. Relative loudness can also be investigated by these, although electric methods of measurmg the energy output are far more effective. For the investigation of quality, methods may be classified under three heads according to the apparatus employed. (a) Those using resonators for picking out the component partials Helmholtz (1862) determined the maximal response (subjectively) by the ear. Konig (1868) employing his manometric flames m conjunction with resonators, showed the response objectively Resonators in conjunction with a hot-wire microphone have been employed by Tucker and Paris (1921). Garten (1921) used a variable resonator where maximal response was registered on a soap-

film recorder. Stumpf (1922) used tuning forks as resonators. (b) Those depending on subjective observations on the changes of quality which the voice undergoes when certain tones are eliminated. Stumpf employed interference tubes, while Fletcher, Crandall, Wegel, and others, have used the electric wave filter invented by Dr Campbell for cuttmg out frequencies. (c) For objective measurements of quality, curve-tracings or oscillograms of air vibrations produced by the voice are obtained. They are then submitted to harmonic analysis to obtain the component partials Several instruments have been devised Those used by the Bell Telephone Laboratories and research laboratories of the American ‘Telephone Company in their magnificent work on speech should bė'first mentioned. F. Trendelenburg used the “condenser micro-

SOUNDS phone” of Riegger. Miller in his “phonodeik” used a glass membrane The “cathode-ray oscillograph * and “Hilger’s audiometer” should also be mentioned

Hermann

and Scripture in therr re-

searches enlarged the curves of phonograph and gramophone records *“Sonance.”’—The beauty of the voice is mainly determined by its quahty, but there 1s another condition which mfluences the artistic effectiveness of 11 Metfessel, of the University of Iowa, has examined minutely records of songs sung by some famous singers, and has found in every case a certain periodic departure from true pitch, accompanied by a periodic change 1n amplitude There 1s every reason to suppose that much of the aesthetic value

of a great singer’s voice is attributable to these fluctuations, on the principle that art consists of rhythmic deviations from regularity To the perceptive fusion of the successive changes mn tone-attributes, Metfessel has given the name “sonance”’ Popular appreciation of voice-qualty in singers, denoted by the term “quahty,” is as Metfessel states, a combination of “quality or trmbre” and “son-

ance” although the two things should not be confused Substitutes for the Larynx.—Laryngectomuzed subjects have been known to develop a capacity for producing sounds which in essentials resemble normal voice. Burger and Kaiser of Amster-

dam report a case where a pseudo-larynx has been developed in the oesophagus The vicarious lung was the stomach, and the lps of the pseudo-glottis were actuated by ejecting air which had previously been swallowed. It 1s reported that the subject could

sing, speak and on like a normal Attempts have supply the voice

use the telephone Indeed, vocally, he carned person. also been made with more or less success to element ın speech by means of vibrating reeds

of rubber or thin metal

The best known of these devices 1s the

“MacKenty-Western Electric Artificial Larynx” By using it the subject is able to direct the expiratory current on to a rubber reed when voicing is required BrstiocraPpHy —Helmholtz, Sensations of tone (English trans) (2882), Kon= Quelques expértences d’acoustique (1882); Fletcher, P, yuce! crieri n for determining musical pitch (Westerr Flect~ c Co re) int Ap iu 1:24), Crandall and Sacia, A d,M mia. wi e y vowel sounds (Western Electric Co reprint, May 1924), Fletcher an

Stemberg, Loudness of a complex sound (Western Electric Co repmnnt,

Sept 1924), Fletcher, Physccal properties of speech, music, and norse (Western Electric Co reprint, Oct. 1924), Crandall, The sounds of Dryton C. Miller, Seund (1927), F. Trendelenburg Marchuck acr Piyuk (1527), Miserold, Allgememme Akustitk und Mecharck aes mensenchen S.immorg.ns (1913), Panconcelh-Calzia Faperrmertelle Phonesib (1g21) and Dre exdcriw tc Proreuririrer Ar endung ide Surschwisensthl. + (14.4) Pe e Some questions of phonetic theory (15°46 1gz~ te2v anc 1 ` S ein ture, The study of speech curves (1525), Slumpi, Die Sproch iey! (1927), Paget, Vowel resonances (*:2.) aril Producin n, Vowel Sounds (1923); Sonnenschein, Rhythm (1925), Metfessel, Technique for objective studies of vocal art (Psychological Monographs, 1926) and Sonance as a form of tonal fusion (Psychological Review 1625). SozsHore, P ,-kology of musical talent (1919) , Réthi and Evoschel:, Cher ener Senier (Piliigers Archiv, 1922) , Burger and X ` a4 Speech withort a Lirynx,” Acta Oto-Laryngolca (3925); Negus, Mechanism of the Larynx (1929). (V.E N.; speech (Bell Te’ephone L~b. renrn* Nov 7625) The science oy mites soares (915), Rebetc-or

VOICE SOUNDS, sound made by the human voice, which— as used ın English and other European speech—can be produced

in two different forms, namely (a) unvoiced, ie., breathed or whispered speech, and (5) voiced speech. In unvoiced speech the vocal chords are more or less separated so that the air from the lungs passes continuously between them In voiced speech the vocal chords are brought closely together so that the forcible passage of the air between them sets up a rhythmical vibration of the chords which causes the air to enter the vocal cavities in correspondingly rhythmical puffs

Vowel ‘Sounds—Until recently the accepted theory was that sounds like i as in eat, e as in men, æ as in hat, were each due to two separate resonances, that a as in calm, was produced in some voices by a single resonance, and in others by two resonances, and that d as in all, ou as in no, u as in who, were all due to single

resonance (1). According to Helmholtz’s theory (2) the lower series of double resonances is set up in the cavity behind the

tongue, and the upper in a tubular neck formed by the tongue and

VOILE—VOIRON ips, while in the case of the single resonant sounds, the whole oral cavity is supposed to act as a single resonator. Graham Bell, the

237

called plosives, p, b, t, d, k, g and the nasal consonants m, n and g (ng); 4. the resonators are not always in series with the air current

inventor of the telephone, and K J Lloyd, both held that all which energises them ‘Thus they may be in parallel—as when yowel sounds were due to double resonance (3). the air 1s passed simultaneously through both mouth and nose, or Recent observations (4) have confirmed the views of Graham

Bell and Lloyd, and shown depend primarily on two formed in the cavity in front of nearest approach of the and the other in the cavity

that all the English vowel sounds characteristic resonances—the one of the tongue—é e , between the point tongue to the palate and the lips— behind the tongue—i ¢., between the

same pomt and the vocal chords

Both cavities behave as Helm-

holtz resonators connected in series

Each can be independently

tuned, by varying its capacity or by varying the size of its orifice

to air and (or) to the adjoining resonator Increase of capacity lowers the resonant pitch, of ortfice raises it The following table shows typical resonances observed by ear m the whispered vowel sounds

of the writer’s voice, using the

Southern English ‘‘Public School” pronunciation. Vowel Resonances

Vow-

Upper | Lower

vr

Reso-

Sy _|

el

Asım |

1 I a e æ ə a

eat i#d’’’’2,434| f’ it He!!!" 2,169 |HE’ [hay |#c’’’ 2,169 | d |men | c’’’’2,048 |#d’’ ihat | a’! 1,722 |#g” earth |#2’’’ 1,625 | e” sofa | g” 1,534 | e”

a

Reso-

nance | nance

Lol

342 1 a 362 fa f

574 608 812 64s

|O } ov ju

64s | v

Upper | Lower Asin|

up = calm not all know who put

Reso-

Reso-

nance | nance |#g’’’1,625 [#a’” |#d’’’1,217 |#e’’ |#c’’’r1,084 l#e’’ bY” 966 |#f”" |#a” g12| b’ |#f’’ 724 IRE ja” or2|#d’

ox2 812 8x2 724 483 362 304

The resonances are given in musical notation and in number of complete vibrations per second (c’ = middle c on the pianoforte, about 256 vibrations per second) In the series from a to

v inclusive, an additional high frequency component between 2,169 and 2,732 appears The upper resonance of i to ov can be varied over a range of 5 to 8 semitones, and u and v by 1o semitones, while the lower resonances can all be similarly varied over a range of about 8 semitones (the other resonance, in each case,

being kept nearly constant) without losing the vowel character. Comparable resonances have been found—using purely mstrument methods—by Crandall and Sacia (5)

ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF VOWEL SOUNDS Potter (6) experimentally reproduced the English vowel sounds by a reed attached to a spherical indiarubber resonator of suitable aperture which was appropriately compressed (while sounding the teed) so as to produce approximately the form of the human mouth cavity. All the Englısh vowel sounds have recently been produced by combining two suitably tuned Helmholtz resonators m series and energising them by a continuous current of air, for unvoiced sound, or by a pulsating current produced by a vibrating reed or equivalent for voiced sounds (7)

The material of the resonators does not appreciably affect the vowel character. The additional high resonances are of secondary importance, since recogmsable reproduction may be made without them Artuficial

vowels have also been produced by J. Q Stewart (8) and by Dr.

Eccles (9), substituting electrical resonating circuits for acoustic resonators

Diphthongs differ only from yowels in that their resonances change progressively from those of the mitial to those of the terminal vowel which together form the diphthong. They can

a resonator may be lateral to the air current, as when passage through the mouth 1s closed by the tongue or lips and the air passes behind the soft palate into the nasal cavity and out at the nostrils In such cases the air current flows past the mner orifice of a lateral single-orificed resonator formed inside the mouth Closure of the tongue against the back or the front of the palate produces a lateral resonator of high or medium pitch characteristic of the nasal consonants n (ng as in hung); closure of the lips produces a lateral resonator of the maximum capacity and lowest pitch, characteristic of m. The consonants can be artificially produced, like the vowels and diphthongs, by passing air (vibrating or not as the case may be) through resonators of variable number and capacity and (or) orifice (10) In the cheirophone the variable multiple resonator 1s formed by the hands of the operator, so as to produce recognisable sentences (12). (See Sounn) Certain consonants have also been reproduced by electrical resonance (8). In the natural production of vowel sounds, the soft palate may be closed against the back of the throat so as to close the passage to the nasal cavity, or ıt may be drawn forward so as to open that passage more or less The best quality of voice production appears to be obtained by avoiding nasal resonance, except in connection with the nasal consonants m, n, and y (ng). In the French nasal

vowels € (pain), 4 (temps), 3 (bon), & (un) the nasal resonance is characteristic The so-called nasal quality heard in English spéech in parts of the North American continent appears mainly to depend on the formation of an additional resonator of high pitch

by (unconscious) constriction of the pharynx (13) Broadly speaking, the voice sounds of human speech are due to characteristic postures (for vowel sounds) and gestures (for diphthongs and consonants) of the vocal organs—the tongue, lips and soft palate The function of the larynx, in voiced speech, is to increase the

range of audibility (from about ro to 20 tumes) by increasing the resonance of the cavities through or past which the air current flows

It also gives to speech the power of inflection—i.e, of

variation of the musical pitch of the voice, as in song voiced consonants s, f (sh), f, and @ (th as mm thigh) unvoiced aspirate, all of which carry no laryngeal energy incapable of emotional or musical inflexion, are inferior to voice

sounds.

(See Srncinc)

See

also

Voice,

The unand the and are all other

PHONETICS;

Purotocy, PHARYNX, and RESPIRATORY SYSTEM., Bwrrocraras —(1) D C. Miller, Science of Muszcal Sounds, pp. 225~226 (1916), (2) H L. F. Helmholtz, On tke Sensations of Tone, pp 165-110 (1885), (3) H L F. Helmholtz, op cet, p 108 (1885); American Jour of Otology, vol. x (July 1879) ; Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. 2, p. 477 (1896), (4) Sir Richard Paget, Vowel Resonances (International Phonetic Assoc 1922), (5) Bell System Tech. Jour, vol 3, No 4, pp 232-237 (Aprl 1924); (6) Proc. Cambridge Phil Soc, vol 2, p 306 (1864), (7) Proc Roy Soc, A, vol, 102, pp 752-765 (1923); (8) Nature, vol. r10, p 311 (1922); (9) Jour Inst Elec Eng, vol. 62, No. 335, p 963 (Nov 1924); (xo) Proc. Roy Soc, A, vol 106 (1924); (11) Bell System Tech. Jour, No 4, pp 586-641 (1925), (12) British Patent No. 237316; (13) Proc. Britesh Assoc, p 360 (Toronto, 1924); (24) Sir Richard Paget, “The Origm of Speech” mm the Proc. Roy Soc. (1928). (R. Pa.)

VOILE, a term applied to a distinctive type of fabrics comprising a variety of different textures produced from wool, cotton and silk, and possessing the same general features. It is char-

acterized by a light, open and net-hke structure based essentially on the principle of the plain calico weave, and produced from warp and weft yarns with an abnormal degree of twist, irrespective of the class of matenal from which it is spun. The yarn emessentially on more than two resonances—due to the functioning ployed may be either single or folded in the warp series or in the of more than two cavities, 2 they depend (like the diphthongs) weft series, or in both senes of threads, and ıt may be spun with on characteristic movements of the vocal organs which produce a greater or lesser amount of twist, (See also Voile under Corton: corresponding changes of resonance and of amplitude (Joudness); Varieties af Cotton Fabrıcs,) VOIRON, a town of France in the department of the Isère 3 the orifices of the resonators (or some of them) are more constricted than those in the case of the vowels, or are temporarily Pop (1926) 8,985 It stands at a height of 959 ft, on the Morge closed altogether, and suddenly released as in forming the so- (a tributary of the Isère) Voiron long formed part of Savoy,

be reproduced by resonators of progressively variable pitch. Consonants also are produced in speech by resonance in the vocal cavities (r0) (rr). They difter from the vowel in that 1 they depend

238

VOIVODE—VOLCANO

but in 1355 was exchanged (with the rest of the region between the Rhone and the Isère, watered by the Guers Mort) by the count with France for Faucigny and Gex ;

VOIVODE, a title in use among certain Slavonic peoples,

meaning hterally “leader of an army” (SI vos, host, army; vorliti, to lead); also Varvode, Vayvode, W'ayvode, etc , Med. Gr boebodos, and so applied at various periods and in various eastern European countries to rulers, governors or officials of varying

degree It is best known as the title of the princes of Moldavia and Walachia. In Poland the title (which appears in Instory as palatinus) is still used of certain admumstrative officials A province of northern Yugoslavia 1s known as the “Vorvodina ” VOLAPÜK: see UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE.

VOLCAE, an ancient Celtic people in the province of Galha

Narbonensis, who occupied the distrıct between the Garumna (Garonne), Cerbenna mons (Cévennes), and the Rhodanus, corresponding roughly to the old province of Languedoc They were divided into the Arecomici on the east and the Tectosages on the west. separated by the river Arauris (Hérault) The Volcae were free and independent, had their own laws, and possessed the zus Latii The chef town of the Tectosages was Tolosa (Toulouse); of the Arecomici, Nemausus (Nîmes); the capital of the province was Narbo Martius (Narbonne) BIBLIOGRAPEY —See A. Holder, Altcelizscher Sprachschatz, i ii. (1896, 1904), svv. “Arecomic:” and “Tectosag”, T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899) p. 513

VOLCANO,

an opening in the earth’s crust, through which

heated matter is brought to the surface, where 1t usually forms a hill, more or less conical in shape, and generally with a hollow or crater at the top. This hill, though not an essential part of the volcanic mechanism, 1s what 1s commonly called the volcano The name seems to have been applied originally to Etna and some of the Lipari Islands, which were regarded as the seats of

Hephaestus, a Greek divinity identufied with Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology, All the phenomena connected with volcanic activity are comprised under the general designation of vulcanism or vidcanicity; whilst the study of the phenomena forms a department of natural knowledge known as vulcanology.

Velcanic Phenomena.—aA volcanic eruption is usually preceded by certain symptoms, of which the most common are local earthquakes, subterranean noises, changes in the flow and temperature of springs and evolution of various gases mm and near the crater. Where a crater has been occupied by water, forming a

crater-lake, the water becomes warm, and may even boil. Emission of Vapour,—Of all volcanic phenomena the most constant is the emission of vapour. It is one of the earliest features of an eruption; it persists during the paroxysms, attaining often to prodigious volume; and it lingers as the last relic of an outburst. The well-known “pme-tree appendage” of Vesuvius (pino vulcanico), noted by the younger Pliny in his first letter to Tacitus on the eruption in aD 79, is a vertical shaft of vapour termmating upwards in a canopy of cloud, and compared popularly with the trunk and spreading branches of the stonepine. During the eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906 the steam and dust rose to a height of from 6 to 8 mules, while at Krakatoa in 1883 the column reached an altitude of nearly 20 miles. Voleanic Rain and Mud:—The steam given out from the crater soon condenses to rain which mixes with the ashes and loose material to form mud, which may rush down the cone and spread far and wide Herculaneum was buried beneath a flood of mud swept down from Vesuvius during the eruption of

79, and the hard crust which thus sealed up the city came in turn to be covered by lava-flows from subsequent eruptions. It sometimes happens that volcamc mud is formed by the mingling of hot ashes not directly with rain but with water from streams and lakes, or even, as in Iceland, with melted snow A torrent of mud was one of the earliest symptoms of the violent

eruption of Mont Pelée in Martmique in 1902 Ejected Blocks.—When a volcano after a long period of repose starts into fresh activity, the matenals which have accumulated in the crater are ejected, often mixed with blocks from théwalls of the volcanic pipe, or from the older rocks on which

the volcano stands

Masses of limestone ejected from Somma

are scattered through the tuffs on the slopes of Vesuvius and contain many interesting minerals due to heating of the hme.

stone Similarly at Etna blocks of sandstone are changed to quartzite. A rock consisting of an aggregation of coarse ejected materials, including many large blocks, 1s known as a “volcanic agglomerate ” Cinders, Ashes and Dust.—After the throat of a volcano has

been cleared out and a free exit established, the copious discharge of vapour is generally accompamed by the ejection of fresh lava m a fragmentary condition, If the ejected masses bear obvious resemblance to the products of the hearth and the furnace, they are known as “cinders” or “scoriae,”’ whilst the small cinders not

larger than walnuts often pass under ther Italan name of “lapilh” (qv) When of globular or ellipsoidal form, the ejected masses are known as “bombs” (gw), if the lava has become granulated

1t 1s termed “yolcanıc sand”; when in a finer state of division it js called ash, or 1f yet more highly communuted 1t 1s classed as dust, but the latter terms are sometimes

used mterchangeably

After

an eruption the country for miles around the volcano may be covered with a coating of fine ash or dust, sometimes nearly white, like a fall of snow, but often greyish, looking rather like

Portland cement, this dust insmuates itself into every crack and cranny, reaching the interior of houses even when windows and doors are closed A heavy fall of ash or cinders may cause great structural damage, crushing the roofs of buildings by sheer weight, as was markedly the case at Ottayano and San Giuseppe during

the eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906. On this occasion the dry ashes slipped down the sides of the volcanic cone like an avalanche, forming great ash-slides with ridges and furrows rather

hike barrancos, or ravines, caused by rain The burial of Ottayano and San Giuseppe in 1906 by Vesuvian ejecta, mostly lapulli, has been compared with that of Pompen m 79. Lava.—tThe volcanic cinders, sand, ashes and dust descnbed above are but varied forms of solidified lava, which is the most characteristic product of volcanic activity

It is composed of

various silicates, or their constituents, in a state of mutual solution, and heavily charged with certain vapours or gases, principally water-vapour, superheated and under pressure The lava differs from the magma before eruption, inasmuch as water and various volatile substances may be expelled on extrusion The rapidity of a lava flow 1s determined partly by the slope of the bed over which it moves and partly by the consistency of the lava, this being dependent on its chemical composition and on the conditions of cooling In an eruption of Mauna Loa, m Hawan, in 1855, the lava was estimated to flow at a rate of 40m an hour, and at an eruption of Vesuvius in 1805 a velocity of more than som an hour, at the moment of emission, was recorded The rapidity of flow 1s, however, rapidly checked as the stream advances, the retardation being very marked in small flows Where lava travels down a steep incline there 1s ratvrale p preat tendency to form a rugged surface, thilsi a quiet low over à fat plane favours smoothness If the kv~ mes. a precipre u may form a cascade of great beauty

If, after a stream of lava has become crusted over, the underlying magma should flow away, a long cavern or tunnel may be

formed Should the flow be rapid the roof may collapse and the fragments, fallmg on to the stream, may be carried forward or become absorbed ın the fused mass The walls and roof of a lavacave are occasionally adorned with stalactites, whilst the floor may be covered with stalagmitic deposits of lava, The volcanic stalactites are slender, tubular bodies, extremely fragile, often knotted and rippled Beautrful examples of lava stalactites from Hawaii have been described by Prof E S Dana

Physical Structure of Lavas.—An amorphous vitreous mass may result from the rapid cooling of a lava on its extrusion from the volcanic vent The common type of volcanic glass 1s known as obsidian (g v.) In many cases the lava brings up myriads of crystals that have been developed during slow solidification ın the heart of the volcano. Showers of crystals of leucite have occurred at Vesuvius, of anorthoclase at Mt Erebus, of labradorite at Etna and of pyroxene at Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli These

pHYSICAL STRUCTURE]

VOLCANO

239

uptratelluric crystals” were floating in the molten magma, and ena have no doubt occurred elsewhere, especially in the Azores. had they remained m suspension, this magma would have enveloped them as a ground-mass or base A rock so formed 1s generally known as a “porphyry,” and the structure as porphyritic. In such a lava the large crystals, or phenocrysts, represent an early

phase of consoldation and the minerals of the matrx a later stage. For a discussion of the chemical and mineralogical com-

osition of lavas see PETROLOGY.

In the course of the hfe of a volcano the lava which it emits may vary within moderate lmits, being at one time more acid at another more basic Such changes are sometimes connected

with a sifting of the axis of eruption. Thus at Etna the lavas

from the old axis of Trifoghetto m the Val del Bove were andesites, with about 55% of silica, but those rising in the present conduit are basaltic, with a silica-content of only about 50%. Other mstarices could be given. Capillary Lava.—A filamentous form of lava well known at Kilauea, m Hawai, is termed Pele’s hat, after Pele, the goddess

It resembles the artificial material of the Hawaiian volcanoes known as “‘slag wool”—-a material formed by injecting steam into molten slag from a blast-furnace Pumiceous Lava.—The copious disengagement of vapour in a glassy lava gives rise to the light cellular or spongy substance,

full of microscopic pores, known as pumice (gv). It is usually, though not invariably, produced from an acid lava, and may be regarded as the solidified foam of an obsidian During the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 enormous quantities of pumice were ejected, and were carried by the sea to vast distances, until they ultimately became water-logged and sank Professor Judd found the pumice to consist of a vitreous lava greatly inflated by imprisoned vapours Water in Lavas.—Whether an eruption is of an explosive or a tranquil character must depend largely, though not wholly, on the chemical composition of the magma, especially on the watercontent. By relief of pressure on the rise of the column in the volcanic channel, or otherwise, more or less steam will be disengaged, and if in large quantity this must become, with other vapours, a projectile agency of enormous power The precise physical condition in which water exists in the magma 1s a matter of speculation. Volcanic Vapours.—It seems not unlikely that the vapours and gases exist in the volcanic magma m much the same way that they can exist in-molten metal It appears that many igneous rocks contain gases locked up m their pores, not set free by pulverization, yet capable of expulsion by strong heat. The gases in rocks have been the subject of elaborate study by R T Cham-

berlin, whose results appear in publication ‘No. 106 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. After the surface of a lava-stream has become crusted over, vapour may still be evolved ım the interior of the mass, and in

seeking release may elevate or even pierce the crust Small cones may thus be thrown up on a lava-flow, and when vapour escapes from terminal or lateral orifices they are known as “spiracles.” The steam may issue with sufficient force to toss up the lava in httle fountains When the lava is very liquid, as m the Hawaiian volcanoes, it may after projection from the blow-hole falt back

in drops and plastic clots, which on consolidation form, by their union, small cones Vapour-vents connected with volcanoes are often known as

fumaroles (qv)

(See also Gryser and SoLFATARA.)

Tn some volcanoes much sulphur, formed by a teaction between sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide, is deposited Chlorides also are sometimes formed in considerable quantity, especially

ammonium chloride and common salt The presence of various metallic chlorides and sulphides has often been observed The pale flames sometimes seen in eraters are due to the burning of hydrogen and various hydrocarbons, this being the only true combustion connected with vulcanicity. it is quite unimportant The Dust Cloud of Mt. Pelée—The eruptions in Martinique and St Vincent in the West Indies in 1902 furnished examples of a type of activity not previously recognized by vulcanologists,

though, as Professor A Lacroix has pointed out, similar phenom-

By Dr. Tempest Anderson and Sir J. S. Flett, who were commissioned by the Royal Sactety to report on the phenomena, this type of explosive eruption 1s distmguished as the “Peléan type.” Its distinct:ve character is found ın the sudden emussion of a dense black cloud of superheated and suffocating gases, heavily charged with mcandescent dust, moving with great velocity and accompamed by the discharge of immense volumes of volcani¢ sand, which are not ramed down ın the normal manner but descend

hke a hot avalanche In its typical form, the cloud at Pelée appeared as a solid bank, opaque and mmpenetrable, but having the edge in places hanging like folds of a curtain, and apparently of brown or purplish colour. Rolling along like an mky torrent, it produced mm its passage intense darkness, relieved by vivid lightning After leavmg the crater, it underwent enormous expansion, and Anderson and Flett were Jed to suggest that possibly at the moment of emission it might have been partly in the form of hgud drops, which on solidifymg evolved large volumes of gas held previously in occlusion. The deadly effect of the blast seems to have been mostly due to the irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages by the fine hot dust—a serous aggravation of the calamity Forms of Volcanoes.—Those volcanic products which are solid when ejected, or which soldify after extrusion, tend to form by their accumulation around the eruptive vent a hill, which, though generally more or less conical, ıs subject to much variation in shape It occasionally happens that the hill is composed wholly of ejected blocks, not themselves of volcanic origin. This rather exceptional type is represented nm the E:fel by certain monticules which consist of fragments of altered Devonian slate. In the ordinary paroxysmal type of eruption, however, cinders and ashes are shot upwards by the explosion and then descend in showers, forming around the orifice a mound, in shape rather hke the diminutive cone of sand in the lower lobe of an hour-glass, Little cinder-cones of this character may’ be formed within the crater of a large volcano during 4 single eruption; whilst large cones are built up by many successive discharges, each sheet of fragmentary material mantlng more or less regularly round the preceding layer. The symmetry of the hill is not infrequently affected by disturbing influences—a strong wind, for example, blowing the loose matter towards one side The sides of a cinder cone have generally a steep slope, varying from 30° to 45°, depending on the angle of repose of the eyectamenta Excellent examples of small scoriacones are found among the puys of Auvergne ın central France, whilst a magmificent illustration of this type of hill is furnished by Fuyi-san, in Japan, which reaches an altitude of 12,000. ft. How such a cone may be rapidly built up was well shown by the formation of Monte Nuovo, near Pozzuoli—a hill 4oo ft high and 14 m in circumference, which 1s known from contemporary evidence to have been formed in the course of a few days im Sept. 1538. Lava-cones are built up of streams of lava which have consolidated around the funnel of escape Associated with the lava, how~ ever, there is usually more or less fragmentary matter, so that the cones are composite in structure and consequently more acute in shape than if they were composed wholly of lava As the streams of lava in a volcano run at different times in different directions, they radiate from the centre, or flow from lateral or eccentric orifices, as irregular tongues, and do. not generally form continuous sheets covering the mountain When lava is the sole

ox chief element in the cone, the shape of the hill is determined

to a great extent by the viscosity of the lava, its copiousness and the rapidity of flow. If the lava be highly basic and very mobile, it may spread to a great distance before solidifying, and thus form a hill covering a large area and rising perhaps to 4 great height, but remarkably flat in profile Were the lava perfectly

liquid, it would indeed form a sheet without any perceptible slope of surface

As a matter of fact, some lavas are so fluent as to

run down an incline of 1°, and flat cones of basalt have in some cases a slope of only ro? or even less. The colossal mass of Mauna Loa, in: Hawaii, forms a remarkably flat broad cone, spreading over a base of enormous area and rising 23,900 feet

If the lava be less basic and less fusible, the hill formed by its

240

VOLCANO

[PHYSICAL STRUCTURE

accumulation instead of bemg a low dome will take the shape of a trary, the sheets of cinder and lava which form the bulk of the cone with sides of higher gradient, in the case of andesite cones, cone slope away from the axis, or have a dip that is sometimes for instance, the slope may vary from 25° to 35° Acid rocks, or described as peri-centric After the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 those rich im silica, such as rhyolites and trachytes, may be emitted as very viscous lavas tending to form dome-shaped or bulbous masses. The Spine of Pelée.—A peculiar volcanic structure appeared at Mont Pelée m the course of the eruption of 1902, and was the subject of careful study by Professor A. Lacroix, Dr. E O. Hovey, A. Heilprin and other observers. It appears that from fissures in the floor of the Etang Sec a viscous andesitic lava, partly quartziferous, was poured forth and rapidly solidified superficially, forming a dome-shaped mass invested by a crust or carapace According to Lacroix, the crust soon became fractured, partly by shrinkage on consohdation and partly by internal tension, and the dome grew rapidly by injection of molten matter. Then there gradually rose from the dome a huge monolith or needle, forming a terminal spine, which in the course of its existence varied in shape and height, having been at its maximum in July 1903, when its absolute height was about 5,276 ft above sea-level The walls of the spine, inclined at from 75° to 90° to the honzon, were apparently slickensided, or polished and scratched by friction, masses were occasionally detached and vapours escaped The Crater.—The eruptive orifice in a normal volcano—the bocca of Italian vulcanologists—is usually situated at the bottom of a depression or cup, known as the crater. This hollow 1s formed and kept open by the explosive force of the elastic vapours, and when the volcano becomes dormant or extinct it may be closed, partly by rock falling from its crumbling walls and partly by the solidification of the lava which ıt may contain. If a renewed outburst occurs, the floor of the old crater may reopen or a new outlet may be formed at some weak point on the side of the

mountain; hence a crater may, with regard to position, be either terminal or lateral. The position of the crater will evidently be also changed on any shiftmg of the general ams of eruption Vesuvius suffered a reduction of several hundred feet durmg the great eruption of 1906, the east side of the cone having lost, according to V. R. Matteucci, nearly 400 feet. Whilst in many cases the crater is a comparatively small circular hollow around the orifice of discharge, 1t forms in others a large bowl-like cavity, such as is termed in some localities a “caldera.” In Hawaii the craters are wide pits bounded by nearly vertical walls, showing stratified and terraced lavas and floored by a great plain of black basalt, sometimes with lakes of molten lava. Prof. W., H. Pickering compares the lava-pits of Hawaun to the craterrings in the moon. Some of the pit-craters here are of great size, but none comparable with the greatest of the lunar craters Dr. G. K. Gilbert, however, has suggested that the ring-shaped pits on the moon are not of volcanic origin, but are depressions formed by the impact of meteorites. Similarly the “crater” of Coon Butte, near Canyon Diablo, in Anzona, which is 4,000 ft in diameter and soo ft. deep, has been regarded as a vast pit due to collision of a meteorite of prodigious size Probably the largest terrestrial volcanic crater is that of Aso-san, in the isle of Kiushiu (Japan), which 1s a huge oval depression estimated by some observers fo have an area of at least roo sqm On the floor of the crater ejected matter may accumulate as a conoidal pile; and if such action be repeated in the crater of the new cone, a succession of concentric cones will ultimately be formed. The walls of a perfect crater form a ring, giving the cone a truncated appearance, but the ring may suffer more or less destruction in the course of the history of the mountain A familiar instance of such change is afforded by Vesuvius The mountam now so called, using the term in a restricted sense, is a huge composite cone built up within an old crateral hollow, the walls of which still rise as an encircling rampart on the N, and NE sides, and are known as Monte Somma, but the S. and S W. sides of the ancient crater have disappeared, having been blown away durmg some former outburst, probably the eruption of 79 Much of the fragmental matter ejected from a volcano rolls

down: fhe inside of the crater, forming beds of tuff which inchne towards the central axis, or have a centroclinal dip On the con-

a magnificent natural section of the great cone

of Rakata, at

the S end of the island, was exposed—the northern half having been blown away—and it was then evident that this mountain was a solid cone, which was built up of a great succession of irregular beds of tuff and lava, braced together by intersecting dykes. Parasitic Cones.—In the case of a lofty volcano the column of lava may not have sufficient ascensional force to reach the crater at the summit, or at any rate it finds easier means of egress at some weak spot, often along radial cracks, on the flanks of the mountain Thus at Etna, which rises to a height of more than

10,800 ft, the eruptions usually proceed from lateral fissures,

sometimes at least half-way down the mountaim-side

When frag.

mental materials are ejected from a lateral vent a cinder-cone js

formed, and by frequent repetition of such ejections the flanks of

Etna have become dotted over with hundreds of scoria-cones much hke the puys of Auvergne, the largest (Monte Minardo)

rising to a height of as much as 750 ft Hills of this character, seated on the parent mountam, are known as parasitic cones, munor cones, lateral cones, etc Such subordinate cones often show a tendency to a linear arrangement, rising from vents or bocche along the floor of a line of fissure. Thus 1n 1892 a chain of five cones arose from a rift on the S side of Etna, running in a N, and S direction, and the hills became known as the Monti

Silvestri, after Professor Orazio Silvestri of Catania

This rift,

however, was but a continuation of a fissure from which there

arose in 1886 the series of cones called the Monti Gemmellaro,

while this ın turn was a prolongation of a rent opened in 1883. Fissure and Plateau Eruptions.—In certain parts of the world there are vast tracts of basaltic lava with little or no evidence of cones or of pyroclastic accompaniment. To explain their formation von Richthofen suggested that they represent great floods of lava which were poured forth not from ordinary volcanic craters with more or less explosive violence, but from great fissures in the earth’s crust, whence they may have quietly welled forth and spread as a deluge over the surface of the country The eruptions were effusive rather than explosive At the present day

true fissure eruptions seem to be of rather limited occurrence, but excellent examples are furnished by Iceland. Here there are vast fields of black basalt, formed of sheets of lava which have issued from long chasms, studded in most cases with rows of small cones, but these generally so insignificant that they make no scenic features and might be readily obhterated by denudation It is believed that fissure eruptions must have played a far more important part in the history of the earth than eruptions of | the familiar cone-and-crater type, the latter representing indeed only a declining phase of vulcanism Si Archibald Geikie, who specially studied the subject of fissure eruptions, regarded the Tertiary basaltic plateaux of NE Ireland and the Inner Hebrides as outflows from fissures, which are represented by the gigantic system of dykes that form so marked a feature in the geological structure of the northern part of Britain and Ireland

These dykes

extend over an area of something like 40,000 sqm, while the outflows form an aggregate of about 3,000 ft in thickness. In parts of Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and Washington, sheets of late Tertiary basalt from fissure eruptions occupy an area of about 200,000 sq m., and constitute a pile at least 2,000 ft. thick In India the ‘Deccan traps” represent enormous masses of volcanic matter, probably of lke origin but of Cretaceous date, whilst South Africa furnishes other examples of similar outflows Professor J. W Gregory recognized in the Kapte plams of East Africa evidence of a type of vulcanism, which he distinguished as that of “plateau eruptions”, according to him a number of vents opened at the points of intersection of lines of weakness in a high plateau, giving rise to many small cones, and the simultaneous

flows of lava from these cones united to form a broad sheet Submarine Volcanoes.—Since much of the face of the earth 1s covered by the sea, it seems lkely that volcanic eruptions must frequently occur on the ocean-floor. When, as occasionally though not often happens, the effects of a submarine eruption

PLATE I

VOLCANO

BY COURTESY OF (l, 2) ALVIN D UNDERWOOD PRESS SERVICE

KEECH AND THE MATSON

NAVIGATION LINES,

(6) ALVIN D

VOLCANOES 1

2

3

Firepit of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, as it appeared at night during its active period in 1919 and 1920 This volcano, situated in Another view of the Kilauea voloano firepit. the Hawai National Park, was very active In 1920 Looking down at the bolling bottom of Mt Vesuvius’ crater 500 ft below the edge The central cone o f the orater rises to a height of

200 feet

KEECH AND THE LOS ANGELES STEAMSHIP COMPANY,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(3, 4) ENA,

(3) 7)

IN ACTION 4 Mt. Popocatapetl, near Mexico City, Mexico, in action 5

Eruption of Mt

Pelée near Riviére Blanche, Martinique, W I.

6 Seething crater of Kilauea volcano 7

Eruption of Mt. Mokuaweoweo In the Hawalian Islands lava covered rocks are being thrown high into the alr

Large pieces of

VOLCANO

Pritr II

BY

COURTESY

OF

(!, 2, 3)

THE

UNITED

STATES

ARMY

AIR

CORPS,

(4,

6) THE YORKSHIRE

ACTIVE

AND

1. Lava stream from erupting Mauna Loa approaching fishing village of Hoopulou, Hawai Later the village was destroyed despite prayers and offerings of sacrifices to Pele, goddess of fire 2 Mauna Loa lava flowing into the ocean at Hoopulou Landing. Clouds of steam rise high In the air 3. Stream of molten lava from Mauna Loa flowing down the mountainside

in a path of cooled and hardened lava Spectators approach to the very edge of the molten stream

were

PHILOSOPHICAL

INACTIVE

able to

SOCIETY

FROM

ANDERSON,

“VOLCANIC

STUDIES",

PHOTOGRAPH,

(5)

ENA

VOLCANOES

4

Great mass of corded lava in the crater of Kilauea volcano in Hawai

5

“Phantom

Ship,” a small

island

in Crater Lake, Oregon, supposed

to

resemble a satling vessel Owing to atmospheric changes it frequently seems to disappear from view against the background of Dutton Cliff

6. Corded lava at Mt Vesuvius following the eruption of 1898 may be seen In the distance to the left

Mt

Somma

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION]

VOLCANO

are observed during the disturbance, it ıs seen that the surface of the sea 15 violently agitated, wıth copious discharge of steam; the water passes into a state of ebullition, perhaps throwmg up

241

extinct centres as well as to those that are active at the present

time As volcanoes are in many cases ranged along what are commonly regarded as lines of fracture, it is not surprising that the centres of most intense vulcanicity are in many cases situated bombs and fragments of pumice, float around the centre of at the intersection of two or more fracture-lnes On the eastern eruption, and ultimately a httle island may appear above sea- side of the Pacific the great volcamc ring may be traced, though level Ths new land is the peak of a volcanic cone which is with many interruptions, from Cape Horn to Alaska. In South pased on the sea-floor, and if in deep water the submarme moun- America the chain of the Andes between Corcovado ın the south tain must evidently be of great magmtude Christmas Island m and Tolima in the north is studded at irregular intervals with the Indian Ocean, described by Dr C W. Andrews, appears to volcanoes, some recent and many more extinct, includmg the

buge fountains,

shoals of dead fishes, with volcanic cinders,

be a volcanic mountain, with Tertiary limestones, standing in loftiest volcanic mountains in the world water more than 14,000 ft deep Many volcanic islands, such as those abundantly scattered over the Pacific, must have started as

The grandest group

of South American volcanoes, though mostly quiescent, is in Ecuador. Cotopaxi, seen in activity by E. Whymper in 1880, submarine volcanoes which reached the surface either by con- has, according to him, a height of 19,613 ft, whilst Sangay is tmued upward growth or by upheaval of the sea-bottom. Etna said to be one of the most active volcanoes in the world. The began its long geological history by submarine eruptions ın a volcamic rock called andesite was so named by L von Buch from pay of the Mediterranean, and Vesuvius in like manner repre- its characteristic occurrence in the Andes It is notable that the sents what was originally a volcano on the sea-floor volcanic rocks throughout the great Pacific belt present much One of the best examples of a submarine eruption resulting in similarity in composition The volcanoes of Ecuador have been Central the formation of a temporary island occurred m 1831 in the described in detail by A Stubel and others (see ANDES) Mediterranean between Sicily and the coast of Africa, where the America contains a large number of active volcanoes and solfataras, many of which are located in the mountains parallel to the water was known to have previously had a depth of roo fathoms After the usual manifestations of volcanic activity an accumuld- western coast, Guatemala is peculiarly rich in volcanoes, as detion of black cinders and ashes formed an island which reached scribed by Dr Tempest Anderson, who visited the country in at one point a height of 200 ft , so that the pile of erupted matter 1907; and the plateau of Mexico 1s the seat of several active had a thickness of about 800 feet The new island, which was volcanoes which occur in a band stretching across the country studied by Constant Prévost, became known in England as Gra- from Colima in the west to Tuxtla near Vera Cruz The highest ham’s Island, in France as Ile Julie and im Italy by various names, of these 1s Orizaba (18,200 ft), which is known to have been among them Isola Ferdinandea. Bemg merely a loose pile of active in the 16th century Popocatepetl (“the smoking mounscorlae, 1t rapidly suffered erosion by the sea, and im about three tam”) reaches a height of about 17,880 ft, and from its crater months was reduced to a shoal called Graham’s Reef In the year sulphur was at one time systematically collected The famous 1891 a submarine eruption occurred in the neighbourhood of the volcano of Jorullo, near Toluca and about 120 m from the sea, isle of Pantellaria in the same waters, but 1t gave rise to no island. has been the centre of much scientific discussion since 1t was reA well-known instance of a temporary volcanic island was fur- garded by Humboldt, who visited it in 1803, as a striking proof of mshed by Sabrina—an islet of cinders thrown up by submarine the elevation theory, 1t came into existence rapidly during an eruption which began in Sept 1759, when it was said by uneruptions in 1811, off the coast of St. Michael’s, one of the Azores The island of Bogosloff, or Castle Island, ın Bering Sea, about 40 scientific observers that the ground became inflated from below. In the United States very few volcanoes are active at the m W of Unalaska Island, ıs a volcanıc mass whıch was first observed ın 1796 after an eruption. In 1883 another eruption in the present day, though many have become extmct only in times neighbourmg water threw up a new volcanıc cone of black sand that are geologically recent An eruption occurred in 1857 at Tres and ashes, known as New Bogosloff or Fire Island, situated about Virgines, ım the south of Califorma, and Lassen’s Peak (Cali4m NW. of Old Bogosloff, with which 1t was connected by a low fornia) renewed its activity in a mild way a few years ago The Mono Valley craters and Mount Shasta, in California, are exbeach Mud Volcanoes.—Two distinct sets of phenomena are thus tinct The Cascade range contains numerous volcanic peaks, but described One type is due to the escape of gas from petroleum- only few show signs of activity Mount Hood, m Oregon, exbearing strata and has nothing to do with vulcanicity Many hales vapour, as also does Mount Raimier in Washington Mount of the most-quoted examples belong to this group, such as those St Helens (Washington) was in eruption in 1841 and 1842, and of the Crimea, the Caspian and Burma. There are, however, Mount Baker (Washington), the most northern of the volcanoes true volcanic outbursts which yield mostly mud, that is, mix- connected with the Cascade range, was reported active in 1843. Volcanic activity is promment in Alaska, along the Coast range tures of water and fine volcanic material. They are closely telated to geysers (qv ), the chief difference being that the water and in the neighbouring islands Mount Fairweather has prob1s more or less muddy, instead of clear In some cases the material ably been m recent activity, and the lofty cone of Mount Wranemitted is quite pasty True mud-volcanoes occur in Iceland, gell, on Copper river, ıs reported to have been ın eruption in 1819. In the neighbourhood of Cook’s Inlet there are several Sicily and in fact in many volcanic areas volcanoes, including the island of St Augustine Unimak Island GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION has two volcanoes, which have supplied the natives with sulphur It ıs a matter of frequent observation that volcanoes are most and obsidian The Aleutian volcanic belt is a narrow, curved chain abundant in regions marked by great seismic actıvıty Although of islands, extending from Cook’s Inlet westward for nearly 1,600 the volcano and the earthquake are not usually connected in the mules It is notable that the convexity of the curve faces the ocean From the Aleutians the volcanic band of the Pacific changes direct relation of cause and effect, yet m many cases they seem referable to a common origin. Both volcanic extrusion and crustal its direction, and, passing to the peninsula of Kamtchatka, where movement are means of relieving local strains in the earth’s crust, 14 volcanoes are said to be active, turns southward and forms the and both are found to occur, as might reasonably be expected, festoon of the Kurile Islands Here again the convexity of the in many parts of the earth where folding and fracture of the insular arc is directed towards the ocean. This volcanic archirocks have frequently happened and where mountam-making pelago leads on to the great islands of Japan Of the 54 volappears to be still in progress Thus, volcanoes may often be canoes recognized as now active or only recently extinct in Japan, traced along zones of crustal deformation, or folded mountain- the best known 1s the graceful cone of the sacred mountain Fujisan, but others less pretentious are far more dangerous The chains, especially where they run along the oceanic basins The most conspicuous example of lear distribution 1s furnished great eruption of Bandai-san, about 120 m. N of Tokio, which occurred in 1888, blew off one side of the peak called Kobandai, by the great belt of volcanoes, which engirdles intermittently the huge basin of the Pacific, though here, as elsewhere in study- removing, according to Prof Sekiya’s estimate, about 2,982 ing volcanic topography, regard must be paid to dormant and million tons of material.

VOLCANO

24.2

South of the Japanese archipelago the train of volcanoes passes through some small islands in or near the Liu Kiu group and thence onward by Formosa to the Philippines, where subterranean activity finds abundant expression in earthquakes and volcanoes. After leaving this region the lmear arrangement of the eruptive

centres becomes less distinctly marked, for almost every island in the Moluccas and the Sunda archipelago teems with volcanoes,

solfataras and hot springs may

Possibly, however, a broken zone

be traced from the Moluccas

through New

Guinea and

thence to New Zealand, perhaps through eastern Australia

[CAUSES OF VULCANICITYy

Peak is a volcano which was active in 1909, and the island of

Fernando Po is also volcanic

Along the Red Sea there are not

wanting several examples of volcanoes, such as Jebel Ter, the Twelve Apostles islands, and Aden, which is situated on the wreck of an old volcano Passing to the Atlantic, a broken band of volcanoes, recent and extinct, may be traced longitudinally through certain islands, some of which rise from the great submarine ridge that divides the ocean, mn part of its length, into an eastern and a western trough. The northern extremity of the series 1s found in Jan Mayen, an island in the Arctic, where an eruption occurred in 1818 Iceland, however, with its wealth of volcanoes and geysers,

The great volcanic district in New Zealand 1s situated in the northern part of North Island, memorable for the eruption of Tarawera in 1886 ‘This three-peaked mountain on the south is the most important of all the Atlantic centres: according to side of Lake Tarawera, not previously known to have been active, Dr T Thoroddsen there are in Iceland about 130 post-glacial suddenly burst into action; a huge mft opened, and Lake Roto- volcanoes, and it 1s known that from 25 to 30 have been in eruption during the historic period Many of the Icelandic lava-flows, mahana subsided, with destruction of the famous sinter terraces Far to the south, on Ross Island, off South Victona Land, n such as the immense flood from Laki in 1783, are referable to Antarctica, are the volcanoes Erebus and Terror, the former fissure eruptions, which are the characteristic though not the of which is active. These are often regarded as remotely related exclusive form of activity in this island. This type was also to the Pacific zone, but Dr G. T. Prior has shown that the responsible for the sheets of old lava in the terraced hills of the Antarctic volcanic rocks which he examined belonged to the Faroe Islands, and the Tertiary eruptions of the west of Scotland and the north of Ireland. Atlantic and not the Pacific type Within the great basin of the Pacific, imperfectly surrounded An ummense gap separates the old volcanic area of Britam by its broken girdle of volcanoes, there is a vast number of scat- from the volcanic archipelagos of the Azores, the Canaries and tered islands and groups of islands of volcanic origin, rising from the Cape Verde Islands The remaining volcanic islands of the deep water, and having in many cases active craters The most Atlantic chain, all now cold and silent, mclude Ascension, St, important group 1s the Hawaiian archipelago, where there 1s a Helena and Tnstan da Cunha chain of at least 15 large volcanic mountains—all extinct, howAn interesting volcanic region is found in the West Indies, ever, with the exception of three in Hawaii, namely Mauna Loa, where the Lesser Antilles—the scene of the great catastrophes of Kilauea and Hualalai; and of these Hualalai has been dormant r902——form a string of islands, stretching in a regular arc that since 1811. It is noteworthy that the two present gigantic cen- sweeps in a N. and § direction across the E. end of the Canbtres of activity, though within 20 m of each other, appear to be bean Subject to frequent seismic disturbance, and mich in volindependent in their eruptivity The volcanic regions of the canoes, solfataras and hot springs, these islands seem to form Pacific are connected with those of the Indian Ocean by a grand the summit of a great earth-fold which, rising as a curved ridge

tram of islands rich in volcanoes, stretching from the west of New Guinea through the Moluccas and the Sunda Islands, where they form a band extending axially through Java and Sumatra Here is situated the principal theatre of terrestrial vulcanicity, apparently representing an enormous fissure, or system of fissures, in the earth’s crust, sweeping in a bold curve, with its convexity towards the Indian Ocean Numerous volcanic peaks occur in the string of small islands to the east of Java—notably in Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok and Bali; and one of the most terrific eruptions on record in any part of the world occurred in the province of Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa, in 1815 Java contains within its small area as many as 49 great volcanic mountams— active, dormant and extinct. The most famous is Papandayang, which erupted with great suddenness and violence in 1772 The little uninhabited island of Krakatoa in the Strait of Sunda appears to be situated at the intersection of two curved fissures, and the island itself represents part of the basal wreck of what was once a volcano of gigantic size. After two centuries of repose, a violent catastrophe occurred in 1883, whereby part of the island was blown away. This eruption and its effects were made the subject of careful study by Verbeek, Bréon and Judd Through the great island of Sumatra, a chain of volcanoes runs longitudinally, and may possibly be continued northwards in the Bay of Bengal by Barren Island and Narcondam—the former an active and the latter an extinct volcano On the western side of the Indian Ocean a small volcanic band may be traced in the islands of the Mascarene group, several craters in Réunion (Bourbon) being still active Far south in the Indian Ocean are the voicanic islands of New Amsterdam and St Paul The Comoro Islands in the channel of Mozambique exhibit volcanic activity, whilst in East and Central Africa there are several centres, mostly extinct but some partially active, associated with the Rift Valleys. The enormous cones of Kenya and Kilimanjaro are extinct, but on one of the summits of the latter, a crater is still preserved

The Mfumbiro volcanoes, S. of Lake Edward, rise to a height of more than 14,700 feet. Kirunga, N. of Lake Kivu, is still partially active Elgon is an old volcanic peak, but Ruwenzori is not of volcanic origin On the west side of Africa, the Cameroon

from deep water, separates the Caribbean from the Atlantic The volcanoes are situated on the ner border of the curve Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe but in the Mediterranean there are Etna on the coast of Sicily; the Lipari Islands, with Stromboli and Vulcano in chronic activity; and farther to the east the archipelago of Santorin, which has erupted recently Submarine eruptions have occurred also between Sicily and the coast of Africa; one in 1831 having—as we have seen above—given rise temporarily to Graham’s Island, and another in 1891 appearing near Pantellaria, itself a volcanic isle Of the extinct European volcanoes, some of the best known are in Auvergne, the Efel, Bohemia and Catalonia, whilst the volcanic land of Italy includes the Euganean hills, the Alban hills, the Phlegraean Fields, etc The number of volcanoes known to be actually active on the earth is generally estimated at between 300 and 400, but there 1s reason to believe that this estimate 1s far too low. If account be taken of those volcanic cones which have not been active in historic time, the total will probably mse to several thousands THE CAUSES

OF VULCANICITY

There 1s no doubt that the ultimate cause of vulcanicity is the internal heat of the earth; perhaps it would be more correct to say that vulcanicity is merely one of the expressions of the familar fact that the interior of the earth is hotter than the exterior The

source of this heat is strictly not a geological question, and 1s fully discussed in the article Eartu, while many of its implications are dealt with under PETrorocy Tt is self-evident that at great depths the pressure due to the weight of overlying rock must be enormous, and since it is known that magmas are rich in substances that may exist as gases at low pressures, the vapour-tension in depth must also be enormous, quite sufficient to drive material to the surface with explosive violence if a passage is opened for it. In some cases the eruption may actually be brought about by gas-pressure alone, which opens

its own passage, and this is doubtless the usual procedure in later eruptions from a vent once established But in the initiation of a new centre there is probably, as a rule, some other contributing

VOLCANO

ISLANDS—VOLGA

cause, Which, so to speak, pulls the trigger and starts the explosion It is now generally held that such a cause is to be looked for

in movements and fractures of the outer crust of the earth, however these may be brought about, a matter as yet by no means settled ‘The common coincidence of mountain-folding and vul-

canicity, both in time and place, is highly sigmficant Folding produces lines of weakness and even actual fracture, and points of special weakness, such as the crossing of two fractures, become the

seats of volcanoes, as has been set forth above.

while fossil voles occur in the European Pliocene. (See RoDENTIA )

VOLENDAM, «a small fishing village of Holland in the

province of North Holland, adjommg Edam on the shores of the Zuider Zee It is remarkable for its quaint buildings and the picturesque costume of the villagers, who are of a singularly dark and robust type. Many artists have been attracted to settle here Volendam has its origin in the building of the great sea-dam for the new waterway to Edam im the middle of the rath century

Tt has long been noted that the majority of volcanoes are more or less near the sea, though in many cases the distances are ac-

tually considerable when measured in miles

243

ous other species occur in Europe, north Asia and North America,

This association,

taken together with the emission of large quantities of steam durmg eruptions, naturally led to the theory that vulcanicity was due to the access of sea-water to the heated interior of the earth. There can be little doubt that the great explosion at Krakatoa m 1883 was actually due to this cause, but the eruption had begun before the water got in, the explosion being in reality a secondary effect Access of water through fractures cannot be accepted as a general cause, and most volcanic water is probably of magmatic

origin We can only say that vulcanicity is due to the escape under pressure of heated material through channels of weakness in the earth’s crust, and that these channels may be formed in several different ways: by folding and fracture, by compression or by ten-

sion; the character and products of the eruptions also varying somewhat in accordance with the different types of crust-movement concerned, as lamed earlier in this article

BIBLIOGRAPHY. general vulcaniaty see G Mercaliı, Z Vulcani attivi della terra (1907); T C Chamberln and R D Salsbury, Geology, Processes and their Results (1905), G P Scrope, Volcanoes (and ed, 1872) , Tempest Anderson, Volcanic Studies in many Lands (1903 and r917; excellent views), H. J Johnston-Lavis, “The Eruption of Vesuvius m April 1906,” Scz. Trans, Roy Dublin Soc. (Jan 1909); The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena, Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society (“On the Volcanic Phenom-

On the seaward side of the dike are some houses built on piles in the style of lake dwellings. The draining of a large part of the Zuider Zee, in progress in 1929, will change the position and relations of Volendam very greatly

VOLGA

(Tatar: Etil, Itil or Atel, Fmnish. Rau; in ancient

times Rha and Oarus), the longest and most important nver of European Russia, and the longest river of Europe Its length is 2,325 m, its drainage area covers 563,300 sqm. and includes

muddle and eastern Russia, as well as part of south-eastern Russia The Volga rises on the Valdai plateau at a height of 665 ft, in a small spring in 57° 15’ N., 32° 30° E, west of Lake Seliger, flows through several small lakes, and after its confluence with the Runa, enters Lake Volga Below that lake is a dam storing 10,000 million cuft of water, so as to make possible the deepening of the channel as far as the Sheksna, during dry periods After receiving the Sheksna the Volga flows south-east along a broad valley, consisting of a string of former wide lake beds, with a depth of 150~200 ft , in Permian and Jurassic deposits. It recelves numerous tributaries from the north including the Unzha

(365 miles)

The Oka from the south-west

(950 m) rises in

Orel, near the sources of tributaries of the Don and Dnieper, and

receives the Upa, Zhizdra, Ugra, Moskva and Klyazma (left), and the Tsna with the Moksha (right). The Oka and Volga unite at Nizhniy-Novgorod, and the Volga then enters a broad lacustrine depression which must have comena, etc,” by Prof. J W Judd) (1888); Royal Society Report on Its lowthe Eruptzon of the Soufrière, in St Vincent, in r902, by Tempest municated with the Caspian in post-pliocene times Anderson and J. S. Flett, two parts, Phil. Trans , 1903, ser A, vol 200, water level in this section is only 190 ft above sea-level, and its and 1908, vol 208; A Lacroix, La Montagne Pelée (1904), E. O. width ranges from 350 to 1,750 yards. Islands appear and disHovey, The 1902-03 Eruptions of Mont Peiée and the Soufriére, Nin Internat Geolog Congress (Vienna, 1903), Am. Jour Scz xiv. (1902), appear each year after the spring floods The Sura, bringing p 319, Nat Geog Mag xii (1902), p 444, I. C Russell, Volcanoes a volume of 2,700 to 22,000 cuft per second enters on the right,

as do the Svyaga and many smaller tributaries The Volga then turns south-eastward and descends mto another lacustrine depression, receiving the Kama, volume 52,500 to 144,400 cuft per second, below Kazan, along which come the products of the Ural Forhandingor, Band xxu (1900) (Abstract by R H_ Rastall m the mining region; remains of molluscs still extant in the Caspian Geological Magazine, April 1907), C E Dutton, “Volcanoes and occur in this depression and in the lower Kama. The Volga then Radioactivity,” Journal of Geology (Chicago, 1906), vol mv. p 259; flows south-south-west, making a great bend at Samara to avoid G. D Louderback, “The Relation of Radioactivity to Vulcanism,” zbzd The Volga at p. 747; J Joly, Radzoactkuity and Geology (1909) , The Surface H1s- the Zheguli extension of the Russian plateau tory of the Earth (1925) ; A Harker, The Natural History of Igneous Samara is only 54 ft. above sea-level Along the whole of the Rocks (1909) , F. v. Woltf, Der Vulkamsmus, Stuttgart, 1914. bend, cliffs fringe the nght bank, which the river is constantly VOLCANO ISLANDS, three small islands in the western undercutting, while from the left bank extends a great plain inPacific Ocean, south of the Bonin Islands, forming part of the tersected by former channels of the river At Stalingrad (TsarJapanese empire (annexed in 1891) ‘They are also known as the itsyn) the river reaches its extreme south-western limit and is Magellan Archipelago, and in Japan as Kwazan-retto (series of only 45 m from the Don In 1928 the Soviet government acvolcanic islands). They are situated between 24° and 26° N. cepted estimates for the construction of a canal with sluices on and 141° and 142° E Their names are Kita-1wo-jima (Santo the Don, to link these two rivers, it is hoped that the canal will Alessandro), Iwo-jima (Sulphur) and Minami-1wo-j1ma (Santo be opened ın 1935 ‘The river then turns sharply to the southAgostino) Kuta-1wo-yima—which, as its name (Asta) mplies, is east, flowing through the low Caspian steppes A few miles above the most northerly of the three—rises 2,520 ft above the water, Stalingrad it sends off a branch, the Akhtuba, which accompanies it to the sea for 330 m_ Low hills skirt the nght bank, but on and Minami-iwo-jima, the most southerly, to 3,021 ft the left it anastomoses freely with the Akhtuba and often floods VOLCI: see Vutct. VOLE, a name employed for several genera of rodents allied the country for 15 to 35 mules Efforts are being made to control the Volga here so as to lessen to the rats and mice and included m the family Muridae The two common English forms are better known as the water-rat the annual washing away of fertile alluvial gardens. The delta beand the short-tailed field-mouse Voles may be distinguished from gins 40m above Astrakhan and contains as many as 200 mouths. rats and mice by their small eyes, blunt snouts, stouter build, The Volga is constantly eroding its banks, especially during the inconspicuous ears, short limbs and tail and less brisk movements. spring floods, and towns and loading ports have constantly to be They also differ in the structure of the cheek-teeth, The Euro- moved back, consequently the volume of suspended matter depean field-vole (Microtus agreatis) is about the size of a mouse posited on the Caspian shores is great; the level of that sea rises and does considerable damage to crops and garden-produce The during the Volga floods Navigation.—There are six sections of the river for navigawater-vole (M. amphibius) 1s larger, diurnal and aquatic Largely vegetarian, it will also eat insects, mice and young birds It is tion (1) From the Upper Volga Dam, 75 m from the source, absent from Ireland, but extends from England to China Numer- to Tver Here rapids and shallows are numerous, and this part of North America (1897), C H Hitchcock, Hawai and its Volcanoes

(Honolulu, 1909). For the chemistry of volcanic phenomena see F. W. Clarke, “The Data of Geochemustry,” Bull US Geolog Survey, No. 770 (1924). For other modern views of vulcanism see S Arrhenius, “Zur Physik des Vulcanismus” in Geologiska Forenmgens 2 Stockholm

244

VOLHYNIA—VOLKSRUST

is exclusively used for floating rafts (2) From Tver to Rybinsk, which 1s the real head of Volga navigation In this section the main traffic consists of barges for local trade; up to June 20,

vessels drawing 2 ft may use the river, but after that date 1 ft g m. 1s the maximum possible draft, and the mver becomes mcreasingly shallow, so that navigation may cease altogether The influence of the Upper Volga Dam may give an extra 9 in of depth Above Rybinsk the Volga is jomed by the Mologa, and at Rybinsk by the Sheksna. which is navigable and which is hnked by the Marii and Wurttemberg canals with the basins of the Neva and Northern Dwina respectively Fifteen thousand vessels enter the port per annum (3) From Rybımsk to Nizhny-Novgorod, 349 m , the normal draught of vessels is 3 ft 6 in , but in years of low water, navigation may be completely suspended in July and August. In this section are 30 commercial landing stages and 20 harbours sutable for wintermg vessels (4) From Nizhniy-

Novgorod to Kazan, 299 m, the normal draught is 5 feet There are 40 commercial landing stages and 40 harbours, only ten of the latter being really ice-proof. (5) Kazan to Stalingrad, 938m, normal draught 7 feet There are 37 commercial landing stages and 28 harbours, six of which are really safe and ice-proof (6) Stalngrad to the Caspian 1s divided into two parts (1) Stalingrad to Astrakhan, 343 m where the navigation 1s stall of the river type and (1i) Astrakhan to the Caspian, 71 m astretch of nontidal estuary, very difficult for navigation, where continuous dredging is necessary to ensure even 8 ft depth The great drawbacks to navigation are (1) the long winter frost, during which the river and its tributaries become sledge routes, the ice lasting from 90 to 160 days; the average date of break-up of ice is April 1x at Tver, the 25th at Kostroma, the 16th at Kazan, the 7th at Stalingrad and March 17 at Astrakhan (2) the shallowness of the river during late summer and the frequent formation of islands and their dissolution during flood time.

Fisheries.—The network of shallow and still Jimans or “cutoffs” in the delta of the Volga and the shallow waters of the northern Caspian, freshened as these are by the water of the

Volga, the Ural, the Kura and the Terek, is exceedingly favourable to the breeding of fish, and as a whole constitutes one of the most productive fishing grounds in the world As soon as the 1ce breaks up in the delta innumerable shoals of roach (Leuciscus rutius) and trout (Luctotrutta leucichthys) rush up the river They are followed by the great sturgeon (Acipenser huso), the pike, the bream and the pike perch (Leucioperca sandra) Later on appears the Caspian herring (Clupea caspia), which formerly was neglected, but has now become more important than sturgeon; the sturgeon A stellatus and “wels” (Silurus glams) follow, and finally the sturgeon Acpenser guldenstadiu, so much valued for its caviare In search of a gravelly spawning-ground the sturgeon go up the river as far as Sarepta (250m ). The lamprey, now extensively pickled, the sterlet (A. ruthenus), the tench, the gudgeon and other fluvial species also appear in immense numbers. Destructive exploitation at spawnmg time has much diminished the yield of the Volga fisheries, and the discharge of ou from steamers has also had an adverse effect. History.—The Volga was probably known to the early Greeks, though ıt is not mentioned previous to Ptolemy According to

him, the Rha is a tributary of an mterior sea, formed from the

confluence of two great rivers, the sources of which are separated by 20 degrees of longitude The Arab geographers throw little

light on the condition of the Volga dunng the great migrations

of the 3rd century, or subsequently under the mvasion of the Huns, the growth of the Khazar empire in the southern steppes and of that of Bulgaria on the middle Volga In the oth century the Volga basin was occupied by Finnish tnbes in the north and by Khazars and various Turkish races m the south The Slavs, xiven perhaps to the west, had only the Volkhov and the Dnieper, while the (Mohammedan) Bulgarian empire, at the confluence of the Volga with the Kama, was so powerful that for some time it

was an open question whether Islam or Christianity would gain the upper hand, and Islam is strong m Kazan to-day But, while the

Russians were driven from the Black Sea by the Khazars, and later on by a tide of Ugrian migration from the north-east, a stream

of Slavs moved

slowly towards the north-east,

down the upper

Oka, into the borderland between the Finnish and Turkish regions After two centuries of struggle the Russians succeeded 1m colonizing the fertile valleys of the Oka basin; in the 12th century they built

a series of fortified towns on the Oka and Klyazma; and finally they reached the mouth of the Oka, there founding (in 1222) a new Novgorod—the Novgorod of the Lowlands, now Nizhniy. Novgorod The great lacustrine depression of the middle Volga was thus reached; and when the Mongol invasion of 1239-42 came, it encountered in the Oka basin a dense agricultural population with many fortified and wealthy towns—a population which the Mongols found they could conquer, but were unable to drive before them as they had done so many of the Turkish tribes This mvasion checked, but did not stop, the advance of the Russians down the Volga Two centuries elapsed before the Russians covered the 300 m which separate the mouths of the Oka and

the Kama and took possession of Kazan. With the capture of Kazan (1552) the Russians found the lower Volga open to their boats, and eight years afterwards they were masters of the mouth of the river at Astrakhan Two centuries more elapsed before the Russians secured a free passage to the Black Sea and became masters of the Sea of Azov and the Crimea; the Volga, however, was their route BELIOGRAPHY —P P Semenov’s Geographical and Statıstıcal Dictionary (5 vols, St Petersburg, 1863-85) contains a full bibhography of the Volga and tributanes See also V Ragozin’s Volga (3 vols, St Petersburg, 1880-81, with atlas; mn Russian), N Bogolyubov, The Volga from Tver to Astrakhan (Russian, 1876), H Roskoschny, Dre Wolga und thre Zuflusse (Leipzg, 1887, vol 1), history, ethnography,

hydrography and biography, with rich biblographical mformation;

N. Boguslavskiy, The Volga as a Means of Communicaizon (Russian, 1887), with detailed profile and maps, Peretyatkovich, Volga region n the r5th and r6th Centurtes (1877) , and Lender, Dze Wolga (1889) The Don and Volga Basins (1920). Foretgn Office Historical Handbook No 53 (Enghsh).

VOLHYNIA,

2 province of Poland, having on the north

the province of Polesie, on the west Lublia on the cont’ Tarnonol

provinces, and on the east Russie I: ts or.ty halt the old reget of Volhyma, which, after belonging in turn to Russia, Poland and Russia again, has now been divided between the two Area, 11,693 sq miles Pop (1921) 1,438,000, of whom 684% are Ruthenians or Ukrainians, 168% Poles, 106% Jews and 42% other nationalities, so that Polish Volhynia, like Russian Volhyma, is almost entirely an Ukrainian country. It ıs thickly populated ın most parts and has always been covered with large estates owned by Polish landowners, many of whom were descended from Russian and Lithuanian princes It is a plam, washed by the Bug and the tributaries of the Prypet, viz, the Turija, Stochod, Styr, Goryn and Slucz, flowing north from the southern uplands The north is part of the Polesian forest area, the rest 1s fertile soil The chief towns are Luck, Ostróg, Rowno, Dubno, Kowel and Krzemieniec

VOLHYNIA, a former Government of Russia, now in the

Ukrainan SSR

(gv.)

VOLITION, in psychology

VOLK,

LEONARD

See Conation and PsycHoLocY

WELLS

(1828-1895),

American

sculptor, was born at Wellstown (now Wells), Hamilton county, New York, on Nov. 7, 1828 He first followed the trade of a marble cutter with his father at Pittsfield, Mass In 1848 he opened a studio at St. Louis, Mo, and in 1855 was sent by his wife’s cousin, Stephen A. Douglas, to Rome to study Returning to America in 1857, he settled m Chicago, where he helped to establish an academy of design and was for eight years its head Among his principal works are the Douglas monument at Chicago and the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ monument at Rochester, NY;

and statues of President Lincoln and Stephen A Douglas in the Illinois State capitol at Springfield, Ill In 1860 he made a life-mask (now in the National Museum, Washington) of Lincoln,

of whom only one other, by Clark Mulls ın 1865, was ever made. VOLKSRUST, a town of the Transvaal, near the Natal bor-

der, situated 5,429 ft. above sea-level, and 320 m, NNW of Durban by rail, It was founded by the Boer Government in 1888 and was of some importance as a customs port of entry,

It lost this function at the Union ın 1910

It is now a market

VOLLENHOVEN—VOLOGDA

24.5

appears that the Persian losses in the east also could not be centre for a pastoral district Pop. (1921) 3,317 (2,218 whites) VOLLENHOVEN, CORNELIS VAN (1874), repaired; Hyrcania remained an independent kingdom (Joseph. Bell vu 7,4, Aurel Vict Epit 15, 4) VologaesesI died about AD 77 His reign is marked by a decided reaction against Hellenism, he built Vologesocerta (Balashkert) im the neighbourhood of Ctesiphon with the intention of drawing to this new town the national law Fis chief work 1s Hetadatrecht van NederlandschInde (The Common Law of the Dutch East Indies, r906~z8). inhabitants of the Greek city Seleucia (Pin vi 122) (2) Vorocarses II , probably the son of Vologaeses I, appears VOLNEY, CONSTANTIN FRANÇOIS CHASSEBOEUF, Comte DE (1757—1820), French savant, was born at on coins, which bear his proper name, 1n. 77—79, and again 121-47. Craon (Maine-et-Loire) on Feb 3, 1757, of good family; he was During this time the Parthian kingdom was torn by civil wars at first surnamed Boisgirais from his father’s estate, but after- between different pretenders, which reached their height during wards assumed the name of Volney He spent some four years in the war of Trajan, 114-17 Besides Vologaeses II we find on Egypt and Syria, and published his Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie coins and in the authors Pacorus (78—c. 105), Artabanus III. m 1787, and Considérations sur la guerre des Turcs et de la (80-81), Osroes (106-29), Mithradates V (¢ 129-47) and some Russe in 1788 He was a member both of the States-General others; thus the Parthian empire seems during this whole time to and of the Constituent Assembly. In 1791 appeared Les Ruines, have been divided into two or three different kingdoms (3) Votocarses III., 147~91. Under him, the unity of the ou méditations sur les révolutions des empires, an essay on the philosophy of history Volney tried to put his politico-economic empire was restored But he was attacked by the Romans under In this war Seleucia was theomes mto practice in Corsica, where in 1792 he bought an Marcus Aureltus and Verus (162-65) estate and made an attempt to cultivate colonial produce He destroyed and the palace of Ctesyphon burnt down by Avidius was thrown into prison during the Jacobin trrumph, but escaped Cassius (164); the Romans even advanced into Media. In the the guillotine, He was some time professor of history at the peace, western Mesopotamia was ceded to the Romans (Dio Cass. newly founded Ecole Normale In 1795 he undertook a journey lxx. xı ff., Capitolin Marc Aur. 8 f ; Verus 8, etc ) Vologaeses III. to the United States, where he was accused in 1797 of bemg a is probably the king Volgash of the Parsee tradition, preserved French spy sent to prepare for the reoccupation of Lousiana by in the Dinkart, who gathered the writings of Zoroaster, (4) Votocarses IV, 191-209 He was attacked by Septimius France He was obliged to return to France in 1798. The results of his travels took form in his Tableau du clomat et du sol des Severus in 195, who advanced into Mesopotamia, occupied Nisibis Etats-Ums (1803) He was not a partisan of Napoleon, but, being and plundered Ctesiphon (199), but attempted in vain to conquer a moderate man, a savant and a Liberal, was impressed into the Arabic fortress Atra, in 202 peace was restored. (5) VoLocaeses V., 209-c 222, son of Vologaeses IV. Soon service by the emperor, who made him a count and put him into the senate At the restoration he was made a peer of France. after his accession his brother Artabanus IV., the last Arsacid He became a, member of the Institute in 1795 He died ın Paris long, rébelled agaist him, and became master of the greater part of the empire (Dio Cass lxxvii. 12). But Vologaeses V maimtamed on April 25, 1820 Dutch junst, was 1 1901 appointed professor of colonial law in the University of Leyden. He had a wide reputation as an author-

ty on the common law of the Dutch East Indies and on mter-

himself in a part of Babyloma, his dated coins reach down to (Ep. M)

See G. Chinard, Volney et l’Amérique (1923).

VOLO, a seaport of Greece, on the E coast of Thessaly, at AD. 222

the head of the gulf to which it gives its name Pop. (1924) 41,275 It is connected by rail with the main Athens-Salonika railway at Larissa The anchorage 1s safe, vessels loading and discharging by means of lighters The port has a depth of 23 to 25 ft. The Kastro (citadel) marks the site of Pagasae, whence the

VOLOGDA, a province of the Russian S F.S R., very much

smaller than the pre-1917 province of that name Area 110,365 sqkm. Pop (1926) 1,052,645 The provinces of North Dwina, Kostroma, Yaroslavl and Cherepovetz fringe it, as does the Leningrad Area and the Karelian ASSR gulf took the name of Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasicus. Hence the Much of ıt was under ice during the glacial epoch, and it is a Argonautic expedition was said to have sailed, In the fourth cen- region of boulder clay, marsh, lakes and numerous streams The tury it flourished under the tyrant Jason of Pherae Two miles largest lakes are Kubensk and Lacha, and the rivers include the farther S stand the ruins of Demetrias, one of the “Fetters of Sukhona, flowing north-west from Lake Kubensk, and the upper Greece,” founded 290 Bc by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a fa- course of the Onega and of the Vaga, both flowing northward, voutite residence of Macedonian kings the former mto the Arctic Ocean and the latter joining the northern Dwina. Nearly half of the province is covered with VOLOGAESES, the name of five Parthian kings. (1) Vorocarses I, son of Vonones II by a Greek concubine coniferous forest, densest in the north, and there are vast marshes (Tac. Ann. xi. 44) sicceeded h's father in AD so (Tac Ann The south has been largely cleared of forest and in spite of the mu. 14, cf. Joseph Ant ax 3 4) Ie gave the kinscom o- Media poor so and difficult climatic conditions, crops are raised The Atropatene to his brocher Pecoru- erd occupied Arena for climate 1s continental and the winter long Average January temanother brother, Tiridates (Iac Ann au 15 xy 2 Jozenh, Ant. perature at Vologda 10-7° F July 63 5° F. The climate 1s variable xx 3,4)

Ths led 10 a long war with Rome

(34-63)

which was

ably conducted by the Roman general Corbulo The power of Vologaeses was weakened by an attack of the Dahan and Sacan nomads, a rebelion of the Hyrcanians, and the usurpation of Vardanes II (Tac. Anm xii. 7,37; xiv 25, xv I,cf Joseph Ant xx 4, 2, where he is prevented from attacking the vassal king of Adiabene by an invasion of the eastern nomads) At last a peace was concluded, by which Tiridates was acknowledged as king of Armenia, but had to become a vassal of the Romans; he went to Rome, where Nero gave him back the diadem (Tac. Amn. xv 1 ff ;

Dio Cass bai rọ ff., Ixiii x ff); from that time an Arsacid dynasty ruled in Armenia under ‘Roman supremacy Vologaeses was satisfied with this result, and honoured the memory of Nero

(Suet Wero, 57), though he stood in good relations with Vespasian also, to whom he offered an army of 40,000 archers in the war against Vitellius (Tac Hist. iv 51; Suet Vespas 6, cf. Joseph.

Ant. vii. 5, 2, 7, 3, Dio Cass Ixvi 1)

Soon afterwards the Alani,

a great nomadic tribe beyond the Caucasus, invaded Media and

from year to year and early autumn frost or unduly prolonged spring frost may rum the crops The rainfall is mainly in July and August and the dry spring and rainy summer are unfavourable to grain crops; it varies from 300 to 500 mm per annum

The chief crops are winter rye (37-9%) and oats (384%). Barley, flax, potatoes, summer wheat, grasses, peas and hemp are also grown in small quantities The poor soil and need for careful manuring and preparation mean that 50 working days must go for soll preparation as against 15 days in the Kuban— Black Sea district. Cultivation provides 30% of the income of the province, and stock-raising and its dependent industries, 40%. Dairy cattle, of the Kholmogory breed in the north and the Yaroslavl breed in the south, are raised and dairying has developed rapidly since the railway provided an outlet for butter There are about 400 dairy artels which co-operate for the purchase of separators and butter coolers and for sales, and refngerators, new factories and small electric stations are under construction. Horses, sheep and pigs are also raised, the latter are increasing

Armenia (Joseph. Bell. vii 7, 4), Vologaeses applied in vain for in dependence on the dairy industry

help to Vespasian (Dio Cass lxvi, rr; Suet Domitian, 2) It developmg.

Poultry keeping is slowly The timber industry is not well developed, owing #

VOLPI—VOLSINII

246

to lack of capital, though there is some saw-millmg It diminished markedly in the disturbed conditions of the civil war following 1915, and m 1920 was only 45 of the pre-war product. It 1s slowly recovering. In dependence on 1t there are paper manufactures and two cellulose and wood pulp factories. The ralway from Moscow to Archangel goes northwards through Vologda and in 1916 the single track was made double,

thus much increasing its usefulness, and there are railway lnks from the town of Vologda to Leningrad and to the Vyatka-Perm railway. The Sukhona is a navigable water-way hnking with the northern Dwina, and there is a canal linking Lake Kubensk with the Sheksna, a tnbutary of the Volga Except for Vologda (see below) no town reaches a population of 6,000. The population is mainly Russian.

Vologda, the chief town of the above province, situated on

the Vologda river above its confluence with the navigable Suk-

hona river, in 59° 14’ N, 39° 43’ E

Pop. (1926) 56,816

The

town. is a railway junction, and has railway and steamer repair yards, and manufactures agricultural implements, leather and beer. Pottery, glass and cement factories are under construction (1928), and there is a municipal electricity and water supply It has grown rapidly as the railway developed, and has numerous

trading enterprises, collecting local products for export to Archangel, Lenmgrad and Moscow. Its trade is very ancient; it was founded as a colony of Novgorod in 1147, when the fur trade was at its height. The Tatars, in alliance with the Prince of Tver, plundered 1t in 1273, but it

soon recovered Moscow and Novgorod disputed possession of it until 1447, when it was definitely annexed to the former. The opening of Archangel as a port in 1553 made it the chief depdt for goads for the north, It was devastated by the Poles in 1613 and by plague in 1648. With the foundation in 1703 of St.'Petersburg (Leningrad) trade went vie the Baltic, and Vologda declined, but developed again after the building of the railway to Archangel.

VOLPI, COUNT GIUSEPPE (1877—

_), Italian states-

man, was born at Venice on Nov. 19, 1877. In his youth he travelled extensively mm the Balkans and the East, taking special note of local economic problems, In 1912 he was employed in the preliminary negotiations for the Peace of Lausanne, which assured for Italy the possession of the Dodekanese, and was one of the Italian delegates at Ouchy. In 1913 he was vice-president of the

Balkan financial conferences

Volpi was a great figure in Itahan

industry and finance; he originated the proposal for the development of the port of Venice, and executed the hydroelectric scheme in the Veneto, and in part of Emilia and Venezia Gulia, During the World War, Volpi, who was a keen interventionist,

served on the Monfalcone front. In 1919 he was a member of the Supreme Economic Council in Paris, in 1921 governor of Tripolitana, where he remained until 1925. He carried out a successful

arities which rank it close beside the language of the Iguvine Tables (see Umprtan) It shows on the one hand the labialization of the original velar g (Volscian pss=Latin guts), and on the other hand it palatalzes the guttural c before a followmg i (Volscian fagia=Latin faciat). Like Umbrian also, it has degraded all the diphthongs into simple vowels. The name Volsci belongs to the -CO- group of tribal names in the centre, and mainly on the west coast, of Italy, all of whom were subdued by the Romani before the end of the 4th century BC; and many of whom were conquered by the Samnites about a century or more eather They are, from south to north, Oscz, Aurunci, Hermci, Marruci, Falssci; with these were no doubt associated the original inhabitants of Aricza and of Szdici-num, of

Vescia among the Aurunct, and of Labscs close t6 Hernican territory. The same formative element appears in the adjective Mons

Massicus, and the names Glamca and Marica belonging to the Auruncan district, with Gravescae in south Etruria, and a few other names in central Italy With these names must clearly be judged the forms Tusci and Etrusci, the names given to the Etruscans by the folk among whom they settled The Samnite and Roman conquerors tended to impose the form of therr own

group-name, namely the suffix -NO-, upon the tribes they conquered; hence the Marruct became the Marrucini, the Arici became Arscini. The conclusion suggested 1s that these -COtribes occupied the centre and west coast of Italy at the tıme of the Etruscan invasion; whereas the -NO- tribes only reached this part of Italy, or at least only became dominant there, long after the Etruscans had settled in the Peninsula It remains, therefore, to ask whether any information can be had about the language of this primitive -CO- folk If the conclusions suggested under SABINI may be accepted as sound we should expect to find the Volsci speaking a language similar to

that of the Ligures, whose fondness for the suffix -sco- 1s marked, and identical with that spoken by the plebeians of Rome, and that this branch of Indo-European preserved the original Indo-European Velars from the labialization which befell them in the speech of the Samnites. The language of the inscription of Velitrae offers at first sight a difficulty from this point of view, in the conversion which it shows of g to #; but the group-name of Velitrae is Vehternus, and the people are called on the inscription itself Velestrom (genitive plural); so that there is nothing to prevent our assuming that we have here a settlement of Sabines among the Volscian hills, with their language to some extent (e¢ g, in the matter of the diphthongs and palatals) corrupted by that of the people round about them. In the name Volsci, the older form Volusci clearly contains the word meaning “marsh,” since the change of velos- to volus- 1s

phonetically regular in Latin.

The name Marice (“goddess of

campaign in 1922—23, and then established peace and carried out the salt-marshes”) among the Aurunci appears also both on the a bold programme of economic reconstruction For his services coast of Picenum and among the Ligurians Stephanus of Byzanhe was created Count Volpi: of Misurata. Volpi was chairman of tium identified the Osci with the Sicul, who, there is reason to the Associazione fra la Società Italiana per Azione, and was the suspect, were kinsmen of the Ligures In many marshy places trusted representative of Italian commerce and industry These this -co- or -ca- suffix is used Besides the Auruncs and the dea considerations and his success in Tripoli led Mussolmı to ap- Marica and the mtempestaeque Graviscae (Virg, Aen x 184), point him minister of finance in July 1925, when the dissatisfac- we have the Ustica cubans of Horace (Odesi 17, 11), the Herme tion with Stefani’s finance administration was acute Volpi con- in the Trerus valley, Satricum and Glamca in the Pomptine cluded the arrangements for the settlement of the Italian debt to marshes, BrstrocrapHy.—For the text and fuller account of the Volscian America (Nov. 12, 1925), and to Great Britam (Jan. 27, 1926).

VOLSCI, ancient Italian people who were prominent in the history of the first century of the Roman Republic They then inhabited the partly lilly, partly marshy district of the S. of Latium, bounded by the Aurunci and Samnuites on the S , the Hernici on the E, and stretchmg roughly from Norba and Cora in the N. to Antium in the S. They were among the most danger-

ous enemies of Rome, and frequently alhed with the Aequ (q.v.). From the little town of Velitrae (Velletri) in the Volscian territory, the birthplace of Augustus, comes a very interesting though brief inscription dating probably from early in the 3rd century B.C. It is cut upon a small bronze plate (now in the Naples Museum), which must have once been fixed to some votive object. The language of this mscription shows the very marked peculi`

inscription, and for other records of the dialect, see R

take Dialects, pp. 267 sqq. See also Camb

S Conway,

Anc Hist., vol. vu.

VOLSINII, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy. The older

Volsinii occupied in all probability the isolated tufa rock, so strongly defended by nature, upon which in Roman times stood the town which Procopius calls Olp@iBevrds (Urbs vetus, the modern Orvieto) It had, and needed, no outer walls, being surrounded on all sides except the south-west by abrupt tufa cliffs, but a massive wall found by excavation on the south-west side of the town may have belonged to the acropolis. An Etruscan temple of the 4th cent Bc. stood near the north-east extremity of the plateau It measured 72 by 54 feet and had three cellae; and at the foot of the hill on the north a large Etruscan necropolis was found dating from the sth century Bc, The tombs, con-

24-7

VOLSTEAD—VOLTAIRE structed of blocks of stone and artanged in rows divided by passages, often had the name of the deceased on the facade. Many

their lowest level at the end of January. Below the junction the Volta flows south-east and south, but turns east for 40 m just inted vases, etc., wete found; some are in the Museo Civico north of 6°. In 7° 37’ N it receives on the left bank a large at Orvieto ‘Tombs with paintings have also been found at tributary, the Oti, coming from 12° N In its lower course, through Settecamini to the south-west of the town on the way to Bolsena the forest belt, the river has often a width of over half a mile, Volsini: was reputed the richest of the twelve cities of Etruria with a depth in places of 40 to 50 ft in the rains, but in 6° 18’ Wars between Volsinu and Rome are mentioned in 392, 308 and N it traverses a pass in which its width is narrowed to 30 yards 294 8C Zonaras states that the city was destroyed by Fulvius Its use as a water-way is limited by a number of rapids, the lowFlaccus in 265-264 BC and removed elsewhere, though the old est of which occur in 6° 7’ N, above the trading port of Akuse site continued to be inhabited. The new city was certainly situated Its mouth is also obstructed during the greater part of the year on the hills on the north-east bank of the Lake of Bolsena (Lacus by a bar The river is usually navigable by small vessels from Volsiniensis), 12 m. W.S W. of Orvieto, where many important its mouth for about 60 miles.

antiquities have been found.

See P. Perali, Orvieto Htrusca

(Rome,

1928), who

identify Orvieto with the ancient Fanum Voltumnae.

VOLSTEAD, ANDREW

J. (1860-

proposes to

_), ex-congressman,

born in Goodhue county, Minnesota He was admitted to the bar in 1884 and has since been m practice at Granite Falls, Minnesota. Mr. Volstead was a member of the 58th to 67th Congresses

(1903-23), 7th Minnesota district. He was the author of the

Farmers’ Co-Operative Act and of the “Volstead Act,” the first step in the struggle to enforce the 18th Amendment to the Constitution regarding the prohibition of intomcating liquors. The Volstead Act was passed Oct 18, 1919, over the President’s veto, Its most drastic feature, and the one most criticized, 1s the definition of intoxicating liquors as beverages containing “one-half of

one per centum or more of alcohol by volume ” Volstead has been legal adviser to the chief of the north-western dry enforcement district smce Oct. 1925. VOLTA, ALESSANDRO (1745-1827), Italian physicist,

See H. Hubert, “Sur un important phénoméne de capture dans PAfrique occidentale” (Annales de Géographie, 1912).

VOLTAIRE,

FRANCOIS

MARIE

AROUET

DE

(16941778), whose real name was François Mane Arouet simply, was born on Nov. 21, 1694 at Paris, and was baptized the next day. His father was Francois Arouet, a notary; his mother was Marie Marguerite Daumart or D’Aumard. Both father and mother were of Poitevin extraction, but the Arouets had been for two generations established in Paris, the grandfather being a prosperous tradesman. He was the fifth child of his parents Not very much is known of the mother, who died when Voltaire was but seven years old. She pretty certainly was the chief cause of his early introduction to good society, the abbé de Chateauneuf (his sponsor in more ways than one) having been her friend. The abbé instructed him early in belles-lettres and deism, and

he showed when a child an unsurpassed faculty for facile verse-

1h 1779. In 1777 and again in 1782 he journeyed through Switzerland, France, Germany, Holland and England, and became acquainted with many scientific celebrities. In 1791 he received the Copley medal of the Royal Society. In 180z Napoleon called him to Paris, to show his experiments on contact electricity, and a medal was struck in his honour. He was made a senator of the kingdom of Lombardy. In 18x5 the emperor of Austria made him director of the philosophical faculty of Padua. In 1819 he retired and settled in his native town, where he died on March 5, 1827. A statue was erected to his memory at Como. For Volta’s electrical work, and his place in the history of discovery, see ELECTRICITY; also VOLTMETER.

making. At the age of ten he was sent to the Collége Louis-leGrand, which was under the management of the Jesuits, and remaimed there till r7rz. It was his whim, as part of his general liberalism, to depreciate the education he received; but it seems to have been a sound and good education, Nor can there be much doubt that the great attention bestowed on acting—the Jesuits kept up the Renaissance practice of turning schools mto theatres for the performance of plays both in Latm and in the vernacular—had much to do with Voltaire’s hfelong devotion to the stage. It must have been in his very earliest school years that the celebrated presentation of him by his godfather to Ninon de Lenclos took place, for Ninon died m 1705. She left him two thousand francs “to buy books with ” In August 1711, at the age of seventeen, he came home, and the usual battle followed between a son who desired no profession but literature and a father who refused to consider literature a profession at all. For a time Voltaire submitted, and read law at least nominally. The abbé de Chateauneuf died before his godson

VOLTA, the largest river of the coast of Upper Guinea, be-

left school, but he had already introduced him to the famous and

was born at Como on Feb

18,1745

He 1s celebrated as a pioneer

of electrical science, after whom the “volt” is named. He was successively appointed professor of physics mn the gymnasium of

Como (1774) and to the newly founded chair of physics at Pavia

tween the Gambia and the Niger, with a length of about 900 m. Its mouth and the greater part of its course are in British territory. Its lower course had been known since the discoveries of the Portuguese, from whom it received (zsth century) its name on account of the winding nature of its stream. It was not, however, until the last fifteen year’s of the roth century that the extent of its basin—extending far north within the bend of the Niger— was made known

There are two main upper branches, the Black and the White

Volta. Their sources lie on the grassy-plateaux north of the forest belt of the Guinea coast, the Black Volta rising (as the Baule) in about 11° N, 4° 50’ W. Its course is at first east and northeast, to 12° 25” N., at which point, after receiving a tributary from

nearly 14° N.—the most northerly pomt of the basm—it turns

sharply south From the eleventh to the ninth parallel the river forms the boundary between the Northern Territones of the Gold Coast (British) and the French Ivory Coast colony. The southerly course of the stream ceases at 8° 15’ N whete it is deflected east, and even north, by a mountain range composed of

sandstone and granite, which it finally breaks through by a narrow pass, in which its width is only some 60 yards. Elsewhere

it has a general width of rs0 to 200 yards

In 0° yo’ W itre-

celveg the White Volta, which flows generally south from about

13° N. and Hkewise breaks through a narrow gap in the plateau es-

catpment., Both rivers shrink greatly in the dry season, reaching

dissipated coterie of the Temple

Huis father tried to break him

off from such society by sending him in the suite of the marquis de Chateauneuf, the abbé’s brother, to The Hague Here he met a certain Olympe Dunoyer (“Pimpette”), a girl apparently of respectable character and not bad connections, but a Protestant, penniless, and daughter of a hterary lady whose literary reputation was not spotless. His father stopped any idea of a match by procuring a lettre de cachet, which, however, he did not use.

Voltaire, who had been sent home, submitted, and for a time pretended to work in a Parisian lawyer’s office; but he again manifested a faculty for gettmg into trouble—this time in the still more dangerous way of writing lbellous poems—so that his father was glad to send him to stay for nearly a year (1714-15) with Louis de Caumartm, marquis de When he returned to Paris, Voltaire to a less questionable and even more Vendéme’s, to the famous “court of

Saint-Ange, in the country was forthwith introduced distinguished coterie than

Sceaux,” the circle of the beautiful and ambitious duchesse du Maine. It seems that Voltaire lent himself to the duchess’s frantic hatred of the regent Orleans, and helped to compose lampoons on that prince. At any rate, in May 1716 he was exiled, first to Tulle, then to Sully Allowed to return, he again fell under suspicion of having been concerned in the composition of two violent libels and on May 16, 1717 Was sent to the Bastille. He there recast Oedipe, began the Henriade and determined to alter his name. Ever after his exit

248

VOLTAIRE

from the Bastille in April 1718 he was known as Arouet de Voltaire. or simply Voltaire, though legally he never abandoned his patronymic Probably the name ıs an anagram on “Arouet le jeune.” or “Arouet 1 )” A further “exile” at Châtenay and elsewhere succeeded the imprisonment, and though Voltaire was admıtted to an audience by the regent and treated graciously he was not trusted Oedzpe was acted at the Théâtre Français on Nov 18 of the year of release It had a run of forty-ñve mgbts, and brought the author not a little profit With these gains Voltaire seems to have begun his long series of successful financial speculations But in the spring of next year the production of Lagrange-Chancel’s libels, entitled the PAiippiques, again brought suspicion on him He was informally exiled, and spent much time with Marshal Villars, again increasing his store of “reminiscences” He returned to Paris in the winter, and his second play, Artémire, was produced in February 1720 It was a failure In December 1721 his father died, leaving him property (rather more than four thousand livres

a year), which was soon increased by a pension of half the amount from the regent In return he offered himself as a secret diplomatist to Dubois His visiting espionage, as unkind critics put it—his secret diplomatic mission, as he would have hked to have it put himselfi—began in the summer of 1722, and he set out for it in company with a certain Madame de Rupelmonde, to whom he as usual made love, taught deism and served as an amusing travelling companion He stayed at Cambrai for some time, where European diplomatists were still m full session, journeyed to Brussels, went on to The Hague, and then returned The Henriade had got on considerably during the journey During the late autumn and winter of 1722~23 he abode chiefly in Paris, taking a kind of lodging in the town house of M de Berniéres, a nobleman of Rouen, and endeavouring to procure a “privilege” for his poem In this he was disappointed, but he had the work printed at Rouen nevertheless, and spent the summer of 1723 revising it. In November he caught smallpox and was very seriously UW] The book was privately printed in the spring of 1724. His third tragedy, Mariamne was a failure The regent had died shortly before, not to Voltaire’s advantage; for he had been a generous patron. Voltaire had made, however, a useful friend in another grand seigneur, as profligate and nearly as intelligent, the duke of Richelieu, and with him he passed 1724 and the next year chiefly, recasting Mariamne (which was now successful), writing the comedy of L’Indiscret, and courting the queen, the ministers, the favourites and all who seemed worth while. The end of 1725 brought a disastrous close to this period of his hfe He was insulted by the chevalier de Rohan, replied with his usual sharpness of tongue, and shortly afterwards, when dining with the duke of Sully, was called out and bastimadoed by the chevalier’s hirelings, Rohan himself looking on. Nobody would take his part, and at last, nearly three months after the outrage, he challenged Rohan, who accepted the challenge, but on the morning appointed for the duel Voltaire was arrested and sent for the second time to the Bastille. He was kept in confinement a fortnight, and was then packed off to England m accordance with his own request. Voltaire revenged himself on the duke of Sully for his conduct towards his guest by cuttmg Maxmilien de Béthune’s name out of the Henriade Voltaire’s visit to England lasted about three years, from 1726 to 1729. George IT., who succeeded soon after his arrival, was not

fond of “boetry,” but Queen Carobne was, and international jealousy was pleased at the thought of welcoming a distinguished exile

from French illiberality. The Walpoles, Bubb Dodmgton, Boling-

broke, Congreve, Sarah, duchess of Marlborough,

Pope, were among his English frends. He made acquaintance with, and at least tried to appreciate, Shakespeare. He was much struck by English manners, was deeply, penetrated by English toleration for personal freethought and eccentricity, and gamed some thou-

sands of pounds from an authorized English edition of the

Henriade, dedicated to the queen But he visited Paris now and then and gained fulllicence to return in the spring of 1729. He was full of literary projects, and immediately after his

[LIFE

return he is said to have increased his fortune immensely by a lucky lottery speculation The Henriade was at last licensed in France; Brutus, a play which he had printed in England, was

accepted for performance, but kept back for a tme by the author, and he began the celebrated poem of the Pucelle, the amusement and the torment of a great part of his hfe At the end of 1730 Brutus did actually get acted Then in the spring of the next

year he went to Rouen to get Charles XII surreptitiously printed, which he accomplished

In 1732 another tragedy, Eriphuile, ap-

peared, with the same kind of halting success which had distnguished the appearance of its elder sisters smce Oedipe But at last, on the 13th of August 1732, he produced Zaire, the best (with Mérope) of all lis plays, and one of the ten or twelve

best plays of the whole French classical school

Its motive was

borrowed to some extent from Othello, but that matters httle In the followmg winter the death of the comtesse de Fontaine-

Martel, whose guest he had been, turned him out of a comfortable abode He then took lodgings with an agent of his, one Demoulin, ım an out-of-the-way part of Paris, and was, for some time at least, as much occupied with contracts, speculation and al] sorts of means of gaining money as with literature In the middle of this period, however, in 1733, two important books, the Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais and the Temple du goût appeared Both were likely to make bad blood, for the latter was, under the mask of easy verse, a satıre on contemporary French literature, especially on J B Rousseau, and the former was, in the guise of a criticism or rather panegyric of English ways, an attack on everything established in the

church and state of France The book was condemned (June roth, 1734, the copies seized and burnt, a warrant issued against the author and his dwelling searched He himself was safe in

the independent duchy of Lorraine with Emilie de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet, with whom

he began to be mtimate m

1733 The chateau of Cirey, a half-dismantled country house on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, was fitted up with Voltaire’s money and became the headquarters of himself, of his hostess, and now and then of her accommodating husband Many pictures of the hfe here, some of them not a little malicious, survive It was not entirely a bed of roses, for the “respectable Emily’s” temper was violent, and after a tume she sought lovers who were not so much des cérébraux as Voltaire But it provided him with a safe and comfortable retreat, and with every opportunity for literary work In March 1735 the ban was formally taken off him, and he was at liberty to return to Pans, a liberty of which he availed himself sparingly At Cirey he wrote indefatigably and did not neglect business. The principal literary results of his early years here were the Discours en vers sur Vhomme, the play of Alzire and L’Enfant prodigue (1736), and a long treatise on the Newtonian system which he and Madame du Châtelet wrote together In the first days of his sojourn he had written a pamphlet with the title of Treatise on Metaphysics Of metaphysics proper Voltaire neither then nor at any other time undérstood anything, and the subject, like every other, merely served him as a pretext for laughing at religion with the usual reservation of a tolerably afirmative desm In March 1736 he received his first letter from Frederick of Prussia, then crown prince only He was soon again in trouble, this time for the poem of Le Mondan, and he at once crossed the frontier and then made for Brussels He ' spent about three months in the Low Countries, and m March 1737 returned to Cirey, and continued writing, making expenments ım physics (he had at this time a large laboratory), and busying himself with ıron-founding, the chief industry of the | district The best-known accounts of Cirey life, those of Madame de Grafigny, date from the winter of 1738-39, they are somewhat spiteful but very amusing depictirg the frequent quarrels between Madame cu Châtel and Volt ure his mtense suffering under criticism, his constant dread of the surreptitious publication of the Pucelle (which nevertheless he could not keep his hands from writing or his tongue from reciting to his visitors), and so forth Frederick, now king of Prussia, made not a few efforts to get Voltaire away from Madame du Châtelet, but unsuccessfully,

LIFE]

VOLTAIRE

249

and the king earned the lady’s cordial hatred by persistently

But Voltaire’s restless temper was brewing up for another storm.

refusmg or omitting to invite her At last, in September 1740,

In the early autumn of 1751 La Mettrie, one of the king’s parasites, and a man of much more talent than 1s generally allowed,

master and pupil met for the first time at Cleves, an interview followed three months later by a longer visit. Brussels was again

horrified Voltaire by telling him that Frederick had in conversathe headquarters m 1741, by which time Voltaire had fimshed tion applied to him (Voltaire) a proverb about “sucking the the best and the second or third best of his plays, Mérope and orange and fimging away its skin,” and about the same time the Mahomet Mahomet was played first at Lille in that year, it did dispute with Maupertuis, which had more than anything else to not appear in Paris till August next year, and Mérope not till do with his exclusion from Prussia, came to a head. Maupertuis 1743 This last was, and deserved to be, the most successful of got into a dispute with one Konig The king took his president’s its author’s whole theatre During these years much of the Essai part; Voltaire took Kénig’s. But Maupertuis must needs write sur les moeurs and the Siècle de Louis XIV. was composed. He his Letters, and thereupon (1752) appeared one of Voltaire’s most also returned, not too well-advisedly, to the business of courtier- famous, though perhaps not one of his most read works, the ship, which he had given up since the death of the regent He Duiribe du Docteur Akakia. Even Voltaire did not venture to was much employed, owing to Richelieu’s influence, in the fétes publish this lampoon on a great official of a prince so touchy of the dauphin’s marriage, and was rewarded, through the influence as the king of Prussia without some permission, and if all tales of Madame de Pompadour on New Year’s Day 1745 by the are true he obtained this by another piece of something like appointment to the post of historiographer-royal, once jointly forgery—getting the king to endorse a totally different pamphlet held by Racine and Boileau. In the same year he wrote a poem on its last leaf, and affixing that last leaf to Akakia. Of this on Fontenoy, he received medals from the pope and dedicated Frederick was not aware, but he did get some wind of the Mahomet to him, and he wrote court dzveritssements and other Duatribe itself, sent for the author, heard it read to his own

things to admiration

But Voltaire, who had been for years

the first writer in France, had been repeatedly passed over in elections to the Academy He was at last elected in the spring of 1746, and received on the oth of May. Then the tide began to tum His favour at court had naturally exasperated his enemies. He had various proofs of the instability of his hold on the king

dunmg 1747 and in 1748 He once lay in hnding for two months with the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux, where were produced the comedietta of La Prude and the tragedy of Rome sauvée, and afterwards for a time lived chiefly at Lunéville, here Madame du Chatelet had established herself at the court of King Stanislaus, and carried on a liaison with Saint-Lambert, an officer in the king’s guard In 1749 she died after the birth of a child. After Madame du Chatelet’s death Voltaire had some idea of setthng m Paris, but mischief was the very breath of his nostrils He went on writing satiric tales hke Zadig. He engaged ın a foolish and undignified struggle with Crébillon pére (not fils), a rival set up against hım by Madame de Pompadour, but a dramatist who, in part of one play, Rhadamuste et Zénobie, has struck a note of tragedy in the grand Cornelian strain, which Voltaire could never hope to echo, Semirame (1748), Oreste (1750) and Rome sauvée itself were all products of this rivalry. All this tame Frederick of Prussia had been contmuing his invitations. Voltaire left Paris on June 15, 1751, and reached Berlin on July ro. It is certan that at first the king behaved altogether like a king to his guest He pressed him to remain, he gave him (the words are Voltaire’s own) one of his orders, twenty thousand francs a year, and four thousand additional for is niece, Madame Denis, in case she would come and keep house for her uncle. His residence in Prussia lasted nearly three years

great amusement, and either actually burned the ms. or believed that it was burnt In a few days prmted copies appeared. Frederick put Voltaire under arrest for a time After repeated recon-

ciliations followed by fresh difficulties Voltaire at last left Potsdam on the 26th of March, 1753 It was nearly three months afterwards that the famous, ludicrous and brutal arrest was made at Frankfort, on the persons of himself and his niece, who had met him meanwhile. The whole situation was at last put an end to by the city authorities, who probably felt that they were not playing a very creditable part Voltaire left Frankfort on July 7, and travelled to Colmar. Voltaire’s second stage was now over in his sixtieth year. He had been, in the first blush of his Frankfort disaster, refused, or

at least not granted, permission even to enter France proper. At Colmar he was not safe, especially when in January 1754 a pirated edition of the Essai sur les moeurs, written long before, appeared. Permission to establish himself in France was now absolutely refused Nor did an extremely offensive performance of Voltaire’s—the solemn partaking of the Eucharist at Colmar after due confession—at all mollify his enemies. His exclusion from France, however, really meant exclusion from Paris and its neighbourhood, In the summer he went to Plombiéres, and after returning to Colmar for some time journeyed in the beginning of winter to Lyons, and thence in the middle of December to Geneva Voltaire had no purpose of remaining in the city, and almost immediately bought a country house just outside the gates, to which he gave the name Les Délices. He was here practically at the meeting-point of four distinct jurisdictions— Geneva, the canton Vaud, Sardinia and France, while other cantons were within easy reach, and he bought other houses dotted about these territories, so as never to be without a refuge close at hand in case of sudden storms. At Les Délices he set up a considerable establishment, which his great wealth made him able easily to afford He kept open house for visitors; he had printers close at hand in Geneva; he fitted up a private theatre in which he could enjoy what was perhaps the greatest pleasure of his whole life—acting in a play of his own, stage-managed by

It was quite impossible that Voltaire and Frederick should get on together for long. Voltaire was not humble enough to be a mere butt, as many of Frederick’s led poets were; he was not enough of a gentleman to hold his own place with dignity and discretion; he was constantly jealous both of his equals in age and reputation, such as Maupertuis, and of his juniors and inferiors, such as Baculard D’Arnaud He was greedy, restless, and m a way Bohemian He tried to get D’Amaud exiled, and himself His residence at Geneva brought him into correspondsucceeded He got into a quite unnecessary quarrel with Lessing. ence (at first quite amicable) with the most famous of her He had not been in the country six months before he engaged in citizens, J. J. Rousseau. His Orphelin de la Chine, performed at a discreditable piece of financial gambling with Hirsch, the Dres- Paris in 1755, was very well received, the notorious La Pucelle den Jew. He was accused of something lke downright forgery— appeared in the same year, The earthquake at Lisbon, which that is to say, of altcring a paper signed by Hirsch after he had appalled other people, gave Voltaire an excellent opportunity for signed it. The king’s disgust at this affair (which came to an open ridiculing the beliefs of the orthodox, first in verse (1756) and scandal before the tribunals) was so great that he was on the later in the (from a literary point of view) unsurpassable tale point of ordering Voltaire out of Prussia, and Darget the secretary of Candide (1759). All was, however, not yet quite smooth with him Geneva had a law expressly forbidding theatrical performhad no small trouble in arranging the matter (February 1751) Then it was Voltaire’s turn to be disgusted with an occupation ances m any circumstances whatever Voltaire had infringed this he had undertaken himself—the occupation of “buckwashing” law already as far as private performances went, and he had the king’s French verses. However, he succeeded in finishing thought of building a regular theatre, not indeed at Geneva but and printing the Siècle de Louis XIV., while the Dictionnaire at Lausanne. He undoubtedly instigated D’Alembert to inçlude philosophique is gaid to have been devised and begim at Potsdam. a censure of the prohibition in his Encyclopédie article on

250

VOLTAIRE

“Geneva,” a proceeding which provoked Rousseau’s celebrated Lettre 4 D’Alembert sur les spectacles. As for himself, he looked about for a place where he could combine the social hberty of France with the political liberty of Geneva, and he found one At the end of 1758 he bought the considerable property of Femey, on the shore of the lake, about four miles from Geneva,

and on French soil. Many of the most celebrated men of Europe visited him there. In spite of these interruptions he wrote much and conducted an immense correspondence, which had for a long time once more included Frederick, the two getting on very well when they were not in contact. Above all, he now, being comparatively secure in position, engaged much more strongly in public controversies, and resorted less to his old labyrinthine tricks of disavowal, garbled publication and private libel. The suppression of the Encyclopédie, to which he had been a considerable contributor, and whose conductors were his intimate friends, drew from him a shower of lampoons directed now at “linfame” (see fra) generally, now at literary victims, such as Le Franc de Pompignan, or Palissot or at Fréron, an excellent critic and a dangerous writer, who had attacked Voltaire from the conservative side, and at whom the patriarch of Ferney, as he now began to be called, levelled the farce-lampoon of L’Ecossatse.

[WORKS

by an hour or two, On July ro, 1791 the body was transferred to the Pantheon, but durmg the Hundred Days it was once more, it is said, disentombed, and stowed away ın a piece of waste ground His heart, taken from the body when it was embalmed, and given to Madame Denis and by her to Madame de Villette, was preserved in a silver case, and when it was proposed (in 1864) to restore 1t to the other remains, the sarcophagus at Sainte

Geneviève (the Pantheon) was opened and found to be empty

In person Voltaire was not engaging, even as a young man His extraordinary thinness 1s commemorated, among other things, by the very poor but well-known epigram attributed to Young, and identifying him at once with “Satan, Death and Sm” In old age he was a mere skeleton, with a long nose and eyes of preternatural brilhancy peering out of his wig. He never seems to have been addicted to any manly sport, and took little exercise He was sober enough (for his day and society) in eating and

drinking generally; but drank coffee, as his contemporary, counterpart and enemy, Johnson, drank tea, in a hardened and inveterate manner. It may be presumed with some certainty that his attentions to women were for the most part platonic, indeed, both on

the good and the bad side of him, he was all brain

Conversation

and literature were, again as in Johnson’s case, gods of his Here, too, he began that series of interferences on behalf of idolatry. He was good-natured when not crossed, generous to the oppressed and the ill-treated which 1s an honour to his dependents who made themselves useful to him, and indememory. Volumes and almost libraries have been written on the fatigable in defending the cause of those who were oppressed by Calas affair, and we can but refer here to the only less famous the systems with which he was at war But he was inordinately cases of Sirven (very simular to that of Calas, though no judicial vain, and totally unscrupulous in gaining money, in attacking murder was actually committed), Espinasse (who had been an enemy, or in protecting himself when he was threatened with sentenced to the galleys for harbouring a Protestant minister), danger. Voltaire’s works, and especially his private letters, conLally (the son of the unjustly treated but not blameless Irish- stantly contain the word “I’infame” and the expression (in full French commander in India), D’Etalonde (the companion of La or abbreviated) “écrasez lmfâme.” This has been misunderBarre), Montbailli and others. stood in many ways—the mistake going so far as in some cases In this way Voltaire, who had been an old man when he estab- to suppose that Voltaire meant Christ by this opprobrious exlished himself at Ferney, became a very old one almost without pression, No careful and competent student of his works has noticing it The death of Louis XV and the accession of Louis ever failed to correct this gross misapprehension “L’infame” is XVI. excited even in his aged breast the hope of re-entering not God; it is not Christ, it is not Christianity; it is not even Paris, but he did not at once receive any encouragement, despite Catholicism Its briefest equivalent may be given as “persecutmg the reforming ministry of Turgot. A much more solid gain to and privileged orthodoxy” in general, and, more particularly, it his happiness was the adoption, or practical adoption, m 1776 of is the particular system which Voltaire saw around him, of which Reine Philiberte de Varicourt, a young girl of noble but poor he had felt the effects in his own eles and the confiscations of family, whom Voltaire rescued from the convent, installed in his his books, and of which he saw the still worse effects in the house as an adopted daughter, and married to the marquis de hideous sufferings of Calas and La Barre Villette. Her pet name was “Belle et Bonne,” and nobody had Works.—Vast and various as his work is, its vastness and more to do with the happiness of the last years of the “patriarch” variety are of the essence of its writer’s peculiar quality ‘The than she had It is doubtful whether his last and fatal visit to divisions of it have long been recognized, and may be treated Paris was due to his own wish or to the instigation of his niece, regularly. Madame Denis At the end of 1777 and the beginning of 1778, The first of these divisions in order is the theatre Between he had been carefully finishing a new tragedy—/réme—for pro- fifty and sixty pieces (including a few which exist only in fragduction in the capital He started on Feb 5, and five days later ments or sketches) are mcluded in his writings, and they cover arrived at the city which he had not seen for 28 years. his literary hfe It 1s at first sight remarkable that Voltaire, whose He was received with immense rejoicmgs, not indeed directly comic power was undoubtedly far in excess of his tragic, should by the court, but by the Academy, by society and by all the have written many tragedies of no small excellence in their way, more important foreign visitors About a fortnight after his but only one fair second-class comedy, Nanine. His tragedies, arrival, age and fatigue made him seriously ill, and a confessor on the other hand, are works of extraordinary merit in their own was sent for. But he recovered, scoffed at himself as usual, and way Zare, among those where love is admitted as a principal prepared more eagerly than ever for the first performance of motive, and Mérope, among those where this motive is excluded Irène, on March 16. At the end of the month he was able to and kept ın subordmatıon, yield to no plays of their class attend a performance of it, which was a kind of apotheosis He As regards his poems proper, of which there are two long ones, was crowned with laurel in his box, amid the plaudits of the the Henriade and the Pucelle, besides smaller pieces, of which a audience, and did not seem to be the worse for it He even began bare catalogue fills fourteen royal octavo columns, their value is or proceeded with another tragedy—Agathocle—and attended very unequal The Pucelle is extremely desultory, it is a several Academic meetings. But such proceedings in the case of libel on religion and history But it is amusing The minor a man of eighty-four were impossible To keep himself up, he poems are as much above the Pucelle as the Pucelle is above the exceeded even his usual excess in coffee, and about the middle Henriade It 1s true that there is nothing, or hardly anything, that of May he became very ill, On May 30, the priests were once properly deserves the name of poetry in them—no passion, m0 more sent for—to wit, his nephew, the abbé Mignot, the abbé sense of the beauty of nature, only a narrow “criticism of life,” Gaultier, who had officiated on the former occasion, and the only a conventional and restricted choice of language, a cramped rish priest, the curé of St. Sulpice. In a state of half-msensi- and monotonous prosody, and none of that indefinite suggestion ility he petulantly motioned them away, dying ın the ¢ourse of which has been rightly said to be of the poetic essence. But

the night The result was a difficulty as to burial, which was there is immense wit, a wonderful command of such metre and compromised by hurried interment at the abbey of Scelliéres in language as the taste of the time allowed to the poet, a singular if Champagne, anticipating the interdict of the bishop of the diocese somewhat artificial grace, and great felicity of diction,

251I

VOLTERRA—VOLTMETER order conThe third division of Voltaire’s works in a rational

romances or tales. In these admirable works

absolutely unsurpassed hterary aptitude and sense of style in all the lighter and some of the graver modes of literature, by such

ists of his prose of Voltaire— untiring energy and versatilty in enterprise, that he has no more than mn any others that the peculiar quality ready writers anywhere. Not the most elaborate iome style without exaggeration—appears That he learned it parallelof among Voltaire is of much value for matter; but not the very work

rily from Saint Evremond, still more from Anthony Hamilton, partly even from his own enemy Le Sage, is perfectly true, but

he gave 1t perfection and completion.

If one especial peculiarity

of the can be singled out, it 1s the extreme restraint and simplicity yerbal treatment. Voltaire never dwells too long on this pomt,

stays to laugh at what he has said, elucidates or comments on

lus own jokes, guffaws over them or exaggerates their form The famous “pour encourager les autres” 1s an typical example, and

indeed the whole of Candide shows the style at its perfection. The fourth division of Voltaire’s work, the historical, 1s the

bulkest of all except his correspondence,

but it is far from

being among the best. The small treatises on Charles XII and

Peter the Great are indeed models of clear narrative and ingenious

if somewhat superficial grasp and arrangement. The so-called Siecle de Lows XIV. and Siècle de Louis XV (the latter mferior to the former but still valuable) contain a great miscellany of interesting matter, treated by a man of great acuteness and un-

surpassed power of writing, who had also had access to much important private information But even in these books defects are present, which appear much more strongly m the singular olla-

podrida entitled Hssat sur les moeurs, m the Annales de empire

and in the minor historical works These defects are an almost total absence of any comprehension of what has since been called

the philosophy of history, the constant presence of gross prejudice, frequent inaccuracy of-detail, and, above all, a complete ıncapacity to look at anything except from the narrow standpoint of a half-pessimist and half self-satisfied philosophe, To his own age Voltaire was pre-eminently a poet and a philosopher; the unkindness of succeeding ages has sometimes questioned whether he had any title to either name, and especially to the latter His largest philosophical work, at least so called, is the curious medley entitled Dictionnaire philosophque, which is compounded of the articles contributed by him to the great Encyclopédie and of several minor pieces. No one of Voltaire’s works shows his anti-religious or at least anti-ecclesiastical animus more strongly. The various title-words of the several articles are often the merest stalkmg-horses, under cover of which to shoot at the Bible or the church, the target being now and then shifted to the political institutions of the writer’s country, his personal foes, etc., and the whole being largely seasoned with that acute, rather superficial, common-sense, but also commonplace, ethical and social criticism which the 18th century called philosophy. The book ranks perhaps second only to the novels as showing the character, literary and personal, of Voltaire; and despite its form it is nearly as readable. In general criticism and miscellaneous writing Voltaire is not

inferior to himself in any of his other functions. Almost all his

more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his own

light pungent causerie; and in a vast variety of nondescript pamphlets and writings he shows himself a perfect journalist. There remains only the huge division of his correspondence,

which is constantly being augmented by fresh discoveries, and which, according to Georges Bengesco, has never been fully or correctly printed, even in some of the parts longest known In this great mass Voltaire’s personality is of course best shown, and perhaps his literary qualities not worst. His immense energy

and versatility, his adroit and unhesitating flattery when he chose to flatter, his ruthless sarcasm rather unscrupulous business scrupulous resolve to double escape his enemies,—all these mass of letters

when he chose to be sarcastic, his faculty, his more than rather unand twist in any fashion so as to things appear throughout the whole

slightest work of Voltaire is devoid of value m form. In literary craftsmanship, at once versatile and accomplished, he has no superior and scarcely a rival

Brsriocrarsy.—For the many editions of Voltaire’s works, see G. Bengesco, Bzblographie de Voltowe (4 vols, Paris, 1882—90), For Voltaire’s life and works, see the essays of Thomas Carlyle and of Lord

Morley (1872), M Desnouresterres, Voltaire et la société frangaise (1867) , F Espimasse, Voltaire (1882) with bibliography, J Churton Shakespeare and Collins, Voltatre wn England (1886) ; J. R. Lounsbury, Caussy, Voltaire, Voltaire (1902), G. Lanson, Voltaire (1906), F r de village (1912) , A S. Hurn, Voltgzre et Bolingbroke (1918) ; M. C Brandes, F de Voltaire (1916), J M Robertson, Volta:re Voltaire sur (1922); R Aldington, Voltaire (1925) ; A Bellesort, Essaz

(1925) ; F Vezinet, Autour de Voltaze Voltaire (1926); E. Henriot, Voltaire Enghsh versions of Voltaire’s shorter vomances (trans A. I Woolf and W. other romances (trans. R Aldington, Genius of Mockery (1928)

VOLTERRA

(anc

(x925),C B Chase, The Young et Frédéric I. (1927) Recent writings are, Zadig and other S. Jackson, 1926) ; Candide and 1927); V. Thaddeus, Voltaire,

Volaterrae), a town and episcopal see

of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Pisa, from which it is 5I from Siena Pop, m. by ral SE, and 35 by road WNW (1921) 8,155 (town); 16,597 (commune). It stands on a commanding olive-clad eminence 1,785 ft. above sea-level, with a magnificent view over mountains and sea (the latter some 20 m. distant), and 1s surrounded by the massive remains of its ancient walls of large, roughly-rectangular blocks of stone, some 44 m, in circuit, enclosing an area which must have been larger than was actually needed for habitation. Tombs of the later Villanova period (end of the 9th century Bc) have been found within its circwt, but only at the north-west extremity. Here the clay of which the hill 1s formed is gradually giving way, causing landslips and the collapse of buildings, notably of the abbey church of S Salvatore (1030) andSS Guustoe Clemente The mediaeval town occupies only the southern portion of this area The most important relic of its Etruscan period 1s the Porta dell’ Arco, an archway 20 ft high, the corbels of which are adorned with almost obliterated heads. Volterra contains many picturesque mediaeval towers and houses. The Palazzo dei Priori (1208-57), containing the picture gallery, is especially fine, and the Piazza Maggiore in which it stands most picturesque. The museum contains a valuable collection of Etruscan antiquities, especially cinerary urns from ancient tombs of alabaster, with the figure of the deceased on the lid, and reliefs from Greek myths on the front. They belong to the 3rd and 2nd centuries Bc The cathedral, enlarged and adorned by Pisan artists in 1254, has a fine pulpit of that period, and on the high altar are sculptures by Mino da Fiesole; it contains several good pictures. The sacristy has fine carvings The baptistery (1283) has a font by Andrea San-

sovino, and a ciborium by Mino da Fiesole. Both these buildings are in black and white marble S Francesco has frescoes of 1410, and § Girolamo terra-cottas by Giovanni della Robbia and pic-

tures. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufacture of vases and other ornaments from alabaster found in the vicinity. Volaterrae (Etruscan Velathri) was one of the most powerful of the 12 confederate cities of Etruria During the war between Marius and Sulla it withstood the latter’s troops for two years in

82-80 Bc In the 12th and 13th centuries it enjoyed free institutions; in 136 it fell under the power of Florence. It rebelled, but was retaken and pillaged in 1472 See C Ricci, Volterra (Bergamo, 1905); R. Maclver, Villanovans (T A) and Early Etruscans (Oxford, 1924) 63-65.

VOLTMETER, an instrument which indicates the difference

of the electric potential between its terminals on a scale graduated in volts. Legally, the (international) volt is the electromotive

which produces a current of one (international) ampere in a When sympathy and dislike are both discarded or allowed for, force equal to exactly one of the resistance of one (international) ohm This volt is confault was an in- 1-00649X 108 absolute C.GS units. Voltmeters are always. difference potential whose points the across parallel in was accompanied nected

he remains one of the most astonishing, if not most admirable, figures of letters. His great veterate superficiality But this superficiality by such wonderful acuteness within a certain

range, by such an

is required to be measured, and, since it is essential not to disturb a

252

VOLTURNO—VOLUSENUS

this potential difference, they must have a high resistance so that they may pass only a very small current They may be divided into two classes, (a) electrostatic, (b) electrokinetic Electrostatic voltmeters depend for their action on the fact that when two conductors are at different potentials they attract each other with a force which varies as the square of the potential difference between them. Such voltmeters have the advantage of possessing an infinite resistance, but they are not very suitable for the measurement of small voltages (e g, 100 volts). Electrokinetic voltmeters are simply high resistance galvanometers, and measure potential differences in terms of the minute currents which pass through them when they are connected to the points whose potential differences are required (See INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL.)

VOLTURNO, ariver of central Italy, which rises in the neigh-

bourhood of Alfedena in the central Apennines of Samnium, runs south as far as Venafro, and then south-east. After a course of some 75 m. 1t recerves, about 5 m E. of Caiazzo, the Calore The united stream now flows west-south-west past Capua (anc Casihnum), where the Via Appia and Latina joined just to the north of the bridge over it, and so through the Campanian plain, with many windings, into the sea The direct length of the lower course is about 31 m., so that the whole 1s slightly longer than that of the Liri, and its basin far larger (1,953 sqm. with a length of 100 m in a straight line and a discharge of 40 cubic metres per second at the mouth). The river has always had considerable military importance, and the colony of Volturnum (no doubt preceded by an older port of Capua) was founded in 194 BC. at its mouth on the south bank by the Romans; it is now about one mile mland A fort had already been placed there durmg the Roman siege of Capua, in order, with Puteoli, to serve for the provisionmg of the army. The river was navigable as far as Capua On Oct. 1, 1860, the Neapolitan forces were defeated on the S. bank of the Volturno, near S. Maria di Capua Vetere, by the Piedmontese and Garibaldi’s troops, a defeat which led to the fall of Capua.

few months in 1859-60 a force of ernment, which in the beginning couraged the movement, and had and to equip himself entirely at

119,000 was created The Gov. had tolerated rather than enrequired the volunteer to serye his own expense, now followed

the lead of a public opmion, and decided on maintaining the volunteer force as a part of the regular defensive system The turning-point ın the history of the volunteers was the South African War In Jan 1900, and on several subsequent occasions, the volunteers were invited to supply service companies for South Africa, to be mcorporated in the regular battalions to which the volunteer battalions were affiated About one-third of the whole force volunteered for service mn South Africa besides 2 great number of volunteers whom the higher pay, easier conditions, and better prospects of active employment in the mounted guerrilla warfare tempted into the ranks of the yeomanry Various partial reorganizations followed in 1902-5 and at least in 1907-8, the whole force was re-cast, and organized along with the yeo-

manry into the new Territorial force. (See TERRITORIAL Army, GREAT BRITAIN. Army.) United States.—The United States has always maintained only a small regular army, and until the World War depended largely upon volunteers in case of national emergency In the War of 1812 volunteers, rangers and militia numbered 458,460 as against 56,000 regulars The Mexican war was fought by a larger proportion of regular troops ‘The President’s call for 50,000 volunteers was quickly responded to but food and transportation were not so quickly supplied and thousands of volunteers had to be left behind or sent home again The mamn dependence of both sıdes during the Cıvıl War was upon volunteer troops The chief difficulties about the volunteer system for the North were the short enlistment terms and the fact that the law gave the governors of states the mght to appoint the officers of volunteer regiments Voluntary enlistment also failed to produce

professionals nor permanently embodied under arms in peace. The idea of a large organized Volunteer force seems to have orginated in England at the time of the Militia bill of 1757, which was amended in 1758 so as to allow the mulitia captams to accept volunteers instead of the ordinary militiamen who were compulsorily furnished pro rate by each parish. In 1778 the volunteers were still voluntary substitutes for militiamen, though formed in separate companies of the militia unit, but volunteer corps soon began to form themselves independently of the militia. These volunteers, disbanded in 1783, were promptly revived when the French Revolutionary Wars produced a new enemy. When the danger of invasion was at its height the force numbered 380,000 men, or 3$% of a population which already kept up a regular army and a militia. In 1808 the Local Militia was formed, in which enlistment and training were both stricter and better defined and the greater part of the volunteers transferred themselves to this body By 18z2 the Local Militia reached a strength of 215,000 as against the 70,000 of the remaining volunteers. With the general peace of 1814 almost all of these forces

enough troops for an emergency and a forced draft was resorted to. In the Spanish-American War the President was authorized to call out volunteers for a two-year term Under this act 220,000 volunteers were raised who together with 60,000 regulars formed the United States army during the War. The Volunteer Army Bill of Apr. 25, 1914, did away with the old provisions that the officers of volunteer troops must be appomted by State governors and stipulated that all officers were to be appomted by the President Also no volunteer was to be appointed to any rank above the grade of colonel. In the World War the United States definitely abandoned the volunteer system as the basis of its army and resorted at once to a selective draft Nevertheless the Selective Service Act permitted voluntary enlistment by persons between the ages of 18 and 4o, and at the outset enlistment was freely open to persons registered for the draft, provided that such registrants had not yet been called up for exammation by their local boards Regulations issued Dec. 15, 1917, however, prohibited voluntary enlistment for draft registrants In August, 1918, further volunteering of any kind ceased by order of the War department Down to that time voluntary enlistments had numbered 390,874 1m the regular army, 296,978 in the national guard units, 424,424 in the navy and 51,223 in the marine corps

the old statute (44 Geo. IIT). The mam provisions of that act, however, were found mapplicable to the altered conditions under which invasion was now possible, A new act (Volunteer Act, 1863) was. s00n passed, the most important provision of whith was that apprehended invasion should constitute a sufficient reason

Wolsey’s fall, he acted as one of Cromwell’s agents in Paris In Paris he knew George Buchanan, and found patrons in the cardinal Jean de Lorraine and Jean du Bellay He was to have

VOLUNTEERS,

a general term for soldiers who are not

disappeared. VOLUSENUS, FLORENTIUS [Fiorence Wotson, or After an interval of nearly half a century the warlike attitude Wo sey, in later writers Wrtson, though in letters m the vernacof France caused. British citizens once more to arm for the pro- ular he writes himself VoLusenz] (c 1s04-c 1547), Scottish tection of their country. humanist, was born near Elgin about 1504 He studied philosophy The enrolment of the “Volunteer Force” took place at first under at Aberdeen, went to Paris, and became tutor to Thomas Wynter,

for the sovereign tọ call aut the volunteers, in heu of the old

reputed son of Cardinal Wolsey

He paid repeated visits to

England, where he was well received by the king, and, after

gone with du Bellay on his mission to Italy in 1535, but illness condition which required the actual appearance of the enemy. kept him in Paris. As soon as he recovered he set out on his This was modified in 1900 during the South African War by a Journey, but stopped at Avignon, where Sadolet made him master further enactment allowing the authorities to call them out at times of “imminent national danger, and great emergency.” The in the school at Carpentras Volusenus paid frequent visits to formation of volunteer corps was so rapid that in the course of a Lyons, probably also to Italy, where he had many friends, perhaps even to Spam In 1546 he set out to return to Scotland,

VOLUTE—-VONNOH but died at Vienne in Dauphiné in 1546 or early in 1547 Volusenus was a great admirer of Erasmus, but he criticised the punty of his Latin and also his pulosophy ; His own philosopby 1s Christian and Biblical rather than classical or scholastic He takes a fresh and mdependent view of Christan ethics, and he ultimately reaches a doctrine as to the witness of the Spit

and the assurance of grace which breaks with the traditional

Christamty of his time and is based on ethical motives akin to

those of the German reformers Volusenus’s linguistic studies embraced Hebrew as well as Greek and Latin Hs reputation, however, rests on the beautiful dialogue, De Animi Tranqulltate, first printed by S Gryphus at Lyons in 1543. The dialogue shows us Christian humanism at

its best, and it is as a Christian philosopher that he attains disction Tae editions of the dialogue appeared at Edinburgh in 1707 and 17st (the latter edited by G Wishart). All the reissues contain a short hfe of the author by Thomas Wulson.

VOLUTE, in architecture, a spiral scroll, especially that at each end of an Ionic capital and those under the corners of the

abacus of the Corinthian or Composite capital (See ORDER) VOLVOX, a well-known genus of organisms claimed by zoologists to belong to the Protozoa (qv ), but perhaps more justi-

fiably placed by botanists in the Chlorophyceae, a section of the Algae (gu) Volvox consists of spherical colonies of cells, all in

protoplasmic connection with their neighbours and each bearing a par of cha These beat in regular co-ordination, imparting a roling motion to the colony New colonies are formed from special cells set apart for this purpose and grow within the central cavity of the mother-colony Sexual reproduction also occurs. (See ALGAE, PROTOZOA) VONDEL, JOOST VAN DEN (1587-1679), Dutch poet, was born at Cologne on Nov. 17, 1587 His father, a hatter, was an exile from Antwerp on account of his Anabaptist opinions; but he returned to Holland when Joost was about ten years old, and settled in Amsterdam, where he carried on a hosiery business. Joost was early introduced to the chamber of the Eglantine, and

devoted most of his time to poetry and study. When the elder Vondel died he married Maria de Wolff, and seems to have left the management of his affairs in her capable hands He read the French contemporary poets, and was especially influenced by the Divine Sepmaine of Du Bartas; he made some translations from the German; he was soon introduced to the circle gathered in the house of Roemer Visscher, and with these friends began to make a close study of classical writers His first play, Het Pascha (1612) marked the beginning of a long and brilliant hterary career. (See DUTCH LITERATURE) After the production of his political drama of Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence (1625), which expressed his indignation at the judicial murder of Oldenbarneveldt ın 1619, Vondel went into hiding for a time. In the followmg years he issued a number of stinging satires against the

extreme Calvinists, and he entered into close relationship with Hugo Grotius Vondel had long been attracted by the aesthetic side of the Roman Catholic Church, and this inclination was perhaps strengthened by his friendship with Marie Tesselschade Visscher, for the Visscher household had been Catholic and liberal. Tesselschade’s husband died in 1634, Vondel’s wife died in 1635; and the ties between the two were strengthened by time. Vondel eventually showed his revolt agaist the Calvinist tyranny by

formally embracing the Roman Catholic faith m 1640 The step was ill-recerved by many of his friends, and Hooft forbade him the hospitality of his castle at Muiden In 1657 his only surviving son, who was entrusted with the hosiery business, mismanaged

253

Maria Stuart, of gemartelde majesteit (1646); the pastoral of De Leeuwendalers (1448) , Luczter (1654) , Salmoneus (Solomon) (1657) , Jephiha (1659), Korg Did m ballingschap (“King David in banishment”), Au.’ g Dice ,ersteld (“King David restored”) and Samson (1660); Batavische Gebroeders, the subject of which 1s the story of Claudius Civilis (1663); Adam m ballingschap (“Adam m exile”) (1664), after the Latin tragedy of Hugo Grotius. He also wrote translations from the tragedies of Seneca, Euripides and Sophocles, didactic poems, and much lyncal poetry beside what is to be found in the choruses of his dramas His complete works were edited by van Lennep (x2 vols , 1850-69) A bibhography (1888) was published by J H W. Unger, who revised van Lennep’s edition in 1888-94 Lucifer was translated into English verse by L C. van Noppen (New York, 1898) See also E Gosse, Studies mn Northern Literature (1879); G Edmundson, Maton and Vondel (1885), where Multon’s supposed ındebtedness to Vondel 1s discussed; and critical studies by A. Baumgartner, S J. (Freiburg, 1882) , C Looten (Lille, 1889), by J. A Alberdingk Thym (Portretten van Joost van den Vondel, 1876), the chapters on Vondel (pp 133-325) m W J A Jonckbloet’s Geschiedens der nederlandsche letterkunde (vol 1v. 1890), A. J M. H Schillings, Vondel en de regeerders van Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1917), J F. M Sterck, Oorkonden over Vondel en zijn kring (Bussum, 1918) ; A. J. Barnouw, Vondel (N.Y., 1925).

VONDRAK, VACLAV (1859-1925), Czech philologist, was educated at the University of Vienna, where he studied first romance philology and afterwards Slavonic languages. In 1893 he became lecturer on Slavonic languages and literature at the University of Vienna He wrote works on Church Slavonic and its literature Later he devoted himself largely to the study of comparative Slavonic philology. His chief works are: AltSlovenische Studien (Vienna, 1890); Omluvé Jana Exarcha Bulharského (Prague, 1896); Studie Zoborn Cirkevněslovanského pisemnictv (Prague, 1903); Vergleichende Slavische Grammatik (Gottingen, 1906—08) VON HOLST, HERMANN EDUARD (1841—1904), German-American historian, was born at Fellin m the province of Livonia, on Jume 19, 1841. He was educated at the universities of Dorpat and Heidelberg, receiving his doctor’s degree from the latter m 1865. He emigrated to America in 1867, remaining there until 1872. He was professor of history in the newly reorganized university of Strasbourg from 1872 to 1874, and at Freiburg in Baden from 1874 to 1892, and for ten years he was a member of the Baden Herrenhaus, and vice-president for four. He revisited the United States in 1878-79 and in 1884, and in 1892 he became head of the department of history at the university of Chicago. Retirmg on account of ill-health in 1900, he returned to Germany and died at Freiburg on the zoth of January 1904 Both through his books and through his lectures at the university of Chicago, Von Holst exerted a powerful mfluence in encouraging American students to follow more closely the German methods of historical research His principal work

is his Constitutional and Political History of the Umted States (German ed., 5 vols., 1873-91; English trans by Lalor and Mason, 8 vols, 1877~—92), which covers the period from 1783 to 1861, though more than half of ıt is devoted to the decade 1850-60; it is written from a strongly anti-slavery point of view Among his other writings are The Constitutional Law of the Umted States of America (German ed, 1885, English trans, 1887), John C. Calhoun (1882), m the American Statesmen Senes, John Brown (1888), and The French Revolution Tested

by Mirebeau’s Career (1894). i

A the Political Science Quarterly, v 677-678, the Nation, Ixxviil,

5-07.

VONNOH, ROBERT WILLIAM (1858-

_+), American

portrait and landscape painter, was born in Hartford (Conn), Sept 17, 1858 He was a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in affairs to such an extent that he had to take ship for the East Paris; became an instructor at the Cowles Art School, Boston Indies, leaving his father to face the creditors. Vondel had to (1884-85), at the Boston Museum of Fine Art Schools (1885~— sacrifice the whole of his small fortune, and became a govern- 87), and in the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine ment clerk. He was pensioned after ten years’ service, and died Arts, Philadelphia (1891-96), and a member of the National on Feb 5, 1679 Academy of Design, New York (1906). The more important of his thirty-two dramas are: Hierusalem He has received the Procter portrait prize of the National Verwoest (‘Jerusalem laid desolate”) (1620); Palamedes, of VerAcademy of Design He is represented in the Pennsylvania Acamoorde onnooselheyd (“Palamedes, of Murdered Innocence”) (1625); Gijsbreght van Aemstel (1637), De Gebroeders (1640), the subject demy of Fine Arts, in the Massachusetts Historical Society and of which 1s the ruin of the sons of Saul, Joseph in Egypten (640), in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city His wife,

254

VONONES—VORONEZH

Bessie Potter Vonnoh (b. 1872), a sculptor, was a pupil of the

chmate in the Rhine valley, sheltered and mild, influenced by

Art Institute, Chicago, and became a member of the National Sculpture Society She is represented in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York city, in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington (D C.), and in the Brooklyn Museum

fokn winds, suits vine and fruit cultivation and its mfluence

VONONES (on coins Onones), the name of two Parthian kings (r) Vonones I., eldest son of Phraates IV After the assassination of Orodes II. (c. AD 7), the Parthians applied to Augustus for a new king from the house of Arsaces Augustus sent them Vonones (Mon Anc. 3, 9; Tac Ann it Iı f; Joseph. Ant xvii 2, 4), who was living as a hostage in Rome But Vonones could not maintain himself, he had been educated as a Roman, and was despised as a slave of the Romans Another member of the Arsacid house, Artabanus II , who was ving among the Dahan nomads, was invited to the throne, and defeated and expelled Vonones The coms of Vonones (who always uses his proper name) date from A.D 8-12, those of Artabanus II begin in ap 10 Vonones fled into Armenia and became king there But Artabanus demanded his deposition, and as Augustus did not wish to

stretches far up the fertile tributary valley of the Ill

Of the total area 88% is productive land but of this 30% ig occupied by forests and only 34% is cultivated ground, the remainder being natural or artificial pasture Cattle-rearing and

the production of milk are therefore important and in this respect Swiss influence 1s more evident than elsewhere in Austria So, too, the industrial development of Vorarlberg reflects Swiss con.

tacts, for the manufacture of textiles, particularly cotton goods, has grown with the advantage of cheap power ın Bludenz, Dornbirn and Feldkirch. The working of embroidery for the ware.

houses of St Gallen is a flourishing home dustry. The population—z139,999 (1923), German in speech, Cath. olic in faith—shows a tendency to concentration in small towns

along the valleys of the Rhine and the Ill, the principal lunes of rail traffic, but no town is large, only two exceeding 10,000 inhabitants, viz, Dornbirn, the chief industrial centre, and Bregenz, the provincial capital begin a war with the Parthians he removed Vonones into Syria, The name of the district means the “land that is beyond the where he was kept in custody (Tac. Ann. ii 4) When he tried to Arlberg Pass,” that ıs, as ıt seems to one looking at it from the escape, AD 109, he was killed by his guards (Tac. Amm. ii 58, 68) Tirol This name 1s modern and 1s a collective appellation for (2) Vonones IT, governor of Media, was raised to the throne the various counties or lordships in the region which the Habs. after the death of Gotarzes in a.p. 51 (perhaps he was his brother, burgs (after they secured Tirol ın 1363) succeeded in purchasing cf. Joseph Ané xx. 3, 4). But he died after a few months, and was or acquiring—Feldkirch (1375, but Hohenems ım 1765 only), succeeded by his son Vologaeses I. (Tac Ann xu. 14) Bludenz with the Montafon valley (1394), Bregenz (in two parts, (Ep M.) 1451 and 1523) and Sonnenberg (1455) After the annexation of VOODOO or VAUDOUX (Creole Fr vaudoux, a negro sor- Hohenems (its lords having become extinct in 1759), Mana cerer, probably originally a dialectic form of Fr. Vaudozs, a Wal- Theresa united all these lordships into an administrative district densian), the name given to certam magical practices, supersti- of Hither Austria, under the name Vorarlberg, the governor tions and secret rites prevalent among the negroes of the West residing at Bregenz In 1782 Joseph II transferred the region Indies, notably in the republic of Haiti Serpent-worship and to the province of Tirol, The lordship of Blumenegg was added in obscene rites involving the use of human blood, preferably that of 1804, but in 1805 all these lands were handed over, by virtue of a white child, were considered features of this religion the peace of Pressburg, to Bavaria, which in 1814 gave them all VOORHEES, DANIEL WOLSEY (1827-1897), Ameni- back, save Hoheneck In 1815 the present administrative arrangecan lawyer and political leader, was born in Butler county, O., ments were made. The building of the Arlberg railway (1880~ on Sept. 26, 1827, of Dutch and Irish descent, During his infancy 1884), however, effected a considerable strengthening of the bis parents removed to Fountan county, Ind., near Veedersburg. economic and political interests of Vorarlberg with the remainder He graduated at Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) university, of Austria Greencastle, Ind, in 1849; was admıtted to the bar in 1850, and See also under Austria and Tirol, relevant sections in C, Brockhausen, began to practise m Covington, whence in 1857 he removed to Österreich in Wort und Bild, (Berlin, 1924), and J, C. Heer, VorarlTerre Haute. In 1861-66 and in 1869-73 he was a Democratic berg und Liechtenstemm—Land und Leute (Feldkirch, 1906). representative in Congress; and in 1877-97 he was a member of VORONEZH, a province of the Russan SFSR, having the U.S Senate During the Civil War he seems to have been the Ukrainian S S R. and the North Caucasıan area on the south, affiliated with the Knights of the Golden Circle, but he was not Kursk and Orel on the west, Tambov on the north and Stalinso radical as Vallandigham and others. He was a member of the grad on the east Area 65,306 sq kilometres Pop, (1926) 3,299, committee on finance throughout his service in the Senate, and 700 It is now included in the recently created Black Earth Area his first speech in that body was a defence of the free comage of (Central) (gv) It does not coincide with the pre-1917 province silver and a plea for the preservation of the full legal tender value of the same name of green back currency, though in 1893 he voted to repeal the silVoronezh occupies the southern slopes of the Central Russian ver purchase clause of the Sherman Act He had an active part plateau (450-700 ft ), and its surface is hilly and intersected by i brmging about the building of the Congressional Library He deep ravines in the west, where two ranges of chalk hulls sepawas widely known as an effective lawyer, especially m jury rated by a broad valley run north and south East of the Don trials. In allusion to his unusual stature he was called “the Tall river is a low plam Glacial clays with erratic boulders, and Sycamore of the Wabash.” He died in Washington, DC, on lacustrine clays and sands cover much of the area, but the DeApril 10, 1897. vonian rocks crop out in the north and provide good paving and VORARLBERG, the most westerly province of Austria, building stone, while the carbomferous rocks supply mullstones covers an area of 1,005 sqm and stretches from the Arlberg and grindstones There is an abundant supply of chalk and kaolin pass to the Rhine and Lake Constance. The southern boundary is clay for pottery. formed by the limestone range of the Rhatikon Alps (Scesaplana, The magnetic anomaly existing in Kursk extends into the south9,741 ft.) and part of the crystalline Silvretta massif (Piz Buin, west of Voronezh and indicates the presence of deep-seated iron 10,880 ft). The zones of which these are part stretch across the ore beds. The soils are mainly black earth formed on loess; they province from south-west to north-east, North of the Kloster vary in character from the nch black earth with a high humus valley the dolomitic limestone builds the western end of the Lechtal Alps, rising above 8,850 ft., which merge, beyond the Walser content of the southern “feather grass” steppe, through the meadvalley, into the heights of the Bregenzer Wald. The southern ow steppe of the centre to the “lyesso steppe” of the north latter is black earth on which forest spread with moister conslopes of these are of dolomite and more than 6,500 ft m height This ditions; the forest has now disappeared, through reckless cutting, but northward the limestone is replaced by the softer sandstones, and the black earth here is reduced in humus quantity to 4 to marls and conglomerates of the flysch zone with a general softening of the landscape In this region, near Bregenz, lignite occurs, 6% ‘The forest cutting has had a disastrous effect in the west and centre for the spring streams, swollen by melting snow, frebut elsewhere power is obtained from the mountain streams, rich quently wash away fields and roads. In the last 25 years 135,000 in falls, and fed by plentiful annual precipitation (80 in.) The ac of fertile black earth have been washed away and replaced

VORONOFF—VORONTSOV

255

by river sand. Efforts are being made to cope with this by pro-

raising, especially of horses, is carried on in the south-east and

hibition of forest cutting m the upper courses of the nvers, and of cattle driving on ravine slopes; by ploughing across the slopes and not down them, and by the construction of canals and ditches. The problem 1s less acute in the east The climate 1s of the continental type, average January temperature at Voronezh 8 3° F, average July 742° F The rainfall is variable and not very favourable to agriculture If the spring

with it goes a leather dustry

rams (especially in May) fail, as they often do, famine fre-

quently ensues June and July are months of thunder-storm and very heavy ramfall, which comes in fierce and often destructive storms ‘The snow covering also varies; 1f ıt is deep, there is a chance of a good harvest, @ g, in 1906-07 it remained 3 ft deep most of the winter In some years there ıs very httle snow and

the harvest is then poor Autumn is very brief, but winter often lasts 54 months, though a duration of two months only has been recorded ‘The rivers are frozen as a rule from Nov 20 in the north and from Dec 10, in the south-west Snow melts as a

rule in April Wunter 1s dull and cloudy, often with heavy fog. Another cause of disaster is the dry, cold, south-east winds which often blow in May and cause great damage to young crops

These varied risks of disaster due to climate hamper agriculture seriously and famines have been frequent (1891, 1911, 1921) and severe Weeds lessen the harvest, and their seeds are fre-

quently not removed from the grain harvest, while rodents, mice, rats, hamsters, susliks and marmots in the south and south-east

Poultry keeping has an export

character, and there 1s still a little bee-keeping

Agricultural mstitute was opened ın 1913 Voronezh

was

founded

in T9g1s, when

The Voronezh

The University of

the Germans

occupied

Yurev (now im Poland) and its university was therefore transferred to Voronezh Forests, which in the time of Peter the Great supplied timber for ship-building, are now practically all destroyed, especially the oak forests The Voronezh river carries the pime forest and marsh of the north southwards into the region along its sandy, low left bank, as does the Bityuga The hedgehog, badger, squirrel, polecat, marsh-otter, otter, weasel, ermine, wolf and fox still exist in a few places and marmot fur 1s worked near Bobrov The muskrat is found near the Bityuga and the Khoper rivers. But hunting, which even ın the early rgth century had some importance and

which in the 18th century included the hunting of the wild horse, is rapidly dying out. Factory mdustries mamly depend on local products and include mainly flour-mulling, oil-pressmg, distillmg, the manufacture of makhorka tobacco, brick-making, leather and rope works, The population is mamly Great Russian, with a considerable

amount of Tatar intermixture. The region has been inhabited from

remote times and the east is thickly strewn with kurgans, or mounds; some contain burial relics, and some are the remains of earlier fortifications The chief towns are Voronezh and Buturlinovka (gv ). No other town reaches a population of 10,000. Voronezh, the chief town of the above province and the

do great damage A further drawback is the entirely inadequate system of communications; roads are often impassable through mud or deep m dust, and railways are insufficient, so that im years administrative centre of the Black Earth Area (Central), situated of abundance there is no outlet for the surplus, and in years of on the navigable Voronezh river, § m above its confluence with famine 1t is impossible to help the population The 1891 famine the Don, m 51° 42° N, 39° 10° E Pop (1926) 98,573 It has resulted in some 1mprovements of railway conditions a gram elevator and three railways branching from it and is an The three-field system, probably introduced in the 16th cen- important collecting centre for the surrounding agricultural retury, gradually ousted the previous system of sowing till the land gion, Its mdustrial enterprises include machine-making factories, was exhausted, and then letting it he fallow, sometimes for 20 steam flour-mulls, oil-pressmg mills and the manufacture of bricks, or 30 years, till it recovered its fertility, and the hunting, fishing wadding, paint and alcohohe drmks A university and agricultural and bee-keeping, formerly wide-spread, has almost disappeared. institute and museums exist The site was occupied in the rzth century by a Khazar town, By the end of the 19th century, a few agricultural specialists had begun to agitate against the wasteful three-field system and about deserted during the 14th and 15th centuries The Russians built 3% of the land ın 1900 was worked on a many-field system, e g., a fort here in 1§86, which was burned by the Tatars in 1390, but a fallow year, under manure, rye, oats with clover, two years rebuilt Peter the Great in 1695 built here a flotilla of boats for grass and clover, a clover fallow without manure, rye, potatoes or the conquest of Azov The town was destroyed by fire in 1703, sugar-beet, oats or sunflower seed. A complicated system such as 1748 and 1773, but was always rebuilt this, however, demands forethought and a fairly high stage of VORONOFF, SERGE (1866), Russian surgeon and culture from the farmer, and the peasants m the Black Earth physiologist, born on July ro, 1866, was educated in Paris, where region are illiterate The region is poverty-stricken and in many he studied medicine and became chief surgeon in the Russian hosvillages the peasants live in one-roomed huts infested by lice, pital In 1917 he became chief surgeon of the Military hospital in fleas, blackbeetles and other vermin. Duet is poor, mainly starchy Paris, and after the World War became director of the biological foods; eggs and butter are reserved for sale and meat is unob- laboratory of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes His latest appointment tainable in the general poverty-stricken conditions Sanitation is was to the directorship of experimental surgery of the Station He has become widely absent and there is frequently no town or village provision for Physiologique du Collège de France cleaning or repairing the streets, or for supplying water, or medi- known for his extended application of the theory of Browncal and veterinary help This deplorable social condition is partly Sequard Brown-Sequard applied his discovery that gland secredue to the difficulties outlined above, but mainly to historic fac- tions are the same ın animals as in man to practical purpose, by tors The long subjection of the peasants, first to Tatar oppres- using animal secretions to supplement deficiencies in human beings sion and later to serfdom under Russian landlords ended only in Voronoff extended the principle to the grafting of healthy animal 1861, and the so-called “liberation” of the serfs m that year was glands on the human body He is also developing by experiment a

followed by an almost as oppressive debt slavery Between 1896

theory of the relation of gland secretions to senility. He carried

and 1914 thousands of peasants emigrated to Siberia and the

out a series of experiments on the improvement of live-stock. His works include treatises on Surgery; Gynaecology; Bone

south, while others wandered

seasonally m search of supple-

mentary occupation From 1914 onwards, mobilization of the most useful agricultural labour was recklessly enforced and from 1918 to 1920 the region was occupied first by German troops and then by the conflicting armies of the Civil War. Upon this supervened the famine of 1921 Large sums of money wete voted by the All Russian Executive at Moscow in 1925=26 for the supply

Grafting; Articulation Grafting; Overian Grafting; Thyroid Grajtmg; Skin Grafting; Grafting of Interstitial Glands; Life, The Study of Old Age and My Method of Rejuvenation

VORONTSOV or Woronzorr, the name of a Russian family, various members of which are distinguished i Russian history Micwart Ittarronovicx Vorontsov (1714-1767), Russian

of horses, seeds, agricultural implements and agronomic and vet-

imperial chancellor assisted Elzabeth Petrovna durmg the coup

erinary help to the region, but it must be many years before conditions are markedly improved.

d'état of Dec 6, 1741, when she seized the Russian throne In 742 he married Anna Skavronskaya, the empress’s cousin; and His jealousy of Alexis Bestuzhev induced him to participate m Lestocq’s conspir-

Of the crops in 1926, rye occupied the first place, followed by in 1744 was created a count and vice-chancellor

hemp, wheat, mullet, sunflower seed, potatoes and oats.

Sugar-

beet, melons and pumpkins and aniseed are also grown.

Stock-

acy against that statesman, and he lived in retirement during the

256

VOROSHILOV—VOROSMARTY

domination of Bestuzhev (1744-1753) On the disgrace of Bestuzhev, Vorontsov was made imperial chancellor. Vorontsov followed blindly the policy of the court. Yet he did not lack personal courage, and endured torture after the Revolution of July 9, 1762, rather than betray Peter III. At first he refused to serve under Catherme II., though she remstated him in the dignity of chancellor. When he found that the real control of foreign affairs was

against Shamyl, and especially for his difficult march through the dangerous forests of Ichkeria, he was raised to the dignity of prince By 1848 he had captured two-thirds of Daghestan, and the situation of the Russians in the Caucasus, so long almost desperate, was steadily improving In the beginning of 1853 Vorontsov retired. He was made a field-marshal in 1856, and

died the same year at Odessa See V V Ogarkov, The Voronisovs (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892); in the hands of Nikita Panm, he resigned his office (1763) Vorontsov Archives (Rus and Fr) (Moscow, 1870, etc.), M Vorontsov was a generous protector of the nascent Russian htera- Shelverbinin, Bzography of Prince M S. Vorontsov (Rus) (St Peters. ture, and, to judge from his letters, was a highly cult:vated man burg, 1858). ALEXANDER Romanovica Vorontsov (1741-1805), Russian VOROSHILOV, KLEMENTIY EFREMOVICH (188:1imperial chancellor, nephew of the preceding and son of Count ), Russian soldier and politician, was the son of a work. Roman Vorontsov, represented Peter III. for a short time at man At the age of seven he began to work in the mines and the court of St James. Catherine II made him a senator and president of the department of Trade; but she never liked him, only learned to read when he was 12 years old He became a revolutionary in 1897, in 1903 he jomed the Bolshevik party, and and ultimately (1791) compelled him to retire from public life In 1802 Alexander I. summoned him back to office and appointed in 1906 was a delegate to the Stockholm congress of the Bolshe. viks In the following year he was sentenced to banishment for him imperial chancellor. The Vorontsovs had always insisted on the necessity of a close union with Austria and Great Britain, organismg strikes and simular activities, and he remained m banishment, except for escapes and rearrests, until 1914 His in opposition to Panin and his followers, who had leaned on France or Prussia till the outbreak of the Revolution made friendship military career began in the Ukraine, where he organised a detachment of partisans and carried on guerrilla warfare agaist with France impossible. Vorontsov was also an implacable oppoShortly afterwards he was nent of Napoleon The rupture with Napoleon in 1803 1s mainly the German forces of occupation commanding a small army and when ıt fought its way out, this attributable to him. He retired in 1804

1s printed m vol vu. of army became the nucleus of the X Red Army, the command of which was entrusted to Voroshilov When the Germans left SEMEN RoMANOVICH VoRONTSOV (1744-1832), Russian diplo- the Ukraine, Voroshilov became a member of the Ukraiman Soviet government He was later associated wıth Budenny as a memmatist, brother of Alexander Romanovich, distngwshed himself during the first Turkish War of Catherine II. at Larga and Kagula ber of the revolutionary military council of the I Cavalry Army In March 192r, Voroshilov took an active part in the supin 1770. In 1783 he was appointed Russian minister at Vienna, but in 1785 was transferred to London where he lived for the pression of the revolt at Leningrad He was elected a member of the central committee of the Communist party, and in May 1921 rest of his hfe Durmg Catherine’s second Turkish War he contributed to bring about the disarmament of the auxihary British was appointed to command the Northern Caucasian military district In 1924 he was appointed commander of the troops in the fleet which had been fitted out to assist the Turks, and in 1793 obtamed a renewal of the commercial treaty between Great Britain Moscow district, and a member of the revolutionary mulitary council of the Union After the death of Frunze in 192s, he and Russia. Subsequently, his extreme advocacy of the exled Bourbons, his sharp criticism of the Armed Neutrality of the became president of the revolutionary military council and commissar for military and naval affairs. North, which he considered disadvantageous to Russia, his deHis “Memoirs of my Own Times” (Rus) the Vorontsov Archives.

nunciation of the partitions of Poland as contrary to the first principles of equity and a shock to the conscience of western Europe, profoundly irritated the empress. On the accession of Paul he was raised to the rank of ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, and recerved immense estates in Finland Neither Vorontsov’s detention of the Russian squadron under Makarov in British ports nor his refusal, after the death of Bezborodko, to accept the dignity of 1mperial chancellor could alienate the favour of Paul. It was only when the emperor himself began to draw nearer to France that he began to consider Vorontsov as

incompetent to serve Russia in England, and in February 1800 all the count’s estates were confiscated Alexander I on his accession at once reinstated him, but ill-health and family affairs induced him to resign his post in 1806 From that time till his death in 1832 he continued to live in London.

MixHalL SEMENOVICH Vorontsov (1782—1856) Russian prince and field-marshal, son of the preceding, spent his childhood and youth with his father in London During 1803-04 he served in the Caucasus under Tsitsianoy and Gulyakov, and was nearly killed

in the Zakatahko disaster (January 15, 1804)

He served in the

campaigns of 1805-07 against Napoleon, against the Turks in 1809-11, and with Bagration’s army in 1812 In r8r4, at Craonne, he brilliantly withstood Napoleon m person He was the commander of the corps of occupation in France from 1815 to r818. In 1823 he was appointed governor-general of New Russia, as the southern provinces of the empire were then called, he may be said to have been the creator of Odessa and the benefactor of the Crimea He was the first to start steamboats on the Black Sea (1828). The same year he succeeded the wounded Menshikov as commander of the forces besieging Varna, which he captured

on Sept. 28. In the campaign of 1829 he took measures to prevent

the spread of the plague from Turkey to Russia In 1844 VorontSOV was appointed commander-in-chief and governor of the Caucasus with plenipotentiary powers For his brilliant campaign

VOROSMARTY,

MIHALY (1800-1855), Hungarian poet,

was born at Puszta-Nyék on Dec. 1, 1800, of a noble Roman

Cathohc family His father was a steward of the Nadasdys. Mihaly was educated at Székesfejérvar by the Cistercians and at Pest by the Pianists The death of the elder Vordsmarty in 1811 left his widow and numerous family extremely poor As tutor to the Perczel family, however, Vorosmarty paid his own way through his academical course at Pest He had already begun a drama entitled Salamon when he flung himself recklessly into public life since he was consumed by a hopeless passion for Etelka Perczel, who socially was far above him. To his unrequited love we owe a whole host of exquisite lyrics, while his patriotism found expression in the heroic epos Zalán futása (1824), gorgeous in colouring, exquisite in style, one of the gems of Magyar literature. This new epic marked a transition from the

classical to the romantic school Henceforth Vorésmarty was hailed by Kisfaludy and the Hungarian romanticists as one of themselves Between 1823 and 1831 he composed four dramas and eight smaller epics, partly historical n-rtly fanciful Of these epics he always regarded Cserrul-m (1825) a~ the best, but modern criticism has given the preference to Két szomséd vdr (1831), a terrible story of hatred and revenge When the Hungarian

Academy was finally established (Nov 17, 1830) he was elected a member

of the philological section, and ultimately succeeded

Karély Kisfaludy as director with an annual pension of 500 florins He was one of the founders of the Kisfaludy Society, and in 1837 started the Athenaeum and the Figyelmezo, the first the

chief bellettristic the second the best critical periodical of Hungary From 1830 to 1843 he devoted himself mainly to the drama, the best of his plays, perhaps, bemg Vérndsz (1833)

He

also published several volumes of poetry, containing some of his best work. Szdézat (1836), which became a national hymn, As elhagyott anya (1837) and Az úri holgyhöz (1841) are all inspired by a burning patriotism. He represented Jankovics at the diet of

VORTICELLA—VOSGES 1848, and in 1849 was made one of the judges of the high court The national catastrophe profoundly affected him

For a short

Hime he was an exile, and when he returned to Hungary in 1850 he was already an old man A profound melancholy crippled him for the rest of his life. In 1854 he wrote his last great poem, the touchmg A vén cigány. He died at Pest in 1855 ın the same

house where Karóly Kısfaludy had died twenty-five years before. Fis funeral, on Nov. 21, was a day of national mourning The best edition of Vordsmarty’s collected works 1s by Pál Gyulai

257

Madon on the left bank also belong to this department though they join the Moselle outside its borders.

The elevation and the northward exposure of the valleys make

the climate severe, and a constant dampness prevails, owing both to the abundance of the rainfall and to the 1mpermeability of the subsoil The winter average temperature reduced to sea-level is 34° to 35°, the summer average temperature being 66° to 68°.

The ramfall varies from 28 in. to 60 1n., according to the altitude Arable farming flourishes in the western districts where wheat, (Budapest, 1884) Some of them have been translated into German, oats, beetroot, tobacco, hops, potatoes and hemp are largely grown eg, Gedichte (Pest, 1857) ; Ban Marot, by Mihaly Ring (Pest, 1879); The vine is cultivated on the mver banks, to best advantage on Ausgewahite Dichte, by Paul Hoffmann (Leipzig, 1895). See Pal those of the Moselle Pasture 1s abundant in the mountainous Gyulai, The Life of Vorosmarty (Hung) (3rd ed, Budapest, 1890), one of the noblest biographies in the language, Brajjer, Vorosmarty, region, where cheese-making is carried on to some extent, but the

sein Leben und sene Werke (Nagy-Becskerek, 1882).

(R.N B.)

best grazing 1s in the central valleys

Forests, which occupy large

VORTICELLA, the bell-animalcule, a Protozoan genus of tracts on the flanks of the Vosges, cover about one-third of the

the large family Vorticellidae belonging to the Peritrichous Infusoria (gv ) characterized by the bell-shaped body, with short oral disc and collar, attached by a hollow stalk, mside and around which passes, attached spirally, a contractile bundle of myonemes

department, and are a principal source of its wealth. Sawmills are numerous in the Vosges and the manufactures of furniture, sabots, brushes and wood-working in general are prominent m-

dustries The department has mines of hgnite and stone quarries of various kinds. There are numerous mineral springs, notably those of Contrexéville, Plombuiéres, Vittel, Bains-les-Bains, Martigny-les-Bains and Bussang. Metal goods are made, but the manufacture of textiles is the chief industry, comprising the spinning and weaving of cotton, wool, silk, hemp and flax, and the manufacture of hosiery and of embroidery and lace, Mirecourt (pop 5,161), which also makes musical instruments, being an on its attachment the posterior girdle of cilia disappears and important centre for the two last The department forms the diocese of St. Dié (province of Besançon), has its court of a stalk forms. The other cell remains attached to the old stalk. In the allied genera Carcheswum and Zoothamnwum the two pro- appeal and educational centre at Nancy, and belongs to the disduced by fission remain united, so that a branching colony is trict of the XX Army Corps It is divided into three arrondisseultimately produced The genus is a large one. The gametes in ments of Épinal, the capital, Neufchéteau and St. Dié, with 29 conjugation differ from one another, one bemg attached, the other cantons and 53r communes VOSGES, a mountain range stretching along the west side of free Each pair fuses together completely and permanently VORTIGERN (Guortuicrnus, WyRtcEorN), king of the the Rhine valley, from Basel to Mainz, a distance of 150m They are simular to and closely associated with the Black Forest The Britons at the time of the arrival of the Saxons under Hengest and Horsa in the sth century Though many legends have come ranges are similar ın geological formation and are portions of the same structural unit, for the Rhine valley which separates them down to us, about him, he muy prob: bly be = rely regarced as an actual historical figure. \oruacern 121 ce use ot Hengest 4: d Hors: lies in a mft valley of Tertiary age. In addition both have fine to protect his kingdom against “he Pic.s we Sco.s, and rewarced forests on their lower slopes, above which are open pasturages them for their services wih a giant of linc Later we find be and rounded summits of a umform altitude; both have a steep Bnitons at war with the new-comers, now established in Kent, and fall to the Rhine and a gradual descent on the other side The four battles are fought, in the last of which, according to the Vosges m their southern portion are mainly of granite, with some Historia Brittonum, the kıng’s son Vortemur, their leading oppo- porphyritic rocks, and a red sandstone (occasionally 1,640 ft. nent, 1s slain. The Historsa Brittonum is our only authority for the thick) which on the western versant is named “grès Vosgien.” Orographically the range is divided into four sections. the marriage of Vortigern with the daughter of Hengest before the war. It also records the massacre of the British nobles after the Grandes Vosges (62 m), extending from Belfort to the Col de Saales, the Central Vosges (31 m), between the latter and the death of Vortemur and the subsequent grant of Essex and Sussex Col de Saverne, the Lower Vosges (30 m) from thence to the to the mvaders by Vortigern source of the Lauter; and the Hardt Mts. (q.v.). The rounded See Histona Brittonum, ed Th Mommsen in Mon Hist. Germ xiu ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed, Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899) , summuts of the Grandes Vosges are called “ballons.” The depart-

By their contraction the stalk is brought into the form of a corkscrew, and the animal is jerked back near to the base of the stalk As soon as the contraction of the thread ceases, the elasticity of the stalk extends the animal to its previous position. On fission, one of the two animals swims off by the development of the temporary postenor girdle of membranelles, the disc being retracted and closed over by the collar, so that the cell ıs ovoid,

Bede, Hist Eccl, ed C Plummer (Oxford, 1896).

ments of Vosges, Haute Saône, and Haut-Rhin and Belfort ter-

ritory rect at the Bellon Alsace (4 too ft) Thence northwards the serge haghi of rhe renge is 3 coo îr., rhe highest point, the Ballon de Guesaer (Gebve ter). or Suliz rising east of the bounded north by Meurthe-et-Moselle, north-east by Bas-Rhin, mam chen -0 4.563 tL Tre Cel ce Saales is re riy 1,900 ft high. east by Haut-Rhin, south-east by the territory of Belfort, The cumril section 1 both lover and narrower than the Grandes south by Haute-Saéne, west by Haute-Marne and north-west Vosges, Mont Donon (3,307 ft) being the highest summit The by Meuse Pop (1926), 382,200, area, 2,303 sqm. The Vosges Rhine and Marne Canal and the Paris-Strasbourg railway trav‘There are motor roads over the mountains form a natural boundary on the east, their highest erse the Col de Saverne French eminence, the Hohneck, attainmg 4,482 ft The Monts passes of Bussang (Remiremont to Thann), the Schlucht (3,625 ft.) (Gérardmer to Munster), the Bonhomme (St Dé to Colmar) Faucilles traverse the south of the department in a. broad curve declinmg on the north into elevated plateaux, on the south en- and the pass from St Dié to Ste Marie-aux-Mines The Lower circlng the upper basin of the Saéne. This chain, dividing the Vosges are a sandstone plateau ranging from 1,000 to 1,850 ft, d9sins of the Rhone and the Rhine, forms part of the European high, and are crossed by the railway from Hagenau to Sarreguemines, defended by the fort of Bitche va‘ershed between the basins of the Mediterranean and Atlantic The annual rainfall is much higher and the mean temperature Ts Moselle and the Meuse, tributaries of the Rhine, have the largest drainage areas in the department; a small district in the much lower in the western than in the eastern versants whilst on the latter the vine ripens to a height of 1,300 ft ; but its only north-west sends its waters to the Seme, the rest belongs to the basin of the Rhone The Moselle rises in the Col de Bussang in the rivers here are the Ill and other shorter streams The Moselle, Meurthe and Sarr all rise on the Lorrame side Moraines, boulders extreme south-east, and in a north-north-westerly course of about | and polished rocks testify to the exstence of glaciers which forJo m. in the department receives the Moselotte and the Vologne on the right; the Mortagne and Meurthe on the right and the! merly covered the Vosges The lakes, surrounded by pines, beeches

VOSGES, an upland department of eastern France, formed

in 1790 chiefly of territory previously belonging to Lorraine, together with portions of Franche-Comté and Champagne, and

VOSS—VOTING

258

MACHINES

There he died on March rọ, herds of cows, and the fine views of the Rhine valley, Black Forest 16. Vosstus was amongst the first to treat theological dogmas and the and snow-covered Swiss mountains combine to make the district heathen religions from the historical point of view Hs principal works picturesque. are Historia Pelagiana sive Htstoriae de controversus quas Pelagins VOSS, JOHANN HEINRICH (1751-1826), German poet esque relequeae moverunt (1618), Aristarchus, sive de arte gramand translator, was born at Sommersdorf 1n Mecklenburg-Strelitz matica (1635 and 1695; new ed in 2 vols, 1833-35); Etymologicum on Feb. 20, 1751, the son of a farmer At the invitation of H. C linguae Latmae (1662, new ed in two vols, 1762-63) , CommentarBowe, whose attention he had attracted by poems contributed to orum Rhetoricorum oratoriarum institutionum Libri VI (1606 and the Gottingen Musenalmanach, he went to Gottingen m 1772 often) , De Hzstoriczs Graecis Libre III. (1624), De Historicis Latens Libr: III (1627) , De Theologia Gentil: (1642) , Dussertatzones Tres de Here he studied philology and became one of the leading spirits Tribus Symbolis, Apostolhco, Athanastano et Constantinopoltano in the famous Haim or Dichterbund In 1775 Bone made over to (1642). Collected works published at Amsterdam (6 vols, 1695-1701) him the editorship of the Jfusenalmanach, which he continued to See P Niceron, Mémoires pour servir à Vhistowe des hommes lustres, issue for several years He married Boie’s sister Ernestine m vol. xiii, (Paris, 1730), Herzog’s Realencyklopadie, art. “Vossius ” and maples, the green meadows which provide pasture for large

1777. Voss was rector of the School at Otterndorf, Hanover (1778-82), and at Eutm (1782-1802) He then became a professor at Heidelberg, where he died on March 28, 1826 } The best of his works is his idyllic poem Luise (1795), in which he sought to apply the style and methods of classical poetry to the expression of modern German thought and sentiment But he 1s chiefly remembered for his translations of Homer, Hesiod, Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, Virgil, Horace, Tibullus, Pro-

pertius, and of Shakespeare's plays (g vols) J H Voss’s Samthche poetische Werke were published by his son Abraham m 1835, new ed x850. A good selection is m A. Sauer, Der Gottinger Dichterbund, vol i (Kurschner’s Deutsche Natzonalhiteratur, vol 49, 1887). His Letters were also published by his son in 4 vols. (1829-33) Voss left a short autobiography, Abriss mezmes Lebens (1818). See also W. Herbst, J H Voss (3 vols, 1872—76); A. Heussner, J. H. Voss als Schulmann in Eutin (1882).

VOSS, RICHARD

(1851-1918), German

dramatist and

founded Athenaeum at Amsterdam.

VOTE and VOTING.

“Vote” is specially employed in the

sense of a registering of one’s choice m elections or on matters of

debate, and the political meaning 1s the only one which requires

comment In ancient Greece and Italy the institution of suffrage already existed ın a rudimentary form at the outset of the historical period. In the primitive monarchies ıt was customary for

the king to invite pronouncements of his folk on matters in which it was prudent to secure its assent beforehand In these assemblies the people recorded their opinion by a shout (a method which survived ın Sparta as late as the fourth century Bc ), or, probably, by the clashing of spears on shields With the development of

democracy the taking of votes was effected in the form of a poll in law courts, councils, general assembles, etc The practice of the Athenians, which 1s shown followed in the other states hands (xecporovia), except on dividuals: these latter, which

by inscriptions to have been widely of Greece, was to hold a show of questions affecting the status of mmmcluded all lawsuits and proposals

novelist, was born at Neugrape, in Pomerania, on Sept. 2, 1851, the son of a country squire. Though intended for the life of a of ostracism (gv), were determined by secret ballot (Yjdicua, country gentleman, he showed no inclination for outdoor hfe, so called from the Ygor or pebbles with which the votes were and on his return from the war of 1870-71, in which he was cast) With the increase of the power of the democratic party, wounded, he studied philosophy at Jena and Munich, and then the lot was substituted for election, for some of the most imporsettled at Berchtesgaden. In 1884 Voss was appointed by the tant offices. At Rome the method which prevailed up to the grand duke of Weimar librarian of the Wartburg, but, ın conse- second century BC. was that of division (dscessto) But the eco-

quence of illness, he resigned the post. He died at Konigsee,

Thuringia, on July 10, 1918. Chief among his dramas are Savonarola (1878) , Magda (1879) ; Die

Patncaiern (1880), Der Mohr des Zaren (1883), Unehrhch Volk (1885) ; Alexandra (1886) ; Eva (1889) , Wehe dem Bestegten (1889); Die neue Zeit (1891); Schuldag (1892) Among his novels may be mentioned San Sebastian (1883); Der Sohn der Volskerin (1885) , Dze Sabmerin (1888); Der Monch von Berchtesgaden (1891), Der neue Gott (1898); Die Racherin (1899); Allerle: Erlebtes (1902); Die Leute von Valdaré (1902); Dre Erlosung (1921), Bergasyl (1922); Alpentragddie (1923); also the war book Brutus, auch Du (1917). Voss wrote his recollections (Erinnerungen) ın 1920, see also M Goldmann, Richard Voss, ein literarssches Charakterbild (1900).

VOSSEVANGEN or Voss, a village and tourist-centre of Norway, in South Bergenhus amt (county), 67 m. NW of Bergen by rail Vossevangen 1s situated on the Vangsvand, in fertile upland, and has a stone church of the 13th century, and a fimeloft or two-storeyed timber church of the r4th century VOSSIUS (Voss), GERHARD JOHANN (1577-1649), German classical scholar and theologian, was the son of Johannes Voss, a Dutch Calvinist pastor, and was born in a village near Heidelberg, where his father had found refuge But Voss was unwelcome among the Lutherans, and returned with his son to Holland Gerhard was educated at the university of Leyden, where he became the lifelong friend of Hugo Grotius, and studied classics, Hebrew, church history and theology He was rector (1600-14) of the high school at Dort, and then director of the theological college at Leyden (1614-19). He came under suspicion of heresy, and escaped expulsion from his office only by resignation (1619). In 1618 he had published his history of Pelagian controversies, which his enemies

considered favoured the

views of the Arminians or Remonstrants In 1622, however, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and chronology, and subsequently of Greek, in the university, He dechned invitations from Cambridge, but accepted from Archbishop Laud a prebend in Canterbury cathedral without residence, and went to England to be installed in 1629, when he was made LLD at Oxford In 1632 he left Leyden to become professor of history in the newly

nomic and social dependence of many voters on the nobility caused the system of open suffrage to be vitiated by intimidation and cotruption Hence a series of laws enacted between 139 and 107 BC prescribed the use of the ballot (“tabella,” a slip of wood coated with wax) for all business done in the assemblies of the people In federal governments the election of deputies to a central legislature seems to be attested by the practice of the Achaean League, where the federal Council was probably elected in the several constituent towns See ARCHON, ECCLESIA, BOULE, OSTRACISM, STRATEGUS, MuNICIPIUM, SENATE, and Trisune For modern practice see ELECTORAL SYSTEMS

VOTING MACHINES.

The use of the Australan ballot

system has been attended wıth many complications whıch have seriously handicapped its use These have resulted in the development of voling machines for registering and counting votes. Every voter under the Australian system uses a separate paper ballot which causes considerable delay in the counting of votes

and the announcement of results It also permits fraud Void and blank paper ballots are generally 5% of those voting, and sometimes as high as 40%; lost votes sometimes exceed the majorities of successful candidates; close elections cause endless legal disputes, contested elections follow with recount costs that exceed the original cost at the election, and a successful candidate’s nights are sdmetimes abrogated until the term of office expires There are many ways of marking ballots for those on election

boards in collusion with vote buyers outside

Voting machmes

remedy many of these ills On the voting machine one mechanical ballot 1s used by all voters, each setting the ballot as he wishes.

The vote is registered on the machine’s counters, which shows votes when cast so that each candidate’s total is seen at all times The first mventors of voling machines were English ‘The evlicr machinc< of Va--ie Chamberlain, Sydserff (1869) and Davy (1a5c) all used 2 bel or equivalent placed in a chosen compartimen. for Câs.iat a voc A number of American inventors

also mace machines using balls. All these early machines were

VOTKINSK—VOTYAK

AUTONOMOUS AREA

250

Later, me-

chanical counters replaced balls; a key and a counter was pro-

York The laws, in general, require that the machine must give the voter all the facilities for making his choice which the Aus-

yided voters from giving the keys more than one impulse and from using more keys than those to which they are entitled The first

for each candidate, the machine was constructed to prevent

tralian ballot gives him, and further requires that the machine shall prevent those mistakes or frauds which 1f made on the Austrahan ballot would invalidate 1t Many of the States have

of these machines used were the Myers ballot machine at Lock-

special requirements to meet, the solution of which present other problems, but so far the voting machine has been able to meet

only makeshifts because the balls had to be counted

port ın 1892

About 65 were used ın Rochester, N Y, in 1896 Tt was not reliable or convenient enough but proved ıt practical for voters to register votes secretly and pomted to the future

developments. The McTammany machine had a separate key for each candidate. Holes punched in a paper web were counted by a pneumatical machine Bardwell, Abbott and Dean machines registered votes on mechanical counters. The US

Standard, the Empire and the Automatic Registering

machines followed, the latter being the last perfected product All three were made by one company or its successors at Jamestown, NY, past owners of Keiper’s roller interlock patent

This patent, No 1,031, issued July 2, 1912, expired m 1929, and opened the voting machine business to competition. This interlock 1s sumple, strong, accurate and flemble, and was installed

on all these machines They constitute about 98% of the 16,000 or more machines in the United States A separate key is provided for each candidate The keys, in horizontal party rows and vertical office lines, are pivoted, swinging from the horizontal and pointing to the candidates’ names printed on ballot

all of them The use of the machines secures accuracy both in casting and counting the vote. It elimmates the interference of the election officer with the counting of the votes The machine gives the returns promptly and cuts down the cost of holding election Where straight ticket voting is used the vote for each office usually

runs 99% or more of the highest possible vote that could be registered. In the city of Buffalo with over 218,000 people voting, the complete vote on a large ticket for the whole city has been collected, tabulated and announced within go minutes of the closing of the polls Although voting machines are used but one or two days of each year, election expenses are reduced to such an extent that the machmes frequently pay for themselves ın five or six elections. Where straight ticket voting is provided over 1,000 voters have frequently voted on one machine in one election day. Where straight ticket voting is not permitted

as many as 600 voters have voted in one day on one machine In the election of Nov 1928, about 80% of the vote of New York State was cast and counted on voting machines Nearly labels below the keys Combined keys, labels, keyboard, etc, makes a mechanical Australian ballot At the left of each party 3,000 voting machines were used in the city of New York alone and all of the votes of the boroughs of Manhattan, Bronx and row are party levers by moving any one of which all pomters on Voting machines its party row are put mn voted position In States not providing for Brooklyn were counted on voting machmes straight tickets, party levers are omitted or locked. A U-shaped were also extensively used ın Connecticut, Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsm, Iowa, California, Washington, Oregon, Montana and yall holding a curtam forms a booth completely enclosing the voter By a lever at the top the voter closes the curtain and un- Maryland, and to a lesser extent un some of the other States About one-sixth of all the votes of the presidential election of locks the machme As a single stroke of a party lever puts all (E. Krr) the keys mto position, the voter can turn up the keys of candi- 1928 were cast on voting machines. VOTKINSK, a town of Russia in the Uralsk area, on a tribudates he wants to omit and vote the others Reversing the curtain lever counts the votes, resets the keys, opens the curtain, and tary of the Kama river in 57° 5 N., 53° 55’ E. Pop (1926) 19,479 It manufactures agricultural machmery, and has railway exposes the keyboard Until the curtain opens the vote 1s not counted and the voter can take back or change his vote. Repeat- and shipbuilding yards, it is the termmus of a branch railway ~

mg is prevented by a knob locking the curtain lever agaist a second movement by the same voter until it is released by the election officers The counters are inside of the machine and are concealed by a door in the back After the election is over the machines must be locked against voting before this door can be opened Then the total vote for each candidate 1s read off directly from his counter These counters are easily reset for another election but they can only be unlocked for that purpose by the custodian’s key. Tlus custodian’s key is not given to the election board, but is held by the officer charged with the duty of preparimg the machine for the election. The keys and counters on a machme provide for voting for those candidates that have been regularly nominated and whose names would be printed on the paper ballot 1f used. It 1s the voters privilege to vote for candidates not nominated and the machine must provide facilities for voting for them At the top of the machine 1s a horizontal paper roll that runs the

whole length of the machine, on which can be written the names of these candidates.

This roll 1s concealed by slides, one above

each line of office keys One of these shdes must be lifted for each office line to expose the paper The mterlocking mechanism must control all the voting keys on the machine so that the voter cannot vote more than he is entitled to vote. Machines have been built large enough to provide for nine parties of 70 candidates each and for 35 questions or amendments A machine of such size carries 7oo counters besides the total vote and protective counters. The total vote counter shows the number of voters voting at each election and can be reset for each election Another counter shows the total number of votes cast during the life of the machine It is made so that it cannot be reset and acts as a seal on. the machine Erch State that adopts thâl voting machines enacts a law specifymg the requiremenrs must be met by the machine. The laws of the verious $ ses Ire New of State the of law machine voting the from largely copied

VOTYAK

AUTONOMOUS

AREA,

an admuustrative

unit of the Russian S F SR., created in 1920 from part of the former Vyatka province. Area 30,355 sqąkm; pop (1926), 736,109. It ıs surrounded by the Tatar A S S R , the Uralsk Area, and the province of Vyatka, and lies between 56° and 58° 30 N and 51° 30’ and 54° 15’ E, Geographically it cludes a part of the Ural foothills forming the watershed between the Vyatka and Kama and the tributaries of the Chepsa ‘The sous are not very productive, consisting mainly of sands and clays and grey forest soils, and 43% of the area is forest covered, while there are vast swamps and marshes ‘The prevailing trees are the fr (76%) and the pme (12%); birch, ash, elm, maple and oak occur in small areas in the south The climate is extreme, winter is long and severe and summer brief and hot, the rainfall is adequate in

the north, but dimmishes markedly in the south. Agriculture is the chief occupation, but is of an extensive character; the three-field and even earlier systems are still in use. Rye and oats are the chief crop, and flax and potato cultivation mcreased markedly between 1925 and 1927. The famine and epidemics of 1921~22 markedly diminished the population and lessened the stamina of the survivors. In spite of the abundance and good quality of the timber, it is not yet satisfactorily exploited, partly because of deficient transport and distance from markets and partly because of lack of skilled workers The rivers are unfavourable for navigation and there is no steamer communication, but on many streams it is possible to float timber after the spring thaws; in summer they become very shallow. Mineral wealth includes the iron of the north-east region, slate, copper, quartz sand, chalk and red clay. Peat 1s abundant and has great future importance in view of the development of peat fuel as a source of electrical energy The Varziachinsk district has been a health resort since 1888; its curative mud and sulphur springs are noted Agriculture 1s insufficient | to support the peasants, who supplement their income by a variety

260

VOUET— VRYHEID

of petty trades. Many products of these home industries are used locally, but

the petıtioner’s piety and spıntual attıtude outweigh the ritual details of the ceremony which in magical rites are all-important

others are sent to the fair at Nizhniy-Novgorod, where they form about 9 8¢¢ of the turnover of peasant traders Factory industry 1s little developed except at Izhevsk (gv), the admmistrative centre, where there are steel works and ammunition factories and where other metal goods, including hunting guns, are produced. In the north-east there 1s much 1ron-smelt-

Sometimes the old magical usage survives side by side with the more developed idea of a personal power to be approached in prayer Thus sympathetic rain charms are often combined with a prayer to the rain viewed as a personal deity Secondly, the vow 1s quite apart from established cults, and 1s not provided for

ing, and glass, pottery and vegetable oils are produced in the province There are four saw-mulls, and two more are under construction (1928), as is a rosin-turpentine factory The Perm-Vyatka railway goes through the north of the area and the Kazan-Sverdlovsk, with a branch from Izhevsk to Votkinsk (Uralsk Area), through the south Roads are poor and are not being constructed, owing to Jack of capital The hteracy rate is very low, 189 for the whole province and 14% among the Votyaks The terrible famine conditions of 1921-22 resulted in the closing of schools Education is at present provided for 30—405% only of children of school age The region was inhabited by Finnish tribes when Slav penetration and colonization began in the 12th century For some time it was under the overlordship of Novgorod, but ın the 15th century passed under that of Moscow ‘Though colonization went on continuously, the forest and marsh and the poor soil conditions did not prove attractive to Russian settlers and the Finnish tribes preserved their language and customs The Votyaks (Otyaks), who call themselves Ot, Ut or Ud, and who are called Ar by the Tatars, may possibly be akin to the Ars of the Yentse1 They form 5239 of the population and are of middle stature, with light-coloured eyes and fair, often red, hair, and Finnish

not the rule; 1t was a promise made by an individual at some cnt. ical moment” (W W Fowler, The Roman Festivals [London, 1899], p 346) The vow, however, contained so large an element of ordinary prayer that in the Greek language one and the same

skull and facial characters. Their dialect 1s akin to that of the Permyaks. They are mainly agricultural, factory and town populations being Russian, the latter forming 43 3% of the population

VOUET, SIMON (1590-1649), French painter, was born at Paris on Jan. 9, 1590 He passed many years in Italy, where he married, and established himself at Rome, enjoying there a high reputation as a portrait painter. Louis XIII recalled him to France and lodged him ın the Louvre with the title of First Pamter to the Crown All royal work for the palaces of the Louvre and the Luxembourg was placed in his hands The king became his pupil and he formed a large school, renewing the traditions of that of Fontamebleau. Among his scholars was the famous Le Brun Vouet was an exceedingly skilful painter, especially ın decoration, and executed important works of this class for Cardinal Richelieu (Rueil and Palais Royal) and other great nobles. His better easel pictures bear a curious resemblance to those of Sassoferrato Almost everything he did was engraved by his sons-in-law

VOUSSOMTR, in architecture and building, one of the wedgeshaped stones, tiles, bricks or blocks of other maternal of which an arch (g.v) is composed ‘The lowest voussoir on each side of an arch is known as a springer (gu); the highest, or central voussoir, as a keystone (gq v.).

VOW, a transaction between a man and a god, whereby the former undertakes in the future to render some service or gift to the god or devotes something valuable now and here to his use ‘The god on his part is reckoned to be going to grant or to have granted already some special favour to his votary in return for the promise made or service declared Different formalities and ceremonies may in different religions attend the taking of a vow, but in all the wrath of heaven or of hell is visited upon one who breaks it A vow has to be distinguished, first, from other and lower ways of persuading or constraming supernatural pow-

ers to give what man desires and to help him im time of need, and secondly, from the ordered ritual and regularly recurring ceremonies of religion. i The term vow does not apply to the uses of imitative magic in which the supernatural power is, so to speak, mechanically constrained to act by the spell or magical rite The deities to whom vows are made or discharged are already personal beings, capable of entering into contracts or covenants with man, of understand-

ing the claims which his vow‘ establishes on their benevolence,

and of valuing his gratitude, conversely, in the taking of a vow

in the religious calendar. The Roman vow “was the exception,

word expressed both The characteristic of the vow was that it was a promise either of things to be offered to a god in the future and at once consecrated to him in view of their being so offered, or of austerities to be undergone For offering and austerity, sacrifice and suffering, are equally calculated to appease an offended deity’s wrath or win his goodwill. The Buble affords many examples of vows A thing or person vowed to the deity became holy or ¢abu, and for ıt nothing could be substituted

The prohibition, to one under a vow, of flesh diet and fermented drinks is due to the belief that by partaking of these a man might introduce into his body the unclean spirits which mhabited them The brute soul which infested meat (especially when the animal was strangled), and the cardiac demon, as the rabbis called it, which was harboured in wine, were abhorred Simular con-

siderations help to explain the custom of votive offerings Any popular shrine in Latin countries 1s hung with wax models of hmbs that have been healed, of ships saved from wreck, or with pictures representing the votary’s escape from perils by land and sea, which may have had originally another significance than that of

merely recording the votary’s salvation and of marking his grati-

tude

The model ship may be a substitute for the entire ship

which is become sacred to the god, but cannot be deposited in the

shrine, the mimature limbs of wax are substitutes for the real limbs which now belong to the god

VOZNESENSK, «a river port in the Ukraiman SSR., on

the left bank of the Bug river, at the head of navigation, and on the Odessa-Cherkassy railway, in 47° 32’ N, 31° 20° E Pop

(1926) 20,813 VRANJA, the capital of the Vranja department of Serbia,

Yugoslavia. Pop (1921) 7,522, a large proportion being Albanmians The town is picturesquely situated on hilly ground with a stream running through ıt spanned by sıx stone and two wooden bridges. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the cultivation of flax and hemp and in the making of ropes, but there are also cloth, glass, porcelain, iron ware, paper, boot, lamp and oven factories and leather tanneries in the town, while the fertile land around it produces wheat, maize, fruit and vegetables, as well as cattle, Vranja was captured by the Montenegrins mm the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8, and assigned to Serbia by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). The gold washing station mn the district was abandoned during the World War (1914-18) Vranyska Banya, 44 m E,1s a much frequented summer resort

VRATSA, the capital of the department of Vratsa, Bulgaria, on the northern slope of the Stara Planina and on a small subtributary of the Danube Pop (1926) 15,509 Vratsa 1s an archiepiscopal see Wine, leather and gold and silver filigree are manufactured, and there 1s a school of sericulture

VRSAC, a town of the Banat, m the province of the Vo1vo-

dina, Yugoslavia (Magyar Versecz) Pop (1921) 26,975, comprising Serbs, Germans and Magyars It is famous for its red wines and brandy

Large quantities of maize are grown in the

district and some wheat and oats There are flour mills and distalleries ın the town, which also manufactures distillmg and general mull machmery It has a handsome church and ıs the seat of a Greek Orthodox bishop Near the town are the remains of a Roman castle, and of a rampart and trench which extend for about 60 m to the north During the revolution of 1848-9 the Hun-

garians defeated the Serbs here in 1848 and were themselves defeated and the town occupied by the Austrians in 1849.

VRYHEID, a town in South Africa, 291 m N by W of

V-SHAPED

DEPRESSION—VYATKA

Durban, 27° 49 S lat, 30° 44’ E long, altitude 3,921 ft Pop (1921) 4:019 (2,062 white) In the vicinity a considerable number of ymportant collieries are being worked

The Hlobane coal-

centre of a fields are south-east of the town Vryheid 1s the chief of gold, distnict of the same name, which contains mdications iron, galena, etc to deused V-SHAPED DEPRESSION, ın meteorology, by scribe that form of pressure distribution which is represented an enclosing and isobars (gv) having the form of a letter V

through the apex of the area of low pressure The central bne, is normally Vs, 18 called the trough The motion of the system parallel to its remaining trough the of eastwards with the line direction

If the trough runs north to south the winds

earlier the rear of in front of the V are largely from the south, and at experthe V are largely from the north. The change of wind

is as the trough passes is often destructively sudden, and

enced (See Squatt) In usually accompamed by mcreased rainfall on the general the weather sequence resembles that consequent be mterpassage of a circular depression and a V may usually preted as a steeper gradient projection of a cyclonic system

‘The

a “wedge.” isobaric form contrasting with a V is termed

VULCAN, the Roman god of fire (Volcanus), and more espeaally of devouring flame (Virg, Aen. §. 662) Whether he was

the fire small fish, which the Tuber fishermen sold on the spot

in It 1s not easy to explain these survivals of an old cult But lustorical tumes the association of this god with conflagrations in city the becomes very apparent, when Augustus organized

regiones and vici to check the constant danger from fires, the magisiri vicorum (officers of administrative districts) worshipped lum as Volcanus qusetus augustus (C I L vi 801 and 802), and on Aug 23 there was a sacrifice to him, together with Ops Opifera and the Nymphae, which suggests the need of water in quenching the flames At Ostia, where much of the corn was stored which fed the Roman population, the cult of this god became famous.

a useful insulating material, manufactured

VULCANITE, by over-vulcanizing rubber, whence its name Rubber rolled with a considerable proportion of sulphur and heated to a temperature of about 150°, becomes hard and capable of taking a high polish. It can be either moulded in manufacture to any required form or cut or carved when hard It is very useful to the electrician, and, under the name of ebonite, 1s much used for combs, etc.

see Tyre. Rupser, PRODUCTION AND

MANUFACTURE

VULCI, an ancient town of Etruria, some 10 m NW. of

and Tarquinn The circuit of the walls measures about 4 m, scanty traces of them and of Roman buildings within them still enst The Ponte della Badia over the Fiora, a bridge with amain

arch of 66 ft span, 98 ft. above the stream, 1s also Roman

An

been built aqueduct passes over it About 14m. above a dam has

for a hydro-electric plant to provide at least 6,000 hp ‘The former wealth of the town 1s mainly proved by the discoveries made ın its extensive necropolis—Greek vases, bronzes, etc— over 15,000 many of which are now in the Vatican. In 1828—56 tombs were opened These were entirely subterranean, but some There cleared and re-examined being are tombs chamber of the 1s one great tumulus, the Cucumella, and a few smaller ones The

frescoes from the François tomb, illustrating Greek and Etruscan Vulcı was one myths, are now in the Museo Torlonia at Rome the of the r2 cities of Etruria, Coruncanius triumphed over people of Vulsini: and Vulci in 280 BC

1891), for the See S Gsell, Foulles dans la nécropole de Vulci (Pans, publications) , excavations of 1889 (with copious references to earlier Bendinelh: in Notzzze degli Scavt 1921, 342 599

a Latin version of the Bible prepared in the 4th

VULGATE, in the century by St Jerome, and so called from its common use

Roman Catholic Church (see BrstE. OLD TESTAMENT Versions)

Texts and

the name apphed to a group of birds whose

The best-known characteristic 1s that of feeding on carrion American forms are quite distinct from the others and include the condor (gv), the Cal:forman vulture (Gymnogyps Caljormanus), the kmg vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), with a gaudily coloured head, the turkey buzzard or turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), and the black buzzard, black vulture or carrion crow (Catharista urubu), the last two BY COURTESY OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC bemg famibar birds in southern STEAMSHIPS USA They resemble the Euro(VULTHE CINEREOQUS VULTURE, TUR MONACHUS), FOUND IN PARTS pean vultures in habits. The true vultures are confined OF EUROPE, NORTH AFRICA AND to the Old World ‘The cinereASIA ous vulture (Vultur monachus) inhabits the tropical and subtropical zones from the Straits of Gibraltar to China. The Egyptian vulture or Pharaoh’s hen (Neophron percnopterus), which ranges over most of Afrıca and thence to India, 1s a remarkably foul feeder Numerous other species are known

his also, hke Hephaestus, the deity of smiths, is very doubtful, to allay sumame Mulcsber may rather be referred to his power called also Volcan,” “area an conflagrations In the Comitium was Vol“Volcanal”, and there on Aug 23 (Volcanaha) the Flamen into canals sacrificed, and the heads of Roman famulies threw

VULCANIZATION:

VULTURE,

261

Vultures are guided to their food, not by scent, but by sight When one circling bird sights a corpse and drops, others see it descend, and so in a few hours scores, or even hundreds, of birds will arrive. When gorged with food vultures are often unable to In all the head and neck are bare of rise from the ground feathers

VYATKA,

a province of the Russian S.FSR, surrounded

by the Autonomous Kom: (Zirian) Areas, the Uralsk Area, the Tatar ASSR, the Votyak and Mari: Aut Area, and the Nizhegorod and North Dwia provinces Area 108,393 sqkm Pop (1926) 2,222,792 It ıs smaller than the pre-1914 province of the same name It has onits northern boundary the flat water-parting which separates the basins of the Northern Dwina and the Volga, and its surface 1s an undulating plateau 800-1,000 ft high, deeply grooved by rivers and assuming a hilly aspect on their banks A tongue of higher land causes the Vyatka to make its great bend to the west The Kama flows northward along the east of the province and the Vyatka and its tributaries, the Chepsa and Molota dram the remamder of the province. The soils are mainly unproductive clayey and sandy forest soils, with wide expanses of lake and marsh, the remams of the glacialepoch The boundary between the coniferous forest and the deciduous passes through the centre of the province, and much of the north and east consists of continuous stretches of pine, fir, larch and Siberian cedar, while there are oak and ash forests in the south The chief mmeral wealth of the province is the iron ore of the north-east and the phosphorite of the upper Vyatka, the latter of which is only just beginning to be exploited The timber mdustry 1s not developed on a large scale, but the peasants make every variety of wooden articles, from spoons to sledges and carts, and sell them at the Nijni-Novgorod fair Paper manufacture is beg mtroduced, and the match industry is flourishing, espea cially m the town of Vyatka The climate is extreme, with short hot summer and a long, cold wmter, durmg which the temperature snow covering 1s often deep. The average January at Vyatka ıs 82° F, July 67° F; the rainfall 1g variable, ample in some years, but deficient m others Agriculture 1s insufficient to support the people, who supplement their income by peasant industries, especially woodwork, small metal wares and weaving of homespun, while those in the north-east work at the mines and smelting works, and there is some hunting, especially of squirrels, in the forest The chief crops are winter rye, oats and flax, and potatoes, barley and buckwheat are grown in lesser quan-

tities There is some stock-raising, especially of sheep, and pig breeding 1s increasing The population 1s mainly Great Russian, much mixed with the Finnish tribes Vyatka, the chef town of the above province, is in 58° 36’ is N, 49° 40’ E, on the Vyatka nver Pop (1926) 58,619 It an ancient trading centre established by merchants from Novgorod the by plundered was It Khlynov m 1181, and then known as

262

VYAZMA—VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK

Tatars in 1391 and 1477 and annexed by Moscow m 1489 Its be described as a spiritual protest against the materialism which name was changed to Vyatka m 1780 The town still trades in prevailed after the World War. It is based on Moravian folk. furs, wax and grain, as of old, but has a growing industrial im- music and consists of choruses and soprano and bass solos Other portance It is the chief railway repair shop for the Perm-Vyatka works are. a string quartet op 3, four sets of songs, Visionen railway, and has a hne going north to Kotlas. Its manufactures Lebensfeste, In Gottes Hut and Erwachen; Moravian folk-songs include matches, textiles, metal wares. agricultural implements and ballads and pianoforte pieces Vycpdlek holds the Post of VYAZMA, a town of Russia in the Smolensk province in 55° librarian to Prague university tr’ N, 34° 19 E., at the confluence of the Berba and Vyazma VYERNYI (formerly Almaty), now Alma Ata (qv), rivers. Pop. (1926) 17,217 It is a railway junction and has VYRNWY (Fyrnwy), an artificial lake or reservoir in the leather, oil-pressing and match factories In the rrth century north-west of Montgomeryshire, North Wales, constructed for it was a trade centre linked with Narva on the Gulf of Finland It was captured by Lithuania in the r sth century, but later be- the Liverpool water-supply It was formed by damming the nver Vyrnwy, which joins the Severn above Shrewsbury came Russian. From 1611-34 it was under Polish rule

VYCPALEK LADISLAV

(1882-

_), Czech composer,

was born at Vrsovice near Prague in 1882 He is one of the most serious and intellectual of modern composers, leaning strongly towards mysticism and sacrificing both colour and euphony, where necessary to polyphonic requirements His most interesting work

is the cantata, Of the Last Things of Man (1920), which may

VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK, a town of Russia in the province

of Tver, in 57° 38’ N, 34° 33’ E, on the Moscow-Leningrad rajlway, and on the Vyshne-Volotsk navigation system, constructed by Peter the Great ın 1703-9, to connect the upper Volga with

the Neva The Mariinsk system has now largely superseded it. Saw-milhng is the chief dustry in this forested district, but there are also textile, glass and brewing industries,

W—WACHSMUTH

-qp

-Y

This letter, as its name implies, was the letter x or v, which were identical till comparatively recent

263

lighted by electricity, a lighting plant being established in February, 1880

WABASH RAILWAY COMPANY is the oldest transrepresent the English bilabial spirant (modern w), portation system in the Mississippi Valley, USA The first train which had previously been represented in the was run on Nov 8, 1838 At that time the railway was known me Saxon hands by a Runic letter The sound did not as the “Northern Cross,” and ran from Meredosia to Morgan City, Illmois, a distance of r2 miles It was almost 20 years occur in the Romance languages Latin had possessed it, but it later before “Wabash” appeared in the corporate name. The conhad passed in imperial times into the voiced labial spirant (modtimes, doubled and used by the Norman scribes to

emv). Aseparate symbol was thus required to represent the Enghsh sound, and the French preferred the doubling of one of their

struction of the railroad across Indiana was commenced in 1855. From this small begmning the Wabash Railway Company has

grown to one of the most important units in the transportation own letters to the use of the Rune. (B F.C A) WA, a tribe inhabiting north-east Burma, between the Salwin systems of America It serves the richest section of the Central of the Umited States The company had (1928) 2,524 m. portion River and the state of Keng-Tung They claim to be autochthonous and may represent the aborigines of northern Siam and of of track; and operated, besides passenger trains, a fleet of fast serving both the dustrial and agricultural market. freight trams Indo China; old records and travellers (eg, McLeod in 1837) speak of them, as the original inhabitants

Their village sites

are still found covered with jungle The people are short and dark, and may have Negrito blood ım them, though speaking a MonKhmer language. They are popularly divided into wild and tame. The wild Wa are head-hunters Outside every village is an avenue of huge oaks Along one side 1s a line of posts facing towards the path with skulls fitted into niches, cut sometimes in front some-

tumes behind the post, when there is a hole ın front, through which the skull ıs visible Skulls must be added annually if the crops are to be good, those of distinguished and pious men are the most

efficacious, and head-hunting (qv ) takes place durmg the sowing season Villages are high on the slopes of hills, usually on a knoll or spur The only entrance is through a tunnel 3o to 100 yards long, of which there are usually two at opposite sides of the village, about sft. high, and so narrow that two persons cannot pass freely, sometimes winding slightly to prevent gun-fire, the path is studded with pegs to prevent a rush. Tattoomg is occasional only, divination is performed with chicken-bones, dogs are eaten; polygamy 1s permitted, monogamy prevails and the tame Wa have five clans presumably exogamous

See Scott & Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma, etc. (1900) WAALS, JOHANNES DIDERIK VAN DER (18371923), Dutch physicist, was born at Leyden Nov. 23, 1837. He was a self-taught man who took advantage of the opportunities offered by the university of Leyden. He first attracted notice in 1873 with his treatise Over de contunuitert van dem gas-en yloestoftoestand (On the continuity of the gaseous and liquid state), by which he gained his doctor’s degree. He taught physics at various high schools, and in 1877 he was appointed professor of physics in the university of Amsterdam, a post which he retained until 1907. Van der Waels ‘31°: up a kinetic theory of the fluid state, he combined the ¿e ~mn wn or owie- o~ in Laplace’s theory of capillarity with the kinetic theory of gases, and this led to the conception of the continuity of the hquid and gaseous states. Using this as a starting point he arrived at an equation of state which gave an explanation of critical phenomena and fitted in very well with the experimental observations of Andrews on carbon dioxide. Continuing this work he tried to armve at an equation which would be the same for all substances, He eventually did this by using the values of the volume, temperature and pressure divided by their critical values.

This led van der

Waals to his statement of the “law of corresponding states”

The par value of capital stock issued to December 31, 1927, was

$138,493:967-17-

(J. E. Ta)

WACE (?) ROBERT (1100?-1175?), Anglo-Norman chron-

icler, was born in Jersey. He studied at Caen; he became personally known to Henry I, Henry II., and the latter’s eldest son, Prince Henry; from Henry II he received a prebend at Bayeux and other gifts. Except for these facts he is known to us only as the author of two metrical chronicles in the Norman-French language. Of these the earlier in date is the Roman de Brut, completed in 1155, which is said to have been dedicated to Eleanor

of Aquitaine (ed. A J V. Le Roux de Lincy, 2 vols , Rouen, 183638) This is a free version of the Latin Historia Britonum

by Geoffrey of Monmouth, in rhyming octosyllables; it was rendered into English, shortly after 1200, by Layamon, a mass-priest of Worcestershire, and is also largely used in the rhymed English chronicle of Robert Mannyng Wace’s second work, the Roman de Rou, written between 1160 and 1174, has a less fabulous character than the Brut, being a chronicle of the Norman dukes from Rollo to Robert Curthose It has been ably dissected by Gustav

Kerting (Uber die Quellen des Roman de Rou, Leipzig, 1867),

who shows that it is mainly based upon Dudo and William of

Jumiéges

There is also reason for thinking that Wace used the

Gesta regum of Wilham of Malmesbury Where Wace follows no ascertainable source for the material in his chronicles he must be used with caution Undoubtedly he used oral tradition; but he also seems in various instances to have given free play to his imagination. The Roman de Rou 1s written in rhyming octosyllables, varied by assonanced alexandrines It has been edited by F Pluquet (2 vols and supplement, Rouen, 1827-29) and more completely by H Andresen

(2 vols,Heilbronn, 1877-79)

(H.W. C D)

WACHSMUTH, CHARLES (1829-1896), American palaeontologist, born in Hanover, Germany, Sept. 13, 1829 In 1852 he emigrated to America and after two years in New York city he settled in Burlington, Iowa Il health forced him into the open and he began to collect fossils, especially the crinoids, or

sea blies, of the Burlington Limestone, and ın a few years he possessed a fine collection. In 1864 he became acquainted with Agassiz, and in the following year paid a visit to Europe, where he studied the crinoids in the British Museum and other famous collections. He decided to devote all his energies to the elucidation of the crmoidea, and did so with signal success. He made further extensive collections, and supplied specimens to the Har-

which enabled Dewar and Onnes to determme the necessary data vard museum at Cambridge, Mass, and to the British Museum

in the liquefaction of the permanent gases He also discovered the law of bimary mixtures In 1910 van der Waals was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics. He died on March 9, 1923

;

WABASH, a city of Indiana, USA,, on the Wabash river

and Federal

8,840,

highway

24

Pop

(1920)

9,872,and in 1930,

It 1s a manufacturing cily and the trade centre for a rich

agricultural region Wabash was settled about 1834 and chartered as a city in 1866. It was one of the first cities im the world to be

Together with Frank Springer (1848— ) of Burlington, he published a series of 1mportant papers on their studies of crinoids, also an extensive monograph on the Revssion of the paleocrinoida

(1879-86)

After Wachsmuth’s death at Burlington, on Feb. 7,

1896, appeared The North American Crinoidea Camerata (2 vol. and atlas, 1897)

A complete bibhography of his work is given in the Bulletin of the

Geol. Soc. of Ameria, vol. 8, p. 376.

WACKENRODER—WADAI

264. WACKENRODER,

WILHELM

HEINRICH

(1773- connection with the Nile, owing to the remarkably even level of

1798), German writer, the fellow student of Ludwig Tieck (q v) at Erlangen and Gottingen Wackenroder mspired his friend with his own enthusiasm for the art of the middle ages They went to Berlin in 1794, and after the breach with Nicolai there in 1796, to Dresden The relation between mediaeval art and religion 1s the theme of Wackenroder’s Hersensergressungen emes Kunstliebenden Klosterbruders (1797) His early death, in 1798, was a

great blow to hus friend, who completed Wackenroder’s

frag-

mentary works See Wachenroder’s Werke und Briefe, ed, in 2 vols, by F von der Leyen (Jena, 1910) , P Koldewey, Wackenroder und sein Einfluss auf Treck (1904).

WACO, a city of Texas, USA.

Population (1920) 38,500

(759 native white and 206¢ negroes); ın 1930, 52,848 by the Federal census About a third of the cotton crop of Texas is grown within a radius of roo m. of Waco The city is the seat of Baylor University, founded at Independence in 1845 by the Texas Union Baptist Association and chartered by the Republic of Texas; and of Paul Quinn College for Negroes The city has a commission-manager form of government, adopted in 1909. Waco was Settled in 1849 and incorporated as a town 1n 1856 It was named after the Hueco Indians, who had a large village here until 1830, when they were nearly exterminated by the Cherokees

WAD, a black, earthy mineral consisting mainly of hydrated manganese dioxide, of importance as an ore of manganese Being an amorphous substance, it varies considerably in chemical composition, and contams different impurities often in large amount. A variety containing much cobalt omde is called “asbolite,” while ‘‘lampadite” is a cupriferous variety. It 1s very soft, readily soiling the fingers, and may be considered as an earthy form of psilomelane (g.v.). It results from the decomposition of other man-

ganese minerals, and is often deposited in marshes (“bog manganese”) or by springs The name wad is of uncertain origm, and has been applied also to graphite.

WADAI, a country of north central Africa, bounded north by the Sahara and east by Darfur province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. West and south-west it extended to Kanem and Bagirmi and south-east to Dar Runga Formerly an mdependent Mohammedan sultanate, it was conquered by the French in I909—I0

and now forms part of the Chad colony of French Equatorial Africa. By the French it has been divided into the circumscriptions of Wadai and Batha. Total area about 80,000 sqm. Pop. (1926 estimates) Wada, 265,362, Batha, 187,836 Physical Features.—Wadai 1s for the most part a flat, dreary plain, some 1,500 ft in altitude, part of the clay zone which covers much of the basin of Lake Chad It is, however, traversed by ranges of hills which rise another 1,000 ft , and east and north is encircled by mountains—part of the ranges which stretch m a rough semi-circle from Tibesti to Darfur In the north-east Dar Tama rises to a plateau of 2,500 to 3,000 ft , with the peak of Niéré reaching 4,700 ft The plains are mostly bush covered, but in places this gives way to long grass, with park-like regions in the

west The surface is often sandy, but there are considerable areas of black-cotton soil. To the south and east the land rises, and there are large forests, which, northward along the Darfur frontier, thin down to scrub. The northern region, bordering the Sahara is semi-arid, though much of it, watered by intermittent streams, affords good pasturage Here, on the north-west confines of Wadai, are remarkable sand-ridges of fantastic shape—hollow mounds, pyramids, crosses, etc, which are characteristic of the Libyan desert. There are also sandstone rocks of varying colours —red, blue, pink, white, black—presenting the aspect of ruined castles, ramparts and churches In the extreme north-east are some intermittent streams, with an easterly flow. Here the Wadi Hornr, in 16° N , marks the hmit of vegetation—beyond, northward, is absolute desert. South of it are many similar wadis, their banks covered with thick thorn bush. And 75m S of Wadi Homr 1S a lake, 2m. long by 500 yd. wide, called Undur This desert lake dries up for half the year. Apart from this north-east region, the country forms part of the Chad dramage area. The supposi-

tion that the Babr-el-Ghazal (of the Chad system) might afford a

the country for a great distance, was disproved by the mvestigations of Col Jean Tilho mm 1914-15 The streams which mise on the western side of the divide in the north-eastern districts, of

which the Batha (over 300 m

long) is the largest, flow west, the

Batha ending ın a depression, some 200 m east of Lake Chad, called Fittri Another stream, the Wadi Rime, with a more north. erly course than the Batha, goes in the direction of Chad, but

ends in swamps in the clayey sol

These rivers are intermittent,

and after seasons of drought Fittri is completely dry In the dry season, water is obtained from wells 250 to 300 ft deep The rivers of Dar Runga—a forested district south of Wadai proper— flow westward towards the Shar, but, save the Bahr Salamat, none reaches it They only contain water in the rainy season About too m above the Salamat-Shari confluence ıs Lake Iro, joined to the Salamat by a short channel The flora includes timber trees, numerous dum palms, mimosa, acacia, the tamarind, and many kinds of grasses The cotton plant grows wild, and a species of wild coffee tree reaches 50 to 60 ft and yields excellent berries Among animals are large herds of gazelle, baboons are common, and elephants are found in the forest Ostriches are found in the north, where the hon is also occasionally seen

Of birds, the most

conspicuous

are

cranes

(white, black and crested); storks are also common in some regions

Of domestic animals, the camel is common in the northem

district, elsewhere the bull is used for transport. Horses, cattle,

sheep and goats are numerous Caterpillars plague, and there are visitations of locusts

are sometimes a

Inhabitants and Trade.—The inhabitants consist of negroid and negro tribes, Arabs, Fula, Tibbu and half-castes The Maba, the dominant race, are said to be of Nubian origin, they live chiefly in the north-eastern district, and in the days of the sultanate were allied with the Arab tribes, known in Wadai as Zoruk

(dark) and Homr (red) The Maba had a reputation for pride, valour, cruelty, drunkenness, and barbaric splendour The usual dress of the people is, for men, a long white jibba or shirt and very baggy trousers of homespun, coarse but strong cotton, for women, the tobe, usually blue, thrown over head and shoulders, with another piece of cotton wrapped round the body to form a tight skirt Heavy silver bangles round the ankles and silver and copper rmga are worn The capnal Abeshr, is in the north-east in about 21° E., 13° 59% N Abc-br, which 1s set in an amphitheatre of hills, 1s a town of two-storeyed mud brick buildings with flat, battlemented roofs and a fine market square The commandant’s quarters are substantial biuldings with barracks and a wireless station, the whole surrounded by a solid wall. The population of the town, reputed to be over 30,000 in 1873, had in 1922 dwindled to about 5,000. From Abeshr a caravan route crosses the Sahara via the Kufra oases to Benghazi ın Cyrenaica Another route, on the pilgrim way from West Africa to Mecca, goes east through Darfur to Khartoum. Maize, mullet, cotton and indigo are cultivated, and cloth is woven There 1s also an dustry ın leather goods Ivory and ostrich feathers used to be taken to Tripoli by the desert route, together with small quantıtıes of coffee and other produce This trade has greatly decreased There is a trade in cattle,

horses and coffee with the Anglo-Egvptian Srden with the remons

to the south and with Nigeria Deviioormen' is rouch hincercd the lack of easy transport, but good ioed- Ire peen ra ce Dy French, rest houses provided, and security for travellers is sured Until the French conquest, Wadai was a great centre

.y tne asof

the slave trade. Slaves were obtained by raiding and in the form of tribute from Bagirmi, Kanem and other countries once dependent on Wadai. The slaves were sent north to Bengazi, or eastward to Darfur There was also a notorious traffic in eunuchs

Histoty.—Wadai early became a meeting ground of negro and Arab culture. Eastern influences and the Mohammedan religion ultimately obtained predominance, though the sovereignty of the country reverted to the negro race. It was sometimes tributary to and sometimes the overlord of the neighbouring countries, such as Bagirmi and Kanem Jt was made known to Europe by the writings of the Arab geographers, but it was not unt] Nachti-

WADDINGTON—WADE is visit in 1873 that accurate knowledge of the land and people Abd-el-Kerim was obtamed About 1640 a Maba chieftan named a dynasty of Tunjur, conquered the country, driving out the Arabian origin. Thereafter Wadai, notorious as a great slave-raiding state, suffered from many civil and foreign wars Mohammed Sherif, sultan from 1838 to 1858, introduced Senussiism

In the last decade of the roth century the French advancing

from the Congo made their influence felt im Wada, and by the Anglo-French declaration of March 21, 1899 Wadai was recogmzed

as within the F rench sphere

That state was then torn by civil

wars. The Sultan Ibrahim was murdered in 1900, and Ahmed

became sultan

He ordered one of his rivals, the Emir

Ghazi Acyl, to be blinded, whereupon Acyl fled westward and entered into fnendly relations with the French. A few months later (Dec

265

Waddington was minister of foreign affars under Dufaure and a French plenipotentiary at the Berlm Congress. He obtained, from Lord Salisbury, a promise that Great Britain in return fot Cyprus would allow France a free hand in Tunis

Early in 1879

Waddington succeeded Dufaure as prime minister but held office only by sufferance of Gambetta, and had to retire m December

In 1883 he accepted the London embassy, which he continued to hold till 1893, showing an exceptional tenacity m defence of his country’s interests He died on Jan 13, 1894. His wife, an American lady, whose maiden name was Mary A King, wrote some interesting recollections of thew diplomatic experiences—Letters of a Diplomatist’s Wife, 1883-1900 (New York, 1903), and Jéalian Letters (London, 1905).

WADE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN

(1800-1878), Ameri-

can statesman, was born near Springfield, Mass , on Oct 27, 1800, of Puritan ancestry. He was reared on a farm, receiving little with his family to ing, and in Nov. 1903 the Wadaians agreed to recognize the posses- systematic education, and in 1821 he removed spring the in However, Andover, in the Western Reserve of Ohio In 1825 he began the sion of Bagurmi, Kanem, etc., by France admitted to the bar in 1827, and beof 1904, acting, it is believed, at the instigation of the Senussites, study of law at Canfield, was where from 1831 to the Wadaians attacked French posts in the Shari region and carried gan practice at Jefferson, Ashtabula county, It 1837 he was a law partner of Joshua R Giddings, the anti-slavery off many slaves Intermittent fighting continued for years. of the US member a was he their of 1869 and until leader From 1851 resulted ın strengthenmg the position of the French as a Republican ally Acyl, and in 1908 Doud Murra, again, it is stated, at the Senate, first as an anti-slavery Whig and later sing opuncompromi an first was the army In the Senate Wade was from instigation of the Senussites, proclaimed the ykad His institution and split up under aguids (feudal lords), and was beaten mn detail. ponent of slavery, his bitter denunciations of that honesty rugged his from force By 1912 Wadai had been completely pacified by the French and of the slaveholders recetving added of and sincerity His blunt, direct style of oratory and his somewhat the once powerful sultanate was abolished, though the sultans of the outbreak the the petty states, such as Dar Tama, between Wadai and Darfur rough manners were characteristic. After years Civil War he was one of the most vigorous critics of the Lincoln retamed ther authority under French protection In the and n 1913 and 1914 a terrible famine caused immense loss of hfe. administration, He advocated the mmediate emancipatioleaders, southern Col. Jean Tilho says “the population of Wadai, put by Nachtigal arming of the slaves, the execution of prominent In 1864, n more ep 2cc0 coc in 1872, hed fallen to 300,000 when I went and the wholesale confiscation of Confederate property re.cined few traces of its with H. W Davis (g. v); he secured the passage of the Wade‘hat Wey Lin 1927, -eshr hea the governor of the province had just pulled Davis Bill (for the reconstruction of the southern States), the

zor) Ahmed was

dethroned

With Doud

Murra, who

then

understandbecame sultan, the French endeavoured to come to an

ancient splendour”; down the former palace of the sultans Wadai was but. little affected by Senussi activity during the World War. The occupation of Darfur by the Sudan government in 19176 Jed to better order in the borderlands, and to the demarcation of the frontier

m 1923 The French had rigorously suppressed slave-trading, but , other trade gradually increased, especially with the Sudan

au BIBLIOGRAPHY —J. van Vollenhoven, “Le Voyage de Naċhtigal colon (1x903); Capt. Julen, “Le Dar Quadai,” Repoux, Capt , (1904) frangatse VAfreque de comié Renseign colon, Work ‘Le Ouada,” BSG Com Borhaug (zeont A Ferter “TheJournal Geogredinest of Commandant Tuho in Tibe-u and Wadu Geopreprical vol LI (1918); Tuho, “The Esploreuon or Libe-ti Journal vol LVI (1920); Sır P Brocktchar-t “ \cro-5 Wadal * Geog. Jnl vol LIX (1922), “La Pi ~ d \beche: ' L’d nique 'rorgase (1909). See also under Senussy and TRroxctt Fou ssorn A AUCA (F.R C.)

Ouadai,” Rensexgn

(1826-1894), HENRY WILLIAM WADDINGTON, French statesman, was born at St. Remi-sur-lAvre (Eure-et-Loir) on Dec 11, 1826 He was the son of a wealthy Englishman who had established a large spinning factory in France and had been

naturalized as a French subject After receiving his early education in Paris, he was sent to Rugby, and thence to Trinity College, Cambridge He undertook travels in Asia Minor, Greece and Syra, the fruits of which were published in two Mémoires, crowned by the Institute, and in his Mélanges de numismatique et de philologie (1861). His other archaeological works include the Fastes de Pempire romaim, and editions of Diocletian’s edict and of Philippe Lebas’s Voyage archéologique (1868-1877) He was elected in 1865 a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres After standing unsuccėssfully for the department of the Aisne m 1865 and 1869, Waddington was returned by that constituency

at the election of 1871. He was minister of public instruction in

the short-lived cabinet of May 19, 1873, and in 1876, having been elected senator for the Aisne, he was again entrusted by Dufaure with the ministry of public instruction. His most important

project, a bill transferring the conferment of degrees to the slate,

conpassed the Chamber, but was thrown out by the Senate He was tunued ‘to hold his office under Jules Simon, with whom he ) Jures SIMON, (See 1877. mai overthrown on the famous seize

fundamental principle of which was that reconstruction was a legislative, not an executive, problem, This bill was passed by both houses of Congress, just before their adjournment, but President Lincoln withheld his signature, Soon afterward (Aug 5) Wade and Davis published mm the New York Tribune the famous “WadeDavis Manifesto,” a vituperative document impugning the President’s honesty of purpose and attacking his leadership As long as President Johnson promised severe treatment of the conquered South, Wade supported him; but when the President

definitively adopted the more lement policy of his predecessor, Wade became one of his most bitter and uncompromising opponents. In 1867 he was elected president pro tem of the Senate, thus becommg acting vice president He voted for Johnson’s conviction on his trial for impeachment, and for this was severely criticized, since, in the event of conviction, he would have become president, but Wade’s whole course before and after the trial would seem to belie the charge that he was actuated by any such motive After Icaving the Senate he resumed his law practice. He died at Jefferson, O , on March 2, 1878 See A. G. Riddle, Lefe of Benjamin F. Wade (Cleveland, O,, 1886).

WADE,

GEORGE

(1673-1748), British field-marshal, was

the son of Jerome Wade of Kilavally, Westmeath, and entered the Bnitish army m 1690 He was present at Steinkirk in 1692, and in 1695 he became captain In 1702 he served in Marlborough’s army, earning particular distinction at the assault on the citadel of Liége. After service in Portugal, Minorca, and Spa Wade, as major-general, was military governor at home during the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 He twice detected important Jacobite conspiracies, and on the second occasion procured the arrest of the he Swedish ambassador in London, Count Gyllenborg In 1719 was second in command of the land forces in the “conjunct” milthe to sent was he 1724 In Vigo. to tary and naval expedition Highlands where he began the system of metalled roads which 1s commemorated in the lmes— Had you seen these roads before they were made, You would hft up your hands and bless General Wade. j with Wade superintended the construction of 4a stone bridges and ! great tact, disarmed the clans In 1742 he was made a privy coun-

266

WADELAI—WAGES

cillor and lieutenant-general of the ordnance, and in 1743 fieldmarshal In this year he commanded the British contingent in Flanders, and was associated in the supreme command with the duke d’Aremberg, the leader of the Austrian contingent. The campaign, as was to be expected when the enemy was of one nation, superior in numbers and led by Saxe, was a failure, and Wade, who was seventy years of age and in bad health, resigned the command in March 1744. George II promptly made him commander-in-chief in England, and in that capacity Field-Marshal Wade had to deal with the Jacobite insurrection of 1745, in which he was utterly baffled by the perplexing rapidity of Prince Charles Edward’s marches. On the appointment of the duke of Cumberland as commander-in-chief of the forces, Wade retired He died on March 14, 1748.

WADELAT, 2 place in the British protectorate of Uganda. Here the Nile suddenly contracts from a width of over half a mile to some 500 ft. and on the right (east) bank is hilly country. Wadelai was first visited by a European, Lieut. H, Chippendall, in 1875, and was named after a chieftain who, when visited by Gessi Pasha (on the occasion of that officer’s circumnavigation of Albert Nyanza), ruled the surrounding district as a vassal of Kabarega, king of Unyoro. The region was annexed to the Egyptian Sudan and Wadelay’s village chosen as a government post. Here Emin Pasha had his headquarters, evacuating the place

authors and inventors are wages. Employers, so far as their profits

depend upon the personal supervision which they give to the

affairs, and capitalists, so far as they have to give time and

thought to the management of their investments, are, in this broad sense, wage earners. In a more special sense, wages, as defined by Francis A. Walker, are “the reward of those who are employed in production with a view to the profit of their em. ployers and are paid at stipulated rates ” To say that wages may be regarded as the price of labour, and that, like other prices, wages are determined by supply and demand, is not particularly helpful. The growth of a country’s population generally means an increase of its supply of labour It does not follow, however, that labour will be cheaper in the sense that average real wages (what the labourer can buy with his money wages) wull be smaller Where there are serous obstacles to industrial development, and where agriculture 15 of dominating importance, as ın Russia, India, or China, it may, indeed, be true that the average per capita production of wealth, and hence, presumably, average real wages as well, would be

larger if the population were smaller A notable rise of wages followed upon the depletion of the population of England by the Black Death in the middle of the r4th century But where a higher stage of industrial development has been reached, it may well be that the economies of large-scale production and of the division of labour are so far dependent upon the size of the domestic market that if there were any considerable reduction of population the production of wealth per, capita would be smaller,

in Dec, 1888 Thereafter, for some years, the district was held by the Mahdists. In Feb 1894 the British flag was hoisted at Wadelai, the aim being to secure control of the headwaters of the Nile Some twelve years later the government post was with- It cannot be assumed, therefore, that an increase of the aggredrawn There is a native village and steamers plying between gate supply of labour will normally have the effect of reducing Butiaba and Nimule call at Wadelai. wages Nor can it be assumed that a general reduction of real

WADHWAN,

a town of India, in Western India States

wages would lead to the increased employment of labour (except

Agency, Bombay, the capital of a petty state of the same name, temporarily, or when wages had been disproportionately high) in and the junction of the Kathiawar railway system with the Bom- the way that a reduction of the price of a particular commodity bay and Baroda. hne, 389 m. N. of Bombay, Pop (1921), 16,390. will generally lead to larger sales Little or nothing is to be Tt has considerable trade and manufactures; cotton 1s imported gained by looking to the general formula of supply and demand and cotton stuffs and grain exported. There is a school for for an explanation of the determination of wages gtrasias or subordinate chiefs. The civil station, which is the The Wages-Fund Doctrine—Some of the ablest British poltrheadquarters of the agent for the Eastern Kathiawar states, had cal economists of the roth century thought, however, that in a population in 1921 of 11,721. The state of Wadhwan has an one particular way the general level of wages might be looked area, of 242 sqm; pop. (1921), 37,946. Soap is manufactured, upon as the outcome of the play of the forces of supply and destone quarried, and cotton weaving, pressing, gmning and dyeing mand Emphasıs was put upon the circumstance that in modern carried on. industry wages are advances, in the sense that they are paid beWADI HALFA or Harra, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian fore, and often long before, the final product to which the labourer Sudan on the right bank of the Nile. Some 6 m above the contributes in direct or indirect ways, passes into the hands of town is the second cataract, and on the west bank of the Nile the consumer Wages are paid out of capital, and the demand opposite Halfa are the ruins of the ancient Egyptian city of for labour depends upon the amount of capital which is or can Buhen (Bohon). Halfa is the northern terminus of the Sudan be devoted to that purpose, The amount of capital which 1s, or railway and the southern terminus of a steamboat service on the can be, so used was dubbed the wages fund, and was held to Nile, which, running to Shellal (Aswan), connects there with the be pre-determined, ım the sense that ıt depended upon how much Egyptian railways, and what had been produced in the past, The present demand of WAFER. Athin flat cake or biscuit, As articles of stationery, consumers for commodities, it was insisted, is not a demand for wafers consist of thin, brittle, adhesive discs, used for securing labour, but merely a demand for the products of past labour, papers together, and for forming a basis for impressed official The wages-fund doctrme was not altogether untrue, but it volved seals. They are made of a thin paste of very fine flour, baked be- misplaced emphasis, so that it led to untrue or musleading infertween “wafer irons” over a charcoal fire till the thin stratum of ences, What is, at most, an important aspect of the way m paste becomes dry and brittle and the flour starch is partly trans- which goods are produced and apportioned, was made to serve formed into glutinous adhesive dextrin, The cake is cut into as a fundamental determinaht of wages, The doctrine implies a round disks with suitable steel punches, static conception of what, as its proponents recognized in other WAFER ASH (Ptelea trifoliata), a small North American connections, 1s essentially problem Wages are paid, tree of the rue family (Rutaceae, g v.), called also shrubby trefoil not out of a fixed fund, buta dynamic out of a continuing flow of wealth. and hop-tree, found from New York and southern Ontario to Changes in the aggregate volume of that flow—changes, that is, Nebraska and south to Florida, Arizona and Mexico, and often in the magnitude of the total product of industry—have a more planted for ornament. While often shrubby, it grows sometimes important bearing ın the long run upon the amount which labour 25 ft, high, and bears strong-smelling, long-stalked leaves of three recelves than can be attributed to variations in the relative demand leaflets and greemsh-white flowers in dense clusters. The some- for present labour and for finished goods Through the modern What hop-like fruit is a nearly orbicular samara with a mem- mechanism of credit, moreover, the future value of part of the branous, netted-veined wing, about # in, broad. product of present labour is discounted, and the proceeds are WAGER: see GAMING AND WAGERING, used in paying present wages. A sudden increase in the total WAGES. In a broad sense, wages may be said to include amount of money paid to labourers, such as comes sometimes all forms of income which men are able to get in return for the expenditure of ther own time and energies. In this broad sense after a period of industrial depression, may have the effect at first, however, of increasing the labourers’ own purchases of the fees paid to professional men and the royalties received by

finished products more rapidly than the supply can be replenishe d,

WAGES so that prices will rise, and the increase in the amount of real received will not be proportionate to the increased amount

of money wages paid

An adherent of the wages-fund doctrme

ht maintain, and not without point, that this temporary effect shows how an mcrease of real wages 1s dependent upon an in-

crease of the “fund” (the supply of goods of the kinds for

which money wages are expended) from which real wages are

ie and the Standard of Living.—Another theorem respecting wages, closely allied historically to the wages-fund doctre, was that wages must

conform very

closely, in the long

yun, to the amount needed to enable the labouring population

to maintain its customary standard of living. An early and more ymd form of this theorem had made a bare minimum of sub-

sistence the norm to which wages were held to be constrained to

approximate. In this rigid form the doctrine was taken over by some of the Socialists, named the “Iron Law of Wages,” and made much of as showing the hopeless position of the labourmg classes under the existmg economic régime In developmg the

doctrine, however, the Socialists rested 1t upon the power which they imputed to the owners of capital, to assign to labour no larger share of the aggregate product of ndustry than they conceived to be in their own interest. The grounds upon which the economists supposed their standard-of-living theory to rest were quite different, and, if they were valid, would have retained both their validity and their significance under a socialistic or any other régime. These grounds were, first, the Malthusian theory of population, serving as a basis for the affirmation that the labouring population would increase as fast as the increase of the means of mamtaining its customary standard of living would permit; and second, the assumption that the level of wages must vary inversely with the supply of labour, falling off with an increase in the number of labourers, and rising with a decrease, Granting the premises the conclusions followed logically. Deviations from the normal level would be self-correcting, for an advance beyond that level would enable labourers to marry earlier and to rear larger families, so that the supply of labour would be mcreased and wages would be forced down again, while a fall below the supposed normal level would have the opposite series of effects This doctrine naturally led to the pessimistic conclusion that there could be no permanent improvement of the economic status of the labouring classes except as the result of their own voluntary restriction of the growth of their numbers. On all this, it is enough to say that during the last century and a half there has been a notable increase in the level of real wages, a corresponding advance of the standard of living of wage earners, That if the rate of population growth had been slower, a yet higher general level of wages would have been attained 1s no more than a doubtful conjecture. Wages and the Product of Labour.—In modern economic analysis increased emphasis is put upon the necessarily close relation between the wages which a labourer can command and

the value of what he produces, and more attention has accordingly been given to the factors which are responsible for changes

in the amount and value of the product of labour At first sight it might seem to be impossible to disentangle the product of labour from the product attributable to capıtal, land and management The whole product is dependent upon labour, m the sense that there would be no product if no work were done, but it is

dependent in the same way upon the use of land and other natural resources,

and much

of it is equally dependent upon

the use of capital. If there are » labourers, of equal efficiency, however, the annual product dependent upon the efforts of any one labourer will not be an mth part of the aggregate product of

industry, but something considerably less than that amount.

It

is for the specific mmcrements of product which depend upon their

individual co-operation in the work of production that labourers are paid. The magnitude of the specific mdividual product attributable to a particular labourer will depend mn some part upon his own skill and energy, but it will depend also upon how well

he is supplied with tools and other appliances, upon the richness of the natural resources to which he has access, and upon the

267

efficiency with which industry is organized and managed while the supply of labour remains productive

capital is mcreased,

If,

unchanged, the supply of

if new

natural

resources

are

brought into use, 1f improvements are effected in either the technical processes or the general organization of industry, the mcrement of product dependent upon the work of any one labourer will become larger. If, on the other hand, the supply of labour is increased while the supply of other productive agents remains constant, and 1f no improvements are made in productive methods, the increase of the aggregate product will not be proportionate to the mcrease of the expenditure of labour, and the increment of product attributable to an individual labourer will shrink. (The “law of diminishing returns,” z¢, the theorem that unless the available supply of land can be mcreased, as by the cheapening of transport, or substantial improvements in methods of cultivation can be effected, the supply of agricultural produce can be mcreased only at the expense of a more than proportionately increased outlay of labour, is merely a particular application of this general principle ) The wages of labour, then, may be said to depend upon the magnitude of the aggregate per capita product of industry, and upon the relative scarcity of labour as compared with the available supply of other scarce and valuable productive agents. As has already been emphasized, an increase ın the supply of labour is not mconsistent with an increase of the general level of real wages Even in the absence of the discovery of new productive methods or of new supplies of productive resources, an increased supply of labour might lend itself to a better organization of production and to the accumulation of larger sunphes of capital, so that the specific product of ibour woulc be rivicased Differences in Wages.—These differences are of two kinds; first, differences in the wages of workmen of a given level of efficiency in different localities and in different occupations, second, differences in wages which reflect difference in skill and effiaency. Although competitive forces exert a constant pressure in the direction of equalizing the value of the different specific products which are attributable to labourers of equal efficiency (an the sense that, with like training and experience, one could do the work of another and do ıt equally well), these forces never completely achieve their ends, for they have to contend not only with economic inertia but with various disturbing forces. The factors which make for the persistence of local and regional variations of wages are plain to see Habit, ignorance of better opportunities elsewhere, the imtial costs of movement, local ties, political barriers, are some of them. The differences, often very large, in the general wage levels of different countries, reflect similar differences in the productivity of labour, and are associated with differences in supplies of natural resources, and in the ways in which production is organized. The international movement of capital probably counts for more than the migration of labour as an equalizing factor. Differences in the wages paid in different occupations, and in different industries where a common local or national supply of labour can be drawn upon, are attributable mostly to the circumstance that variations in the rates of growth of different industries, and m the demand for different kinds of work, cannot be met promptly by equal variations in the apportioning of the labour supply. Adam Smith observed, in a famous passage, that there are certain “normal differences” in wages, depending upon the agreeableness of the employment, the difficulty and expense of learning the trade, the constancy or inconstancy of employment, the degree of trust and responsibility entailed, and the chance of success and advancement Such differences are both real and important, but it 1s to be observed that the workers who are least able to pick and choose are often forced to accept a combination of disadvantages, so that the most disagreeable and irregular employments are often those which afford the smallest opportunity for advancement, and are at the same time the poorest paid. How far the general level of wages can be advanced by the efforts of trades unions or by legislation is a debatable question, but 1t is certain that control of the labour market, whether by trades unions or by the Government must have definite effects upon differences in

268

WAGE

STATISTICS:

INTERNATIONAL

wages Trade union activities have the effect of creasing the difterence between the wages paid in the well-organized and the unorganized trades. There is some evidence, on the other hand, that public control of wages in Australia has had the effect of diminishing the difference between the wages paid in skilled and in unskilled employments. That there is a general relation between the ability, native and acquired, of individual workers and the wages which they can command is obvious. Allowing for disturbing factors, such as have been noted, higher wages are associated with higher degrees of ability This does not mean, however, that wages are at all closely proportionate to ability The evidence 1s far from being adequate, but such facts as are known indicate that differences in wages are more than proportionate to native differences in capacities, physical and mental Proceeding from the lower wage levels to the higher. earning power appears to increase more rapidly than capacity, as measured by some noneconomic standard of attainment. A variety of causes, probably, rather than any single cause, are responsible Wages are paid for efficiency, not for capacity Efficiency is a matter of education and training as well as of native capacity, and education and training are partly matters of opportunity. The higher wages paid to the more efficient workers are in some measure a return to investments in “personal capital,” whether by means of education, in the ordinary sense, or by means of a penod of service in some employment in which wages are small but from which paths lead upward, in preference to some better-paid employment with no larger future ahead of it Every factor which deflects men from the paths which lead to the better paid employments, or which impedes their entry into such employments, helps to swell the numbers of the “hewers of wood and drawers of water” who compete for the poorer places, and thus operates to increase the difference between high wages and low. Moreover, in modern economic life the individual worker is a sharer in a co-operative effort. The results which he achieves cannot be measured separately, on a fixed scale of reference, as the results of a test of his physical or mental capacity might be measured The product

COMPARISONS

any trade or occupation are for most countries either wholly lack. ing or too umperfect for use, while even where excellent informa. tion exists 1t relates in some countries to the time rates of wages agreed upon by employers and workpeople and in other countries

to the actual earnings taken home by the workpeople Basis Chosen.—For these reasons the International Real Wage Comparisons are constructed upon what might otherwise seem to be a narrow basis—upon an average of the agreed time rates of wages in eighteen occupations in the capital or other large city of

each of the countries in the comparison

These industries are

the principal occupations, skilled and unskilled, in the building,

engineering, furmiture and printing trades. It will be obvious that such industries as agriculture, miming and shipbuilding, however important in some countries, cannot well be embraced in such an mternational comparison Some twenty countries contribute to these statistics by furnish-

mg the International Labour Office every month with the standard time rates of wages ruling for these occupations ın one or other of their great cities From this information it can be calculated

that the average London rate for 48 hours work would be say, 60/—, the average Berlin rate, say, 40 marks, the average Pans

rate, say, 200 francs, and so on for each country But the question straightway arises: how does 40 marks compare, in value to the Berlin workman, with 60 shillings to the London workman? The question is an extremely difficult one. It can be answered in a sort of a way by looking up the rate of foreign exchange and converting marks and francs into shillings at that rate, but that solution merely tells how many shillings the Berlin workman

could

get in exchange for the marks he earns, and ıt is obvious that the real issue is not how manyshillings, but how many loaves and boots and other articles of daily requirement his marks will buy The tastes and habits of wage-earners differ greatly as between country and country The English worker drinks much tea and

httle coffee, the French worker much coffee and little tea; the English worker is fond of bacon but seldom touches veal, the

French is fond of veal and seldom touches bacon And so from country to country For these reasons the list of commodities on of industry is not got by merely adding the results of one man’s which the purchasing power of the various wages is to be estrwork to the results of the work of others. The productivity of mr-ted must be as far cs orecticable con®ned +o “1ficles v rich are the individual worker is in some measure multiplied into, not con:U:ned, 17 Some Guantiry Ge ry raze m all une counrmes under merely added to, the productivity of the complex of productive comparison. The International Labour Office list comprises bread, agents with which he works One man’s efficiency directly affects flour and butter; margarine, eight kinds of butchers’ meat, bacon, the results which others get. More is gamed by equipping a good potatoes, sugar, coffee, tea, cheese, rice, eggs and milk Even in workman with good tools or a good farmer with good land than this simple lst there ıs hardly an item that does not present diffby assigning good tools or good land to a poorer workman or a culties as to kind and quality poorer farmer. The man best equipped to manage a large indusThe difficulties of obtaimmg comparable statistics of rent are trial undertaking may really earn twice as large a salary, meas- almost insuperable What is the value, according to some comured by the results he gets, as a man only slightly inferior in capac- mon standard of value, of the dwelling accommodation the worker ity, A good foreman, by getting a maximum product from the of each country gets ın exchange for the money he pays ın rent? workers under his charge, will not only increase the earnings of The information does not exist, but m view of the wide disparities his men, but will earn a Jarger wage for himself. In short, it is due to rent legislation, the International Labour Office offers a probable that in many employments, though possibly not in all, column in which an allowance 1s made dubious but perhaps better the differences between the increments of product which are de- than none at all, for differences m the level of rents. Family Budgets.—In all cost of living comparisons the difpendent upon the labour of a superior workman and of an inferior one are disproportionate to such differences in their skill ferent items of which account is taken must be “weighted” in acor ability as would be revealed by a test which would deal with cordance with their importance in the normal expenditure In them as isolated individuals It is these larger differences, of other words, a “family budget” is required Imagine a shopping course, which are reflected in differences in the wages which they basket containing a 'week’s provisions of a typical working-class cam command. (See also Economics ) (A, Yo ) family. Take such a basket from capital to capital and ascertain WAGE STATISTICS: INTERNATIONAL COM- mm each place what the’ contents cost, and you have a picture of PARISONS. Few everyday questions are so complex while the operation necessary for establishing the pricés part of the real superficially so simple as those which take the form “How do wage comparisons The final question is: what articles shall be wages in Germany, France, etc , compare with wages in this coun- put in the basket? Shall one put into it the assortment a London try?” It was to enable some sort of rough answer to be given to workman buys, or that a Milan workman buys, or that a Philadelsuch enquiries that the British Ministry of Labour, in July, 1923; phia workman buys? The International Labour Office has found issued the first of what was to become a regular series of com- a way out of this dilemma by making up six baskets of commodiputations of “Comparative Real Wages in London and Certain ties according to the habits and tastes of workers in sixwidespread Capital Cities Abroad” In 1924 the monthly collection of this parts of the world and pricing the contents of each of the six basinternational information was taken over by the International kets in each industrial centre The computations of comparative Labour Office at Geneva. real wages are then made for every country on the basis of each The first difficulty was the lack of information. Broadly of the six baskets and on the average of the contents of the six speaking, up-to-date particulars of the national level of wages in baskets. The enquirer is thereby enabled to select a figure cor-

WAGES: :

STATISTICS

Index numbers based primarily on quantities of food consumption m

ve

gr

g

OF

General average index numbers

1

kol

Q

d o

city

Berlin Brussels Copenhagen]

Dublin

London

Madnd

Milan

Ottawa

Paris

Philadelphia

Prague

gS]

Q

38

Ta

+

22

o™|

Se)

&

BA

Beles! 63{ 47|

8]

$

Q

a | Ba!

¢ | ee

g8

5

EBs gg

SSS|

le88)

gv o)

a

= AI

4 132 On TS wy

£2 | Pele Ss

FH]

7 | 67 | 67 | 824) 72] 46| 46 | 46} 65 | 46]

go

leak

ot | 66 49] 5

110 | 108 | 107

95 | x 16 | roo

99 | 129

Q7 | To4 | 103

98 | ror | ror | ror | īro

100 | 100 | r00 | I00 | roo | t00 | 100 | 100

55|

56|

50 | 54]

47|

48{

46]

sz!

53 1

62

43

56

55 | 53]

54

53 | 49 | 49 | 48

144 | 156 | 157 | 147 | 167 | x60 | x55 | 153 ós

56

56

° x69 | 180 | 184 | 175 | 209 | 190 | x85 | 18s

44}

5t]

Rome

42 | 40

40

47

44

45

47 | 43 47]

30

Stockholm

80

78

88

87

I102

95

86

41 34

4x | ssj 38 | 4s

Tallinn

Vienna Warsaw

39}

47}

37| 49| 36 | 44}

43 | 45}

4t | ar]

So} 52]

88

45 | 44

sI

46| 45 | sr 40 | 40 | 42

responding to the budget-basis he thnks most appropriate for his

urpose : Figures for 1928.—The data are given monthly in the International Labour Review The table above 1s reproduced from the issue for July 1928 In certain southern European countries, the relatively low index

UNITED

KINGDOM

of real wages in relation to those in London

269 In order to avoid the

difficulty im comparison due to changes ın the level of real wages

in London, the preceding table is given showing index numbers of comparative real wages ın various cities on the basis of real wages in London in July 1924 (=100) Active improvements in the computation are continually gomg forward ‘Three conferences under the auspices of the International Labour Office have discussed comparable data of clothing prices and rents The ideal would be a dual series of computations, one based on time rates of wages and the other on national earnings, but the data for earnings is at present greatly lacking Suggestions have been made for yet another series in which family earnings would be used as the basis, but reliable statistics of famuly earnings are most difficult of all to obtain GJ H) Bærrocraray —The ongn of the seres is to be found in an artıcle by J Hilton m the Manchester Guardian Commercial Supplement for Oct 26, 1922 The basis of the Mimstry of Labour series 1s described in the Ministry of Labour Gazette for July, 1923 See also International Labour Review for October, 1924, for an account of how the range of the statistics was amplified and subsequent issues for accounts of various improvements imtroduced For the latest records of the prices and wages used in the tabulations and the index numbers computed from them see the International Labour Review passim and the British Mimstry of Labour Gazetie ın which the index-numbers are reproduced

WAGES BOARDS: see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED KINGDOM. This account of wages since 1795 should be read in conjunction with the articles on Cost or Livinc, INDEX-NUMBERS, PRICES, UNEMPLOYMENT and Hours or Worx. The account is restricted to estimates of wages obtamable by persons in full employment—

either time-wages or average earnings on piece-rates, 1t deals principally with general movements, the resultant of all changes in rates time and pece the sh-fting of the rumbers ergiged in differnumbers of real wages may be accounted for in part by differences ent ocu ons ar. alo her cire .nstonces Which ¢irec” earnings in the items of food consumption im such countries as compared A slow reduction of weekly hours of work took place in the with those ordinarily consumed in most of the other countries half-century before the World War, and in 1919-20 hours were mcluded in the table Further, the index numbers do not show generally reduced to 47 or 48 per week and much greater unidifferences in the general level of real wages, even in the cities formity was reached than. before It will be seen from a study of included, being based on the wages of a few categories of workers the statistics that follow that progress has been nearly continuous, in four industries only and on the prices of a limited number of when viewed broadly, through the past century, sometimes by adarticles of food In the second series of general averages given in vances of money wages, sometimes by reduction of prices, and the last column of the table, although an allowance is made for especially in the most recent period by reduction of hours of work. rent, no account is taken of expenditure on heating and lighting, The Period 1795-1850.—The earliest general investigation into furniture, clothing and other items of ordinary consumption. wages in the Umted Kingdom was mad= in 3885 ard the stacy of Moreover, ıt should be noted that differences between the index movements before that date denends on scattered avoa o~ which numbers for any city at different dates may be due either to can only he pieced together wich great cimici'.s ord some incerchanges m the level of real wages in that city between those tainty, at -c+ tili 18sc after which cate reor’ are rore runerdates or to changes ın the level of real wages in London The ous. Tabl2 I exaioins the wages in some of dbe © cia tior: for index numbers thus show only proportionate changes in the levels which records can be traced back to an early date With the great rise of prices during the Napoleonic wars wage-rates mIndex Numbers of Comparative Real Wages in Various Cities Based on Cost of Food Only creased by more than 50%, reaching a maximum in 1815, during (Base London, July 1924=100) the next 15 or 20 years there was an irregular fall, and then wages were nearly stationary till about 1850, at a height about one. 1924 1925 1926 | 1927 1928 City third above that of 1790-95. If the movements of money wages July | July | July | July January; April are compared with those of prices, 1t becomes evident that a considerable advance wis rece 1 real weees between t8+s5 and 1850 Amsterdam 89 83 92 92 84 go One account gives averaye week's) war2s of men (artisans and Berlin 55 63 ło 71 68 75 Brussels 59 54 48 50 47 52 labourers, town and ccut 2) a~ 138 6d in :795. 178 in 1807, Copenhagen. 93 II4 II2 II2 II4 18s in 1824, 16s in 1833 and 17s ın 1850; if these are transDublin, X X roo 108 I04 106 formed into the money values of 1850 they become about 8s 6d Lisbon 32 3I 35 33 3I in 1795, 8s 3d in 1807, 138 in 1824, 13s. 6d. in 1833 and 17s in Lodz 54 44 44 48 43 London Loo 99 I02 106 103 I06 1850, that 1s to say that the average workman could buy nearly Madrıd 57 53 57 57 57 57 twice as much in 1850 as in 1795. To take a particular case, the Milan -. 46 46 48 55 52 Sussex agricultural labourer’s wage was equivalent to 44 pecks Ottawa 172 162 152 166 166 164 of wheat a week in 1795 and to 9 pecks in 1850 This is a very Paris 73 56 6r óI Philadelphia 213 180 169 189 194 195 general statement and it may be that real wages rose somewhat Prague. 56 48 51 49 49 less than 1s indicated ın the 55 years Riga f 42 48 st : The Period 1850-1914.—Soon after 1850 prices began to rise, ome . 4 45 | 44 4 47 45 and after some fluctuations culminated in 1873 and then fell Stockholm 85 3 89 98 92 93 rapidly, till in 1880 they were near the 1850 level again. During Sydney s: 138 133 Tallinn, 36 42 48 41 42 these 30 years it is computed that wage-rateg in specific occupaVienna 47 42 44. ] 43 48 47 tions rose about 30%, but owing to the relative increase of numWarsaw 46 39 45 41 49 bers in the better paid occupations average wages of all men rose

WAGES:

270

STATISTICS

OF UNITED

Tasre I. Jilustretive Movements in Weekly Wages

Year

{ ; Brick- | oe layer l K =e

|

| | Cotton ComFitter millitor, f Tondon | SPOP

| bourer | f ondon time London summerrate time rates

|

Gane t TRIE

anca- | Eng, and shire, Wales Average | Average

earnings | earnings

> d| 1795 i of 1800 Ty 6 1805 35 0 1810 30 0 1815 30 Of 1820 28 6 1825 | 33 9] 1830 | 30 of 1835 27 o 1840} 30 of

s 32 I4 18 20 20 19 21 20 18 20

A 9 3

| 4 | so | go,

o 0

33 36

25 I0 30 I

0 0 0 0 o o

30 33 33 33 33 33

20 26 25 24. 24 22

1845

20

90

33

23

30

1850 | 30

0

o 0 8 9 4 6

d 6 6 ô o 6 0 6 6 ó 6

5

Ir

6

war and post-war years—and combining the results, with due at tention to the relative importance of the industnes In Table IĮ the figures in the column headed “A” are intended to represent the movement of the average weekly earnings (at full time) of all

33

34

22

2I 10

0

Il

0

1860

9 4 8

20 20 22

0 0 4

33

34

24

4

13

6 0 o

33

6

18 o

4]

19900 | 43

QO}

25

1890 | 39 4| 1895 | 39 7|

1905 | 43 9] 43 9| I9I4 | 47 11|

1910}

33 36

2

25 26

2 3

29

2

35 36

36

36

36 36

36 38

26 3 27 T

36 38

38 38

29 2 2 33 4

39 39 39

39 40 40

38

2

1920 | 102 8] or 1925 78 10 | 6o 1928! 77 of 58

8 6 8

28 28

95 89 89

6 6

14

30 II 3I I

16 14

34

m6

o

6

14 I5

36 a | 35 36 o ms

38

49 32 32

0 6 6

The agricultural earnings are obtained by adding to the year’s money receipts for weekly wages and occasional earnings the value of payments in kind, and dividmg by 52 (See Statéstscal Journal p 562; 1899)

more bers that that

than 40% and reached about 24s weekly The index-numin Table II. show the movement year by year It 1s probable prices more than kept pace with money wages till 1860, and wages gained on prices till 1870, and mm the next decade real wages made rapid progress (at the expense of some unemploy-

ment) as prices fell. Prices continued to fall irregularly till about 1895, and then rose with some mterruptions, till, at the outbreak of war, the level of 1880 and of 1850 was again approximately

reached Money wages rose from 1886 to 1890 and again from 1896 to 1g0o and, after a slight fall, from r9rz to 1914, Throughout the period of falling prices real wages rose considerably, but from 1900 to 1914, or even from 1895 to 1914, it is doubtful whether money wages were as fast, as prices, and some statisticians have computed

that real wages fell perceptibly m the 15 or 20 years before the war

The Period 1914~1928.—This is dealt with in detail below By

1928 average money earnings were more than 90% above those of 1914 while prices had risen about 70%. The account now given may be thus summarized ,— Average Weekly Wages of Fully-employed Men in Great Britawm

Iĝş5o Igo wgoz

IQI4

1928

.

. .

‘

:

$ 3

+

.]

138. 6d

175

Corrected to value of money in

I914

79028

8s 6d

148 6d

17s,

208,

«| 248 + | 208

245. 328

418 545.

328.

328,

548

60s.

358

pation are expressed as percentages of their amount ın a particula year—r1914 is selected as giving the best perspective both for pre

manual workers (male and female, adults and children) in the United Kingdom, and are based on all avajlable information Under “B” an alternative reckoning is given ın which the gradual

ın the same occupation

*Plus 124% on week’s earnings The first four columns are the trade-union or other agreed rates

1795

convement method of making the calculation and exhibiting th, results is by index numbers, by which average wages 1n each occy

6

9 6

The cotton mull-spinners’ earnings are as estimated by G. H Wood m the Statistical Journal, p, 135 (1910) with some adjustment of dates

Actual wage

Sufficien

detail is available from 1850 onwards to allow at least an appron mate account of the general movement of wages year by year Th

shifting of population to the better paid industries is ignored, so

41 5 | 17 0 5 17 6 4t 5 | 9 0 as

wages were lowest, rent was very little and garden produce an

perquisites were relatively more important than now

9 o

41

60* 6r 61

ous, even when the dates 1850, 1880 and 1grq are selected, g

which prices were nearly the same, but the statement 1s consisten with such evidence as is available In considering the possibi}i}: of a family hving in 1795 on a weekly wage equivalent to onh 14s. 6d, in our present currency, it is to be remembered that htt} was spent except on food, that all members of the family excep the very young and very old worked, and that in the country wher,

s to 12 I5 16 I5 I4 Ir II II r2

0

4| 4]

33

d,

20

1880 | 39 1885 | 39

o

s

9]

1875 | 39

20

`

1855 | 33

33 1865 | 35 1870 37

Of

Agri-

cultural labourer,

KINGDOM

be certainly computed within a margin of, say, 2s, and the ad justment for the change of purchasing power of money 1s hazard

60s

It must be emphasized that the element of approximation ın these figures is very considerable, m no year can the average

that it indicates the movement of wages for persons who remam

Column “Ç” gives the Ministry of La-

bour’s statement from 1886 to 1914 of “the General Course of

Rates of Wages,” and from 1914 to 1928 of the “estimated aver. age percentage increase in weekly full-time rates of wages generally” (roo being added to convert the percentage increase into percentages), the earlier series depends only on wages of buildmg and engineering artisans, piece-rate changes in coal-mining and textiles and cash rates of wages of ordinary agncultural labourers, the latter series has a wider basis, but in neither is any weight

given to change of relative numbers, and in both ıt ıs assumed that earnings move proportionately with piece-rates. The wage.

TABLE II. Average Earnings of Manual Workers for a Normal Week in ine Un

8 Kar

un To brossed es Porcootoges of the Level in ror

litee Namber oF Wags

G EH Wood's numbers

-~= A 50 50 50

B

Ministry

g

fr880] |288zj; |1882)

58 58 56 55 56 57 57 53

7I 7I 68 66 66 68 68 68

r885] 11886) r887 1x888) i1880] r890) iror) jx892)

58 62

69 73

63 66

65

68 69

74. 76

A

B

73 73 75

8r 81 81

1883! 1884)

|t893) 1894)

|1895! |1896;

74 73 75 76 8a 84 84: 84

84 84

82 82

A

_ | bour C 77 78 79

80 79

85

87

84

ga 94 93

89 93 92

77 | 88

|rpo3|

or

gz

90

77

92

89

QI 9I

86

86

87

|Z905]

90

go

9o

85 83 8r

iz907| 95 |I908; 94 |t9o9| 93

94 94 93

94 94 93

93

|1923 11924] 195

1928|

196 196

r94

IOT IIO 120 155 IQ5 215 27a 2IO

99 100

to „ ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,„

Ir02* II5 125

160 200 220

280 215

170 ,, 175 |165 ,, 170

|r70 „ 175 175

175

|xr70 to 175

QI

46

or

1913} 99 |TOI4| 100

90

75 74 73

|it906)

94 94 96

1927) 196

87

90 95 94 90

94 94 96

|l1925| 11926]

i898)

|It9g04]

9x0] itor) |x9x2]

83 83

{1899} }r900) jrgor |lt902|

C

84 83

74 76 79

84

A

86 86

85 86

74

89

pi

78 iror5 77 = |Ir916 77 [Z917 79 «|Ix918 8r jiroro 84 i1920 85 1922 84 922

84 84

of

Labod

g

81 8r 8r 81 84 87 87 87

65

73

|t897|

75 75

Mimis-

65 66 69 78

76

Wood’s

numbers

pi

62 62 62

55 57

G.H

9r

*Begmming of year from x915 onwards

i

WAGES:

STATISTICS

OF UNITED

censuses of 1886, 1906 and 1924 discussed below show condusively that the Ministry of Labour’s method fails to register the whole movement of average earnings. Table III shows the movement of average earnings in some of

the industries which are included in the account of Table II. The

figures are taken from G. H Wood’s paper “Real Wages and the Standard of Comfort since 1850” in the Statzstscal Journal, p 93 (1909), the numbers in 1906 being equated to gz in accordance

with Table IT Taste IIL

2\2/2/8|&/2|=/2/2/2) 3/2)8)8 Si Slaisi

alse

wo |

Agriculture,

England and Wales ' 538)

Scotland

4

57

Ireland

za

Buildmg

76) Rx! BH' M1

BZ1 R91 AL Ry!

87,7)

Fo Na, 75 $2 5o72

7035

5°9

y

2 fA GO

4) A

9 7 472

Pi Por

RD ee}

71 77 ]80

Spbuilding

sy

vo

Ae fa

TI

44 42°46,

Engmeermg Coal

38 2% ,2 |, GS ,

Pudding

Gos.

i 938

2

7;

75

81

Fret yw 78,73,73

ane FICE! 73 4 Fs MOrCE Be

75

87, S01 G08

71 g3|25l By! >t

4R u* |B2}-0% 9° | FE. 8EI TS 717.9. !

58 45 96 72 75 79 TE 74 78 B2teoign:

Wool and

63! 68 | 73 | 75 | 83| 92 | 86 | 82 | 77 | 78 |80]

83} or

6s! wo! oa! 85 brogl gs! By! Ba! Bo! Rol Ba! BAl Gt| 4 ou? Os thon, 7, 7% 7S r b B71 dy OT, 6 ág p 7, 33 85 B. 84 43° 86 gó orlor)

Tn the column headed “A” full allowance is made for the relative changes in numbers in different occupations Under “B” some allowance is made for changes within industries, but the yelative importance of industries is assumed not to change. Under “C” are averaged the changes in time-rates in specific occupations or of piece-rates, with no allowance for relative changes mm numbers or for the varying relation between piece-rates and earnings

5 Linen, hemp, jute Silk Lace

In all cases the wages are for the normal working week

at each date, and the increase in hourly rates is considerably greater than that here shown G H Wood’s numbers are conyerted from his account (Statistzcal Journal [1909], pp 102-23 and 1912-13 p 220) by taking the level in 1910 as 94

It 1s noticeable in Tables I. and III. that the movement of wages has differed greatly in different occupations; in some there has been a steady increase, in others long periods of stationary wages, in others marked fluctuations. Official Investigations of 1886, 1906 and 1924.—In 1886 the Board of Trade instituted an enquiry into the actual wages paid by employers in all the principal industries, and in 1906 the Labour Department of the Board of Trade made a simular investigation The returns were voluntary at both dates, and while in those industries where the factory system had been long established a considerable proportion of employers filled in the schedules, in others, such as clothing industries and the minor metal

trade, returns were sporadic and insufficient

.

Others Average

Table IV exhibits

Clothing Industries Dressmaking, tailoring, etc Boots Hats Others Average

earnings of those who worked for the normal week, without short time or overtime, the other of the earnmgs of all persons receiving

(e)

(f)

Earthenware, Chemicals, etc. Earthenware Bricks Glass Chemicals Explosives Cement Others Average

(h)

3

0j

9g

23

3ļ]26 10|

7

Ir

O} 24

2I 22 27

O 3 3

7| 6 8| 7 0j ọ

8 7|18 2|41 2| 226 8 220 roļ|5910| 287 2 8|30 4[|52 I| 172

24 5

5| 9

9 5|26 3ļ|54 8] 208

22

4f

8&8 roj

0

3

8j

7

&

ro

2I

Io

oj

go 9] 10 7

22 10

7|

9

Ir X

I94

2ļ|53 10|

254

8156

9

3ļ|50

Ó|

227

23

oj50

7

220

25

4]57

240

2|

226

6]53 7 7157 11

238 203

24 C153 7)| 24 2|55 Ir}

223 231

23 o|56

9]

247

23 3ļ]53 10] 22 11 |58 7|

232 256

4)22 28

23 11 š

21,47 Of}

4|22

etc

Other food Brewing and isting Tobacco Average .

Col (f)

(g)

djsdisdisdjsd

Bread, biscuits,

6/24 24 23

3/59 9/60 2|57

I] 5 I|

26 7]|55 ój 6|23 I|5I 10| 26 2/56 1| 26 10 | 59 7]

28 5ļ|5410|

26 10 | 59 o| 24 6|58 9j] 25 5|5610|

Metal Industries Iron and steel manufacture Tin plate ' Brasswork .

24 6* 33 5 290 7

4| 10 o| It 9] 8

25 ;

5)

13. 0|/3210/60 12 4/33 8173 IO 3|24I1r1|50

244 280 246

209 225 2r4 222

193

219 240 224

5j] 7| 7|

3x84 218 203

7|27 44,52 |26 5]48 26 1156

9) go} 4]

153 185 216

3)27

O|

202

55 rt|

194

8] s5rirj

169

General engineerngmachinery, cars, etc.

Cutlery

Screws, etc. Railway cares à Watches, jewelery ‘

Stationery Printing and binding ; Cardboard boxes Average

Tn 1886 the detailed enquiry was mot as to actual earnings, but

td)

Food, Drink and Tobacco Milling

a all industries massed together are, however, more dependas to the wages or earnings obtainable by different classes for a full week. In 1906 there was a double tabulation, one for the

Col. (g) as % of

25

24

Shipbuilding . Other metal industries Average

°

j

All males Actual hr,

23

the results for all cases where the reports in 1886 appear to be adequate, together with estimates for coal-miners and railways m 1906 and for agriculture of both dates, which were not included m the general enqury Except in the principal textile and some of the metal industnes, we have no assurance that the classification was the same at the two dates and detailed comparison can only be made with considerable reservations The general averages able

(c)

sdis

Textile Industries

Bs yor

Cotton

worsted, Huddersfield 56| Worsted, Bacford |62! Ges ‘fs Jute te fo

(b)

Bleaching, fin-

83 bt ono

> Boys Normal hr.

1886 | 1906 | 1886 | 1906 | 1906 | 1924

(a)

colar

AR

15° 7°? “shh F SE oe RL Bt 87183" Rajon

Pnnting

Industry

Hosiery 6% 68! 72!

Average Weekly Earnmgs

. Men Norma! hr |

Wool and wor-

1850-1906

oO} MI SISIRISI

Men and Boys

Cotton

The Course of Average Wages in Certain Industries,

27I

KINGDOM TaBLE I\. Umited kingdom

9

9

9

.

25 3145

25

2|30

9] 10

II

zs

29

34/35 11 | 12

2155

28 10]

Irzo]30

25 3154

5]

180

9}

216

29

of

84 2]

187

20 23

t| 5610] 9)54 7)

218 23°

27 6|75 3|

274

22

Bls4

7|

242

27

9}69

8|

251

Paper,

Printing, etc.

Paper manufacture

:

-

*Pig-iron only

272

WAGES: Taste lV. Men and Boys.

Normal hr

Boys Normal hr

1886 | 1906

1886

Col (Ff)

sdsd

Building and 27 I11|58 23 1/52 26 11 | 57

9; 33 O0

Wood Furniture

Average

2| 2| rj

208 226 212

i ——}——}-—_}—— } 27 ——3|57 |] 3|| 210

Public Utility Gas, water, electricity Coal Mines Railways . Docks A griculiure (Eng. and Wales) .

22 11| 30 2 22 5/246

I4

General average] 23 {Men only.

oj] 16

2

6

9

28

IO IO

29 9{6r 6; 9 I2 4 30 2/58 7] 3/1211 25 of 67 4

269

33 8167 4]

200

16 2t| 28 of)

Io

8 xr

7] 2410]

5210!

207

194

173

273

Women and Girls. Average weekly earnings Girls Normal hr.

All females Actual hours Co C)

1886

1886 | 1906

1906 | 1924

Industry

(a)

ese

(b)

tt | re

s. d.j]

Textile Industries

c)

my 3418

Cotton Wool and worsted

I2

| 1m

s. d

8

7|1310

9 2/1r 4 IO I|II 2 iz 8/13 5 II 6| I4 3 ; IO

12 ġ9]|13

4 3

(d)

(e)

| m

s.sdj]|s

|

m2 s

I3 6/13 17 13

|pee

djs

16

610/10x

28 3]

6 8] 8 4

I2

30

IO

5|24IrI]

7 3

5 8]

6 4

7|

253 239

1

9|28

oj

287

Ir

7/24

5]

azz

9

12

4128

8

232

5 6)

Ir 0} IO II]

24 27

g] 3

225 250

I3

9|27II|

203

8 9 I5 6|25 6 7 II 2|27

IZ to

3/27 6]26

0} 5| 8| 3|

240 252 166 244

II

4|27

5|

242

5 3 610

Average Food, Drink and Tobacco

Bread, biscuits, etc.

Fs

s

12 II Io

Cocoa, etc. Other food Brewing and distillery Tobacco

.

7 2

6 7 IO 5/25

ọ 6|26

9| 6|

247 279

9 5 I2 0

7 5 6 2

9 I|27 9 4]33

7| 2|

3%4 355

9 8|27 6| | rne

284

70

Average meee

Earthenware, Chemicals, elc. Pottery Chemicals losives

Othe

Average r

G

91o|27 4| 278

8 9g 5

$ oeri

a

It Ir ro $ saft I

i

rr

6

faa

| paa

6

74

|aea

2

Io

22

3

221

911/24 71/28 91x; 25

I}

5} r{ 5]

246 242 256

8f

243

8 rx Ir 7

9

Io

2/24

13 Il 33 Ir

Screws, etc

Brass work

I2

Jewellery, etc Others

13 I2

9 7 2

a

oO] E

8 7/ 1m 6 10} 10 7 3)10

2

4] of 5} 9 7]

7 61

0

7 9/10

2 2

6 r/10 7 ojro

Io

Paper, Printing, ete. Paper manufacture Stationery

II II II II

Printıng and bmdmg Cardboard boxes Average Furniture, etc.

12

6

6 3]

I2

3

6

8}13

6|

26311] ar 8] 24 2] arr

3/25

7/23 7/26

of

244

5| 8]

8| 26 of

6 4]

910,

28

W

237 ary 232 229

221 252

nanana

7 6] 1x of 25 6] 6 6| 9 ọ|251r}

13

12

Col (f)

MM} WO] a a

Average

244

232 266

8/

292

9 9/25 8] IO 0] 27 7| 6 2|xrr of 27 3]

263 276 248

7 3/13

210

11

0|27

3]

Full Time Weekly Earnings of Adult Male Manual Workers Industries in general, excluding M: and Agriculture,

showing percentage of whole

Year |Under 175

8317

2 3

Metal Industries General engineering machinery, cars, etc Cutlery Wire

(i)

6 2| 7 8 7

9

Col (f)

d

41I]

5 II]

7 1 8 o

c

s

Average

Clothing Indusiries Dressmaking, tailoring, etc. Boots . , Hats Others

(f) | @)

d

0) |} O})]@O@;) cae

General average{

Women Normal hr

Girls Allfemales iqg (a) Normalhr | Actual hours as % a

1886 | 1906 | 1886 | 1906 | 1906 | 1924

(a)

meneame |

Buding Woodwork 29

Women Normal hr

Industry

DO. |

a

United Kingdom—Continued

Women and Girls. Average weekly earnings (continued)

1906 | 1924

(°)

G

KINGDOM

Taste IV

Actual hours las % of

1906

(a)

construction

OF UNITED

Average weekly earnings (conlznued) Men

Industry

STATISTICS

United Kingdom—Continued

1886 1906 |

zos and] 25s and/ gos and) 35s and] 4os and} sos under | under | under | under | under | and

203:

25S.

308

358

408

508

over

25 ro

30 214

23 19$

I4 16$

5 I6%

2 II

5

payment in the selected weeks The first method is used for columns (c) and (e) in Table IV, since it agrees more closely with the method of 1886. In fact in most industries, taken as a whole, the averages are nearly the same by the two methods, since overtime nearly balanced short time The 1924 enqury, of which a summary is given in the Mimsiry of Labour Gazette, July 1927, was less detailed. No distinction was made by age and consequently comparison with 1906 1s only possible for all males and all females as in columns (f) and (g). The returns relate to actual earnings, not to estimated earnings in a normal week, and the second tabulation of the 1906 figures is therefore used for column (f). Information is, however, given in 1924 about the number of hours normal in each industry and the hours actually worked in the weeks for which returns were made Normal hours in all mdustries (excluding railways, mining, docks and agriculture) average 47-0 weekly, and except for building and construction where the average was 45 3 there is singular uniformity in the hours. The hours actually worked (excluding, of course, persons totally unemployed) averaged 45 6, so that if full time (without overtime) had been universal, earnings would have risen about 3% The averages in Table IV have all been computed by applying to the wages the numbers recorded in the different industries mm the

Census of Production of 1907 and 1924 or in the Population

Census, or in the reports of numbers of insured persons, and are

thus independent of the numbers that happened to be included in

the employers’ voluntary wage-returns In comparing the wages of boys in 1886 and 1906 and of girls at the same dates it 1s to be remembered that there were more half-timers at thé earler

date, and in comparison between 1906 and 1924, that half-timers

hardly existed at the second date, and the age of commencing work had generally risen from 13 to 14 These changes, however, have

very little influence on the general averages. In the 1906 account not only are averages given but also, for each industry, the num-

WAGES:

STATISTICS

OF UNITED

KINGDOM

273

; TABLE V Rates of Wages in Typical Occupakons, 1914 to 1928. Men For each occupation the first line gives the number of shullmgs for a normal week’s work, and the second line expresses these amounts as per centage of the wage in July 1914. IQI4 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | r919 | 1920 | zrọ21 | 1922 |192

July Dec | Dec- Dec | Dec | Dec. | Dec Time-rates

Skilled

Carpenters

409 |} 4I | 44]

5

Engine-drivers, railway Semi-skilled

Painters (building)

36}

36]

39]

495}

erly

52]

69 | 8r | ror | 88 | 7x | 69}

47|

ó|

192

Dec

1925 | 1926 | 192

Dee

ele

Dec

i

Dec.

Sil]

73 | 74 |

744

1928

Dec.

cde

74 |

455}

506]

72

36

3I

Building .

61-5 | 735 |

37 33

106

40

47

65

78 | 100

óI

65

rog | I29 | I75 | 215 | 275

37

116

44

142

27 | 29 | 32 | 40]

d

ə | 8]

97

77]

74)

74|

741

4|

74|

89 | 8

81

81

8i

8x

81

88

7I

68 | 72°5

60

59

7

207

81

too į II2 | 125 | 152 | x82 | 205 | 240 | 220 | 200 | 200 | 200 | 200 | 200 | 200 | 200

ICO

Labourers

7]

83]

roo | Io2 | z10 | 133 | 184 | 213 | 262 | 248 | 216 | 207 | 207 | 207 | 207 | 207

roo | x102

Tram-drivers

Engineering

See

ee a

I©O | 103 | XII | 13x | 173 | 202 | 252 | 220 | 178 | 172 | 183 | 183 | 183 | 183 | 179 39 | 43 | 47 | 67] 77 | 83 | 90] 77] 56] 55 | 565 | 565 | S65 | 565] 565 IOO | III | IIQ | I72 | 195 | 2r2 | 230 | 196 | 143 | r4x | r45 | ī45 | 145 | 145 | 145

Engineers’, fitters

Compositors .

Dec Dec

ne

197 | 209

56]

74

238

243 | 196 | 188

69

222

67 | 88 | zo}

53 |

73

200 | 201

60

194 | Iī90 | 193

73

201

73

205

71

196

60

193

52 | S5*5 | 55°5 | 55°5 | 55S | 53°5

Too | tog | Img | 148 | 206 | 27x | 325 | 260 | 198 | rox | 206 | 206 | 206 | 206 | 108

23

.

27}

30}

49 | 5|

zr]

59 | 40}

49]

40 |

40]

40}

40]

40

too | 1x6 | 132 | 214 | 255 | 280 | 310 | 260 | 176 | 176 | 176 | 176 | 176 | x176 | 176

Local authorities

27 29 32 40 | 525 | 62°5 75 68 55 | 525 53 53 roo | rog | tr9 | 150 | 197 | 234 | 279 | 254 | 204 | I92 | I99 | 200 255 29 32 44 56 6o | 685 62 54 | 515 53 53 roo į II13 | 126 | 172 | 239 | 235 | 267 | 24r | 2Irr | 20r | 208 | 208

Carters (one-horse)

Dockers (54 days)

. Agriculture (Eng and Wales) Prece-rates Cotton Coal mines (54 shifts)

335

|395|

46]

s4]

69]

733]

89

ms

-

79 | 64 | 57 | 675 | 675 | 675 | 675 | 675

roo | 1x8 | 138 | 162 | 207 | 219 | 266 | 236 | 190 | 172 | 20 | 20r | 20r | 201 201 18 25 | 305 38 47 37 28 28 28 | 315 | 315 | 315 | 31°5 Loo 139 | 169 | 210 | 260 | 205 | r54 | x56 | 156 | 173 173 173 173 roo | roo | ros | 3133 | 205 | 202 | 259 | 202 | xr6x | xr6z | x6r | r6r | x6r | x6r | xrőr 36 | 42°5 48 52 68 79 | 102 70 52 | 565 58 | 57°5 53 reo | IIr9 | 135 | 245 | rox | 222 | 285 | x195 | r45 | 168 | 163 161 148

General average of 7os

Index Number of average earnings, all persons Cost of living Index No

799

IIo

120

155

Ig5

270

210

170

165

170

I70

leA

z 195 | 196 | x97 | 196 | 194 toot 220 | 225 | 265 | 192 | 178 | 277 | 180 | 175 | 175 | 168 | 164

Changes from 1914 to 1928.—Wage-rates rose slowly in the first few months of the World War, and, when the general rise of prices became evident, were increased at frequent intervals by such amounts as were considered necessary to balance the increased cost of living In many cases equal money increases were given. to all men in an industry, skilled or unskilled, with the result that unskilled wages rose relatively to skilled Thus in the building trade labourers’ wages had been two-thirds of artisans’, but at the end of the War they were more than four-fifths A study

of Table V will show that part, but not all, of this relative gain Women’s

215

te115| to 125| to 160] to 200| to 220| to 280lto 215 | to 175| to 170| to o 1} 175 | 175

I00 roo | 135 | 165

bers at each rate of wages, and less detailed information is shown for 1886 These detailed figures lead to the following very rough comparison Thus in 1906 the average was 30s 6d, the central half earned between 23s and 27s , four-fifths between 19s 6d. and 46s., onetenth of all more than 46s The increase in relative numbers in the higher grades of wages 1s very noticeable

has been preserved

64]

wages have similarly gained on

men’s and there has been a general levelling up of the lowest

wages Wage-rates in many cases failed to keep exact pace with prices in the years 1915-19, but piece-rates and overtime were prevalent, while unemployment practically disappeared, so that in fact the standard of hving was preserved as far as was possible under the restrictions of the food-supply. In the boom of 1919 wages rose rapidly and continued to mse mn 1920 after wholesale

prices had begun to fall m 1920, mdustry entered suddenly on a period of depression at the beginning of 1921, and the wages fell

rapidly from March 1921 to Dec 1922. From the beginning of

1923 till the middle of 1928 wage-rates remained nearly stationary, but wholesale prices fell appreciably during the year 1925, 1926 and the first half of 1927 and in conséquence the Cost of Living aa number was 13 points (7%) lower in Jan. 1928, than in an 1925 For reasons already indicated average earnings for all workers

rose more than wage-rates for individual occupations When we compare 1928 with 1914 we find that average rates had risen by 70 to 75%, average earnings 90 to 95%, and rates for unskilled workers and for many women’s occupations 100%, while the cost of living had risen only 64% and the length of the working week had fallen by some 13% On the other hand, unemployment was prevalent, especially in mining, shipbuilding and some other important mdustries, and wages in mining and shipbuilding have risen less than 50% Though engineering artisans’ tume-rates have only risen 45% (see Table V ), actual earnings of all employed in engineering and machinery and motor-car construction have increased more than 80%, and it 1s only those wage-earners who are on pure time-rates without bonus who have realized only the minimum mcrease. Table V , most of which is compiled from the 18th Abstract of Labour Statsstics pp 116-19, illustrates the changes in rates that have taken place The rates are ın general the averages of those in several districts, stated to the nearest shilling or sixpence, It 1s

to be noticed that when the reduction of hours took place in 1919

or 1920 time-rates were generally unchanged, the same sum being payable for the shortened week, but piece-rates were generally increased about 15% It 1s probable that piece-workers gained by this arrangement, and that for example the percentages shown in the table for cotton, which are the arranged piece-rates without this 15% increase, underestimate the increase in earnings for those at full work; certamly mm the period 1906 to 1924 during which piece-rates (apart from this 15%) rose 61%, earnings of males in the cotton trade rose over 90% and of females about 75% BrsriocrarHy —The earlier doctrines are reviewed and appraised in E Cannan, A Hestory of Theories of Production and Distribution in Enghsh Political Economy (3rd ed, 1926), C Ricca Salerno, Za teor:a del Salario nella storıg delle dottrine (1900), E W Taussig, Wages and Capital (1896). See also D. Ricardo, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, ch. v (1817), J S Mdl, Principles of Pohtwal

Economy,

bk

1, ch v, ch 1, ch

x1, xu

(1848);

F

A

WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED STATES

274

Walker, The Wages Questzon (1876). Representative modern discussions will be found in A. Marshall, Principles of Economics, bk Vis ch 1-v (Sth ed, 1925), F W Taussig, Principles of Economics, vol. ai, (3rd ed, 1921); T. N. Carver, The Distribution of Wealth, chs n-iv (1904), J B Clark, The Distribution of Wealth, chs vu, vui, t, xu, (1902); P H. Wıichsteed, Tke Common Sense of Political Economy, bk 1, ch vui (1910), G H Kleene, Profit and Wages (1912). (A L B)

WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED STATES. During the World War wage rates in the Umted States rose appreciably, but owing to the great rise in prices the real earmngs expressed m purchasing power did not gain materially and some studies show that the purchasing power actually declined During the period following the war, and especially after 1920, a material rmprovement seems to have taken place. The cost of living has been declining. In most industnes there has been no marked decrease In wages; ın some, wages have advanced ‘The Bureau of Labor Statistics carries reports on hourly rates of wages 1m unionized industnes, and cost of living, from which Table I 1s compiled Taste l

Wage Rates and Cost of Living, 1910-25 (1913 = 100

Index of union rates of wages

Year

per hour

zora]

IQII 1912 1913 r9r4 } I915 1916 IQI? 1918 IQIQ 1920 IQ2I 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927

Cow

944 | | |

| |

Relative purchasing

|

Index of cost . of living

power of wages as redin cost

930

1or'5

96-0

920

97°6 OOO 1OI-g 102 § 107 2 T14°1 132-7 I54°5 199°0 2053 193°E 210 6 228 I 237°9 250°3 2590 5

97°6 100 0 103 0 IOI 118 3 142-4 744 188-3 208 5 1773 167°3 I7I "O 170°7 175°7 175 2 172°7

mem ine c

104 3 LOO'O 100 0 98-9 97:8 go 6 Bo'r 761 820 95 4 115:8 1154 123 2 1336 I35 4 142°9 15° 3

Since the wages are hourly rates, they do not take unemployment into account. They indicate what workers would receive if their employment were full time and constant through the year. As yet no study of American yearly earmmgs has been made which takes into account unemployment In 1918 a can-

vass of some 12,000 families living m 92 localities in the United States was made, and a typical wage-earner’s family budget was drawn up The index number of cost of living nmTable I shows Tascr II

Real Earnings in Thee Unorganized Industries 1910-25

(1913 = 100)

Tanır III Money Value and Purchasing Power of Average Annual Earnings of Employed Gee n M ET and Transportation I9I4= IOO

Average annual rate| Relatıve purchasıng power

Boot and shoe

IQIO IQIL

98 9 IO2°2

96 8 98-9

IQI2 1913

95°3 100 0

1045 100°0

IOI-4 I100°0

1914 I915 Tq16 1917 1918 1919 1920 ion

9S

ICO O 107°4

803

i ILO*7

I100°0 : LOL°4.

liz 3

170° f 3

102°6 š 155°4.

1922 1923

124°3 A

160 2

1924

3925

1926

1927

9I°3

125°4 7

I25'I :

1763 ey

1578

living

Cotton mills

1912 1913 1914

147°0 »

I26-1 ..

Manufac-| Transpor-| tation

95 6 985

550 578

714 752

580

787

I9I5

98 o

568

806

1916 1917 I918

107 0 1290 157 0

65z 774 980

858 972 1,379

100°0

179°

1919

1920 192k 1922

205 0 176°0 166 o

1923

1690

1926*

I73 0

1924 1925*

169 0 1740

1927* | 1710

1,158

1,358 1,180 1,149

1,254

1,256 1,287 1,308

1,307

1,492

1,785 1,619 1,567

1,575

1,572 1,601

1,617

1,677

of average annual rate of earnings as measured in

cost of living

Manufacturing

104 97

99 IOI

Transpor-

93 94

95 97

100

00

IOO

104

105 104. 108

Ir2

III

Io2 96

106

II4 116 120

III Lr 120

128

IIQ

128 128 130

132

:

tation

18

117 IIQ

128

*Approximation arrived at by a method analogous to that used by Douglas

the average movement of prices of commodities weighted accord-

ing to this budget

In order to have some idea of the trend of

rates of real wages ın unorganized industries, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has prepared simular figures in several unorganized

or partly organized industries.

Table II indicates the trend m

three of these mndustries by giving the relative purchasing power of wages from rgro to 1926 inclusive From these figures 1t appears that non-union rates of wages have gained more proportionately than have union rates dumng

the years following the World War, even though they have lagged behind since 1924 But ıt must be remembered tbat they started from a considerably lower level, eg, the average union wage

rate in 1913 was 459 cents per hour and $x 09 ın 1925; the average wage rate in cotton mills in 1913 was 14 8 cents per hour and 37 2 cents in 1924, the average rate in woollen mulls in 1913 was 177 cents and 53 3 cents in 1924, the average wage rate in the boot and shoe ndustry was 24 cents in 1913 and 51-6 cents in 1924 For the year 1926 the average union rate of wages per hour was $r 148 (for 1927, $x 19), while the average wage rate in cotton mills was 328 cents, m woollen mulls 49-1 cents, and m the boot and shoe industry 52-8 cents, showing a decline since 1924 in the average wage rate in two of the unorgamized industries It should also be noted that in the unionized occupations there Average Annual Real Earnings of Workers in Manufacturing (1914.= 100

Prof Doug- | Relative avlas’ relative | erage ae average an- | earning’ 0:

Prof. Doug- | Relative avlas’ relative ragepanum average an- | earnings o

of employed workers

of employed workers

Year aual earnıngs|

94 6 97°8

132° 3i t

employed

920 | $ 558 | $ 678 702 537 94 9

I9IO I9II

TABLE IV

Year

Woollen mills

cost of

turing

Relative purchasing power of wage rates per hour measured in cost of living

lactone

of earnings of Index of | workers actually

Year

I9r0 IQII IQI2

manufac-

turing population

Lod.

11mg

IOIO

III

97 99

106 107

1920 IQ2I

TI4 r16

LOO

3923

128

142

too 120

1924 1925

128 128

129 130

1913

LOL

I9gr4

Loo

LOIS 1916

100 ros

IQI7 I9I8

manufac- | Year nual earnmgs|

turing population

104 108

105

122 129

1922

1926 1927

120

130 132

127 134 LOS

114

132 127

are practically no women, while in these three industries both women and men are employed Upon the basis of these hourly

rates, Prof Paul H. Douglas has calculated the average yearly real earnings of workers in manufactures and transportation as if employed full time, taking into account the money rates and

WAGE-SYSTEMS the retail prices of commodities included m the cost of living. This, of course, gives us also a rate of real earnings and not the total of real earnings, since he does not take unemployment into

account

Table III. summarizes his findings.

The rates of wages of transportation workers have been higher than the wages of manufacturing workers throughout the entire period But the lower paid manufacturing workers have made greater proportional gains than have the transportation workers. The transportation workers are still better off, but thei differenral over the manufacturing group 1s smaller than before the war. This 1s the same development which was observed above in the

comparison of union and non-union rates

Neither the manu-

facturing nor the transportation workers gained in purchasing power during the war, owing to the rapid rise of prices, The first gain came during the closing year of the war and considerable

mprovement has occurred since the fall in prices which began m 1920,

The writer has given another index number of real annual earnings by dividing the total pay rolls by the estimated total labour-

ing population of these industnes

This index number is to be

found in column 2 of Table IV. contrasted with Douglas’ average real earnings of those actually on the pay roll, This shows quite a remarkable difference. For example, in the years 1915 and 1916,

Douglas shows an increase from roo to 105 while the wniter’s, taking into account increased employment, increases from roo to 120 This difference arises from the fact that Douglas’ base of 100 for 1914 is $580 while the writer’s, taking into account unemployment, 1s $479 The difference is still more strikmg in the years of depression in r92z and 1922 when Prof Douglas’ index shows a steady increase of real earnings from 114 to 120 and the

writer’s shows a great decrease of real earnings from 134 down to 105, then, with the return of business activity, a slow nse to H4 Finally, Douglas’ ındex, extended to 1927, shows a steady rise to 132, whereas the writer’s, taking into account total employment which now becomes practically equal to total pay roll, reaches 132 1n 1926 but falls to 127 in 1927 with the decrease in employment for this latter year

Anumber of factors have probably contributed to the increase m purchasing power of wages. There has been a great increase in the total annual production of the country Not only has the total production of the country increased, but the amount per wage-earner has increased. Technological improvements have been made, processes perfected and efficiency increased Mr, Woodhef Thomas of the Federal Reserve Board (Proceedings of the American Economics Association, March 1928) has computed from the census that the index of output per wage-earner in manufactures for 1909 stood at xro relative to the output in 1899, while by 1925 it had reached 147, an increase of 36%.

Moreover, there has been a marked decline in the value of farm products in recent years and this has made for a lower cost of living The US Department of Agnculture has calculated the average purchasing power of farm products in 1919 relative to a pre-war base as 105 By 1923 it had declined to 78, and in 1927 had risen again to 87. This later rise 1s reflected in the increase in the cost of livimg since 1923 as shown in Tables I and III. Another major factor in well-being 1s the decline in immigration.

The immigrant has always underbid the American worker, depressed the wage level and been difficult to unionize, This leads one to ask if trade unionism has had anything to do with this recent increase in earnings. The membership and funds of trade unions have declined during the period of the wage increases. But this 1s not a conclusive evidence that trade unionism has been of no value

In the first place, a rise in wages in the union-

wed industries 1s industries unless a there is a growing dustries, of paying

bound to increase the wages in non-union great surplus of labour prevents it. Further, practice among employers, 1n unorganized inhigher wages mm an effort to keep the union out of their industries, and we must not overlook, as was explamed above, that the non-union

wage increases

much lower level than the union wages

began at a

In the second place, the

IN INDUSTRY

275

contraction of the inflated war-time membership,

WAGE-SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRY.

(J R Co)

The normal methods

of payment for the work of persons employed in industry under the capitahst system are wage-payment and salary-payment, It is not easy to draw an absolute line of distinction between these two forms of payment Wages are usually paid weekly and salaries over a longer period—monthly, or quarterly, for example There are, however, cases of weekly salaries and of wages paid monthly Moreover, a good many of the supervisory grades in various

mdustnes

are paid what

is called

an “upstanding

wage,” which in many of its conditions approximates rather to the salary basis of payment than to the wage as ordinarily understood Usually the salary-earner possesses a higher status and a slightly greater measure of security than the wage-earner, Wages are, as a rule, paid only for hours actually worked, subject to the conditions mentioned below, and any period of illness or suspension‘ of work for any cause, whether under the worker’s control or not, mvolves the cessation of the payment of wages. Salary-earners, on the other hand, are in many cases paid during periods of sickness, and are usually paid for a full week, or month, even 1f some spells of enforced absence from work or failure of work due to some other cause are included There are, however, very many intermediate varieties between the continuous salary paid throughout the whole year and the wage paid only for hours actually worked ‘The salary-earner, ıt should be remarked, is usually entitled to a longer period of notice, from a month upward, than the wage-earner, who can usually be dismissed or suspended on a week’s notice or less The period adopted as a basis for the calculation of wages differs from trade to trade and even from district to district or factory to factory within the same trade. In some cases the basis 1s hourly, in others a weekly rate of wages is laid down. In either case, there may be, but in the majonty of cases is not, what is termed the “guaranteed, week,” that is, a guaranteed mmimum weekly payment, irrespective of the number of hours of employment which the employed person is actually able to secure In certam other cases, notably that of the dockers, there is the “guaranteed day,” but not the “guaranteed week ” The demand for a greater measure of security than is afforded by hourly payment, without any guarantee by the week or the day, has mcreased, and a number of trades have secured concessions giving them guarantees of one sort or another, Broadly speaking, the methods of remunerating the wageearner under the wage-system can be divided into two main

groups.

(1) time-payments, and (2) systems of “payment by

results,” although there are many intermediate varieties, and disputes often arise on the question whether a particular system is or 1s not to be regarded as “payment by results ” (1) Under the trme-work (or “day-work’’) system, the worker’s remuneration varies with the time which he actually spends on the employer’s business ‘Thus, carpenters and joiners in

certain districts in the building industry in Great Britain have a

time-rate of 1/8d, an hour, and the majority of grades an the railways have time-rates varying from 46/- per week upward These time-rates are practically always fixed in relation to a definite number of hours in the week, and if a larger number of hours has to be worked, the hours in excess of the standard week are termed overtime, and are usually remunerated on a shghtly higher hourly rate—‘“time and a quarter,” “time and a third,” “time and a half” or “double time,” for example. Extra payment 1s also frequently made for work done during the week-end or at night (“night-shift’) The time-work system operates throughout a large number of trades, including the greater part of the building industry and the railway and road transport services, and almost the whole range of non-manual employment, In many other industries it 1s found side by side with various systems of “payment by results” In almost every time-work industry there are some piece-workers, and in almost every piecework industry some tume-workers

A particularly obnoxious form

of time-work is that known as “task-work,” wnder which the

worker is required to perform a definite amount of labour m

decline of union membership and funds largely represents a return for a time wage, but receives no additional remuneration

a7

WAGE-SYSTEMS

for higher output This is strongly opposed by trade unions and does not prevail at all in organized industries in Great Britain (2) Under the term “payment by results” are comprehended many different methods of wage payment, the common factor among them being that, to a greater or less extent, the worker’s earnings under them vary with the amount of output which he,

either individually, or in conjunction with a group of his fellowworkers, is able to produce The amount of work produced may not be the sole factor determining his remuneration under a system of “payment by results”; for such systems are very frequently, and in the organized trades usually, accompanied by guaranteed minimum or standard time-rates, which the worker

1s entitled to receive irrespective of the actual output which he produces Strongly organized trade unions m many British industries have consented to accept “payment by results” only on the condition that the standard time-rates of wages shall be guaranteed irrespective of output (e.g , engineering). The simplest form of “payment by results” is that known as “piece-work” Under this system, a price is fixed for each unit of the commodity upon the production of which the worker is engaged, e.g, if the worker is turning out screws, a price will be fixed per hundred, or per gross of screws, this price being calculated, in theory at least, according to the time which is estimated to be necessary for the performance of the operation in question. Sometimes, as in the “time logs” in the tailoring trade, the piece-work price is expressed not in terms of money, but in terms of hours, and the worker is paid for so many hours at the standard rate, irrespective of the time actually occupied on the job. “Straight” piece-work systems vary very much in complenty. Where the operations are simple, and the character of the goods produced uniform, piece-work prices can be laid down with almost mathematical accuracy; but as soon as provision has to be made for a wide range of different products complications almost inevitably arıse. These complications are of two kinds The cotton mdustry in Great Britain is almost entirely a piece-work industry; but, despite the immense variety in the types of cotton goods produced and the variation in the times required for the spinnmg and weaving of different types of goods, piece-work rates can be devised to correspond with practically mathematical aceuracy to the time required for the job because of the high degree of standardization at which the industry has arrived The piece-work lists agreed to by the weaving trade unions and the cotton manufacturers are immensely complicated, and only skilled technicians are able to understand them. The universal acceptance of piece-work in the cotton industry is mainly accounted for by the fact that, under the system which has been adopted, a given amount of effort can be approximately relied upon under normal conditions to produce equivalent earnings This is much more difficult to secure in such an industry as engineering, where the products are far less uniform and where also the machinery which the worker is called upon to manipulate is far less standardized, so that it may take very different times to do the same job on two different machmes The fixing of piece-work prices in the engineering industry in Great Britain is therefore a constant source of friction, and it has been found impossible to express, in any tables corresponding to the cotton

piece-work lists, the fair remuneration for most forms of work on engineering products. Piece-work prices in the engineering industry are a constant subject of workshop and trade-union bargaining, and there is a strong resistance in many sections of the industry to the introduction of piece-work, largely because there is not, as in the cotton industry, any simple method of arriving at a fair price, allegations of “speeding side, and of “speeding the other. Where, owing

and the system thus produces constant up” and “price-cutting” on the one down” and “restriction of output” on to special circumstances, it is regarded

as impossible to fix in advance a piece-work price for a particular job, the worker, especially in the engineering and shipbuilding industries, is sometimes paid what is called a “lieu rate,” eg, “time and a third” or “time and a half” for the hours actually occupied on the job in lieu of a fixed piece-work price.

IN INDUSTRY Bonus Systems.—The other main system of payment by re. sults is the system of “bonus on output” Under this system the worker 1s normally paid a time-rate irrespective of output, but, if the output exceeds a given mmimum, an additional bonus, calculated upon this excess output, 1s paid There are literally hundreds of different methods of calculating this bonus The system to which the greatest attention has been attracted in re-

cent years, both in Great Britain and in America, is the “premium bonus

system”

tems

Under both these systems, a “basis time” 1s fixed for the

in its various

forms,

of which

the two

best-

known are the “Halsey” and the “Rowan” premium bonus sys-

accomphshment of the piece of work in question If the work is done in less than the basis time, the workman 1s paid, over and above his time-rate of wages, which 1s guaranteed, a bonus, pro-

portionate in one way or another to the time saved

The effect

of this method of payment ıs that, under both the Halsey and the

Rowan system, the labour cost of the job to the employer falls with every increase in output, while at the same time the earnings of the workman crease, but not in proportion to the increase in output The simpler of the two best-known premium bonus systems is the “Halsey” system, so called after its inventor, F. A Halsey, an American efficiency engineer Under

this system, the workman 1s paid a fraction, usually either a third or a half, of his tume-rate for time saved Thus supposing the time allowed for an operation is 12 hours, and a worker,

whose time-rate is a shilling an hour, does it in g hours, he will be paid at his time-rate for the 9 hours and in addition will receive payment. for a further hour or for an hour and a half, according to the particular variety of the system adopted.

The Rowan system is more complicated The simplest way of explaining it is to say that for every 10% that 1s saved on

the time allowed, the workman receives a ro% increase ın earnmgs The more complicated way is to quote the quite unnecessarily abstruse formula which is usually adopted by those who desire to explain the system ‘This formula is as follows — Bonus =

Time saved xX Time taken. Time allowed

There are all manner of modifications of these two systems, both in the dreeiien of greater splciy arc ir the* of greater complexity The sc voces of =~vienuitic TeMage Men” have been especially active in devising fresh variations in the method of payment, intended to stimulate the workers’ productive efficiency in the fullest degree Efficiency engineers often contend that it 1s necessary to work out a different formula for each type of operation in order to apply in each case precisely the right stumulus to increased output. Most of these systems are based in one way or another on the premium bonus system in one or other of its two forms, or on the so-called “differential piece-rate” system advocated by F W Taylor, the founder of “scientific management.” Under this system, two different piece-rates are fixed for the same job, and at the same time a standard output per hour is laid down When the worker reaches or exceeds the standard output he is paid on the higher piece-rate, when he falls below the standard of output he is paid on the lower piece-rate Daywork rates are not guaranteed The object of this system is stated to be the elimination from the job of the less efficient

worker by discouraging him with the offer of a lower piece-work price It is impossible to attempt to chronicle the many different bonus and piece-work systems which have been put forward m Great Britam and America The Ministry of Munitions in England, during the World War, accumulated a list of many hundreds of different systems which were actually in operation in the British engineering shops alone It is particularly in the engineermg and kindred industries that this wide diversity of forms of wage-payment exists.

It should be noted that both the piece-work system and the various bonus systems and adaptations of them can be operated on either an individual or a collective basis Under the individual system a single worker is remunerated in accordance with his individual output Under the collective system a group of workers 1s treated as a unit, and the piece-work price or bonus

WAGE-SYSTEMS y paid m respect of the output of the whole group

Collective

systems are most often found where the work itself necessarily involves collaboration, and where it is therefore difficult or 1mgsible to separate the individual contribution of the workers

engaged upon it (eg, “squad” or “gang” work)

It has, how-

IN INDUSTRY

277

pations, “payment by results” has been introduced and maintained not merely with the acquiescence, but often at the instance of the workers, who have seen in it an opportunity of securing higher earnings At the other extreme, the worst forms of

“sweating” in industry are very frequently found m conjunction

with the time-work system of payment In the past, trade unions have usually favoured, or at least not opposed, “payment by results” ın those mdustries m which a standard of measurement can be found of such a character as to mmsure that, under normal conditions, a given amount of effort expended will result in a given amount of output, and therefore of earnings under the system On the other hand, the umons have generally been opposed to the introduction of “payment by results” in those inm various countries durmg the war. There are, moreover, signs dustries in which no such standard can be laid down, as well as that collective systems are finding increased favour with progressive employers, as the mechanization of industrial processes in other cases where it has been contended that “speeding up,” consequent upon the inducement offered for higher output, would the of out largely production of pace the takes the control of control of the mdividual worker, while leaving it largely within have the effect of umpairmg the quality of the work done (eg, buildmg) Where “payment by results” has been accepted in inthe control of the workshop group as a whole A vanety of collective “payment by results” 1s that which is dustries of this latter type, a struggle has often followed over the known as the “fellowship” system Under this system, the question whether the mght of the organized workers to bargain workers themselves form groups on a voluntary basis, and share collectively over the fixing of piece-work prices or “basis times” out among themselves, either through the office of the firm, or by shall or shall not be recogmzed This struggle 1s still in progress a subsequent re-division of the sums paid through the office, over a wide range of industnes, but the fixing of piece-work ther collective earnings This system usually operates among prices and “basis times” ıs still normally done by the employer or his representative, subject only to protest by the workers “fellowships” of skilled workers in a particular craft It should be noted that the growth of “scientific management” There are many different ways of sharmg out the payment made under collective systems of “payment by results” The has given a great mmpetus to the introduction of “payment by results,” and has also considerably affected the methods adopted most usual method is that each worker included in the group shares in the payment in proportion to his tume-rate and to the by employers m fixing piece-work prices or “basis times ” In hours worked on the job Sometimes, however, the pool, or any the great majority of factories, other than textile factories, m surplus over the time-rates of the workers concerned, 1s equally which systems of payment by results are in operation, pieceshared, and sometimes regard 1s paid only to one or other of the work prices are still fixed in a very haphazard fashion, and moditwo factors mentioned above In a few cases a specially large fied from time to time in accordance with actual experience of share in the pool 1s offered as an inducement to a leading worker, their working But, where one feature or another of “scientific or to a few leading workers, but the system m this form ap- management” has been introduced, experiments have been made proaches the system of “sub-contracting,” which is universally with the object of introducing a greater scientific accuracy into the fixing of prices 2nd trmes The methods which have been inobjected to by the trade-union movement “Sub-contracting” ıs usually understood to mean a system troduced with ths objec. are mainly those of “time study” and under which one worker undertakes a piece of work which re- “motion suds ’ ‘Crre study” means an attempt, by actual quires the co-ordinated labour of a group of workers The sub- observation of the doing of a particular job, either by a selected contractor receives the whole sum paid for the execution of the worker or in a number of selected cases, to fix the tame which job, making, subject to any limitations that may be laid down ought to be occupied ın the doing of it by a normal worker in his contract, his own wage contract with the workers under “Motion study” means the observation of the doing of a job him, and retammng any surplus’ for himself Often a sub-con- with 4 view to eliminating all surplus motions, and to the laying the tractor, himself paid “by results,” remunerates the workers down in detail of the method by which it can be done with under him on a time-work basis It ıs generally recognized that maximum of efficiency and in the least possible time The former the sub-contracting system is open to grave abuse, and with the method has been adopted by a number of firms in Great Britain, advance of trade-union organization it has been gradually elmi- the latter in comparatively few cases Both are largely in operanated from industry, surviving only in a comparatively small, tion in America. “Time study” and “motion study” are usually number of cases The outstanding instances of it in the past resented by the workers employed, and are regarded as devices have been the “butty” system in the minmg industry, which still adopted by the employer with a view of “speeding up” It is also exists in one or two British coalfields, and the methods of pay- contended that both, and especially “motion study,” result in making work more monotonous and in taking such variety of ment which used to be common in the iron and steel industry Commission Payments.—Distinct from both the piece-work uitiative as remains to the worker under modern factory consystem and the various bonus systems is the system of “com- ditions out of his hands and in concentrating control in the hands of a small body of expert rate-fixers mission,” which is appled in a certain number of occupations Where piece-work or bonus systems are in operation, friction Under this system the worker receives a commission on “takings” or on profits either as his sole mode of remuneration, or as an is very likely to arise because there 1s a constant suspicion on the part of the workers that the employer is endeavouring to addition to a mmimum wage or salary This is the position of most workers in the imsurance business, of many commercial “cut” piece-work prices and to “speed up” the slower workers travellers and of a number of managerial and semi-managerial to the pace of the more rapid Employers, on the other hand, workers in the distributive trades. It 1s also found occasionally allege that workers deliberately slow down with a view to forcing up piece-work prices It is difficult to estimate the relative proin other occupations Recently, attention has been concentrated on the endeavours ductivity of workers under time-work systems and under systems of “payment by results”, but 1t may be taken as certain that into results” by “payment of systems of employers to introduce industries m which time-work systems are at present largely in no system of “payment by results” which has yet been devised has operation, ¢ g, building, éngineering, shipbuilding Usually these succeeded in elimmmating friction or the possibility of “priceattempts have met with strong trade-union opposition. It cutting” on the one hand and “restriction of output” with a view must not, however, be concluded that employers are universally to securing higher prices on the other. Perhaps the nearest apfavourable or trade unions universally opposed to “payment by proach to the elimination of these two factors 1s in the Bnitish results,” The position differs from industry to industry. In the cotton industry; but the comparatively smooth working of the case is mainly due to the peculiar textile industries, and in a number of the less-orgamzed occu- piece-work system in this

ever, been applied also in a large number of cases over a consid-

erably wider area In the form of an output bonus paid on the work of a whole shop or factory In these cases, bonus is sometymes paid only to workers directly engaged on production, but mm other cases aumlary workers, such as foremen, millwnghts, share maintenance workers, and even workers on the staff, may in the pool Many such systems were adopted in shell factories

WAGGA

278

WAGGA—WAGNER

standardized character both of the product and of the machinery | ag on May 22, 1813 In 1822 he was sent to the Kreuzschule at The cotton “price-list” system cannot readily be adapted for use Dresden, and in 1828 he was removed to the Nicolaischule at Leipzig. His first music master was Gottheb Muller, who thought him in the majority of industries Bratiocrapury —There are only two books giving a general survey of the various wage systems These are (1) Methods of Industrial Remuneraizon by D. F. Schoss (Wilhams and Norgate), which was written a good many years ago, and is now in many respects out of date, and (2) The Payment of Wages by G. D H Cole (new edition, 1928) which is the most recent study. See also, for conditions in England, Industral Democracy by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, and The Works Manager To-day by Sidney Webb. There 1s an immense hterature dealing with scientific management in relation to “payment by results’? Reference may be made especially to Sczentific Manage-

ment and Labour by R F. Howe; Scientific Management by C B Thomson; Scientific Management by F W. Taylor, Scentific Management by H B Drury, Efficiency and other works by Harrington

self-willed and eccentric; and his first production as a composer was an overture, performed at the Leipzig theatre ın 1830 In that year he matriculated at the university, and took lessons in composition from Theodor Weinlig, cantor at the Thomasschule

A symphony was produced at the Gewandhaus concerts in 1833, and in the following year he was appointed conductor of the opera at Magdeburg He had composed an opera called Die Feen adapted by hımself from Gozzi's La Donna Serpente, and another, Das Lrebesverbot, founded on Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, but only Das Liebesverbot obtained a single performance 1n 1836 In that year Wagner married Wilhelmina Planer, an actress at

Emerson; Work, Wages and Profit by H L. Gantk and Cooperative | the theatre at Konigsberg. He had accepted an engagement there

Production by H Athinson. For premium bonus systems, see The Premium System of Paying Wages, published by The Engineer; The Rowan Premium Bonus System by W. Rowan Thompson, and The Premium Bonus System, Report of an Enqury, published by the British Trades Union Congress A great deal of information will also be found im the following reports issued by the Board of Trade “Report on Collective Agreements” (1910) and “Report on Standard Piece-Rates” Unfortunately, however, no new or revised editions of these have been issued since some years before the war See also the Final Report of the Commuisston on Industrial Relations, published by the U.S. Government im 1915, and the Survey of Industral Relattons, published by the British Commuttee on Industry and

Trade in 1926.

(G D H C)

WAGGA WAGGA: see RIVERINA

WAGNER,

RUDOLPH

(1805-1864), German anatomist

and physiologist, was born on June 30, 1805, at Bayreuth, where his father was a professor in the gymnasium He began the study of medicine at Erlangen in 1822, and finished his curriculum in

1826 at Wurzburg, where he had attached himself mostly to J. L. Schonlem im medicine and to K F Heusinger in comparative anatomy. Aided by a public stspend:um, he spent a year or more studying in the Jardin des Plantes, under the friendly eye of Cuvier, and in zoological research at Cagliari and other places on the Mediterranean. He became prosector at Erlangen and was

(1832-40) professor of zoology and comparative anatomy

there. In 1840 he succeeded J F Blumenbach at Göttingen, where he remained till his death (May 13, 1864). Wagner’s activity was enormous, his hard work being done at Erlangen while his health was good In 1835 he communicated to the Munich academy of sciences his researches on the physiology of generation and development, including the famous discovery of the germinal vesicle of the human ovum. These were republished under the title Prodromus historiae generationis hominis aique animalium (Leipzig, 1836). In 1843, after his removal to Gottingen, he began his great Handwörterbuch der Physiologie, mit Rücksicht auf physiologische Pathologie, and brought out the fifth (supplementary) volume in 1852; the only contributions of his own m it were on the sympathetic nerve, nerve-ganglia and nerve-endings, and he modestly disclaimed all merit except as being the orgamizer. While resident in Italy for his health from 1845 to 1847, he occupied himself with researches on the electrical organ of the torpedo and on nervous organization generally, these he published in 1853-1854 (Neurologische Untersuchungen, Gottmgen) Controversy arose. He entered the lists boldly against the materiahsm of “Stoff und Kraft,” and avowed himself a Christian believer, whereupon he lost the countenance of a number of his old friends and pupils, and was unfeelingly told that he was suffering from an “atrophy of the brain” In his later years, Wagner became anthropologist and archaeologist His last writings were memoirs on the convolutions of the human brain, on the weight of brains, and on the brains of idiots (1860-1862) See memoir by his eldest son in the Gottinger “Nachrichten” for 1864. Wagner's works on poe ee vergleichenden Physiologie des Blutes (Leipzig, 1832-33), Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie (Leipzig, 1834-35) ; Grundriss der Encyklopadie und Metkodologie der medicinischen Wissenschaften (Erlangen, 1838).

WAGNER,

WILHELM

RICHARD

(1813-1883), Ger-

man dramatic composer, poet and essay-writer, was born at Leip-

as conductor, but, the lessee becoming bankrupt, the scheme was

abandoned in favour of a better appomtment at Riga Accepting this, he remained actively employed until 1839, when he made his first visit to Paris, taking with him an unfinished opera based on Bulwer Lytton’s Rzenzz, and, like his earlier attempts, on his own libretto. The venture proved most unfortunate. Wagner failed to gain a footing, and Rzenzz, destined for the Grand Opera, was rejected He completed it, however, and in 1842 1t was produced at Dresden, where, with Madame Schroeder Devrient and Herr Tichatschek in the principal parts, 1t achieved a success which went far to make him famous

Der fhegende Hollander, for which he designed a libretto quite independent of any other treatment of the legend was warmly received at Dresden on Jan. 2, 1843; but its success was by no

means equal to that of Renzi. Spohr, however, promptly discovered its merits, and produced it at Cassel some months later On Feb 2, 1843, Wagner was formally installed as Hofkapellmeister at the Dresden theatre, and he soon set to work on a new opera He chose the legend of Tannhauser, collecting his materials

from the ancient Tannhauser-Lied, the Volksbuch, Tieck’s poetical Erzahlung, Hoffmann’s story of Der Sdngerkrieg, and the mediaeval poem on Der Wartburgkrieg. This last-named legend introduces the incidental poem of “Loherangrin,” and so led Wagner to the study of Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival and Titurel, with great results later on On Oct 19, 1845, he produced his Tannhauser, with Schroeder Devrient, Johanna Wagner, his mece, Tichatschek and Mitterwurzer in the principal parts

Not-

withstanding this powerful cast, the success of the new work was not brilliant, for 1t carried still further the principles embodied in Der fuegende Hollander, and the time was not ripe for them On the flight of the king, Wagner fled to Paris and thence to Zurich, where he lived in almost unbroken retirement until the autumn of 1859 During this period most of his prose works—

including Oper und Drama, Uber das Dirigieren, Das Judentum ın der Mustk—were given to the world The mediaeval studies which Wagner had begun for his work at the hbretto of Tannhauser bore rich fruit in his next opera Lohengrin, in which he also developed his principles on a larger scale and with a riper technique than hitherto. Lohengrin was, in fact, produced at Weimar under Liszt’s direction on Aug 28,1850

It was a severe trial to Wagner not to hear

his own work, but he knew that it was in good hands, and he responded to Liszt’s appeal for a new creation by studying the Nibelungenhed and gradually shaping it into a gigantic tetralogy

At this time also he first began to lay out the plan of Tristan und Isolde, and to think over the possibilities of Parszfal During his exile Wagner matured his plans and perfected his musical style; but it was not until some considerable time after his return that any of the works he then meditated were placed “upon the stage In 1855 he accepted an mvitation to London, where he conducted the concerts of the Philharmonic Society with great success. In 1857 he completed the libretto of Tristan und Isolde at Venice, adopting the Celtic legend modified by Gottfried of Strassburg’s mediaeval version. In 1859, Tannhduser was accepted at the Grand Opera, Paris Great preparations were made; it was rehearsed 164 times, 14 times with the full orchestra; and the scenery and dresses were placed entirely under the com-

WAGNER poser’s direction

More than £8,000 was expended upon the ven-

ture; and the work was performed for the first time m the

French language and with the new Venusberg music on March 33, 1361, But, for political reasons, a powerful chque was determmed

to suppress Wagner. A scandalous riot was maugurated by the

members of the Parisian Jockey Club, who interrupted the performance with howls and dog-whistles, and after the third representation the opera was withdrawn Wagner was broken-hearted, but the Princess Metternich continued to befriend him, and by 1861 she bad obtamed a pardon for his political offences, with

permission to settle in any part of Germany except Saxony. Even

this restriction was removed in 1862. Wagner now settled for a time in Vienna, where Tristan und Isolde was accepted, but abandoned after fifty-seven rehearsals, through the incompetence of the tenor. Lohengrin was, however, produced on May 15, 1861, when Wagner heard 1t for the first

time, His circumstances were now extremely straitened; 1t was

a9

any art, and certainly none in musıc, for even Beethoven’s progress was purely an increase in range and power. Wagner’s earlier works have too long been treated as 1f they represented the pure and healthy childhood of his later ideal, as if Lohengrin stood to Parsifal as Haydn, Mozart and early Beethoven stand to Beethoven’s last quartets But Wagner never thus represented the child-

hood of an ideal, though he attained the manhood of the most comprehensive ideal yet known ın art. To change the metaphor— the ideal was always in sight, and Wagner never swerved from his path towards 1t; but that path began in a blaze of garish false lights, and it had become very tortuous before the light of day prevailed Beethoven was trained in the greatest and most advanced musical tradition of his tme In spite of all his impatience, his progress was no struggle from out of a squalid environment, on the contrary, one of his latest discoveries was the greatness of his master Haydn. Now Wagner’s excellent teacher Weinhg did certainly, as Wagner himself testifies, teach him more

In 1863 he published the hbretto of

of good music than Beethoven, Haydn and Mozart could have

Der Ring des Nibelungen King Ludwig of Bavaria was much struck with it, and in 1864 invited Wagner, who was then at Stutt-

seen in their youth; for he showed him Beethoven, But this would not help Wagner to feel that contemporary music was really a great art; indeed ıt could only show him that he was growing up

the darkness before dawn

gart, to come to Munich and finish his work there accepted with rapture.

Wagner

The king gave him an annual grant of

im a pseudo-classical time, in which the approval of persons of

1,200 gulden (£120), considerably enlarging it before the end of

“good taste” was seldom directed to things of vital promise

city at his disposal. The master expressed his gratitude in a “Huldigungsmarsch ” On June ro, 1865, at Munich, Tristan und Isolde was produced

Again, music, a full books read.

the year, and placing a comfortable house in the outskirts of the

for the first tume, with Herr and Frau Schnorr in the principal

parts De Meistersinger von Nurnberg, first sketched in 1845, was completed nm 1867 and first performed at Munich under the drection of Hans von Bulow on June 21, 1868 Das Rhesngold and D:e Walkure were performed, the one on Sept. 22, 1869, and the other on June 26, 1870 The scheme for building a new

theatre at Munich having been abandoned, there was no opera-

he began with far greater facility in hterature than in 1f only because a play can be copied ten times faster than score Wagner was always an omnivorous reader, and were then, as now, both cheaper than music and easier to Moreover, the higher problems of rhythmic movement in

the classical sonata forms are far beyond the scope of academic

teaching, which 1s compelled to be contented with a practical

plausibility of musical design; and the instrumental music which

was considered the highest style of art in 1830 was as far beyond

Wagner’s early command of such plausibility as it was obviously already becoming a mere academic game.

Lastly, the rules of

A project was there-

that game were useless on the stage, and Wagner soon found in

fore started for the erection of a suitable building at Bayreuth (qv). Wagner laid the first stone of this m 1872, and the edrfice was completed, after almost insuperahle difficulties, in 1876. After this Wagner resided permanently at Bayreuth, in a house

Meyerbeer a master of grand opera who was dazzling the world

house in Germany fit for so colossal a work

named Wahnfried, in the garden of which he built ns tomb. His first wife, from whom he had parted since 1861, died in 1865,

and in 1870 he was united to Liszt’s daughter Cosima, who had previously been the wife of von Bulow Meantime Der Ring des Nibelungen was rapidly approaching completion, and on Aug. 13, 1876, the introductory portion, Das Rhemgold, was performed at Bayreuth for the first tıme as part ọf the great whole, followed on the 14th bhy Die Walkure, on. the 16th by Ssegfried and on the

syth by Gotterdammerung.

Wagner’s next and last work was Parsifal, based upon the legend of the Holy Grail, as set forth, not in the legend of the Morte d'Arthur, but in the versions of Chrestien de Troyes and Wolfram von Eschenbach and other less-known works The libretto was complete before his visit to London in 1877 The music was begun in the following year, and completed at Palermo on Jan.

13, 1882. The first sixteen performances took place at Bayreuth,

in July and August 1882, under Wagner’s own directing, and fully realized all expectations Unhappily the exertion of directing so many consecutive performances seems to have been too much for the veteran master’s strength, for towards the close of 1882 his health began to decline tapidly He spent the autumn at Venice, and was well enough on Christmas Eve to conduct his early symphony (composed in 1833) at a private performance given at the Liceo Marcello

But

late in the afternoon of Feb 13, 1883 bis friends were shocked

by his sudden death from heart-failure

by means which merely disgusted the more serious academic musicians of the day. In Rienzi Wagner would already have been Meyerheer’s rival, but that his sincerity, and his initial lack of that musical savor faire which is prior to the individual handling of ideas, put him at a disadvantage. The step from Rienzi to Der fhegende Hollander is without parallel in the history of music, and would be mexplicable 1f Rienzi contained nothing good and if Der fliegende Hollander did not contam many remuniscences of the decline of Italian opera; but it is noticeable that in this case the lapses into vulgar music have a distinct dramatic value. Spohr’s appreciation of Der fliegende Holldnder is a remarkable point in musical history; and his criticism that -Wagner’s style (m Tannhauser) “lacked rounded periods” shows the best effect of that style on a well-disposed contemporary mind, Of course, from Wagner’s mature point of view his early style is far too much cut up by periods and full closes; and its prophetic traits are so incomparably more striking than its resemblance to any

earlier art that we often feel that only the full closes stand between

it and the true Wagner With all its defects, Der fliegende Holldnder is the most masterly and the least unequal of Wagner’s early works As drama it stood immeasurably above any opera since Cherubini’s Medée, As a complete fusion between dramatic and musical movement, its very crudities point to its immense advance towards the solutior of the problem vropounded chaotically at the beginning of the z71h ce~.ury Ly Monteverde, and solved in a simple form by Gluk Avd:- he twofold musical and dramatic achievement of one mind, it already places Wagner

beyond parallel m the history of art. Tannhäuser is on a grander scale, but its musica] execution is

Wagner was buried at Wahnfried in the tomb he had himself prepared, on Feb 18: and a few days afterwards King Ludwig

disappointing

tribute tọ the master of his world of dreams. ; In the articles on Music and Oprra, Wagner’s task in music-

whole scheme to be ousted by the mature “New Venusberg music”

rode to Bayreuth alone, and at dead of night, to pay his last

The weakest passages in Der fliegende Hollander

are not so helpless as the original recitatives of Venus in the first act; or Tannhduser’s song, which was toa far involved in the

drama is described, and ıt remains here to discuss his progress in with which Wagner fifteen years later got rid both of the end

the operas themselves

This progress has perhaps no parallel in of the overture and what he called his “Palais-Royal”? Venus

280

WAGNER

Tt is really very difficult to understand Schumann’s impression that the musical technique of Tannhauser shows a remarkable improvement Not until the third act does the great Wagner arbitrate in the struggle between amateurishness and theatricality mn the music, though at all points his epoch-making stagecraft asserts itself with a force that tempts us to treat the whole work as if it were on the Wagnerian plane of Tannhauser’s account of his pilgrimage in the third act After even the finest things in Tannhauser, the Vorspiel to Lohengrin comes as a revelation, with its quiet solemmty and breadth of design, 1ts ethereal purity of tone-colour, and its complete emancipation from earlier operatic forms. The suspense and climax in the first act is so intense, and the whole drama is so well designed, that we must have a very vivid idea of the later Wagner before we can see how far the quahty of musical thought still falls short of his ideals The elaborate choral writing sometimes rises to almost Hellenic regions of dramatic art; and there is no crudeness ın the passages that carry on the story quietly ın reaction from the climaxes—~a test far too severe for Tennhauser and rather severe for even the mature works of Gluck and Weber The crowning complication in the effect of Der fliegende Holländer, Tannhäuser and Lohengrin on the musical thought of the roth century was that the unprecedented fusion of their musical with their dramatic contents revealed some of the meaning of serious music to ears that had been deaf to the classics Wagnerism was henceforth proclaimed out of the mouths of babes and sucklings; learned musicians felt that it had an unfair advantage; and by the time Wagner’s popularity began to thrive as a persecuted heresy he had left it in the lurch Wagner had hardly finished the score of Lohengrin before he was at work upon the poem of Der Ring des Nibelungen And with this he suddenly became a mature artist. Wagner’s choice of subjects had from the outset shown an imagination far above that of any earlier librettist; yet he had begun with stories which could attract ordinary minds, as he dismally realized when the libretto of Der fliegende Hollander so pleased the Parisian wire-pullers that it was promptly set to music by one of their friends. But with Der Ring des Nibelungen Wagner devoted himself to a story which any ordinary dramatist would find as unwieldy as, for instance, most of Shakespeare’s subjects; a story in which ordinary canons of taste and probability were violated as they are in real life and in great art. Wagner’s first inspiration was for an opera (Sregfrieds Tod, projected in 1848) on the death of Germany’s mythical hero; but he found that the story needed a preliminary drama to convey its antecedents This preliminary drama soon proved to need another to explain it, which again finally needed a short mtroductory drama Thus the plan of the Ring was sketched in reverse order, and it has been remarked that Gotterdimmerung shows traces of the fact that Wagner had begun his scheme in the days when French grand

way through his drama to his music,

and we must not expect

to find that each phrase in the mouth of the actor corresponds word

for note with the music

That

sort of correspondence

Wagner leaves to his imitators, and lis views on “Leit-motif-

hunting,” as expressed mn his prose writings and conversation,

are contemptuously tolerant We shall mdeed find that his orchestra mterprets the dramatic situations which his poetry

roughly outlines

But we shall also find that, even if we could

conceive the poetry to be a perfect expression of all that can be given m words and actions, the orchestra will express something greater, 1t will not run parallel with the poetry,

the Lettmotif

system will not be a collection of labels; the musical expression of singer and orchestra will not be a mere heightened resource of dramatic declamation All that kind of pre-established harmony Wagner left behind him the moment he deserted the heroes and villains of romantic opera for the visionary and true tragedy of gods and demi-gods, giants and gnomes, with beauty, nobility and love mm the wrong, and the forces of destruction and hate

set free by blind justice In Wagner’s harmonic style we encounter the entire problem of modern musical texture. Wagner effected vast changes nn almost every branch of his all-embracing art, from theatrebuilding and stage-hghting to the musical declamation of words Most of his reforms have since been intelligently carried out as

normal principles in more arts than one, but, shocking as the statement may seem to 2oth-century orthodoxy, Wagnerian harmony is a universe as yet unexplored, except by the few composers who are so independent of its bewildering effect on the generation that grew up with it, that they can use Wagner's resources as discreetly as he used them himself The last two examples at the end of the article on Harmony show almost all that is new in Wagner’s harmonic principles The peculiar art

therein 1s that while the discords owe their intelligibility and softness to the smooth melodic lines by which m “resolving” they prove themselves but transient rainbow-hues on or below the surface, they owe their strangeness to the intense vividness with which at the moment of rmpact they suggest a mysteriously remote foreign key Wagner’s orthodox contemporaries regarded such mixtures of key as sheer nonsense, and ıt would seem that

the rank and file of his umitators agree with that view, since they either plagiarize Wagner’s actual progressions or else produce such mixtures with no vividness of key-colour and little attempt to follow those melodic trains of thought by which Wagner makes sense of them ‘There is far more of truly Wagnerian harmony to be found before his time than since It was so early recognized as characteristic of Chopin that a magnificent example may be seen at the end of Schumann’s little tone-portrait of him in the Carnaval. a very advanced Wagnerian passage on another principle constitutes the bulk of the development ın the first movement of Beethoven’s sonata Les Adieux; while even in the “Golden Age” of music, and withm the lmuits of pure diatonic concord, the wnexpectedness of many of Palestrina’s chords is hardly less Wagnerian than the perfect smoothness of the melodic lnes which combine to produce them

opera, with its ballets and pageantry, still influenced him. There is little doubt that some redundant narratives in the Ring were of earlier conception than the four complete dramas, and that their survival is due partly to Wagner’s natural affection for Wagnerian harmony is ther neither a sde-1:sue nor a progress work on which he had spent pains, and partly to a dim notion per saltum, bu: a !e.cmg current in he srrenm of musical evoluthat (like Brownmg’s method in The Ring and the Book) they tion That stream 1s sure sooner or later to carry with it every might serve to reveal the story afresh ın the light of each char- reality that has been reached by side-issues and leaps, and of acter. Be this as it may, we may confidently date the purification such things we have important cases in the works of Strauss and of Wagner’s music at the moment when he set to work on a story Debussy Strauss makes a steadily increasing use of avowedly which carried him finally away from that world of stereotyped irrational discords, in order to produce an emotionally apt operatic passions into which he had already breathed so much physical sensation. Debussy has this in common with Strauss, disturbing life that he too regards harmonies as pure physical sensations, but In Lohengrin we take leave of the early music that obscured he differs from Strauss firstly in systematically refusing to regard Wagner’s ideals, and in the Ring we come to the music which them as anything else, and secondly in his extreme sensibility transcends all other aspects of Wagnerism. Had Wagner been to harshness We have seen (in the articles on Harmony and a man of more urbane hterary intellect he might have been less Music) how harmonic music originated in just this habit of ambitious of expressing a world-philosophy in music-drama; and regarding combinations of sound as mere sensations, and how it is just conceivable that the result might have been a less for centuries the habit opposed itself to the intellectual principle: intermittent dramatic movement in his later works, and a balance of contrapuntal harmony ‘These intellectual principles are, of of ethical ideas at once more subtle and more orthodox. course, not without their own ground in physical sensation; Tf we wish to know what Wagner means, we must fight our but it ıs evident that Debussy appeals beyond them to a more

WAGON—WAGON

281

TIPPLERS

corimitive instinct; and on it he bases an almost perfectly

spirit of original will be found to be at least equally so, while the Such work deserves more Wagner’s poetry 1s faithfully reflected of standard the as Rapidly get to likely ever 1s it than recognition no one musical translations was mmproving before th.s work appeared, the could have foreseen what has now been abundantly verified, that loss to Ring can be performed ın English without any appreciable

cannot be soothing sensation, but a system based thereon and can miversal. Its phenomena are, however, perfectly real, tone of a the make conditions be observed wherever artistic mass of harmony more important than the interior threads of

books we may cite Ernest Newman, A Study of Wagner L. Weston, Krehbiel, Studzes in the Wagnerzan Drama (1891) , Jessie Th Perfect Wagnerite, by Legends of the Wagner Dramas (1906) social philosophy G Bernard Shaw, though concerned mainly with the of musical mastery of the Ring, gives a lummous account of Wagner's 1s his fnend movement. The highest English authority on Wagner A new classical 1s Dzctzonary Grove’s in article whose Dannreuther, is set forth by study of Wagner’s participation in the Dresden affair

12th-century herent system of which the laws are, lke those of music, precisely the opposite of those of classical harmony of his beauty the that is system his in point The only ulogical choice of a timbre dreamlike chords depends not only on his artful a close, purely that they Wagner’s art The same translator has also pubhshed fact the on also but harshness, their that minimizes version acquired through literary literature is too enormous to be dealt Wagner —The BIBLIOGRAPHY enter the ear with the meaning they have lines There is a with here The standard biography 1s that of Glasenapp (6 vols, of centuries Of harmonic evolution on classical a which five appeared between 1894 and 1909) Of readable English special pleasure in the subsidence of that meaning beneath (1899), H E

pianoforte its texture This ıs of constant occurrence m classical c laws music, in which thick chords are subjected to polyphoni make a notes only in their top and bottom notes, while the mner and fifths e consecutiv numerous which im sod mass of sound of octaves are not only harmless but essential to the balance intone the involved also are bottom and top the art In Debussy’s antipolyphonic laws of such masses of sound, thus making these laws paramount List oF WaGNER’s Works

The followmg are Wagner’s operas and music-dramas, apart from the unpubhshed Dze Hochzezt (three numbers only), Dze Feen, and Das Lrebesverbot (Das Liebesverbot was disinterred in 1910). I. ees der letzte der Tribunen. grosse tragesche Oper; § acts 1838-40 2 Der fliegende Hollander: romantssche Oper; x act, afterwards cut mto 3 (1841). 3. Tannhauser und der Sangerkrieg auf Wartburg. romantische operi 3 acts (hbretto, 1843, music, 1844-45; new Venusberg music, I I). 4 Lohengrin: romanissche Oper; 3 acts (libretto, 1845; musıc, 184648). This 1s the last work Wagner calls by the title ofOpera ak x, Das Rhemgold, prologue m 4 scenes to Der Ring des Nibelungen; em Buhnenfestsprel (poem written last of the series, which was begun in 1848 and finished in 1851-52; music, 1853-54) 6 Die Walkure- der Ring des Nibelungen, erster Tag; 3 acts (score finished, 1856) 4, Tristan und Isolde; 3 acts (poem written in 1857, music, 1857—

1859)

8. Stegfried: der Ring des Nzbelungen, zweiter Tag, 3 acts, the first

two nearly finished before Tristan, the rest between 1865 and 1869. 9. Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg; 3 acts (sketch of play, 1845; poem, 1861-62, music, 1862-67). 1o Gotterdammerung: der Ring des Nibelungen, dritter Tag, introm duction and 3 acts (S:egjrieď’'s Tod already sketched dramatıcally 1848, music, 1870—74) 11 Parstfal- em Buhnenweihfestspiel (a solemn stage festival play), already ber 3 acts (poem, 1876-77, music, 1877-82, Charfrettagszau sketched mn 1857) As regards other compositions, the early unpublished works include and a symphony, a cantata, some incidental music to a pantomime, pro~ several overtures, four of which have recently been discovered and duced The important small published works are Eine Faust Overture (1839-40, rewntten, 1855); the Svegfried Idylle (an exquisite serenade for smnall orchestra on themes from the finale of Siegfried, written as a surprise for Frau Wagner in 1870) ; the Kaisermarsch

the Huldigungsmarsch

(1864) for multary band (the scoring

(1871), a set of the concert-version finished by Raff) , Funf Gedichte (1862), of songs containing two studies for Tristan; and the early quasi-oratorio scene for male-voice chorus and full orchestra, Das Liebesmahl en

der Apostel (1843)

Wagner's retouching of Gluck’s Zphagenie

mention as Aulide and his edition of Palestrina’s Stabat Mater demand (as in some important services to music, by no means to be classified in sere) with the hack-work with which he kept off starvation aris volumes, ten fill German m Wagner of works hterary The collected not become and include political speeches, sketches for dramas that didtreatises and operas, autobiographical chapters, aesthetic musical be compolemics of vitriolic violence Their umportance will never Ruskin’s agaist reaction the as just but, music; his of parable to that respect for ascendancy as an art-critic has comcided with an increased that are his ethical and sociological thought, so the rebellious forces with a coincide constitution a music grant to compellmg Wagnerism The prose works powers mental general his of growing admiration (8 vols, 1892-99) have been translated into English by W. A Ellis of the Reng (first The translation by F Jameson (1897) of the text wonderful published in the pocket edition of the full scores) 1s the most of the score to reading careful A lne its in tour de force yet achieved loss of rhetorical this Enghsh text reveals not a single false emphasis or

or halt pomt ın the fitting of words to notes, nor a single extra note absurd the

in the music; and wherever the language seems stilted or

Woldemar

Lippert, Richard Wagner’s

1849-1862 (4920) See also Arta, Harmony,

OVERTURE

Verbannung

INSTRUMENTATION,

or WAGGON,

und Ruckkehr,

Mosc,

OPERA,

and

(D F.T; X)

a large four-wheeled vehicle for

WAGON horses the carnage of heavy loads, and drawn by two or more it is more This is the general Englısh use of the term, where the carryparticularly confined to the large vehicles employed in d heavy ing of agricultural produce Itis also used of the uncovere America rolling stock for goods on railways (See Rattways ) In for used are as such the term is applied also to hghter vehicles, of fourforms various to and , etc work, police delivery, express term English the wheeled vehicles used for driving, to which “cart” would be given INTERNATIONCOMPAGNIE WAGONS-LITS,

was started ALE DES. The International Sleeping Car company the patent in 1876 by M Georges Nagelmackers who purchased America from Carriage” Car Sleeping of the “Mann Railway It was only to provide sleeping car accommodation in Europe in railways main the with contracts between 1883 and 1896 that put on a firm France were definitely concluded and the company express, Orient the of on basis ‘This period saw the inaugurati the the Sud express, the Mediterranean express, and, in 1885, Constanextension of the Orient and Ostend-Vienna expresses to took tmople In 1896, the inception of the Nord express services the Nordplace, linking Paris and St Petersburg, and in 1897, In 1898, Brenner express, uniting Berln, Milan and Naples. wagons, restaurant complete sleeping car trains, together with from service rian Trans-Sibe the and Europe, were run throughout ck Viadivosto Moscow to Irkutsk, and finally the service from being Pass Simplon the 1906, In functioned to the Pacific first uniting opened, the company at once started the Simplon express, d Paris, Milan and Venice The World War in 1914 disorganise running the services, and it was not until 1920 that all these were known , iterranean Calais-Med tram, again m full and the famous 1923 onas the “Blue Train,” was first commissioned From and wards, great strides were made, especially in the Oberland 1926 In Engadine expresses, also the Pyrénées Céte-d’Argent. the by run those to similar trains the company included Pullman Sud express Pullman company in England, on such trains as the Pans between Arrow” between Paris and Madrid, the “Golden “North and London, the Edelweiss express, Antwerp-Basle, and the have Star,” Paris-Amsterdam The two last mentioned trains Pullmans class second and first both Thomas Messrs. of In 1928, the company acquired the capital all classes Cook and Son, thereby extending their amenities to as it now of travellers and tourists The Sleepmg Car company, bureau in travel extensive most the be to said be exists, can safely globe. the of the world, having numerous agencies in all corners (H M S) z

TIPPLERS.

The unloading of mineral wagons

WAGON which has by manual labour is a tedious and expensive operation ings which an adverse economic effect on all industrial undertak Orproduct. raw as generally employ coal as fuel, and minerals is ce of minerals dinary standard rolling stock for the conveyan pro-

y small provided with side doors through which a relativel are opened, of the material falls out by gravity, when they portion

WAGON

282

while the remamder has to be raked and shovelled out. In this way a man can unload at the rate of four to five tons per hour, and the actual cost of unloading one ton might be taken as 20% to 25% of his hourly wage A better method is to use hopper wagons, or, as they are sometimes called, “self-unloaders” As their name implies, they are wagons hoppered at the base in four directions, the inverted cone

HOISTING y MACHINE

TIPPLERS washed, coal will not slide out without manual assistance In order to get a clean discharge for all materials an angle of 45° to

55° is necessary, and this may be obtained by cutting out a sec. tion of the rail track a few feet longer than the largest wagon ang developing this into a hinged platform, to the end of which the hfting ram is swivelled The wagon to be unloaded is secured ig this platform in such a position that an increase of tilt 1s possible without the buffers touching the rails As an alternative the rails are kept intact and an independent hinged lifting frame 1s useq With all end tipplers it 1s imperative that the trucks be delivereq on the siding with their end doors foremost, otherwise some shunting or the use of a turntable becomes necessary. In some cases 1t may be undesirable, on account of the ground water, to

make deep excavations for the accommodation of the lifting ram. its motor and speed reduction gear This difficulty also has been overcome by tipplers which can be tipped either way, of which

there 1s quite a number of types. Generally speaking, end trucks

COUNTERWEIGHTS BY COURTESY OF THE LINK BELT CO FIG 1—-END TIPPLER BY WHICH REAR BY HOISTING MACHINERY

THE WAGONS

ARE

LIFTED

FROM

THE

outlet being closed by a sliding gate, on the opening of which the

whole of the contents runs out by gravity. The drawback to this otherwise excellent device is that such wagons are useless for other freight and have therefore to be returned idle, so that it would not pay railway companies to provide them Private owners, however, find these wagons very successful, particularly in cases where the haulage distance is not great and where they can be in continuous use between, say, a quarry or mine and a factory. Such users are, however, few and far between End Tipplers.—By the combined efforts of railway companies and industrials the unloading of railway wagons was mechanized

just before the end of the last century. The railway companies Provided thousands of mmeral wagons with hinged end doors in Place of side doors, and the industrials provided pits beneath the rails, at the points where they wished to unload, for receiving the coal and accommodating the mechanical lifting devices which engage, by means of “crutches,” with the rear axles of the trucks, lifting the rear ends sufficiently high for the material to flow out

SUSTAINING BEAN

|

require from four to five minutes to tıp Rotary Side Tipplers.—These are recommended for larger capacities They are all similar in external appearance but quite a number of types have been built In order to reduce manual labour to a minimum ıt ıs essential that the wagons should be held by automatic means during the tipplmg process, and that these should be capable of adaptation to the widely different types of

mineral wagons

For mstance, 20-ton capacity, high-sided wagons,

and those of eight tons, low-sided, have to be handled by the same means. Moreover, the device must accomplish this without causing any damage to the wagons A great variety of such sustaming devices form integral parts of the standard tipplers When several trucks have to be discharged quickly these devices act automatically, but for smaller capacities they can be adjusted by hand These, like most side tipplers, are of squirrel-cage type

and built in two varieties: one in which the wagon is clamped in position on the cradle by hand and the other where the operation 1s carried out mechanically The former ıs slower and therefore

handles fewer wagons per hour than the latter The great advantage of such tipplers 1s that any type of wagon can be handled by them, whether with side doors, end doors or no doors at all The operation is as follows The wagon is simply run into the tuppler, the driving gear is started up and the tippler commences to revolve

As soon as the framing begins to rotate the wagon 1s lowered at one side, by means of a pivoted rocking table, against the side

i

ROPE ANCHORAGE CRADLE END RAME

ROCKING TABLE

BY COURTESY

BUNKER

OF THE

MITCHELL

CONVEYOR

& TRANSPORTER

CO

FIGS. 2, 3, 4 & 5.—DIAGRAMS

SHOWING

OPEN-CRADLE

TYPE

OF SIDE TIPPLER

through the end doors, while the other pair of wheels remains chock. The continued rotation of the tippler framing causes on the rails. The lifting device consists either of a hydraulic ram, the cradle in which the wagon is contained to slide in the @ screw-operated ram or one with a tooth-rack and pinion An outer tippler rings until the top of the wagon comes in contact alternative lifting method 1s a hoisting gear in an overhead posi- with the longitudinal sustainmg beam at the top of the tippler tion, which, with the aid of a wire rope, raises the rear end of the framing, and the tippler then contmues to revolve wagon. In fig r such an arrangement is shown for unloading is inverted sufficiently to discharge its contents. until the wagon The process 18 Ssugar-cane End tipplers with rams, as described, though in many now reversed, the cradle containing the wagon gradually ways satisfactory, have one inherent drawback, sinking viz, that the down to the initial position, the empty wagon being pushed out wagons Cannot be raised beyond an angle of 40° to 45°, since the by a full one The action of the shding cradle with the wagon in buffers foul the rails at a steeper incline and small, particularly it is controlled by means of a dashpot, m order to prevent shock.

WAGRAM

283

Hand labour 1s almost entirely dispensed with

and Bernadotte) and the third line (Marmont, Bessiéres’s cavalry

In another type an open cradle has been substituted for the squirrel-cage The wagon is shown in the initial position in fig >. When rotation begins ıt 1s tilted gently till ıt leans against the

and the guard) About noon the general advance began, the French opening outwards like a fan to obtain space for manoeuvre

jongitudinally supporting chock (fig 3); then it further rotates through an angle of go°, at which pomt the top of the wagon encounters a longitudinal sustaining beam As the wagon continues to tum slowly over, an increasing proportion

of its weight is

pone by the beam until, when fully turned, it rests, as it were,

ina V formed by the supporting chock and the sustammg beam, both of which are covered with hemp, fender-hke, where they touch the wagons (fig. 4) In fig 5 the wagon ıs shown ın the unloading position After emptying, the wagons are returned to

their initral position, when they are absolutely free to be shunted

off the cradle The advantage of the open cradle over the squirrel cage is that a shunting engine can pass over the tippler An objection to side tapplers is that the o1l may run out of the axle boxes. But the operation is too quick for this to happen, and the latest arrangement is an “inkwell” type of oil reservoir Where wagons of large capacities are in use, as m America,

the end-tipping method 1s impracticable. In that country rotary side tipplers only are employed, which, in the majonty

of m-

stances, are raised to a higher level before reaching the unloading

position. (See Locomotive CoALIne )

In Germany end tipplers only are employed, since side tipplers are debarred by the railway authorities. (G F 2)

WAGRAM. or DEUTSCH WAGRAM, 4 village of Austria

situated in the plain of the Marchfeld, 114m N E. of Vienna. It

gives its name to the battle of July 5 and 6, 1809, m which the French army under Napoleon defeated the Austrians commanded by the archduke Charles. On the failure of his previous attempt to pass his whole army across the Danube at Aspern (see NAPOLEonic Campatcns and Aspern), Napoleon set himself to concen-

trate around Vienna and the island of Lobau, not only his own field forces, but also every man, horse and gun available from Italy and South Germany for a final effort. Every detachment was drawn in withm 48 hours’ call, his rearward communications being practically denuded of their covermg troops The island of Lobau itself was converted practically into a fortress, and over 160 guns were mounted on its banks to command the Austrian side of the stream. Giving up, in face of this artillery, the direct defence of the river-side, the Austrians formed in @ great arc of about 6m. radius extending from the Bisamberg, overlooking the Danube, in the west, to Markgrafneusiedl on the east From this point to the Danube below Lobau a gap was left for the deployment of the archduke Johann’s army from Pressburg 35m distant This army, however, arrived too late Their total front, therefore, was about 12m for 120,000 men, which could be reduced to about 6m. by a forward march of a couple of hours Meanwhile Napoleon replaced the temporary bridges over the mam stream (see ASPERN) by two solid structures, protecting them by palisades of piles and ; ap. floating booms, and organized an peca

armed flotilla to command the waterway. On the island itself preparations were made to throw

hms

three bridges across the Lobau arm of the stream opposite Aspern and Essig, and seven more on the right, facmg east between Gross Enzersdorf and the marh

§ Rgs

nver

Pantene | PLAN OF THE BATTLE OF WAGRAM,

For several days previous JULY 5-6, 1809

to the great battle the French had sent across small detachments, and hence when, on the afternoon of July 4, an advanced guard

Was put over near Gross Enzersdorf, the attention of the Austrians was not patticularly attracted and they did not interfére Under cover of this detachment Napoleott’s pontoniers

made the seven bridges

Long before daylight on the sth the

troops began to stream across, and about 9 AM

the three corps

destined for the first line (Davout, Oudinot and Masséna) had completed their deployment on a front of some 6,oooyd and were moving forward to make way for the second line (Eugene

The Austrians held a strong position along the line of the Russbach from Deutsch Wagram to Markgrafneusiedl with their left, whilst therr right was held ready for a counter-attack intended to roll up the French attack from left to nght when the proper moment should come. The movements of the great French masses in the confined space were slow, and although the French left

under Masséna pushed the Austrians back beyond Leopoldsau and Sussenbrunn, the main attack on the line of the Russbach did not declare itself tll 8 r.m., the corps did not attack simultaneously. and failed altogether to make any serious impression on the Austrian position. But, hearing of the success of his leit wing on the Russbach, the archduke determined to anticipate the French next morning on that side, and four corps were directed upon Masséna, who had bivouacked his troops overnight on the line LeopoldsauSussenbrunn-Aderklaa, the latter, a strongly built village, forming. as ıt were, a bridge-head to the passages of the Russbach at Deutsch Wagram Another corps with a strong cavalry force was also directed to pivot round Markgrafneusiedl and to attack Davout on his mght, on this flank also the atrival of the archduke Johann was expected later in the day The Austrian movements were somewhat ill-connected; nevertheless, by rr A.m. Masséna’s detached left division had been driven back almost to Aspern, and his right, though aided by Bernadotte, had failed to recapture Aderklaa, from which the Austrians had driven his advanced posts early in the morning. The situation for the French looked serious, for their troops were not

fighting with the dash and spirit of former years

But Napoleon

was a master in the psychology of the battlefield, and knew that on the other side things were much the same. He therefore sent orders for a great counter-stroke Davout on the right was to press his attack on Markgrafneusiedl and roll up the Austrian left flank; Oudinot, next him, was simply to engage the enemy on the heights with artillery fire for the time bemg ‘The capture of Markgrafneusied! was to be the signal for the main blow agamst the Austrian centre by Eugene’s two corps (under Macdonald and Grenier), which were then moving up Meanwhile Masséna was to

move laterally across the front to aid his isolated division in guarding the threatened left flank The gap thus left was covered by a line of guns, soon raised to a total of 104, which prepared the advance of the V Corps (Macdonald) through the gap on Sússenbrunn, followed by the guard and reserve cavalry. , Macdonald formed his 30,000 men in a gigantic hollow square —two lines, each of four deployed battalions, closed up so that the whole was six ranks deep, whilst the remainder of the infantry

marched behind in column on either flank, and cavalry closed the rear The Austrian round-shot cut swaths through this dense square—whose trail appeared one mass of dead and dying, creating a terrible impression on all who saw it It had shrunk so much

from losses, and still more from stragglers, that it came to a halt in a sandprt a mile short of Sussenbrunn. When reinforced, both directly and by divisions launched to attack Aderklaa and Breitenlee on its flanks, Macdonald resumed his advance and reached his objective At the same time Napoleon had ordered forward Oudinot to cross the Russbach between Baumdorf and Wagram and to strike the joint of the Austrian line at Wagram The Austrian left centre had been weakened by remforcemenits sent to the left, hard pressed by Davout, and by stretching to cover the gap on the

other side This weakening enabled Oudinot to gain Wagram, while Davout had also made headway With the penetration near

Wagram, the Austrian army was split, and learning that the archduke Johann could not arrive until evening the archduke Charles at about 2.36 Pm ordered a general retreat, the main part westward and the teft wing northward The French had seen more of the slaughter than their adversaries, and except the emperor and Davout all seem to have been

completely shaken. Evenim Davout’s command, always the steadiest in danger, the limit of endurance bad been passed, for when

dbout 5 pu the advanced patrols of the archduke Johann’s force appeared on their flank, panic on a scale hitherto unknown in the

WAGTAIL—WAKATSUKI

284.

Grande Armée seized the nght wing, and Napoleon had to confess that no further advance was possible for several days Berndt (Zahl im Kriege) gives the following figures French 181.700 (including 29,000 cavalry) and 450 guns engaged, of whom

23,000

men

were

killed and

wounded,

7,000

mussing,

Austrians, 128,600 (including 4,600 cavalry) and 410 guns engaged;

losses,

WAGTAIL,

19.110

killed and wounded,

and

6,740 missing.

the popular name for birds of the subfamily

Motacillinae, which, together with the Anthinae (see Prerr), form the passerine family Motacill:dae. The pied wagtail is almost confined as a breeding species to the British Isles. It constitutes a good example of a species owing its origin to isolation It is represented on the Continent by the white wagtall (3f. alba), of which ıt 1s a sub-species ‘Three other species occur in England, but the subfamily with several genera and many species ranges over the Old World, except Australia and Polynesia, whilst Asiatic species reach North-west America. Wagtails are long-tailed, generally parti-coloured birds, frequenting streams and stagnant water, and feeding on seeds, insects, worms, small molluscs, and crustaceans. The nests are made of moss, grass, and roots, with a liming of hair and feathers, four to six eggs are laid, bluish-white or brown, with yellow marks.

WAHHABI, the name of a Puritan movement within Islam. Wahhabis or Zkłkwan (brothers), purport to follow im detail the practice of the Prophet, and regard as infidels all who do otherwise. Their enemies are the enemies of the true faith and their every campaign is therefore a Jthad (holy war), death in which is a sure passport to Paradise Another feature of these communities is the complete elimination of all tribal distinctions The old pastime of tribal raid and counter-raid is discountenanced The blood-feud 1s no more. In the matter of doctrine the Wahhabis (Jkhwan) differ from their fellow Muslims in rejecting a large mass of tradition which they regard as un-authentic Like all Muslims they regard the Koran (Quran) as the Word of God and therefore the foundation of their social code, but there 1s admittedly much in the Koran and much not im it which from the earliest days of Islam reqmred explanation or consideration. Such matters were freely dealt with by the Prophet in conversation or in his practice, the records of which were subsequently collected in the form of “Traditions of the Prophet” which, bemg generally handed down by word of mouth, grew in volume as time progressed (See ARABIA: History ) Brsriocraroy.—J. L Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys (1831) ; Lady Anne Blunt, A Pilgrimage to Nejd (1881) ; D.

G Hogarth, Arabia (1922), H St J B. Philby, Tke Heart of Araba

(1922), Ameen Rihanı, Jbm Sa’oud of Arabia (1928).

and imprisoned for six months He had 1m his possession a quantity of strychnine, and ıt was afterwards found that he had

destroyed, not only his sister-in-law, but also his uncle, his mother. in-law and a Norfolkshire friend, by this poison He returneg

to London in 1837, but was at once arrested on a charge of forging, thirteen years before, a transfer of stock, and was sen. tenced to transportation for life He died of apoplexy in Hobart Town hospital in 1852 The Essays and Crittcosms of Wainewright were published in 1880 with an account of his hfe, by W Carew Hazlitt, and the history of his crimes suggested to Dickens his story of Hunted Down and to Bulwer Lytton his novel of Lucretza His personality, as artist and poisoner, has interested latter-day writers, notably Oscar Wilde in “Pen, Pencil and Poison” (Fortneghily Review, Jan 1889), and A. G. Allen, in T. Seccombe’s Twelve Bad Men (1894)

WAITE, MORRISON REMICK (1816-1888), American jurist, was born at Lyme, Conn, on Nov 29, 1816 He graduated at Yale m 1837, and soon afterwards removed to Maumee City, practised at Maumee City and at Toledo In 1850 he removed to Toledo

In politics he was a Whig and later a Republican,

In

1871, with William M Evarts and Caleb Cushing, he represented the Unıted States as counsel before the “Alabama” Tribunal at Geneva In 1874 he was appointed chief-justice of the U.S Su. preme Court, and he held this position until his death In the cases

which grew out of the Civil War and reconstruction, and especially m those which involved the interpretation of the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments, he sympathized with the general tendency of the court to restrict the further extension of the powers of the Federal

Government.

He

concurred

with

the majority in the

Head Money Cases (1884), the Ku-Klux Case (Umted States y Harris, 1882), the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and the Juillard y Greenman. (legal tender) Case (1883) He died in Washington, DC., March 23, 1888. WAITHMAN, ROBERT (1764-1833), lord mayor of London, born at Wrexham, was returned to parliament, as a Liberal, for the city of London in 1818 He lost his seat at the election of

1820, but regained it in 1826, and retamed ıt till his death, taking

part vigorously in the parlamentary debates, and strenuously supporting reform. In 1823 he was lord mayor of London man died in London on Feb 6, 1833

Warth-

WAITS, the itinerant musicians who parade the streets at night at Christmas time (AS wacan, to “wake” or “watch”) The waits of the 14th and rs5th centuries were watchmen who sounded horns or even played a tune to mark the hours

The

book of household expenses of Edward IV (1478) provides for “a wayte, that nyghtely from Mychelmas to Shreve Thorsdaye

pipe the watch within this courte fowere tymes, ın the somere nightes three tymes,” Elaborate orders as to his housmg occur During his actual attendance at court he was to receive 44d a day or less in the discretion of the steward of the household He had a livery given him and during illness an extra allowance of food Besides “piping the watch” and guarding the palace against thieves and fire, this wait had to attend at the installation of knights of the Bath London and all the chief boroughs had their corporation waits from the early 16th century In 1582 Dudley, earl of WAIBLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the republic of Leicester, writes to the corporation of London asking that a Wurttemberg Pop (1925) 7,806 Waublngen is mentioned in the servant of his should be admitted to the city waits, The London gth century, when it had a palace of the Carolingian sovereigns waits played before the mayor during his annual progress through Subsequently it belonged to the dukes of Francoma, and gave a the streets and at city dinners, and had a uniform of blue gowns surname to the emperor Conrad II It was in this way that the with red sleeves and caps with silver collars or chains round the Hohenstaufen family, which was descended in the female line neck In the 18th and early roth century the ordinary street from Conrad, received the name of Waiblingen, corrupted by watchman serenaded householders at Chrstmas time, calling the Italians into Ghibelline. round on, Boxing Day to receive a gratuity for their tunefulness, WAINEWRIGHT, THOMAS GRIFFITHS (1794-18 52), When im 1829 their place as guardians of the city’s safety was English journalist and subject-painter, was born at Chiswick in taken by police, private individuals kept up the custom October 1794. He contributed to various magazines and painted WAKATSUKY, REIJIRO (1866-~ ), Japanese statespictures some of which were exhibited at the Academy. Owing man, graduated in law at the Impenal university of Tokyo m to his extravagant habits, Wainewright’s affairs became deeply 1892, when he also entered the civil service He was nominated mvolved. In 1830 he insured the life of his sister-in-law in crown member of the house of peers in 1911, and was minister of various offices for a sum of £18,000, and when she died, m the December of the same year, payment was refused by the com- finance m 1912 and in 1914-1915, and also minister of home affairs m 1924-1926. He succeeded Viscount Kato as prime minister panies on the ground of misrepresentation Wainewright retired and leader of the Kensei-kwai party in 1926, He desired to broaden to France, was seized by the authorities as a suspected person,

WAHOO

(Euonymus atropurpureus), a small North Ameri-

can tree of the staff-tree family (Celastraceae), known also as burning-bush, found from New York to Montana and southward and sometimes planted for ornament The handsome fruit, ripening in October and persisting until midwinter, 1s a deeply lobed capsule with smooth purple valves which split apart at maturity, disclosing large seeds covered with a scarlet aril. (See CLIMBING BITTERSWEET; SPINDLE-TREE)

the basis of his cabinet by including members of the Seiyuhonto

WAKE—WAKEFIELD party, but failed, and was compelled to reconstitute his ministry (June 1926), exclusively with members of the Kensei-kwai party.

Later on, he succeeded in obtaining the support of the Seryuhonto party, thus securing a majority in the Chamber During the autumn of 1926 proceedings

against students

munism caused considerable unrest.

accused of com-

Some of them had been

arrested 1n December 1925, but no mformation on the subject had appeared in the press until September But the real cause of his fall on April 16, 1927, was the failure of the Suzuki firm. Later, the Kensei-kwai and Se1yuhonto united to establish a new party, Minseito, on June 1, 1927 Wakatsuki transferred the leadership to Hamaguchi, co-operating with Tokonamu, the leader of Seryuhonto

WAKE, ‘‘waking” or watching round a corpse before burial (AS wacan, to “wake” or “watch”), ın the wider sense a vigil kept in commemoration of the dedication of the parsh church This religious wake

consisted in an all-night service of prayer

and meditation in the church. These services, officially termed Vigskae by the church, appear to have existed from the earliest days of Anglo-Saxon Christianity Each parish kept the morrow of its vigil as a holiday. Wakes soon degenerated into fairs, people from neighbouring parishes journeyed over to join m the

285

ployment of the proceeds as a fund for promoting immigration. These views were expressed with extraordinary vigour in his Letter from Sydney (1829), published while he was still in prison,

but composed with such graphic power that it has been contimually quoted as if written on the spot After his release Wakefield produced a tract on the Pusmshment of Death, with a terribly graphic picture of the condemned felons in Newgate, and another on incendiarism in the rural districts, with an equally powerful exhibition of the degraded condition of the agricultural labourer. He soon, however, became entirely engrossed with colonial affairs, and, having umpressed John Stuart Mill, Colonel Torrens (gv) and other leading economists with the value of his ideas, became a manager of the South Australian Company, by which the colony of South Austraha was ultimately founded In 1833 he published anonymously England and America, a work primarily intended to develop his own colomal theory, which is done in the appendix entitled “The Art of Colonization’? The body of the work, however, is fruitful in seminal ideas, though some statements may be rash and some conclusions extravagant It contams the proposal that the transport of letters should be wholly

gratuitous—the precursor of subsequent reform—and the prophecy that, under given circumstances, “the Americans would raise cheaper corn than has ever been raised.” In 1836 Wakefield pubdal The days usually chosen for church dedications bemg Sun- lished a volume of an uncompleted edition of Adam Smith. Colonization of New Zealand.—In 1837 the New Zealand days and Saints’ days the abuse was the more scandalous. In 1445 Henry VI attempted to suppress markets and fairs on Association was established, and he became its managing director Sundays and holy days Wakes are specially mentioned in the Scarcely, however, was this great undertaking fairly commenced when he accepted the post of private secretary to Lord Durham Book of Sports of James I. and Charles I. Side by side with these church wakes there existed the custom on the latter’s appointment as special commissioner to Canada. of “waking” a corpse The custom, as far as England was con- The Durham Report, the charter of constitutional government cerned, seems to have been older than Christianity, and to have in the colonies, though drawn up by Charles Buller, embodied been at first essentially Celtic Doubtless it had a superstitious the ideas of Wakefield, and the latter was the means of its being origm, the fear of evil spirits hurting or even removing the body given prematurely to the public through The Times, to prevent The Anglo-Saxons called the custom lch-wake or like-wake (AS its bemg tampered with by the Government He acted in the he, a corpse). With the introduction of Christianity the offering same spirit a few months later, when (about July 1839), underof prayer was added to the vigil As a rule the corpse, with a standing that the authorities intended to prevent the despatch plate of salt on its breast, was placed under the table, on which of emigrants to New Zealand, he hurried them off on his own was liquor for the watchers. These private wakes soon tended to responsibility, thus compelling the Government to annex the become drinking orgies With the Reformation and the conse- country just in time to anticipate a simular step on the part of quent disuse of prayers for the dead the custom of “waking” France (See New ZEALAND History.) In 1846 Wakefield, exbecame obsolete in England, but survived in Ireland Many hausted with labour, was struck down by apoplexy, and spent countries and peoples have a custom equivalent to “waking,” more than a year in complete retirement, writing during his which, however, 1s distinct from the funeral feasts pure and gradual recovery his Art of Colonszation. The management of the company had meanwhile passed into simple For detailed accounts of Irsh wakes see Rrand’s Antiquities of the hands of others, whose sole object was to settle accounts with the Government, and wind up the undertaking. Wakefield Great Britam (W. C Hazlitt’s edition, 1905) under “Irish Wakes” WAKEFIELD, EDWARD GIBBON (1796-1862), Brit- seceded, and joined Lord Lyttelton and John Robert Godley in ish colonial statesman, was born in London on March 20, 1796, of establishing the Canterbury settlement as a Church of England an originally Quaker family His father, Edward Wakefield (1774- colony A portion of his correspondence on this subject was 1854), author of Ireland, Statistical and. Political (1812), was a published by his son as The Founders of Canterbury (Christsurveyor and land agent in extensive practice, his grandmother, church, 1868). In 1854 he appeared in the first New Zealand Priscilla Wakefield (1751-1832), was a popular author for the parlament as extra-official adviser of the acting governor, a young, and one of the introducers of savings banks Wakefield position which excited great jealousy, and as the mover of a was for a short time at Westminster school, and was brought up resolution demanding the appointment of a responsible ministry. to his father’s profession, but he eloped at 20 with Miss Pattle, In that year Wakefield’s health broke down. He spent the rest of his life in retirement, dying at Wellmgton on May 16, 1862 the orphan daughter of an Indian civil servant. „Her relatives Wakefield was a man of large views and lofty aims, and in became reconciled to the match, and procured him an appointment private hfe displayed the warmth of heart which commonly as attaché to the British legation at Tunn He resigned this post in 1820, upon the death of his wife, and then spent some years In accompanies these qualities. But he hesitated at nothing necessary to accomplish an object, and the conviction of his untrustParis. In 1826 he decoyed Ellen Tumer from school by means of

merry-making, and the revelry and drunkenness became a scan-

a forged letter, by which she was induced to beheve that she could only save her father from ruin by marrymg Wakefield, whom she

accordingly accompanied to Gretna Green. He was tried with his confederates at Lancaster assizes, March 1827, convicted, and sentenced to three years’ imprisonment in Newgate. The marriage, which had not been consummated, was dissolved by a special act of parliament. Wakefield turned his attention while in prison to colomal subjects, and acutely detected the main causes of the slow progress of the Australian colonies in the enormous size of the landed estates, and the reckless methods of allocation of land. He proposed the sale of land in small quantities at a sufficient price, and the em-

worthiness gradually alienated his associates, and left him politically powerless

Excluded from parliament by the fatal error

of his youth, he was compelled to resort to indirect means of working out his plans by mfluencing public men. But for a tendency to paradox, his intellectual powers were of the highest

order, and as a master of nervous English he rivals Cobbett. For an impartial examination of the Wakefield system, see LeroyBeauheu, De la colonisation chez les peuples modernes (3rd ed. pp 562—575 and 696-700) See also R. Garnett’s Life of Wakefield (1898); and R C. Mills, The Colonisation of Australia; 1829-42; the Wakefield experiment m empire building (1915).

WAKEFIELD, a city in Yorkshire, England 59,115

Pop (1931)

It lies on the river Calder at the eastern edge of the Pen-

286

WAKEFIELD—WALAFRID

mnes and developed as a market at the meetmg place of the lowlanders with the people of the dales It was also at the first easy crossing place m flood time before the age of bridges and good roads It ıs now a focus of rail and road routes from all parts of Yorkshire and is connected with Leeds, Goole and Hull by the Aire and Calder Navigation, with towns to the west of the city and with Lancashire by the Calder and Hebble Navigation, and with Barnsley and the Dearne valley by canal It is the headquarters of the county council of the West Riding Wakefield (Wachefeld) was the chief place in a large estate belongmg to King Edward the Confessor, and was still a royal manor in 1086 at the time of the Domesday survey Shortly afterwards it became an extensive baronial liberty extending mto the confines of Lancashire and Cheshire. In 1203-04, the lord of the manor received a grant of a three-days fair at Wakefield, and

as early as 1231 the town seems to have had some form of burghal organization In 1331 the king granted the mhabitants pavage there for three years and another annual fair of three days duration. There 1s no other indication of a borough An ancient church existed on the site of the present cathedral church, but only slight traces remain of buildings previous to the 14th century In the early part of that century the church was almost rebuilt and it was consecrated in 1329 Further great alterations took place in the 15th century and the general effect of the building as

it stands is perpendicular. A new stone bridge was erected over the river in 1343, though a bridge had probably existed long before this date. The river is also crossed by a fine bridge of eight arches on which stands the chapel of St. Mary, built in the richest Decorated style. Its endowment is attributed to Edward

IV., in memory of his father Richard, duke of York, who fell in

STRABO

and willow furniture are made in 1639

‘The first settlement here was made

In 1812 the southern parish of Reading

strongly Democratic-Republican,

(which was

while the rest of Reading was

strongly Federalist) was set off and incorporated as the town of South Reading, and in 1868 the present name was adopted ın hon-

our of Cyrus Wakefield (1811-73), who established the rattan

works and gave the town its town hall WAKEFIELD ESTATE, the birthplace of George Washington, in Westmoreland county, Va , was settled in 1656 by Col

John Washington, great-grandfather of George Washington

It

was held continuously by the Washington family until 1812 and a

part of it has since continued ın the hands of descendants. George Washington lived there for four years and then moved with his

parents to their estate at Mt Vernon

The house in which he was horn was burned in 1780, but the Wakefield National Memorial Association, which has purchased part of the estate, proposes to

rebuild and refurnish it for the bi-centenary of his birth in 1932

WAKE-ROBIN: see TRILLIUM

WAKLEY,

THOMAS

(1795-1862), English medical and

social reformer, was born at Membury in Devonshire on July x1,

1795. After qualifying as a surgeon he set up im practice m London, and in 1823 started the well-known medical weekly paper, the Lancet, in which he exposed the jobbery and other malpractices among the practitioners of the day, who were accustomed to treat the medical profession as a close borough This attack he

carried still further agamst the whole constitution of the Royal College of Surgeons In 1827 a petition to parliament resulted In a return being ordered of the public money granted to it But

reform was slow, and Wakley now set himself to rouse the House

of Commons from within. He was a friend of Wilham Cobbett,

the battle of Wakefield, in 1460, but both bridge and chapel and in 1835 was returned to parliament as Radical member for existed before the middle of the 14th century, a licence for the Finsbury, retaining his seat till 1852. He died on May 16, 1862, chapel being obtained in 1357. It was completely restored in the Lancet remamuing in the family 1847. The town was attacked and taken by Fairfax in 1643, but See S. S Spngge, Life and Times of Tomas Wakley (1897). Sandal castle, an extensive stronghold to the south of the river WALACHIA or WALLACHIA, a former principahty of remained in the hands of the Royalists for another 12 months, south-eastern Europe, constituting after its union with Moldavia when it was besieged and taken; it was dismantled in 1648 on the oth of November 1859, a part of Rumania (q.v.). About 1470, foreign cloth-weavers, chiefly Flemings, began to WALAFRID STRABO (or Strabus, ie, “squint-eyed”) settle, and by 1500, Wakefield was the centre of the district (d. 849), German monk and theological writer, was born about During the 18th century it became noted for the manufacture of 808 in Swabia He was educated at the monastery of Reichenau, woollen stuffs, and the Cloth Hall was opened in 1710, but in the near Constance, where he had for his teachers Tatto and Wettin, rgth century it was superseded by Leeds Today, it possesses mills to whose visions he devotes one of his poems Then he went on to for spinning worsted and carpet yarns, coco-nut fibre and China Fulda, where he studied for some time under Hrabanus Maurus grass. It has also rag-crushing mills for the manufacture of hefove retar irx io Reicher a, of which monastery he was made “shoddy,” chemical works, soap-works and iron industries of vari- aS in a3g Laore 1. 1 + 0, v—~based, however, on no good evious kinds, including wire-drawing, engineering and machine tool works, making of sheet metal working machinery and colliery ma- dence—that Walafrid devoted himself so closely to letters as to chinery, and boiler making A number of collieries exist in the neglect the duttes of his office, owing to which he was expelled from his house, but, from his own verses, 1t seems that the real neighbourhood. Wakefield is the chief agricultural town in the West Riding cause of his flight to Spires was that he espoused the side of Lothair (g v.) on the death of Louis the Pious in 840. He was, and its corn market 1s of remote origin The cattle market held under charter of 1765, is not less important The town Possesses however, restored to his monastery in 842, and died on Aug 18, 849, on an embassy to his former pupil, Charles the Bald agricultural implement and machine works, grain and flour mills, Works.—Of his theological works the most famous is the malt-works and breweries. exegetical compilation which, under the name of Glosa ordinaria Down to 1832, Wakefield was under the superintendence of a constable appointed by the steward of the lord of the manor, but or the Glosa, remamed for some 50o years the most widespread and important quarry of mediaeval biblical science, and even surin that year, the town was enfranchised and now the borough returns one member. In 1848 a charter of incorporation was vived the Reformation, passing into numerous editions as late granted and in 1888 the town was created a city. In the same year as the 17th century. (See Hist. littéraire de la France, t. V. p 59 the Bishopric of Wakefield was formed, almost entirely from that ff.) The oldest known copy, in four folio volumes, is almost of Ripon The diocese includes about one-seventh of the parishes entirely Walafrid’s work and gives us his method. In the middle of of Yorkshire and covers a small portion of Lancashire The parish the pages is the Latin text of the Bible; in the margins are the “glosses,” consisting of a very full collection of patristic excerpts church of All Saints became the cathedral and

was enlarged in tg0o by the construction of the retrochoir. During the restora- in illustration and explanation of the text. An Expositia quatuor tion of the spire in 1905, records of previous work were discovered Evangeliorum is also ascribed to Walafrid Of interest also is his De exordiis et incrementis rerum ecclesi-

in a sealed receptacle in the weather-vane. The Elizabethan gram- | asticarum, written between 840 and 842

mar school was founded in 1592. S

It deals with ecclesiasti-

cal sages, chutches al rs prvets belh pictures bapuism and the WAKEFIELD, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, |Holy Co nmumon Wahird how: no'i ice of bebei in trarsu*to m. N. of Boston. Pop (1920) 13,025 (25% foreign-born | stantiation as taught by his famous contemporary Radbertus (g v ). white); 1930 Federal census 16,318 The town park (25 ac.),| |Walafrid’s chief historical works are the rhymed Veta sancti shaded by fine old elms, extends to Lake Quatnapowitt, and op-| Golli and a much shorter life of St Othmar, abbot of St Gall

posite are Crystal lake and Hart’s hill, a park of 3o acres Rattan | (d. 759). A critical edition of them by E Dummler is in the

WALCOTT—WALDECK-ROUSSEAU Monumenta Germanie ust Poetae Latmi, i (1884), p 259 ff Walafrid’s poetical works also include a short lıfe of St, Blath-

maic, a high-born monk of Iona, murdered by the Danes in the

287

in New York in 1902 The idea of the Federal Children’s Bureau which passed commissions of both houses of Congress, 1908, was also hers, as well as the foundation of what is known as “public

frst half of the oth century, a hfe of St Mammas, and a Leber health nursing” ın the United States following Florence Nightinde msombus Weitens Many of Walafnd’s other poems are, or gale’s conception of “health nursing.” She served the cause of include, short addresses to kings and queens (Lothair, Charles, public welfare on several national and international commissions Lows, Pippin, Judith, etc) and to friends (Einhard, Grimald, and conferences, notably in the 1919 series at Cannes, Zurich and Hrabanus Maurus, Tatto, Ebbo, archbishop of Reims, Drogo, Washington ; was chairman of the American Union agamst Mihpishop of Metz, etc ) tarism, one of the organizers of the National Women’s Trade His most famous poem ıs the Hortulus, dedicated to Grimald. Union League; represented the public from rozo on the joint It is an account of a little garden that he used to tend with his board of sanitary control of certain trades, and was author of own hands, and is largely made up of descriptions of the various The House on Henry Street and other writings. herbs he grows there and their medicinal and other uses Sage holds the place of honour; then comes rue, the antidote of poisons, and so on through melons, fennel, lilies, poppies and many other

WALDECK, 2 province of Prussia, situated between West-

1876 became an assistant to James Hall, New York State geolo-

members + Until its amalgamation with Prussia, the Republic was

phalia and Hesse-Nassau Formerly a principalty and from November, 1918, to March, 1929, a Republic and constituent plants, to wind up with the rose, “which in virtue and scent sur- State of the German Republic, it was, on April 1, 1929, amalgapasses all other herbs, and may rightly be called the flower of mated with Prussia at the request of 1ts people It has an area of flowers” The poem De Imagine Tetrici was inspired by an eques- 433 sqm, covered with hills, which culminate in the Hegekopf tnan statue of Theodoric the Great which stood in front of (2,775 ft ). The centre is the plateau of Corbach The chief rivers Charlemagne’s palace at Aix-la-Chapelle are the Eder and the Diemel, flowing into the Weser. The populaFor a bıbhography of Walafrıd’s historical works, and of writmgs tion m 1925 was 58,641, an average of 135 persons to the square dealing with them, see Potthast, B:ıbhotheca hist, med. aev: (Berln, The lowest area is 540 ft. 1894), p 1102 ff Walafrid’s works are published in Migne’s Patrologia mile It is almost wholly Protestant Latina, vols cxu and cxiv. For further references see the article by above the sea-level—the climate is mclement. The soil is nowhere Eduard Reuss and A Hauck in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie fertile Oats is the principal crop, but rye, potatoes and flax are (Lewpzig, 1908), XX. 790. also grown, and fruit cultivated There are mines, slate and stone WALCOTT, CHARLES DOOLITTLE (1850-1927), quarries Manufactures are retarded by isolation from railways. American palaeontologist, born in New York Mills, N Y., Mar. 31, The capital is Arolsen (pop. 3,000 in 1925). Wildungen is a spa 1850 To his education in the public schools and Utica Academy of repute The provisional Constitution of the Republic of Walhe added special reading and study of his own m geology, and m deck dated from April 15, 1919, and the Diet consisted of 17 gist and eminent palaeontologist

‘Three years later he jomed the

governed by that State in accordance with a treaty of 1867

For former political conditions see Curtze, Geschichte und Beschreib~ newly organized US Geological Survey as assistant geologist. des Furstentums Waldeck (Arolsen, 1850), Lowe, Hewmatskunde He became director of the US Geological Survey in 1894 and in ung von Waldeck (Arolsen, 1887), J C. offmeister, Hzstoresch-

the next few years reorganized it and greatly extended its usefulness During the 13 years of his control the Reclamation Service, the Forestry Service and the Bureau of Mines were all founded

as branches of the Geological Survey, Walcott drawing up the

legislative enactments which created the first two, and shaping the organization of all of them He was appointed secretary of

genealogisches Handbuch uber alle Grajen und Fürsten von Waldeck

seit r228 (Cassel, 1883); Bottcher, Das Stagtsrecht des Furstentums Waldeck (Freiburg, 1884) ; A. Wagner, Die Geschichte Waldecks und Pyrmonts (Wildungen, 1888), and the Geschichtsblatter fur Waldeck und Pyrmont (Mengeringhausen, 1901, fol)

WALDECK-ROUSSEAU,

PIERRE MARIE RENE

the Smithsonian Institution in 1907 in which capacity he served ERNEST (1846-1904), French statesman, was born at Nantes 20 years (1907~27), directing its researches and broadening its on Dec 2, 1846 He studied law at Poitiers and in Paris and jomed scope He secured the addition of the Freer and National art gal- the bar of St Nazaire. In 1873 he removed to Rennes, and six leries as part of the greater institution. He was one of the founders years later was returned to the Chamber of Deputies, where he of the Carnegie Institute, its first secretary and administrative supported the policy of Gambetta. He made hus reputation in the officer, 1902-05, and a member of the executrve committee until Chamber by a report which he drew up in 1880 for the committee his death He was also active in the organization of the Federal appointed to inquire inta the French judicial system. He had a Research Council, serving afterwards as a member of the execu- large share in 1884 in securing the recogmition of trade unions. In 1881 he became minister of the interior in Gambetta’s grand tive committee He was responsible for the establishment of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and was its chair- ministére, and he held the same portfoho in the Jules Ferry cabinet of 1883-1885, when he sought to put down the system by man until his death His chief contribution to science lies in his full description and which civil posts were obtained through the local deputy, and he made it clear that the central authority could not be defied by local interpretation of the early Cambrian and Algonkian fauna With Arnold Hague he surveyed and worked out the great Paleozoic officials. He had begun to practise at the Paris bar m 1886, and in 1889 he did not seek re-election to the Chamber, but devoted himregion of central Nevada. He examined the Cambrian formation of the Appalachian belt and eastward, and began a determimation self to his legal work The most famous of the many noteworthy cases in which his cold and penetrating intellect and his power of of the Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks of the Western States. Almost every summer after 1907 he devoted to unearthing the clear exposition were retained was the defence of M. de Lesseps

Cambrian succession in the Rocky Mountains of Canada, where it is unusually complete. In 1910 he discovered the remarkable Burgess deposit of Cambrian fossils ın British Columbia, the finest invertebrate fossil field yet known He published a series of 38 octavo volumes on Cambrian geology

and palaeontology and two volumes on Cambrian Brachiopoda (1912), besıdes about 300 scientific papers See Smıthsoman Miscellaneous Collections, vol 80 (1928) for complete bibhography and memoir.

WALD, LILLIAN D. (:867_), American sociologist, was born at Cincinnati (O,) on March 10, 1867 She graduated from the New York Hospital trainmg school for nurses In 1893 she founded the Henry Street Settlement, now internationally known, and organized the district nursmg work in connection

with ıt The first municipalzation of school nursmg anywhere was due to her when she originated the work of the school nurse

in 1893 In 1894 he returned to political hfe as senator for the department of the Loire, and next year stood for the presidency of the republic against Félix Faure and Henri Bnsson, being supported by the Conservatives, who were soon to be his bitter enemies He received 184 votes, but retired before the second ballot to allow Faure to receive an absolute majority. During the poltical anarchy of the next few years he was recognized by the moderate republicans as the successor of Jules Ferry and Gambetta, and at the crisis of 1899 on the fall of the Dupuy cabinet he was asked by President Loubet to form a government. He formed a coalition cabinet which included M. Mille-

rand and General de Galliffet

He himself took the ministry of

the interior, and set to work to quell the discontent with which the country was seething, to put an end to the various agitations against republican institutions, and to restore independence to the

WALDEN— WALDENSES

288

judicial authority Hus efforts enabled the government to leave the second court-martial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes an absolutely free hand, and then to compromise the affair by granting a pardon to Dreyfus Waldeck-Rousseau won a great personal success in October by his successful intervention m the strikes at Le Creusot. With the condemnation in January 1900 of Paul Dérouléde and his monarchist and nationalist followers by the High Court the worst of the danger was past, and Waldeck-Rousseau kept order in Pans without having recourse to irritating displays of force The Senate was staunch in support of M Waldeck-Rousseau, and in the Chamber he displayed remarkable astuteness in winning support from various groups The Amnesty Bull, passed on Dec 10, chiefly through his unwearied advocacy, alleviated bitterness But the most important measure of his later administration was the Associations Bill of 1901. The royalist bias given to the pupils in the religious seminaries was undoubtedly a principal cause of the passing of this bill His speeches on the religious

question were published in 1901 under the title of Associations et congrégations, following a volume of speeches on Questions so-

ciales (1900). With the defeat, at the general election of 1902, of the machinations agaist the republic M Waldeck-Rousseau considered his task ended, and on June 3, 1902, he resigned office, having proved bumself the “strongest personality m French politics since the death of Gambetta” He emerged from his retirement to protest in the Senate against the construction put on bis Associations Bill by M. Combes, who refused in mass the applications of the teaching and preaching congregations for official recognition, He died on Aug 10, 1904. His speeches were pubbshed as Discours parlementaires (188 ); Pour la républsque, 1883-1903 (1904), edited by H. Leyret, L’Etat et la lberté (1906), and his Plaidoyers (1906, etc) were edited by H. Barboux. See also H. Leyret, Waldeck-Rousseau et la troisième rétublique (1908), and the article FRANCE History

WALDEN, PAUL

(1863-

_), Russian chemist, was born

at Livland on July 14 (O.S ), 1863; he studied at Riga, Leipzig and Munich. In 1885 he was appointed assistant in the physics department of the Riga polytechnic, and he successively held the posts of assistant in chemistry (1888), dozent (1892), professor of analytical and physical chemistry (1894) and ordmary professor of inorganic and physical chemistry (1896); m addition in 1902 he was made director of the polytechnic In Igto he was appointed director of the chemistry department of the science academy at St. Petersburg (Leningrad), then in I918 was made professor at the new German Hochschide in Riga, and finally in 1919 he became professor and director of the chemistry institute of the University of Rostock.

SECTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The name Waldenses was given to the members of an heretical

Christian sect which arose ın the south of France about rryo The history of the sects of the middle ages 1s obscure, because the earliest accounts of them come from those who were con. cerned in their suppression Later apologists of each sect reversed the process. In early times these sectaries produced little litera. ture of their own, when they produced a literature at the begin ning of the 15th century they attempted to clam for it a much earlier origin Hence there ıs confusion on every side The polemical conception which has done much to perpetuate this confusion is that of the historical contimuity of Protestantism from the earhest times According to this view the church was pure and uncorrupt till the time of Constantine, when Pope Sylvester gained the first temporal possession for the papacy, and so began the system of a rich, powerful and worldly church, with Rome for its capital. Agamst this secularized church a body of witnesses

silently protested, they were always persecuted but always survived, till in the 13th century a desperate attempt was made by Innocent III to root them out from their stronghold m southern France Persecution gave new vitality to their doctrines, which

passed on to Wycliffe and Huss, and through thése leaders produced the Reformation in Germany and England.

But, so far as can now be discovered the heretical sects of the middle ages rested upon a system resembling Manichaeism which was imported into Europe from the East (See ManicHartsy)

The Manichaean system of dualism, with its severe asceticism,

and its individualsm, which early passed into antinomuanism, was attractive to many minds in the awakening of the rrth century Its presence in Europe can be traced in Bulgana soon after its conversion in 862, where the struggle between the Eastern and Western churches for the new converts opened a way for the more hardy speculations of a system which had never entirely

disappeared, and found a home amongst the Paulicians (qv) in Armenia. The name of Cathari (see Catrars), taken by the adherents of this new teaching, sufficiently shows the Oriental origin of their opinions, which spread from Bulgana amongst the Slavs, and followed the routes of commerce into central Europe. The earliest record of their presence there is the condemnation of ten canons of Orleans as Manichees in Io22, and soon after this we find complaints of the prevalence of heresy in northern Italy and in Germany. The strongholds of these heretical opinions were the great towns, the centres of civilization, because there the growing sentiment of municipal independence, and the rise of a burgher class

through commerce, created a Walden is probably best known for the curious reaction known spirit of criticism directed against the worldly lhves of the clergy as the “Walden inversion” which he discovered in 1895 (See The system. of Catharism recognized two classes of adherents, CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC) An optically active compound generally credentes and perfecti. The perfects only were admitted to its yields a compound of the same sign as a result of a chemical esoteric doctrines and to its superstitious practices To the change, but Walden discovered exceptions to this rule, further ordinary men it seemed to be a reforming agency, insisting on a instances have since been brought to light. His other important high moral standard, and upholding the words of Scripture against work is on the electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of the traditions of an overgrown and worldly church. It may be organic acids and a comprehensive study of the conductance of said generally that Catharism formed the abiding background of non-aqueous solutions, with particular reference to viscosity. His mediaeval heresy Prevailing discontent, in conflict with authority more recent work deals with dielectric constants and other electrical properties of solutions He has written Das Lettvermigen generally ended by borrowing something from Catharsm The result was that in the begmning of the r3th century there was a der Lösungen and Elektrochemie mchtwasseriger Losungen WALDENBURG, a town in Silesia Pop (1925) 44,023 tendency to class all bodies of heretics together. Waldenburg, which became a town in 1426, lies ın the centre WALDENSIAN SECT of the productive coal district of the Waldenburger Gebirge, Most of these sects were stamped out before the period of the a branch of the Sudetic chain. Among other industrial estab- muddle ages came to a close The Waldenses, under thew more lishments are machme, brick, wire, furniture, porcelain and modern name of the Vaudois, survived into the roth century earthenware factories and a china-painting establishment; there in the valleys of Piedmont, and have been regarded as are also numerous flax-spinneries and linen-factories at once in the bourhood. To the south is the village of Oberwaldenburg, neigh- the most ancient and the most evangelical of the mediaeval sects pop It is, however, by no means easy to determine their original (1925) 4,546, with a château and some coal mines tenets, as in the 13th and 14th centuries they were a body of WALDENSES. The Waldensian valleys lie to of Turin, m the direction of Monte Viso, being the south-west obscure and unlettered Peasants, hiding themselves in a corner, fertile and well while in the 16th century they were merged wooded. The principal town near the valleys m the Reformation is Pinerolo (PigAlready in the gth century there were many protests against nerol), Just to its south-west there opens the chief Waldensian the rigidity and want of spirituality of a purely sacerdotal church valley, the Val Pellice, watered by the stream of that name, with Thus Berengar of Tours (999-1088 ) upheld the symbolic the čapital, Torre Pelle, acter of the Eucharist and the Superiority of the Buble charover

WALDENSES

289

tradition The Paterines in Mulan (1045) raised a protest against

judgments of the spiritual courts. Everywhere, and especially in the district round Toulouse, heretics were keenly prosecuted, and

cy and make them his allies in imposing clerical celibacy. In France, at Embrun, Peter de Bruys founded a sect known as

disappeared from the chief centres of population and took refuge

¿mony and other abuses of the clergy, and Pope Gregory VII. did not hesitate to enlist their Puritanism on the side of the before the continued zeal of persecution the Waldenses slowly

in the retired valleys of the Alps There, in the recesses of Piedmont, where the streams of the Pelice, the Angrogne, the Clusone and others cleave the sides of the Alps into valleys which converge at Susa, a settlement of the Waldensians was as Henncians, who centred in Tours. The teachers of these new made who gave their name to these valleys of the Vaudois In opinions were men of high character and holy lives, who in spite the more accessible regions north and south heresy was exposed of persecution wandered from place to place, and made many to a steady process of persecution, and tended to assume shifting converts from those who were dissatisfied at the want of clerical forms Among the valleys ıt was less easly reached, and retained disciphne which followed upon the struggle for temporal suprem- its old organization and ıts old contents Little settlements of acy mto which the reforming projects of Gregory VII had heretics dıspersed throughout Italy and Provence looked to the carried the church valleys as a place of refuge, and tacitly regarded them as the It was at this tume (1170) that a rich merchant of Lyons, centre of their fath At tımes attempts were made to suppress Peter Waldo, sold his goods and gave them to the poor; then the sect of the Vaudois, but the nature of the country which they he went forth as a preacher of voluntary poverty His followers, inhabited, their obscurity and their isolation made the difficulties the Waldenses, or poor men of Lyons, were moved bya religious of their suppression greater than the advantages to be gained feelng which could find no satisfaction within the actual system from it However, in 1487 Innocent VIII. issued a bull for their of the church, as they saw it before them Like St Francis, Waldo extermination, and Alberto de’ Capitanei, archdeacon of Cremona, adopted a life of poverty that he might be free to preach. He put himself at the head of a crusade against them. Attacked in had a translation of the New Testament made into Provençal, Dauphiné and Piedmont at the same time, the Vaudois were hard and his preachers explained the Scnptures Pope Alexander pressed; but luckily their enemies were encircled by a fog when It, who had approved of the poverty of the Waldensians, pro- marching upon their chief refuge in the valley of the Angrogne, Iubited them from preaching without the permission of the and were repulsed with great loss. After this Charles II, duke bishops (1179) Waldo answered that he must obey God rather of Piedmont, interfered to save his territories from further confusion, and promised the Vaudois peace They were, however, thanman He was excommunicated by Lucius JIT in 1184. sorely reduced by the onslaught Scattered bodies of Waldenses DIVISIONS OF WALDENSIAN BELIEF in Germany influenced, and afterwards joined, the Hussites and The earliest definite account given of Waldensian beliefs is the Bohemian Brethren. The last step in the development of the Waldensian body was that of the inquisitor Sacconi about 1250. (D’Argentré, Collectio gudiciorum de novis erroribus, i. 50, etc) He divides them into taken in 1530, when two deputies of the Vaudois in Dauphiné two classes, those north of the Alps and those of Lombardy. and Provence, Georges Morel and Pierre Masson, were sent to The first class hold (1) that oaths are forbidden by the gospel, confer with the German and Swiss Reformers A letter addressed (2) that capital punishment is not allowed to the civil power, to Oecolampadius gives an account of their practices and behefs (3) that any layman may consecrate the sacrament of the altar, at that time, and shows us a simple and unlettered community, and (4). that the Roman Church is not the Church of Christ which was the survival of an attempt to form an esoteric

Petrobrusians, who denied mnfant baptism, the need of consecrated

churches, transubstantiation, and masses for the dead A follower of us, a monk, Henry, gave the name to another body known

The Lombard sect went farther in (3) and (4), holding that no one in ‘mortal sin could consecrate the sacrament, and that the Roman Church was the scarlet woman of the Apocalypse, whose precepts ought not to be obeyed, especially those appointing fast-days This account sufficiently shows the difference of the Waldenses from the Cathari: they were opposed to asceticism and had no official priesthood, at the same time their objection to oaths and to capital punishment are closely related to the principles of the Cathari

These opinions were subversive of the system of the mediaeval church, and were viewed with disfavour by its officials ‘The earliest known document proceeding from the Waldensians is an account of a conference held at Bergamo in 1218 between the ultramontane and the Lombard divisions, m which the Lombards showed a greater opposition to the recognized priesthood than did their northern brethren (Preger, Bestrage zur Geschichte

der Waldenster.) ATTEMPTS AT SUPPRESSION The spread of these heretical sects led to resolute attempts at their suppression The crusade against the Albigensians could destroy prosperous cities and hand over lands from a heedless lord to one who was obedient to the church; but it could not get rid of heresy. The revival of preaching, which was the work of the order of St Domnnic, did more to combat heresy, especially where its persuasions were enforced by law. The work of inquisition into cases of heresy proceeded slowly in the hands of the bishops, who were too busy with other matters to find much time for sitting in judgment on theological points about which they were imperfectly informed. The greatest blow struck against heresy was the transference of the duty of inquiry into heresy from the bishops to Dominican mqusitors The secular power, which shared in the proceeds of the confiscation of those who were found guilty of heresy, was ready to help in carrying out the

religious society within the mediaeval church, It would appear that its members received the sacraments of baptism and the holy communion from the regular priesthood, at all events sometimes, but maintained a discipline of their own and held services for their own edification, largely dependent on the work of itinerant preachers. After giving an account of themselves they asked for information about several points in a way which showed the exigencies of a rude and isolated society, and finally they said that they had been much disturbed by the Lutheran teaching about freewill and predestination, for they had held that men did good works through natural virtue stimulated by God’s grace, and they thought of predestination in no other way than as a part of God’s foreknowledge. Oecolampadius gave them further instruction, especially emphasizing the wrongfulness of their outward submission to the ordinances of the church. “God,” he said, “is a jealous God, and does not permit His elect to put

themselves under the yoke of Antichrist” The result of this intercourse was an alliance between the Vaudois and the Swiss and German Reformers. A synod was held in 1532 at Chanforans in the valley of the Angrogne, where a new confession of faith was adopted, which recognized the doctrine of election, assimilated the practices of the Vaudois to those of the Swiss congregations, renounced for the future all recognition of the Roman communion, and established their own worship no longer as secret meetings of a faithful few but as public assemblies for the glory of God THE VAUDOIS AND PROTESTANTISM Thus the Vaudois ceased to be relics of the past, and became absorbed in the general movement of Protestantism. This was not, however, a source of quiet or security In France and Italy alke they were marked out as special objects of persecution, and the Vaudois church has many records of martyrdom. The

most severe trial to which the Vaudois of Piedmont were subjected occurred in 1655

The Congregation de Propaganda Fide

290

WALDERSEE—-WALES

established. m 1650, a local council in Turin, which exercised a powerful influence on Duke Charles Emmanuel II., who ordered that the Vaudois should be reduced within the limits of their ancient terntory. Fanaticism took advantage of this order; and an army, composed partly of French troops of Louis XIV.,

Brstiocrapay —Modern

critical study starts with J. J Dolunger

Beitrage zur Secktengeschichte des Mittelalters (1890) and E Combo, Histowe des Vaudots (1898) See also H. Lea, History of tke Ingus.

tzon mm the Middle Ages, J Chevaber, Mémoires sur les Héréses en Dauph:né

(1886); W

(1890), J A Chabrand, Vaudots et Protestants des Alpes

F Adeney, art “Waldenses” in Hastings, Encyclopedia

partly of Irish soldiers who had fled before Cromwell, entered the of Rehgzon and Ethzcs, W, A Coohdge, artıcles m The Guardian for Vaudois valleys and spread destruction on every side. They August 18, 1886, and December 4, 1889 treated the people with horrible barbarity, so that the conscience WALDERSEE, ALFRED, Count (1832-1904), Prussian of Europe was aroused, and England under Cromwell called on field marshal, made his first campaign (that of 1866) as aide. the Protestant powers to join ın remonstrance to the duke of de-camp to General of Artillery Prince Charles of Prussia, with Savoy and the French king The pen of Milton was employed whom he was present at Koniggratz In the Franco-German War for this purpose, and his famous sonnet 1s but the condensation he was present at Metz and jomed the staff of the grand duke of of his state papers Sir Samuel Morland was sent on a special Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who was operating against Chanzy’s army mission to Turm, and to him were confided by the Vaudois leaders on the Lor In 1881 Waldersee became Moltke’s principal assist. copies of their religious books, which he brought back to England, ant at Berlin He succeeded Moltke as chief of the general staf and ultimately gave to the university brary at Cambridge Large in 1888, and during the Boxer insurrection in China in 1900, he sums of money were contributed in England and elsewhere, and was placed in command of the

were sent to the suffering By this demonstration between the Vaudois and erous peace, and left the

lished among them

Vaudois of opmion peace was made for a time their persecutors, but it was a treachVaudois with a hostile garrison estab-

‘Their worship was prohibited,

and their

chief pastor, Leger, was obliged to flee, and in his exile at Leyden

jommt forces

He arnved, however,

too late for the fighting before Peking. He died on March 5, 1904,

WALDO,

SAMUEL

LOVETT

(1783-1861), American

artist, born in Windham, Connecticut, April 6, 1783 He began with a studio in Charleston, South Carolina In 1806 he went to London, where he painted portraits for some years with success In 1809 he returned to New York, and was a conspicuous figure in the city’s art hfe until his death there on the 16th of February

wrote his Historre générale des éghses vaudowses (1684), The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 began a new period 1861 He became an associate of the National Academy in 1847 of persecution, which aimed at entire extermination This was Among his works are a series of portraits of the early mayors of found so difficult that the remnant of the Vaudois, to the number of 2,600, were at last allowed to withdraw to Geneva. But the New York, now im the New York City Hall, a portrait of Peter Remsen, in possession of the New York Historical Society, and love of their native valleys was strong among the exes, and in two portraits of John Trumbull. 1689 one of their pastors, Henr: Arnaud, led a band of 800 men to the reconquest of their country. His first attempts against the French were successful; and the rupture between Victor

Amadeus, duke of Savoy, and Loms XIV

brought a sudden

change of fortune to the Vaudois. They were recognized once more as citizens of Savoy, and in the war against France which broke out in 1696 the Vaudois regiment did good service for its duke. The peace of Utrecht saw the greater part of the French territory occupied by the Vaudois annexed to Savoy, and, though there were frequent threatenings of persecution, the idea of toleration slowly prevailed in the policy of the house of Savoy The Vaudois, who had undergone all these vicissitudes, were naturally reduced to poverty, and.their ministers were partially maintained by a subsidy from England, which was granted by Queen Anne, The 18th century, however, was a time of religious decadence

even among the Alpine valleys, and the outbreak of the French

revolution saw the Vaudois made subjects of France. This led to a loss of the English subsidy, and they appled to Napoleon for an equivalent, It was granted, and their church was organized

by the state, On the restoration of the house of Savoy in 1816 English influence was used on behalf of the Vaudois, who received

a limited toleration. From that time onwards the Vaudois became the objects of much interest in Protestant countries, Large sums of money were collected to buld hospitals and churches among their valleys, and they were looked upon as the possible centre of a Protestant church in Italy. Especially from England did they receive sympathy and help An English clergyman, Dr. Gilly, visited the valleys in 1823, and by his writings on the Vaudois church attracted considerable attention, so that he was enabled ta build a college at La Torre. Moreover, Dr Gilly’s book (A

Vasit to the Valleys of Piedmont), chancing to fall’mto the hands

of an officer who had lost his leg at Waterloo, Colonel Beckwith, suggested an object for the energies of one who was loth at the

age of twenty-six to sink into enforced idleness

Beckwith visited

the valleys, and was painfully struck by the squalor and ignorance of a people who had so glorious a past He settled among them, and for thirty-five years devoted himself to promoting their wel-

fare. During this period he established no fewer than 120 schools,

moreover he brought back the Italan language which had been displaced by the French in the services of the Vaudois church, and in 1849 built a church for them in Turm He lived in La Torre till his death in 1862, and the name of the English benefactor is still revered by the simple folk of the valleys,

WALDSTEIN, FERDINAND,

Count (1762-1823), the

youngest son of Graf Waldstein und Wartemburg von Lux, was born on March 24, 1762. At Bonn, Beethoven received encouragement from this young nobleman, whom he immortalized by dedıcating to him his opus 53, afterwards known as the “Waldstein” sonata A theme of Count Waldstein’s also served for a set of 12 variations for piano duet, written by Beethoven in I7QI Or 1792

Waldstem died on Aug 29, 1823

WALENSEE, also called the Lake of WALLENSTADT, a Swiss

Jake It is formed by the Seez river, which now enters the lake at its eastern end Near its western end the Linth has been dr verted through the Escher canal (completed in 1811) into the

lake, from which it soon again issues in order, by means of the

Linth canal (completed in 1816), to flow into Lake Zurich The Walensee has an area of 9 sqm, It is 495 ft deep, and its surface is 1,388 ft above sea-level. On the northern shore rises the seven-peaked range of the Kurfursten (7,576 ft) On the south side are the crags of Murtschenstock (8,012 ft.)

WALES, PRINCE OF: see Epwarp, Prince or WALES, WALES. The principality of Wales (Cymru, Gwalia, Cam-

bria) mm Great Britain has an area of 4,780,470 ac and a population (1931) of 2,158,193, Its maximum length from north to south is 136 m., while its breadth varies between 92 m from St David’s head to the English border near Crickhowell, and 37 m.m central Wales between Aberystwyth and the Shropshire boundary Structure and Physical Features—Wales

is a hill country

composed almost entirely of Palaeozoic rocks much dissected by deep valleys, The portion of the central highland mass above

2,000 ft, 1s sharply worn by deep cut cirques and is ın marked con-

trast to the more rounded hills below that elevation. Anglesey is a remnant of a very ancient land mass that formed the nucleus against which the mountains of Carnarvonshire were thrown up as

Palaeozoic Wales in its turn the newer geological deposits down ribs of the ancient land land between slightly lawer

became the old block against which of England were built up, The womin Anglesey (Môn) stıll run as moor-

lmes of marsh,

One of these lower

north-east to south-west lines forms the picturesque Menai strait with Carboniferous layers along its edges It is, as 1t were, the structural trough between the old block and the folds The great

north-east to south-west mountain line of Carnarvonshire (q.v)

culminates in Snowdon (3,560 ft ), the highest mountain in England and Wales. Carnedd Dafydd (3,426 ft.) and Carnedd Llewel-

WALES

SETTLEMENT]

29I

iyn (3,484 ft) are especially marked. The mountain line tapers out south-westward to the peninsula of Lleyn, which has some hills of crystalline rock, and ends in the Island of Bardsey (Ynys

as the only fimt available in it was that derived from boulder

minating n Moel Siabod (2,860 ft ) The Snowdon country js in-

flint chipping floors with mplements of early type but unknown date Among the early dnfts there came to Wales survivals of what appeared to be Aurignacian types of men still to be found

Clay belonging to an ice sheet that worked its way south from

Scotland down into Cardigan bay People appear to have dnfted Enlh)—the isle of the saints A. low line running north-east to to Wales finding forest free spots on the windswept tops of the south-west cuts off the main range from another lofty group cul- lower moorland and along the shore where ın several places occur

terspersed with Jakes those in the valley bottoms—long and deep

_-show evidences of glacial as well as structural factors and con-

trast markedly with the smaller, rounder, darker lakes of the

cirques To the south in Merionethshure, is the so-called Harlech dome

The southern section of this volcanic tract 1s marked off by

a region of faults. The major fault runs from Corwen to Bala and thence to the sea

Idns (2,927 ft)

It 1s best known as the Bala Cleft

Aran Mawddwy

Cader

(2,970) and Arenig (2,800)

are conspicuous peaks To the east and south, there stretches a vast plateau of crumpled guts and shales ın an endless succession of rounded hills from Denbighshire around to north Pembrokeshire Plynlymon (2,468

ft) 1s among the higher pomts of this central moorland

The re-

gion ıs covered to a great extent by boulder clay giving a cold, wet subsoil with many bogs and consequently able to support only a small population To the south and east of this crescent plateau of pre-carbonferous rocks lies the country of the Old Red Sandstone and the coal measures ‘This region is more varied in rehef with out-

standing hills of sandstone lke Radnor forest (2,163 ft.) or

the steep scarp of the Brecknock Beacons (2,907 ft ), the Black mountains or the volcanic rocks of the Breidden The coal measure country has become very distinct from the rest of Wales in many respects, whether we consider the belt on the English border in Flint and Denbigh or the great coalfield of

in remote moorland areas such as Plynlymon and the Black mountain region of Carmarthenshire. These people have dark hair and eyes with long, ngh-ndged heads, big eyebrows and rather prominent mouths A very much larger element m the Welsh population are the little dark people with dark hair and eyes and rather long heads and slender build

These represent early drifts from

south-west Europe by land and sea. Wales, with its volcanic rocks in the north-west and the south-west, was more attractive to people who had learnt the art of polishing stone and the principality has yielded many beautiful examples of polished stone axes. A proportion of the population on coastal patches in south Glamorganshire, north-west Pembrokeshire, Ardudwy and elsewhere, belongs to a type with broad head, strong jaws, with very dark hair and often strong, tall build. Similar people occur on many of the coastal patches of south-west and western Europe and represent emigrants or traders of the early ages of metal. In several, though not in all cases, this type occurs in regions with megalithic monuments, and these are important in the projecting peninsulas of north-west and south-west Wales The stone circle seems to have been of special sigmficance in west Wales, as recent evidence has shown that the stones of the inner circle at Stonehenge were originally derived from northwest Pembrokeshire (See H H Thomas, “The Source of the Stones of Stonehenge” Antiquaries Jour Vol III p 239, 1923) The arrival of large numbers of Beaker folk at the dawn of the age of metal in Yorkshire and East Anglia does not seem to have influenced Wales to any great extent, although there are evidences

South Wales The latter 1s oval in form, becoming narrower at its western end in Pembrokeshire Geologically it is a syncline within which the hard bands of Pennant grit stand out above the deeply incised valley-ways Numerous streams flow nght across the coalfields in long, narrow, steep-sided valleys that of their culture along the south Wales coastal plain and in the hmit possibilities of settlement and communication. Many of north The Bala Cleft has yielded many examples of the broadthe resulting problems, both industrial and social, have been very headed, fair tall type with arched skull and deep-set eyes that difficult (See RHONDDA) The south side of the coalfield known is associated with Beaker burials in England and the Continent. for the most part as the Vale of Glamorgan has Tnassic and The movement of Bronze swordsmen through western Europe to Liassic rocks with much fertile soul Britain and Ireland ın the later Bronze age is thought by some to The south coastal plain of Wales is broken by the sea giving be responsible for the spread of the Gaelic languages now survivCarmarthen and Swansea bays The north Wales coasthne 1s low ing in Ireland, the Hebrides and north-west Scotland, it apparwestwards from the Dee estuary, but Great Orme’s head, a penin- ently had relatively httle influence in Wales The movement of the sula of Carboniferous limestone, stands out, as does the igneous La Téne culture from the Continent to Britain in the last cenrock of Penmaenmawr farther west The coasts of Lleyn are turies B c are usually associated with the spread of Brythonic Celrocky, as many of the mountain lines die away to the sea The tic speech, the foundation of the Welsh language This movement former low ridges between the valleys run out to sea as partly sub- entered Wales very likely just before or during Roman times along valleys stretching up from the English plain and probably along merged causeys. They are known locally as Sarnau. South-west Wales sends out hard, resistant bands of old rock the coastal plams as well. The newcomers appear to have to form numerous headlands, the softer rock between being worn strengthened the Nordic, or tall, fair, long-headed elements in the population, and it is to this period that we can ascribe many away to form small bays in the coast of north Pembrokeshire In south Pembrokeshire we have a coast with the great sub- hill-top fortresses that guard the lower slopes of the Welsh moormerged valley or ria of Milford Haven There are evidences of lands It is thought that the builders of these hill-top camps were subsidence along the south Wales coast in the west; submerged native peoples in some fairly peaceful relation with the Romans, forests are recovered from Amroth The rivers may be said and in Cardiganshire their influence was strong where the traces to fan out to sea from the interior highland mass In the north of Roman work are weak. In post-Roman centuries Wales, in common with most of westwe have the Clwyd and the Conway. On the west the Dwyryd, Mawddach, Dyfi, Rheidol, Ystwyth, Teifi, and on the south the ern Europe, entered difficult trmes ‘There were several invasions eastern and western Cleddau, the Taf, Towy, Loughor, Nedd of Brythonic tribes many of which have become known as the sons (Neath), Taf and Wysg (Usk) It is these radiating valleys, of Cunedda Welsh folk tale illustrates culture-clashes between or rather those of them which are more shut off from the English iron-armed people of the valleys and older populations on the influences working along the coastal plains, that are the special moorlands and one suspects that these are the clashes of prehomes of the Welsh heritages The interior Inghland mass is Roman times coloured by those of post-Roman centuries. The indramed also by rivers which fall to the lowlands of the English fluerice of the sea again became important. Raiders of mixed anborder—the Dee, Severn and Wye, and these valleys have offered cestry, but mainly Irish, landed not infrequently on the northern opportunities for contacts between English and Welsh. and western shores, while it is claimed that an invasion of the Peoples and Settlement.—The earliest traces of man in Irish Deisi entered south-west Wales in the 3rd century ap This influence was at work in peace as well as in war as 1s shown by the Wales are known from Paviland cave in the Gower which seems to have been inhabited ın the later Palaeolithic age. As pine for- Celtic saint movements of the sth and 6th centuries Old links ests spread with the return of a somewhat milder climate after the with the west—with Ireland, Cornwall, Brittany and north-west Glacial period, Wales was inhospitable to early man, especially Spain—became again important, resulting among other things in

292

WALES

focusing the country’s ecclesiastical traditions at St David's (gu) The subsequent centuries saw simular raids from Scandinavian peoples who had settled in Ireland and the Western isles Many Scandinavian place names are still found on the coastal patches especially in south Pembrokeshire and south Glamorganshire New peoples entered Wales, not only from the western seas, but also along her landward frontier. The ways that led into the country through the gaps that were guarded by Chester in the north, Ludlow and Shrewsbury in the centre and Gloucester im the south, became henceforth the main entries of new cultures The Norman conquest provided Wales with new elements in 1ts population. Districts in south Pembrokeshire and the Gower peninsula seem to have been systematically colonized with Flemings by Henry I. and Henry II. In subsequent centuries Wales received immigrants from the

Continent to those areas where weaving was important. Population.—In 1931 the total population of the principality was 2,158.193 The sparseness of mhabitants on the hill pastures and the crowding of the coalfield has made the distribution of population very uneven The density per square mile (1931) was 1,546-5 in Glamorganshire, while in the hill-pastures it falls to 50 (e g ) in Radnorshire.

Among pilgrim routes to Santiago da Compostella (gv) the maritime one from Ireland via Wales, Cornwall and Brittany was important, and 1t seems to have been also a survival or revival of a

prehistoric route of trade By the Renaissance the Roman Church had gathered into itself and assimilated all the earlier ritual, and the Anglican Church did not replace it completely in rural Wales The strongholds of Anglicamsm were in the smail castle-towns of the coastal plains The mass of the population of moorland Wales long retained its mediaeval ideas Early Puritanism appeared m

those regions that had the closest associations with the English

plains and particularly in those regions that had specialized m weaving. Such districts attracted refugees from the Continent Radnorshire became an early centre of the Quakers and Baptists, Montgomeryshire of the Independents, while in the weaving centres of the south Wales coastal plains early Puritanism was de-

veloped especially by the Independents

Area | Popu- | Popu- | Popu-

msq | lation | lation | lation miles | 1871 IQOI 1931

Anglesey (Ynys Môn) Breconshire (Bry-

cheiniog)

276 0j

51,040)

733°3|

59:901]

Cardiganshire (Abertefi) 692 3) 73:441| Carmarthenshire (Caerfyrddm) 918 4} 136,710] Carnarvonshire (Arfon) | 571-8} 106,121] Denbighshire (Dinbych) 665 7| 105,102] Fhnt (Fflint) 254°7| 76,312] Glamorganshire (Mor-

ganwg)

Merionethshire

(Mer

rionydd)

Montgomeryshire

(Drefaldwyn)

Pembrokeshire (Ben-

792 6) 397:859]

poy.

Pa

931

50,606]

49,025)

1779

54,273]

57,771)

787

61,078]

55,164}

782

135,328! 125,649!

179,063] 120,810]

194-9 211 2

131,582] 81,485}

157,645} 112,849]

2368 443°0

850,931|1,225,713] 1546°5

650°4|

46,598]

48,852)

43,198]

65°5

797°9|

67,623;

54,901]

48,462}

608

and the Baptists who

seem to have been specially selected for persecution and whose early chapels are in several cases in remote spots They seem io

have entered regions in south-west Wales (e g, North-west Pem-

brokeshire) that were sparsely populated in the middle ages, a

movement

County

[RELIGION

in the r2th century to gain ecclesiastical independence for Wales are an echo of the marked individuality of the Celtic traditions

that seems

to have been associated with the intro-

duction of root crops. The Methodist revival of the 18th century,

mainly through the influence of the Welsh language, affected chiefly the moorland regions of Wales Henceforth the country was predominantly Nonconformist In 1910 it was estimated that there were 550,280 full members of the Nonconformust Churches as against 193,081 members of the Anglican Church In 1914 the Bull for the Disestabhshment and Disendowment of the Church of England in Wales was passed It provided that the secularized portion of the endowment of the Church should be applied to specified national purposes, mainly educational, and a financial amendment in the direction of compensation to the Church was passed in 1919 Under the new Constitution (1922) the supreme authority of the “Church in Wales” was vested mn a governing body, representative of the clergy and laity The area that came under the jurisdiction of this body became known as the province of Wales, with an archbishopric, established for the time being at St. Asaph Two new dioceses were created, namely Monmouth (1921) and Brecon and Swansea ( 1923) out of

the older dioceses of Llandaff and St David's respectively. The ecclesiastical province of Wales contains (1928) six dioceses; Bangor in the north-west, St. Asaph in the north-east, St David's Total 17:446 O11,217,135|1,714,800|2,158,193 in the south-west, while the populous area of the south-east is shared between Swansea and Brecon (Gancluding the almost entirely Cardiff (223,648); Swansea (164,825) and Rhondda (141,344) have aver 100,000 inhabitants, Merthyr Tydfil (71,099) exceeds rural counties of Brecon and Radnor), Llandaff and Monmouth Roman Catholicism is still strong here and there in the border 50,000; and Llanelly, Aberdare, Barry, Caerphilly Gelhgaer, counties, especially Flintshire In most cases it survives ım conLiwebwr, Maesteg, Mountain Ash Neath, Ogmore and Garw, Junction with mediaeval landed families Since the last half of Pontypridd and Port Talbot exceed 25,000 All these centres are the roth century 1t has flounshed exceedingly in the south Wales on the south Wales coalfield Religion.—Classical references to religious cults in pre-Roman industnal regions, especially among the immigrants of Irish descent. Since the expulsion of the religious orders from France in Britain have been the pretext for much conjecture as to the na- 1903, Several communities of French monks and nuns have taken ture of the pre-Christian rehgions of Wales. All that can be said up their abode in the principality With the exception of Glamoris that the island of Anglesey seems to have had a tradition of ganshire, the principality is in the diocese of Menevia There 1s special sanctity The post-Roman centuries were characterize d by a revival of prehistoric conditions in the west and although a Roman Catholic archbishop at Cardiff, whose diocese includes Glamorganshire, Monmouthshire and Herefordshire Christianity reached here very early the salient feature is its The majority of the followers of the Methodist revival moveclose associations with the previously existing traditions. The ment of the 18th century in Wales form the Calvinistic Methodist church of Yspytty Cynfyn in north Cardiganshire is bult within Church of Wales which is especially strong in the north and west what was once a stone circle and observers have recorded many of the country. Its churches are usually strongholds circular churchyards in Wales. The spread of the Celtic of the Welsh saints or language, although it includes many churches preachers of Christianity from Ireland to Wales, Cornwall, in which English Brit- is used in *he cersiccs Te is organized under the Cymanfa tany and many parts of the Continent helped to make St. David’s Cyfredinol (general assemDiv) which meets annually and elects {g.v.) important, It stands at the convergence of a routes from little landing places on a storm-washed number of a moderator There gre "wo synods (Cymdeithasfa) representing peninsula. respectively the north and south of the country. The itinerant Celtic saints established many small The indivıdual cells or churches churches are grouped into a Cwrdd Dosparth, and the latter mto im Wales, many of which still bear the founder’s name in their a larger unit the Cwrdd Misol. The Calvinistic dedication. From the 7th century onwards the Methodist Church power of the Ro- is affihated to the Presbyterian Church of England Other folman Church grew and the older Welsh traditions nominally under its sway. The attempts of Giralduswere brought lowers of the Methodist revival are members of the Wesleyan Cambrensis Methodist Church; its churches, with Welsh Services, are organ-

To

613°6)

Radnorshire (Faesyfed) | 470-6}

91,998) 25,430)

87,894) 23,281

87,179} 21,314}

1420

45°2

ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS]

WALES

293

ied under a conference which is in several points distinct from

sons to the square mile The same causes, which have given Welsh and coals their superiority, have also made mining m this area more the Enghsh conference of this Church The Independents Baptists have each a union (Undeb) for Wales, but retam many costly and dangerous than in other parts of Bntam. Welsh coal connections with the corresponding unions of England In the last 1s dry and fiery and the fine coal dust 1s a constant source of two organizations each church is a self-governing unit danger Loose-joited coal and loose or rotten roof, more frequent (E G Bow) in South Wales mines than elsewhere, are responsible for numerUniversity. (See Untversitirs)—The university was ous accidents accompanied by loss of hfe. For these reasons, founded by charter in 1893, and re-organised with a supple- the output per man is less than the average for the rest of Britain. mental charter in 1920 It now consists of the four university But the superior quality of South Wales coal commands a price colleges at Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, and Swansea The which balances the extra cost of production majority of the members of the governmg body are elected by Since there is practically no choice of occupation, chronic county and county-borough councils im Wales and Monmouth- unrest is almost mevitable, especially m times of trade depression. shire, which councils support the university by the levy of rates The rapid development of the fuel resources of all countries for the purpose All the main branches of cultural education are during the war years and the consequent keen competition for provided for, and some special attention is given to Celtic studies markets, have seriously affected export Smce 1923 unemployand to music The National school of medicine is at Cardhff. ment and “short time” have been prevalent and have entailed During recent years at all the four centres new buildings for great hardship and suffering In Dec. 1927 the number of miners mstruction and research and for the social activities of the employed in the coalfield was 177,700 as compared with 220,200 students have been erected Extramural studies have been strongly at work in 1924. The output of coal in 1927 was 45,500,000 tons developed throughout Wales In addition to the regular financial as compared with 56,830,000 tons raised in 1913. In 1927 134 support mentioned above, since 1910 there have been benefactions pits were closed down and at tumes the number of unemployed coal to the extent of a capital value of over £380,000. The total num- workers in South Wales has reached 100,000. (A.L Wr) In no part of Britain is the need for the “decentralization of ber of students 1s nearly 3,000. industry” more urgent than in the South Wales coalfield. In the ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS last five years research committees have considered schemes of Wales and Monmouthshire form an area, approximately one- large scale town-planning in anticipation of further development seventh of England and Wales One-half of the land reaches an and also with a view to altering the present distribution of the

altitude of 600 ft above sea-level, while one-half of this exceeds 1,000 ft This nature of the country enabled its inhabitants to mamtain a distinct political existence for centuries after the Englısh lowlands had become subject to one authority. It was not until the 19th century that the traditional isolation of Wales began to be profoundly affected by the development of railways. World competition is now operative to the embarrassment of local industries previously protected by the isolation of the local market Despite present indications of slackening in the rate of rural depopulation in Wales, due to the depressed condition of industry, the movement constitutes a most urgent problem. The Industrial Revolution in Wales.—In 1801 Wales and Monmouthshire had a population of 587,245, fairly evenly distributed over the land as the vast majority of the people were engaged in agriculture or in related occupations As the mdustrial revolution developed, and particularly after 1841, the rural exodus, accompanied by the decay of many industries which had supplemented the earnings of agriculture, led to an enormous concentration of population in the iron and coal producing valleys

population. These schemes include the creation of new urban centres in the coastal region to accommodate a large proportion of the population of the mining valleys This would require a

great extension of the means of communication, the development of cheap and rapid transport and the rise of manufacturing industries of a general character which would absorb an appreciable part of the coal output and provide variety in employment Iron and Copper.—Pnior to 1870 the leadimg place in the economic development of South Wales was held by the iron industry Along the northern edge of the coalfield plentiful and readily accessible supplies of coal, iron ore and limestone occurred in close proximity Consequently, in the first half of the x9th century a narrow upland tract, extendmg for about 20 m from Pontypool and Blaenavon to Hirwain, with its chief centre at Merthyr-Dowlais, became the greatest iron producing region in the world The invention of processes for the large scale manufacture of steel and the resulting demand for mcher and purer iron ores than those found in the coalfield, caused many of those works to be closed or to be transferred to the seaboard. Merthyr of south-east Wales; eventually nine out of the 13 counties in- Tydfil, once the largest town in Wales, which in 1831 exceeded cluded in Wales and Monmouthshire suffered an actual decrease in population the aggregate of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea, is in population By reason of the variety and superior quality of steadily dechning owing to these changes; in some of the old mits output and because of its close proximity to tidal waters, the land centres, such as Ebbw Vale, Rhymney and Dowlais, the manuSouth Wales coalfield became from 1881 the chief coal-exporting facture of iron in specialized forms 1s still actively maintamed On the south-west of the coalfield the hill country extends to the region of the world In the record year 1913 the output of the coalfield was 56,- coast line and in many places coal is mined within a short dis830,000 tons and the number of mmers was nearly a quarter of tance of tidal water This is the anthracite region and since 1910 a million Normally over 70% of the output is carried away by 90% of Bntish anthracite, the great bulk of which is exported, sea, about 45% passing through Cardiff alone, which has increased has been raised in South Wales in population since 1841 at the rate of 10,000 for every additional The western ports, Llanelly, Swansea and Port Talbot, are not milhon tons of coal shipped annually from the port. According only centres of the coal export trade but their favourable situto the latest official returns (193z census) the population of ation has enabled them to develop great metallurgical industries Wales and Monmouthshire was 2,593,014, of which well over the success of which depends upon supplies of cheap fuel Of these 50% (1,660,534) was concentrated mm the two counties of Glam- the earhest and long the most important was the smelting of copper; Swansea became the centre of the world production of organ (1,225,713) and Monmouth (434,821). : Welsh Coal Mining.—The miming valleys of South Wales copper Before the end of the roth century, however, copper ores present difficulties They are narrow, with swift-running streams came to be generally smelted at the mines but refining processes and precipitous mountain slopes, they are in some cases prac- are still carried on in the Swansea area which has also continued tically cul-de-sacs deeply trenched in the bleak and infertile to increase the output of metallurgical products originating in the uplands The level ground is occupied by roads, railways, canals early copper industry. The refining of nickel, imported m a crude and the surface works of the collieries, and the hillsides are used state from Canada, is a new and flourishing industry. Tin-plate, Oil Refining.—In the last quarter of the roth as waste tips. There 1s little room for houses and the congestion 1s often very great. In the Rhondda valleys, where the best steam century the manufacture of tin plates and of galvanized iron coal is mined and which have a population of 162,729, the density became localized very largely in this region. This resulted from of population in the area actually built upon 1s about 23,000 per- | the establishment of steel works in the coastal section of the coal-

294

WALES

field, aided by the discovery that sheet steel was to be preferred to iron in the making of tin plates Over 90% of the export trade of British tm plates is concentrated i the port of Swansea, which in 1927 shipped 440,000 tons of tin plates and terne plates valued at £9.500.000 Owing to their high reputation, Welsh tin plates are imported into every country in the world, often in spite of high protective tariffs. More than 90% of the zinc smelted in Bnitain 1s produced in the Swansea district. (spelter works). The zinc 1s chiefly used in the making of alloys, brass, bronze, etc, but scarcely less important is the industry of manufacturing galvanized iron by coating iron plates with zinc. In 1927 721,000 tons of galvanized won sheets were exported from Swansea The establishment of the oil refinery of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company at Skewen, near Swansea, has increased the trade of the port of Swansea by about 2,250,000 tons annually Dea? North Wales.—North Wales is more closely related in its economic life to Lancashire and the Midlands than to South Wales, for east to west routes are far more practicable than from north to south in Wales. The North Wales coalfield lies in the counties of Flint and Denbigh and extends for about 40 m from south to north along the Dee valley. Although extensive, ut 1s far less rich and varied in its output than the South Wales field. The annual output remains fairly constant at about 3,500,000 tons The coal obtained is used chiefly for domestic purposes and for gas manufacture, the Cannel coal of Flntshire being specially reputed for its gas producing qualities. Thus, as the North Wales coal industry depends maynly upon the home market, 1t has suf-

fered relatively less in recent years than the South Wales coalfield from the intense depression of the coal export trade However, owing to excellent transport facilities by road, rail and canal, and the proximity of tidal water a great vanety of mdustries has developed in this region and new ones are continually rising. In the inter-censal period 1911-1921 the proportional increase of population was higher in Flintshire (14-8%) than in any county of England and Wales, being 1% higher than that of Monmouthshire, which came second, and 2% higher than Glamorganshire which was in the third place It ıs noteworthy that the rapid development of road transport in the same period has effectually checked the tendency towards the concentration of the workers Large numbers of them are conveyed by road from their homes in the villages and rural areas to the factories and works The first iwon works ın Wales was established at Bersham near Wrexham (1701) and the metal industries of the area continue to be of great importance, the manufacture of iron and steel, of galvanized iron and tin plates is carried on at several centres There are shipyards and engineering works while the chief centre of the fine chemical industry in Wales is at Ruabon which is also famous for the production of terra cotta. Woollen, paper and artificial slk mills, having the most modern equipment, are found at Holywell and Flint North-west Wales (Carnarvon and Merioneth) is the principal seat of the Welsh slate-quarrying industry, of which the chief centres are Bethesda, Llanberis, Nantlle and Festiniog

This indus-

try is steadily reviving after the depression of the war years through the extensive use of modern machmery and of electric power and the utilization of the waste dumps for the production of commodities of commercial value. The annual output of Welsh slate is about 250,000 tons, valued at £2,000,000 The minerals of North Wales, excluding coal, give employment to about 33,000 workers and are valued approximately at £4,000,000 a year There is a rapid growth of hydro-electric enterprise In 1907 the Aluminium Corporation laid down plant for the manufacture of aluminium at Dolgarrog and eventually combined with the North Wales Power company to provide electric power and light for North Wales. With Government support, schemes were undertaken which were estimated to cost £2,000,000 and already three great power stations have been established The power will tend to revive languishing local industries and to check rural depopulation Large towns outside Wales, notably Liverpool, Birkenhead and Birmingham, derive water from the Welsh hills Agriculture—About 120,000 persons are engaged in agricul-

ture

Owing to the mountamous character of the land and the

[HISTORY

heavy rainfall, which in some districts reaches 120 in. agnicyl. tural Wales is mainly devoted to the production of milk and meat. About one-third of the agricultural land consists of heath land,

rough pasture and bog

It 1s devoted to extensive sheep walks.

The cultivation of wheat, which is particularly risky owing to

the heavy rainfall, 1s confined entirely to the deeper river valleys and accounts for only 5% of the arable land The greatest production is in the Vale of Glamorgan, in the valleys of the Wye

and the Usk in Monmouthshire Barley and oats are grown fairly generally, the latter cereal being sufficiently hardy to return a good yield at a height of 1,000 to 1,500 ft above sea level Root crops for the feeding of store cattle occupy the remainder of the

arable land.

Cattle reared on the upland pastures of Wales are

sold ın great numbers to English grazers; they fatten rapidly on the richer lowland pastures Wales maintains about 4,000,000

sheep, mcluding the hardy native mountain breed, and these are hkewise sold for the Enghsh market In the past 30 years

agriculture in Wales has made marked progress through the apphcation of more scientific methods to all branches of farming in which the University colleges at Bangor and Aberystwyth, with the support of the Board of Agriculture, have rendered invaluable service The extension of organization and co-operation have materially aided the farmers ın tiding over the pernod of depression which followed the factitious prosperity of the war years Agricultural co-operative societies, first established in Wales in rgo1, multiphed rapidly and in 1922 a Welsh agrıcultural organization society was founded Small mixed holdings of the average size of 47 ac. are char-

acteristic of Wales and the small holders were quick to grasp the advantages provided by the co-operative purchasing of foodstuffs, implements, etc The independent Welsh Farmers’ Union, founded in 1918, has recently been merged in the National Farmers’ Union The Government proposals of 1928 for rating relief in the case of agricultural land and for the provision of agricultural credit

should produce, when carried into effect, a stimulating influence upon this vital industry

BrsriocrarHy-——E L Dobbins, South Wales as the Chief Industnal Centre of the United Kingdom (1922), Sir J. Rhys and Sir D B, Jones, The Welsh People (1923), N Edwards, The Industrial Revolution in South Wales (1924) , Sr O M, Edwards, Wales (x99) F )

.

HISTORY:

E.

Hv.

J. 1 TO 1485

Wales was won for the Roman Empire by Frontinus and Agri-

cola. The former was legate in Britain from Ab. 74 to 78 and m the course of his term of office crushed the Silures, the warhke tribesmen of south-eastern Wales Further to the west were the Demetae, of the country round Carmarthen; they were probably subdued at the same time Agricola’s first act, upon his arrival in 78, was to conquer the Ordovices of mid-Wales, in the same campaign, he attacked the tribes of the north-west, crossed the Menai Straits and completed the conquest of Anglesey, from which Suetonius had been recalled eighteen years earher The island had been the stronghold of the Druids and throughout its history has held an exceptional position as an area of great fertility (hence known as “Mon mam Cymru,” ze, Mona, the mother of Wales), defended from attack by a rampart of moun-

tains Wales was effectively held throughout the period of the Roman. occupation of Britain, but always as a part of the imperial frontier, and by purely military measures. Two of the three legions quartered in the island after 120 held the portals. The Twentieth was stationed at Deva, the modern Chester, known to the Welsh ever since as Caerlleon, the Second Augustan at Isca, also known to later times as Caerlion and Caerleon. From the two legionary stations roads ran west to smaller forts such as Segontium (Caernarvon), Conovium (Caerhun), Cardiff and Gelligaer; roads and forts of the same type were built in the interior Some of these forts, perhaps, served only a temporary purpose,

but ıt is clear from the absence in Wales (save around Cardiff and Newport) of Roman towns and country houses that the region

had no settled civil life of the type found in Eastern Britain. Recent excavations, notably at Dinorben, near Abergele, show that the natives, while not uninfluenced by Roman culture, lived for

HISTORY]

WALES

295

the most part an independent and semi-barbarous life and still of Gwynedd and Deheubarth (South Wales) and ruler of all occupied the rude stone and earthen hull-forts of their ancestors Wales save Dyfed (the land of the Demetae), Brecknock, Gwent The survival of Welsh, a Celtic language akin to Gaulsh, sup- and Glamorgan Through all the confusion of the next hundred rts this conclusion and that it should contain a large number and fifty years, a time of conflict with the Northmen and with the of Latin loan-words is natural. (See BRITAIN, ROMAN) Mercians, as well as of internal strife, the hne of Rhodri mamIrish and Saxon in Wales.—In the age followmg the aban- tained itself in 1ts two branches m North and in South Wales It donment of Britain by the Empire, the two outstanding features produced one remarkable man in Hywel the Good (910-950), a are the conflict between the Brythonic and the Goidelic elements scion of the southern hne, who matried the heiress of Dyfed, journeyed to Rome in 928 and is styled “King of all the Welsh” and the rapid conversion of the country to the Christian fath It 1s beyond doubt that, m the fifth century, western Wales was His position enabled him to undertake a reform of Welsh law, for occupied by an Irish-speaking people, the traditions on the sub- which posterity gratefully remembered hım; the representative ject have been confirmed by the discovery of Ogham inscriptions, gathering which met at Whitland (Y Ty Gwyn ar Daf) to receive especially in Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire Whether these the new code is without a parallel in the early annals of Wales, and Goidels were aboriginal or invaders from Ireland is still an “the law of Hywel,” amphfied and re-edited by generation after open question, in either case, they were overborne by Brythonic generation of Welsh legists, became the standard of tribal and conquerors from the east and their language became extinct Tra- personal relations throughout the country In its precision and dition ascribed the Brythonic triumph in Gwynedd (northwest subtlety, ıt has been held (by Loth) to be the greatest intellectual Wales) to a leader from North Britain named Cunedda, whose achievement of mediaeval Wales The Norman Conquest.—On the eve of the Norman conposterity became kings of various districts from Cardigan to quest, there was a striking outburst of activity under one of the ablest of Welsh princes Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (1039-1063) was not of the ruling dynasty, yet he succeeded in making himself master of the whole of Wales—a position never reached by any British princes who had risen to power on the ruins of the old Welsh chieftain in later times He owed his power to his success order were Christians, and, if lawless and licentious, yet amenable against the Mercians, whom he drove out of .their villages in the to the influence of the Church He mentions especially Maglo- neighbourhood of Prestatyn, Mold, Wrexham, Oswestry, Montcunus, the Maelgwn Gwynedd of Welsh tradition, lord of Ang- gomery, Kmghton and Radnor. Later, he formed an alliance with lesey and Snowdonia, and great grandson of Cunedda, as having Aelfgar and Mercia against the Normans whom Edward the Conat one time forsworn his realm and become a monk Monasticism, fessor had posted at Hereford (1055); on Aelfgar’s death, he was in fact, was the movement which wrought the transformation, exposed to the hostilhty of Harold Godwinson and by him was Wales was converted by the monks, thè “sancti”? of Gildas, to overthrown His meteoric career made a great impression in which company belonged Dewi, became in Norman times the England and led to the question of Wales being envisaged there as one of national defence When Wilham I had completed the patron saint of Wales While these events were taking place, the eastern side of Brit- subjugation of the English, he attacked this problem with his ain was being occupied by English settlers Wales was not, at usual insight and, as a first measure, set up the three earldoms first, greatly affected, for the flight of the defeated Britons into of Chester, Shrewsbury and Hereford to protect the realm from the mountains of the west is legend, and not history But at the the ravages of the Welsh Further, he encouraged his followers to begmning of the yth century a new problem arose, which was win land for themselves un North Wales, and to such good purdirectly due to the Saxon conquests When Augustine, after the pose that in 1098 the earls of Chester and Shrewsbury had conversion of Kent, strove to establish relations with the British almost conquered Anglesey In that year, however, the Normans clergy, he met with unexpected opposition and failed in his pur- discovered their weakness in sea power, without which the island pose The differences were merely the result of the long separa- could not be held, the attempt to subjugate Gwynedd was abantion between the Celtic and the Continental churches; they did doned Progress ın South Wales had been slower; the Conqueror not affect doctrine, but concerned such practical questions as the had here recognized the clams of Rhys ap Tewdwr (1078-10903), true date of Easter Nevertheless, they were sufficient to bring who had stepped into the dominant position in the south through about a schism, which was still violent in the time of Bede, the the signal victory of Mynydd Cam (1081), won in comradeship Welsh Church did not accept the Roman Easter until 768, when with Gruffydd ap Cynan of Gwynedd On the death of Rhys, howit finally gave way at the instance of Elfodd, who was bishop in ever, the floodgates were opened and Norman adventurers swept : North Wales By this time, secular life in Wales had also come irresistibly over the southern area. During the regn of Henry I, the Welsh problem appeared to to feel the full force of the English impact The victories of have been settled The Norman hold upon South Wales was comWessex, notably that of Deorham in 577, had parted the Welsh of Gwent and Glamorgan from their brethren in Somerset, Devon plete, extending even to the bishopric of St. David’s, and the line and Cornwall, in the north, the efforts of Cadwallon of Gwynedd, of Rhys ap Tewdwr was almost forgotten Powys, the region bewho fell in 634 in battle with Oswald of Northumbria, did not tween Chester and Machynlleth, kept its mndependence under the avail to maintain British ascendancy in that region, with the re- posterity of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn (d. 1075), but ıt was much ensult that, m the eighth century, having lost Chester, Shrewsbury feebled by the quarrels of the reigning house The weak spot in and Hereford to the Mercians, the Welsh were confined to the the Norman system was Gwynedd; here, behind the shelter of mountainous tract in the west which has ever since been their the Snowdonian range, Gruffydd ap Cynan (1081-1137) was able home It was Offa (757-796) who definitely marked the boundary to rebuild from humble beginnings the edifice overthrown by Denbigh As to associate it with gxth century, it (the one British

the coming of Christiamty, there is nothing to Roman rule in Wales Yet, in the middle of the is to be gathered from the De Excidio of Gildas work of this epoch which has survived) that the

by the dyke which bears his name, a “travelling” earthwork con-

necting the mouth of the Clwyd with the Wye above Hereford

and shown by place names to have been for centuries the actual frontier between the two races Wales bore the full brunt of the attacks of the Northmen Her monasteries, distributed along the coast and often set, as was the manner of the Celts, on lonely islands, suffered grievously St. David’s was often m peril, but contrived to keep up a tradition of learning, of which the leading representative in the ninth century was Asser, the friend and biographer of Alfred of Wessex It does not appear, however, that the pirates made any substantial settlement on Welsh soil, they were held at bay by the gallant Rhodri the Great (844-878), founder of the princely houses

Henry’s father and brother No sooner was the King’s hand removed by death than a revolt broke out against the foreign power, in which the leaders were Gruffydd’s sons, Owain and Cadwaladr, backed by the renewed strength of Gwynedd The reign of Ste-

phen marks a general revival of energy among the Welsh, who

profited to the full by the English civil war; Gwynedd, Powys and Deheubarth became strong principalities under the respective leadership of Owain Gwynedd (1137-1170), Madog ap Maredudd (1132-1160) and Rhys ap Gruffydd (155-1197) It was thus a hard task which Henry II had before him when he strove in Wales, as elsewhere, to re-establish the conditions of his grandfather’s rule; temporary success against Owain ın 1157 and against Rhys in 1163 was followed by virtual defeat in xr165,

WALES

296

[HISTORY

when storms drove him back from the Berwyn moorlands before ture flourished Edward was no friend to marcher privileges, in he had encountered the united forces of the Welsh The Becket 1291 he brought the lords of Brecknock and Glamorgan to book in 1301 he revived quarrel and his Irish schemes induced him to reconsider his pol- for exercising the right of private war, and icy; he now resolved upon an alliance with Rhys ap Gruffydd, the principality of Wales in the person of his son, seemingly in whom events had made not only master of most of South Wales, order to create a Welsh authority which could bridle the barons but also beyond question the leading Welsh prince. The pact be- But tradition was more potent than the royal will, under the weak tween Henry and Rhys, concluded in September, 1171, was ob- rule of Edward II, Wales became the battleground of baromal served until the King’s death and bore fruit in the assistance factions and, when Edward III in 1343 again created a Prince given by the Welsh to the crown in the rebellion of 1173-74. of Wales, 1t was with a less ambitious purpose, the Black Prince Bard and chronicler alike sound the praises of “the Lord Rhys,” was hardly more than the chief Welsh landlord, the master of who is also well known from the writings of his relative, Gerald Welsh archers and Jancemen who fought with distinction under of Barry (Giraldus Cambrensis). The authentic history of the hum at Crécy and Poitiers Eisteddfod begins with the festival he held in Cardigan in 1176; he was also the liberal patron of the Cistercian movement, and supported Archbishop Baldwin, when in 1188 he made a tour of Wales to preach the crusade. The Power of Gwynedd.—After Rhys’s death, the primacy of Wales reverted to Gwynedd. A grandson of Owain, Llywelyn ab Iorwerth (1194-1240), ousted his rivals in that district and proved his quality by the capture of Mold from the English (1199). He had two external opponents to fear, the ruler of Southern Powys and the English king. From Gwenwynwyn (1195-1216) he wrested his dominions and, with Northern Powys in vassalage, he remained arbiter of North Wales until his death Jobn was, at first, friendly, but the inevitable struggle came in r211, and, having survived this ordeal, Llywelyn was able to cooperate, first with the pope and then with the insurgent barons,

in the humiliation of the King

His services were recognised in

the Great Charter and he profited by the situation to carry his arms into South Wales, where he became overlord of the descendants of the Lord Rhys and aided them in the destruction of Norman castles. Under Henry III., he was one of the magnates of

the Enghsh realm, wedded to a half-sister of the King, an ally of the feudal party, attacked in vain by Hubert de Burgh in 1228. Llywelyn’s son, David (1240-46), struggled to retain his father’s position, but died before the issue was finally determined He left no heir, and Gwynedd passed to his young nephews, against whom Henry ITI. had no difficulty in asserting the royal power In 1255, however, Llywelyn ap Gruffydd defeated his brothers at Bryn Derwin and prepared to repeat the triumphs of his grandfather. Seizing the opportunity affarded by the baronial revolt, he found himself lord in a few years of as wide a territory as his great namesake; even the fall of his ally, Earl Simon, did not check his progress, and by the Treaty of Montgomery (1267) he was recognized as Prince of Wales (the first official appearance of the title) and suzerain of the other Welsh chieftains When Edward I succeeded, he was at the height of his power, but, misjudging the situation, he soon lost all; resistance m 1277 led to the forfeiture of everything save Western Gwynedd and his title; a second rebellion in 1282 resulted in total overthrow and death in a chance encounter not far from Builth (December 1zth).

The English Conquest.—In both his wars with Llywelyn the

Last, Edward had won his victory by the use of sea power against Gwynedd. He had realized that it was only thus that Wales could be crippled, namely by a final blow at the vulnerable danger-spot The dynasty was disposed of by the execution of David, Llywelyn’s

brother, in 1283. But it was in a quite limited sense that Wales was conquered at this time

Llywelyn’s dominions were brought

by the Statute of Rhuddlan (1284) under the direct rule of the

crown; they were divided into counties, furnished with crown officials and protected by new castles and boroughs at Caernarvon, Conway, Beaumaris, Criccieth, and Harlech. But the old marcher lerdships, baronial preserves where the lords ruled as little kings and royal writs did not run, were not interfered with; indeed, their number was increased and new franchises arose around Den-

bigh, Ruthin, Wrexham and Chirk

There had been revolts of the Welsh under Rhys ap Maredudd

of Dryslwyn (1287), Madog ap Llywelyn of Meirionydd (1294) and Llywelyn Bren of Senghenydd (1316). But, m the course of the fourteenth century, resistance died down; even Anglesey, that

ancient focus of hberty, produced defenders of the crown such as the Penmynydd family, ancestors of the Tudors, and Sir Hywel of the Horseshoes, men who never forgave the murderers of Ed. ward II, The country was growing more prosperous; market towns came into existence, the abundance of wool led to the making of Welsh frieze, and a thriving trade sprang up at ports lke Rhuddlan, Beaumaris, Haverfordwest and Carmarthen Ii 1s, therefore, startling to find, at the opening of the fifteenth century, Wales convulsed by a new revolt, more formidable and widespread than any of its predecessors Owain Glyn Dwr was the direct male representative of the line of Northern Powys, with claims through his mother to the lands of the Lord Rhys. At the accession of Henry IV., he held

a portion of this inheritance on the banks of the Dee and of the Teify When in 1400 he broke into rebellion, it was maimly to vindicate personal wrongs. But Henry underestimated both the hereditary prestige and the high abilities of this warrior of courage and genius, with the result that Owain’s power grew from year to year and he was ere long emboldened to proclaim himself m-

dependent prince of Wales The capture of his enemy Reginald Grey gave him financial resources, that of Edmund Mortimer a valuable ally. He concluded a treaty with Charles VI. of France, won the castles of Harlech and Aberystwyth, held parliaments of his subjects, and exercised in a large part of Wales the powers of a ruling prince. The downfall of his friends, the Percys, at Shrewsbury (1403) was not fatal to the movement; more senous was the failure of the French at Woodbury Hill (1405) and the loss of the two castles (1408) As the difficulties of Henry IV gradually disappeared, Owain’s cause became hopeless and he died in Inding in 1416 He has never ceased to be the darling hero of Welsh popular tradition The Glyn Dwr movement left Welsh society in rums and duting the rest of the century recovery was but slow. Disorder returned with the Wars of the Roses, in which Welshmen such as Owen Tudor (d 1461) and Wilham Herbert, earl of Pembroke (d. 1469), were deeply involved. It was a Tudor who at last brought peace alike to England and Wales on the field of Bosworth, with a large Welsh following who reckoned that they had avenged in this victory the wrongs of foreign rule BrstrocrApHy —F. Haverfield, Miktary Aspects of Roman Wales (1910), R E M Wheeler, Prehistoric and Roman Wales, (1925); J. E Lloyd, History of Wales to the Edwardian Conquest Goa bibl), J E Morris, Welsh Wars of Edward I (1901); E A Lewis, Mediaeval Boroughs of Snowdoma (1912, bibl.), W. Rees, South Wales and the March, 1284-1415 (1924, bibl.) » H. T. Evanz, Wales and the Wars of the Roses (1928, bibl.). (J. E. L.)

HISTORY: II. 1485 TO THE PRESENT DAY Political and Legal Changes.—With the Tudor dynasty firmly established certain constitutional changes intended to place

Even the loyalist princes of Welsh subjects on a complete social and political equality with Englishmen have to be recorded The Act of Union 1536 (27

Powys and the Vale of Towy were left undisturbed and among the smaller Welsh landowners the changes were far fewer than might have been supposed. Indeed, in many respects the new Wales differed little from the old It was still a land of small, in-

dependent states, each governed by its own customs and inhabited by a, Welsh-speaking population, among whom the old Welsh cul-

Henry VIII ) converted the whole of the marches of Wales into shire ground, and also created five new shires. Denbigh, Mont-

gomery, Radnor, Brecknock and Monmouth At the same tme, remaining lordships were added to the existing Welsh shires of Cardigan, Carmarthen, Glamorgan and Pembroke, to the further

HISTORY]

WALES

enlargement of their boundaries. Clause 26 of the same act like-

wise decreed that the 12 Welsh shires should return 24 members

to the English parbament, one for each shire, and one for the

town boroughs 1m each shire (except Merioneth), and one for the and county of Haverfordwest It is probable that Welsh members that attended the parlaments of 1536 and 1539, and it 1s certain every parhathey were present at the parliament of 1541 and ment subsequently held This Act of Union was followed in

297

the honour of presenting his countrymen with a complete Welsh

translation of the Bible was reserved for William

Morgan

(c.

1547—1604), vicar of Llanrhaidar-yn-Mochnant in Denbighshire, and afterwards bishop successively of Llandaff and of St Asaph

For eight years Morgan was busied with his self-imposed task, being greatly helped and encouraged thereto by Archbishop Whitgift, by Bishop William Hughes (d 1600) of St. Asaph, and by other leading dignitaries of the Church. In Dec. 1588 the first s542 by an “Act for certain Ordinances in the King’s Majesty’s complete Welsh Bible was issued from the royal press at Westunder the patronage of queen and primate, some 800 to dommion and Principality of Wales” (34 and 35 Henry VIIL), minster 1,000 copies bemg supplhed for dıstrıbution, to be read in all the which placed the court of the president and council of Wales and Wales This famous editio princeps of the the marches on a legal footing This court, with a jurisdiction parish churches of akin to that of the Star Chamber, had origimally been set up under Welsh Bible was supplanted later under James I. by the Authorby Bishop Richard Parry (1560-1623) Edward IV with the object of suppressing private feuds and ized Version, translated with the help of Dr John Davies of Mallwyd (1570other legalities amongst the lords-marcher and their retainers. of St. Asaph, Welsh lexicographer At the tercentenary The council of Wales, with its headquarters at Ludlow, undoubt- 1644), the frst great Morgan’s Bible,” in 1888, a memorial cross was edly did good service on behalf of law and order under such of “Bishop close of St Asaph in order to perpetuate cathedral the in erected Herbert, Wiliam and Lee Rowland Bishop as capable presidents of the eight leading Welsh translators: earl of Pembroke, but it had become an obsolete engine of oppres- the names and services and Parry, Wiliam Salesbury; Thomas Morgan Davies, Bishops definot was ıt although son by the tıme of the Commonwealth, of Mallwyd; Archdeacon Edmund Prys nitely abolished until the revolution of 1688 The act of 1542 also Huet, Dr John Davies popular Welsh metrical version of the a of author (1541-1624), great king’s “the of enacted that courts of justice under the title Goodman, dean of Westminster (1528-1601), sessions in Wales” should sit twice a year in every county of Psalms; and Gabriel who had greatly assisted Bishop Morgan in Ruthin, of native an a declared Wales, except Monmouth, which was thus formally the work of printing and editing English shire For this purpose four circuits, two for North and These translations of the Bible and Liturgy definitely fixed two for South Wales, were created, whilst justices of the peace the standard of classical Welsh At appointed now were shire each for and lords-lieutenant Puritanism and the Civil Wars——The growth of Puritanism the same time, all ancient Welsh laws and customs, which were at the people still clung largely to Catholic tradition, variance with the recognized law of England, were now declared in Wales, where strong nor speedy, although the year 1588 (which illegal, and the old Cymric tenure by gavelkınd, whıch had been was neither of Bishop Morgan’s Bible) gave birth to two publication the saw place its and abolished respected by Edward I, was expressly parliament, urging a drastic puritanical policy in taken by primogeniture It was also enacted that all legal pro- fierce appeals to of the celebrated John Penry, a native of pen the from Wales, arrangement an cedure must henceforth be conducted in Englsh, Far more influential than Penry were that fell very heavily on poor monoglot Welshmen and a curiously Brecknock (1559-1593). the famous vicar of Llandovery, 1579-1644), (? Prichard Rhys this ungracious measure from a Welsh-born sovereign Under Carmarthenshire, and Wilham Wroth (d. 1642), the puritan rector system of the great sessions justice was administered throughout Of these two divmes, Vicar Monmouthshire the 12 shires of Wales for nearly 300 years, and it was not until of Llanfaches, Prichard, who was essentially orthodox, forms an interesting con1830 that these Welsh sessions were abolished (not without some necting link between the learned Ehzabethan translators and the protest from Welsh members at Westminster), and the existing great revivalists of the 18th century, and his moral rhymes in the North and South Wales circuits were brought into being under the title of death ns after printed The Welsh Bible—With the peaceful absorption of the vernacular, collected and (Canwyll y Cymry), still retain some Welshman’s Candle pmncipality into the realm of the Tudors, the subsequent course The chancellor of St become degree of popularity Prichard rose to of Welsh history assumes mamly a religious and educational cathedral; but the indiscreet Wroth, “the founder and character As early as the reign of Henry VIII. there were to be David’s father of nonconformity in Wales,” being suspended in 1638 by found at court and in the universities a number of ardent and Bishop Murray of Llandaff, founded a small community of Indetalented young Welshmen, adherents mostly of the reforming at Llanfaches, which is thus commonly accounted the pendents a about bring to destined were who party in Church and State, dissenting chapelin Wales The effects, however, of the great brilhant hterary revival in their native land Of this distinguished first of Elizabeth’s reign were by no means exhausted, revival literary Richard Bishop of those band the two most memorable names are for durmg this period Wales certainly possessed many native Davies (c. 1501-1581), and of Wilham Salesbury, the scholarat once active parish priests and good scholars, were who divines comis who squire of Llanrwst (c. 1520~1600) in Denbighshure, many of them having been educated at Jesus college, Oxford, the monly accounted the author of the first printed book in the Welsh Welsh college endowed by Dr. Hugh Price (d. 1574) and founded Synnwyr language, a small volume of proverbs with the title “Oll under Elizabeth’s patronage in 1573 So striking was the devotion pen Kembero,” printed in London in or about 1545 With the shown throughout the principality to Charles I, who fought his accession of Elizabeth a vigorous ecclesiastical policy on truly disastrous campaigns in the friendly counties of Wales and the national lmes was now started m Wales itself, chiefly through the last marches, that on the final victory of the Parliament there was influence of Richard Davies, then bishop of St Davids, who was passed within a month of the king’s execution (perhaps as a doubtless responsible for the act of parhament of 1563 which the Better Propa-

charged the bishops of St Davids, Bangor, Llandaff, St Asaph and Hereford to prepare with all speed for public use Welsh translations of the Scriptures and the Book of Common Prayer. Of the five prelates thus named, Davies alone was competent to perform the allotted task, and for assistance in his work of translation he summoned his old friend and former neighbour, William Salesbury. The pair laboured together at Abergwili palace, near

Carmarthen, with such diligence that before the close of 1567 the

special measure of punishment) an “Act for

gation and Preaching of the Gospel in Wales,” by the terms of which a packed body of 70 commissioners was given practically unlimited powers to deal with all matters ecclesiastical in Wales. To assist these commissioners in therr task of enquiry and ejectment, a body of 25 “approvers” was likewise constituted, with the object of selecting itinerant preachers to replace the dismissed mcumbents. Some 330 out of a possible total of 520 incumbents were ejected in St David’s and Llandaff, and there is every reason

Welsh translations of the Liturgy and the New Testament were that the beneficed clergy of Bangor and St Asaph sufpublished in London, the Liturgy being the exclusive work of to suppose A monster petition of protest, signed alike by Bishop Davies, whilst the New Testament was translated by fered equally. and by High Churchmen, was prepared for Salesbury, with the exception of certain epistles from the pen of moderate Puritans in 1652 by Col Edward Freeman, the parliament to presentation by the bishop and the Book of Revelation, which was contributed for South Wales Despite the fierce efforts of Huet (d. 1591), precentor of St. David's cathedral But attorney-general

Thomas

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WALES

Vavasor Powell and his friends to thwart the reception of this petition at Westminster, Col Freeman was able to urge the claims and complaints of the petitioners, or “anti-propagators” as they were termed, at the bar of the House of Commons, openly declaring that by the late policy of ejectment and destruction “the hght of the Gospel was almost extinguished in Wales ” At the Restoration all the ejected clergy who survived were reinstated in their old benefices under the Act of Uniformity of 1662, whilst many Puritan incumbents were in their turn dismissed for refusing to comply with various requirements of that act. Amongst these latter, Stephen Hughes of Carmarthen (16231688), a devoted follower of Vicar Prichard and an editor of his works, was ejected from his living of Mydrim in Carmarthenshire, whereby the valuable services of this eminent divine were gained by the Nonconformists, whose numbers had increased since the Civil Wars The old Church pobcy on national lnes, begun by

Ehzabeth and productive of so much good work in Wales, was now gradually relaxed under the later Stuarts, and definitely abandoned under their Hanoverian successors Thus the Church, which had so long played a valuable and promment part in the moral and intellectual progress of the Welsh people, was slowly forced out of touch with the nation through the inaction of nonresident and unsympathetic Whig prelates in Wales itself, which still remained largely High Church and Jacobite in feeling. Popular Education and the Methodist Revival.—aAll contemporary writers agree that the mass of the Welsh people at the close of the 17th century were illiterate English was little understood or spoken amongst the rural population, and there was a marked dearth of Welsh educational books Some efforts to remedy this dark state of things had already been made by Thomas Gouge, with the assistance of Stephen Hughes, and also by the newly-founded Society for the Promotion of Christian

Knowledge. But it was Griffith Jones (1683-1761), rector of Lianddowror in south Carmarthenshire, who was destined to become the true pioneer of Welsh education, religious and secular Early in the reign of George I. this excellent man, whose name and memory will ever be treasured in Wales, began a system of catechizing in the vernacular among the children and adults of his own parish. With the help of Sir John Philipps (d 1736), of Picton castle, and Mrs. Bridget Bevan of Laugharne (d 1779), who is still affectionately remembered in Wales as the pious donor of “Madam Bevan’s charity,” Griffith Jones was enabled to extend his scheme of popular education throughout South Wales, where numerous “circulating charity schools,” as they were called, were set up in rural parishes with the approval of their incumbents The results obtained by the development of

these schools were speedy and successful beyond the wildest hopes of their founder. This novel educational system in 1760 numbered 215 schools, with a total number of 8,687 scholars; and by the date of Jones’s death, in 1761, over 150,000 persons of every age and of either sex—nearly a third of the whole population of Wales at that date—had been taught to read the Scriptures in their own language by means of these circulating schools. With this newly acquired ability to read the Bible, the many persons so taught were not slow to express a keen demand for Cymric literature, which was met by a supply from local presses in Wales. The success, in fact, of the Welsh circulating schools created the Welsh vernacular press Meanwhile, the writings and personal example of the pious rector of Llanddowror were stirring other Welshmen in the work of revival, chef amongst them bemg Howell Harris of Trevecca (1713-1773), a layman of briliant abilities but of erratıc temperament, and Daniel Rowland (1713-1790), curate of Llangeitho in Cardiganshire, who soon became the most eloquent and popular preacher in all Wales. Two other clergymen who figure prominently in this Methodist movement and whose influence has proved lasting were Peter Williams of Carmarthen (1722-1796) , the Welsh Bible commentator, and Wilham Williams of Pantycelyn (1717—1791), the celebrated Welsh hymn-writer The Methodist Secession—During the hfetime of Griffith Jones the course of Welsh Methodism had run in orthodox channels, and had been generally supported by the Welsh clergy

and gentry

[HISTORY But after 1761 the tendency to exceed the bounds

of conventional Church discipline grew so marked as to excite the alarm of the Enghsh bishops in Wales Vet the bulk of the

Methodists contmued to receive the Sacraments from regularly ordamed parısh priests, although a schism was threatened Towards the close of the 18th century the Methodist revival spread to North Wales, through the influence of the celebrated Thomas Charles, commonly called Charles of Bala (1755—1814), formerly curate of Llanymawddwy and founder of Welsh Sunday schools Relations rapidly grew stramed between the English rulers of the Church and the Methodists, and in 1811 the long-expected schism took place, much to the regret of Charles himself, who had ever professed himself a devoted disciple of Griffith Jones The bulk of the farming and labouring members of the Church definitely seceded from their “ancient mother,” to whom, however, the Welsh gentry still adhered

An honourable exception to the absentee or indifferent English prelates of this period 1s to be found in Thomas Burgess, bishop of St. David’s, to whose exertions 1s mainly due the foundation of St. David’s college at Lampeter, an institution erected to provide a better and cheaper education for intending young Welsh clergymen. It was not until 1870 that, by Gladstone’s appomt-

ment of Dr Joshua Hughes to the see of St. Asaph, the special needs and claims of the Welsh Church were officially recognized Thus, between 1811 (the year of the Methodist secession) and 1832 (the date of the Reform bill), the number of dissenting chapels had risen from 945 to 1,428. As the franchise was low.

ered, radicahsm asserted itself In 1870, the dissenting bodies were supporting two quarterly, six monthly and ten weekly papers,

all published in the vernacular A result was the Sunday Closing Act of 1881 and the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889 In 1893 Lord Rosebery’s cabinet appomted the Welsh Land

Tenure Commission, whose report, published in 1896, did much to exonerate the squirearchy from charges of extortion and sectaran oppression Sir H Campbell-Bannerman’s cabinet appointed the Welsh Church Commission (June 21, 1906), to enquire into the temporalities of the Welsh Dioceses The report was published on Dec. 2, ror0 i In x914, the Church question, which had been the pivot of Welsh politics ever since 1868, was finally settled by the Act for the Disestabhshment and Disendowment of the Church m Wales, but owing to the World War, the act itself was not put into operation until April 1, 1920 By that date, a governing body, formed on elective principles and consisting of the three orders of the Welsh bishops, clergy and laity, had been called mto being with a carefully drawn constitution, and at its first meeting at Llandrindod Wells in April 1920 this body unanimously confirmed ‘the election, by the Welsh bishops, of Bishop Edwards of St. Asaph as first archbishop of Wales Since 1920 two more Welsh bishoprics have been formed—Monmouth in rg2z, and Swansea-and-Brecon in 1923. Other Movements.—In the Rebecca Riots (g.v.) of 1843 in South Wales many toll-gates were destroyed by mobs of country men disguised in female garb as “the daughters of Rebecca about to possess the gates of their enemies” In 1885-86 the antı-tıthe agitation—largely traceable to the violent language about clerical tithe employed by certain organs of the vernacular press—led to some disorderly scenes between the distraming police and the country folk, especially in the Cardigan district That peculiar movement of religious enthusiasm known as a revival (dtwygiad) has occurred from time to time, notably in 1859 and 1904

Educational Progress.—The University college of Wales was

founded at Aberystwyth in 1872; that of South Wales at Cardiff in 1883, of Bangor in 1884, and of Swansea in 1920 In Nov 1893 the constituent colleges were incorporated by royal charter

as the University of Wales, with Lord Aberdare (d. 1895)

for its first chancellor In 1907 the creation of a Welsh department of the Board of Education admitted the special claims of the Welsh language in the schools In July 19x, shortly after the investiture by King George V. of the prince of Wales at Carnar-

von castle with much pomp, the foundation stone of the National Library of Wales was laid by the King at Aberystwyth, and since

WALEWSKI—WALKER that date the National Library has acquired a world-wide repu-

tation Jn April 1927 the splendid buildings of „the National Museum of Wales were formally opened by the King at Cardiff A Welsh commission was made responsible for the administra-

tion m Wales of the National Health Insurance Act (1913). Under the same act the campaign

against tuberculosis was en-

trusted to the King Edward VII. (Welsh) National Memorial Association Under the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Act (1913) Wales possesses its own board of representatives In the National Eisteddfod (q v ), revived m the middle of last century and held every August at some important centre of North

or South Wales alternately, the most fervent element of Welsh nationalism is to be found; whilst local eisteddfodau are by no means confined to the Welsh-speaking areas. A departmental committee to mquire ınto the questıon of the Welsh language issued its report in Aug 1927. BrsiiocRraPHy ——J. E Lloyd, A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest (1911); S Barmg-Gould and Canon John Fisher, Lzves of the British Saints, 4 vols. (London, Hon Soc of Cymmrodorion, 1914) , Sir J Rhys and Sr D Brynmor Jones, The Welsh People (1906) ; Sw O M. Edwards, Wales ("Story of the Nations” series); Archdeacon Thomas, Davies and Salesbury (Oswestry, 1902), J Ballinger, The Bible im Wales (1906); J R. Philips, Memozrs of the Cruil Wars in Wales and the Marches, 1642-49

(1874), D Ambrose Jones, History of the Church in Wales (Carmathan 7924) Henry Owen, Gerald the Welshman (1889); Henry Oven Tre sicmunistratzon of English Law in Wales and the Marches a, Grecos Cambrensis, Tke Jisnerary of Wales in 1188, trans by Sr R. C Hoare (various editions), Calendar of the Wynn (of Gwydir) Papers (National Library of Wales, 1926), Tvansactzons, FYCymmrodor ang other Publications of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion of London, edit. by Sir E Vmcent Evans, CH, LLD; Journal and publications of “Archaeologia Cambrensis” (London). (H M, V)

WALEWSKI,

ALEXANDRE

FLORIAN

JOSEPH

299

and the work of the public library, and took an active part in the discussion of monetary, economic, statistical and other public questions As an author he wrote on governmental treatment of the Indians, The Wages Question (1876), Money (1878), Land and tts Rent (1883), General Political Economy (1883-84), and various other works As an economist, from the time of the appearance of his book on the subject, he so effectively combated the old theory of the “wage-fund” as to lead to its abandonment or matenal modification by American students; while in his writings on finance, from 1878 to the end of his life, he advocated international bimetallism He died im Boston Jan 5, 1807 ( ee James Phinney Munroe, A Life of Francis Amasa Walker

1923). WALKER,

FREDERICK

(1840-1875), English subject

painter, the son of a designer of jewellery, was born in Marylebone, London, on May 24, 1840 His earhest book illustrations appeared in 1860 in Once a Week In the Corniull Magazine, his ulustrations to Thackeray’s Adventures of Philzp and Dems Duval, are spinted works. He was elected an associate of the Society of Painters m Water Colours in 1864 and a full member in 1866; and in 1871 he became an associate of the Royal Academy and an honorary member of the Belgian Society of Painters in Water Colours. His first oil picture, “The Lost Path,” was exhibited in the Royal Academy in 1863 In 1871 he exhibited his tragic life-sized figure of “A Female Prisoner at the Bar,” a subject which now exists only m a finished oi study, for the painter afterwards effaced the head and was prevented by death from again completing the picture. On June 5, 1875 he died of consumption at St Fillan’s, Perthshire See G, Marks Life and Letters of Frederick Walker, A.R A , (1896) ; Frederick Walker and his Works, by Claude Philips (1897).

WALKER, GEORGE

(c. 1618-1690), hero of the siege of

COLONNA, Comte (1810-1868), French politician and diplo- Londonderry, son of George Walker, rector of Kilmore and matist, was born at Walewice near Warsaw on May 4, 1810, the chancellor of Armagh (d 1677). In the Irish war of 1688, son of Napoleon I and his mistress Marie, Countess Walewski At Walker, though in Holy Orders and advanced in years, raised a fourteen Walewski refused to enter the Russian army, escaping regiment and endeavoured to concert measures with Robert to London and thence to Paris, where the French government Lundy, the acting governor of Londonderry, for the defence of refused his extradition to the Russian authorities. Louis Philippe Dungannon who, however, ordered the abandonment of the sent him to Poland in 1830, and he was then entrusted by the place on March 14, 1689 On the approach of the enemy (April 13) Walker hurried leaders of the Polish revolution with a mission to London. After the fall of Warsaw he took out letters of naturalization mn France to Londonderry to inform Lundy, but was unable to convince hm and entered the French army, seeing some service in Algeria In of his danger. He returned to bis men at Lifford, where, on the 1837 he resigned his commission and began to wnite for the stage 14th, he took part in a brush with the enemy, afterwards followand for the press. The accession of Louis Napoleon to the supreme ing the retreat of the army to Londonderry The town was in power in France guaranteed his career. He was sent as envoy great confusion, and Walker found the gates shut against him and extraordinary to Florence, to Naples and then to London, where his regiment, He was forced to pass the mght outside, and only he announced the coup d'état to Palmerston (qu). In 1855 entered the next day “with much difficulty and some violence upon Walewski succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as minister of foreign the Centry.” Immediately on his arrival he urged Lundy to take affairs, and acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of the field and refused the demand to disband his own soldiers Paris next year, When, he left the Foreign Office in 1860 it was On the 17th of April Lundy determined to give up the town to to become minister of state, an office which he held until 1863. James, and called a council from which Walker and others were Senator from 1855 to 1865, he entered the Corps Législatif in especially excluded, but the next day the king and his troops, 1865, and was installed, by the emperor’s wterest, as president who had advanced to receive the surrender, were fired upon from of the Chamber, A revolt against lus authority two years later the walls contrary to Lundy’s orders, and the arrival of Captain Adam Murray with a troop of horse saved the situation. Lundy sent him back ta the Senate. He died on Oct. 27, 1868. WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897), American was deprived, and allowed ta escape im disguise, On April x9 soldier and economist, was born in Boston, Mass., on July 2, 1840. Walker and Baker were chosen joint-governors. Walker comHis father, Amasa, Walker (1799-1875), was also a distinguished manded fifteen companies, amounting to 900 men, and to him economist whose principal work, The Science of Wealth, attained was also entrusted the supervision of the commissariat. He great popularity as a textbook Francis Walker graduated at showed great energy, courage and resource throughout the siege, Amherst college in 1860, studied law and fought in the Northern and led several successful sallies. At the close of the siege, which army during the whole of the Civil War, being a prisoner in lasted 150 days, the town was at the last extremity; but at length, the famous Libby prison, Richmond After the war he became on July 30, Walker preached the last of the sermons by which editorial writer on the Springfield, Mass , Republscan, and in 1869 he had helped to inspire its defence. An hour afterwards the was made chief of the Government bureau of statistics. He was ships were seen approaching, and the town was relieved Walker was received by William and Mary at Hampton court superintendent of the ninth and tenth censuses (those of 1870 and 1880), and (1871-72) commissioner of Indian affars. From 1873 on Aug 9, and presented with £5,000, part of which he appears to his death his work was educational, first as professor (1873- to have given to Baker’s widow He was nominated to the bishop81) of pohtical economy in the Sheffield scientific school at Yale, ric of Londonderry, but was shot at the Boyne (July 1, 1690). While ın London Walker had published A True Account of the and then as president of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- Sege of Londonderry (1689), dedicated to the king, which went nology, Boston. In other fields he promoted common-school edu- through several editions and was translated for perusal abroad. cation (especially in manual, training), the Boston park system, In the Siege of Derry (1893) the Rev. Philip Dwyer has collected

WALKER

300

the most essential facts and matenals relatmg to Walker and the | element of strength in the struggle for the Union siege, and has reprinted in his volume Walker’s True Account and | After the close of Polk’s administration (1849), Mr Walker Vindicutzon, together with Walker's sermons, various other documents became an agent in England for the Illinois Central railroad, a and valuable notes

WALKER,

HENRY

OLIVER

(1843-1929),

American

artist, was born at Boston (Mass.) on May 14, 1843. He was a pupil of Léon Bonnat, Paris, and painted the figure and occasional portraits, but later devoted himself almost exclusively to mural

decoration His pamtings, symbolizing lyric poetry, for the Congressional library, Washington, and his decorations for the Appellate Court house, New York city, the enlarged State house, Boston, the Court house, Newark (NJ) and the Capitol at St Paul (Minn ), are among his most important works He died in Belmont (Mass ) on Jan 14, 1929 }, American artist, was WALKER, HORATIO (1858born at Listowel, Ontario, Canada, May 12, 1858 When he was a child his family settled at Rochester, NY Although entirely self-taught, he became a distinguished painter of animals, the figure and landscape. His pictures, principally of Canadian peasant hfe and scenes, show the influence of Troyon and Mullet, mainly in their feeling for largeness of composition, ın solidity of painting and in the choice of themes He became a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, and of the American Water Color Society. See F. Newlin Price, Horatio Walker (1930)

WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699), master of University College, Oxford, born at Darfield near Barnsley, Yorkshire, was educated at University College, Oxford, becoming a fellow and tutor. In 1648 he was deprived of his academic appomtments, but he returned to Oxford at the restoration of 1660 In June 1676 he was elected to the headship of this foundation After the accession of James II he declared himself a Catholic, being partly responsible for the tactless conduct of James in forcing a quarrel with the fellows of Magdalen College Mass was sald in his residence, and later a chapel was opened in the college for Roman worship. He died on Jan 21, 1699.

WALKER, ROBERT

company in which Richard

Cobden and some

of his friends

became deeply interested; and during the Civil War, as the agent of S P Chase, secretary of the Treasury, did valuable work m Great Britain and Germany, destroying the credit of the Con. federate States in the former, and borrowing $250,000,000 m the latter. Mr Walker’s political career had begun during the nulhfication excitement of 1832-33, when at Natchez, Miss, on the first Monday of Jan 1833, be delivered an able Union speech which attracted President Jackson’s support and led to his elec. tion to the US Senate on Jan 8, 1836 As an ardent expansion. ist, he advocated the recognition of the republic of Texas (1837),

took a leading part in the movement for annexation, and at one time during the war with Mexico wanted to acquire all of that

country; but in the case of Oregon, while ostensibly supporting President Polk in a bold stand, he took the action mentioned above and offered no opposition to acceptance of the 4oth parallel

In 1867-68 he rounded out his expansiomst career by assisting with great profit to himself in the Russian sale of Alaska to the United States

As a constructive statesman, he was an important

factor in the reorganization of the American treasury system during the ‘forties, financed the war with Mexico, and advocated and drafted the bill (1849) for the establishment of the Department of the Intenor. He was appointed terntorial governor of Kansas in the spring of 1857 by President Buchanan, but in November of the same year resigned in disgust over the Lecompton constitution From the beginning of his career he had been consistently opposed to slavery, but favoured gradual rather than immediate emancipation and as early as 1838 had freed his own slaves Mr

Walker was, indeed, more Northern than Southern in his general

inclinations. He was born, reared and educated in Pennsylvania, a he graduated with honours ın the University of Pennsylvama 1829)

There ıs no biography

of Robert J Walker; but see sketches in

(d c 1658), British painter, was a

The Granite Monthly, kn 90—91, The Green Bag, XV IOr—106, and the detailed American histories covermg the penod of his life

his early life. His greatest vogue was at the time of the Commonwealth, for in addition to several portraits of Cromwell he pamted others of Lambert, Ireton, Fleetwood, and many more members of the Parliamentarian party In 1652 he was given rooms in Arundel House in the Strand, London, where he resided for the rest of his life He died either in 1658 or in 1660, the authority for the earlier date being an inscription on an engraved portrait by Lombart. His work was vigorous and showed sound study of character. Several of his paintmgs, among them the portrait of William Faithorne the elder, are in the National Portrait Gallery, and there are others of notable importance at Hampton Court and in the University galleries at Oxford One of his portraits of Cromwell is in the Pitti Palace, where it is ascribed to Lely. Another is at Warwick castle.

was born in Nashville, Tenn, on May 8, 1824 He graduated at the University of Nashville in 1838, and in 1843 received lus MD from the University of Pennsylvania Later he studied law and was admitted to the bar in New Orleans On Oct 1 5, 1853, he sailed from San Francisco with a fihbustering force for the conquest of Mexican territory He landed in Lower California, and on Jan 18, 1854, he proclaimed this and the neighbouring State of Sonora an irdenerdent republic S*--v-tion. and Mexican attacks i'd ro che ebardonmen: oi dhis œ cr Ise, and Walker resumed his journalistic work in California On May 4, 1855, with 56 followers, Walker sailed for Nicaragua, where he had been invited by one of the belligerent factions to come to its aid In October Walker seized a steamer on Lake Nicaragua belonging to the Accessory Transit Company, a corporation of Americans engaged in transporting freight and passengers across the isthmus, and was thus enabled to surprise and capture Granada and to make himself master of Nicaragua Peace was then made, Patricio Rivas, who had been neutral, was made provisional president, and Walker secured the real power as commander of the troops. At this time two officials of the Accessory Transit Company determined to use Walker as their tool to get control of that corporation, then dommmated by Cornelius Vanderbilt They advanced him funds and transported his recruits from the United States free of charge In return Walker seized the property of the company, on the pretext of a violation of its charter, and turned over its equipment to the men who had befriended him On May 20, 1856, the new government was formally recognized at Washington by President Pierce. Walker managed to mamtain himself against a coaltion of Central American States, led by

contemporary and to a slight extent a follower of Van Dyck The date of his birth is uncertain, and no details are known of

WALKER, ROBERT

JAMES

(1801-1869), an American

WALKER, WILLIAM

(1824-1860), American adventurer,

lawyer, economist, statesman and financial expert, probably rendered his greatest public service when as secretary of the Treasury under President Polk he proposed, during the summer of 1845 while the Oregon question endangered Anglo-American relations, a reduction of the American tanff in anticipation of the repeal of the British Corn Laws His treasury report of Dec 3 was a masterly presentation of the situation, and has been regarded as the most powerful attack upon the protective system ever made im an American State paper. He practically formulated and secured the passage of the “revenue” Walker Tariff Act of 1846 in conjunction with the repeal of the Corn Laws mn Great Bnitain, while the Oregon question, which had thus been forced into a Position of secondary importance, was “amicably” settled. Consequently, during the next 15 years before the outbreak of the Civil War (1861), Anglo-American commercial and investment Costa Rica, which was aided and abetted by agents of Cornelius and political and social relations grew into a bond rivalling that Vanderbilt, until May I, 1857, when, to avoid capture by the which had already developed between Lancashire and the cotton- natives, he surrendered to Commander Charles Henry Davis, of growing South, while the grain-growing North-west became an the U.S Navy, and returned to the United States In Nov 1857

WALKING—WALKING

RACES

301

crosses the border of Ayr, he made his way through the heather of the Lowther hills, coming by mghtfall to Dumfries, a good four and fifty miles Wordsworth was untirmg His friend De Quincey held that with those identical legs Wordsworth must States aS & prisoner on parole On his arrival he was released by have traversed a distance that would have taken him seven times order of President Buchanan After several unsuccessful attempts in around the world, adding that to this mode of exertion “he was Mobile to return to Central America, Walker finally sailed from Aug 1860 and landed in Honduras Here he was taken prisoner endebted for a hfe of unclouded happiness, and we for much of by Capt Salmon, of the British Navy, and was surrendered to the what 1s most excellent in his writings ” Walking merges into mountain climbing. The countrymen of Honduran authorities He was executed Sept 12, 1860 See Walker’s own narrative, accurate as to details, The War in Wordsworth have scaled notable peaks James Bryce may stand Nicaragua (Mobile, 1860) , also Wilham V. Wells, Walker's Expedition as the type of these vigorous islanders, whether he was striding to Nwaragua (1856); Charles Wilham Doubleday, Remzniscences of up Mount Ararat, or gainmg a summit of the Basuto hills, or the “Fikbuster” War in Nicaragua (1886), James Jeffrey Roche, sturdily threading the trails of the New Hampshire uplands HudThe Story of the Fiabusters (1891), revised and reprinted as Byways of War (1901) ; and Wilham O Scroggs, Filbusters and Fimanciers son holds a high place among famous walkers The uplands and S) 0. (W. moors and beech woods of England, the stern reaches of Corn(1916). WALKING, the art of progression by setting one foot wall, live and breathe in his books Emerson’s Monadnock journey is notable, but Thoreau 1s the methodically before the other, is the most venerable and universal way of locomotion among mankind, and has been for a million best of American walkers and the worthiest recorder of the enduring worth of walkmg. His wandermg through the White mounyears Walking mn the nobler sense 1s a measured progress inspired by the woods and hulls, by rivers and the flowers of the field, a tains, when he saw the pine grosbeaks, breathes the spirit of the ancient hills The pilgrmmage along Cape Cod is good history and serene partaking of the enduring sources of joy Walking conexcellent writmg ‘The ascent of Katahdin carries the fragrance duces to meditation Or perhaps it should be said that only those of primeval woods Even more characteristic of his spirit are the of philosophic spirit truly walk, receptive of the beauty which walks about his own Concord, for which he has wrought an enduris everywhere in nature unmarred by man. Walking and meditative thought are bound together in the very name Peripatetic. As ing monument WALKING RACES, an athletic sport, on road or track. they walked they pondered, and as they pondered they walked. These enjoyed a greater popularity in England than in any other When the father of Chryseis walked silent along the shore of the country up to the time of the fourth Olympiad held in London in much-resounding sea, he was inspired to seek aid of the lord of t908 When the Enghsh championships were instituted m 1866 the silver bow, thereby recovermg his beloved daughter In the a ym walk was incorporated in the programme, the first title Onent, land of innumerable pilgrims, serene walking and worthy holder beg J. G Chambers, C U A.C, who covered the distance thmking go together. A Sutéa tells us how the Buddha, descendmg in somims 32secs. Despite this initial success of a university from Vulture peak, came to the verge of the lotus lake where the peacocks were fed, and walked to and fro taking the air on the athlete, walking races have never figured in the programme of the Oxford and Cambridge sports. In 1893 the English chamlawn of the peacocks Walking in the finest sense is for joy. It 1s notable that an pionship distance was reduced to 4m, but in r90z the programme was again revised, the 4m. distance was reduced to 2m. and the early example of one who walked because he preferred to walk is Paul of Tarsus He was on his way for the last tıme to Jerusalem, 7m. walk was reinstated When the American championships were instituted in 1876 having come by boat from Philippi to the Troad Then he sent his company by ship around the peninsula to Assos, “for so had he walking races were included at 1, 3 and 7m The 7m walk was dropped in 1878, replaced in 1879, dropped agam in 1885, and appointed, minding himself to go afoot ” Walking for love of a noble form of exercise, to enjoy the com- again replaced in 1912. The 3m was dropped in 1897 and resumed pamonship of natural beauty, is hardly known in the classics. in 1907, while the 1m walk survived until 1898, was restored m Xenophon and his companions trudged sturdily, but not for 1907 and finally abandoned in 1909. Walking has never attamed to any degree of popularity in the pleasure Cicero has much to say, in the dialogue concerning Old Age, of the happmess of walking in a garden or among trel- United States and there is no doubt that, once abandoned, the hsed vines, but we must await another age for the right celebra- championship events would not have been revived but for the circumstance of the inclusion, for the first time, of walking races tion of the Euganean hills. So through the middle ages. There were roads and men traversed them, but the Canterbury pilgrims in the Olympic Games of London, 1908 This addition having been journeyed on horseback Goldsmith, in The Traveller, records decided upon, American sportsmen set out to produce national champions as potential Olympic pomts scorers The British dominions overseas, Denmark and Italy also began to take an interest in this form of athletics. Walking races at 3,500 metres (3,827yds ), and rom formed part of the Olympic programme in 1908. Both events were won by a Brighton policeman, G E. Larner, with E J Webb, who had been both sailor and soldier, second In the 3,500 metres, H E Kerr, Australasia, was third; G. Goulding, Canada, fourth; A E M. Rowland, Australasia, fifth; C P M Westergaard, Denmark, sixth, and E Rothman, Sweden, seventh. At the longer distance all six places were filled by representatives of Great Britain. The fifth Olympiad at Stockholm included only one walk, ¢¢, 10,000 metres (6m. 3764yds ) HEEL-AND-TOE WALKING FORM SHOWN IN SUCCESSIVE MOVEMENTS Goulding, Canada, won from Webb, Great Britain, in 46mins an inspirmg tour through storied lands, but his mood was melan- 28%secs. This race was notable by the fact that A. Rasmussen, choly and friendless; nor is it recorded that he found solace afoot Denmark, fimshed third and F. Altimani, Italy, fourth. Neither among the fields and woods of England. Rousseau 1s a more con- of these men ever won an Olympic contest, but in 1913 Altimani vinced walker. “What I most regret,” he says, “is that I kept no achieved “noteworthy performances,” not accepted as records, records of my journeyings Never have I thought so much, existed since there were only two time-keepers, at all distances from a so much, lived so much, been so much myself, if I may dare to half-mile in 3mins. 7secs, to 8m in 57mins. 43%secs, while say it, as when I went alone and afoot.” Long-legged Thomas Rasmussen in r918 set up world’s records at 3,000 metres, 12mins Carlyle was a mighty walker, and he often went alone, given up to 334secs ; 5,000 metres, 2tmins. sggsecs ; 10,000 metres, 45mins reflection in the silence of the moors and hills. Going forth in | 264secs , and 15000 metres, thr romins. 23secs At the seventh the white of the dawn from Muirkirk, where Duneaton water | Olympiad, Antwerp, 1920, two walks were again included and

ne sailed from Mobile with another expedition, but soon after landing at Punta Arenas he was arrested by Commander Hiram Paulding of the American Navy, and had to return to the United

302

WALKLEY—WALLACE

the growing fume of Italy was finally established by Ugo Frigerio, |his ministers and Wall only extorted leave in 1764 by feigning a who won the 3,009 metres race from G. L Parker, Australia, and disease of the eyes He was given a handsome allowance and a R. F Remer, U.S A, un 13mins. r4}secs., and the 10,000 metres grant for life of the crown land near Granada, which afterwards from J. B. Pearman, US A,and C E J Gunn, Great Britain, in became Godoy’s and finally, the duke of Wellington’s 48mins 6fsecs. The 10,000 metres walk at Paris, 1924, was again See Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon

won by Frigerio im 47mins 4gsecs from G R Goodwin, Great Britain, and C C. McMaster, South Africa. i At the exghth congress of the I AA F., 1927, America, Australia, Germany, Great Britam, Holland, Ireland, Italy and South Africa \oted for the retention of walking as an Olympic event, while Austria, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Norway, Rumania Sweden and Switzerland opposed the motion; the representatives of Belgium and Poland refrained from voting, and walking races were, therefore, deleted by 9 votes to 8 i In race walkıng almost all the athlete’s muscles are active and few contests are more trying Under the rules governing fair ‘heel and toe” walking the knee of the grounded leg must be locked and the walker must not lift the rear toe until the forward heel has touched the ground In 1928 the records were.— Race.

|

Time

Winner.

i jhrs mins secs | Iml, 6 2545

|

Country

Date

| |G. H. Goulding

Canada

|

1910

2 miles

13

1125

|G. E Lamer

Gt Britain

1904

3

20

2545

”

”

1905

I4

n

s»

t

n

27

5S n»n

36

6

p

43

9

»

r

IO

y

I

ma te 8

I5 20 235

» 5, »

ols

3

7

3755

»

I5

5775

3

50 58

Iı 59 2 47 13 37

n

n

2635

E

40t5 | G H. Goulding 182; | G E. Larner

1233 52 6ts

|H V L Ross T Grfäth |S C A Schofield

x nour | 8mi 566yds}N Altman 2 hours j15 , 128 „ |H V L. Ross

5

33

[35 s» 4828 ,, | Ugo Frigeno

[6

n

{43 »

943 ”

”

r905 1905

Canada Gt. Britam |

|

Italy

1905

” ”

IQI5 1905

”

Igo

”

1908

z » i

IQII 1870 IQII

43

1928 IQII

”

»

»

1925

See S A. Mussabmi, The Complete Athletic Tramer (1913), Silfverstrand and Rasmussen, Illustrated Text Book of er (po:

WALKLEY,

ARTHUR

BINGHAM

(1855-1926), Eng-

lish dramatic cntic, son of Arthur Hickman Walkley, was born at Bristol on Dec. 17, 1855 He was educated at Warminster school, Balliol and Corpus Christi colleges, Oxford In 1877 he entered the Post Office in a junior capacity, msmg to become

assistant secretary in 191r

He was dramatic critic to the Star,

the Speaker and the Times His criticism was none the less serious for bemg shrewd and witty, and was given greater value by his determination “that his work was the creative art of letters not the writmg of news.” Two volumes kave been published of his collected Times articles He died at Brightlingsea, on Oct. 7, 1926.

(London, 1815) , Documentos inédztos para la historia de Espaia, vo} xcu (Madnd, 1842 et seq)

WALLABY or BRUSH KANGAROO, names applied to the members of a section of the genus Macropus, kangaroos with naked muffle frequenting forests and scrubs (See Kancaroo ) WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823-1913), British naturalist, was born at Usk, Monmouthshire, on Jan 8, 1823 After leaving school he worked as a land surveyor and architect About 1840 he began to take an interest in botany, and began the formation of a herbarium In 1844-1845, while an English master in the Collegiate School at Leicester, he met H W Bates, through whose influence he became a beetle collector, and with whom he

started in 1848 on an expedition to the Amazon

In March 1859

the two naturalists separated, and each wrote an account of his travels and observations Wallace’s Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro was published in 1853 On his voyage home from South America the ship was burnt and his collections lost, except those which he had despatched beforehand In 1854~62 he made a tour in the Malay Archipelago His deeply interesting narrative, The Malay Archipelago, appeared in 1869 The chief Parts of his vast insect collections eventually passed into the Hope Collection of the university of Oxford and the British Museum Wallace divided the Malay Archipelago into a western group of

islands, which in their zoological affimties are Oriental, and an eastern, which are Australian The Oriental Borneo and Bah are respectively divided from Celebes and Lombok by a narrow belt of sea known as “Wallace’s Line,” on the opposite sides of which the indigenous mammalia are as widely divergent as in any two parts of the world Wallace origmated the theory of natural selection during these travels Origin of Species——In February 1855, staying at Sarawak,

in Borneo, he wrote an essay “On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species” (Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist j 1855, p 184) He states the law as follows “Every species has come into existence comcident both in tame and space with a

pre-existing closely-alhied species ” For three years, so he tells us, “the question of kow changes of species could have been brought about was rarely out of my mind ” Finally, m February 1858, during a severe attack of intermittent fever at Ternate, m the Moluccas, he began to thmk of Malthus’s Essay on Population, and, to use his own words, “there suddenly flashed upon me the #dea of the survival of the fittest” The theory was thought out during the rest of the ague fit, drafted the same evening, written out in full in the two succeeding evenings, and sent to Darwin by the next post Darwin in England at once recognized

his own theory m the manuscript essay sent by the young and

almost unknown naturalist in the tropics, then a stranger to him, “T never saw a more stnking coincidence,” he wrote to Lyell on the very day, on June 18, when he received the paper ‘if in the Spanish service, belonged to a family settled in Waterford Wallace had my ms sketch written out in 1842, he could not Debarred from public service at home as a Roman Catholic, he have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as served in an Insh regiment—probably—of the Spanish army heads of my chapters ” during the expedition to Sicily in 1718, Appointed secretary to Under the advice of Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph Hooker, the duke of Liria, his knowledge of languages, his adaptabuhty, his the essay was read, together with an abstract of Darwin’s own Irish wit and self-confidence made lnm a favourite not only with views, as a joint paper at the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858 the duke of Liria, but with other Spanish authorities. He became The title of Wallace’s section was “On the Tendency of Varieties known to Jose Patiño, mmister to Philip V, and was sent by him to depart indefinitely from the Original Type” The “struggle on a mission to Spanish America In 1747 he was employed in the for existence,” the rate of multiplication of animals, and the peace negotiations at Aix-la-Chapelle, and in 1748 was named dependence of their average numbers upon food supply, are very minister in London, where he was popular A partisan of an clearly demonstrated, and the following conclusion was reached English alhance, his views recommended him to the favour of “Those that prolong their existence can only be the most perfect Ferdinand VI. (1746-59), whose policy was resolutely peaceful. in health and vigour; . the weakest and least perfectly orFrom 1752-64 he was minister of foreign affairs at Madrid Charles TTI. (1759-88) continued Wall in office, but the king’s ganized must always succumb ” . The difference between Lamarck’s theory and natural selection . Close relations with the French branch of the House of Bourbon is very clearly pointed out “The powerful retractile talons made Wall’s position very trying. as a foreigner he was suspected of the falcon and the cat tribes have not been produced or mof favour to the English Charles, however, detested changing creased by the volition of those animals; but among the different

WALL, RICHARD

(1694-1778), diplomatist and minister

WALLACE yaneties which occurred in the earlier and less highly organized forms of these groups, those always survived longest which had the greatest facities for seizing their prey. Neither did the raffe acquire its long neck by desiring to reach the foliage of more lofty shrubs, and constantly stretching its neck for the purpose, but because any varieties which occurred among its antitypes with a longer neck than usual at once secured a fresh

range of pasture over the same ground as their shorter-necked companions, and on the first scarcity of food were thereby enabled

to outhve them ” With such clear statements as these in the paper of July x, 1858, it 1s remarkable that even well-known naturalists should have failed to comprehend the difference between Lamarck’s and the Darwin-Wallace theory.

Wallace also alluded

to the resemblance of animals, and more especially of insects, to their surroundings, and points out that “those races having colours

best adapted to concealment from their enemies would inevitably survive the longest ”

Natural Selection.—In 1870 Wallace’s two essays, written at Sarawak and Ternate, were published with others as a volume, Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. In the additional essays, the new theory is applied to the interpretation of certain classes of facts In this and other works, Wallace differs from Darwin on certain points Thus the two concluding essays contend that man has not, lke the other animals, been produced by the unaided operation of natural selection, but that other forces have also been in operation. We here see the in-

393

and Dorking (three years). dalming near

In 1881 he built a cottage at Go-

the Charterhouse

school, and grew

nearly

1,000

species of plants in the garden which he made In 1889 he moved to Dorsetshire After his return to England in 1862 Wallace visited the contment, especially Switzerland, for rest and change (1866, 1896) and the study of botany and glacial phenomena (August 1895) In October 1887 he went for a lecturing tour ın the United States. He delivered six Lowell lectures in Boston. He saw the Yosemite Valley, the Big Trees, and botanized ın the Sierra Nevada and at Gray’s Peak The first Darwin medal of the Royal Society was awarded to A R. Wallace in 1890, and he had received the Royal medal in 1868. A pension was awarded hım by Mr Gladstone at the beginning of 1881. In 1910 he received the Order of Merit. Wallace died at Broadstone, Dorset, on Nov. 7, 1913. See A. R Wallace, My Life (new ed, 1908), J. Marchant, A. R Wallace: letters and reminiscenses (2 vols., 1916) ; L. T. Hogben, A. R. Wallace (1918) , B. Petronijevic, C. Darwin and A. R. Wallace (1925).

WALLACE, SIR DONALD MACKENZIE (1841-1919), British author and journalst, was born on Nov. 11, 1841. He was

educated at the universities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Berlin and Heidelberg and at the Ecole de Droit, Paris When 28 years of age he was invited by a friend to visit Russia, and became so much interested that he remaimed there for six years His Russa (1877) had a great success, and was at once recognized as a classic Mackenzie Wallace acted as correspondent of The Times in St. fluence of his convictions on the subject of “spiritualism.” He Petersburg (Leningrad), Berlin and Constantinople, and after the expressed his dissatisfaction with the hypothesis of “sexual selec- battle of Tell-el-Kebir (1882) in Egypt From 1884-89 he was tion” by which Darwin sought to explain the conspicuous char- in India as private secretary to the viceroy, Lord Duffenn, and acters which are displayed during the courtship of animals. The to his successor, Lord Lansdowne From 1891-99 he was director expression of his opinion on both these points of divergence from of the foreign department of The Times. In 1899 he undertook Darwin will be found in Darwinism (1889). the editorship of the New Volumes (issued in 1902 as the 1oth Darwin died before the controversy upon the possibilty of edition) of The Encyclopedza Britannica, but only remained on the hereditary transmission of acquired characters arose over this work a few months He had been created K CLE. in 1887, the writings of Weismann, but Wallace freely accepted the gen- and was made K CVO in Igor In addition to Ins book on eral results of the German zoologist’s teaching, and in Darwin- Russia he pubhshed Egypt and the Egyptzan Question (1883) and ism has presented a complete theory of the causes of evolution The Web of Empire (1902). Wallace died at Lymington, Hants, unmixed with any trace of Lamarck’s use or disuse of inheritance, on Jan. Io, 1919. or Buffon’s hereditary effect of the direct influence of surroundWALLACE, LEWIS (LEW) (1827-1905), American solings Tropical Natue and other Essays appeared in 1878, since dier and author, was born at Brookville (Ind), April 10, 1827. republished combined with the 1871 Essays, of which it formed He abandoned law in Indianapolis to recrmt volunteers for the the natural continuation His Geographical Distribution of Ani- Mexican War, and served in 1846-47. In the Civil War he mals (1876), is a monumental work, which justifies its author’s served in the West Virginia campaign After the capture of Fort hope that it may bear “a simular relation to the eleventh and Donelson as major-general, he was engaged at Shiloh, and comtwelfth chapters of the Origin of Species as Mr Darwin’s Am- manded the Eighth Corps at Baltimore. By delaying the Conmals and Plants under Domestication bears to the first” Island federate general J. A Early at Monocacy he saved Washington Life, a supplement to the last-named work, appeared in 1880. from almost certain capture. General Wallace served as presiMiscellaneous Works—Wallace published Miracles and dent of the courts of inquiry which mvestigated the conduct of Modern Spiritualism in 1875 (new ed 1896) Here is given an General D. C Buell and condemned Henry Wirz, commander of account of the reasons which induced him to accept beliefs which the Confederate prison at Andersonville (Ga). He was also a are shared by so small a proportion of scientific men. These member of the court which tned the alleged conspirators against reasons are purely experimental, and in no way connected with President Lincoln He resigned from the Army in 1865 to return to Christianity, for he had long before given up all belief in revealed the bar. He served as governor of New Mexico Territory (1878religion In 1882 he published Land Nationalzatson, in which he 81) and as minister to Turkey (1881-85), but declined the mission argued the necessity of state ownership of land, a principle which to Brazil under President Harrison He died at Crawfordsville he had originated long before the appearance of Henry George’s (ind.), Feb 15, 1905 His literary reputation rests upon three work. In Forty-five Years of Registration Statistics (1885) he historical romances. The Fair God (1873), a story of the conmaintained that vaccination is useless and dangerous Wallace quest of Mexico; The Prince of India (1803), deahng with the also published an account of what he held to be the greatest dis- Wandering Jew and the Byzantine empire; and his greatest popular success, Ben Hur (1880), an absorbing tale of the coming of coveries as well as the failures of the roth century, The Wonderful Century (1898; new ed 1903). His later works include Christ, which was translated into several languages, and provided Studses, Scientific and Social (1900), Man’s Place in the Universe spectacular entertainment on the stage and 1n moving pictures, the (1903) and his Autobiography (1905) Later works were The chariot scene being famous. Lew Wallace: An Autobiography was World and Life (1910) and Social Environment and Moral Pro- published in 1906.

gress (1912). Possessed of a bold and original mind, his activities

radiated in many directions, apparently rather attracted than repelled by the unpopularity of a subject. A non-theological Athanasius contra mundum, he has the truest missionary spirit.

Wallace was married in 1866 to the eldest daughter of the botanist, William Mitten, of Hurstpierpoint, Sussex. In 1871

he built a house at Grays, Essex, in an old chalk-pit, and after living there five years, moved successively to Croydon (two years)

WALLACE, SIR RICHARD, Bart. (1818-1890), English

art collector and philanthropist, was born in London on July 26, 1818, and died in Paris on July 20, 1890. He was a natural son of the fourth Marquess of Hertford and Agnes Jackson and was educated, mainly at Paris under the auspices of his father’s mother,

Maria, wife of the third marquess. At Paris he was well known in society, and became an assiduous collector of all sorts of valuable objets d'art From 1857 Wallace devoted himself to assisting his

304

WALLACE

father. in Paris, to acquire a magnificent collection of the finest |the pursuit as far as Berwick Sir Andrew Moray was killed examples or painting, armour, furniture and bric-d-brac In 1870 Its results were important The English were everywhere driven the Marquess of Hertford died unmarried, bequeathing to Wallace from Scotland To increase the alarm of the English, as well as to Hertford house and its contents, the house in Paris, and large relieve the famine which then prevailed, Wallace organized a great Some of the finest things in the collection were raid into the north of England, in the course of which he devas. Irtsh estates then transterred to Hertford house. In 1871 he was created a tated the country to the gates of Newcastle On his return he was baronet for his services in relief and hospital equipment during elected guardian of the kingdom In this office he set himself tg the siege of Paris. From 1873 to 1885 he sat in parlament for reorganize the army and to regulate the affairs of the country Hig Lisburn, but he lived mostly in Paris among his art treasures In measures were marked by much wisdom and vigour, and for a 1878 he was one of the British commissioners at the Paris Exhibi- short time succeeded in securing order, even in the face of the tion, and he was also a trustee of the National Gallery and a jealousy and opposition of the nobles Battle of Falkirk.—Edward was in Flanders when the news of governor of the National Gallery of Ireland. He married in 1871 the daughter of a French officer, and Lady Wallace, who died in 1897, bequeathed his great art collection to the British nation It is now housed in Hertford house, Manchester square, London,

which was acquired and adapted by the government See biography in Catalogue of the Wallace Collectzon.

WALLACE,

SIR WILLIAM

(c¢ 1270-1305), the popular

national hero of Scotland, is believed to have been the second son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie and Auchinbothie, m Renfrewshire The only authonty for the events of his early life is the metrical history of Bind Harry, who lived about two centuries later than Wallace, during which a considerable body of legend had probably gathered round the name At the same time he professes to follow as his “autour” an account that had been written in Latin by John Blair, the personal friend and chaplain of Wallace himself. Blair’s account has penshed. In his boyhood, according to the usual accounts, he resided for some time at Dumipace, ın Stirhngshire, with an uncle, who is styled “parson” of the place His education was continued at Dundee, where he made the acquaintance of John Blair. On account of an incident that happened at Dundee—his slaughter of a young Englishman named Selby, for an insult offered to him— he is said to have been outlawed, and so driven into rebellion against the English. He gradually gathered round him a body of desperate men whom he led in various attacks upon the English Several of the more patriotic nobles—including the steward of Scotland, Sir Andrew Moray, Sir John de Graham, Douglas the Hardy, Wishart, bishop of Glasgow, and others—joined him. An attack was made upon the Enghsh justiciar, Ormsby, who was holding his court at Scone. The justiciar himself escaped, but

many of his followers were captured or slain The burning of the Barns of Ayr, the quarters of English soldiers, m revenge for the treacherous slaughter of bis uncle, Sir Ronald Crawford, and other Scottish noblemen, followed. The success of these exploits induced the English king to send an army, under the command of Sir Henry Percy and Sir Robert Clifford, against the msurgents The English came up with Wallace at Irvine, when all Wallace’s titled friends left him and made submission to Edward, except the ever faithful Sir Andrew Moray. The treaty of Irvine by which these Scottish nobles made submis-

sion, is printed in Rymer’s Foedera It is dated July 9, 1297, and is the first public document in which the name of Sir William Wallace occurs

Wallace retired to the north, and although deserted

by the barons was soon at the head of a large army. In a short time he recovered almost all the fortresses held by the English to the north of the Forth. He had begun the siege of Dundee when he heard that an Enghsh army, led by the earl of Surrey and Cressingham the treasurer, was on its march northward Battle of Stirling.—Leaying the citizens of Dundee to continue the siege of the castle, he made a rapid march to Stirling. Encamping in the neighbourhood of the Abbey Craig—on which now stands the national monument to his memory—he watched

the passage of the Forth. After an unsuccessful attempt to bring Wallace to terms, the English commander, on the morning of Sept. 11, 1297, began to cross the bridge When about one half of his army had crossed, and while they were still m disorder, they were attacked with such fury by Wallace, that almost all— Cressingham among the number—were slain, or driven into the river and drowned Those on the south side of the river were seized with panic and fled tumultuously, having first set fire to the bridge. The Scots, however, crossed by a ford, and contmued

this successful revolt reached him

He hastened home, and at the

head of a great army entered Scotland in July 1298 Wallace slowly retired before the English monarch, driving off all supplies and wasting the country The nobles as usual for the most part deserted his standard Edward, compelled by famine, had already given orders for a retreat when he received information of Wallace’s position and intentions The army, then at Karkhston, was immediately set in motion, and next morning (July 22, 1298) Wallace was brought to battle in the vicinity of Falkirk After an obstinate fight the Scots were overpowered and defeated with great loss Among the slain was Sir John de Graham, the bosom frend of Wallace, whose death, as Blind Harry tells, threw the hero into

a frenzy of rage and grief The account of his distress is one of the finest and most touching passages in the poem With the remans of his army Wallace found refuge for the might ın the Torwood—known to him from his boyish hfe at Dunipace He then retreated to the north, burning the town and castle of Stirling on his way He resigned the office of guardian, and betook himself again to predatory warfare against the English Betrayal—At this point his history again becomes obscure He 1s known to have paid a visit to France, with the purpose of obtaiming aid for his country from the French king This visit 3s narrated with many untrustworthy details by Blind Harry; but the fact is established by other and indisputable evidence When in the winter of 1303-1304 Edward received the submission of the Scottish nobles, Wallace was expressly excepted from all terms A price was set upon his head, and the English governors and cap-

tains in Scotland had orders to use every means for his capture

On Aug 5, 1305 he was taken—as is generally alleged, through treachery—at Robroyston, near Glasgow, by Sir John Menteith, carried to the castle of Dumbarton, and thence conveyed ın fetters and strongly guarded to London He reached London on the 22nd of August, and next day was taken to Westminster Hall, where he was impeached as a trartor by Sir Peter Mallorie, the kung’s Justice To the accusation Wallace made the simple reply that he could not be a traitor to the king of England, for he never was his subject, and never swore fealty to him He was found guilty and condemned to death The sentence was executed the same day with circumstances of unusual cruelty. For bibhography see the article ın the Dict Nat Biog The principal modern lives are James Mour’s (1886), and A F Murison’s (1898) (A.F Hv, X)

WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1812-1865), Irish composer, was born at Waterford, Ireland, on Mar. II, 1812 He led a roving and adventurous career ın Australia, the South Seas, India, and S America

In 1845 he settled ın London and

in November of that year his opera Maritana was played at Drury Lane theatre with great success This was followed by Matilda of Hungary (1847), Lurline (1860), The Amber Witch (1861), Love's Triumph (2362), ond The Desert Flower (1863). Ile also courpo-cd for We vicra He Cec om Oc. I2, 1865

WALLACE, a city of Idaho, on the Coeur d’Alene river -Population In 1930, 3,634. The city lies in a cup in the mowntains, at an altitude of 2,733 ft, and 1s the trading centre for the Coeur d’Alene mining district, which produces 25% of the lead and 20% of the silver mmed in the United States and had ın 1927 a total output valued at S28 574 891

About 2 3m

W

15 the old

Idaho Mission, built in 1853 without nails by three Jesuit priests, aided by the Coeur d’Alene Indians Wallace was settled in 1884 and incorporated in 1892

WALLACK—WALLENSTEIN

305

(1795-1864), Anglo-

and then studied and practised law He afterwards became a American actor and manager, born in London Aug 24,1795 His member of the managerial board of the Stockholm Enskilda “arents and their four children were all actors of ment From Bank, bemg appointed managmg director ın 191x and vicechairman in 1920. He founded, or reorganized, a number of 1807 to 1818 he appeared chiefly at the Drury Lane Theatre in industrial undertakings in Sweden, and also, in 1905, the Norsk London Between 1818 and 1852 he frequently crossed and re- Hydro-elektrisk Kvaelstof Aktieselskab in Norway, and was one crossed the Atlantic, playing alternate engagements at London of the founders of the Central Bank for Norway and of the and New York He settled mn New York permanently in 1852 and opened the first Wallack’s Theatre at the corner of Broadway Swedish Industrial Union In 1916 and 1917, and in 1917-18, he took part in the negotiations with the Allied Powers concerning and Broome streets Here he remained with a notable company tradmg matters He became a member of the neutral Powers’ until 1862 and then removed to the second Wallack’s Theatre economic section of the Supreme Economic Council at Paris in the was which he himself built at 13th Street and Broadway His best-known house in the city Thackeray praises his Shylock, 1919, took part in the Amsterdam meetmg m 1919, and was and Joseph Jefferson, his Don Caesar de Bazan He marnied the Swedish representative at the Brussels Economic Conference in daughter of John H Johnstone, a comedian long popular in Eng- 1920 He was finance delegate at the Genoa Conference in 1922, a member of the Finance Committee of the League of Nations land Their son, Joun Lester WaLLAcK, was born in New York in 1924, and chairman of the committee for arranging the tax on City Jan 1, 1820 After playing on the Dublin and London stage he made his first New York appearance in 1847 at the Broadway German industry under the Dawes Plan WALLENSTEIN (properly Watpsten), ALBRECHT Theatre He played here two years, then at the Bowery, Niblo’s Garden, Brougham’s Lyceum, and finally, beginning in 1852, in WENZEL EUSEBIUS VON, duke of Friedland, Sagan and Mecklenburg (1583-1634), German soldier and statesman, was leading parts at his father’s theatre He succeeded to the management of Wallack’s Theatre in 1861, continuing it in the traditions born of a noble but by no means wealthy or influential famuly at Herrmanic, Bohemia, on Sept 15, 1583. His parents were of is father In 1882 he opened the third Wallack’s Theatre at goth street and Broadway. He afterwards conducted both theatres Lutherans, and in early youth he attended the school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Koschumberg After the death with marked success until his death, Sept 6, 1888, at Stamford, Conn He had one of the largest repertoires of any American of his parents he was sent by his uncle, Slawata, to the Jesuit college of nobles at Olmittz, after which he professed, but hardly actor, and showed particular aptitude for ght comedy and romanaccepted, the Roman Catholic faith. In 1599 he went to the unitic parts He wrote his own Memories of Fifty Years (1889). WALLAROO, a seaport of South Australia Pop 3,200 versity of Altdorf, which he had to leave in consequence of some Tt was the port and smeltimg centre for the once famous copper- boyish follies Afterwards he studied at Bologna and Padua, and mining area of Moonta and Kadina which, though considerable visited many places in southern and western Europe While in ore-reserves are believed still to exist, has at present closed Padua he gave much attention to astrology, and during the rest of his life he never wavered in the conviction that he might trust down

WALLACK,

WALLASEY,

JAMES

WILLIAM

county borough,

Cheshire,

England

Pop.

(1931) 97,465 It is served by the LMS and GW railways, and three ferries connect it with Liverpool The church of St Hilary, a foundation of the roth century, was rebuilt in 1759 and again in 1858 after a fire The lowest part of the tower 1s probably 13th century work and bears a date 1536 In the west is Leasowe castle, supposed to have been built by the sth earl of Derby The Birkenhead docks (gv) were built on Wallasey Pool, when remains of a submerged forest with animal skeletons were found New Brighton im the north is a watering place and residential area A promenade traverses the river front and there are piers at New Brighton and Egremont The municipal borough was incoiporated ın Igro, the county borough in #913 and the parliamentary borough in 1918

WALLA WALLA, a city in the southeastern part of Wash-

ington, U.SA. The population was 15,503 in 1920, of which 87% was native white It was 15,976 in 1930 by the Federal census It is the metropolis of the fertile Walla Walla valley, stretching away to the Blue mountams on the east, which produces large crops of wheat, alfalfa, vegetables, apples, prunes,

cherries, and melons and large quantities of hve stock and poultry It is the seat of Whitman college (chartered 1859) and Walla Walla college (Adventist; 1891) A mussion of the Amencan Board at Wauilatpu, 5 m west, was attacked by Indians ın 1847, who massacred the missionary, Whitman, his wife, and 12 others, carrying off the rest of the residents as prisoners.

In 1857 Ft

Walla Walla was bult by the U S Government on the sıte of the present city About the fort ın 1857—58 a settlement grew up Walla Walla was laid out and organized as a town m 1859 and in 1862 it was chartered as a city. Walla Walla is served by the Northern Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Co’s {Union Pacific) hnes An airport was opened in 1928 The name 1s a Nez Percé Indian term, meaning “many waters”

WALL-CREEPER, a bird (Tichodroma muraric) allied to

the tree-creeper (qv), but larger and more brilliantly coloured It inhabits central Europe passerine family Certhudae

‘The wall-creeper

belongs

to the

WALLENBERG, MARCUS (1864), Swedish financier, brother of Knut Agathon Wallenberg, financier and Swedish a naval officer, as career his began foreign minister (1914-18),

to the stars for indications as to his destiny For some time Wallenstein served ın the army of the emperor Rudolph II in Hungary, which was commanded by a methodical professional soldier, Giorgio Basta His personal gallantry at the siege of Gran won for him a company without purchase. In 1606 he returned

to Bohemia, and soon afterwards married an elderly widow, Lucretia Nikossie von Landeck, whose great estates in Moravia he inherited after her death in 1614 His new wealth enabled hm to offer two hundred horse, splendidly equipped, to the archduke Ferdmand for his war with Venice in 1617. Wallenstein commanded them in person, and from that time he enjoyed both favour at. court and popularity in the army. He made a wealthy marriage with Isabella Katharina, daughter of Count Harrach. In the disturbances which broke out in Bohemia in 1618 and proved to be the begmning of the Thirty Years’ War, advances were made to Wallenstein by the revolutionary party; but he preferred to associate himself with the imperial cause, and he carried off the treasure-chest of the Moravian estates to Vienna, part of

its contents bemg given him for the equwpment of a regiment of cuirassiers At the head of this regiment Wallenstein won great distinction under Buquoy in the war against Mansfeld He was not present at the battle of the Weisser Berg, but he did brilliant service as second-in-command of the army which opposed Bethlen Gabor in Moravia, and recovered his estates which the nationalists had seized ‘The battle of the Weisser Berg placed Bohemia at the mercy of the emperor Ferdinand, and Wallenstein turned the prevailing confusion to his own advantage He secured the great estates belonging to his mother’s family, and the emperor sold to him on easy terms vast tracts of confiscated lands Has possessions he was allowed to form into a territory called Friedland, and he was raised in 1622 to the rank of an mmperial count palatine, in 1623 to that of a prince In 1625 he was made duke of Friedland Meantime he fought with skill and success against Bethlen Gabor, and so enhanced his reputation at the dark moment when Vienna was in peril and the emperor’s general Buquoy dead on the field of battle He was not only the detached visionary with vast ambitions, but also the model ruler of his principality He placed the administration of justice on a firm basis, founded schools, and developed agriculture and mining and manufactures When the war against the Bohemians had become a widespread

306

WALLER

conflagration. Ferdinand found he had no forces to oppose to the Danes and the Northern Protestants other than the Army of the League, which was not his, but the powerful and mdependent Maximulian’s, instrument ‘Wallenstein saw his opportunity and early in 1626 he offered to raise not a regiment or two, but a whole

army for the imperial service After some negotiations the offer was accepted, the understanding being that the troops were to be maintained at the cost of the countnes they might occupy Wallenstein’s populanty soon brought great numbers of recruits to his standard He soon found himself at the head of 30,000 (not long afterwards of 50,000) men For the campaigns of this army in 1625, 1626 and 1627, against Mansfeld, the Northern

Protestants and Bethlen Gabor see THIRTY YEARS WAR

of 1633 much astonishment was caused by his apparent unwilling. ness to attack the enemy He was in fact preparing to desert the emperor In the war against the Saxons he had offered them as terms of peace the revocation of the Edict, Religious toleration and the destruction of the separatist régime, as well as not inconsiderable aggrandisements for his own power, formed his programme, so far as historians have been able to reconstruct 1t, and becoming convinced from Ferdinand’s obstinacy that the Edict would never be rescinded, he began to prepare to “force a just peace on the emperor mn the interests of united Germany” With this object he entered into negotiations with Saxony, Brandenburg, Sweden and France He had vast and vague schemes for the reorganization of the entire constitutional system of the empire,

Having established peace in Hungary, Wallenstein proceeded, with himself as supreme authority Irritated by the distrust excited by his proposals, and anxious in 1627, to clear Silesia of some remnants of Mansfeld’s army; and at this time he bought from the emperor the duchy of Sagan, to make his power felt, he at last assumed the offensive against his outlay in the conduct of the war being taken into account in the Swedes and Saxons, winning his last victory at Stemau on the conclusion of the bargain He then joined Tilly in the struggle the Oder in October He then resumed the negotiations. In with Christian IV., and afterwards took possession of the duchy December he retired with his army to Bohemia, fixing his headof Mecklenburg, which was granted to him in reward for his quarters at Pilsen It had soon been suspected in Vienna that services, the hereditary dukes being displaced on the ground that Wallenstein was playing a double part, and the emperor, enthey had helped the Danish king He failed to capture Stralsund, couraged by the Spaniards at his court, anxiously sought for which he besieged for several months m 1628. This important means of getting rid of him Wallenstein was well aware of the reverse caused him bitter disappointment, for he had hoped that designs formed against him, but displayed little energy in his by obtaining free access to the Baltic he might be able to make attempts to thwart them This was due in part, no doubt, to illthe emperor as supreme at sea as he seemed to be on land It health, in part to the assurances of his astrologer, Battista Sem His principal officers assembled around him at a banquet on was a part of Wallenstein’s scheme of German unity that he should obtain possession of the Hanseatic towns, and through them Jan 12, 1634, when he submitted to them a declaration to the destroy or at least defy the naval power of the Scandinavian effect that they would remain true to him This declaration they kingdom, the Netherlands and England This plan was com- signed. More than a month later a second paper was signed; pletely frustrated by the resistance of Stralsund, and even more but on this occasion the officers’ expression of loyalty to ther by the emperor’s “Edict of Restitution,” which not only rallied general was associated with an equally emphatic expression of against him all the Protestants but brought in a great soldier and loyalty to their emperor On Jan 24 the emperor had signed a secret patent removing him from his command, and imperial a model army, Gustavus and the Swedes At the same time the victory of the principles of the League agents had been labouring to undermine Wallenstein’s influence involved the fall of Wallenstein’s influence. By his ambitions, his On the 7th two of his officers, Piccolomini and Aldringer, had high dreams of unity and the incessant exactions of his army, he intended to seize him at Pilsen, but finding the troops there loyal bad made for himself a host of enemies. He was reported to have to their general, they had kept quiet But a patent charging spoken of the arrogance of the princes, and 1t appeared probable Wallenstein and two of his officers with high treason, and naming that he would try to bring them, Catholics and Protestants alike, the generals who were to assume the supreme command of the into rigid subjection to the crown Again and again the emperor army, was signed on Feb 18, and published in Prague was advised to dismiss him Ferdinand was very unwilling to Wallenstein realized the danger, and on Feb 23, accompanied part with one who had served him so well; but the demand was by his most intimate fends, and guarded by about 1,000 men, pressed so urgently in 1630 that he had no alternative, and in he went from Pilsen to Eger, hoping to meet the Swedes under September Wallenstein was removed Duke Bernhard. After the arrival of the party at Eger, Colonel Wallenstein accepted the decision calmly, gave his army to Gordon, the commandant, and Colonels Butler and Leslie agreed Tilly, and retired to Gitschin, the capital of bis duchy of Fried- to rid the emperor of his enemy. On the evening of Feb land ‘There, and at his palace in Prague, he hved in an atmos- 25, Wallenstein’s supporters Illo, Kinsky, Terzky and Neumann phere of mysterious magnificence, the rumours of which penetrated were received at a banquet by the three colonels and then murall Germany. dered Butler, Captain Devereux and a number of soldiers hurried Gustavus Adolphus had landed ın Germany, and it soon became to the house where Wallenstein was stayimg, and broke into his obvious that he was formidable Tilly was defeated at Breitenfeld room He was instantly killed by a thrust of Devereux’s partisan and on the Lech, where he received a mortal wound, and Gustavus Wallenstein was buried at Gitschin, but in 1732 the remains were advanced to Munich, while Bohemia was occupied by his allies the removed to the castle chapel of Muinchengratz The murderers Saxons ‘The emperor entreated Wallenstein to come once more were handsomely rewarded for their so-called act of justice to his aid. Wallenstem at first declined, he had, indeed, been See Forster, Albrecht von Wallenstein (1834), Aretin, Wallenstemm secretly negotiating with Gustavus Adolphus, in the hope of de- (1846) ; Helbig, Wallenstein und Armm, 1632~1634 (1850), and Kaiser stroying the League and its projects and of building his new Ger- Ferdinand und der Herzog von Friedland, 1633-1634 (1853) ; Hurter, many without French assistance However, he accepted Ferdinand’s offers, and in the spring of 1632 he raised a fresh army as

strong as the first within a few weeks and took the field. This

Zur Geschichte Wallensteins (1855) , Fiedler, Zur Geschichte Wallensteins (1860) , L. von Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins (6th ed. Leipzig, 1910) , Gindely, Geschichte des dresssigjahngen Kriegs (1869), S. R. Gardiner, Thirty Vears’ War (1874) , P. Wiegler, Wallenstesm (1920);

army was placed absolutely under his control, so that he assumed H. V. Sebik, WaWensteins Ende . . . (Vienna, 1920). the position of an independent prince rather than of a subject WALLER, AUGUSTUS VOLNEY (1816-1870), English His first am was to drive the Saxons from Bohemia—an object physiologist, was born at Faversham, Kent, on Dec. 21, 1816, and which he accomplished without serious difficulty. Then he ad- died at Geneva on Sept. 18, 1870 He studied in Paris and carried vanced against Gustavus Adolphus, whom he opposed near Nurem- out researches at Bonn and Paris in neurology. The “Wallerian berg and after the battle of the Alte Veste dislodged In Novem- theory of degeneration” (see Meprcine) was propounded by hm ber came the great battle of Lutzen (gv ), in which the imperial- in 1850 1n a paper in Philosophical Transactions ists were defeated, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed. WALLER, EDMUND (1606-1687), English poet, was born To the dismay of Ferdinand, Wallenstein made no use of the on March 9, 1606, the eldest son of Robert Waller of Coleshill opportunity provided for him by the death of the Swedish king and Anne Hampden, his wife. Early in his childhood his father but withdrew to winter quarters in Bohemia, In the campaign | moved to Beaconsfield Waller was educated at Eton and King’s

WALLER—WALLINGFORD

397

left without a degree, and it 1s believed | in the Thirty Years’ War He was knighted ın 1622 after taking a e iCambridge 621 he sat as Hea member for Agmondesham (Amersham) part in Vere’s expedition to the Palatiate. In 1640, he became in the last parhament of James I. Clarendon says that Waller was member of parhament for Andover and supported the parlament “pursed un parhaments ” In that of 1624 he represented Ilches- when the Civil War broke out in 1642. As colonel, he captured

jer, and ın the first of Charles I. Chipping Wycombe. The first act by which Waller distinguished himself, however, was his surreptitious marriage with a wealthy ward of the Court of Alder-

men, in 1631 He was brought before the Star Chamber for this offence, and heavily fined After bearing him a son and a daughter at Beaconsfield, Mrs. Waller died in 1634 It was about this time that the poet was elected into Falkland’s “Club.” It is supposed that about 1635 he met Lady Dorothy Sidney, eldest daughter of the earl of Leicester, who was then eighteen years of age. He formed a romantic passion for this girl, whom he celebrated under the name of Sacharissa She‘rejected him, and married Lord Spencer in 1639 In 1640 Waller was once more MP for Amersham, later, in the Long Parliament, he represented St Ives Waller had hitherto supported the party of Pym, but he now left him for the group of Falkland and Hyde An extraordinary and obscure conspiracy against Parhament, in favour of

Portsmouth, Farnham, Winchester and other places and in 1643 as major-general he operated around Gloucester and Bristol (see

Great REBELLION), winning a victory at Highnam and capturing Hereford He then opposed the advance of Sir Ralph Hopton and the Royalist western army, and though defeated at Lansdown (near Bath) he shut up the enemy in Devizes However, Hopton and a relieving force from Oxford completely defeated Waller’s army at Roundway Down, many reproaching Essex, the commander-in-chief, for allowing the Oxford royalists to turn against Waller The Londoners, who had called him “William the Conqueror,” raised a new army, but the forces were distinctively local, and resented long marches and hard work far from ther own counties. At the first siege of Basing House, they mutinied in face of the enemy, and their gallantry at critical moments, such

as the surprise of Alton in December 1643 and the recapture of Arundel in January 1644, but partially redeemed their general bad conduct Waller himself, a general of the highest skill, “the best shifter and chooser of ground” on either side, was, like Turenne, terror of discovery, Waller was accused of dicvlaying a very mean at his best at the head of a small and highly-disciplined army poltroonery, and of confessing “whatever he had said, heard, Though successful m stopping Hopton’s second advance at thought or seen, and all that he knew . . . or suspected of others.” Cheriton (March 1644), he was defeated by Charles I. in the Waller was called before the bar of the House in July, and made war of manoeuvre which ended with the action of Cropredy an abject speech of recantation His life was spared and he was Bridge (June), and in the second battle of Newbury mn October committed to the Tower, whence, on paying a fine of £10,000, he his tactical success at the village of Speen led to nothing His was released and bamshed the realm in Nov 1643. He married a last expeditions were made into the west for the relief of Taunton, second wife, Mary Bracey of Thame, and went over to Calais, and in these he had Cromwell as his lieutenant-general By this afterwards taking up his residence at Rouen. time the confusion in all the armed forces of the parliament had In 1645 the Poems of Waller were first published in London, in reached such a height that reforms were at last taken in hand. three editions Many of the lyrics were already set to music The original suggestion of the celebrated “New Model” army by Henry Lawes In 1646 Waller travelled with Evelyn in Switz- came from Waller (July 2, 1644). Simultaneously came the Selferland and Italy During the worst period of the exle Waller Denying Ordinance, which required all members of parliament to managed to “keep a table” for the Royalists in Paris, although in lay down their military commands, Waller had already requested order to do so he was obliged to sell his wife’s jewels At the to be releved—and his active military career came to an end close of 165x the House of Commons revoked Waller’s sentence Embittered and a Presbyterian, he was constantly engaged in of banishment, and he was allowed to return to Beaconsfield, opposing the Independents and the army politicians, and in supwhere he lived very quietly until the Restoration. porting the Presbyterian-Royalist opposition to the CommonIn 1655 he published A Panegyric to my Lord Protector, and wealth. was made a Commissioner for Trade a month or two later. He He was several times imprisoned between 1648 and 1659 He followed this up, in 1660, by a poem To the King, upon his promoted the final negotiations for the restoration of Charles IT. Mayesty’s Happy Return. Being challenged by Charles II to and sat in the Convention Parliament He died on the roth of explain why this latter piece was inferior to the eulogy of Crom- September 1668 well, the poet smartly replied, “Sir, we poets never succeed so well See Wood’s Athenae Oxontenses, ed Bhss, in 812, and two partial m writing truth as in fiction’? He entered the House of Commons autobiographies, “Recollections by General Sir William Waller” again in 1661, as M P, for Hastings, and Burnet has recorded that (printed m The Poetry of Anna Matilda, 1788), and Vindication of the for the next quarter of a century “it was no House 1f Waller was Character, etc. (1797).

the kmg, which is known as “Waller’s Plot,” occupied the spring of 1643, but on May 30 he and his friends were arrested In the

not there” His sympathies were tolerant and kindly, and he conNonconformists. One famous speech of

stantly defended the Waller’s was “Let us ‘tis the best advice the you, and so God bless

look to our Government, fleet and trade, oldest Parliament man among you can give you” After the death of his second wife,

in 1677, Waller retired to his house called Hall Barn at Beacons-

field In 1661 he had published his poem, St James’ Park; in 1664 he had collected his poetical works, in 1666 appeared his Imstructions to a Patter; and in 1685 his Divine Poems The final collection of his works is dated 1686, but there were posthumous additions made in 1690 He died at Hall Barn, with his children and his grandchildren about him, on Oct 21, 1687. Waller’s lyrics were at one time admired to excess, but with the exception of “Go, lovely Rose” and one or two others, they have

greatly lost their charm. His fancy was plain and trite. He made writing 1n the serried couplet the habit and the fashion, It was this regular heroic measure which was carried to so high a perfection

by Dryden and Pope.

The only critical edition of Waller’s Poetical Works is that edited, with a careful biography, by G. Thorn-Drury, mn 1893 (E.G; X)

WALLER, SIR WILLIAM (c 1597-1668), English soldier,

son of Sir Thomas Waller, heutenant of Dover, was educated at

WALLINGFORD,

a town and borough of Berkshire, Eng-

land, on the Thames, 55 m

W. of London by the G W. railway.

Pop (1931) 2,840.

» The site of Wallingford was occupied by a Romano-British settlement Wallingford was a fortified town before the Conquest, and, though burned by Sweyn in 1006, was the most important borough in Berkshire at the time of the Domesday Survey. The town suffered greatly from the Black Death, and its decline was accelerated by the building, in the early x5th century, of two bridges near Abingdon, which diverted the main road between London and Gloucester from Wallingford. The earliest charters

were given by Henry I. and Henry IT, the latter confirming the ancient privileges of the borough. These charters were confirmed and enlarged by Henry IIT in 1267 and by Philip and Mary in 1557—58. The governing charter until 1835 was that given by Charles II. in 1663. Wallingford Castle was one of the last fortresses to hold out for Charles I. During the Commonwealth it was demolished by order of the Government. The church of St Leonard’s retains some Norman work The ancient castle has left only its mound and earthworks, and other works may be traced surrounding the town on the landward side WALLINGFORD, a borough of New Haven county, Con-

Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and served in the Venetian army and necticut, U.S A , 12 m, N N E, of New Haven, on the Quinnipiac

WALLIS—WALLOON

308

river and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad Fop (1920) 9,648 (296% foreign-born white), 1930 Federal census r1,170 tonum,

It ıs the seat of the Gaylord farm tuberculosis sanaand of a Masonic home, built on property occupied

(1851-80) by a branch of the Oneida community The manufactures are ımportant, and include sılverware, brass goods, hardware, fire-arms, rubber goods, insulated wire and edge tools The town of Wallingford was settled ın 1670 In Jan. 1766, 1t adopted resolutions protesting against the Stamp Act, and imposed a penalty of 20s on any one who should introduce or use stamped paper or parchment. Wallingford was incorporated in 1853

WALLIS,

JOHN

(1616-1703),

English mathematician,

logician and grammarian, was born on Nov 23, 1616, at Ashford, Kent, where his father was rector He went up to Emanuel college, Cambridge, in 1632, became a fellow of Queen’s, and took holy orders. He gained much credit with the parhamentarians by his talent in deciphering intercepted Royalist documents, and was presented in 1643 to the living of St. Gabriel, Fenchurch street, London, exchanged later for that of St Martin, Ironmonger lane. Although he signed the Remonstrance against the execution of Charles I he was appointed Savihan professor of geometry at Oxford in 1649, a chair which he held for over 50 years, until his death at Oxford on Oct. 28, 1703. Works.—The works of Walls relate to a multiplicity of subjects His Institutio logicae, published in 1687, was very popular, and his Grammatica linguae Anglicanae indicates an acute and philosophic intellect. The mathematical works are published, some of them in a small 4to volume (Oxford, 1657) and a complete collection in three thick folio volumes (Oxford, 1693-99) The

LITERATURE

lic with a president elected for seven years, and then eligible for re-election, which, after violent debates, was adopted by the Assembly on Jan 30, 1875 ‘‘Ma proposition,” he declared, “ne proclame pas la République, elle la fait” Upon the definitive establishment of the Republic, Wallon became Minister of Pubhe

Instruction, and effected many useful reforms, but his views were too conservative for the majority of the Assembly, and he retired

in May 1876. He had been chosen a life senator in December 1875

Returning to his historical studies, Wallon produced four workg of great importance, though less from his part in them as author than from the documents which accompanied them: La Terrey, (1873), Histoire du tribunal révolutzonnaire de Paris avec le journal de ses acts (6 vols, 1880-82); La Révolution dy 3I mai et le fédéralisme en 1793 (2 vols , 1886), Les Réprésentants du peuple en mission et la justice révolutionnaire dans les départe. ments (5 vols, 1880-1890) Besides these he published a number of articles in the Journal des savants; for many years he wrote the history of the Académie des Inscriptions (of which he became perpetual secretary in 1873) in the collection of Memoirs of this Academy. He died at Paris on Nov. 13, 1904 WALLOON LITERATURE. Walloon ıs a Romance dialect, belonging to the same group as the Picard, Lorram and Francian, of which the latter, under the name of French, has had such a notable development. The several varieties of Walloon are spoken in the southern part of Belgium, in that region

generally called “Wallome” (from a word coined about 1858), of which Liége is the chief centre of dialectal literature This literature has its historical monuments To the northeast belong the cantilena of Eulale, one of the oldest Romance

third volume includes, however, some theological and other ma-

texts (11th century), Ls Ver del Juse (the Last Trial), the Dia-

terial The mathematical works contained in the first and second volumes occupy about 1,800 pages. The Arithmetica infinitorum (1655) is the most important of his works. It relates chiefly to the quadrature of curves by the so-called method of indivisibles established by Bonaventura Cavalieri in 1629 (See InrrnirestmaL CatcuLus ) He extended the “law of continuity” as stated by Johannes Kepler; regarded the denominators of fractions as powers with negative exponents, and deduced from the quadrature of the parabola y=”, where m

logues du Pape Grégoire (the Dialogues of Pope Gregory), commentanes on Job, Lent Sermons and the Poème Moral, a critical

is a positive integer, the area of the curves when is negative or fractional. As he was unacquainted with the binomial theorem, he attempted the quadrature of the circle by interpolation, and arrived at the remarkable expression known as Walls’s Theorem

(See article on Crectz)

In the same work Walls obtained

edition of which, prepared by Alph Bayot, is to be published shortly. There are also the delightful song fable of Aucassem and Nicolete, one of the masterpieces of the middle ages, and the copious, but somewhat fastidious chronicles of Jean le Bel, Jacques de Hemricourt, Jean d’Outremeuse and Jean de Stavelot Lastly, the edition by J. Cohen, in 1920, of the Mystères et Moralstés du XIV¢ S , has enriched the ancient literary patrmony of the Walloon country. The two Nativities to be found in Cohen’s edition are undoubtedly the ancestors of Noels Wallons (edit. by Doutrepont ın 1909), which are still alive in the popular minds. It may be objected that those works were not written m the dialect spoken by the people at that time, but in a literary language of Picard rather than of French character However, their dialectal features reveal the anonymous origin of the texts

an expression for the length of the element of a curve, which reduced the problem of rectification to that of quadrature. The Mathesis universalis (1658) a more elementary work, conWe must wait till the beginning of the 17th century before we tains dissertations on algebra, arithmetic and geometry. can find works written mn dialect The three oldest texts written The De algebra tractatus (Eng. 1685) contams (chapters Ixvi— in the dialect of Liége are an Ode, dated 1620, a Sonnet, dated Ixix.) the idea of the interpretation of imagmary quantities in 1622, and a Morakty, dated 1623. They were published in 192r geometry. This is given somewhat as follows: the distance repre- by Jean Haust A pasquinade on Women and Marriage (edit. sented by the square root of a negative quantity cannot be meas- Jean Haust, 1925) 1s, unfortunately, undated, but might be asured in the line backwards or forwards, but can be measured in signed to about 1600. Of the 17th and 18th centuries we possess, the same plane above the line, or (as appears elsewhere) at right in all, some 50 lyrical pieces; complaints of peasants about the angles to the line ether in the plane, or in the plane at right angles devastations caused by foreign soldiers, speeches on the topics thereto. Considered as a history of algebra, this work is scrupu- of the time, satires against the affectations of women, pamphlets lously fair to his predecessors in all cases where he was able to about political troubles or religious controversies, humorous comtrace original discoveries, plments on the occasion of a clerical promotion, etc. Ther The two treatises on the cycloid and on the cissoid, etc., and literary value is, on the whole, rather mediocre An exception the Mechanica (three parts 1669-71) contain many results which must be made, however, for the lyrical satire, Les Ewes di Tongue were then new and valuable. The latter work contams elaborate (the Waters of Toreres, troc), by Lambert Rickmann, perhaps investigations in regard to the centre of gravity, and in it Walls the best Walloon «:, re in exis*crve, of astonishing verve, nich employs the principle of virtual velocities. ın somewhat gross but striking images. Ee ate prolonged conflict between Hobbes and Wallis, see Hoppers, In the middle of the r8+h ceatury four comic operas were composed They consti.ute the so-cacd T'h44're Liégeoss (edit Bail: WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO (Uvea or Uza): see Pactrrc Jeux, 1854). A literary circle used to meet at Chevalier S de SLANDS Harlez’s; its members (canons, deans, lords and rich bour-

_WALLON, HENRI ALEXANDRE

(181 2-1904), French

historian and statesman, was born at Valenciennes on Dec. 23, 1812, Wallon succeeded Guizot as professor at the Sorbonne in 1846. Returning to politics in 1871 he immortalized himself by carrying his proposition for the establishment of the Repub-

geois) amused themselves by writing burlesques, and a composer of great talent, Jean Noel Hamal, provided a lively and pictur-

esque music to the libretti written by his friends The performance achieved a tremendous success. The four plays in question are entitled Ls Voyedye ds Tchaudfontasne (the Journey

WALL

PAPER—WALLSEND

to Chaudfontaine), a delightful farce (edit Haust, 1924); Li

Lpidjwes Egadi (the Enlisted Liégeois), a touching picture of

399

Sand, and the tales Pou Dire à l’Eschrienne (Hearth Tales), to mention only a few. Walloon hterature to-day 1s most vivid, and

local customs, Ls Fiesse dı Houte-s'ı-Ploût (the Festival of H ), it is to be hoped that, hke Gaelic literature, 1t will remain popular a village 1dyll with a somewhat weak plot; and above all, the

in its mspiration. BrsriocrarHy—Société de Littérature wallonne, Bulletin (62 vols ),

chondriacs), a diverting picture of the whims and torments of imaginary invalids who go to Spa to drink the waters A farce in two acts entitled Lz Méhgnant (the Malevolent) closes this first senes, which, although really remarkable for its local colour and veracity, 1s naturally deprived of ugh moral feeling The revolution of 1789 and the troubles it brought inspired numerous patriots of Liége with popular and satirical songs

Annuaire (32 vol), Bulletin du Dicttonnaire Wallon (15 vol), J Demarteau, Le Wallon (Liége, 1889), M Wilmotte, Le Wallon (Brussels, 1893), “La Littérature Wallonne au XIXe sècle, m Marches de l’Est (1909); O Grojean, “La Littérature wallonne,” m Wallonia (1905), V Chauvin, La littérature wallonne & Leége (Liége,

most original piece of the collection, Les Hypocondes (the Hy-

Albm Body edited more than 250 of these, but they are now

(1906), Ch Defrécheux, Anthologie des poètes Wallons (Liége, 1895) ,

J. Haust, Pages d'Anthologie Wallonne

(Brussels, 1924)

(J Hav)

WALL PAPER: see INTERIOR DECORATION . Wall Paper WALL PAPER MANUFACTURERS LTD. Tbis Brit-

ish joint stock company was formed in 1899 to combine the undertakings of many of the large wall paper manufacturers of Great Britan Later, in 1915, other manufacturers jomed the company, Few names deserve notice in the first half of the roth cen- and ıt became the largest firm of ıts kind in the world tury Among these may be mentioned Li Cépareye (1822) by The company manufactures not only what are commonly Ch N Simonon, which celebrates the ancient clock-tower of the called wall papers, but ceiling papers, embossed papers, borders Cathedral of Saint-Lambert and the glorious deeds of the history and friezes, leather papers, leatherettes, lincrusta, polychromes, of laége; Ls Kiapé Manedje (the Disordered Household) 1830, ingrains and silk fibres According to the returns the United by H J Fort, a lively satire of the confusion produced in the Kingdom in 1927 exported printed and embossed paper hangings commonwealth by carelessness and improvidence, Lt Pantalon to the extent of 126,148cwt , value for export fo b. at £561,186 Trawé (the Torn Trousers) 1839, by Ch Du Vivier, an epos, mn In 1928 the company had a share capital of £5,000,000, made up a few stanzas, of the fighter of 1830, the humble soldier who of £1,200,000 5% cumulative preference shares of £1, £1,400,000 served under different régimes without any personal profit, Lz in ordmary shares of £1 each and £2,400,000 in deferred shares of Bourgoyne (1846) by Jos Lamage, a bacchic song which still £r each (L C M) enjoys popularity among the Walloon population WALLQVIST, OLAF (1755-1800), Swedish statesman A touching elegy Leyiz-m’plorer (Let Me Cry), 1854, and a and ecclesiastic, was ordained in 1776, became doctor of philosgraceful idyll L’avez-v’-veyou passer? (Did you see her pass?) ophy in 1779, court preacher to Queen Louisa Ulrica in 1780, and 1856, revealed in Nicolas Defrecheux a true poet The Wal- bishop of Vexio mn 1787. He attracted the attention of Gustavus loon people were delighted to hear their patois express such sin- III by his eloquent preaching at the fashionable St Clara church cerity so delicately In 1856 the Société Liégeoise de Littérature at Stockholm and he was a bishop at thirty-two Wallonne was founded It grouped intellectuals, scholars, writers Gustavus placed him at the head of the newly appointed and folklorists into a kind of small provincial academy, held commission for reforming the ecclesiastical admumstration of the yearly competitions and published “Bulletins” and “Annuaires ” country Hus political career began during the mutinous riksdag In 1857 1t awarded a prize to Lz Galant dil Servante, a play of 1786, when he came forward as one of the royalist leaders. written by André Delchef, which opens the revival of the At the stormy riksdag of 1789 it was very largely due to his coWalloon stage In 1884, the Société awarded a prize to Titéd operation that the kıng was able to carry through the famous P Perigqui, by Edouard Remouchamps, a play which, because “Act of Unity and Security” which converted Sweden from a of its caustic vein and the admirable manner in which ıt was constitutional into a semi-absolute monarchy During the brief acted, led to a prodigious development of Walloon literature. riksdag of 1792, as a member òf the secret committee, Wallqvist But everywhere the spoken dialect is losing ground to French; was at the very centre of affairs and rendered the king essential the dialect 1s considered as vulgar, especially in the Hainaut dis- services Indeed it may be safely said that Gustavus III,, during trict, along the French frontier However, the written dialect is the last sıx years of his reign, mainly depended upon Wallqvist used more than ever before In nearly all villages, dramatic socie- and his clerical colleague, Carl Gustaf Nordin (gv), who subties perform Walloon plays In more important centres, writers are ordmated their private enmity to the royal service During the grouped in societies which award prizes and publish papers and Reuterholm (gv) administration, Wallqvist, like the rest of the periodicals a* Tourroi the Théétre of Arthur Hespel, and the Gustavians, was kept remote from court In 1800 he was reCabaret T'on, 2. Mois the Ropreur and its circle; at La called to the political arena, but died on April 30 Louviére, the Mouchon d’Aunsas, at Charleroi, the Assocation As bishop of Vexio, Wallqvist was remarkable for his extraorLittéraire ; at Namur, the society Les Rélis and its organ Le Guet- dinary admimistrative ability. He did much for education and teur Wallon; n Liége, the Socsété de Littérature Wallonne, the for the poorer clergy, and endowed the library of the gymnasium Caveau Liégeois, the -Auteurs Wallons, the Wallonne and- many with 6,000 volumes As an author also he was more than disothers; and sọ at Veryiers, at Malmedy, etc. Liége has two tingmshed His Ecclessastica Samlmgar testify to his skill and theatres which, every night, perform Walloon plays before a fairly diligence as a collector of mss., while his Minnen och Bref, ed large audience, humour and‘wit is their chief feature, except E. V. Montan (Stockholm, 1878), is one of the most trustworthy when such writers as Henri Hurard or Lows Lekeu, helped by authorities on the Gustavian era, excellent native actore offer rrportant peye Poetry includes See R N Bain, Gustavus III and his Contemporaries (London, Joyful -ongs siare l p squirades, sen ime ial ballads, and de- 1895, vol ii), O. Wallqvists Syalfiografiska anteckningar (Upsala,

forgotten, with the exception of a song against The Prussians,

wnitten by the lawyer, J J Velez (1827), the popularity of which

was revived by the World War

scriptive or narrative poems

Such works as Li Panéd Bon Diu

(the Bread of God) by Henri Simon, the somewhat nostalgic poems of Joseph Vriendts, the love elegies of Emile Wiket, the lyrics of Martin Lejeune, Louis Lagauche, Marcel Launay, Jean Wisimus and many others, combine a real respect for style and prosody with true poetic feeling Fiction has produced interest-

mg works, such as the Houlot_(1888) by D D Salme, La Famille

(1850) ; and J. Rosengren, Om O. Wallqvist sésom Biskop och Eforus (Vexio, 190r)(R.N B)

WALL RIB, in architecture, the rib of a groined vault connecting two adjacent piers on the same side of the vaulted area, Wall ribs seem to have belonged to the vaultmg system from the very beginning, for they emst in what is probably the earliest ribbed vaulted naye, that of S Ambrogio at Milan (generally

Tassm (1900) by Ad. Tilkin, and the delicate Sols d'Amour

attributed to the second half of the 11th century)

Lejeune, who, with wonderful realism, relates incidents in the life

(1931) 44,882. The church of St Peter dates from 1809 There are remains of the church of the Holy Cross in transitional Norman style At an early period Wallsend was famous for its coal,

(1928) by Joseph Laubain

Let us also mention Cadet by Jean

ofa rabbit, Lz Brak’nt (the Poacher) by Joseph Calozet, a master-

piece that reminds the reader of the rustic stories of George

WALLSEND,

municipal borough, Northumberland

Pop,

310

WALL

STREET—WALNUT

but the name is now used for coal that does not go through a sieve with meshes five-eighths of an inch in size In addition to coal mines there are ship-building yards, engineermg works, lead and copper smelting works, cement works and brick and tile wotks. There are two pontoon docks and an immense dry dock Wallsend was incorporated in 1901, and m 1918 became a parhamentary borough Wallsend is at the east end of Hadrian’s Wall

WALL STREET, a street in the lower part of New York

City on which or near which are concentrated the chief financial institutions of the United States It corresponds to the London

financial district in Threadneedle, Throgmorton and Lombard streets, and ıs rivalled only by that centre ın 1ts importance as an

WALNUT, the name of several species of deciduous trees The order Jugiandaceae includes the three genera Carya, Ptero. carya and Juglans, the latter comprising the walnuts, of which about twelve or thirteen species are generally recognized; some eight or nine are in cultivation L A. Dode, who has given special study to the genus, subdivides 1t into three maim divisions,

Dioscaryon

(mcluding the Persian or English walnut, Juglans

regia, and six allied species, all of the Old World), Cardiocaryon (J mandshurica, J cordiformis and ten others indigenous to Manchuria, China and Japan) and Rhysocaryon (J nigra and its alles, twenty-six in all, from the New World). He classifies J cinerea, the grey walnut or butternut of Canada and the north. eastern States separately The walnuts are deciduous trees, mostly of forest size (the black walnut of North America, J. migra, may attain a height of

international money market. The street itself is narrow and short, extending only some seven blocks from Broadway to East mver, and the financial houses occupy only the upper or western half up to 150 feet and a girth of 20 ft) although some few form of the street The Wall Street financial district, however, extends shrubby trees only, with large, occasionally very large, alternate, several blocks north and south of the street and also includes an compound, imparipinnate leaves, leaflets opposite, entire or serarea west of Broadway. This district in 1920 contained no less rate, two to seventeen pairs The leaves and fruit in the husk than go banks of which 21 were on Wall Street, 25 trust com- have a very pleasant aromatic scent in the Persian walnut and panies, so hfe and 250 marine and fire insurance compamies, the some other species The flowers are umisexual and borne on the general offices of over 100 railway corporations, 150 steamship same tree, the numerous staminate flowers are carried on cylinfirms, 150 iron, steel, copper and coal companies, and several drical catkins 2 to 5 mches long, pendulous when fully developed, hundred other large industrial corporations. Companies with se- forming singly or in pairs above the leaf scars of the preceding curities listed on the Stock Exchange maintain at least a trans- year’s shoots: the pollen is wind-carried in fertilization; the fer office conveniently near. Besides the Stock Exchange there pistillate flowers, usually few in number and with greenish (in are in the neighborhood the Cotton Exchange, Coffee Exchange, regia) fringed feathery re-curved stigmas, are borne on a short Metal Exchange, Produce Exchange, the Curb Exchange and lesser inflexible stalk terminating the young shoots of the new growth exchanges The district 1s the headquarters of most brokerage Fruit a hard-shelled nut, usually oval or globular, enclosed by a firms. Private bankers are also established in the street, the fa- smooth green pericarp which splits irregularly on maturity. mous house of J P. Morgan and Co, occupying its own building In the Persian walnut the nut is divided interiorly by two thn at the corner of Wall and Broad streets. dissepiments into four incomplete cells, one separating the two Wall Street owes its name to Peter Stuyvesant, who, in 1652, cotyledons and the other dividing them into two lobes The large, as governor of the little Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, fleshy, curiously folded and crumpled cotyledons fill practically ordered a palsade built on the site to protect the town from the whole cavity of the seed and do not emerge from the nut in feared invasions of the English The last of the wall was removed germination The hard, woody, corrugated endocarp is divided in 1699 and both sides of the street were quickly built up The into two (very rarely three or four) not easily separable valves street was famous ın the political hfe of the country after the Lubbock describes in detail the complicated structure of the fruit Revolution when for a brief period the governmental offices of the Timber.—The black walnut of North America and the Persian city, state and nation were all located there At the old Federal walnut of the old world furnish two much esteemed timbers for Building, on the site of the present sub-treasury building George the cabinet-maker. The dark purplish brown of the former and Washington in 1789 was first maugurated president and there the the lighter greyish-brown and equally attractive tint of the latter, first Umted States Congress met veined as it is so frequently with very dark brown or black, See F T Hill, The Story of a Street (1908) for history, and S.§ together with their excellent working and lasting properties make Pratt, Tke Works of Wall Street (3rd ed, 1921) for an analysis of the them first class furniture woods The beautifully mottled and financial activities MER, a watering-place of Kent, England Pop. of figured wood obtained from near the roots and from crotches urban district (1931), 5,324. Lower Walmer, the portion most of both species has a high value for veneer Walnut burrs which frequented by visitors, extends northward along the coast so as occur occasionally, although rarely in England, on the trunk of to be contiguous with Deal Upper Walmer is a short distance the Persian walnut in its native countries, as large at times as inland, and below ıt Walmer castle hes close to the sea This six feet or more across, afford one of the most valuable woods in was a blockhouse built for coast defence by Henry VIII, but the world on account of the extraordinary beauty of the wavy, became the official residence of the Lords Warden of the Cinque rippled and variegated figure Owing to its non-warping property Forts. It ceased to be the official residence in rgos, when the walnut is largely used for gunstocks, for which 1t has no equal. prince of Wales (afterwards George V ) was appointed Lord War- In the Persian walnut the annual rings are marked by sharp den, and the public was given access to those rooms which possess lines without pores; pores moderate-sized, not numerous, somehistorical associations with former holders of the office, such as the times oval and sub-divided, often in oblique lines, somewhat duke of Wellington, who died here in 1852, William Pitt and more numerous and larger in the spring wood, conspicuous on a others. Kingsdown, ırm south, is a decayed member of the longitudinal section. Medullary rays very fine to fine and even moderately broad, variable in arrangement, silver grain inconCinque Port of Dover WALMISLEY, THOMAS ATTWOOD (1814-1856), spicuous, numerous regular, very fine, wavy, concentric bars English musician, was born in London on Jan 21, 1814. He was joining the medullary rays (Gamble). The seasoned wood weighs the eldest son of Thomas Forbes Walmisley (1783-1866), a about 45 Ib. to the cubic foot, is moderately hard, compact, evenwell-known organist and composer of church music and giees. grained, easy to work and split, it shrinks very little in seasoning _ Thomas Attwood (¢v.), his godfather, taught him composition. arid does not crack nor warp. It should be allowed a long time He became organist at Trinity and St. John’s colleges, Cambridge, in which to season thoroughly. Timber from walnut grown in im 1833, and_in 1836 was made professor of music. He died at Great Britain is said to be harder and more durable than the Hastings on Jan. 17, 1856 His Cathedral Music was edited after foreign The walnut is a long-lived tree with a life of up to his death by his father, and published in 1857 Some fine examples 200-300 or more years but m this country it is at its best for of his work are to be found in the “Service in B flat,” the Dublin timber at about roo years and is apt to become hollow with age. The value of walnut in 1925 on the farms in the centre of one Prize anthem and the madrigal “Sweete flowers ” See the article by A. D and Musicans.

Coleridge in Grove’s Dictionary of Music

of the principal French walnut districts was from 3/- to 4/— per cubic foot

Growing walnut timber from first generation hybrid

WALNUT

ZRII

walnut (J mgra) and trees between the eastern American black var lands) or bethe Californian black walnut (J calsfornica walnut (J. regia), English the and blacks these tween either of

or California, it is readily propagated by vegetative methods. the Knight also refers to this point in the early Transactions of

Vries’ records of these hybrids obtamed by Burbank showing a height of 80 ft and girth of 6 ft. at 15 years and giving, in

years 1926-27, Supplement Part 1 The Nut.—The culture of the walnut for the nut is imme-

Horticultural Society of London (Vol iti & Vol. 1 and ser.) East of that of and gives methods of overcoming the difficulty The which show exceptional growth vigour much in excess , Dept. of Malling Research Station, Kent, has published methods suitable (Journal the for either parent, has been suggested by A Henry Report Annual its in country ths in employment for dg & Tech Instr for Ireland, vol. XV., Oct. 1914) who cites de a, annual mngs one inch in width.

Contrary to popular

Californi soft and compelief rapidity of growth does not always connote been paratively worthless wood The sylviculture of walnut has others and n studied by Rebman Persian Walnut—tThe walnut is known to have been grown m England since 1562 but, from remains of the nut unearthed in of Roman villas, was probably introduced during the period Roman occupation It is the Jovis glans, Juglans, of the Roman wniters and both its nut and tumber were highly valued m Roman s on times It 1s native in Yugoslavia, Greece and the countrie , the Black sea littoral and extends eastwards through the Caucasus growChina, to Persia, Afghanistan, the Himalayas and Bhutan

monal

In countries where vegetative methods of propagation

are unknown or not practiced upon this species long continued selection has tended to the evolution of varieties with some degree of fixity of type This has occurred in parts of China and in the Atlas mountains and has doubtless operated also largely Europe. It has always been regarded as a very valuable tree od neighbourho the in that records (1664), Sylva his in and Evelyn of Hanau and Frankfort “no young farmer whatsoever is permitted to marry till he bring proof that he hath planted, and is a father of such a stated number of walnut trees” In Burgundy, they were valued “as great preservers by keeping the Czechogrounds warm, nor do the roots hinder the plough.” In the walnut trees grown on the public highways, and mg 100 ft. or more in height at its best and with a girth of 10, slovakia the total crop; all are villages most produce of the by owned is ). It 1g and 20 ft.—even 28 ft. has been recorded (Brandis seedlings. Although walnut trees in orchard form are found in fully at home m Great Britain and the characteristic grey corky central and southern Europe (for example in the Grenoble district less bark of the mature bole, deeply marked with vertical more or in France) the trees are usually scattered among cultivated crops parallel fissures, is familiar While preferring a deep well drained The nut is extensively grown in China which exports to the proloamy and calcareous soil it grows well in a variety of soils United States, as also does Chile where the fruit ripens in March vided they are not wet April Southern Europe furnishes large supplies for overseas The walnut suffers comparatively little from serious pest or and trade, notably Rumamia, Italy, France and Spain The estimated disease Walnut blight, however (Pseudomonas juglandis, Pierce) s) crop in France mm 1927, a very good crop year both in Europe and in Cahfornia and the allied Anthracnose (Marsonia guglands America, was about 55,000 tons, in Italy 10,000 and in Rumania of the European trees causes considerable damage at times’ a 12,000. A normal Chinese crop gives, available for export, the young succulent growth is attacked during the earlier months tonnage of about 14,000. Other areas include the Near East, of the year, showing black sunken spots or canker, but the disease Persia, and northern India is usually checked as it becomes more woody in character and The most important expansion in the walnut industry in recent the parts affected therefore tend to heal. Little or no success years is centred in Califorma. Here again the seedling walnut, has attended attempted control measures and most promise lies probably first introduced by the Franciscan Missions about the m finding resistant or immune varieties The effect of attack by middle of the 18th century, held sway until well into the present apus (Chromaphis juglandicolc) and the larva of the codlind century but latterly California has done much to further more moth (Cydza pomonella) may be serious at times. The so-calle scientific culture The selected walnuts are grown in grove or oak root fungus also takes its toll of trees in Europe and America with clean cultivation, except for inter-cropping in Propagation.—After drying lightly the seed may be sown orchard form early years and green-soiling. The trees are generally spaced 50 then y and when ripe, or stratified in sand until about Februar Ib. of the or 60 feet apart, giving a yield of one to two thousand planted at about its own depth on its side If put out in cured nuts per acre. In 1927 the crop amounted to about 36,000 nursery it may be spaced nine or ten inches apart in rows, pref1924 in cultivation in tons. Some 100,000 acres of walnuts were erably in a light early soil to induce early maturity of the shoots to which fully 30,000 acres have been added. the as a protection against frost, to which, during its first years, practicable as Walnuts should be gathered as soon after falling young tree is susceptible, once well away frost is not a serious as prolonged contact with the husk, which usually breaks away danger. The primary root makes its exit from the apex and causes deterioration in colour and favours the developreadily, lateral few a with taproot forms a long stout woody tapering the ment of mould, In cases where it is necessary to remove fibres during the first year. Transplanting even at one or two walnuts before they fall (rooks are fond of the nut and constiyears accordingly requires special care and, where possible, the tute a menace to its culture in Great Brita) a rubber covered tree should be grown from the nut (which may previously be hook on a long pole may assist in shaking down the nuts, after y sprouted slightly with advantage) in its permanent site. Normall which they should be heaped but not allowed to remain longer the young tree develops a well-balanced form and requires little than is absolutely necessary for the removal of the husk. To frost by bleached, prunmg other than to re-form a leader if cut back done give the most attractive colour the nuts are frequently or to form the head at the desired height, pruning 1s best either by sulphur fumes or, with greater safety and advantage, exposure about July when sealing of the wound is most rapidly effected. by either by dilute hypochlorite solution, and are dried In common with most fruit trees the walnut cannot be relied to the sun in trays (in France usually in well-ventilated lofts) or upon to yield varieties true to type from seed and, although the artificially with warm air, a method now largely used in Calimain proportion of the world’s walnut crop is still the product fornia. ‘Thereafter the nuts, which have been dried from a moisof the seeding, modern walnut culture is wholly centred on ture content of 25-40% down to about 8%, are mechanically into grafted or budded trees. While the seedling tree may come graded for size. Commercial varieties of importance include hearing at from ro to 15 years old (the variety praeparturiens or Mayette, Franquette, Parisienne, Meylanaise, Corne, Chaberte may tree erit'rs, excep ionally wei ~ in a few years) the grafted Franquette, In and Marbot in France; Sorrento in Italy; Mayette, and Grove be counted upon to do so from a comparatively early age nt Ehrhardt, Placentia, Concord, Chase, Eureka, Payne France, where the walnut has long been one of the importa in California. commercial farm crops, grafting has been practiced for many dominant wholly still is tree seedling the Britain Great In tte years and some of the varieties such as Mayette and Franque Under the aegis of the Horticultural Division of the Ministry have been grafted on seedling regsa stocks for over 100 years Research Malling East the of help the with and e or bud of Agricultur As pointed out by Loudon the walnut does not graft Station, work is in progress with the object of improving English easily by any method in northern France and im cold countries walnut culture The great majority of home-grown walnuts fail the south of France, Italy generally

in warmer

climates like

312

WALPOLE

to complete fully the normal processes of mpening and contain an undue proportion of carbohydrates and moisture and in consequence they are palatable only in a fresh undned condition. Search is being made for trees yielding nuts of good quality and especially those which are capable, under English climatic conditions, of developing a full normal o:] content, on which keeping and other desirable qualities are largely dependent A good walnut after drying should contain 45-50% of kernel on the total weight and the kernel should contain 50-60% of oil. The best Calforman varieties weigh from rz to 14 grams (about 33 to 40 to the lb), they average about 1-6 inches in length by 1-33 mmches diameter at right angles to the sutural ridge and 1-25 inches across the latter and are a little larger than the corresponding grade of French nuts. . The kernel has about 18¢% protein and 16% carbohydrates in addition to the oil content and has a high food value A good quality nut should show a combination of the followmg qualities: —uniform fairly large size and hght colour, regular contour, moderately stout shell and good sealing, the nuts after drying by free exposure to hving room temperature for 12 or 14 days should be well filled, plump, non-astringent and have the typical rich flavour, free from all woodiness, of the best French or Cahfornian walnuts The parent tree should give a reasonably reliable and good crop. Many English trees satisfy this latter requirement crops of I to 4 cwt. are not uncommon from wellgrown trees and 54 bushels have been harvested from a single tree, but are not of quality to warrant propagation. Pickling.—It is essential to gather the nuts at a time, about the end of June or early July, when they may readily be pierced by a needle: the nuts have ceased to be ın a proper condition for pickling when the shell can be felt. In France green walnuts, at the same stage of development, are converted into a form of conserve, Oil.—Formerly much oil of a very good quality for edible and other purposes (for example, for pamts) was expressed by growers from the dried walnut kernels, especially in France The kernels are crushed to a paste ın a simple form of stone mull, warmed and the oil expressed through sacks in a press, yielding half their weight, or a little more, of oil. Cold expressed oil gives a higher quality. In spite of the fact that a large trade has

developed in recent years in walnut kernels, with the effect of dimmishing the production of walnut oil, the value of the annual production of oil in France in 1914 was estimated to be about 6 million francs, In the areas of production it 1s held m higher esteem than olive oil. The husk of the walnut, after turning black, yields a dark brown very persistent dye on prolonged

boiling in water.

Brsuiocrapay —J. Lubbock, Baron Avebury, A Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings, vol. i. (2 vols, 1892), “Acorn,” English Timber and its economic conversion (1903); H J Elwes and A. Henry, Trees of Great Britam and Ireland, vol `n (1906-13) ; F. Lesourd, Le Noyer (1920). Publications of United States Department of Agriculture —E R. Lake, The Persian Walnut Industry of the United States (Bulletm No 254, 1913), G. B Sudworth and C D. Mel, Circasssan Walnut (Circular No, 212, 1913) , F. S. Baker, Black Walnut, Its Growth and Management (Bull No. 933, 1921);

W. D. Brush, Utilization of Black Walnut (Bull. No. 909, 1921),W R

Mattoon, Black Walnut for Timber and Nuts (Farmers Bulletm, No. 1392, 1924); Umversty of Cahforna Agricultural Experiment Station:—Walnut Culture in Calfornia (Bull No 231, 1912, and Bull No 332, 1921). See also L. A. Dode, Contrzbution à l'étude du genre Juglans (Bulletin de la Soc’s*é Derdic'eg ave de France, No 2 1906, No 11, 1909, and No 13 1,99) WW Spee cn the Journal oj Pomology and Horticulture! Suences (Vol V , Marcdstore, Oct 12). also “Old and Remarkah e Walput Trees ir Scotian an the Transactions of the and ana \grvultvre! Sccery of Scor'end {ath series

vol xvi., 1884); article by Rebmann in the Allgemeine Forst-undJagd Zeitung (August, 1912) and article m The Forestry Quarterly (vol xi, Washmgton, 1913). (H Sr)

WALPOLE, HORATIO

or Horace (1717-1797), English

politician and man of letters, 4th earl of Orford—a title to which

he only succeeded at the end of his lfe—was born in London, on Sept 24, 1717. He was the youngest of the five children of the

tst earl of Orford (Sir Robert Walpole) by Catherine Shorter, but by some scandal-mongers, Carr, Lord Hervey, has been called his father. No such suspicion ever entered into the mind

| of Horace Walpole, who remained deeply attached to the memory of his parents throughout his hfe He was educated at Eton, where he formed what was known as the “Quadruple Alhance” with Thomas Gray, Richard West and Thomas Ashton, and be. came very intimate with Henry Seymour Conway, George Augus-

tus Selwyn and the two Montagus, and at King’s College, Cam. bridge Two years (1739-1741) were spent in Gray’s company in the recognized grand tour of France and Italy They stopped a few weeks ın Pans, and three months at Reims At Florence Walpole stayed for a year with Horace Mann, British envoy to the court of Tuscany He continued to correspond with Mann till 1786, and as they never met again, their friendship, unlike most of Walpole’s attachments, remained unbroken After a short visit to Rome (March-June 1740), and after a further sojourn at Florence, Walpole and Gray quarrelled, and parted at Reggio Walpole came back to England on Sept 12, 1741 He had been returned to parliament in May 1741 for the Cornish borough of Callington

He

represented

three

constituencies

in succession,

Callington 1741-1754, the family borough of Castle Rising from

1754 to 1757, and King’s Lynn, for which his father had long

sat, from 1757 until 1768

In that year he retired, probably be-

cause his success in political life had not equalled his expectations, but he continued until the end of his days to follow and to chronicle the acts and the speeches of both houses of parliament,

Through his father’s influence he had obtaimed three lucrative sinecures in the exchequer, and for many years (1745-1784) he enjoyed a share, estimated at about £1,500 a year, of a second family perquisite, the collectorship of customs He acquired in 1747 the lease and in the next year purchased the reversion of the villa of Strawberry Hill, near Twickenham, on the banks of the Thames Six years later he began a series of alterations mn the Gothic style, not completed for nearly a quarter of a century later, under which the original cottage became transformed into a building without parallel in Europe On the 25th of June 1757 he established a printing-press there, which he called “Officma

Arbuteana,” where many of the first editions of his own works were printed Other works printed here were Richard Bentley’s designs for Gray’s poems (1753), and reprints of the Lefe of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Memoirs of Grammont, Hentzner’s Journey into England, and Lord Whitworth’s Account of Russa The rooms were crowded with curiosities of every description, and the house and its contents were shown, by tickets to the public Walpole paid several visits to Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Madame du Deffand (gv) in 1765, and they corresponded until her death in 1780 His nephew, the reckless 3rd earl, died on Dec. 5, 1791, and Horace succeeded to the peerage, but he never took his place in the House of Lords. All his life long he was a victim of the gout, but he lived to extreme old age, and died unmarried, in Berkeley Square, London, on March 2, 1797. All Walpole’s printed books and manuscripts were left to Robert Berry and his two daughters, Mary and Agnes, ‘and Mary Berry edited the five volumes of Walpole’s works which were published in 1798. Their friendship had been very dear to the declining days of Walpole, who, it has even been said, wished to marry Mary Berry The collections of Strawberry Hull, which he had spent nearly fifty years in amassing, were sold in 1842. They are described in a catalogue and in the Gentleman's Magazine. The pen was ever in Horace Walpole’s hands, and his entire ı compositions would fill many volumes His Castle of Otranto ' (1764) 1s the prototype of the romantic novel The M‘ysterious Mother (1768) is the least bad of tragedies when tragedy was at its worst.

The antiquarian works merit praise. The volume of Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third (1760), one of the earliest attempts to rehabilitate a character previously stamped with infamy, showed acuteness and research A work of more lasting reputation, which has retained its vitality for more than a century, 1s entitled Anecd‘e, of P~risng in England, (4 vols

1762-1777)

Te wes re-edited wth acd'uons by the Rev

James Dallaway in five volumes (1826-1828), and then agam was revised and edited by R N Wornum in 1849. A cognate volume, also based on the materials of Vertue, 1s entitled the

WALPOLE—WALSH Catalogue of Engravers Born and Resident in England (1763), also often reprinted As a senator himself, or as a private person

‘ollowmg at a distance the combats of St Stephen’s, Walpole

WALRUS

313

or MORSE

(Odobaenus rosmarus), a large ma-

rine mammal allied to the seals

Characterized by the prolonga-

tion, ın both sexes, of the upper canine teeth mto tusks, which

recorded in a diary the chief incidents in Enghsh pobtics If he was sometimes prejudiced, he rarely distorted the acts of those

may reach a length of 2ft, the adult walrus measures some 10 or x11ft. and 1s a heavily-built animal The head ıs rounded, the eyes small, external ears absent The short broad muzzle bears were mainly against those whom he considered traitors to his on each side a group of stiff, father These diaries extend from 1750 to 1783, and cover a period of momentous importance. The Memos of the Last Ten bristly whiskers The tail scarceYears of the Reign of George II was edited by Lord Holland ly projects beyond the skin The (1846), ts successor, Memozrs of the Reign of King George III , =| fore-limbs are only free from the was edited by Sir Denis Le Marchant (4 vols, 1845), and rei elbow and the fore-flipper 1s edited in 1894 by G F Russell Barker, the last volumes of broad, flat and webbed The the series, Journal of the Rezgn of George III. from 1771 to 1783, hind-limbs, free from the heel, were edited and illustrated by John Doran (2 vols, 1859), and ECHUS), FOUND ONLY IN THE are fan-shaped The skin is covNORTH were edited with an introduction by A F Steuart (London, 1909) ered with short, rufous hair, To these works should be added the Remuimscences (2 vols, which becomes very scanty in old amrmals There are deep folds 1819), which Walpole wrote in 1788 for the Misses Berry. But on the shoulder Walpole was above all a letter-writer His correspondents were The walrus inhabits the northern circumpolar region in small numerous and widespread, but the chief of them were William herds. It prefers the coastal portions or ice-floes and feeds largely Cole (1714-1782), the clerical antiquary of Multon; Robert on bivalve molluscs which it digs up from the bottom of the sea Jephson, the dramatist, William Mason, the poet, Lord Hertford with its tusks Normally inoffensive and affectionate, when during his embassy in Paris; the countess of Ossory; Lord Har- attacked the walrus can use its tusks with terrible effect and the court, George Montagu, his frend at Eton, Henry Seymour herd usually combine against an enemy. Its principal foe, apart Conway (1721~1795) and Sır Horace Mann The Letters were from man, ıs the polar bear, and its flesh is an important article pubhshed at different dates, but the standard collection 1s that of food to the Eskimo and Chukchi Commercially the walrus by Mrs Paget Toynbee (1903-1905), and to it should be added is valuable for its oul, its hide and 1ts ivory The Pacific walrus, the volumes of the letters addressed to Walpole by his old friend with longer and more slender tusks, has been separated as O. Madame du Deffand (4 vols , 1810). A selection has been edited obesus Like the Atlantic form, its numbers have been much reby W S. Lewis (New York and London, 1926) Walpole has duced within recent years Fossil walruses are known from the been called “the best letter-writer in the English language’ His late Tertiary of the USA, England, France and Belgium. whom he dishked, and his prejudices, which he on the surface,

political estimates are more acute than his literary ones

Abundant information about Horace Walpole will be found in the Memoirs of him and of T'- corse reo aries cc led Ly Dice Warburton (1851), J. H Jesse’s GQ vryz Stun 4041s Cocemporarie (4 vols, 1843-44) and the extracts from the journals and correspondence of Miss Berry (3 vols, 1866), also Horace Walpole and his World, by L, B. Seeley (1884) and Austin Dobson, Horace Walpole (1890). It would be unpardonable to omit mention of Macaulay’s sketch of Walpole’s life and character See also P Yvon, Horace Walpole, r7r7—ọ7 Essa: de biographie psychologique et lttéraire (1924), and Horace Walpole as Poet (Paris, 1924) , H. B. Wheatley in Cambridge History

of English Literature, vol 10 (1913), D, M. Stuart, Horace Walpole

in Enghsh Men

of Letters (1927)

WALPOLE,

SIR ROBERT:

see Orrorv, Ropert WAL-

POLE, IST EARL OF.

WALPURGIS

(Warrurca or Warsurca), ST., (d. c. 780),

English missionary to Germany, was born m Sussex at the beginning of the 8th century. She was the sister of Wilhbald, the

WALSALL,

market

town, Staffordshire, England, in the

“Black Country ” Pop (1931) 103,102 The town stands high on a ridge on which is also the rsth century church of St Matthew, now rebuilt Queen Mary’s Schools are a foundation of 1554 and here were educated John Hough (1651-1743), the president of Magdalen College, Oxford, whom James II sought to eject from office, afterwards Bishop of Oxford, Lichfield, and Worcester; and John, Lord Somers (1651-1716), Lord Keeper and Lord Chancellor of England Walsali was the scene of the chantable work of Sister Dora (Miss Pattison), whom a statue commemorates Coal, limestone and ironstone are mined in the neighbourhood Walsall specializes in hardware and leather goods, gloves, electrical appliances, motor fittings. There are also iron and brass

foundnes Three annual fairs are held The parlamentary borough returns one member Walsall (Waleshales, Walshall, Walsaler) was given in 996 to the church of Wolverhampton, which, however, did not retain it long It was granted by Henry of Hlothere, 9th king of Kent; her mother, Winna or Wuna, a II to Herbert Ruffus Later the manor passed to the Bassets and sister of St. Boniface At the instance of Boniface and Willibald the Beauchamps, and Warwick the king-maker held it in right she went about 750 with some other nuns to found religious houses of his wife Henry VIII. granted 1t (1538) to Dudley, afterwards m Germany Her first settlement was at Bischofshem in the duke of Northumberland Privileges were granted to the town by diocese of Mainz, and two years later (754) she became abbess of William Ruffus in the reign of John, and charters by Henry IV., the Benedictine nunnery at Heidenhemm in the diocese of E:chstatt Charles I (1627) and Charles IIT. (1661) by which latter the On the death of Wunnibald in 760 she succeeded him in his charge town was governed until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. It also, retaining the superimtendence of both houses until her death. was not represented in parliament till 1832. Walsall had a merHer relics were translated to Eichstatt, where she was laid in a chant gild in 1390, 1n the 17th century it was already known for hollow rock, from which exuded a kind of bituminous oil after- its manufacture of iron goods and nail-making. In the 18th wards known as Walpurgis onl, and regarded as of miraculous century the staple industry was the making of chapes and shoeefficacy against disease. The cave became a place of pilgrimage, buckles Two fairs were granted in 1399. The Tuesday market, and a church was built over the spot Walpurgis is commemorated which is still held and two fairs on October 28 and May 6, were at various times, but principally on the rst of May, her day taking granted in 1417 to Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick. the place of an earlier heathen festival which was characterized WALSH, THOMAS JAMES (1859), American lawby various rites marking the beginning of summer, She is re- yer and senator, was born m Two Rivers, Wis , on June 12, 1859, garded as the protectress against magic arts (Cf the Walpurgis- and educated at the University of Wisconsm (LLB, 1884) Nacht dance in Goethe’s Faust) In art she is represented with In 1912 he was elected US senator from Montana, going to the Senate chamber from the lawyer’s office without previous a crozier, and bearing in her hand a flask of balsam. Her hfe was written by the presbyter Wolfhard and dedicated to experience in public office He was re-elected m 1918 and m 1924. Erkenbald, bishop of Ei:chstatt (884-916) See the Bollandist Acta He was five times a delegate to the Democratic national convensanctorum, vol ui February 25 On Walpurgis, Willbald and Wunnibald see G. F Browne, Boniface of Crediton and his Com- tion previous to 1924, in which year he presided as chairman of the convention. He was a presidential possibility in 1924, and was Pamons (London, 1910), vu

first bishop of Eichstatt in Bavaria, and Wunnibald, first abbot of Heidenheim Her father, Richard, is thought to have been a son

314

WALSH—WALSINGHAM

uttered the vice-presidency on the ticket with John W Davis, of the inevitable conflict with Spain; Ridolfi’s plot and Phihp but he declined. He was even more seriously spoken of in 1928 II ’s approaches to Mary Stuart indicated the lines upon which as the only strong alternative candidate to Alfred E Smith, but the struggle would be fought; and 1t was Walsingham’s business before the convention met he signified his desire not to be con- to reconcile the Huguenots with the French Government, and sidered. In the Senate he became an outstanding figure. His upon this reconciliation to base an Anglo-French alliance which speeches, replete with facts and packed with close reasoning, might lead to a grand attack on Spain, to the liberation of the made him a formidable adversary in debate As an expert lawyer Netherlands, to the destruction of Spain’s monopoly in the New he was constantly called upon for advice, He aided in drafting World and to making Protestantism the dominant force jp the Prohibition and Woman-Sutirage amendments to the Consti- Europe Walsingham threw himself heart and soul into the move. tution, and was also author of that part of the Federal Reserve ment He was the anxious fanatic of Elizabeth’s advisers, he Act which requires national banks to subscribe for stock in the lacked the patience of Burghley and the cynical coolness of Eliza. Federal Reserve banks He also formulated the case against the beth He supplied the momentum which was necessary to counseating of Senator Truman H Newberry, of Michigan He 1s teract the caution of Burghley and Elizabeth, but 1t was probably chiefly noted, however, for the tireless tenacity with which he fortunate that his headstrong counsels were generally overruled prosecuted the investigation of circumstances surrounding the by the circumspection of his sovereign He would have plunged illegal leasing of Government oil reserves during Harding’s England into war with Spain in 1572, when the risks would have Administration, an investigation which he took up after it pre- been infinitely greater than 1n 1588, and when the Huguenot influ. viously had been dropped, and carried it through to overwhelm- ence over the French Government, on which he relied for support, ing success. In 1928 he made a strong fight to have the financial would probably have broken in his hands status of hght and power corporations mvestigated by a comWalsingham, however, was an accomplished diplomatist, and mittee of the Senate, but was unsuccessful. he reserved these truculent opmions for the ears of his own

WALSH, WILLIAM JOHN (1841-1921), Roman Catholic divme, was born in Dublin Jan 30, 184: Educated m Dubln and at St. Patrick’s college, Maynooth, in 1867 he was appointed professor of dogmatic and moral theology at Maynooth In 1878 he became vice-president of the college and in 1881 succeeded Dr. Russell as president. Dr. Walsh served on several committees and commissions He was partly responsible for the appointment of the commission to enquire into the working of the Queen’s Colleges, and he became a member of the senate of the university In 1885 he was summoned to Rome by the Pope and given the appointment of archbishop of Dubhn ‘This office he continued to hold till ns death in Dublin, on April 9, 1921. Dr. Walsh was a commissioner for education in Ireland (1891) and, a member (1908) of the Dubhn statutory commission which established the Catholic National University, with himself as chancellor. In politics he was a Nationalist, but he strongly opposed compromise

with the British Government, and after the rebellion of 1916 he supported the Sinn Feiners Dr Walsh’s published works mclude A Plan Exposition of the Irish

Land Act of r88r (1881); The Queen’s Colleges and the Royal University of Ireland (1883-84); The Irish University Questzon (1890).

WALSINGHAM,

SIR FRANCIS

(e 1530-1590), English

statesman, was the only son of William Walsingham, common serjeant of London (d. March 1534), by his wife Joyce, daughter of Sır Edmund Denny of Cheshunt Francis matriculated as a fellow-commoner of King’s college, Cambridge, of which Sir John Cheke was provost, in Nov. 1548; and he studied there amid strongly Protestant influences until Michaelmas 1550, when he appears to have gone abroad to complete his education Returning in 1552 he was admitted at Gray’s Inn on Jan 28, 1553, but im 1555-56 he was at Padua, where he was admitted a “consiliarius” in the faculty of laws ‘Walsingham was twice mar-

Government, incurring frequent rebukes from Elizabeth In his professional capacity, his attitude was correct enough, and, indeed, his anxiety for the French alliance and for the marnage between Elizabeth and Anjou led him to suggest concessions to

Anjou’s Catholic susceptibilities which came staunch a Puritan

strangely from so

Although a defensive alliance was concluded

between England and France in April 1572, the French Govern-

ment perceived that public opinion in France would not tolerate an open breach with Spain in Protestant interests The massacre of St Bartholomew rumed all such hopes He was recalled m April 1573, and eight months later he was admitted to the privy council and made joint secretary of State with Sir Thomas Smith He held this office jointly or solely until his death, in 1577 when Smith died, Dr Thomas Wilson was associated with Walsingham, after Wilson’s death in 1581 Walsingham was sole secretary until July 1586, when Davison began his brief and ill-fated seven months’ tenure of the office After Davison’s disgrace in Feb 1587 Walsingham remained sole secretary, though Wolley assisted him as Latin secretary from 1588 to 1590

He was also returned to parliament

at a by-election in

1576 as knight of the shire for Surrey in succession to Charles Howard, who had become Lord Howard of Effingham, and he was re-elected for Surrey mn 1584, 1586 and 1588 He was knighted on Dec 1, 1577, and made chancellor of the order of the Garter on April 22, 1578. State Secretary.—As secretary, Walsmgham could pursue no independent policy; he was rather in the position of permanent under-secretary of the combined home and foreign departments, and he had to work under the direction of the council, and particularly of Burghley and the queen He continued to urge the necessity of more vigorous intervention on behalf of the Protestants abroad, though now his clients were the Dutch rather than the Huguenots In June 1578 he was sent with Lord Cobham to the Netherlands, mainly to glean reliable information on the

ried, in Jan. 1562 to Anne (d 1564), daughter of George Barnes, lord mayor of London, and to Ursula, daughter of Henry St Barbe and widow of Sir Richard Worsley By his second wife complicated situation In Aug 158: he was sent on a second Walsingham had a daughter who married firstly Sir Philip Sidney, and briefer mission to Paris Its object was to secure a solid secondly Robert Devereux, and earl of Essex, and thirdly, Richard Anglo-French alliance against Spain without the condition upon de Burgh, earl of Clanricarde. which Henry IIT insisted, namely a marriage between Elizabeth Walsingham sat in Elizabeth’s first and second parliaments for and Anjou. The French Government would not yield, and WalBanbury, and was attached to the party of Cecil, In 1567-70 he singham came back, followed by Anjou, who pressed his clams was supplying Cecil with information about the movements of in person Walsingham’s last embassy was to the court of James foreign spies m London Ridolfi, the conspirator, was committed VI In 1583, and here his vehement and suspicious Protestantism to his custody in Oct. 1569 In the summer of 1570 he was, ın led him astray Elizabeth and Burghley were inclined to try an spite of his protestations, designated to succeed Norris as am- aliance with the Scottish king, and the event justified their bassador at Paris, Walsingham was the ablest of the new men policy, which Walsingham did his best to frustrate, although whom Cecil, having triumphed over the older aristocracy, brought deserted on this occasion by his chief regular supporter, Leicester. to the front. For the rest of his life Walsingham was mainly occupied in Embassy to Paris.—An essential element in the new policy detecting and frustrating the various plots formed against Elizawas the substitution of an alliance with France for the old Bur- beth’s life He raised the English system of secret intelligence to gundian friendship The affair of San Juan de Ulua and the a high degree of efficiency At one time he is said to have had seizure of the Spanish treasure-ships in 1568 had been omens in his pay 53 agents at foreign courts, besides 18 persons

whose

WALSINGHAM—WALTER functions were even more obscure

Some of them were double

spies, sold to both parties, whose real sentiments are still con-

jectural,, but Walsingham was more successful in seducing Catholic spies than his antagonists were in seducing Protestant spies, and one most of his information came from Catholics who betrayed another The most famous of the plots frustrated by Walsmgham

315

and for trying cases under the grand assize, were to be chosen by a committee of four knights, also elected by the suitors of each county court for that purpose. In 1195 Hubert issued an ordinance by which four knights were to be appointed in every hundred to act as guardians of the peace, and from this humble be-

was Anthony Babington’s, the discovery of which enabled him

ginning eventually was evolved the office of justice of the peace. His reliance upon the knights, or middle-class landowners, who

Mary’s to bring pressure to bear upon Elizabeth to ensure execution Walsmgham died deeply in debt on April 6, 1590

now for the first time appear in the political foreground, is all

the more interesting because it is this class who, either as members of parhament or justices of the peace, were to have the effective rule of England in their hands for so many centuries In 1198, to satisfy the king’s demand for money, Hubert deWALSINGHAM, THOMAS (d c. 1422), English chron- manded a carucage or plough-tax of five shillings on every ploughat and land (carucate) under cultivation. This was the old tax, the icler, was probably educated at the abbey of St Albans Oxford He became a monk at St Albans, where he appears to Danegeld, in a new and heavier form and there was great difficulty have passed the whole of his monastic hfe except the six years in levying it To make it easier, the justiciar ordered the assessand one may between 1394 and 1400 during which he was prior of another ment to be made by a sworn jury in every hundred, was reasonably conjecture that these jurors were also elected Hubert Benedictine house at Wymondham, Norfolk At St Albans he another about 1197 in died and he and 1195, in room, Scotland writing or with negotiated a peace m charge of the scriptorium, 1422 Walsingham’s most important work is his Historia Angh- with the Welsh But the carucage was not a success, and the abroad serve to authorknights Some of 1422 force a and Great Council refused to equip cana, covering the period between 1272 In 1198 Hubert, who had inhented from his predecessors in the ities hold that Walsingham himself only wrote the section ‘between these gave Gairdner monks, James Canterbury by primacy a fierce quarrel with the 1377 and 1392, but this view is controverted enemies an opportumity of complaining to the pope, for 1m arrestin his Early Chronsclers of Europe (1879) T H. by edit, Wilham Fitz Osbert, he had coming the London demagogue, His most important works are Historia Angliae brevis, m Bow Church, which belonged to the Riley (1863-64) , Chromcon Anghae, edt Sr E M. Thompson H. Riley matted an act of sacrilege T. by edit Albani, S Monasteru Abbatum secular all Gesta (1874), All monks. The pope asked Richard to free Hubert from (1867-69), Vpodigma Neustreae, edit by T. H. Riley (1876). duties, and he did so, thus making the demand an excuse for disthese editions are in the Rolls series. missing Hubert from the justiciarship On May 27, 1199, Hubert conGerman emment ), (1876WALTER, BRUNO his crowned John, making a speech in which the old theory of elecductor, was born in Berlin on Sept 15, 1876 He received by the people was enunciated for the last time He also took traming in Berlin at the Stern Konservatorum, studied under tion of chancellor and cheerfully worked under Geoffrey Fitz Ehrich, Buszler and Robert Radecke; and first appeared as con- the office one of his former subordinates In 1201 he went ona diploPeter, then He Cologne in ductor of opera at the Municipal theatre mission to Pup Augustus of France, and m 1202 he refilled the same position in Hamburg, Breslau, Pressburg (Brati- matic turned to England to keep the kingdom ın peace while John was slava), Riga and Berlin, while from rgoxr to 1912 he conducted the losing his continental possessions In 1205 he died. Hubert was Court opera in Vienna From 1913 to 1922, Walter was musical he an ingenious, original and industrious public servant, but he was director at the Munich opera, and from 1925 until May 1929 grasping and perhaps dishonest was the general musical director of the three Berlin opera houses Miss K. See K Stahln, Ser Frances Walsingham und seme Zeit (Heidelberg, 1908, etc), and C Read, Mr Secretary Walsingham and the policy of Queen Elizabeth (3 vols, 1925).

WALTER, HUBERT

(d 1205), chief justicar of England

and archbishop of Canterbury, was a relative of Ranulf de Glanvill, the great justiciar of Henry IT, and rose under the eye of his lansman to an important position in the Curia Regis. In 1184 and in 1185 he appears as a baron of the exchequer. He was employed,

See W Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol 1 (1897); Norgate’s England under the Angevin Kings, vol 1 (1887); W Stubbs, preface z vol iv. of Roger of Hoveden’s Chromcle (“Rolls” series, 1868-71).

WALTER, JOHN (1738/971812), founder of The Times newspaper, London, was born in 1738/9, probably in London, and from the death of hus father, Richard Walter (about 1755/6), was engaged in a prosperous business as a coal merII., but Richard I appointed him bishop of Sahsbury, and by until 1781 He played a leading part in establishing a Coal Exchange Richard’s command he went with the third crusade to the Holy chant but shortly after 1781, when he began to occupy hımLand He gamed the respect of all the crusaders, and acted as m London; as an underwriter and became a member of Lloyd’s, Richard’s principal agent in all negotiations with Saladin, being self solely ed and failed In 1782 he bought from one Henry given a place in the first band of pilgrims that entered Jerusalem he over-speculat for a new method of printing from “logotypes” patent He led the English army back to England after Richard’s de- Johnson a (se, founts of words or portions of words, instead of letters), and parture from Palestine, but in Sicily he heard of the king’s capimprovements in it, In 1784 he acquired an old printtivity, and hurned to join him in Germany. In 1193 he returned made some in Blackfriars, which f ormed the nucleus of the Printingto England to raise the king’s ransom Soon afterwards he was ing office He was house Square of a later date, and estabhshed there his’ ‘“Logo-

as sometimes as a negotiator, sometimes as a justice, sometimes a royal secretary He received no clerical promotion from Henry

elected archbishop of Canterbury and made justiciar.

very successful in the government of the kingdom, and after Rich-

ard’s last visit he was practically the ruler of England He had no hight task to keep pace with the king’s constant demand for money

He was compelled to work the administrative machmery to its ut-

most, and indeed to invent new methods of extortion. To pay for Richard’s ransom, he had already been compelled to tax personal purposes. property, the first instance of such taxation for secular The main feature of all his measures was the novel and extended use of representation and election in government His chief measures are contained in his instruction to the itiner-

ant justices of 1194 and 1198, in his ordinance of 1195 for the

conservation, of the peace, and in his scheme of 1198 for the

assessment of the carucage. The justices of 1194 were to order the election of four coroners by the suitors of each county court These new officers were to “keep,” że, to register, the

pleas of the crown, an important duty hitherto left to the sheriff The juries, both for answering the questions asked by the judges

graphic Office.” At first he only undertook the printing of books, but on Jan. 1, 1785 he started a small newspaper called The Daily [Tinercal Register which on reaching its 940th number on Jan 1, 5738 wes “eaarred 7 e Times. The printing business developed and prospered, but the newspaper at first had a somewhat chequered career In 1789 Walter was tried for a libel in it on the duke of York, and was sentenced to a fine of £go, a year’s imprisonment in Newgate, to stand in the pillory for an hour and to give surety for good behaviour for seven years; and for further libels the fine was increased by £100, and the imprisonment by a second year. On March 9, 1791, however, he was berated and pardoned In 1799 he was again convicted for a technical libel, this time on Lord Cowper He had then given up the management of the business to his eldest son, William, and had (1795) retired to Teddington, where he died on Nov 16, 1812 In 1759 he had married Frances Landen (died

1798), by whom he had six children. In 1803 William Walter

316

WALTER—WALTHAMSTOW

transferred the sole management to his younger brother, John

Jons Water

(2) (1776-1847), who really established the

great newspaper of which his father had sown the seed, was born on Feb 23, 1776, and was educated at Merchant Taylors’ School and Trimty College, Oxford He found The Times one of a number of unconsidered journals whose opmuons counted for little. He left it in 1847 a great organ of public opinion, deferred to and even feared throughout Europe, consulted and courted by cabinet ministers at home, and in intimate relations with the best sources of independent information in every European capital On taking over the management in 1$03, he signalized the new spirit of the direction by his opposition to Pitt, which cost him the withdrawal of government advertisements and the loss of his appointment as printer to the Customs, and exposed him to the not too scrupulous hostility of the official world He let the government do its worst and held on his way. From about 1810 he delegated to others editonal supervision (first to Sir John Stoddart, then to Thomas Barnes, and in 1841 to J T Delane), though never the supreme direction of policy. In 1832 Mr Walter, who had purchased an estate called Bear Wood, in Berkshire (where his son afterwards built the present house), was elected to Parliament for that county, and retained his seat till 1837. In 1841 he was returned to Parliament for Nottingham, but was unseated next year on petition. He was twice married, and by his second wife, Mary Smythe, had a family He died in London on July 28, 1847 Joms WaLTeR (3) (1818-1894), his eldest son, was born at Printing-house Square in 1818, and was educated at Eton and Exeter College, Oxford, being called to the bar m 1847. On leaving Oxford he took part in the busmess management of The Times, and on his father’s death became sole manager, though he devolved part of the work on Mowbray Morris It was under him that the successive improvements in the printing machmery, begun by his father in 1814, at last reached the stage of the “Walter Press” in 1869, the pioneer of modern newspaper printing-presses In 1847 he was elected to parliament for Nottingham as a moderate Liberal, and was re-elected in 1852 and in 1857 In 1859 he was returned for Berkshire, and though defeated in 1865, was again elected in 1868, and held the seat till he retired mm 1885. He died on Nov. 3, 1894 He was twice married, first ın 1842 to Emily Frances Court (d. 1858), and secondly in 1861 to Flora Macnabb His eldest son by the first marriage, John, was accidentally drowned at Bear Wood in 1870; and he was succeeded by Arthur Fraser Walter (1846—1910), his second son by the first marriage A_F. Walter remaimed chief proprietor of The Times till 1908, when it was converted into a company He then became chairman of the board of directors, and on his death was succeeded in this position by his son John, who entered the Times office in 18098, and was chairman of the directors from 1910 to 1923 Jobn Walter’s son, Hubert Walter (b. 1870) joined the staff in 1894 and has acted as special representative m Paris and elsewhere. (For changes in the management of The Times since 1908 see NEWSPAPERS: British.) C.; X.)

WALTER, LUCY

(c. 1630-1658), mistress of the English

King Charles II. and mother of the duke of Monmouth (qv), was born at Roch Castle, near Haverfordwest Her home having been captured and burned by the Parhamentary forces in 1644, Lucy Walter found shelter first in London and then at The Hague. There, in 1648, she met Charles, possibly renewing an earlier acquaintance. Their intimacy lasted with intervals till the autumn of 1651, and Charles claimed the paternity of a child born in 1649, whom he subsequently created duke of Monmouth. See Steinmann, Althorp Memoirs (1869), Pp 77 seq and Addenda (1880); J. S Clarke, Life of James II (2 vols, 1816) , Clarendon State Papers, vol. m. (Oxford, 1869-76) ;John Evelyn, Drar» edited by W. Bray (x890), and Mme. d’Aulnoy, Memozrs of ine Cours ot England 1 1675, edited by G. D. Gilbert (1913).

WALTER OF COVENTRY (f. 1290), English monk and

chronicler, who was apparently connected with a religious house in the province of York, is known to us only through the historical compilation which bears his name, the Memoriale fratris Walteri de Coventria. The word Memoriale is usually taken to mean “commonplace book.” Some critics interpret it in the sense of “a

souvenir,” and argue that Walter was not the author but merely the donor of the book, but the weight of authority is against this view The author of the Memorzale lived in the reign of Edward

I, and mentions the homage done to Edward as overlord of Scotland (1291) Since the main narrative extends only to 1225, the Memorale is emphatically a second-hand production By for the years 1201-1225 1t is a faithful transcript of a contemporary chronicle, the work of a Barnwell canon A complete text of the Barnwell work is preserved in the College of Arms (Heralds' College, ms 10), and was collated by Bishop Stubbs for his edition The Barnwell annalist, living m Cambridgeshire, was well situated to observe the events of the barons’ war, and is our most valuable authority for that important crisis He 1s less hostile to John than are Ralph of Coggeshall, Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris He praises the king’s management of the Welsh and Scottish wars, he 1s critical in his attitude towards the pope and the English opposition, he regards the submission of John to Rome as a skilful stroke of policy, although he notes the fact that some men called it a humiliation The constitutional agitation of 1215 does not arouse his enthusiasm, he passes curtly over the Runnymede conference, barely mentioning Magna Carta Prob. ably, the middle classes, whom he represents, regarded the designs of the feudal baronage with suspicion See W Stubbs’s edition of Walter of Coventry (“Rolls” series, 2 vols, 1872-73);

1853),mm 872 WALTHAM, USA, on foreign-born ples a series Prospect hill cent view

R. Pauli, ın Geschichte

von England

(Hamburg,

(H W CD) a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,

the Charles river Pop in 1920, 30,915 (26% white) ,1930 Federal census 39,247. The city occuof rugged hills rising on both sides of the river

(482 ft ), in a park of too ac., commands a magnifi-

‘There 1s a large central common,

and parts of the

Beaver Brook Reservation (including the “Waverley Oaks”) and the Charles River Reservation are within the limits Waltham

is the seat of the Massachusetts school for the feeble-minded, the first institution of its kind in the country (established in Boston in 1848) Also it has the largest watch factory m the world (employing over 3,000 persons), large cotton mulls and many other manufacturing industries, with an aggregate output in 1927 valued at $19,378,957. The town was incorporated in 1738, and in 1884 it was chartered as a city The first power mull used in the manufacture of cotton cloth in America was established here in 1814 Before the establishment of the US. observatory at Washington the watch company maintamed servatory for testing and setting 1ts watches

WALTHAM

ABBEY

or WALTHAM

an elaborate ob-

HOLY

CROSS,

a market town in Essex, England, on the Lea, and on the Cambridge branch of the LNER Pop (1931) 7,116 Of the former magnificent cruciform abbey church the only portion of importance now remainimg is the nave, forming the present parish church, the two easternmost bays being converted mto the chancel It is a very fine specimen of or--*e Norman On the south side of the church 1. a Istiy chu del Cuime iro the end of the reign of Edward II or the beginning of that of Edward ITI, containing some good Decorated work, with a crypt below Of the monastic builcines there 1emrin oly a bridge and gatewy ond obe~ chiki irren A Welham Cross, about 1m W of Wakher m Her iorashiie, 1 "he benuiful cross erected (1291-94) by Edward I at one of the resting-places of the corpse of Queen Eleanor on its way to burial in Westminster Abbey The. royal gun-powder factory is in the immediate vicinity; government works were built in 1890 at Quinton Hill,

4m W. of the town, for the manufacture of cordite, and the form nosscssce gur-cot‘on and. percussion-cap factories, flourmis rail. k'ns .rd breweries Watercress is extensively grown in the neighbourhood, and there are market gardens and nurseries

WALTHAMSTOW, a suburb of London Population (1931)

132,965. The church of St Mary existed at a very early period,

but the present building, chiefly of brick, was erected in 1535 Besides other old brasses it contains in the north aisle the effigies

in brass of Sir George Monoux (d. 1543) and Anne his wife There are a number of educational institutions, including a school

WALTHARIUS—WALTHER of art; Forest school, founded in 1834 in connection with King’s college, now ranks as one of the well-known English public schools Brewing is extensively carried on

In the reign of Edward

the Confessor Walthamstow belonged to Waltheof, son of Siward, earl of Northumberland, who marned Judith, niece of Wilham the Conqueror, who betrayed him to his death in 1075. The estate subsequently passed in 1309 to Guy de Beauchamp, earl of War-

VON

DER

VOGELWEIDE

317

the north of England in 1069 he jomed them and took part in the attack on York, only, however, to make a fresh submission

after their departure in 1070. Then, restored to his earldom, he married William’s niece, Judith, and nm 1072 was appointed earl of Northumbria In 1075 Waltheof joimed the conspiracy against the king arranged by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford, but

wick It1s supposed to have been the birthplace of George Gas-

soon repenting of his action he confessed his guilt to Archbishop Lanfranc, and then to William, who was in Normandy Return-

WALTHARIUS, a Latin poem founded on German popular

ing to England with William he was arrested, and after being brought twice before the king’s court was sentenced to death

tradition, relates the exploits of the west Gothic hero Walter of

On May 31, 1076, he was beheaded on St Giles’s Hill, near Win-

cogne the poet (d 1577)

of St Gall, is due to a later Ekkehard (Ekkehard IV, d 1060), who gives some account of him in the Casus Sancts Gall (cap.

chester. Weak and umreliable in character, Waltheof, hke his father, is said to have been a man of 1mmense bodily strength. Devout and charitable, he was regarded by the Enghsh as a

80) The poem ıs said to have been by Ekkehard I (d 973) in his

martyr, and miracles were said to have been worked at his tomb

schooldays for his master Geraldus. If so, he must have possessed precocious powers Waltharius was dedicated by Geraldus to Erchanbald, bishop of Strasbourg (ff 965-991), but mss were in

at Crowland ‘The earl left three daughters, the eldest of whom, Matilda, brought the earldom of Huntingdon to her second husband, David I, king of Scotland One of Waltheof’s grandsons

Aquitaine

Our

knowledge

of the author,

circulation before that time

Ekkehard IV

rected his namesake’s Germanisms on epic songs now lost

Ekkehard,

a monk

stated that he cor-

The poem was probably based

Walter was the son of Alphere, ruler of Aquitaine, which in the sth century was a province of the west Gothic Spanish kingdom. On Attila’s invasion the western princes are represented as offering tribute and hostages Gubich, here descnbed as a Frankish king,

gave Hagen as a hostage in place of his son Gunther, the Bur-

gundian Herirth, his daughter Hiltegund, and Alphere, his son Walter. Hagen and Walter became brothers in arms, fighting for Attila, while Hiltegund was put over the queen’s treasure

Pres-

ently Gunther succeeded his father and refused the tribute, whereupon Hagen fled from Attila’s court. Walter and Hiltegund, who

was Waltheof (d 1159), abbot of Melrose See E A. Freeman, (1870-76).

WALTHER

The Norman

VON

DER

Conquest, vols. it., iii. and iv.

VOGELWEIDE

(ce 1170-«. 1230), the most celebrated of mediaeval German lyric poets For all his fame, Walther’s name is not found in contemporary records, with the exception of a solitary mention in the travelling accounts of Bishop Wolfger of Passau—‘Walthero cantori de Vogelweide pro pellicio V solidos longos”—“To Walther the singer of the Vogelweide five shillmgs to buy a fur coat,” and the maim sources of information about him are his own poems and occasional references by contemporary Minnesingers It is clear from

had been betrothed in childhood, also escaped, takmg with them a

the title êr (Herr, Sır) these give him, that he was of noble birth; but 1t is equally clear from his name Vogelweide (Lat.

great treasure The story of their flight forms one of the most charming pictures of old German story At Worms, however, the treasurer excited the cupidity of Gunther Taking 12 kmghts,

villages, but to the nobility of service (Dzenstadel), humble re-

among them the reluctant Hagen, he overtook them at the Wasgenstein (Vosges) Walter engaged the Nibelungs one at a time, until all were slain but Hagen, who held aloof and was only persuaded by Gunther on the second day to attack his comrade. Luring Walter from the strong position of the day before, Gunther and Hagen attacked All three were incapacitated, but their wounds were bound up by Hiultegund. The essence of the story is the series of single combats The incoherences make it likely that many changes have been introduced ın the legend Thidreks Saga makes the story more probable by representing the pursuers as Huns Probably Hagen was originally the father of Hiltegund, and the tale was a variant of the saga of Hild in Skaldskaparmdl, Hild, daughter of King Hogni, was carried off by Hedinn The fight between father and lover only ceased at sundown, to be renewed on the morrow, since each evening Hild raised the dead by her incantations. This is obviously a mediaeval vanant of the ancient myth of the struggle between light and darkness : BrstiocraPHy —~Waltharius was first edited by Fischer (Leipzig,

1780) Later and move critical editions are by Jacob Grumm (Lat. Gedichte des Muttelalters, Gottingen, 1838); R. Peiper (1873); V. Scheffel and A Holder (Stuttgart, 1874); German translations by F Lmmig (Paderborn, 1885), and H. Althof (Leipzig, 1896) See also

Scheffel’s novel cf Ebbeh-rd

(Stuttrart

1887)

The 4S

fragrerts of

Weltere were rest eaitedd by G Sepken- (kfc) arewards by R. Wa stan Bel der cage- chy Pors (Ca-cl, 81). by E Ilohhin nGocbog Way eace drvkr tb vol veo 1255) witu a. oO ye Kim. uctong of tue two leave: wach b've been preserved See aso A Pues, 13-4)

1, Gece R Koero!

dey Lit des M Se'l ercom terdlarca (Lee 2, Gaseh dor dieuecner Literate br zim Atty, G2

d Meerin yoa mt yw Strasbourg, 1857) M D lammed 728 Sagu oy Walter of Aquitame (Baltimore, 1892) ; B. Symons, Deursche Heldensage (Strasbourg, 1905) With Waltharius compare the ballads Earl Brand” and “Erlinton” (F. J. Child, English and Scottish Popular Ballads, i, 88 seq), and see R W Chambers, Widsith (1912).

WALTHEOF (d 1076), earl of Northumbria, was a son of Earl Siward of Northumbria, and, although he was probably educated for a monastic life, became

earl of Huntingdon

and

Northampton about 1063 After the battle of Hastings he submitted to William the Conqueror, but when the Danes invaded

aviarium, a gathering place or preserve of birds) that he belonged not to the higher nobility, who took their titles from castles or

tainers of the great lords, who in wealth and position were httle removed from non-noble free cultivators For a long time the place of his birth was a matter of dispute, until Professor Franz Pfeiffer established beyond reasonable doubt that he was born in the Wipthal in Tirol, where, not far from the lttle town of Sterzing on the Eisak, a wood—called the Vorder- und Hintervogelweide—preserves at least the name of his vanished home Tirol was at this time the home of several noted Minnesingers; and the court of Vienna, under the enlightened duke Frederick I of the house of Babenberg, had become a centre of poetry and art Here it was that the young poet learned his craft under the renowned master Reinmar the Old, whose death he afterwards lamented ın two of his most beautiful lyrics; and in the open-handed duke he found his first patron This happy penod of his hfe, during which he produced the most charming and spontaneous of his love-lyrics, came to an end with the death of Duke Frederick in 1198. Henceforward Walther was a wanderer from court to court m many Germanic countries, singing for his lodging. For material success in this profession he was hardly calculated His criticism of men and manners was scathing; and even when this did not touch his princely patrons, their underlings often took measures to rid themselves of so uncomfortable a censor Thus he was forced to leave the court of the generous duke Bernhae of Canr‘h's (1202-1256), after an experience of the tuyu..uvous housenwl¢ of the landgrave of Thuringia be warns those sho hase wek er, to give it a wide berth, and aiter thice years

at the court of Dietrich I of Meissen (reigned 1195-1221) he complains that he had received for his services neither money nor praise Walther was, in fact, a man of strong views; and 1t 1s this which gives him his main significance ın history, as distinguished from his place in literature From the moment when the death of the e~pcror Hcurv VL (1197) opened the fateful struggle between empire and papacy, Walther threw himself ardently into the fray on the side of German independence and unity Though, his religious poems sufficiently prove the sincerity of his catholicism, he remained to the end of his days opposed to the extreme claims of the popes, whom he attacks with a bitterness

WALTON

318

which can only be justified by the strength of his patriotic feel- | von der Vogelwerde, by Wilhelm Wilmanns (Bonn, 1882), 3s a valu. ings His political poems begin with an appeal to. Germany, able critical study of the poet’s hfe and works See also E. Gaertner, Die Eptiheta bes Walther von der Vogelweide (1901); R Wustman, written in 1198 at Vienna, against the disruptive ambitions of the Walther von der Vogelwerde (1913), A Debrit-Vogel, Die Gedichte princes.— Walthers von der Vogelweide in neuhochdeutscher Form ¢ a 2) Crown Philip with the Katser’s crown And bid them vex thy peace no more.

He was present, on Sept 8, at Philip’s coronation at Mainz, and supported him till his victory was assured After Philip’s murder in 1209, he “said and sang” in support of Otto of Brunswick against the papal candidate Frederick of Staufen; and only when Otto's usefulness to Germany had been shattered by the battle of Bouvines (1212) did he turn to the nsing star of Frederick II., now the sole representatıve of German majesty against pope and princes. From the new emperor his zeal for the empire at last received recogmition, and a small fief in Francoma was bestowed upon him, which, though he complained that its value was little, gave him the home and the fixed position he had so long desired. That Frederick gave him an even more signal mark of his favour by making him the tutor of his son Henry VII, is more than doubtful Walther’s restless spirit did not suffer hm to remain long on his new property In 1217 we find him once more at Vienna, and again in 1219 after the return of Duke Leopold VI from the crusade. About 1224 he seems to have settled on his fief near Wurzburg He was active in urging the German princes to take part in the crusade of 1228, and may have accompanied the crusading army at least as far as his native Tirol In a beautiful and pathetic poem he paints the change that had come over the scenes of his childhood and made his hfe seem a thing dreamed He died about 1230, and was buried at Wiirzburg, after leaving directions, according to the story, that the birds were to be fed at his tomb daily Historically interesting as Walther’s political verses are, their merit has been not a little exaggerated. Of more lasting value are the beautiful lyrics, mainly dealing with love, which led his contemporaries to hail him as their master in song (smsers sanges meister). He is of course unequal At his worst he does not mse above the tiresome conventionalities of his school At his best he shows a spontaneity a charm and a facility which his rivals sought in vain to emulate His earlier lyrics are full of the joy of life, of feeling for nature and of the glory of love Greatly daring, he even rescues love from the convention which had made it the prerogative of the nobly born, and puts the most beautiful of his lyrics—Unter der linden—into the mouth of a simple girl A certain seriousness, which is apparent under the joyousness of his earlier work, grew on him with years Religious and didactic poems become more frequent; and his verses in praise of love turn at times to a protest against the laxer standards of an age demoralized by political unrest. Throughout his attitude 1s healthy and sane. He preaches the crusade, but at the same time he suggests the virtue of toleration, pointing out that in the worship of God Christians, Jews and heathen all agree

He fulminates against “false love”; but pours scorn on those who maintain that “love is sin” In an age of monastic ideals and loose morality there was nothing commonplace in the simple lines in which he sums up the inspiring principle of chivalry at its best :-— Swer guotes wibes liebe hat Der schamt sich ieder mussetit! The Gedichte were edited by Karl Lachmann (1827) This edition of the great scholar was re-edited by M Haupt (3rd ed, 1853). Walther v d Vogelwe:de, edited by Franz Pfeiffer wth intradrcticn and noes laii edition, by Karl Bartsch, Leipzig, 1873) Gio turent su d. Gedichten Walthers, nebst e Remverzechns, by C A, Hornig (Quedlinburg, 1844). There are translations into modern German by B Obermann (1886), and into English verse Selected poems of Walter von der Vogelweide by W. Alison Philips, with introduction notes (London, 1896). The poem Unter der Linder, not me’ dofand in the latter, was freely translated by T L. Beddoc: (ios, more closely by W A, Phillips m the Nineternth Cer aar, 10L 18,0), July 1896 (cexxxhi, Dp. 70). Songs and Sayings contains English translations of Walther’s poems, by F Belts (1917) Leben u Dichten Walthers

‘He who has the love of a good woman Is ashamed of every misdeed,

.A

P.)

WALTON, IZAAK (1593-1683), English writer, author of

The Compleat Angler, was born at Stafford on Aug 9, 1593, the register of his baptism gives his father’s name as Jervis, and nothing more 1s known of his parentage He settled in London as an 1ronmonger, and at first had one of the small shops, 74 ft by 5 ft, in the upper storey of Gresham’s Royal Burse or Ex. change in Cornhill In 1614 he had a shop in Fleet Street, two doors west of Chancery Lane Here, in the parish of St Dunstan’s, he gained the friendship of Dr. John Donne, then vicar of that church His first wife, Rachel Floud, great-great-miece of Archbishop Cranmer, died in 1640

He married again soon after,

his second wife being Anne Ken—the pastoral “Kenna” of Tie Angler’s Wish—step-sister of Thomas Ken, afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells. After the Royalist defeat at Marston Moor, he retired from business He had bought some land near his birthplace, Stafford, and he went to live there; but, according to Wood,

spent most of his time “in the families of the eminent clergymen

of England, of whom he was much beloved”; and in 1650 he was again living in Clerkenwell In 1653 came out the first edition of his famous book, The Compleat Angler His second wife died in 1662, and was buried in Worcester cathedral church, where there 1s a monument to her memory One of his daughters married Dr Hawkins, a prebendary of Winchester The last forty years of his long life seem to have

been spent in ideal leisure and occupation, the old man travelling

here and there, visiting his “eminent clergymen” and other brethren of the angle, compiling the biographies of congenial

spirits, and collecting here a little and there a httle for the enlargement of his famous treatise. After 1662 he found a home at Farnham Castle with George Morley, bishop of Winchester, to whom he dedicated his Life of George Herbert and also that of

Richard Hooker, and from time to time he visited Charles Cotton in his fishing house on the Dove He died in his daughter’s house at Winchester on Dec 15, 1683, and was buried in the cathedral It 1s characteristic of his kindly nature that he left his property at Shalford for the benefit of the poor of his native town Walton hooked a much bigger fish than he angled for when he offered his quaint treatise, The Compleat Angler, to the public There 1s hardly a name in English literature, even of the first rank, whose 1mmortality 1s more secure, or whose personality 1s the subject of a more enthusiastic cult, The Compleat Angker, dedicated to his friend John Offley, was published in 1653, but Walton continued to add to its completeness in his leisurely way for a quarter of a century Later editions appeared during his hfetime, in 1655, 1661, 1668 and 1676 In the 1676 edition the thirteen chapters of the original had grown to twenty-one, and a second part was added by his brother angler Charles Cotton, who took up “Venator” where Walton had left him and completed his instruction in fly-fishing and the making of flies. Walton did not profess to be an expert with the fly; the flyfishing in his first edition was contributed by Thomas Barker, a retired cook and humorist, who produced a treatise of his own in 1659, but in the use of the live worm, the grasshopper and the frog “Piscator” himself could speak as a master ‘The famous passage about the frog—often misquoted about the worm—‘use him as though you loved him, that 1s, harm him as little as you may possibly, that he may live the longer”’—appears in the origmal edition. The additions made as the work grew were not merely to the technical part; happy quotations, new turns of phrase, songs, poems and anecdotes were introduced as if the

leisurely author, who wrote it as a recreation, had kept it constantly in lus mind and talked it over pomt by point with his numerous brethren There were originally only two interlocutors in the opening scene, “Piscator” and “Viator”: but in the second edition, as if in answer to an objection that “Piscator” had it too much his own way in praise of angling, he introduced the falconer, “Auceps,” changed “Viator” into “Venator” and made

WALTON-LE-DALE—WAMPUM

319

the new companions each dilate on the joys of his favourite sport | is an irregular mlet studded with low islands, known as Hanford Although The Compleat Angler was not Walton’s first hterary water The Naze is a promontory 2m N. by E. of the town, and work, his leisurely labours as a biographer seem to have grown in the vicinity of Walton are low cliffs exhibiting the fossiliferous out of his devotion to angling It was probably as an angler red crag formation. that he made the acquaintance of Sir Henry Wotton, but it is WALTZ, a popular round dance, introduced from Germany clear that Walton had more than a love of fishing and a humorous into France at the end of the 18th century and into England in

temper to recommend him to the friendship of the accomplished ambassador.

At any rate, Wotton, who had intended to write

the hfe of John Donne, and had already corresponded with Walton on the subject, left the task to hm Walton had already contributed an Elegy to the 1633 edition of Donne’s poems, and he completed and published the life, much to the satisfaction of the most learned critics, in 1640 Sir Henry Wotton dying in 1639, Walton undertook his life also; it was finished in 1642 and pubshed in 1651 His life of Hooker was published in 1662, that of George Herbert in 1670 and that of Bishop Sanderson in 1678 The Lives of Dr. John Donne, Sw Henry Wotton, Mr Richard

Hooker, Mr George Hooker, etc, was published m 1670 This, together with the life of Robert Sanderson was edited by George Samtsbury in 1927 All these subjects were endeared to the biographer by a certain gentleness of disposition and cheerful piety, three of them at least—-Donne, Wotton and Herbert—were

anglers Their lives were evidently wntten with loving pains, in the same leisurely fashion as his Angler, and like it are of value less as exact knowledge than as harmonious and complete pictures of character Walton also rendered affectionate service to the memory of his friends Sir John Skeffington and John Chalkhill, editing with prefatory notices Skeffington’s Hero of Lorenzo in 1652 and Chalkhuill’s Thealma and Clearchus a few months before his own death in 1683 His poems and prose fragments were collected in 1878 under the title of Waltondana. The best-known old edition of the Angler is J Mayjor’s (2nd ed, 1824, repr 1927) A facsimile of the first edition was reprinted in 1928 by A. and C, Black The book was edited by Andrew Lang in 1896, and various modern editions have appeared The standard biography is that by Su Harris Nicolas, prefixed to an edition of the Angler (1836) There are notices also, with additional scraps of fact, annexed to two American editions, Bethune’s (1847) and Dowling’s (1857) An edition of Walton’s Lives, by G Sampson, appeared m 1903 See also T Westwood, The Chronicle of the “Compleat Angler” of Izaak Walton and C Cotton (1864); Izaak Walton and his

Friends, by S. Martin (1903), E Marston, Thomas Ken and Izaak Walton: etc. (1908), R B Marston, Walton and some earher writers on Fish and Fishing (1909).

WALTON-LE-DALE,

urban district, in the Fylde parlia-

mentary division, Lancashire, England Pop (1931) 12,718, area 4,656 acres The church of St Leonard was originally erected in the 11th century, the earliest portions of the present building bemg Perpendicular in style Cotton-spimning is carried on Roman remains have been found here, probably indicating a roadside post The manor of Walton was granted by Henry de Lacy about 1130 to Robert Banastre It afterwards passed to the Langtons, and about 1592 to the Hoghtons of Hoghton Walton was the principal scene of the great battle of Preston (Aug 17, 1648) In r7xz5 the passage of the Ribble was bravely defended against the Jacobites by Parson Woods and his parishioners of Atherton (gv)

WALTON-ON-THAMES, an urban district in the Chertsey

parliamentary division of Surrey, England, pleasantly situated on the right bank of the Thames, 17m WS W from London by

the S railway Pop (1931), 17,953 “The church of St Mary has late Norman portions, and contains numerous memorials, including examples of the work of Chantrey and Roubilac A verse inscribed upon a pillar is reputed to be Queen Elizabeth’s

profession of faith as regards transubstantiation The queen was a frequent resident at Henry VIII’s palace of Oatlands park, which was destroyed during the civil wars of the ryth century. WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE or WALTON-LE-SOKEN a watering-place in Essex, 714 m ENE from London Pop (1931) 3,066 ‘This portion of the coast has suffered from en-

croachment of the sea, and a part of the old village of Walton, with the church, was engulfed towards the end of the r8th century On the east side of the town is the open North sea, with a fine

stretch of sand and shingle, affording good bathing

To the west

1812 Ridiculed at first, it soon achieved unequalled popularity and survives to the present, with some variations in tempo and movement It is written in 4 time and has enlisted the musical interest of many composers, the most famous of whom are the Strauss family of Vienna. (See also DANCE)

WALVIS BAY, a harbour on the coast of south-west Africa

When separated politically from the hinterland, practically no de-

velopment took place. South-west Africa, under the former German rule, relied on Swakopmund. Now that the area is administered as part of the mandated territory, the port of Walvis Bay 1s begmming to develop. Vessels can now lhe alongside a concrete wharf, 1,500 ft long, to which leads a channel, 30 ft. deep The wharf is fitted with electric cranes. A cold storage and refrigerating plant has been erected, capable of dealing with 150 cattle and 200 or 300 sheep per diem; and considerable quanti-

ties of chilled meat are exported

Whaling and fishing are also

carried on Walvis Bay is now a regular port of call for mail steamers of British, Dutch and German lines In consequence of

the development of Walvis Bay, Swakopmund has been permanently closed as a port The population of Walvis Bay 1s about 2,000, including about 600 whites. WALWORTH, SIR WILLIAM (d. 1385), lord mayor of London, belonged to a good Durham family He was apprenticed to John Lovekyn, a member of the Fishmongers’ Guild, and succeeded his master as alderman of Bridge ward in 1368, becoming sheriff in 1370 and lord mayor in 1374. He is said to have suppressed usury in the city during his term of office as mayor His name frequently figures as advancing loans to the king, and he supported John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, in the city, where there was a strong opposition to the king’s uncle His most famous exploit was his encounter with Wat Tyler in 1381, during his second term of office as lord mayor In June of that year, when Tyler and his followers entered south London, Walworth defended London Bridge against them, he was with Richard II when he met the insurgents at Smithfield, and assisted in slaying their leader (see TYLER, War), afterwards raising the city bodyguard in the king’s defence; for which service he was rewarded by knighthood and a pension. He subsequently served on two commissions to restore the peace in the county of Kent He died in 1385, and was buried in St. Michael’s, Crooked Lane See Wilham Herbert, The History ... of St Michael, Crooked Lane, London . . . (1831), W and R Woodcock, Lives of Iustrious Lord Mayors (1846); an account of Wat Tyler’s rebellion in a fragment printed by G. H. Trevelyan in the Eng Hist Review (July x898)

WAMPUM or WAMPUM-PEAGE

(Amer Ind wampam,

“white”, peag, “bead”), the shell-money of the North American Indians It consisted of beads made from shells, and required a considerable measure of skill in its manufacture Wampum was of two colours, dark purple and white, of cylmdrical form, averaging a quarter of an inch in length, and about half that in diameter Its colour determined its value The term wampum or wampum-peage was apparently applied to the beads only when strung or woven together.

They were ground as smooth

as glass and were strung together by a hole drilled through the

centre

Dark wampum, which was made from a “hard shell”

clam (Venus mercenaria), popularly called quahang or quahog, a corruption of the Indian name, was the most valuable, White wampum was made from the shell of whelks Wampum was employed most in New England, but it was common elsewhere. By the Dutch settlers of New York it was called seawan or zeewand, and roenoke in Virginia, and perhaps farther south, for shell-money was also known in the Carolinas, but whether the roenoke of the Virginian Indians was made from the same species of shell as wampum is not clear Cylindrical shell-beads similar to the wampum of the Atlantic coast Indians were made to some extent by the Indians of the west coast. In the trading between whites and Indians, wampum so completely took the place of

320

WANA—WANGARA

ordinary coin that its value was fixed by legal enactment, three to 2 penny and five shillings a fathom The fathom was the name for a count, and the number of shells varied according to the accepted standard of exchange Thus where six wampum went to the penny, the fathom consisted of 360 beads, but where four mde a penny, as under the Massachusetts standard of 1640, then the fathom counted 240. Wampum circulated in the remote districts of New England through the 17th century, and even into the beginning of the 18th It was current with silver m

Connecticut in 1704 Wampum was also used for personal adornment, and belts were made by embroidering wampum upon strips of deerskin These belts or scarves were symbols of authority and power and were surrendered on defeat in battle. Wampum also served a mnemonic use as a tribal history or record ‘The belts that pass from one nation to another in all treaties, declarations and ımportant transactions are very carefully preserved im the chiefs’ cabins, and serve not only as a kind of record or history but as a public treasury According to the Indian conception, these belts could tell by means of an interpreter the exact rule, provision or transaction talked into them at the time and of which they were the exclusive record A strand of wampum, consisting of purple and white shell-beads or a belt woven with figures formed by beads of different colours, operated on the principle of associating a particular fact with a particular string or figure, thus giving a serial arrangement to the facts as well as fidelity to the memory These strands and belts were the only visible records of the Iroquois, but they required the tramed interpreters who could draw from their strings and figures the acts and intentions locked up in their remembrance” (Major Rogers, Account of North America, London, 176s).

among the largest department stores in the United States

Wana.

maker was postmaster-general in President Benjamin Harrison's cabinet in 1889-93, and brought about the establishment of post. offices on ocean-going vessels He died in Philadelphia on Dec 12, 1922 Wanamaker early identified himself with religious works in Philadelphia, was the first paid secretary, n 1857—61, of that city’s Young Men’s Christian Association, of which he was pres). dent in 1870-83, and in 1858 founded, and thereafter served as

superintendent of, the Bethany (Presbyterian) He took an active part in the movement

formation of the US

WANDERU

Sunday school

which resulted in the

Chnistian commission in 1861

or WANDEROO,

the name for langur mon-

keys (Semnopithecus) mhabitıng the island of Ceylon, in India,

commonly misapplied to the lion-tailed macaque, Macacus silenys (see LANGUR, PRIMATES)

WANDSWORTH,

a south-western metropolitan borough of

London, England Population (1931) 353,101; area 9,107 acres The name, which occurs in Domesday, indicates the position of the village on the river Wandle, a small tributary of the Thames Wandsworth 1s the largest in area of the metropohtan boroughs, including the districts of Putney by the river, part of Clapham

in the north-east, Streatham in the south-east, Balham and Upper and Lower Tooting in the centre and south

These are mainly

residential districts, and the population has increased greatly during the present century with the tendency for more and more

people to reside away from the city The increase is also associated with the mse of industries, chiefly oil-mulls, dyeworks, paperworks, calico-printing and hatmaking. Towards the west,

along the Upper Richmond and Kingston roads, there 1s consider-

able open country It is to a great extent preserved in the public grounds of Putney Heath, which adjoms Wimbledon Common, outside the borough, on the north, and Richmond Park and Barnes Common, parts of which are in the borough Other public grounds are parts of Wandsworth Common (193 acres) and Clapham Com-

See Holmes, “Art in Shell of the Ancent Americans” in Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, for 1880-881; W. B. Weeden, Jndian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization (Baltimore, 1884), E. Ingersoll, “Wampum and its History,” in mon, both extending into Battersea, Tooting Bec (147 acres) and American Naturalist, vol. xvii (1883), Horatio Hale, “On the Ong and Nature of Wampum,” in American Naturalist, vol. xvin (1884); Streatham Common (66 acres), and Wandsworth Park borderC. L. Norton, “The Last Wampum Comage,” in American Magazine ing the Thames. The borough returns five members to Parhafor March, 1888, David Ives Bushnell, The Origin of Wampum ment (1906) , New York State Museum, Wampums of the Iroquois ConWANGANUI, seaport and fifth town in New Zealand jederacy, 61st Ann Rept. Pt I (Albany, NY, 1907), Nehermah Vreeland, “Wampum ‘The Native Substitute for Currency in North Pop (1927) 27,180 The town 1s laid out in rectangular blocks at America,” in Nusmismatist, vol xxvu. (1914), Frank A Speck, “The the foot of low hills, from the summit of which a splendid panPenn Wampum Belts” (Leaflet of Mus. of Amer Ind No 4, 1925)

orama is seen, including the snow-clad Mount Ruapehu to the WANA, a valley and frontier outpost of Waziristan in the north-east The river bar is from ar ft to 23 ft deep at high North-West Frontier Province of India It lies to the west of the water The district 1s chiefly pastoral, and wool 1s exported, as Mahsud country, and to the north of the Gomal mver, and 1s in- well as meat and dairy produce, for which there are large refrighabited by the Waziri tribe. Lying on the border of Afghanistan, erating works The Wanganui Collegiate School (Church of Engit is conveniently placed for dominatmg Waziristan on the north land) 1s one of the largest boarding schools in New Zealand The and the Gomal pass on the south, and occupies very much the district was the scene of conflicts with the natives m 1847, 1864 same strategic position as the Zhob valley holds in Baluchistan and 1868, and in the beautiful Moutoa gardens a monument comIn 1894, when the Indo-Afghan boundary commission was de- memorates the battle of that name (May 14, 1864). The settlelimiting the Waziri border, the Mahsud Waziris, thinking their in- ment was founded in 1842. dependence to be threatened, made a night attack on the camp of WANGARA, the Hausa name for the Mandingo (qv), a the commission at Wana The result was the Waziristan Expedi- people of West Africa; used also as the name of districts in the tion of the same year, and the occupation of Wana by Bnitish western and central Sudan. The Wangara are also known as Wantroops. On the formation of the North-West Frontier Province in garawa, Wongara, Ungara, Wankoré and Wakore. According to rgo1 it was decided to replace the troops by militia, and Wana was Idrisi (wrting m the 12th century), the Wangara country was handed over to them in 1904 It was abandoned during the third renowned for the quantity and the quality of the gold which it Afghan War, and has not been re-occupied produced The country formed an island about 300 m long by

WANAMARER, JOHN (1838-1922), American dry goods merchant, was born in Philadelphia (Pa ), on July 11, 1838. He attended a public school in that city until he was 14, when he became an errand boy for a book store. He was a retail clothing

x50 in breadth, which the Nile (se, Niger) surrounded on ail sides and at all seasons This description corresponds fairly accurately with the tract of country between the Niger and its tnbutary the Bam: Idrisi’s account of the annual inundation of salesman from 1856 until 1861, when he established with Nathan the land by the rising of the Niger agrees with the facts He Brown (who afterwards became his brother-in-law) the clothing states that on the fall of the waters natives from all parts of house of Wanamaker and Brown, in Philadelphia, the partnership the Sudan assembled to gather the gold which the subsiding waters continuing until the death of Brown in 1868 In 1869 Wanamaker left behind. The discoveries of Hornemann, Mungo Park and founded the house of John Wanamaker & Co In 1875 he bought others revived stories of Wangara’s richness in gold Rennell and the Pennsylvania Railroad company’s freight depot at 13th and others (early XIX, cent ) shifted the Wangara country far to the Market streets, and in the following year opened it as a dry goods east and confused Idnsi’s description with accounts which proband clothing store In Sept, 1896 he acquired the former New ably referred to Lake Chad. The Wangara territory was again York store of A. T. Stewart, of which his partner, R. C Ogden, moved westward, and was located within the Niger bend, as had the management This and the Philadelphia store are knowledge increased . The name has now disappeared from maps

321

WANGARATTA—WAR save that a town in the hinterland of Dahomey is named Wangara

(French spelling OQuangara)

ANGARATTA,

a town of Victoria, Australia, at the

junction of the Ovens and King rivers, 1454 m by rail NE. of Melbourne Pop (1921) 3,689 It ism an agricultural district and

ıs the see of an Anglican bishop

WANSTEAD,

an urban district in Essex, England, on a

branch of the L N ER

ralway, 7m

NE

of Liverpool Street

station Pop (1931) 19,183. Wanstead Park, 184 acres in extent, was opened in 1882 Northward extend the broken fragments of Epping Forest Wanstead Flats, adjoining the Park, form another open ground At Snaresbrook in the parish of Wanstead 1s the Infant Orphan Asylum, founded in 1827 Wanstead 1s included in

the parhamentary division of Epping Wanstead in Saxon times was owned by the monks of St Peter’s, Westminster, and afterwards by the bishop of London In the reign of Henry VIII it came into the possession of the crown, and in 1549 ıt was bestowed by Edward VI on Lord Rich, whose son sold it m 1577 to Queen Ehzabeth’s favourite, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester

WANTAGE,

(1931) 3.424.

a market town ın Berkshire, England

Pop

The church of St Peter and St Paul 1s Perpen-

dicular and Early Enghsh The grammar school preserves a Norman door from another church, which formerly stood mm the same churchyard with St Peter’s In the broad market-place 1s a great statue of King Alfred, executed by Count Gleichen and unveiled in 1877, for Wantage 1s famous as the birthplace of the king in 849

WAPAKONETA,

a city of western Ohio, USA

Pop

(1920) 5,295, 1930 it was 5,378. It 1s m a rich gram-growing region, which has deposits of gas and oil The city manufactures

furniture, churns, acetylene gas generators, chains, wheels, steel wagons, refrigerators and various other articles

WAPENSHAW

(ME. for “weapon-show”), a periodical

muster or review of troops formerly held in every district in Scotland, the object having been to satisfy the military chiefs that the arms of their retamers were mn good condition. Scott’s Old Mortalsty gives a description of one The name is still given to rifle meetings held annually m some parts of Scotland.

WAPENTAKE, anciently the principal administrative divi-

sion of the counties of York, Lincoln, Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, and Rutland, corresponding to the hundred in the southern counties of England In many cases, however, ancient wapentakes are now called hundreds. The word wapentake, of Scandinavian ongin, originally signified the clash of arms by which the folk assembled in a local court expressed their assent to its decisions Wapentakes are not found outside the parts of England which were settled by the Danes H

See H M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905); Elhs, General Introductzon to Domesday Book (2 vols, 1883),

Liebermann, Gesetze, u

729 (1912)

APITI, the name applied to several deer of the red-deer

group

The true wapıtı ıs Cervus canadensis of North America,

where it is often called “elk” It is somewhat larger than the red deer, with big antlers characterized by the large fourth tine. Other species to which the name wapiti is apphed are C eustephanus from the Altai, the Manchurian C, luchdorfs and the Maral or Tian Shan wapiti, C songaricus.

WAQIDI [Abi ‘Abdallah Mahommed ibn ‘Umar ul-Waqidi] (747-823), Arabian historian, was born at Medma, where he became a corn-dealer but was compelled to flee from his creditors (owing largely to his generosity) to Baghdad. Here the Barmecide vizier Vahya b Khalid (see BARMEcIDES) gave him means and made him cadi in the western district of the city In 819 he was transferred to Rosafa (Rusafa) on the east side. His greatest work 1s the Kitab ul-Maghdz, on Mahomet’s campaigns The first third of the Kitab ul-Maghdzi (one leaf missing) was published by A von Kremer from a Damascus ms. (Calcutta, 1856).

Sprenger in his Zeben Muhammad's

used a British Museum

ms.

containing the first half, all but one leaf. J Wellhausen published an abridged German translation from another Bntish Museum ms. under the title Muhammad ın Medina (Berhn, 1882).

Ascribed to Waaidi, but probably written at the tme of the Crusades to mecite the Moslems against the Christians, are several

further works on the conquests of Islam

WAR.

See ARABIA, Literature (G.W T?)

A war ıs a fight between human societies—in primitive

conditions between savage tribes, in the civilised world between states Its explanation involves the analysis of the terms of this definition and requires the aid of the sciences that treat of its several elements, of biology to account for the fight, of sociology to explain the State, and of the historical sciences to trace the evolution, in connection with that of the State, of armed forces and of the modes of their employment. Fighting appears to be part of the order or disorder of nature

Life 1s the self-realising or self-asserting energy of a countless multitude of organisms, each of which apprommates by growth to the type of its kind, reproduces that type and dies The condition of growth is nutrition, the assimilation by the organism of extraneous matter. Reproduction multiples every species There is therefore a perpetual competition for the means of subsistence Plants in any given area crowd each other out and organisms capable of movement feed either upon plants or upon one another In this competition, through countless generations, is accomplished the evolution of constantly higher types, which survive in virtue of mcreased fitness for the environment. The environment is always changing, by geological process, by the incessant accumulation of dead organisms, and by modifications of the species that survive, whose existence conditions each other’s, Every lugher organism has its systems of nutrition and circulation, regulated by their own nervous system, as well as its limbs, working under the direction of the bram. It 1s usually equipped with organs of attack and of protection or of evasion Of these the variety is endless; on the one hand teeth, tusks, paws, claws, electricity and even poison, on the other hand, shells, hides, scales and devices for camouflage The attack aims at the vital organs, those of nutrition, circulation and direction, the blows struck are met by parry and counter-blow ‘The response to attack is sometimes counter-attack, sometimes flight or evasion. An injury to one of the limbs sufficient to paralyse it exposes the vital organs, which are then liable to damage that must be fatal. The survival of any given creature in conflict with another depends on its fightmmg power, that of a species partly on the evolution of organs of combat and partly on adaptability to the geographical environment, climate and land, sea or air Gregarious animals rely on co-operation, on the swarm, the herd or the pack. Man ıs not only gregarious but social. Everything that is distinctively human is the product of the common life The special characteristic of man is thought, expressed in the spoken word, and in the work of the constructing hand Among the oldest monuments of thought are the fint arrow head, the beginning of maps ascendancy in the anmal world, and the picturgs scratched on bone or stone, his earliest attempts to represent the environment. Speech conveys the thoughts common to the group, and is at once the medium of understanding between the members of the group and a barrier separating them from other groups speakıng other languages. The armed man ıs master not only of the wild beast but of the unarmed man The group of men who co-operate is stronger than the same number without the power of co-operation, which comes from direction, given by the leader’s word of command, of which the name is order. These are the elements of man’s self-realisation, which takes the form not merely of his adapting himself to his environment but of his effort to shape it to his own purposes. All these elements are found in the most primitive societies, which when they have found a region where they can subsist without wandering about, seek safety by establishing themselves in a cave, in a lake-dwelling or a Ingh place surrounded bya ring fence. Eventually the home becomes a walled town with a ruler and a body of armed men

This is the beginning of the State and

of what is the same thing, civilisation A State is a society occupying a definite terntory and obeymg the direction of a government. Its purpose is first to provide

that security which enables men to work for their living and then to render possible to its people, through law, order and co-

322

WAR

operation, that free exercise of their faculties that makes hfe worth hving The division and specialisation of labour produce capital, which gives scope for the development of men’s mental and spiritual powers. Obedience to law becomes habitual and spontaneous. The arts and sciences flourish Within the State grows up a variety of associations, dustrial, commercial, intellectual and rehgious, The State asserts its supremacy over them all and admits no rival to the supreme authority of its government Growth means expansion The orderly hfe of the State brings with ıt an mecrease of population, of wealth and of power and the multiphcation of those wants which the community feels and endeavours to supply Expansion means first of all more space. The growing State seeks to enlarge its boundary If the land beyond its borders is unoccupied, all that is required is to take possession of ıt; but 1f it ıs the property of another State its occupation will be resisted and there will be war. Every State therefore has its organs for war, its armed forces. In the anatomy of the State as of any other organism structure corresponds to function. The organs of nutrition and circulation, usually self-controlled, are the agricultural and commercial systems. The organs of perception and action, controlled by the organ of direction, the government, are the diplomatic service, the army and the navy, to which the twentieth century has added the air force A full view of war will perhaps best be obtained by a consideration of the structure and working of the organs of action, beginning with the army as the oldest and best known, and tracing their evolution ın connection with that of the State The ground will thus be cleared for a retrospective and prospective view of the relation between war and civilisation.

THE ARMY AS AN ORGANISM

An army is a society within a society, an organism which, though it is a whole with a life of its own, is also a member of a larger and higher organism, the State whose life it shares. As a consequence of the development of the State it increases in size, in the complexity of its structure, and in the specialisation of its parts and their functions The several elements of multary strength depend each of them upon some factor in the national hfe. Superiority in any one of the elements 1s the outcome of national superiority 1m respect of the corresponding factor This is usually due rather to mind and character than to physical causes The source of discipline is the common life. The recruit finds himself living in a society, the regiment, pervaded by an order which in course of time shapes his bearing and enters into his consciousness. Here he receives his lessons in skill at arms and in evolutions. To these in modern times is added an instruction which explains to him the purpose of all that he is required to do The pleasure that everyone feels when the meanmg of what he 1s doing first dawns upon him carries with it a regard for the person who has opened his eyes. In a modern army the officer 1s at once the teacher and the leader of his men A body of troops in which the officers know their work and care for their men will not be lacking in disciphne, which is the index of the character and quality of the officers Very strong is the bond between those who have shared the hardships and dangers of a campaign. The cohesion is strongest in an army that its commander has led to victory. The spirit of such an army is raised to a higher power. But incompetence or negligence in the higher ranks produces mistrust m those below, and an army which has lost confidence meets defeat half way. The sanction of discipline is military law, a draconic code, which in war exacts the penalty of death for disobedience, for cowardice and for lack of vigilance The military code, like the criminal code in civil life, seldom needs to be put into execution,

It forms a background, a last resort, and fulfils its purpose because all concerned know that it is there. The fact that every

[ARMY

AS AN ORGANISM

' of voluntary enlistment into a force governed by muhtary law The numerical strength of an army depends on the size ang wealth of the State and also upon the degree to which it 1s sub. ject to the pressure of nvalry, for this determines the mode of recruiting

When from the dark age of early Greece the city State emerges, we have the first glimpse of armies properly so called Every citizen as soon as he 1s of age receives a soldier’s training and for each campaign as many are called out as the need requires At first the citizens arm themselves at their own expense accord. ing to therr means. As wealth increases the expense 1s borne by the State In the early Roman constitution the citizens, all of them soldiers, are classified according to the equipment of which their means admit. The constant wars of the later Republic brought with them continuous service with pay, leading under the

Empire to a standing army, to the enrolment of the populace, and finally of the men of various German tribes. The chaos of the dark ages was followed by the feudal system In the absence of a currency the king’s forces consisted of mounted warriors, to each of whom was given a holding of land sufficient to enable him to maintain his horses, armour, weapons and retainers, The army was a collection of fully-armed knights, with their squires and

retainers of inferior equipment and fighting value The feudal] lord built himself a stronghold and the system tended to become the anarchy of a multitude of conflicting barons. With the mse of towns the urban communities could afford to arm their citizens The anarchic condition was scarcely mod-

fied by the perpetual conflict between the feudal lords, relying on their mounted men at arms and the cities beginning to trust

their citizens fighting on foot

After the discipline of the Swiss

infantry had enabled them to defeat the Burgundian cavalry, there came up again the system of mercenaries, which had been known to the Greeks, bodies of troops attached to a leader who hired himself and his force to any Power that would pay them. The beginning of the modern milttary system was the formation in France of a royal army serving the king for pay. Hence the name

“soldier,” that 1s “paid man” This model was everywhere copied

Side by side with 1t subsisted the principle, everywhere admitted

as fundamental, that it is the citizen’s duty im case of need to fight for his country. This was the basis of the muhtia system, by which an auxiliary army was raised by royal authority through local officials levying by ballot a quota of men mustered from time to time, occasionally trained and called out only in emergencies Revolutionary France at bay required every full-grown man to be a soldier but after a few years relaxed the application of the principle by admitting conscription with substitutes After the collapse of Prussia Napoleon imposed upon her a. limitation of the numbers of her army She evaded this by dismissing every year those men whose traiming was thought to be completed and replacing them by fresh recruits. When, after the disastrous campaign in Russia, Prussia joined the coalition, she recalled to the colours all the trained men who had been sent home and thus put into the field a force far exceeding the lmit prescribed by Napoleon After 1815 Prussia made permanent the system of compulsory short service Every young man at twenty became a soldier for three years and was then dismissed with the habihty to be recalled in case of war at any time till the age of thirty-six. This system was afterwards copied by almost all the European States except Great Britain In 1791 the French Constituent Assembly decreed a levy of volunteers from the National Guard and the troops thus raised rendered good service in the campaign of 1792. In 1803 the assembly of the French army at Boulogne led in England to the raising of 300,000 volunteers and ın 1859 the apprehension of a French invasion occasioned the formation of volunteer corps which became permanent and were in 1905 reconstituted as the territorial army.

A national State engaged in a war for an object which its people State maintains such a code is a proof that most men are well regard as vital will devote its whole resources to the conflict aware of the connection between the force of the State and the and will, if need be, improvise armies whose numbers will be order of life which it secures. This consciousness 1s patriotism. only by those of its able-bodied male population. In the Nothing else accounts for the acceptance by a representative limited American Civil War the Federal Government, which at the outset assembly of a mutiny bill or an army act and by peaceful citizens had a regular army of less than 100,000 men, found itself at the

TRANSPORT AND FOODS]

323,

WAR nt

Every branch of the army 1s brought

forms, arms and equipme ion, transport and up to full strength and supphed with ammunit ing, the business of all the requisites of a campaign. This proceed mobilisation The called 1s footing, war a to on army The history of weapons belongs to that of invention and of puttmg the for it are planned and prepared in every detail in the industrial arts As these arts advance the weapons improve; arrangements that no time may be lost ım their execution. where they are undeveloped the weapon will be inferior. The advance in order principle of war 1s “whatsoever thy hand findeth The governing progress is competitive, for no nation can safely allow its soldiers its policy do 1t with thy might ” A State therefore, whether to be supplied with weapons inferior to those of a possible ad- to do, does well on going to war to put the flint arrow be aggressive or conservative, and bow the Yet no produced Age possible as Stone army an ‘The yersary. at the start as large head, the Bronze Age the spear, the sword, the shield and the into the field a campaign with a portion helmet ‘The Iron Age added the Roman pilum, the javelin which error 1s more frequent than beginning This portion. other the back available and keeping bent when it struck, and steel brought with it the short Spanish of the forces m turn In 1859 ıs apt to lead to the defeat of each portion her half with armies sword and Sardinian fought with the Austria opposed the French In the fourteenth century the Swiss infantry been defeated at Magenta, the developed army and, after this half had which axe battle and spear 1870, of In ion defeated at Solfermo halberd, a combinat r, invented in second half was brought up to be into the pike In the sixteenth century gunpowde regular army had been compelled to felt on the battle- after the bulk of the French the fourteenth century, began to make itself the arquebus, the surrender at Sedan and at Metz, France was able to raise fresh feld, perhaps one-third of the infantry having strength It would have been wiser to too cannon began armies of considerable until the ranks of the rest being pike-men In the sixteenth century gave avoid battle, 1f necessary by retreat, to play havoc with the masses of infantry. The arquebus cen- original regular army had been swollen by the addition of every th seventeen the of end the at place to the match-lock which bayonet available man be assembled tury became the flint lock. With the mvention of the with the In order to be able to fight a battle an army must armed pike-men disappeared and infantry were all alike from place to place and must at all produced no Tt must be able to move century h eighteent of war. The munitions bayonet with and and fit-lock food lighter and times be kept supphed with changes 1 weapons, though the field gun became on the conditions of its assembly, of nineteenth Its fighting power depends The powerful more gun siege the and more mobile breech-loader, its marching, resting and supply a comparacentury produced the percussion-cap, the rifle, the The assembling of an army was until recent times ading army encamped in an area of the magazine rifle and the machine gun and also the breech-lo century, tively simple matter A Romanhundred yards and protected itself rifled cannon and smokeless powder. In the twentieth few a measured been revived which the sides armour, which had disappeared before the bullet, has Even an early eighteenth century army bullet-proof by a rampart and a ditch be within in the shape of the steel helmet and of the tank, a be assembled in an area every part of which would as poscould an by driven and gun mg quick-fir modern army is usually as far armour-plated car carrying a of engine its commander’s view A a serious makes tents of transport mternal combustion engine The invention of this type the for has sible lodged in houses, and long experience proves that to has also produced the aeroplane The advance of chemistry brought addition to the baggage tram the men! if But list sick the to introduced many kinds of high explosives and has also adds bivouac in the open quickly poisonous gas on to the battlefield be spread over an area large enough to Achilles are to be housed they must of arms The 36,000 costly of been army always An have villages weapons or Good its towns to be had for accommodate them in country can be billeted in were a great prize, a Damascus blade was not of its men in a fairly populated European An army of 100,000 men one and fortune a costs gun heavy modern a miles nothing, equip- an area of some sixteen square numbers were projectiles a mechanic’s weekly wage. Thus the up-to-date will occupy an area of thirty square miles These ment of an army has never been possible except to a wealthyof perhaps never exceeded until the close of the eighteenth century. van men, a force 200,000 with community ın which the mechanical arts were in the Germany entered In 1805 Napoleon than 45 square progress which could hardly be billeted in an area less Soldiers must not only be armed but clothed. In primitive miles In the World War armies, numbered by millions, spread the of miles long armies the soldier’s dress was not different from that of themselves across the country over a belt hundreds ordmary citizen. Uniform was first introduced in the seventeenth and twenty or thirty miles broad, conthe incur to has State the century by Louvois, and since then TRANSPORT AND COMMISSARIAT siderable cost of clothing its army action business. A commander directs his army as a single whole His The movement of a modern army is a complicated perfect having who, fencer, the of that with compared be 18,000 men, 5,000 may To A Bnitish division in 1914 was composed of for packed be control of his weapon, is always watching his opponent’s eye could It kinds various of horses and goo vehicles facilitate his control the army is orgamsed Every small group along a road it bivouac into half a square mile, but marching of men forms a unit with its own leader and two or more such would form a column fifteen mules long, suppose it to march by units are grouped into a larger umit, also with its own leader. twelve and a half mules the road from one bivouac to another distant The normal The organisation varies from age to age In recent times is about the length of a normal day’s march. —that the in been, have great to small from practice during umts, in ascending order pace of marching is 3 miles an hour, but it is the infantry, the platoon, company, battalion and brigade, in the every hour to halt for ten minutes, so that the average rate of the cavalry, the squadron, regiment and brigade; in the artillery If the first man starts divi- progress of the column is 24 mules an hour. As the colunin is 15 battery of four or more guns and the brigade. An infantry at 6 A.M he will reach the new camp at II, and infantry of bngades of cannot leave the sion has hitherto been composed vehicle last the or man last the long engi- miles new camp till artillery, a squadron or regiment of cavalry together with original bivouac till noon and cannot reach the neers, ambulances and the transport belonging to all these units, 5PM If a second division had to follow on the same road its grouped are Divisions itself. in complete army A.M. the next mimature ro a is It of last cart could not reach the new camp before division is given a into army-corps and these into armies according to the size Accordingly whenever possible each morning, command. of e convenienc marching the and men, the whole army road to itself, An army of four divisions, 100,000 No army, during peace, can be kept quite ready for war. The along a single road would form a column sixty miles long and modern In legions of number a raising by Romans began a war or four marches behind the peace is the rear division would be three four armies the number of men with their regiments during the purpose of joming in the same battle the For front. and soldiers as trained heen have if marching on four only a fraction of those that war is divisions would be nearer to each other one following if who will be required in case of war. Accordingly, when than apart at parallel roads three or four miles principle is imminent, the reservists are ordered to join their regiments another in one and the same road. Thus the modern their respective peace stations, where they are supplied with uniconclusion of the struggle disbanding an army of a million. In States of the World War, Great Britam, together with the other

the Empire, put into the field some 7,000,000 soldiers.

324

WAR

that an army must be spread out for marching and for billeting but always so that it can be concentrated for battle. À

[WEAPONS

AND

FORMATIONS

WEAPONS AND FORMATIONS

All the troops of an army must be trained in the use of their For a modern army good roads have hitherto been a necessity; weapons and in those evolutions required for effective action ang they have been supplemented by railways and by track vehicles for the co-operation of the various units large and small. Formacapable of going across country. The Roman roads were made tions and evolutions are handed on by tradition and in modem for the Roman armies and formed a very important factor in armies regulated by official text-books. They must be suited to the extension of Roman power and the spread of Roman civilisa- the weapons employed and are therefore perpetually modified to tion. After the collapse of the Roman Empire good roads dis- keep pace with the progressive improvement of weapons, appeared from Europe for some twelve centuries. Macadamised Among weapons the important distinction is between those roads were introduced in the second half of the eighteenth cen- which are held in the hand for cutting and thrustmg, of which tury and quickly spread their network over western Europe It the types are the sword, the spear and the bayonet, and those was in part to their existence that was due the great rapidity of which are thrown from a distance by hand or by machine, the Napoleon’s marches compared with those of his predecessors. arrow and the javelin, the stone and the bullet, the grenade and The roadmaker is necessarily also a bridgemaker and a surveyor the shell. : The accurate surveys of all the great States of Europe, as well The history of formations and evolutions is that of a continual as the maps based upon them, have m every case been produced argument carried on in the recurring trials of the battlefield beby a department of the army, im the first instance for military tween the hand weapon and the missile, between mass and elasends ticity of evolution, between the arm and the head. It is the story Railways were first used for the transport of troops in 1859, of the unwieldy phalanx against the mimble maniples, of the and during the nineteenth century their employment for this pur- Roman legionaries hurling their javelins into the mass of spearpose was confined to the movement of armies from their home men and rushing with their short swords into a crowd in which quarters, where they were mobilised, to the places of assembly on no man had room to wield his spear. It is the story of the legion the frontier. A single train may carry perhaps a thousand men; helpless against the swarm of mounted Parthian bowmen, of the a division, for its infantry, horse and guns, would need from long-bow against the man at arms, the bullet against the bayonet twenty to thirty trains, which if they required half an hour each In the 18th century came the dispute of the heavy column to load and unload would make the total time 30 hours exclusive against the flexible column and the line, argued first on paper of the time occupied on the journey Rail transport, therefore, between Folard and Guibert. “It is an illusion and a prejudice” results in no saving of time when the distance is not more than a said Guibert “that the force of a body of troops is increased by couple of days’ march; the modern development of railways, how- augmenting the depth of its formation ” It came to trial at the ever, is so great that for long distances it is very much quicker end of the 18th century between French skirmishers and the than marching. During the last war very large bodies of troops Prussian line and later in the Peninsula and at Waterloo between were constantly moved by rail from one part of the theatre of the British two-deep line and the French column. The introducwar to another tion of the first breech-loader, the needle gun, established the The difficulty of feeding an army can best be illustrated by a supremacy of the bullet. But the tradition of “cold steel” and simple comparison. One of the groups of army corps into which of the mass died hard. In 1866 the Austrians rushed against the a modern army is sub-divided will have a strength of perhaps needle gun and were shot down. At Gravelotte swarms of Prus200,000 men, equal to the population of a good-sized town. The sians, eager to charge, were slaughtered by the bullets of the town is permanent and stationary. But no one except its com- Chassepot Faith in the bullet had not yet overcome the supermander knows where the army will be to-morrow or next week. stition of the bayonet; in South Africa it happened too often that Yet it cannot be allowed to starve even for a day. In the Middle a body of British troops surrounded by a nng of invisible Boers Ages and long afterwards armies supplemented what they could found their only escape from the bullet in surrender. Yet this carry with them by plundering, and this was possible when the experience did not prevent British troops a dozen years later from armies were small and the population supported itself mainly by being sent into fields of barbed wire to be massacred by the bulits own crops. With the rise of regular armies and of the modern lets of the machine gun and magazine rifle The bullet and the State, armies were fed from magazines. Great depots of corm shell have made an end of all fighting formations except thn were collected at fortresses on the frontier where mills were set lines or small clusters of skirmishers. Only out of range are the to work to grind a part of it, and bakeries to produce biscuit. old formations of column and of line still possible. They are now The soldiers were supplied with a five-days’ ration which each merely formations of assembly or modes of moving troops. man carried for himself. Sacks of corn were loaded on wagons The history of cavalry, apart from that of reconnaissance, leads or mules and moved to a point five-days’ distance from the for- up to the charge at full speed of a line of horsemen riding knee tress. Here mills and ovens were prepared and biscuits baked to to knee. This was in the 18th and roth centuries the ideal of give the men another five-days’ supply. Cattle were driven with cavalry trainers, who dreamed of the shock of the charge. But the army and slaughtered as required. Plunder was forbidden. it is doubtful whether the shock has ever been realised in action, New depots were created at intervals of a few days’ march as the for in practice the opposing ranks pass through one another and army advanced. But this took time. The system imposed limitations on the commander, for the army could not be moved toa instead of the smashing collision comes the mélée. Against modérn fire-arms the cavalry charge is hopeless, and the réle of the distance of more than ten days’ march from its magazines. horseman is restricted to reconnaissance; supplementary to that The French revolutionary armies had not the resources re: quired for the creation of magazines. In the enemy’s country, which is effected in the air, to the pursuit of demoralised troops therefore, they lived by plunder. Napoleon made an extensive and to the rapid seizure of points to be held by firearms. The training of an army in peace consists in practice of the use of magazines, which, however, he supplemented by a well organized system of plunder, christened by the revolutionary name evolutions which are thought to be suitable for war. These as a rule embody- the experience of the last war. Repetition makes “Requisition.” In the nineteenth century the Prussian army imitating Na- them hahittal they bhecora stereotyped: The habits of any -society .re Cuiiiu™ 10 change and the professional soldier’ of-all poleon, combined the system of magazires wiih requisizon ranks becomes so accustomed to traditional forms and modes of The British army has always used the system of magazines, sup- action that he is apt to loge his receptivity to new ideas - The plemented by such resources as could be obtained in the enemy’s workings of an army thus- tend to run in grooves and -usually country, not by plunder, buf by purchase In our own time the after a long period of peace a regular army begins a war-by supply of armies has been greatly facilitated by the adoption of tepeating the methods which tradition has retained from wars motor transport, which goes far to relieve or even to supersede long past. This may lead to painful surprises if those who have the railways which in the nineteenth century were the principal had charge of the opposing army have meantime adopted immeans for the transport of supply. proved weapons and modes of operation,

TACTICS] |

WAR

The Greek name for the art of the commander was strategy, of which the object was defined as victory. The Greek name for

arranging an army in order of battle was tactics. These terms are

still used, with the distinction that tactics 1s defined as the art of fighting battles and strategy as the art of 80 directing all the

operations of the army as to lead to a decisive victory, that 1s, to the destruction, im a military sense, of the enemy’s forces The terms are convenient m theoretical analysis But in practice the two forms of activity are mseparably intermingled. TACTICS

It is convenient to consider first the sphere of tactics—battle The dominant factor of battle is the controlling mind and will of the commander The process of battle always consists in kilhng and wounding, but these are not an end in themselves, except in so far as they diminish the enemy’s numbers The commander’s object 1s to outwit his antagonist and to demoralise the

opposing army, to produce in it disorder and confusion, and so

to transform ıt from an orgamised body into a disorderly crowd Its then at his mercy, and he can either disperse it by pursut, compel its surrender on the spot, or cut down the survivors where they stand A commander therefore tries to detect m the enemy’s order some point where an effective blow will dislocate its system or structure To that point he will direct his chief blow, for which he will prepare by attempts to mislead the enemy as to the mtended direction of the decisive stroke This is what gives

its importance to surprise A sudden blow delivered from a direction m which it was not anticipated may upset his opponent’s

plan and throw his army out of joint, In that case the opponent must retreal, 1f he can, before his army suffers further damage But he may have anticipated the blow and have arranged a counter-stroke which may take the assailant by surprise, so that the tables will be turned. The weak pomts of an army are its flanks and rear; and battles have seldom been won except by a turning movement leading to the attack or envelopment of a flank and a threat or attack against the rear At Rossbach and at Leuthen Frederick made use of his rapidity of evolution to strike the enemy im flank. Napoleon’s favounte manoeuvre was, while engaging the enemy ın front, to brng a body of troops from a distance against one of his flanks, causing him to weaken his front by moving troops to reinforce that flank Napoleon then with his reserve attacked and pierced the weakened front This was the plan of Castiglione and of Bautzen It was the plan that miscarried at Ligny owing to the non-arrival of D’Erlon An army is prepared to be attacked on its front and such attacks have rarely succeeded except when it has been possible for one army to make such a breach in the enemy’s front as to create two flanks, from which the separated parts can be rolled up At Blenheim the French and their allies held a strong position of which the right flank was protected by the Danube, the left by forest-clad hills While Prince Eugene engaged their left Marlborough first attacked their fortified right and then broke through their centre with his cavalry A good commander uses the several arms in close co-operation. During all the centuries before firearms had developed their power cavalry was usually the decisive weapon even where its numbers were comparatively small. A good general so manoeuvred both his infantry and his cavalry that they played into one another’s hands These were the tactics of Alexander and Hannibal, of Caesar and of Cromwell. At Marston Moor, while the Royalist foot was getting the

325

in which it can have the advantage of the protection afforded by the ground. Troops posted along the top of a slope with open ground ın front of them can stand still to shoot at the enemy as he comes up, while he has the effort of moving A flank attack must be met facing it, that is by forming a new front to meet it In the days of hand to hand fighting and of mass formations the men of the ranks behind the front on the wing attacked had to turn to their right or left. At Cannae Hannibal’s foot attacked both flanks of the Roman massed legions and, as the Romans on both flanks had to turn to defend

themselves, the front ranks could not continue thei onset on Hannibal’s front without leaving gaps between themselves and the flank men behind them. When Hannibal then brought up his horse to attack the Roman rear the Roman mass, surrounded, could not charge mn any direction without leaving gaps. The Roman army, thus confused and paralysed, was cut to pieces With the advent

of the flint-lock and bayonet

a lme of in-

fantry with a clear space in front of it could keep off double its number advancing against it over the open As firearms 1mproved, the power of such a line increased, while the number of

ranks diminished from three to two and then, with the breechloader, to a single rank and with the magazine rifle to a row of skirmishers with intervals between them ‘The increase of the range of the bullet exposes the assailant during a much longer

period to the enemy’s fire, and since the introduction of the machine gun and the automatic rifle a frontal attack by mfantry upon infantry 1s impracticable, unless the infantry has been decimated and shaken by shells or poisonous gas or by both Accordingly the assailant uses his superior numbers to spread out his force and envelop the enemy’s flank or flanks The opponent must then bend back the ends of his line so that the two opposing lines become parallel curves of which the one envelops the other and this may be continued until they become concentric

circles, An army enclosed is lost, for its only escape is to break through the enclosing circle This means, wherever it is attempted, a frontal attack against a position without flanks durmg which the assailant has both flanks exposed ‘This is the explanation of the frequent surrenders in South Africa of British troops when surrounded by a ring of Boer skirmishers, who being mounted could always surround the British mfantry. It is the explanation of Macmahon’s surrender at Sedan. Strength agamst attack 1s increased by fortification, of which the simplest form 1s a bank, with a trench or ditch before it, so placed as to command the ground in front for a space corresponding to the range of the weapons used The advantage is increased with the range of the weapons employed and if the open space is strewn with obstacles to delay the advance of the assailant With the aid of the engineer it has always been possible to make a well chosen position umpregnable by direct attack on its front. But it has also always been possible for a skilful assailant to turn to his own use the advantage thus conferred. The classical mstance 1s the siege of Alesia Vercingetorix occupied a hill which he turned into a fortress, Caesar surrounded it with a circle of fortifications which the Gauls found it impossible to break through Caesar then surrounded his own army with fortifications looking outwards which the great reheving army of Gauls attacked in vain The modern parallel to this is the capture of Bazaine’s army at Metz The elements of fortification are always the same, the chosen position, the rampart, the obstacle and the projectile The early

city surrounded its hill with a stone wall from which the citizens shot their arrows, threw their javelins and hurled stones with cata-

better of the Parliamentary foot, Cromwell with his Ironsides de- pults. The assailants attacked the wall with rams and mines, and feated in turn the Royalist horse of the right wing and of the

left, and then crashed into the Royalist foot, thus saving his own side’s foot and deciding the battle. Very effective is the mode by which, while one army engages the enemy in front, a second army is brought up to attack him m flank This was the method of the allies at Waterloo, repeated

by Moltke at Koniggritz A body of troops expecting to be attacked occupies a position

built for their archers and slingers towers which the besieged would if possible set on fire. The mediaeval castle surrounded its wall with a moat and built a keep as a last resort. The wall became a square or oblong having, outside its corners, towers from which arryone approaching the wall could be shot aown In due time the gun made an end of the stone wail, which was replaced by an earth bank with a parapet to shelter the guns and the musket men. The moat became a deep wide ditch: the square

326

WAR

or oblong became a straight-sided polygon, with bastions at the corners to enfilade the straight sides or curtains These elements were developed in the elaborate systems of Vauban and Coehorn, of Brialmont and of the modern forts of concrete and steel plates. The history of fortification 1s a part of the long rivalry between the projectile and the shield In the World War the projectile, the high explosive shell fired up into the air so as to drop on to the rampart, proved too much even for walls of concrete and steel, so that the rampart is now no more than a trench and the obstacle a field of barbed wire The purpose of fortification 1s to gain tyme by economising

[STRATEGY

1815, as it did in 1866 at Koniggratz The first principle, then, is to keep the army together The commander whose army 1s ready and who feels assured of

its superiority wishes to bring on his battle as soon as he can A march towards the enemy’s capital 1s pretty sure to bring the enemy’s army into the field, especially 1f the capital 1s not only the centre of the national admiistration but also an industrial and commercial city.

His opponent, of less strength, will wish to avoid battle. If he can find a position strong enough to make up for his mfenonty

he may stand and fight there Otherwise he will wish to put of the battle till he can be remforced either by fresh levies or by an

men It enables a small number to resist a greatly superior force for a time which is always limited In battle ıt enables the com- ally, or until his antagonist has been weakened by the fatigues mander to resist attack with a part of his force while keeping the of campaigning and by detachments made to protect an ever rest in reserve to be used for counter-attack either in another part lengthening line of communications His object then is to waste of the field or at a later hour The attack on a fortress begins by the assailant’s time and to gain time for himself investment. The assailant surrounds it with a mng of fortified For many centuries it was exceedingly difficult to force an op. positions It can then hold out only until its supplies of food and ponent to fight a battle against his will When battles were fought ammunition are exhausted, when 1t must needs surrender at close quarters with the sword, the spear, or the pike, infantry If the assailant wishes to shorten the time he must bring up were formed in dense masses many ranks deep Only with sucha enough powerful guns to destroy a portion of the rampart and mass, the spear points of several ranks projecting beyond the must then send troops to attack at the place where a breach has front, was it possible to resist a cavalry charge A fight begun been made The investment and siege of a fortress require troops could hardly be broken off, for, once the troops were engaged hand Many times more numerous than those besieged. It thus takes to hand, those who turned their backs on the enemy were lost A away from an invading army far more troops than 1t withdraws small force could hardly engage a large one without the risk of from the army resisting invasion, to which therefore it 1s a source destruction Accordingly an army was kept together in a single of strength. But it serves this purpose only if attacked, seeing mass. Until the order of battle was completed ıt was not safe to that the garrison of a fortress that no one attacks 1s withdrawn approach the enemy* But a very long time was required for to no purpose from the army to which ıt belongs changing the order from that of the march to that of the fight If therefore a commander, on seeing the enemy approach, THE STRATEGICAL ASPECT thought it prudent to avoid battle, he could march away while his We can now consider the strategical aspect of the conflict opponent was forming for action Nothing was more difficult between armies than to force a battle upon an unwilling enemy After Hannibal The decisive act of war being battle and a commander’s aim had destroyed three Roman armies the Roman commander Fabuus victory, his plan will be to bring on a battle as soon as he can with adopted the plan of wearing him out without risking battle, and the chances in his favour, yet to put it off as long as he can if the Hannibal spent twelve years marching up and down Italy without chances are against him, The issue of a battle is always uncer- finding a favourable opportunity for a successful attack upon tain. An order may be miscarried or misunderstood and accidents the Roman army may delay or prevent the arrival of troops upon which the comThese conditions remained unchanged until the eighteenth cenmander counts, His opponent may have some new and unfore- tury When, after the mtroduction of the flint-lock, the bullet seen weapons or devices He himself may be mistaken or misin- began to exert its power, it was found that infantry ın a lme of formed about the enemy’s numbers, positions and movements four or even of three ranks could withstand a cavalry charge He can know very little of what 1s going on behind the enemy’s Then came systematic drill, by which a body of troops was outposts He is always dealing with a more or less known quan- trained to move simultaneously hke a machine at the word of tity, his own army, and a more or less unknown quantity, the command A number of platoons marching one behind another enemy. He has to make up his mind and to act upon data of at a distance equal to the frontage of a platoon could form hne m which few are certain That is why no man can be a great com- a few seconds by the wheel of each platoon to the right or left mander without special qualities of character. The essential 1s not The French army copied, improved and simplified the Prussian cleverness but a certain greatness of soul A commander can drill and cultivated side by side with 1t the practice of skirmishing, always obtain advice, but it requires a very strong and high char- that 1s, of putting before their formed bodies a row of sharpacter to take the responsibility mvolved im acting on another shooters to harass the enemy It then became possible to break man’s judgment off an engagement by the alternate retreat of portions of the Ime, What then are the elements upon which the chances depend, one set holding back the enemy by its fire while the other set withthe means by which a commander can load the strategical dice in drew to reform farther back and repeat the operation A small his own favour? The first is to have more troops on the spot; body could break off an engagement by fighting in retreat and a the second to make the enemy uneasy by threatening to stop his rear guard could delay an army. It became possible to sub-divide supplies or to block his way home Its assumed of course that the an army, provided that its several parts were near enough to be armament and training of the troops are much the same on both re-united for battle Accordingly the French army was organised sides, for strategy can hardly compensate for tactical inferiority in permanent divisions of all arms. Napoleon would advance with Numerical superiority is not secured merely by the State’s pos- a number of divisions or of army corps marching on parallel roads, sessing the larger army, because in a battle the only troops that so that his army would be spread across an area perhaps a hundred count are those that take part in it When the consul Nero, leav- miles wıde, overlapping the enemy’s front Then by a concentric ing part of his army to watch Hannibal’s, marched off with the movement towards a pomt ın the enemy’s rear, he would envelop rest of it to reinforce the general who was dealing with Hasdrubal hım so that he must either fight or beat a hasty retreat This and so destroyed Hasdrubal’s army, he gave a lesson which has practice, the alternate expansion and contraction of a large army too often been forgotten. If an army can place itself between sub-divided into independent units—divisions or army corps——was two parts of an enemy army separated from one another by sev- also that of Moltke A twentieth century army has numbers so eral days’ march, 1ts commander can repeat Nero’s manoeuvre, vast as to be able to form a continuous front along a whole fronthough if he allows them to approach too near, say within a day’s tier Battle can no longer be evaded and can be postponed only march of one another, he may be attacked by both at once One by retreat of Napoleon’s favourite plans was this “manoeuvre from a central The attack or threat of attack on the line of communication position,” which succeeded so brilhantly in 1796 but failed in 1s comparatively modern. As long as armies were small and

com-

NAVAL]

WAR

pact, living on the country in which they found themselves, they required no communications and could retreat in any direction

But with the growth of armies and the rise of the magazine sys-

tem the lime of communication became vital

It must be protected

at any cost If therefore a commander found the enemy moving m a direction which, if prolonged, would sever his communicatons, he must ummediately change front to resist the threatened attack If he should then be beaten he would be driven across and away from his lime of communication. If the attack were

amed at a point lying some distance to his rear he must turn back and fight facmg the way home. In either case his position if he should be beaten would be desperate But he who attacks the

enemy’s communication must be careful in so domg not to expose

ins own ‘This form of operation, the attack on the communications, became important im the eighteenth century and increasingly so as a consequence of the spread of metalled roads over western Europe It was constantly adopted by Napoleon, and in the

modern theory of strategy, which is based mainly upon the analysis of his campaigns, takes a promment place An army is always much disturbed by finding its communica-

tions threatened or severed or its way home occupied by the enemy

Napoleon counted on the consternation which the sudden

appearance of his army on the flank or rear of the enemy was sure

to produce.

In the nineteenth century the source from which an army drew

its supplies was no longer a frontier fortress, as it had been in the eighteenth century, but the whole

country from which it started The line of communication was formed by the network of railways behind the army In the World War when an army was

spread across a whole country in a continuous line, its communications could be reached only by breaking and piercing its front Whatever advantages a commander’s strategy has procured him for the battle he has planned, will be thrown away unless he wins the battle, and his opponent by victory will wipe out all his own mistakes No strategy will compensate for tactical inferiority.

NAVAL WARFARE A navy owes its special character to the nature of the sea All warfare at sea is governed by the law of gravitation. The weight of every floating body is exactly equal to that of the quantity of water which its immersed part displaces Ships of equal displacement are of equal weight The necessary elements of every ship are the hull, the means of propulsion, the crew and their food and water. These therefore represent a constant amount of the ship’s total weight The remainder can be devoted to the purposes for which the vessel is intended In a merchant ship it is available for cargo but if the ship 1s intended to fight it can be devoted to soldiers, their weapons, their food and water These conditions are permanent and unchangeable, they apply equally to the galley, the sailing ship, the steamer and the oil-propelled ship Thus there has always been a distinction between the ship of war and the merchantman, consisting partly in the greater strength of structure of the warship and partly in its carrymg in addition to its crew, and instead of a cargo, a large number of armed men and ther food, water and ammunition Accordingly at all times the merchant ship has been the easy prey of the warship. i The aim of either sıde in a sea fight is to destroy or capture the enemy’s fleet In the infancy of navies the fighting men were

327

the enemy's shore If at the beginning of a war each of the belligerents has a navy the aim of each of the two commanders will be to destroy or capture all the enemy’s warships The commander, having this aim, will set out to find the enemy’s fleet, which, if the opposing commander has the same am, will lead to a battle Suppose the Blue Admiral to have sixteen ships and the Red fourteen, that in the fighting three Blue ships and four Red ones are sunk and one Red one disabled, and that one Red ship 1s compelled to surrender by an appalling loss of men Red now has only eight ships left against Blue’s thirteen which will become fourteen as soon as a Blue crew has been put on board the captured vessel, The Red commander has now no prospect of success and to continue the conflict will probably mean the destruction or capture of his remaining ships. He must therefore escape, if he can, to save the rest of lis ships; but the Blue fleet will follow him His only hope of safety 1s the land and the protection of an army He therefore makes for a fortified harbour where he will be secure from attack The Blue commander is baulked of his prey, for forts are stronger than ships Blue will cruise near the exit from the harbour with ten or a dozen ships ready to attack Red if he should come out, while his remaining ships will capture any Red merchantmen they can find or may escort a Blue army transported in merchant ships to land on the enemy’s shore and attack the fortress which protects the Red navy So long as Red remains in harbour so much of the Blue navy as is not required to watch Red will be used to destroy Red’s sea trade. But Blue’s supremacy at sea will be precarious so long as it is necessary for him to he in wait for the Red fleet, which after all may come out and risk a battle, either with his mferior force or, after a sufficient tıme, with that force strengthened by the addition of new ships The open sea has no inequalities Rough or smooth its surface is the same for both sides, xt offers no shelter of which the weaker force can take advantage The commander of a fleet cannot protect himself by advance or flank guards, for a ship or a squadron once engaged with a much superior force can hardly fight without being destroyed and can avoid fighting only by retreat while still out of reach of the enemy’s weapons Accordingly the security of a fleet against surprise consists in the detachment of swift ships capable not of engaging battleships but of observation and evasion At sea, as on land, the first principle is to concentrate for battle all the forces that can possibly be made available An army or a fleet is concentrated for battle 1f its various parts are so near together that the enemy cannot interpose between them or destroy one portion in isolation If the divisions of an army can in a day’s march be assembled at any point they are ready for anything that can be done by an enemy two marches distant The squadrons of a fleet cannot safely be so dispersed as to im-

peril their co-operation in battle The speed with which fleets approach one another is so great and the speed of the swiftest cruiser so slightly in excess of that of the capital ships of the fleet as to impose very narrow hmuits upon the separation between squadrons that are to co-operate in battle. The conception of a battle cruiser appears to be inconsistent with the fundamental conditions of warfare at sea. A fleet moves many times as ‘fast as an army. Accordingly in the absence of an enemy fleet an army can usually be transported very much faster than an army can be moved by land to oppose

soldiers and the method was to grapple the enemy’s ship so as to enable the soldiers to take 1t by boarding. The alternative was

its landing, and it 1s hard to recall an attempt to land an army

to try to sink the enemy’s ship by ramming or to set it on fire.

Ships take a long time to build, which is increased by every improvement in their construction Nor can sailors be impro-

With the advent of the gun the effort to destroy the ship by shot

and shell became more and more predominant. The sailor replaced the soldier as the fighting man at sea; the soldier on board a ship became the marine, whose original function was to maintain discipline in the crew Suppose a war between two States in which one possesses a fleet of fighting ships and the other does not. The fighting fleet cannot be resisted and will use its ships to chase and capture the enemy’s merchant ships The sea-borne trade of the State without a navy will shrink and disappear. Moreover the navy will be able to escort an army embarked on merchant ships to be landed on

except when that attempt has been frustrated at sea

vised The land lubber cannot be transformed into a sailor in the few weeks or months which suffice to enable a plough boy to take

his place in the ranks of an army

It is therefore exceedingly

difficult for a modern State to replace during the war a navy that has» once been seriously crippled From the sixteenth century onwards the gun has been the de-

cisive weapon in naval warfare. The nineteenth century produced the steamship, which came to be built of iron mstead of wood

and requires from time to time the renewal of its stock of fuel, so that a modern fleet must have access to harbours containing

32 8

WAR

stores of coal or of ol. The improvement of the gun caused the capital ship to be armoured. Neither the ram nor the torpedo has proved able to rival the gun In the World War the submarine, using the automobile torpedo, seemed at first to be a grave menace to the battleship, and for some time its ravages among enemy merchant ships were appalling But means were found of attacking it, and the destroyer armed with quick firing guns and depth charges proved more than its match As soon as merchant ships were grouped into convoys and escorted the rôle of the submarine lost much of its importance But if the type should be further developed and produced in large numbers it might in future again play a great part BELLIGERENTS AND NEUTRALS Much importance in mantime war attaches to the relation between belligerents and neutrals A neutral State ceases to be neutral if it assists either belligerent to carry on the war. A neutral, therefore, is not permitted to supply either belligerent with anyching that will assist him to carry on the war. In the 18th century the “law of nations” m regard to maritime warfare allowed the capture of enemy ships and of enemy goods in neutral ships, and also the right of search of every ship in order to ascertain the quality as enemy or neutral of the ship and its cargo The search of their ships and the right of taking from them enemy goods and contraband of war was always disagreeable to the neutral States and they used to propose that enemy goods in a neutral ship should nat be liable to capture In 1856 the British Government consented to the Declaration of Paris, which laid down that enemy goods in a neutral ship should be exempt from capture unless they were contraband The principle thus adopted is hardly consistent with the nature of mamtime war. Some writers have constantly advocated the prohibition of the capture of private property at

sea, under the impression that it would render warfare more humane. But in reality there is no such thing in war as private property at sea, for every ship and cargo is fully insured and the premiums are paid out of higher charges for freight and higher prices for goods, so that the loss incurred by the capture of a ship and its cargo 1s borne not by the owners but by the general commumty of the nation, Moreover the capture of merchant ships and their cargoes was regulated by stringent rules The ship was taken by its captors to port where a court of law decided whether or not it was lawful prize If the Court decided that it had been wrongly taken the enemy owners recerved compensation Crew and passengers were in all cases protected from myury The only effect of the prohibition of the capture of private property at sea would be to cripple the power of the maritime State, which would be unable to make use of naval victories to bring to bear upon its adversary the form of pressure involved m closing the sea to his activities The invention of the dirigible airship by Count Zeppelin and of the aeroplane by the brothers Wright has brought into warfare a new element In the World War airships and aeroplanes were employed in conjunction with the army and with the navy ‘Their power in reconnaissance was so great as to compel the troops to adopt means of evading it, marching by night and camouflage. Airships were also employed in the bombardment of fortresses, harbours, communications and towns for the purpose of weakening the enemy’s resources and of breaking down the resolution of his population to contmue the struggle This was undertaken first by the airship and afterwards by the aeroplane, which had very soon

proved its superiority over the airship

The results obtained, by

[ECONOMY OF FORCES

forces of the State assailed, and that the preliminary to direct attack on towns and workshops would be victory in an aur battle But to this it is rephed that the great speed of aircraft and the difficulty of finding an enemy moving through space im three

dimensions make ıt rmpracticable to compel the enemy to fight, that the facilities of evasion are too great

The conception of a war beginning by a sudden great air-raid

which is to devastate the enemy’s manufacturing resources and, by destruction and massacre, to paralyse a whole nation carries with ıt the suppression of the distinction between combatants and non-combatants and implies the preparation during peace of the whole nation as a fighting organism From this the only escape

seems to be the development of means of attack upon the raiding

air forces

The primary use of all armed forces, whether at sea, on land or

in the air, is to destroy by fighting the armed forces of the enemy, that 1s to render them incapable of taking further part ın the conflict

They are also used for the purpose of weakening the enemy

by depriving him of some of his resources

This 1s accomplished

by the occupation of his territory so that he can draw from it neither men nor supplies of any kind, and by the destruction of his sea-borne trade, which will cripple him m proportion to his dependence upon it Air forces are also to be employed for this purpose But it is not economical to use for these secondary purposes forces which could be employed against the enemy’s armed forces, for when those have been destroyed the enemy 1s in any

case helpless The destruction of the enemy’s navy will not usually suffice to bring him to terms, ıt must be supplemented by that of his army In order to dictate peace to Napoleon Trafalgar had to be followed by Waterloo From the sketch which has been given of the armed forces it will be seen that they grow and develop with the growth of the State of which they are part. Upon the patriotism of the citizens depends the discipline of its army and navy; upon the development of the industrial arts and sciences dépends the quality of the armament and the matériel; upon the extent to which the advancement of knowledge is cherished depends the intellectual level of the naval and military leaders Thus the power of a nation for war depends, as much as its prosperity mm peace, upon its keeping in the van of civilisation An immense effort is needed to maintain the armed forces They are among the principal organs of the State and their mamtenance in peace is usually the chief item of national expenditure and of the burden of taxation The cost of a war in money alone 1s usually far too great to be met out of current taxation, and involves borrowing on a large scale It sometimes exhausts the national credit, and even where this 1s not the case a serious war causes a great increase in taxation, of which the burden is felt by more than one generation. THE ECONOMY OF FORCES From these considerations follows the supreme importance in war of the economy of forces. To waste them by misuse ıs wantonly to squander not only men’s savings but their hves The statesman 1s concerned with the purpose for which the nation goes to war. Whatever the origin of the quarrel the end he has in view 1s peace consistent with the welfare of his nation It may be the conquest of the enemy State; ıt may be merely to induce the enemy to leave his own State unmolested. These are the two extremes, between which will be found the conditions of the peace desired Whatever those conditions, whatever the statesman’s object, the best way of attaining it is ‘by using the armed forces to

way of damage to workshops for the production of warlike matériel and by way of intimidation of the population, were far disarm the enemy State If the enemy agrees to the terms before from decisive, But the exponents of aerial warfare expect that m the next war air forces will be employed in the attempt to paralyse he is disarmed so much the better strategist is not directly concerned with the terms of peace, an enemy State, by direct attack on industnal centres, on com- j hisThe aim js simply to render the enemy’s forces helpless A large munications and on the seat of government, so as to.produce ' part of the fats vs in wer are due to the mistaken action of govconsternation among the people, Not only high explosive bombs cirm2..s jn Ciru.ng their commanders to use their forces in a but also bombs to spread poison gas are counted upon for this | manner inconsistent with their nature or for aims other than the purpose.

of the enemy armed forces. : The analogy of warfare by land and sea suggests that the air |destruction It is a misuse of weapons to require a fleet to fight against an forces devoted to these purposes should be attacked by the air | army, especially against a fortress, for a ship is much more vul-

PEACE PROBLEM]

WAR

329

1s vital If therefore the action of one State, felt by itself to be necessary to its well-being, interferes with the activity, also felt to be necessary to its welfare, of another State, no concession is war with Spain, employed a large part of its navy m expeditions possible, for in either case it would be felt to be suicidal. There agamst the Spanish colomes in South America, with disastrous will then be a war of which the logical outcome would be the results The right use of the navy would have been to devote its destruction of one of the belligerents Each will set out to crush the forces of the other. The effort whole strength to the destruction of the Spanish navy, after which the Spanish colonies abroad would have been comparatively help- will be supreme on each side, and, as the struggle goes on, the less, In 1807 a British government sent a fleet under Admiral people of each State will again and again consider the sacrifices Duckworth to attack Constantinople; without an army he found required from them in relation to the cause they are assertmg If that he could do nothing, yet in 1915 a British government again the effort 1s felt to be disproportionate to the end, there will be a sent out a fleet with the same object; without an army it was relaxation of energy; and the Government will be obliged to seek unable to pass the Dardanelles of which it engaged the forts at a peace at the price of concession. But the other State, 3f its cause still seems vital, will renew its exertions again and again The disadvantage Nothing is more wasteful than a dispersion of forces caused by State which mistook for vital a cause that was not will find itself a multiplicity of aums If hostile forces are acting in more than weaker than its adversary and compelled to give way. Accordingly one theatre of war it is prudent to place the principal army in that no State can safely enter into a quarrel except for a cause imposed one where the enemy is most dangerous or where it is practicable upon it by the conditions of its existence It can afford to fight to deliver the most deadly blow agamst him In other theatres a powerful adversary only to preserve its power to carry on its no more forces should be employed than are required to parry necessary work The decision as to what is vital is primarily the affair of the the enemy’s blows until the decisive stroke in the principal theatre Government as trustee for the people to whom it is responsible, has had time to produce its effect. The division of armies is frequently caused by the interference for they must bear the burden and their welfare is at stake Vicof statesmen In 1745 France and Spain being at war with Sar- tory will strengthen and defeat will weaken the bond between dina and Austria, a Franco-Spanish army from the Riviera Government and people But the final judgment is the event; the invaded Piedmont and defeated the Piedmontese army It then ‘war vas the trial, the victorious State has made good its case If found itself between that and an Austrian army. The purpose of the defeated State has not been destroyed its survival proves that the Spanish government in the war was to annex Milan and other its cause was not vital Thus the moral responsibility of nations, territories It therefore sent orders to the Spanish commander to as of men, that by their actions they stand or fall, is brought home leave his French colleague and to occupy Milan Thus the French to them by war, the supreme test of national ife The significance and Spanish armies were separated at the very moment when their of that self-determination which is the watchword of modern only hope of success lay in keeping together The consequence democracy is that it involves the realisation of this responsibility. Suppose that two States, having agreed in case of any disputes was that they were beaten each in turn and when eventually united were attacked by the Piedmontese and the Austrians in concert, between them to submit the question at issue to an arbitral tribunal and to accept and abide by its decision, find themselves at defeated and forced to a disastrous retreat The occupation of Milan was a political but not a military measure; it deflected the issue upon a question involving consequences vital to each of them In that case an adverse decision would mean to either Spanish army from its proper use The act of war consists in the destruction of men’s bodies and State that it could no longer fulfil the purpose of its existence Its of the work of their hands. There is nothing in the nature of the government and its people would feel that to accept the adverse act to limit this destruction In some cases ıt has ended with the decision would be fatal to their welfare They would therefore destruction of one of the States engaged and even the disappear- either refuse to submit the matter to arbitration or to accept an ance of its population by massacre or enslavement. In practice adverse decision. In spite of the treaty there would be a war, in there are lumitations to the application of violence They are which each side would believe itself to be fighting for its existence. imposed either by the State itself or by its relations with the neu- A State cannot renounce its function of self-preservation, selftral States As the very existence of the State depends upon the determination or self-assertion It will exert itself to the utmost discipline of its soldiers and the character of its people it cannot to safeguard and to maintain the necessary activities of its people. permit actions which would undermine that discipline or would This is admitted even by the extreme advocates of arbitration Mr. Kellogg, who on behalf of the United States proposed the be inconsistent with the maintenance of that character. From the earliest times States at war with one another have international treaty for “The Outlawry of War,” is reported to have said’ “Every nation is free at all times and regardless of refrained from some of the forms of cruelty practised by savages The States of the old Mediterranean world observed a number of treaty provisions to defend its territory from attack or mvasion usages in and with regard to war Declaration of war, truce, and it alone is competent to decide whether the circumstances armistice, quarter and the distinction between soldiers and the require recourse to war in self-defence.” Self-defence hardly unarmed population were recognised In the Middle Ages the admits of any interpretation except the assertion of vital interests States of Christendom and those of the Mohammedan world usu- Mr. Kellogg therefore seems to realise that the treaty which he ally reframed from extreme barbarity Chivalry, with the idea of proposes might be a dead letter in any case of opposition between honour, set up standards of conduct ın the fight Smce the Renais- the vital interests of the States concerned It follows that proposals of disarmament can have only a resance, jurists have from time to time formulated principles underlying the usages commonly accepted as binding by belligerents. stricted scope, for no nation can afford to allow its armed forces to fall below the strength requred for the assertion of its vital These form the substance of international law Since the middle of the nmeteenth century a number of inter- interests. national agreements formulatmg them have been drawn up and THE IDEA OF PERPETUAL PEACE accepted by all or almost all of the civilised States. After every great European war the sufferings which it has ARBITRATION caused have turned men’s minds towards the idea of perpetual Both in ancient and modern times disagreements between States peace The War of the Spanish Succession was the occasion of the have frequently been settled by arbitration, a method evidently project of the Abbé de Saint Pierre It was a scheme by which the suitable for cases in which the matter in dispute is not of supreme peace of Europe was to be under the protection of France, and importance But a dispute on a matter vital to each side 1s settled therefore savoured rather of Sully’s design to secure French only by an appeal to force A Government’s mission being to ascendancy in Europe than of a serious contribution to the world’s secure for its people a life worth living, its claim to the allegiance peace The French Revolutionary War seems to have suggested of its subjects depends on its fulfilment of this task Nothing else Kant’s Essay: “Towards Perpetual Peace” Kant thought that nerable than a fort and the loss of a battle-ship with its crew much more serious than that which a fleet can inflict on the garrison of a fortress In 1739 the British Government, going to

330

WAR-—-WARBECK

the first condition was that all the States should become Republics

——in other words that nations should become responsible for their actions in the sense in which responsibility has here been defined The World War has been followed by the formation of the League of Nations and by treaties for the purpose of preventing as far as possible the recurrence of war by the substitution for ıt of international law In order to become imperative, international law requires behind it the sanction of force, which can only be that of some kind of super-State or world-State A worldState can hardly be imagined except as the outcome either of the conquest by one State of all the others, after the fashion of the Roman Empire, or of a federation of all States, brought about by their agreement, after the model of the United States. The problem can hardly better be illustrated than by these two examples, The Roman Empire maintained peace within its borders with little interruption for some centuries, but it contained two different societies, the products respectively of Greek and of Roman civilisation, which could not permanently be held together. The super-State broke down The history of the Middle Ages is that of the failure of the attempt to revive it mn the dual form of the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, and the modern history of Europe is that of the rise of a number of States in rivalry, leading to a balance of power between the greater States and the consequent preservation of the small ones The British settlements in North America first realised themselves in reaction against the authority of the British Government They were all substantially British in race, language, mstitutions and traditions, and in the impulse of self-government

‘Their self-

assertion by war compelled them to find strength in union The thirteen States evolved a super-State, the Federal Government. As their people spread westward across the Continent they spontaneously formed further States within the super-State But in spite of their origmal umity of race, language and traditions, there developed among them two types of society, for in the South agriculture came to be based upon negro slavery, while in the North agriculture and industry alke were carried on without slave labour. The two systems proved incompatible with one another, and the inevitable result was the War of Secession. The moral seems to be that war 1s the outcome of the growth of societies which can never be uniform, but varies with varying conditions of climate, land, race, region and tradition. No superState can prevent this diversity nor repress the expansion of a vigorous community The establishment of a world-State would no doubt be the end of international wars, but they would reappear as civil wars.

à N Custance, A Study eee en He future of war, consult tion of War (1923) , On Future Warfare Paris, or the Future of War (1925),

Armies (1927) WAR, ARTICLES

of War (2nd ed 192»). J F.C Fuller, The Beet (1928), B H Liddell-Hart, The Re-Making of Modern

f (S Wr) OF. A code of regulations for the disciphnary government of armed forces The terms “Laws and Ordinances of War,” “Military Law,” “Muhtary Discipline Act.” “Mutiny Act” and “Miltary Penal Code” are synonyms for “Articles of War,” although this term is stil in use in the United States They all denote the system of rules, superadded to the common law of a country, which regulate the conduct and hfe of a citizen in his character as a member of the armed forces of his country The “Statutes, Ordinances and Customs” of Richard II, issued about 1385, appear to be the earliest complete code—sep the Manual of Miltary Law (Gt Britan) and Tke Journal of the Society of Army Atstorical Research, vol iv

WAR, LAWS OF: see Laws or War WARANGAL, an ancient town of India, in the Nizam's Dominions or Hyderabad state, 86 m NE of Hyderabad city, It was the capital of a Hindu kingdom im the rath century, but little remains to denote its former grandeur except a fort and four gateways of a temple of Siva Warangal has given its name to a district and a division of the state.

WARBECK,

PERKIN

(c. 1474-1499), pretender to the

throne of England, was the son of Jehan de Werbecque, a poor

burgess of Tournay in Flanders and of his wife Katherme de Faro

The exact date of his birth 1s unknown, but he represented him-

self as having been nine years old in 1483 The names of his father and other relations whom he mentions have been found in the muncipal records of Tournay, and the official description of them agrees with his statements in the confession made at the end of his hfe According to this version, which may be accepted as substantially true, he was brought up at Antwerp by a cousin Jehan Stienbecks, and served various employers as a boy servant, He was for a time with an Englishman John Strewe at Middleburg, and then accompanied Lady Brampton, the wife of an exiled partisan of the House of York, to Portugal He was for a year employed by a Portuguese knight whom he described as having only one eye, and whom he names Vacz de Cogna. In 1491 he was at Cork as the servant of a Breton silk merchant Pregent (Pierre Jean) Meno. Ireland was strongly attached to the house of York Perkins says that the people seeing him dressed in the silks of his master took him for a person of distinction. and insisted that he must be either the son of George, duke of Clarence, or a bastard of Richard III. He was more or less encouraged by the earls of Desmond and Kildare At this time he spoke English badly In 1492 he was summoned to Flanders by Margaret, sister of Edward IV, who was the main support of the Vorkist exiles ‘The suppositions that he was the son of Clarence or of Richard III were discarded in favour of the more useful idea that he was Richard, brother of Edward V Charles VIII, king of France, the counsellors of the youthful duke of Burgundy, Maxmilan, king of the Romans, and James IV of Scotland, none of whom can have been really deceived, took up his cause He was entertamed in France and at Vienna as the lawful king of England. The English Government knew his real history, and tried to seize him In July 1495 he was provided with a few ships and men by Maximilian, now emperor, and he appeared on the coast of Kent. No movement in his favour took place A few of his followers who landed were cut off, and he went to Ireland to join the earl of Desmond in Munster After an unsuccessful attack on Waterford in August, he fled to Scotland Here James IV. showed him favour, and arranged his marriage with Catherine Gordon, daughter of the earl of Huntly He made a short mroad into Northumberland, but the intervention of the Spanish Government brought peace between England and Scotland In 1497 Perkin was sent on his travels again with two or three small vessels After some

BipriocraPHy.—F, W. Rustow and H. A. T, Kochey, Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens (Aarau, 1852); A. von Goler, Caesars Galhsche Krieg (Tiibingen, 1860 later ed 2 vols, 1880) , J Kromayer and G Veith, Antske Schlachtfelder in Grechenland (4 vols, 1903~ 22), Schlachten-Atlas zur antiken Kniegsgeschichte (3 vols., Leipzg, 1922~24) The best works concernmg mediaeval warfare are the following: C. W C. Oman, The Art of War in the Middle Ages ed 1924); H Delbruck, Geschichte der Kriegskunst ım Rahmen (and polttschen Geschichte (x900, etc) and E Danıels, Geschichte der Kriegswesens (in Sammlung Goschen, 1911). The development des of modern war can best be followed mn —Machiavelli, Del? arte Guerra (1521); A M Ramsay, Histowre du Vicomte de Turennedella (2 vols, 1735); A. de Pas, Marquis de Feuquitre, Mémoires sur la Guerre (1430), J. F de Chastenet, Marquis de Puységur, Art de la Guerre (1748) ; Frederick II of Prussia, Oeuvres Militares (in Oeuvres de Frédéric le Grand 17 vols., 1790, 31 vols, 1846~57) ; Maurice de Saxe, Révenes, ou Mémoires sur Art de la Guerre (1756-58) , J. A. H de Guibert, Essai Général de Tactique (1773), Défense de Guerre Moderne (1799); H H È Lloyd, History of thedu systéme late War in Germany (The Seven Vears’ War) (1765), A H de Jorin Préric de Vart de la Guerre (2 pts., 1837-55) Archd e Chiti der Strategie, erlautert durch dze Darstellung des Feldsuges Gi rd rse von 796 in Deutschland (1814) ; C. von Clausewitz, Vom Knege (7th ed 1912; Eng. trans J. J. Graham, 1908) ; W_ von Willisen, Theorie des grossen Krieges (4 vols, 1840-68); E. B Hamley, The Operations of War sth ed, 2 vols, 1900); H von Moltke, Taktisch-stra tegische AufSatze (in his Miktansche Werke, published by German General Staff, ro vols. 1892—1906) , C von der Goltz, Das Volk in Waffen (6th ed 1925); J.L.A Colm, Les Transformations de la Guerre trans L - Pope-Hennessy, The Transformations of War (rorz), (1912); Les obscure adventures in Ireland, he landed at Whitesand bay, near Grandes Batailles de l'Histoire (1915), trans. S Wilkinson, The Great the Land’s End, on Sept 7, and was joined by a crowd of the Battles of History (1915); M. Bloch, La Guerre (trans from Russian, country people He advanced to Exeter, but on the approach of

WARBLER—-WARBURTON

331

was kandly treated and placed in the household of Henry’s queen, Elizabeth Perkin was compelled to make two ignommuous public

War of 1878-80 Warburton was political officer m the Khyber between 1879 and 1882 with intervals of other duty, and continuously from 1882 until 1890 He turned the rude levies which formed the Khyber Rifles into a fine corps, made the road

confessions at Westmunster, and in Cheapside on June 15 and 10,

safe, and kept the Afridis fmendly.

the royal troops he deserted his followers, and ran to the sanc-

tuary of Beaulieu in Hampshire

He then surrendered

His wife

When the Afridis began to

1498. On Nov. 23,1499 he was hanged for endeavouring to escape

cause anxiety in 1897, Colonel Warburton was sent for by the government, but he arrived too late to check the rising. He retired after the campaign He died at Kensington on April

parbeck (Cambridge, 1898) WARBLER, the general name for all birds of the Passerme

22, 1899 See his Ezghteen Years n the Khyber (1900)

from the Tower with the imprisoned earl of Warwick See James Gairdner, Richard the Third, and the Story of Perkin

famihes Sylutidae and Mmtotidindae, the Mmotiltidae bemg un-

related to the Syluwdae and beimg confined to the new world The Syluudae are small birds with weak, slender bills, feeding on insects and fruit The song is clear and sweet and often metallic, the nest 1s usually cup-shaped, contaming from three to six white

eggs Apart from the American kinglets and gnatcatchers (qv ) the family 1s confined to the old world

The sedge-warbler (Acro-

cephalus schoenobaenus) 1s one of the commonest British species.

It 1g a small olrve-brown bird, with a yellowish eye-streak and a chattermg song It inhabits bushes and reed-beds usually close to

water The nearly allied reed-warbler (A scorpaceus) lacks the eye-streak and rarely leaves reed-beds, its nest is built between and supported by several reed-stems The European great reed-warbler (A. arundinaceus) 1s larger The Dartford warbler (Sylvia undata) 1s one of few warblers resident m

Britain, though migratory

on the contment

It is

locally distributed in the south of England, central Europe and the Mediterranean region The grasshopper warbler (Locustella naevia) inhabits tangled and thick herbage, its reeling song

distmguishes 1t

WILLIAM

(1698-1779), Enghsh critic

Alliance between Church and State (1736) The book brought Warburton into favour at court, and he probably only missed immediate preferment by the death of Queen Caroline, His next and best-known work, Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on

the Principles of a Religious Detst (2 vols , 1737-1741), preserves his name as the author of a darmg and ingenious theological paradox ‘The deists had made the absence of any inculcation of the doctrime of a future life an objection to the divine authority

of the Mosaic writings. Warburton boldly admitted the fact and turned it against the adversary by maintaining that no merely human legislator would have omitted such a sanction of morality He now entered on a defence of Pope’s Essay on Man against

The alied Savi’s warbler (L. luscenoides) is the Examen of Jean Pierre de Crousaz, in a series of articles

confined to marshy country and has a higher pitched song The icterme warbler (Hypolars zcterina) 1s a straggler to Britain, it has a loud song, and the eggs are brownish pink, spotted with purplsh black The wood warbler or wood-wren (Phylloscopus

sibilatrix) haunts woods of oak and beech and has a pecuhar loud song

WARBURTON,

and divine, bishop of Gloucester, was born at Newark Dec 4, 1698, son of the town clerk of Newark Wulham was articled an attorney, left the law and m 1727 was ordained priest by the bishop of London At Brant Broughton, Lincolnshire, of which parish he became incumbent in 1728, Warburton spent eighteen years in study, the first result of which was his treatise on the

The willow-warbler or willow-wren (P. trochslus) 1s

one of the commonest British species See also GOLDCREST, WHITETHROAT, WREN, BLACKCAP The American or wood warblers are, on the whole, a more brightly coloured group and are distributed throughout North and South America and the Antilles. The yellow warbler (Dendro:ca aestiva) breeds throughout North America, wmtermg im South and Central America The Cerulean warbler (D cerulea) is less abundant and haunts the tree-tops The Maryland yellow-throat (Geothlypsis trichas), m which the male has a black mask, 1s

another familar American form The oven-bird (Serurus aurocapilus) 1s a common woodland species, 1ts song has been described as a crescendo repetition of the word “teacher” The shy waterthrush (S motaczla) possesses a melodious song The American redstart (g v ) also belongs to this group BELOCRAPHY —See E Howard, British Warblers; F M

Chapman,

The Warblers of North America (1907).

WARBURTON, ELIOT [BARTHOLOMEW ELLIOTT GEORGE] (1810-1852), British traveller and novelist, was born in 1810 near Tullamore, Ireland He was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and was called to the Irish bar in 1837 He made a hutwith

his first book, The Crescent and the Cross, an account of his travels in 1843 in Turkey, Syria, Palestine and Egypt Huis most substantial work was a Memoir of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (1849), enriched with original documents, and written with eloquent partiality for the subject Warburton was on his way to explore the isthmus of Darien, when the shyp in which he sailed was destroyed by fire (Jan 4, 1852) Eis other works mclude two historical novels

Regenald Hastings

(1850), and Darien, or the Merchant Prince (1851) (1842SIR ROBERT COLONEL WARBURTON, 1899), Anglo-Indian soldier and admuustrator, was the son of an

(1738-1739) contributed to The Works of the Learned. These articles brought him the friendship of Pope, whom he persuaded to add a fourth book to the Dunctad, and encouraged to substitute Cibber for Theobald as the hero of the poem ın the 1743 edition published under the editorship of Warburton Pope bequeathed him the copyright and the editorship of his works, and mtroduced him to Murray, afterwards Lord Mansfield, who obtamed for him in 1746 the preachership of Lincoln’s Inn, and to Ralph Allen, who, says Johnson, “gave him his niece and his estate, and, by consequence, a bishopric.” After his marriage Warburton resided principally at his father-mn-law’s estate at Prior Park, Gloucestershire, which he inherited on Allen’s death in 1764 In 1747 appeared his edition of Shakespeare, into which, as he

expresSed it, Pope’s earher edition was melted down He had previously entrusted notes and emendations on Shakespeare to Sir Thomas Hanmer, whose unauthorized use of them led to a heated controversy As early as 1727 Warburton had corresponded with Theobald on Shakespearean subjects He now accused him of stealing his ideas and denied his critical abilty Theobald’s superionty to Warburton as a Shakespearean critic has long since been acknowledged Warburton was further kept busy by the attacks on his Divine Legation from all quarters, by a dispute with Bolingbroke respecting Pope’s behaviour in the affair of Bolngbroke’s Patriot King, by his edition of Pope’s works (2751) and by a vindication m 1750 of the alleged miraculous interruption of the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem undertaken by Julian, in answer to Conyers Middleton Warburton’s manner of dealing with opponents was both insolent and rancorous, but it did him no disservice He became prebendary of Gloucester (1753), chaplain to the king (1754), prebendary

of Durham

(1755), dean of Bristol (1757) and ın 1759 bishop

of Gloucester He toiled to complete the Divine Legation but failed He wrote a defence of revealed religion in his Vzew of Lord Bolingbroke’s Philosophy (1754), and Hume’s Natural History of Relegion called forth some Remarks “by a gentleman of

Cambridge” from Warburton, in which his friend and biographer, Richard Hurd, had a share (1757) He made in 1762 a vigorous attack on Methodism under the title of The Doctrine of Grace artillery officer who had been taken prisoner at Kabul in 1842, and He died at Gloucester on June 7, 1779

married an Afghan princess Warburton entered the Royal Artil-

Warburton’s works were edited (7 vols. 1788) by Bishop Hurd

lery in 1861, took part in the Abyssiman War of 1867-68, and then with a biographical preface, and the correspondence between the two joined the Bengal Staff Corps He served with distmction in friends—an umportant contribution to the literary history of the period

the expedition against the Utman Khel m 1878 and in the Afghan

—was edited by Dr. Parr m 1808

Warburton’s life was also written

WAR

334

COLLEGE—WAR

by Juhn Selby Watson m 1863, and Mark Pattison made him the subject of an essay mn 1889 See also I. D'Israeli, Quarrels of Authors (814), and especially John Nichols, Literary Anecdotes (1812-15), vol ș , and IHustrations (1817-58), vol ii, for his correspondence with Wulham Stuheley, Peter des Maizeaux, Thomas Burch, John Jortin and Lewis Theobald

CONTROL

OF FOOD

undertaken zn London The wheat executive gradually extendeq its activities to other Alles and even to neutrals The second step was the making on Nov 16 of an Order jn Council under the Defence of the Realm Act which practically empowered the Board of Trade to introduce a complete system

of food control, by regulating the importation, production, dis. WAR COLLEGE, an institution for the instruction of offi- tribution, prices and quality of all kinds of food or articles neces.

cers in the higher branches of the military art The French Ecole de Guerre corresponds to the British Staff College, and trains staff officers. First founded in 1821, 1t was established in 1881 in its present location in Paris It trains about one hundred candidates a year. Admission is by competitive examination open to officers of all arms between the ages of 28 and 38 The period of the course is two years, and the curriculum includes lectures and exercises on every branch of the art of war, and on kindred subjects such as politics, economics, naval questions, geography, and international law, together with war games, visits, tours and staff rides At the end of the course officers satisfactorily reported on become eligible for staff posts. The United States Army War College at Washington forms part of the General Service Schools and trains officers in high command and for General Staff duty in the War Department The course forms the fourth and last year of the period of four years at the Schools and only those officers who have satisfactorily completed the prior courses are eligible to attend.

WAR

CONTROL

OF FOOD.

Dunng the World War

of 1914-18 practically all the belligerent and neutral countries of Europe experienced a shortage in the supply of food and other necessaries. The shortage was traceable to three distinct causes” first, the diversion of productive power to destruction or to making the means of destruction, second, the increased rate of con-

sumption of those who were fighting or were undertaking harder physical labour than usual in the production of munitions, third, the deliberate blockades which with varymg success the belligerents directed against one another and against neutrals. The blockades had as one feature a destruction of shipping. Food control became a feature of the war, and the food controller had three main problems to consider, namely, the maintenance of supplies, the regulation of prices and the control of consumption by distribution and rationing. The three problems are naturally connected. A solution of the first of them so complete as to keep supplies up to or above the pre-war standard would prevent the other two from arising at all or at least m any serious form; this happened with bread-stuffs in Great Britan On the other hand an attempt to fix prices without controlling supphes would lead either to a disappearance of supplies or to their distribution in an unjust and wasteful manner

I. IN GREAT BRITAIN For the first two years of the war questions of food control attained little prominence m Great Britain The cuttıng off of the central European sources of sugar supply led to the anticipation of a considerable shortage of that particular food, and a royal commission was established in Aug 1914, which undertook on Government account the purchase and importation of all sugar from that time onwards. A special organization for securing meat for the army from abroad was also found necessary from the beginning; this involved control of refrigerated tonnage under the Board of Trade. The use of cereals and sugar for brewing was limited by an Output of Beer Restriction Act, coming ito force on April x, 1926. By the autumn of 1916, prices, which had risen more or less steadily from the beginning of the war, reached a level which began to evoke acute discontent and the prospects of an intensified submarme campaign caused anxieties for the future Two important steps were taken The first was the establishment in Oct 1916 of a royal commission on wheat supphes, parallel to that on the sugar supplies. This commission almost immediately took on

an international character through the signing in Nov. 1916 of the “Wheat Executive Agreement” between Great Britain, France and Italy, under which the purchase, importation, distribution and shipping not only of wheat but of all cereals was arranged on a common basis for the three Allies, the admmistrative work being ’ ve

sary for the production of food. The first holder of the new post, Lord Devonport, who actually began work on Dec 11, gave valuable support to the wheat commission ın securing adequate tonnage and foreign credits, and carried a stage further the policy of conservation of cereals already embodied in the Output of Beer Restriction Act and a Board of Trade order lengthenmg the extraction of flour. To facilhtate this the whole of the flour-mulls were taken over and run on

Government account as from April 1917

Apart from cereals, no substantial extension of food control took place till the appointment of the second food controller—

Lord Rhondda—who succeeded Lord Devonport in June 1917, and at once prepared himself and the Ministry of Food to deal thoroughly with the three problems of supphes, prices and dis-

tribution

First he attacked prices. In Sept

1917 the price of

bread was lowered from 1s. or 1s 1d to 9d for the quartern loaf,

the difference being paid by the Government

as a subsidy

At

about the same time there was fixed a scale of prices for meat and for hve-stock, descending month by month from 74s per cwt m

Sept z917 to 6os ın the following January The fimng of meat and live-stock prices needed to be and was intended to be accompanied by measures for regulating slaughter and marketing, but for various reasons the latter measures did not become effective till the end of 1917 The scale of prices standing by itself gave the farmers a strong inducement to hurry on their beasts to market, so as to profit by the early high prices and avoid the later low

ones, too many beasts were thrown on the market before Christmas and too few were kept for the new year; how the ensuing shortage, aggravated by large purchases of home-grown meat for the army and by other circumstances, was dealt with by rationing in the early part of 1918 is described below On the general principle of controlling supplies of all essential foods as a condition of fimng prices Lord Rhondda never hesitated. This policy was carried out most completely in the case of imports Cereals and sugar were already being imported by the two commissions, Under Lord Rhondda all bacon, ham, lard, cheese, butter and simular provisions, all ols and fats (edible and otherwise), condensed mulk, canned meat and fish, eggs, tea and even such extras as apples, oranges, jam and dried fruits, brought into Great Britain came to be directly imported by the Ministry of Food or requisitioned on arrival All home-produced meat and cheese and most of the butter passed through the hands of the ministry, as also, through the control of flour-mulls, did all the wheat and most of the barley Even the whole potato crop of 1918 was taken over under a scheme framed in the time of Lord Rhondda, though not put into force till after his death The only important exceptions were milk, fresh fish and fresh vegetables The total turnover of the ministry’s trading (including the two royal commissions) was at the rate of nearly £900,000,000 a year A British Food Budget.—Lord Rhondda made a budget of the food required for the country as a whole, and then took steps to see that that amount of food was available. This was partly a matter of securmg imports, for there was needed, on the one hand tonnage, and on the other finance, that is to say, foreign credits The Ministry of Food acting through or with the Governments concerned made bargains with the producers for the whole exportable surplus of Canadian cheese or Australian wheat or American bacon, It was partly a matter of encouraging food production at home A vigorous food production campaign was started under the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Food co-operated with the agricultural departments, in fixing only such prices as appeared likely to secure adequate supplies In effect, in fixing prices for home produce, it made bargains with the farmers as to the prices at which, with whatever show of reluctance or grumbling, they would be able and willing to produce and to deliver

GREAT BRITAIN]

WAR

CONTROL

OF FOOD

ther produce to the ministry or its agents The legal power of the successfully to the whole country

333

Finally on July 14, 1918, after nearly four years of the war and less than six months from its end, all the varying schemes were consolidated To buy any of the necessities, the consumer had to have a ration book with coupons for the amounts that he The largest single source of imported supplies was the United might buy, to register with a particular shop and to present the States Here a special department of the ministry was established ration book on making a purchase, so that the retailer could detach (Oct 1927), to purchase on its behalf all food-stuffs other than the appropriate coupons. The amount represented by each coupon cereals, for which an organization already existed in the Wheat and also the amount of the ration varied from tıme to time Thus Export Co., a branch in Toronto dealt with Canadian supplies for sugar the weekly ration was usually 8 oz a head, but was 12 oz The department speedily grew into an international organization durmg most of 1919, and as low as 6 oz from Jan to March 1920 of vast scope; the “Allied Export Provisions Commission” pur- For butchers’ meat till the end of 1918 the ration varied from chased between Oct. 1917 and Feb r1org nearly 24 million tons of 144 oz to about 1 lb, with half for children. When Lord Rhondda died (July 3, 1918), British control on a food valued at £267,000,000, at a cost for administration amounting to about wy of 1% on this turnover. All these figures ex- national basis was practically complete Soon after, food control was placed, hke shipping and finance, on an international basis by clude cereals and sugar. The success of this policy of ensuring supplies by direct pur- the setting up in Aug 1918 of an Allied Food Council consisting chase abroad and consultation at home was unquestionable Great of the four food controllers of Britain, France, Italy and the Britain came nearer than any other European country to mam- United States, with a standing “Committee of Representatives ” taming during the war a pre-war standard of supplies, and at the There was thus extended to food generally the plan already in force in respect of cereals (and to a less extent sugar and one or same time achieved a far more equitable distribution Control of Prices and Consumption.—Upon control of sup- two other articles). Effect of Atlantic Concentration.—By the latter part of plies was founded control of prices Once goods were in the hands of the ministry 1t remained only to fix the margins of 1918, the submarine menace had been practically mastered by the profit to be allowed to the various classes of distributors and convoy system, and the limits of the food problem had been dethe resulting prices to the public, Ultimately out of everything fined by the success of rationmg ‘The greatest pinch of all, howconsumed ın Great Britain by way of food and drink, 94% was ever, was apparently still to come Considerations of shipping dicsubject to fixed maximum prices Almost the only articles un- tated a concentration of traffic on the shortest route—the North touched were fresh vegetables, canned fruits, honey, salt, vinegar, Atlantic—and the abandonment so far as possible of any attempt to get supplies from the Far South and the Far East (see ATLANspices, aerated waters and meals in restaurants After two years of comparative plenty the sugar commis- TIC CONCENTRATION OF SHIPPING), Financial considerations by sion m Nov 1916 cut down the supphes it would issue to any a natural reaction dictated the exact opposite; the British Treaswholesaler to 60% of the amount issued m 1915, and required ury had relatively ample sterling credit for purchases in Australia, each wholesaler to pass on supplies to retailers, manufacturers and very few pesos in South America and hardly a cent to spare in others m the same proportion This “datum period” principle of the United States or Canada The Ministry of Food, and other distribution represented a stage through which not only sugar, supply departments, constantly found themselves being offered but most other foods (notably meat, bacon, butter and tea) passed ships only where they could not get credit, and credit only where as scarcity developed. For dealing with any acute shortage of they could not get ships On top of this difficulty came, in Sept supphes it soon proved unsatisfactory, partly because it made no 1918, the necessity, as ıt then appeared, of hastening the transallowance for changes in the channels of trade or m the distribu- port of the American army so as to deliver a decisive blow in the tion of the population, but mainly because it gave no assurance at coming spring The frammg of shipping programmes had by that all of supphes to any individual consumer That could be given time reduced itself to a division of two lons’ shares between the only by issumg to each consumer a ration book or other document Ministry of Munitions and the Ministry of Food (or their mteras authority to purchase a fixed ration, requiring him to register national extensions), with a few scraps for import of raw cotton with a particular retailer and authorizing the retailer m turn to or fertilizers and the like; each of these departments was compurchase from his supphers week by week or month by month pelled to accept for the winter of 1918-19 a provisional import enough to meet the rations of his registered customers After programme totally inadequate for its needs and to hope that the prolonged delay, due to changes of policy and the war cabinet’s war would end before its stocks ran out This hope was realized. But the Armistice of Nov. 11, 1918, fear of causing industrial unrest and ‘encouraging Germany to believe ın the success of the submarmes, compulsory rationing though 1t ended for the victorious countries the fear of starvation, did not bring food shortage or food control to an end, either in was introduced for sugar on Jan. x, 1917, and worked smoothly Just before that date acute shortage of butter and margarme and those countries or elsewhere J R Clynes, who from being partea had begun to show itself and led to the formation of “queues” liamentary secretary had become food controller on Lord Rhondof would-be purchasers before any shop that was thought to have da’s death m July 1918, resigned when the Labour Party left supplies Just after that date the temporary abundance of meat, Lloyd George’s coalition after the Armistice, but the Ministry of Cereal prices did not fall to a point caused or intensified by the descending scale of live-stock prices, Food continued its work allowing the bread subsidy to be dropped and the control of flourended suddenly and was replaced by something hke a famine Outside London the problem of the queues was at first dealt with mills abandoned till after the harvest of 1920; the wheat comby giving the food committees described below power to introduce mission continued executive work till the autumn of 1921, and local rationing schemes under the Food Control Committees hquidation of accounts till 1925 Sugar prices reached fantastic (Local Distribution) Order of Dec. 22, 1917 For London asingle heights in the first half of 1920 (on decontrol by the American rationing scheme for butter, margarme and meat, covering the Government) and the sugar ration at the same time reached its home counties also and a total population of nearly 10,000,000, lowest point; sugar rationing continued till the following November and the sugar commission till March 192r. was put into force on Feb 25, 1928. A reason for not hastening the end of food control in 1919 Success of Food Rationing.—The scheme had an instant and almost unqualified success, Durmg January and February the appeared in the disturbed condition of industry and the perpetual London food queues had attamed gigantic proportions, about §00,- threat of paralysis in the essential services of coal or transport. ooo were counted by the police standing in them every Saturday, The success with which, during the railway strike of Oct r9rọ, and another 1,000,000 on the other days of the week. In the first the supplies and distribution even of perishable foods were mainweek of rationing the numbers fell to about 200,000 and in the tained by the Ministry of Food shed lustre on its closing period Prior to the crisis, a fresh registration of consumers for fourth to 14,000, that 1s to say, they practically vanished. On April 7, 1918, meat rationing on the London model was applied rationing was carried through in Sept. 1919. In the following

muustry to fix any prices it thought good was absolute, the prices

infor home produce were actually fixed only after apparently termmable consultations, and were prices which could be expected to secure production of the required supplies, and did ın fact do so

WAR

334

CONTROL

OF FOOD

[UNITED STATRs

winter, the mmmistry was again under attack and after the resig- ' which as a matter of policy was compelled to make a loss on the bread subsidy (amounting to £138,000,000 net) and the sugar nation of the fourth food controller—G. H Roberts—in Feb 1920, was left for a month without any controller at all. The commussion which also as a matter of policy was not allowed to

appointment of C. A. McCurdy as the fifth controller marked a

raise its prices sufficiently mm 1919 and 1920 (so that it endeq

return of the spirit of control. The ministry secured m July the

£22,000,000 to the bad in 1921 instead of bemg £6,000,000 to the good as at the Armistice), the Ministry of Food proper on all its

passage of a Continuance Act, only to be swept out of existence transactions from 1917 to 1921 made a net profit of about by a parliamentary storm It ended formally m March 1921. Supplies and Prices.—At the end of 1918 the Ministry of £7,000,000 after paying expenses, on its turnover of £1,200,Two minor features may be mentioned as having Food issued a short memorandum with tables and diagrams illus- 000,000 trating its work under the four main heads of supplies, stocks,

prices and rationing. A comparison is made m the accompanying table of the amounts of the principal food-stuffs available per head for consumption m 1918, and before the war, in Germany and Holland .— Weekly Domestic Consumption of Bread, Meat, Fais and Sugar per Head per Week ın Great Britan, Germany and Holland Pre-war and 1918

| Great Britam Food-Stuff

Pre-

Lb.

| Fats

;

.

Holland. Pre-

war. | 7928 | war. | 7978 | war, | 7978 Lb.

Bread and flour. | 6 12 Meats 2 50

| Sugar

Germany. Pre

Lb.

Lb

Lb

725 | 306 150 | o44

045

070 | 0°37

o 50

. | œs5I

Lb

6-57 | 644 | 406 r s4 225 0'49 ° 56

033

ors

0-52

The consumption during 1918 is based on the rations, except in the case of bread in Great Britain, where the actual consumption is taken In the case of sugar no figure of pre-war domestic

consumption is given by the Ministry of Food; it is commonly estimated at about x Ib per head per week. It appears from the table that in r9r8 Great Britain ‘had half as much bread again as Germany, three times as much meat and fat and substantially more sugar As compared with Holland, Great Britain had twice as much bread, three times as much meat, more fats and practically the same amount of sugar.” The course of prices is shown in two stages: one from July 1914 to July 1917, when the main development of food control

in Great Britain began, and the other from July 1917 to Oct 1918.

Rise in Price af Food and Other Necessary Articles in Great Britain (Price in July rorq = i100)

Average aoe :

July | Oct. | July | Oct.

Classification | t9r7. |rox7 | 1928 |x918 Principal controlled foods | 205 | r94 | 202 | 216 Principal controlled foods assuming no subsidy on bread . . | 205 | 205 | 208 | 232 Principal unes

All

‘oods

.

pee

r86 | 229 | 31r | 347

oods . . | 203 | 198 | 213 | 229 Textiles, leath-

er, etc.

Coal z Soap Candles Household oils |

234 | 245 | 204 | 313

135 133 184 215

| | | |

135 150 184 286

| | | |

163 | 233 | 329 | 319 |

177 233 348 319

Increase

between

|July, 1914 |July, 1917

and and July, 19x7.| Oct, 1918 292

o 73

simplified the British task

One is the concentration of the great

bulk of flour-miling in Great portant mills (less than 700), Next, there was the limited authorities, In Germany it was

Britain in a small number of im. which could be easily controlled power of the British municipal the natural thing for the separate

municipal councils to act as independent organs of food control, making their own contracts with neighbouring rural districts for the supply of food to their citizens, fixing prices in their markets

and rationing when need arose

This made possible competition,

confusion and difference of standard between the authorities, and made difficult a survey of the nation’s needs and resources as a whole. In Great Britain, Lord Rhondda, as house-keeper for a family of forty millions, made single bargains There were about 2,000 food control commuttees, which were technically independent of the ministry, being appointed by the local sanitary authorities, but their expenses were paid by the

ministry. In building up his own staff Lord Rhondda used men of outstanding experience in their own trades, as individuals or on committees, to deal with each particular food, but he placed the experts always under the control of laymen. The Food Ministry had its own newspaper, the National Food Journal, placed on sale fortmghtly, giving the text of all

the ministry’s orders, tables of maximum prices, reports of parliamentary debates and questions and of prosecutions for food of-

fences, and everything else that could help the public to know what the food controller reqmred of them and why Lord Rhondda was fond of describing himself as “on the side of the consumer and patticularly of the poor consumer,” An interesting feature

of the ministry was a “consumers’ council” established mm Jan 1918 ‘This was an advisory body, consisting mainly of representatives of trade unions and co-operative societies, which did a great deal to keep the ministry in touch with the feelings and grievances of working-class consumers Brsriocrapoy—E H. Starling, The Feeding of Nations (1919); H W. Clemesha, Faod Control in the North West Division (Manchester, 1922), E. M H Lloyd, Expertments in State Control (1924), F H. Coller, A State Trading Adzc,*+re (1322), W TT. Beveridge, British Food Control (1928). Asnonz oc! documents see Wheat Commission, First Report (1921 cd 1544); Sugar Commission, First Report (1917 cd. 8728) and Second Report (1921 cd 1300); Report of Food (War) Committee of the Royal Society (x916 cd. 8421), National Food Journal (published by Ministry of Food fortmghtly

or monthly from Sept 1917 to June 1920).

II. IN THE UNITED 2°92 “230

x 86 107

:

2 87

I

372

5 27

0o97 Q'92 2 33 3 20

2 6 I0 6

C

8o 67 93 93

(W H Bey)

STATES

Three years of war in Europe had brought the world’s food supply to a crisis when the United States entered the conflict in Apml, 1917. Already the reduced production and mcreased demand in the warring countries was being felt in America, The price mdex of food products at wholesale had risen from roo in 1913 to 148

in March, 1917. Wheat, which had averaged $0 gr per bushel m 1913, was selling at $2 in the Chicago market, and many other products had risen in proportion Even before declaration, of war by Congress, the newly organized Council of National Defense had, at the request of President Wuson, cabled to Herbert Hoover asking him to assist in drawmg up plans to protect American food supplies. Hoover at that time was in Europe, where he had been directing the work of the commission for the rehef of Belgium and northern France The success with which the delicate task of feeding nearly 10,000,000 civilians within the enemy Imes had been accomphshed had made him, known throughout the world as an authority on international food matters He delayed his return long enough to make an

The machinery required for “control” was very extensive The staff numbered at its maximum over 8,000. In addition the local food control committees employed varying numbers, rising at times of exceptional pressure to as many as 25,000 persons The printing and stationery bill for a single year exceeded £1,500,000 Expenditure, however, did not fall on the taxes but was covered bya trifling percentage on the price of the articles in investigation of food control methods in Europe. He returned which the ministry dealt. Apart from the wheat commission early in May, 1917, and at the President's request began to lay

WAR

CONTROL

the foundation for the future food administration

It was not

OF SHIPPING solved

335

The Grain Corporation then became chiefly an instrument

until August 10, 1917, that a Food Control Bull was signed by the

through which the President’s guarantee of a minimum price was maintained. Before the Armistice was signed, this guarantee was On June ro, 1917, Presıdent Wilson had authorized Mr Hoover extended to the 1919 crop, and the Gram Corporation, with its to buld up a voluntary organization particularly directed toward name changed to the United States Grain Corporatron, was desigthe conservation of food Under this authority a considerable nated as the agency to make this effective. The corporation was orgamzation was built up, and plans were perfected for the con- thus mn active existence for 33 months (Sept., 1917, to June, trol of food commodities as soon as the necessary authority should 1920), handling the major portion of three wheat crops. During be granted by Congress, The Food Control Act of Aug, to, 1917, this time its purchases of wheat and flour were equivalent to about gave the President very broad powers Among other things it 751 million bushels. It also dealt in other cereals and food prodauthorized him to create agencies, to accept voluntary services, to ucts for the Allies The total value of all commodities purchased heense all firms engaged in the manufacture, transportation, and during its period of active existence was more than $3,763,000,000 In the case of sugar, the Allied countries, before the war, were distribution of foodstuffs excepting only common carriers, farmers and retailers doing less than $100,000 worth of business annually. supplied largely by the beet crops of southern and eastern Europe It authorized him to provide rules and regulations for licenses, With this supply cut off by the war, the Alles found it necessary with drastic penalties for firms which failed or refused to obey to draw upon Cuban sugar. Cuba had always been the chief these. It prohibited hoarding or wasteful destruction of foods. It source of sugar for the United States. The unexpected demands authorized the President to requisition supplies needed for the from Europe quickly demoralized the Cuban market and in addipublic welfare, to take over and operate food manufacturing, stor- tion to a greatly increased price also threatened an acute shortage age, or distributing plants, to purchase, store, and sell for cash in this country. Hoover proposed a separate corporation which certain commodities, and to establish a minimum price for wheat, should purchase the whole of the Cuban crop as well as the Amerwhich for the crop of 1918 must be not less than $2 per bushel. can sugar beet crop and should then sell this m accordance with Immediately after signing the Food Control Act, the president established requrements. In accordance with this plan, the Sugar issued an executive order establishing the Umted States Food Equahzation Board, incorporated under the laws of Delaware, Administration and appointing Hoover Food Administrator. By handled the entire sugar supply of the United States durmg 1918 early September, 1917, presidential proclamations had been issued and furnished large quantities to the Allied governments. The requiring Food Admumistration licenses. The rules related to the purchases of sugar by the board amounted to approximately prevention of hoarding and guarding against unfair, unjust, or dis- 4,500,000 tons valued at about $712,000,000. The shortage in fats gave the Allied governments much concriminatory margins of profit. The administration of the regulacern. After some consideration it seemed that the most practical tory functions was decentralized as far as possible Aside from the regulatory functions which were applied to way of increasing these supples was to stimulate hog production practically all food commodities, three classes 01 foodstuffs— in the United States Under arrangements in connection with the cereals, sugar and fats—presented the most important problems. United States Treasury loans to the Allies, the Food AdministraThe Alhed supply of cereals, particularly breadstuffs, had been tion was able to stipulate the price at which pork products were greatly reduced by mability to secure imports from Russia, the sold for export. Hoover also arranged with the Army, the Navy, Balkans, or from the Southern Hemisphere, in the last of which the Belgian Relief authorities, and some other buyers to abide by the difficulty was the shortage of ocean shipping. In the face of prices to be determined by the Food Admmistration. With this ths the United States harvested in 1917 its second successive control of a considerable portion of the market, Hoover next short crop of wheat. Prior to the American declaration of war, arranged with the packers to pay a fair reflection of these prices the Alhes, by bidding against each other, had forced the price of to the farmers for their hogs. In return for this assurance, the wheat in the United States to an abnormally high figure. This had production of hogs was increased very greatly. Exports of pork caused much hardship to consumers and resulted in exorbitant products were increased from a pre-war annual average of 930,prices by dealers and millers in attempts to protect themselves 000,000 pounds to 2,251,000,000 pounds in r9r8. No serious diffiagainst these rapid advances. In the meantime, however, the culty was experienced in mamtaining these prices until after the Alhes pooled their buying in a single hand and were m a position armistice, when the Allies no longer desired such large amounts but when stimulated production had reached its greatest heights. to domimate the world market In order to assure a fair price to the American farmer and at By making huge advance purchases of pork through the Food the same time protect the consumer and provide the Allies with all Administration Gram Corporation and the Commission for the the cereals that could be spared, Hoover proposed to President Relief of Belgium, and by his efforts to open up the neutral marWilson that the Government should create a consolidated cereal ket, Hoover was able to avert the catastrophe which once threatselling organization and should determine upon a fair price at ened the American market. He was later able to dispose of this which the Government would purchase wheat. This plan was surplus pork by sales to Germany in return for gold, by sales to accepted by the President and an independent commission was the neutrals, and by caring for the relief needs of central Europe. One of the outstanding accomplishments of the Food Adminisappointed, with farmer representatives in the majority This commission recommended a price of $2.20 per bushel for No. 1 tration was in connection with the conservation of food. The Northern wheat at Chicago with differentials for other grades and whole country was organized to prevent waste in foodstuffs and markets. By executive order the President also created the Food to substitute more perishable foods for those which could be Administration Grain Corporation with a capital of $50,000,000, shipped to the Allies These voluntary efforts were guided by which in July, 1918, was increased to $150,000,000 He directed widespread publicity and in certain commodities were supplethe Grain Corporation to purchase all wheat offered to it at the mented by regulations such as requiring the retailer to sell a fair price and to resell at the same price such amounts as were pound of substitute cereals with every pound of flour and limiting (F M Su) needed by the American people and to supply to the Allies the the sugar to two pounds a week for each person. WAR CONTROL OF SHIPPING, In July, 1914, of utmost that could be spared It was with the greatest difficulty that supplies were obtamned 8,000 ocean-going vessels the British Empire owned over 4,000; to meet the urgent necessities of the Allies in the spring of 1918. France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal together owned about 1,000; By calling upon the people to use substitutes to the utmost and to a further 1,000 were owned by Germany and Austria and were conserve all the wheat possible, the Food Administration was able either immobilized or captured! some 2,000 covered the rest of to furnish approximately 138,000,000 bushels to the Alhed coun- the world. When therefore the Allied organization was developed,

President.

J

tries from the small rgr7 crop. This, together with supplies from Canada and small quantities from the Southern Hemisphere,

proved to be sufficient to carry the Alhes through. With a relatively large crop in 1918 the question of supplies was largely

in the last year of the war, it was natural that it should be built on the basis of the British system; and the countries associated in this organization, which included the United States, ultimately controlled, with the addition of the neutral tonnage which they had s

336

WAR

CONTROL

OF SHIPPING

chartered or requisitioned, some 90% of all ocean-going tonnage Other causes were tending to the same result Losses by enemy The control was thus simple m character by comparison with action were indeed more than offset by new building But a large those exercised by the Ministries of Munitions or of Food. The mass of enemy tonnage was withdrawn from world tonnage and total pre-war value of all ocean-going ships before the war was the delays mevitably caused by naval precautions reduced the not more than £300 million, that 1s, less than the capital in- average amount of transport a vessel could accomplish in a given vested in two Enghsh railway compames The total amount of steel time. In July 1914 the normal price for a six-months’ charter of sunk in the ships lost during the war was only some 5 mullion an ordinary tramp steamer was 3 shillings a month on the dead. tons, that is, not more than 12% of the steel production of Amer- weight By December it had reached 6 shillings By the end of ica alone in a single year. On the other hand, the allocation of the first year, in the summer of 1915 ıt had reached 15 shillings ships involved choosing between different supply services, giving This increase not only made the goods carried more expensive a preference to wheat over munitions, or coal over ore or vice It reflected the fact that some goods were shut out altogether for versa. It involved decisions of policy affecting a vastly wider range want of freight carriage And so far the effect of the submamne This world fleet must be conceived as m peace time sailing had scarcely been felt. under private ownership and management, subject only to offiBlue Book Rates.—These rates did not apply to ships requiscial regulations to secure safety and protect the conditions of the tioned by the Government. For these ships standard rates—the seamen’s employment. Half of the British tonnage was under the so-called blue book rates—were fixed on the advice of a com. control of less than a score of the big “liner” companies, which mittee which met in the first months and, with shght modificawere usually leading members in the International Liner Con- tions, were apphed throughout the war without regard to the outferences The other half, the tramps, were under a much more side freight market They were somewhat in excess of the market varying management; they were owned by several hundreds of when they were mtroduced (the rate for an ordmary tramp was companies and persons ranging from large and wealthy firms to equivalent to about 7 shillings per month on the deadweight) but individual owners of single ships they were moderate by comparison with the arrangements made The allocation of tonnage was, when the war broke out, effected by the Government in the industries and would have given profits by the intricate but automatic process of the freight market. Mer- not exceeding those of a boom year in peace. Shipowners’ profits chants, estimating the demands of their own particular markets became in 1916 the subject of severe and legitimate criticism On a in wheat, in wool, in coal and cotton, made their purchases and capital value of some £172 millions in 1914 British shipping had then looked round for the freight to carry them Some were able by the autumn of 1916 made a net profit of some £262 milhons to wait, others must ship at once. Each gave orders to his agent (after deducting all payment of taxes) This resulted however not in London on freight exchanges of other ports, such as the Baltic from excessive payments by the Government but from competition to bid for tonnage within specified quantities, dates and rates. in the ordinary freight market for the adequate tonnage left over Similarly the owners of disposable tonnage gave instructions to when the Government had taken what ıt needed Indeed the their brokers to accept within specified conditions the best offers misfortune which the British shipowner feared most was to have available So the haggle of the market excluded the margmal need his vessels requisitioned and allotted the available tonnage in exact accordance with the Shipping in the Second Year—The strain upon shiprelative strength of the economic demand ping was constantly increasing. Losses increased, averaging 87,Before the war two departments of the British administration ooo tons gross per month as compared with 55,000 in the first were concerned with merchant shipping, the Marine Department year. Building fell from a million tons in the first year to half a of the Board of Trade and the Transport Department of the million in the second Naval and military demands increased and Admiralty The first named exercised the whole of such general the proportion of British tramp tonnage rose steadily from 20% responsibility as was at that time entrusted to the Government to 30% The demands upon the freight market for the raw matewith regard to merchant ships. The Transport Department rials required for munitions were also serious, and the standard of the Admiralty, was solely responsible for arranging the trans- time charter rate (which had been 3 shillings in July 1914) rose port required by the Government itself and for preparing plans to 27 shillings in Dec. 1915 and to nearly 40 shillings by the for its more extended requirements in time of war. It chartered summer of 1916 The Government was during this year forced passenger vessels to transport troops to and from South Africa, into further measures of control of both supplies and ofshipping India, Egypt and British garrisons elsewhere It booked passages Ship Licensing Committee, Nov. 1916.—In Nov. 1916, a for individual officers. It chartered, through local commercial Ship Licensing Committee was appointed by the Board of agents, some three or four hundred colliers a year, mostly on sin- Trade, with the power to exercise a license control over British gle voyage charters, for the supply of the Fleet and the naval tonnage The intention was to force ships out of employment bases. It managed a few vessels, a hospital ship, some collers that were serving no British or Allied and oil-fuel vessels owned directly by the Admiralty. It was this easier for more mmportant requirements interest, and so make it to find their transport little Department, with its limited but varied experience, which The principle was obviously a sound one as far as 1t could be apwas gradually thrust by circumstances and by the submarine into plied But the Committee, which was composed of well-known the central position in prominence. shipowners under the chairmanship of an eminent lawyer, were When the war broke out shipping was for the moment para- unable to find, after some months of investigation, more than a lysed. The risk was unknown and at first almost prohibitive, But negligible amount of tonnage engaged in work that was obviously the early losses were slight, a carefully prepared system of war unimportant, and they were unwilling to prohibit any other eminsurance was ready and in a short time ordinary business depend- ployment; therefore they brought no substantial relief to the ent on ocean transport renewed its normal demands, while the new general situation. However, ineffective for its original purpose, the and rapidly increasing call upon shipping made by direct Governcommittee soon assumed a rôle for which it was much better ment requirements forced freights up.

fitted. It was not qualified either by its authority or its constituState Requisitions, August, 1914—From the first it was tion to measure or judge between the country’s needs But it was recognized that the Government could not act as it did in the admurably qualified in both respects to apply a policy determined South African war, and go into the market as an ordinary char- elsewhere to individual ships. It became the executive for putting terer. In August r914, a proclamation was issued to requisition policy into effect as regards all British tonnage not under requisiships with compensation to the owner. tion. When a “limitation” of freight rates was imposed on the The powers were chiefly exercised by the Transport Depart- French coal trade it was the Ship Licensing Committee which ment. They were limited to the transport of troops from Canada, made it effective by refusing licenses to ships trymg to escape Australia, India and New Zealand, and to the carriage of supplies from that trade to more lucrative employment When the Min from England to France and the Front But though the tonnage istry of Munitions was anxious about ore imports from Spain or requisitioned in the first six months did not exceed some 20% of South Africa because colliers found it profitable to hasten back in the British mercantile marine, it was enough to push freights up.

ballast for another coal cargo, the Committee refused licenses for

WAR such ballast voyages

CONTROL

When the Cabinet fixed a limit to the ton-

nage to be chartered to the Alles the committee enforced the decision as regards chartered ships m conjunction with the Transrt Department which enforced it as regards requisitioned ships This last duty had some importance in the development of Alhed relations

The limitation of charters involved constant and de-

tailed negotiations with Allied representatives in London as to rticular charters The second committee established by the Board of Trade at the same tune—the Requusitioning (Carnage of Foodstuffs) Commit-

tee—had a shorter life

The committee had power, under order

m Council, to requisition or direct the employment

of British

ships so as to assıst the ımportation of food or other accessories

In practice 1t confined its action to the importation of gram (mainly wheat) and to a novel and bmited form of requisition It did not take a ship, pay so much for it and run ıt It merely required the owner to charter in a particular market, e g (since it was anxiety about wheat imports which had caused the committee to be appointed) to bring a cargo of wheat The committee began tumidly by directing a smaller amount of tonnage into the wheat trade than the unfettered market was itself

attracting This action was entirely ineffective, the vessels named not being additional to, but merely replacing, others which would

have gone 1f no orders had been given

There were no results upon

either imports or freight rates The committee then directed more vessels than the market by itself was capable of attracting The effect was immediate and

dramatic. North Atlantic freight rates dropped in five months from 16 shillings to 8 Weekly imports increased from 510,000 quarters to 665,000 quarters But at the moment when the committee was achieving its objects its activities had to be first restricted and then stopped The reasons are interesting and instructive Wheat was getting more than its share of tonnage Shipping Control Committees.—Of these the most :ter-

esting was the appointment in Jan 1916 of the Shipping Control Commuttee, presided over by Lord Curzon and including two well-known shipowners and an eminent financier. A survey led them to the conclusion that a reduction of 13 million tons must be made in British imports, and they therefore recommended the temporary prohibition of all umports, except specified essentials, amounting to a total rate of 13 million tons per annum; the withdrawal of vessels from naval and military service, and the hmitation of British tonnage allotted to the Allies to the amount in their service on April 1, 1916 Little came of their three recommendations. A scheme of import prohibitions which, even if fully enforced, would have shut out not 13 million but 4 million tons was approved but in actual application excluded less than 2 million tons,

Imports Restriction.—In 1917 the Government appointed an

Imports Restriction Committee, presided over by Sir Henry Babington Smith and consisting of the principal officials of the Board of Trade, the Ministry of Shipping (mto which the Transport Department had now expanded) and the chief departments demanding tonnage: the War Office, Mimistry of Munitions, Food Commission, etc. The mstructions given to the committee were to reduce the supply programmes by about half a million tons a month It is possible that they would have been practicable and would have met the situation. But just as the committee was beginning its work, the intensive submarine campaign began; ship-

ping losses creased very seriously, and it became clear that the reduction now required must be at least a million tons The task of selecting commodities for exclusion on this scale was beyond e capacity of the committee, and once more the hope that programmes would be reduced within the hmits of transport was

deceived Shipping in the Third Year—From

the summer

of 1916

to that of 1917, the shipping situation was more serious than at any previous period. Its gravity was reflected in the increasing freight rates and shipowners’ profits, which had reached their maximum Bntish time-charter rates rose to 40/- a ton

dw, a mark, and even touched s0/—, as compared with 3/- im-

mediately before the war.

In Feb

1917, the new submarine

OF SHIPPING

337

campaign began and met with immediate few months

the submarme

success.

blockade became

Within

a

a greater danger

to the Allies than the surface blockade was to Germany. It was countered partly by the convoy system, which had scarcely however demonstrated its efficacy by the end of this year, and partly by an improved system of organizing shipping Throughout the year the control over commodities was developing both in range and in character. To sugar and wheat,

which were already controlled by the Sugar and Wheat Commissions, were added all the main articles of food, and the whole

was centrahzed under a newly established Ministry of Food

The Ministry of Munitions extended its effective control over all the raw materials of munitions manufacture and indeed over all metals required for all purposes, over their purchase, their importation, their allotment within the country for every form of manufacture. The War Office developed a similar control over flax, hemp, jute, leather, wool and other materials. The Board of Trade, under somewhat less drastic and more commercial methods, covered the bulk of the remaming imports These developments had important consequences on the shipping problem In the first place, all the imports of the commodities so controlled were Government cargoes, and it was natural that they should be transported in requisitioned tonnage. The War Office could ask the shippmg authority to arrange to carry wool or flax (for whatever purpose ıt might be used) just as it asked for transport of supphes destined direct for the army But, in the second place, the mcorporation within the Government machine of the specialists from the business world who were needed for these intricate and detailed controls, meant that the Government had, for the first tıme, ım its service the advice of experts in the activities affected The Ministry of Shipping—The Coalition Government formed at the end of 1916 established a Mimstry of Shipping, under a Shipping Controller, Sir Joseph (now Lord) Maclay who had a seat in the Cabmet, with statutory powers The Transport Department was absorbed in the new Ministry, while the Shipping Control Committee became an advisory committee to the

Controller.

It was shortly based upon blue tively moderate fantastic profits

o

afterwards decided to extend requisition at rates book terms over all British ships. The comparaprofits on requisitioned ships only made the on free ships more of a public scandal

Liner Requisition.—A new and ingenious system of liner requisitioning was therefore

devised

All lmers were

requisitioned and paid at blue book rates

formally

But the owners con-

tinued to run them, takmg first any Government supplies, then following any other direction they might receive, and uf any space remained, offering freight on the market, the freight, however, being henceforth paid to the Government. The liner cargoes thus became an integral part of the general transport and supply programme, and indeed an increasingly important part of 1t, amounting at the end to four-fifths of the country’s imports This new system was devised by a well-known lmer owner and ‘was a good instance of the association of the permanent official and the business man An Inter-Alhed Shipping Committee was created in Jan. 1917 It mcluded representatives of Great Britain, France and Italy It was unsuccessful (See ALLIED MARITIME Transport COUNCIL ) Tonnage Priority Committee.—The second committee, the Tonnage Priority Committee, was of more importance It was a national Committee, consisting of the actual executive officers from the different departments who were handling the several supply arrangements, and its chairman was the parliamentary secretary of the Ministry of Shippmg (Sir Leo Chiozza Money). It met normally once a week throughout 1917 and a part of 1928. It brought those who were making competing, and m their total effect impossible, demands upon the shipping authorities into direct contact with each other and thus facilitated the reduction of their demands. The new and intensive submarine campaign began in Feb 1917. It converted the shipping difficulties from a serious incon-

venience into a grave menace.

The tonnage of the world was

338

WAR

CONTROL

scarcely less at the end of 1916 than m 1913; the tonnage at the disposal of the Allies was not very seriously less But this situation was immediately and dramatically altered by the new form of warfare. In the first twelve months 470 ocean-going ships (1,000 if we count all sizes) had been Jost In a single fortnight in April, 122 ocean-going vessels were lost (and all the ocean-going vessels in the world did not exceed 8,000). The continuance of loss at this rate would have brought disaster upon all the Allied campaigns and might well have mvolved unconditional surrender. At this stage, after much hesitation and conflict of opinion, the convoy system was introduced, and found an immediate success The actual loss already incurred and the dangers of the future, however, obviously compelled a much more drastic handling of the whole shipping and supply problem (See Surppinc, WAR LOSSES oF) It may be well, at this crucial moment, to attempt a bird’seye view of the situation from the angle of one responsible for requisitionmg and allotting British tonnage In France, in Belgium, in Salonika, in the Dardanelles, in Palestine, British soldiers were facing the enemy ‘Their transportation from the United Kingdom, from Australia, from Canada and from India needed about 70 ships To supply them with food, munitions and clothing; medical attention for invalids and wounded, material for new railways; timber for trenches and huts, meant another 335 ships. Behind them in England, in Canada and in America the raw materials of the industries which made their munitions and their clothes had to be imported (350 ships). At the same time the British Navy had to be supplemented by auxiliaries (100 ships), to be coaled, fuelled and supplied (300 ships). Meantime the Allies had corresponding needs for which their own ships did not suffice (soo ships). And the home population required to be fed and supplied with other necessities of life (750 ships)

The Fourth Year.—By the autumn the situation had become less desperate but more immediately difficult Two great events had happened. America entered the war. Finance was at once displaced as the governing consideration in the Allies’ policy. Henceforward the Alliance as a whole, was practically self-sufficient It was certain henceforth that money would be available for as many imports as shipping could carry Shipping became definitely the limiting factor Nor did America’s entry relieve the actual shortage of tonnage Her potential building capacity gave a different perspective to the future, but it was undeveloped And her military effort, so vital a factor m the strategical position, necessarily increased the strain on shipping. So rapidly indeed did her multtary effort develop that 11 more than absorbed the ships she could put into service in spite of her amazing building achievement. At no time during the rest of the war were there as many American ships in war service as those required to carry her own men and stores. The second great event was the striking and dramatic success of the convoy system From its first introduction it more than counteracted the effect of the new submarine method; and losses were reduced to less than the rate of 1916. But it could not restore vessels already lost, and new building only gradually overtook current losses In spite therefore of the much greater hope for the future given by both America’s building capacity and the convoy system, the actual disparity between the shipping available and the demands upon it was greater in the autumn of 1927 than it had ever been. x7 million tons deadweight of the world’s tonnage had been lost and less than half had been replaced Great Britain alone had lost ro million tons, and, even allowing for ships she had bought, built or captured, her net loss was over 4 million tons France

and Italy had lost about 2 million tons and had built practically nothing. Nor had America yet begun to build seriously At the same time the demands upon shipping were greater than at any previous period All the distant expeditions (except the long abandoned one to the Dardanelles) were fully maintained ‘The

scale of the war in France was continually increasing The Navy was at its maximum strength Serious food troubles were anticipated in Great Britain, France and Italy The American military effort, with its great demands on transport, was beginning. By this time, however, the mechanism for securing economical

OF SHIPPING compression of the British supply demands on transport, for selecting only the most essential, for making the utmost use of shipping available was being rapidly perfected The ultimate needs of scores of millions were sifted through a series of sieves of small and smaller mesh The bg control departments,” the Food and Munitions Ministries and the War Office, examined and pruned down the demands of their many branches, with the expert knowledge that had been obtained by the incorporation of numberless experts from the different trades now brought within the area of control The Ship Licensing Committee was (to some luted extent) pruning off the more obviously useless employment of ships ‘The Tonnage Priority Committee was examining the demands in more detail and contributing to the same end Special committees like the Imports Restrictions Committee of

January 1917 and the later Cabinet committees of the same year were forcing the departments to make reductions and to impose

them on their subordinate organizations The rationing of neutrals for blockade reasons; the system of prohibition and limited license of certain umports; the diminished purchasing power of most of the world, the pressure on neutral ships by the supply of bunker coal on condition that they should enter employment useful to the Alhes—these were all contmbuting to the same effect—to reduce the excessive demands made on the shipping departments And in this national system the final authority now consisted

in a Cabmet committee (presided over by Lord Milner) consisting of the Ministers in charge of the great Ministries concerned, on the one hand of Shipping and on the other of the great supply departments particularly the War Office and the Ministries of Munitions and Food, attended by their chief officials But by this time the problem was more than national. And the national system required to be supplemented by an mternational organization which could corporate the needs of France and Italy and to some extent America, with those of Great Britain and devise a common shipping policy Controls similar

in general character and purpose had been established in France and Italy, but while they remained isolated they afforded no common measure of comparison There was nothing to show whether the standard of compression imposed in the different commodities was at all equal A British Cabinet committee could not judge between British and French or Italian needs of sugar or of wheat Nor could a British Shipping department do so Obviously the persons best qualified were the sugar and the wheat experts of the different countries On this principle the Allied system was based “Programme Committees” were formed of the experts in each main supply (wheat, sugar, meat and fats, oils and seeds, nitrates, hides, wool, flax, hemp and jute, paper, etc) This was not a system parallel, or conflicting, with the national system, for the officials were the same as those we have seen in the national organization, These committees submitted their demands first severally to Allied Councils of Ministers (food and munitions), and then all together to a supreme Allied shipping authority, formed on the same principle (see ALLIED MARITIME TRANSPORT CoUNCIL) Shipbuilding.—Here Great Britain’s supremacy before the

war was unchallenged. She built some 2 million tons gross a year, twice as much as the rest of the world put together Claims on men and material however reduced the figure to 660,000 r9r5 and to 630,000 ın 1916 By this time, the losses were becoming serious and building looked like falling ever lower It became necessary for the Government to take vigorous measures, The responsibility was entrusted at different periods to the Admiralty, to the Ministry of Shippimg, and to an independent Controller-General But throughout the last two years of the war a consistent and effective policy was pursued Better supplies of steel were secured, workmen were withheld, or withdrawn, from the Army Private yards were specialized and each yard, instead of building several types of vessel, concentrated upon one—-twelve types of standard ships being selected and built in considerable numbers By these means launchings increased to 1,229,000 tons m 1917 and 1,579,000 in 1918 The figure would

have been much greater but for the immensely increased work of

building and repairing both naval and merchant

ships

WARD

339

Ward published Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899, 3rd ed 1907), But the most notable achievement of shipbuilding during the war was North America’s In 1913, her yards had built only | Heredtiy and Memory (1913) , Psychological Princeples (1918, 2nd ed. 1920) ; A Study wm Kant (1922), and Essays m Philosophy ed W. R 376,000 tons, and when she declared war she had only 61 yards, Sorley and G F. Stout, with memoir by O. W. Campbell (1927); with 234 shipways By the armistice she had 223 yards with 1,099 numerous articles in the Journal of Physcology, m Mund, and in The shipways By the end of 1918 she was building 3 million tons British Journal of Psychology gross and m 1919 about 4 millions The rest of thè world’s buldWARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910), Ametiimg during the war, outside Great Britain and North America, can sculptor, born in Urbana, Ohio, June 29, 1830. He studied needs httle comment It averaged 600,000 tons a year under Henry K Brown, of New York, in 1850-1857, and by Atlantic Concentration.—Concentration of shipping on the 1861, when he opened a studio in New York, he had executed shortest routes was another increasingly important device. We busts of Joshua R Giddings, Alexander H Stephens, and Hannibal find a great withdrawal of ships from more distant routes and Hamlin, prepared the first sketch for the “Indian Hunter,” and thew concentration ın the Atlantic. Of a total of 68: British made studies among the Indians themselves for the work. In 1863 vessels loaded as liners in Oct. 1917 no less than 336 were in the he became a member of the National Academy of Design (New Atlantic (four-fifths of them in the North Atlantic) By Oct. York), and he was its president m 1872-1873. He died in New 1918 the proportion had risen even higher, 385 out of a total York on the rst of May ror1o. of 656 WARD, SIR JOSEPH GEORGE, ist Bart., cr. rgzz, The convoy was introduced in the spring of 1917, and proved (1856-1930), New Zealand politician, was born at Emerald Hill, an instant and surprising success Losses which before had Melbourne on April 26, 1856, son of a merchant At 13 he averaged over long periods more than 10%, and at times rose to entered the Post and Telegraph Department. In 1887 he entered over 20%, of ocean vessels at risk, fell for the subsequent period parliament as Liberal member for Awarua Appointed treasurer in to the end of the war to less than 1%. The long contest between the Seddon cabinet of 1893, he was the prime minister’s chief attack and defence was decided conclusively before the war ended heutenant until Seddon died in 1906, and he then succeeded and on its Own merits, not as an incidental result of the military to the premiership and the leadership of the Liberal party He successes Of the Allies By the third quarter in 1918 the losses pioneered several smportant reforms, such as loans to settlers, were less than the world’s increased building, and by September the All-Red cable service, and penny postage for New Zealand of that year the world gained even without America’s building His ministry was defeated in the February of 1912, but Ward See C.E Fayle, Sea-borne Trade and Merchant Shipping in the War returned to office as minister of finance in the National (War)

(1920-24), Sır A Salter, Aled Shipping Control, an Expersment in

International Administration (1921).

WARD,

ARTEMUS,

(A.

the pen-name

of Charles

Sa.)

Farrar

Browne (1834~1867), American humorous writer, who was bornin Waterford (Maine), April 26, 1834 He began hfe as a compositor and became an occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858 he published in the Cleveland Plain

Dealer the first of the “Artemus Ward” series, which attained great popularity both in America and England His works include: Artemus Ward: kis Book (1862); Artemus Ward: his Travels (1865), Artemus Ward sn London (1867), and Artemus Ward’s Lecture (1869) In 1866 he visited England, where he became exceedingly popular. He died of consumption at Southampton March 6, 1867 BIBLIOGRAPHY —A good edition of his works was edited with a biographical sketch by M D Landon in 1876, Artemus Ward’s Best Stories (1912) was edited by Clifton Johnson and Selected Works (1924) by A J Nock The Letters of Artemus Ward were printed m 1900 See also E P. Hingston, The Genzal Showman (1870), and D.C Seitz, Artemus Ward, A Brography and Brbhography (1919).

WARD,

DAME

GENEVIEVE

(1837-1922)

(DBE,

1921), English actress, was born in New York on March 27, 1837, and at the age of 18 married Count Constantine de Guerbel.

She studied singing in Italy and in Paris, and made her first appearance under the stage name of Ginevra Buerrabella at Bergamo in the opera Stella dt Napoli (1855). After the loss of her voice in 1862 she taught singing ın New York, but m 1873 she came to London and began a long dramatic career, appearing first at Manchester as Lady Macbeth She published with Richard Whiting à volume of reminiscences, Before and Behind the Curtain (1918).

cabinet of 1915-19

In 1919 he represented New Zealand at the defeated at Awarua

Peace Conference, ın that same year he was and in 1923 in a by-election for Tauranga. In for Invercargill and nn Dec. 1928 took office He resigned in May 1930 and died on July 7,

1925 he was elected as Pome Mimster. 1930

WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841-1913), American geologist and socrologist, was born m Joliet, Ill, on June 18, 1841. He graduated at Columbian (now George Washington) university in 1869 and from the law school in 1871, his education having been delayed by his service in the Union army during the Civil War, In 1865-72 he was employed in the United States Treasury department, and became assistant geologist in 1881 and geologist mn 1888 to the U. S. geological survey In 1884-86 he was professor of botany in Columbian university. He wrote much on palaeobotany, including A Sketch of Palagobotany (1885), The Geographical Distribution of Fossil Planis (1888) and The Status of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States (1905) His mote important works are Dynamic Sociology (1883, and ed.

1897), Psychte Factors of Civihzation (1897), Outhnes of Sociol-

ogy (1898), Sociology and Economics (1899), Pure Sociology (1903), and with J Q. Dealy, Texi-Book of Sociology (1905). He died in Washington, DC, on April 18, 1913

WARD,

MARY

AUGUSTA

[Mrs

Humrpury Warp]

(1851~1920), British novelist, was born on June Ir 1851, at Hobart, Tasmania, where her father, Thomas Arnold (18241900, g v.), was then an inspector of schools. She was brought up mainly at Oxford, and her early associations with a hfe of scholarship and religious conflict are deeply marked in her own later hterary career She was brought into close connection during this

period with Edward Hariopp Cradock, who was principal of WARD, JAMES (1843-1925), English psychologist and Brasenose college from 1853 till his death in 1886, some of metaphysician, was born at Hull on Jan. 27, 1843 He was edu- whose characteristics went to the portrait of the “Squire” in cated at the Liverpool Institute, at Berlin and Gottimgen, and at Robert Elsmere In 1872 she marred Thomas Humphry Ward Trinity College, Cambridge; he also worked in the physiological (1845-1926), then fellow and tutor of Brasenose, and one of the laboratory at Leipzig He studied originally for the Congrega- authors of the Oxford Spectator tional ministry, and for a year was minister of Emmanuel Church, Mrs Humphry Ward at first devoted herself to Spanish literaCambndge Subsequently he devoted himself to psychological ture, and contributed articles on Spanish subjects to the Dictiontésearch, became fellow of his college 1875 and university pro- ary of Christian Biography, edited by Dr Wiliam Smith and Dr fessor of mental philosophy in 1897 He was Gifford lecturer at Henry Wace In 1881 she published her first book, Mally and Aberdeen in 1895-97, and at St Andrews in 1908-10 His work Olly, a child’s story wlustrated by Lady (then Mrs.) Almashows the influence of Leibnitz and Lotze, as well as of evolution Tadema This was followed in 1884 by a more ambitious, though His views are further worked out, through criticism of plurahsm slight, study of modern life, Miss Bretherton, the story of an and as a theistic interpretation of the world, in his Gifford Lectures actress In 1885 Mrs Ward published an admirable translation (The Realm of Ends) (1911, 3rd ed 1920). Ward died on March of the Journal of the Swiss philosopher Amiel, with a critical introduction, which showed her delicate appreciation of the 4, 1925,

340

WARD—WARDROBE

subtleties of speculative thought

In Feb. 1888 appeared Robert | others, including Newman himself In 1868 he became editor of Elsmere, a powerful novel, tracing the mental evolution of an the Dublin Review He died on July 6, 1882 See Wellam George Ward and the Oxford Movement (1889) ang English clergyman, of high character and conscience and of intellectual leanings, constrained to surrender his own orthodoxy to William George Ward and the Cathoke Reveval (1893), both by his the influence of the “higher criticism” The character of Elsmere son Wilfnd Philip Ward owed much to reminiscences both of T H Green, the philosopher, WARD, that which guards or watches, and that which ys and of J R. Green, the historian The book was reviewed by guarded or watched In architecture the imner courts of a forti. W. E Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century (May 1888, “Robert fied place are called wards, eg, the upper and lower wards of Elsmere and the Battle of Belief”), and made its author famous Windsor Castle (see BAILEY, CAastLE) The “ward” in a lock Mrs Ward’s next novel, David Grieve, was published in 1892 is the mdge of metal which fits exactly into the corresponding In 1895 appeared the short tragedy, the Story of Bessie “ward” or slot of the key (see Locxs). Boroughs, cities and Costrell. Mrs. Ward’s next long novel, Helbeck of Banmsdale parishes may be divided into wards, for the conducting of local (1898), treated of the clash between the ascetic ideal of Roman elections, etc In the same way, large establishments, such as Catholicism and modern hfe The element of Catholic and hospitals, asylums, etc, are divided into wards In law, “ward” humanistic ideals entered also into Eleanor (1900), in which, how- 1s a term for minors, or persons under guardianship (see INFANT, ever, the author relied more on the ordinary arts of the novelist MARRIAGE and Roman Law) In Lady Rose’s Daughter (1903)—dramatized as Agatha in 1905 An electoral division m American municipalities is called a —and The Marriage of Wilam Ashe (1905), modern tales ward Prior to the mtroduction of the commission and city man. founded on the stories respectively of Mlle de Lespinasse and ager form of government the municipal legislative branch was a

Lady Caroline Lamb, she relied entirely and with success upon social portraiture Later novels were Fenwick’s Career (1906), Diana Mallory (1908), Daphne (1909), Canadian Born (1910), The Case of Richard Meynell (1911), Delia Blanchflower (1915), The War and Elizabeth (1918), etc Mrs Ward died in London on March 24, 1920 Brsitiocrapay —Stephen L Gwynn, Mrs. Humphry Ward (1917); J. Stuart Walters, Mrs Humphry Ward; her work and influence (1922) ; Janet P. Trevelyan, The Life of Mrs Humphry Ward (1923).

city council made up of the city The wards tion, each ward having qualified voters of the or two years Many elected Each ward is or divisions, See C C ment (1923)

WAR

of representatives from the various wards were supposed to be of about equal populaeither one or two aldermen, chosen by the ward, m the city council, for terms of one cities are still governed by councils so divided into one or more, voting precincts Maxey, An Outline of Municipal Govern-

DEBTS: sce INTER-ALLED DEBTS

WARD, SETH (1617-1689), bishop, was educated at Sidney

WARDEN, a word frequently employed ın the ordinary sense

Sussex college, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1640 In 1643 he was chosen university mathematical lecturer, but he was deprived of his fellowship next year for opposing the Solemn League and Covenant. In 1649 he became Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, and gained a high reputation by his theory of planetary motion, propounded in the works entitled Jn Ismaehs Bulkaldi astronomiae philolaicae fundamenta inquisitio brevis (Oxford, 1653), and Astronomia geometrica (London, 1656). About this time he was engaged in a philosophical controversy with Thomas Hobbes He was one of the orgmal members of the Royal Society. In 1659 he was appointed master of Trinity college, Oxford, but not having the statutory qualifications he resigned in 1660, Charles II gave him numerous preferments, and in 1662 he was consecrated bishop of Exeter He died at Knightsbridge Jan. 6, 1689.

of a watchman or guardian, but more usually in England ın the

WARD, WILFRID PHILIP (1856-1916), British man of letters, was born at Ware, Hertfordshire, on Jan 2, 1856, the second son of William George Ward. In 1906 he became editor of The Dublin Review. He died in London on April 8, 1916 His works include: W. G. Ward and the Oxford Movement (1889), W G Ward and the Catholic Revival (1893); Life and Times of Cardi-

nal Wiseman (1897), Life of John Henry Cardinal Newman (1912) and several volumes of essays

WARD,

WILLIAM

GEORGE

(1812-1882),

English

Roman Catholic theologian, was born on March 21, 1812 He was educated at Christ Church and Lincoln College, Oxford, and became a fellow of Balliol in 1834 He was attracted to the Tractarians by his hatred of what he called “respectability ” He re-

sense of a chief or head official The lords wardens of the marches,

for example, were powerful nobles appointed to guard the borders of Scotland and of Wales; they held their lands per baroniam, the king’s writ not running against them, and they had extensive rights of administrating justice The chief officer of the ancient stan-

naries of Cornwall has the title of lord warden (see STANNARrES) as has also the governor of Dover castle (see Crnque Ports) WAR DEPARTMENT: see GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS,

WARDHA, a town and district of British India in the Nagpur

division of the Central Provinces They take their name from the Wardha river. The now prosperous town of Wardha was established on a treeless black soil plain at the old village of Palakwan in 1866 at the spot where the branch line to Warora was expected to take off. The population by 1872 had reached 3,560; In 1921 it was 16,044 The District or WarpHa was carved out of Nagpur‘in 1862 The population has increased from 355,000 at the census of 1872 to 463,696 in 1921. There are cotton mills at Hinganghat and Pulgaon. The language is Marathi

WARDLAW, HENRY (d 1440), son of Sir Andrew Wardlaw, was educated at Oxford and Paris and nominated by the papal court at Avignon bishop of St Andrews (consecrated 1403) He was tutor to James I, restored the cathedral, and, on the return of James from England, became one of hus principal advisers

He persecuted the Wychffites

Wardlaw issued

the charter of foundation of St Andrews university, the first in Scotland, in 1411 It was confirmed by a bull of Benedict XIIL garded Newman as a mere antiquary When he was persuaded on Aug 28, 1413 to hear Newman preach, he at once became a disciple He took WARDROBE, a portable upright cupboard for storing deacon’s orders in 1838 and priest’s orders in 1840 From that clothes. The earhest wardrobe was a chest, and it was not until period Ward and his associates worked for union with the some degree of luxury was attamed in regal palaces and the castles Church of Rome, and in 1844 he published his Ideal of a of powerful nobles that separate accommodation was provided Christian Church, in which he openly contended that the only for the sumptuous apparel of the great The name of wardrobe hope for the Church of England lay in submission to the was then given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with Church of Rome. This publication brought to a height the cupboards and lockers As a “hanging cupboard” it dates back storm which had long been gathering The university of Ox- to the early 17th century For probably roo years such pieces, ford was invited, on Feb. 13, 1845, to condemn “Tract XC.,” to censure the Jdeal, and to degrade Ward from his degrees The massive, but often with well-carved fronts, were made in fair two latter propositions were carried and “Tract XC.” only escaped numbers During the 18th century the tallboy (gq v.) was much censure by the non placet of the proctors, Guillemard and Church, used for clothes. Towards its end, however, the wardrobe began The condemnation precipitated an exodus to Rome. Ward left the to develop into its modern form, with a hanging cupboard at each Church of England in Sept. 1845, and was followed by many side, a press in the upper part of the central portion and drawers below, As a rule it was of mahogany, but so soon as satinwood

WARDROBES and other finely grained foreign woods began to be obtainable in considerable quantities, many elaborately and even magnificently

inlaid wardrobes were made

The central doors, which had hither-

to enclosed merely the upper part, were carried to the floor and were fitted with mirrors.

WARDROBES, THE. Although onginally garderoba (ward-

robe) and camera (bedroom) were synonymous, garderoba was early distinguished as the small room attached to the bedchamber, where clothes were kept and articles of value stored Mediaeval kgs and emperors, magnates of church and State, all had a wardrobe as well as a bedroom But no Contmental vestsarsum

(wardrobe) experienced such development as that through which the garderoba of the kings of England passed

From a place of

deposit, a mere adjunct of the king’s chamber (qv ), the king’s

wardrobe in England grew into a third treasury, and, in the 13th century, dispossessing the chamber as the financial and directive agent of the royal household (qv), became a full administrative department Not even the wardrobe of the popes, which enjoyed some measure of authority between the 6th and the 11th centuries, can compare with it, while the wardrobe of the kings of France was always a subordinate branch of the chamber, never a separate institution The mncreasing administrative burden of the chamber, relieved only partially by the growth and independent establishment of the exchequer (q v ), umposed further duties upon the garderoba regis (king’s wardrobe) So ably did it discharge them that, by the end of John’s reign, 1t had developed into a rudimentary office, and before long took over from the chamber the routine work of the household A clerical keeper or treasurer, and a lay steward,.were responsible for its management, their revenue mainly coming from the exchequer, to which the keeper accounted. His statements were attested by the controller, his immediate subordinate, also

a clerk, who kept a counter-roll of receipts and expenses.

Under

Edward I the controller became the recognized keeper of the privy seal (see SEALS), and the cofferer who was the third clerical officer, obtained definite title and position Beginning as the personal clerk of the keeper, he rose to be chief bookkeeper and

341

wherever ıt went, they needed places in which to store their heavier and bulkier commodities. Rooms in the king’s manors were set apart for this purpose, the wardrobe being held responsible for the custody and replenishment of the stocks kept in them

A sub-department, the great wardrobe, magna garderoba regis, a term in use by 1253, constituted itself to direct the necessary labour The description “great” referred to the size and quantity of the goods stored, not to the status of the office, which was inferior to the king’s wardrobe. The clerk of the great wardrobe was its head, and to begin with, all its officials, excluding the two or three stationed with the more important stores, followed the court. Up to 1324 the clerk was financed by the wardrobe, but from that year he received his revenue from, and accounted to, the exchequer, except for a brief return to former usage between 1351 and 1360 Owing to the nature and variety of the work, it was practically mpossible for the clerk or his assistants to reside contmually in the household The great wardrobe was not simply a depository. Besides collecting, safeguarding and distributing goods, it also manufactured and repaired them Cloth was made into clothes, metal was wrought mto armour and weapons, guns and cannon were cast and assembled, and sulphur, saltpetre and other ingredients were combined into gunpowder. The Tower of London was its first centre, but from the beginning of the 14th century, houses in the city of London were also used Among them was a house in Bassishaw (Basinghall) ward, near the weekly cloth markets of Weavers’ Hall and Bakewell Hall, and the house m Lombard street which had once belonged to the Bardi merchants Larger and better quarters were bought in 1361, in the parish of St Andrew’s by Baynard’s Castle Here the office and its staff lived until the Great Fire of 1666. They then found accommodation in Buckingham street in the Savoy, but later removed to Great Queen street

Hardly had the great wardrobe taken shape before the privy

wardrobe, priuata garderoba regis, made its appearance as a travelling store for chamber, wardrobe and great wardrobe There had early been in the household a small wardrobe of robes and arms for current use, but only towards the end of the 13th century did it develop even a modest organization Its officers were as much chamber as wardrobe servants, and such money as they needed was supplied by the wardrobe or the great wardrobe. Although their work was the care and transport of articles wanted from day to day, they soon found it advisable to have a central

cashier, and the usual locum tenens of the keeper By the close of the 13th century, because public matters claimed more and more of the attention of the chancery (qv), the wardrobe had become the household secretariat, the domestic chancery as well as the domestic exchequer Nor did it fulfil only domestic and peaceful functions. As the household was the nucleus of the depository. Between 1323 and 1344 they set up a store in the army when the king waged war in person, the wardrobe not Tower of London, chiefly of arms and armour. This, used by unnaturally then undertook the financial admimstration of the chamber and great wardrobe as well as by the household, came campaigns The finances of most of Edward I’s expeditions, of to be known as the privy wardrobe in the Tower The keepers the Scottish offensives of Edward II and Edward III, and of a of this wardrobe, also clerks of the chamber until 1356, took their number of the campaigns of the Hundred Years’ War, were ad- revenue from the exchequer, which also audited their accounts. ministered in this way Thus the king’s wardrobe, or wardrobe Before 1360 1t had separated itself from the household though it of the household, came to have a wider military and a political left behind a small privy wardrobe, which survived well into the importance. The reason lay in its all-round usefulness Its ma- 16th century, to carry on its original work By 1399 1t was as chmery was adaptable and its officers, appointed by word of independent of great wardrobe and chamber as it was of the mouth, were directly answerable to the king Its funds could be household It was looted by the revolted peasants in 1381 In consequence of both internal and external differentiation, augmented or diminished at need, and, although its accounts had to be submitted to the exchequer for audit, it actually spent the money It also had the use of a seal which, though in the first instance personal to the sovereign, could be and was increasingly employed in State business. These and similar considerations commended the wardrobe to king, aristocracy and ministers alike

Yet the jealous and vigilant barons did not hesitate to attack the wardrobe whenever they felt it was beg used as an instrument of prerogative In the latter part of the reign of Edward I and again under Edward II, they persistently tried to curtail its

activities

It was, for example, a result of the baronial ordinances

of 1311, that in 1312 the privy seal was taken away from the controller and given a keeper all to itself The exchequer equally resented wardrobe encroachments, and its ordinances of 1323-26 were almost as much concerned with defining relations with the wardrobe as with improving internal economy The Great Wardrobe—Differentiation and centralization were as ceaselessly at work within the wardrobe as without Since both chamber and wardrobe accompanied the household

and with the adoption of special means for financing war, under parliamentary control the king’s wardrobe, from the latter part of the r4th century generally described as “the household,” slowly degenerated into a simple office of household accounts The process was not materially hindered even when the treasurer of war was the treasurer of the household. The privy wardrobe in the Tower lost both name and identity in the 15th century with its transformation mto the king’s armouries in the Tower But the great wardrobe, still the storehouse for the household, came to be known as “the wardrobe” The cofferer of the household

and the officers of the great wardrobe were suppressed in 1782

by Burke’s act for economical reform

Such of their duties as

were retained were divided among the lord chamberlain (gv), the lord steward (qv), and the surveyor of the buildings See T F Tout, The Place of the regn of Edward II in Enghsh History (1914, bbl); J C Davies, The Baronial Oppostion to Edward II. (1918, bibl); T. F Tout, Chapters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England (vols, 1-1, 1926, vols ii-iv., 1928, vol v in preparation bibl).

34.2

WARD

ROOM—WAR

WARD ROOM, officers’ living quarters in a war vessel WARE, a town of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lea. Pop. (1931) 6,171. The church of St. Mary is a cruciform Decorated and Perpendicular building of fimt and stone, the tower dating from Edward III. The famous “Great Bed of Ware,” referred to in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, which formerly was at the Saracen’s Head in Ware, has been removed to Rye House, 2 m.

distant, the scene of the Rye House plot of 1683 against Charles II The town possesses breweries and brick-fields, WARE, a town of Hampshire county, Massachusetts Pop. (1920) 8,525; 1930 it was 7,385. Its manufactures include cotton and woollen goods, sport shoes and coated paper In 1761 Ware-River parish (comprising parts of Brookfield, Palmer and Western) was established as the district of Ware, which in 1775 was made a town by general act

WAREHAM,

a town of Dorsetshire, England

Its popula-

tion in 1931 was 2,057.

Owing to its situation as a key of Purbeck, the site of Wareham (Werkam, Werham) has been occupied from very early times There are still remains of earthworks around the town which are probably of Romano-Bnitish age originally and modified on many subsequent occasions Wareham’s British name was Durnguetr

The early chroniclers declare that St Aldhelm founded

a church near by about 7oz, and perhaps the priory, which is mentioned as existing in 876, when the Danes retired from Cambridge to a strong position in this fort. Their occupation was not lengthy Having made terms with Alfred, they broke the conditions and returned to Cambridge In the following year they were again at Wareham, which they made their headquarters Beorhtric was buried here. Further incursions made by the Danes in 998 and in xorg under Canute probably resulted m the destruction of the priory, on the site of which a later house was founded in the 12th century as a cell of the Norman abbey of Lysa, and in the decayed condition of Wareham ın 1086 The early castle, which existed before 1086, was important during the

FINANCE

Blois, second son of King Stephen and Matilda of Boulogne, ang in 1163 Hamelin Plantagenet, natural son of Geoffrey, count of Anjou Both Isabel’s husbands appear to have borne the title of Earl Warenne. Earl Hamelin was one of those who at the council of Northampton denounced Becket as a traitor, he re.

mained faithful to lus half-brother, Henry II , during the trouble with the king’s sons, and ın Richard I’s absence on the crusade he supported the government against the intrigues of Prince John William de Warenne (d 1240), son of Isabel and Hamelin, who succeeded to the earldom m 1202, enjoyed the special confidence of King John, In 1212, when a general rebellion was apprehended, John committed to him the custody of the northern shires, and he remained faithful to his master throughout the troubles which preceded the signing of the Charter. In 1216, as the king’s sity.

ation became desperate, the earl repented of his loyalty, and, shortly before the death of John, made terms with Prince Lous, He returned, however, the accession of Henry supporter of the crown. who came into power

to his lawful allegiance immediately upon JII , and was, during his minority, a loyal He disliked, however, the royal favourites after 1227, and used his influence to pro-

tect Hubert de Burgh when the latter had been removed from office by their efforts (1232) Warenne’s relations with the king became strained in course of time In 1238 he was evidently re. garded as a leader of the baronial opposition, for the great council

appointed him as one of the treasurers who were to prevent the kong from squandering the subsidy voted in that year

His son

John de Warenne (c. 1231-1304) succeeded in 1240, and at a later date bore the style of earl of Surrey and Sussex

In the

battle of Lewes (1264) he fought under Prince Edward, and on the defeat of the royal army fled with the queen to France His estates were confiscated but were subsequently restored He served in Edward I’s Welsh campaigns, and took a still more

prominent part in Scottish affairs, being the king’s lieutenant in Scotland m 1296-1297. In September 1297 he advanced to Styrling, and, giving way to the clamour of his soldiers, was defeated

civil wars of Stephen’s reign John fortified 1t against Louis of by William Wallace on the 11th He invaded Scotland early the France m 1216, and during the civil wars of the 17th century next year with a fresh army, and joining Edward in the second it was the scene af much fightmg Wareham was borough in Domesday. In 1587 Elizabeth granted ileges to Wareham, but it was not mcorporated until are three ancient churches, and the ruins of a priory SS. Mary, Peter and Ethelwood.

accounted a certam priv-

expedition of that year, commanded the rear at Falkirk John de Warenne

(1286-1347)

succeeded his grandfather in

1703 There 1304, and was knighted along with the prince of Wales in 1306 dedicated to two days after his marriage with the prince’s niece, Joanna

daughter of Eleanor of England, countess of Bar From that time onwards he was much engaged in the Scottish wars, in which he hed a nersoral interest emcee John Baliol was his cousin and at ore st ehinw «As there were no children of his marnage, his ‘hosed Rata’ Tievep IT, eari of Arundel (c. 1307-1376), became heir to his estates and the earldom of Surrey His northern estates reverted to the crown, and the southern estates held Plymouth called the Agawam Purchase. by Joanna of Bar durmg her lifetime passed to Fitzalan The WARENNE, EARLS. The Warennes derived their surname Warrens of Poynton, barons of Stockport, descended from one of from the river of Guarenne or Varenne and the little town of the Earl Warenne’s illegitimate sons by Isabella de Holland same name near Arques in Normandy. William de Warenne, See G E C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol vii (1896) , and John who crossed with Wiliam I in 1066, was a distant cousin of the Watson, Memous of the Ancient Earls of Warren or Surrey (2 vols, Conquerar, his grandmother having been the sister of Gunnara, Warrington, 1782). WAREHAM,

a town of Massachusetts

The resident popu-

lation was 5,686 in 1930 (Federal census) and there 1s a summer population of 15,000, It is an smportant shipping point for cranberries, oysters, clams, scallops and garden truck, and has a horseshoe factory and other manufacturing plants The town was formed in 1739 from part of Rochester and a plantation of

wife of Richard J of Normandy De Warenne received as his share of English spoil some 300 manors in Yorkshire, Norfolk, Surrey and Sussex, including Lewes Castle He was wounded at the siege of Pevensey and died in 1089, a year after he had received the title of earl of Surrey. Both he and his successors were more commonly styled Earl Warenne than earl of Surrey.

WAR FINANCE (COST OF THE WORLD WAR), Estimates of the direct cost of the World War, 1914-18, vary greatly and even ten years after the conclusion of the armistice

it is impossible to give precise figures The reason of this lies in the difficulty of clearly determing what part of the national outlays during the war period can be strictly regarded as wat His son Wilham, and earl (¢. 1071-1138), was a suitor for expenditure, while there is also difficulty in determiming the net,

the hand of Matilda of Scotland, afterwards queen of Henry I, as distinct from the gross, cost Much of the war expenditure of He was temporarily deprived of his earldom m rror for his support of Robert, duke of Normandy, but he commanded at the battle of Tenchebrai (1106), and was governor of Rouen in 1135 Wiliam de Warenne, 3rd earl (d 1148), was, with his half-

brother, Robert de Beaumont, earl of Leicester, present at the battle of Lincoln, where his flight early in the day contributed to Stephen's defeat He remained faithful to the queen during Stephen’s imprisonment, and in 1146 he took the cross, and was killed near Laodicea in January 1148 ‘ His daughter and heiress, Isabel, married in 1x53 William de

the various countries constituted in some respects a source of fresh income, and, while national treasuries were heavy losers by

war outlays for goods and materials at fabulous war prices, individual nationals made large fortunes, which in due course furnished fresh resources of national wealth for use after the war

The difficulty of determining precise figures is also increased by the task of deciding when war expenditure really terminated In most cases, increased expenditure from the national exchequers, resulting directly or indirectly from the war, went on for some time after the armistice, in 1918, and it was only some few

WAR

FINANCE

(COST OF THE

years later that anything in the way of statistics was prepared giving the cost of the war, although all kinds of hurried estimates were made during its progress Thus, in Nov. 1917, the Mechanics and Metals National Bank of the State of New York prepared a statement estimating that at that time the money expended was

WORLD

WAR)

343

one year) £1,666,000,000 more than a year after the war and was over £1,000,000,000 two years after the war In certain respects, of course, such, for example, as war pensions, war expenditure is still gomg on, but no attempt has been made to carry the calcu-

lation beyond 1920

Nor, as already stated, do the calculations

Harvey E Fisk, of the Bankers’ Trust company, in New York, and, according to that authority, the total cost of the war was placed at $80,680,000,000 gold, or about £16,000,000,000. That statement, however, was reached on the basis of endeavouring to calculate the cost of the war on the price-level basis, the inflated currencies which characterized the war years, and especially the latter periods, bemg adjusted to terms of 1913 prices, which the

attempt to follow out the American process adopted by the Bankers Trust company of adjusting the currency cost of the war to 1913 levels, although, of course, the point is important. The Bankers’ Trust divided the figures for each year by the average wholesale price index number for the year, thus putting the statistics for each country on the 1913 price basis. The adjusted cost figures were then converted into dollars at par of exchange, and on that basis the real cost of the war in 1913 dollars is estimated at 80,681,000,000 dollars, or in sterling a little more than £16,000,000,000, which, of course, is a very different figure to the actual gross currency costs recorded in the foregoing table. The total expenditure ın the case of most of the countries enumerated in the table can be regarded as the outside amount, but the

Bankers’ Trust Company Estimate—Inasmuch, however, as not all the countries formally de-valued their currencies after

allowance were made for loans to allies, are the British empire and the United States. British loans are over £100,000,000

more than $100,000,000,000, or about £20,000,000,000, the further estimate beg made that the expenditure was at the rate of

$s,000,000,000 each month, so that, inasmuch as the war persisted for another year, another $60,000,000,000, or £12,000,000,ooo, would have to be added

In 1924, however, some six years

after the war, an exhaustive enquiry into the cost was made by

authority quoted described as “the gold cost of the war”

the war, and while Great Britain, although experiencing, in common with other nations, a decline in commodity prices, preserved intact the exchange value of the £, 1t is perhaps simpler and more Ulummating to give the following estimates, which were put forward m 1924 by the Bankers’ Trust company of New York, where the cost to the various nations is set out in sterling, without the further calculations based on an adjustment of price-levels, These figures, as briefly summarized in Whitaker's Almanack for 1928, are as follows Nation British Empire ' a. Great Britain Canada-Newfoundland Austraha

New Zealand South Africa India Other Parts

Belgium

France Greece Italy Japan Portugal Rumania Russia Serbia United States

B on

Austria-Hungary

Bulgaria Germany Turkey

OS im .

` ue .

Se es Koa

th. a ae as ig tu e Te ei

in

E

a

ae ge

y orks

WY

. 8 OS

234,400,000 189,000,000

687,100,000 182,000,000

411,800,000

so Sw

Total Expenditure £ I13;377:000,000 « 11,076,000,000 762,700,000 476,700,000

: Total, Alhes

4,962 ,200,000 II5,100,000 454.32,700,000 419,100,000 235,300,000 308,800,000 5,312,700,000 119,000,000 4,500,000,000 £40,363,600,000 4,068,400,000 261,000,000 I0,341,TOO 000 451,800,000 £15,122.300,000 £53,486,000,000

two notable instances where the net cost might be reduced if

to dommions and colonies, while at March 31, 1928, loans dud to Great Britain included £706,000,000 from France, £266,000,00q from Italy, £100,000,000 from various smaller European States, and £887,000,000 from Russia, the last item, however, being regarded somewhat in the light of a bad debt

Indirect Cost of the Wat.—At this pomt statistics break

down. With the exception, perhaps, of the United States, it may fairly be said that the figures already given do not begin to express the real cost of the war Great Britain alone sustained 676,442 actual fatahties, with 1,648,014 wounded, while French fatalities totalled 1,400,000 killed, 800,000 maimed, and 3,000,000 wounded. Previous to 1914 Great Bntain, by reason of her seniority among the big nations resulting in an accumulation of savings and a prestige in the matter of manufacturmg, had the leading place among the nations in financial lending power and control over the exchanges, conditions in their turn contributing to her power as the leading monetary centre of the world As a consequence of the war, or, rather, as a consequence of the three years of neutrality on the part of the Umted States during the war, the equipoise of the balance of trade was completely destroyed, and at the end of the conflagration the belligerent countries of Europe became debtors to the United States, first, on account of the colossal trade balance in favour of America, and, second, because of the actual debts incurred by the belligerent nations to the United States Government. All this, so far as Europe is concerned, has to be reckoned amongst the indirect costs of the war, and to express that cost in figures is impossible. Whether, on the other hand, an equivalent of the unknown amount to be debited to the belligerent countries of Europe is to be credited to the United States 1s not only debatable but a controversial subject,

because economists in the United States of America often plead that, as a matter of fact, economic progress mn their country was Tota I,Central Powers ~ retarded rather than helped by the four years’ war. Grand Total It may be mentioned that in a lecture delivered before the The Basis of Calculation—A stnking example of the London Institute of Bankers in June 1920 by Edgar Crammond discrepancies in calculations is afforded by the answer given by on “The Real Cost of the War,” an attempt was made by that the British chancellor of the exchequer to a question in the House statistician to appraise the real net cost of the war after making of Commons in May 1919, regarding the cost of the war to Great all allowances for revenues or territories gained or lost. The reBritain Sir (then Mr ) Austen Chamberlain said that up to March sult was, naturally, to reduce materially the gross cost Thus he 3I, 1919, the net cost might be estimated, in round figures, at estimated the net real cost of the war to Great Britain at only £6,700,000,000 It will be observed, however, that in the table £3,500,000,000; France at £5,400,000,000, Italy at £2,100,000,the figure is given as £11,076,000,000. Not only, however, did the ooo, and so on while for the five years ended 1919 the United chancellor of the exchequer’s statement exclude all debts due States was reckoned to have gained materially in wealth. Cost of the War to the United States.—More than in the from dominions and allies, but it is impossible to follow the allowance made for “normal peace expenditure” Broadly speak- case of any other country, big deductions have to be made im the ing, the basis of calculation ın the case of the foregoing figures case of the United States from the gross amount of war expendimay be said to be (a) a calculation based upon the excess of ex- ture. According to the calculations of the Bankers’ Trust compenditure over the normal figures of the year previous to the war, pany m 1924, the total cost of the war in currency dollars was while the period taken is not 1914-18 but 1914—20, inclusive, war about $37,500,000,000, or about £7,500,000,000. From that total, expenditure extending certainly to that date and possibly longer however, has obviously to be deducted about $10,000,000,000 or Thus, in the case of Great Britain alone, expenditure totalled (for £2,000,000,000, on account of loans to the Allies, while, although

WAR

344

FINANCE

(COST OF THE

WORLD

WAR)

Debis of the Allud and Associated States to the United States as of October 38, 1927

Funded war debt de

Debtor state

Unfunded war debt*

Relief given on loan (American Relief Commission a

Sales of surplus war supplies *

Total ota

Grain Corporation)*

£ Belgium

:

Estonia i d

eo s

og

. ti

. vet.

. e

925,684,932

.

«

>

417,534,246

a

te,

Czechoslovakia

ae

P

.

Latvia Lithuania

Nicaragua.

Poland. Rumania

Russia

Yugoslavia

Totals

;

2,841,780 1,811,0

se

Great Britain Greece dr

Italy

ee

. . .

S

a

forge

A ef eM

. .

.

. eo

.

.

wi

&

%

.

.

.

.

.

.

G

. 4

£

£

71,344,686

12,734,392

£

2,457:517

RT

1,911,232

600,646,1490t

4,233,701

83,700,235

.

36,600,412 13,574,088

‘

38,574,606

5:354:767

18,879,385 ae II,

684,346,384 417,534,246

:

59,718

1,400, 589,482 731,736,792 £2,132,326,274

£ 2,457,517

77:471,829

925,684,932 3,082,192

3,082,192**

1,186,644 1,266,285

pete

6,127,143

917,561§

5,286,310

1,186,6 1,266,285

59,718

PERE 574,

83,441

39,575,608

99,336,768

2,236,949,352

5,132,470

10,487,237

*The United States Government holds Bonds of the Debtor Governments in respect of the sums shown in these columns, the amounts stated are exclusive of mterest accrued and unpaid {A funding agreement has been signed but has not yet been ratified. **An agreement between the respective Governments as to this debt was reached mnDec. 1927 §American Relief Admmistration only.

the point is challenged by many American economists, 1t would seem that just as to the direct ascertained cost of the war to the

European belligerents has to be added a large but unknown total representing indirect cost, so in the case of the United States the argument is of the reverse order. The United States as well as the Allies suffered loss through war casualties and also through war inflation. Nevertheless, just as the cost of the war was increased to the European belligerents by the high prices paid for foodstuffs and war materials, so the United States was the gainer by these same prices Of still greater moment, however, was the fact that just as the European belligerents lost markets and economic strength by the war, so the United States, by reason of her three years of neutrality, gained in both of these respects More, however, than any other country, with the exception of Japan, the United States met its war expenditure through taxation, though, equally, and because of its financing of the requirements of the Allies, no country issued within a brief space of time a larger amount in loans, something like $23,000,000,000 being raised after the entry into the war. As the last entrant, however, the United States benefited greatly by the experience gained from the mistakes of other countries, and while a certain measure of inflation was the inevitable accompaniment of such huge and sudden borrowing, economy and sufficient taxation were the watchwords from the moment of America taking a hand in the conflict, and a continuance of that policy has resulted in a greater amount of debt liquidation since the war than any other country has been able to achieve. The above table, taken from The Stock Exchange Official Intelligence for 1927, sets out the debts of the Allied and Associated States to the United States of America as of Oct. 31, 1927, the figures being as shown by the Statement of the Public Debt of the United States issued by the office of the secretary to the United States Treasury How Wat Expenditure Was Met.—Subject to the difficulties of calculations and estimates already referred to, the statistics prepared by the Bankers’ Trust showed that on the basis of currency, not of 1913 values, the entire war expenditure was met as to about 69% in borrowings at home in one form and another, as to a further ro% in loans from Allies, and as to about 1% in loans from foreign neutral’ countries, the balance beng obtained from taxation. In the case of the Continental Central Powers, however, the percentage of borrowing was greater than in the case of Great Britain or the United States In fact, apart from Japan, the only Governments which had the courage to ask their nationals to pay very heavy taxes during the greater part of the War period were Great Britain and the United States, Even in

Great Britain there was a curious reluctance to impose taxation

during ing in costs of the

the earlier stages of the war, the idea apparently prevailall countries that the war must be made popular at all In Great Britain, mdeed, there was the curious experience people actually mviting an increase in taxation, deputations waiting upon the chancellor of the exchequer at quite an early

stage of the war requesting that there should be an increase in direct and indirect taxation Throughout the whole period of six years covered by the calculations concerning the cost of the war, Great Britain was the most heavily taxed country, although she was also during the war itself the largest borrower, having to finance the greater part of the conflict on behalf of herself and her Allies At one time, the income tax of Great Britain rose to 6s in the £, while a prolific source of revenue to the exchequer during the war period was the excess profits duty, a tax which was levied from 50 up to 80% on all business profits exceeding the pre-war level Some idea of the exacting nature of the tax, and incidentally of the profiteering which went on during the war, may be gathered from the fact that from this source alone the British Treasury received within a period of five years no less than well over £1,000,000,000 Indeed, the tax may be said to have yielded not far short of 25% of the total war revenue from taxation Nevertheless, it is generally believed to have brought some evil consequences in its trail and was among the influences leading to demands for higher wages and to inflation both 1m credit and in currency, From the outset Great Britain was fortunate in possessing in her income, super tax and death duties, a machine ready to

hand which greatly aided the immediate application of war taxation, so that in addition to the revenue from excess profits tax, income and super tax, which had yielded about £47,000,000 1n the pre-war year, rose in 1917 to £250,000,000, in 1918 to £291,000, 000, in 1919 to £339,000,000, and in the following year to £394,000,000 In Great Britain, however, as in other countries, a large percentage of the war expenditure was met by loans, and at the outset the borrowing method was practically universal with all the belligerent countries Moreover, as was natural, the first step taken in most of the belligerent countries was in the direction of short-term Treasury bills In Great Britain these bills, which, beginning m small amounts, rose at one time to over £1,200,000,000, were placed in the London money market with the banks and discount houses through a system of tendering, thus to some

extent minimising their inflationary effect, but in other countries

the usual procedure was for the bills to be taken by the national or central banks and either held by them or placed gradually in other quarters, In many cases these bills were converted later

WARGLA—WAR

GRAVES

345

into short-term bonds, but the war was not far advanced before | plies The problem of the countries purchasing from abroad, long-dated borrowing became necessary, one of the first instances however, was that of makmg payments in the currencies of the pemg the flotation in Great Britam in Nov 1914, of a 15-year supplying countries The greater part of the stram—especially Joan for £350,000,000 in 34 per cents at 95. In spite of the stern durmg the period of the war—fell upon Great Bntain, which necessities of the case, the loan was not too well apphed for, a was financing its own necessities and a large part of those of

part being taken temporarily by the Bank of England, thus involv-

its Allies Out of its own resources, which were supplemented later by amounts taken from the central banks of France and Russia, many millions of gold were shipped from London to the United States to save the strain on the exchange In spite of such with some which followed, the chmax being reached in 1917, shipments, however, the greatest difficulty was experienced m when, including conversions effected at the same time, the total preventing the American exchange on London from collapsing alamount issued was no less than £2,000,000,000. Altogether the together. At that time the nationals of Great Britain were the extent of Britain’s war borrowings may best be expressed by say- holders of about £1,000,000,000 in American securities of various ing that the total amount of funded and unfunded debt, which kinds and the greater part of these securities were finally comprevious to the war totalled about £650,000,000, had risen by the mandeered at the price of the day by the Bnitish Government, end of 1920 to £7,830,000,000 To quote figures after that date which then made arrangements with Morgans in New York for the would be misleading because debt conversions were often carried marketing of the securities and for the fixing of the exchange on through on lines mvolving a saving ın the service on the debt but London. That is to say, the securities were supplied with sufficient an increase in deadweight debt owing to the loans being issued rapidity to ensure the necessary amount of dollars being in the at a material discount. In considering Great Britain’s methods of hands of Morgans to maintain the exchange. In addition, loans to payment for the war, it must also be mentioned that contempo- the extent of at least £200,000,000 for Great Britain and one or raneously with the immediate issue of Treasury bills after the com- more loans for Great Britam and France jointly were placed with mencement of the conflict, currency or Treasury notes were American nationals, This was before the entry of the United States authorized for £1 and ros and these notes at one time attained a into the war. After that date, which was in April r917, the financmaximum circulation of over £300,000,000 As against the notes, ing of the requirements of the Alhes ın the United States was arhowever, British Treasury bills were issued and must be reckoned ranged on wholly different lines America came into the war just amongst the high total attained by those bills when, in spite of the methods described, the sterling exchange apIn considering the payment by the belligerent countries for the peared again to be on the eve of breaking down Under the new war, concealed taxation through the effect of inflation upon prices system, however, the US Government gave dollar credits to the has to be remembered It was in the Continental countries that Alhes for all goods and services supplied in the United States, and the full effect of inflation, resulting from excessive borrowing and that process went on not only during the war but for some time insufficient direct taxation, was most strikingly revealed There- afterwards when the exchanges were still maintained by America fore, it is far more difficult m the case of the Continental and continuing to finance the post-war requrements of the Alhes and Central Powers to assess in terms of currency the cost of the of France, in particular, by the credits referred to The net result

mg at the outset a further stimulus to mflation

At the time of

the flotation, the loan was the largest ever offered at one time, but ıt was destined to appear almost a small operation compared

war than in the case of Great Britain and the United States, In of these loans is shown in the table giving the debts of the Allied most instances, however, the greatest depreciation in currencies and Associated States to the Umted States Thus, in the case of occurred after the war was concluded In Germany this was due Great Britain, it will be seen that m addition to parting with some to the fact that fully 90% of the war expenditure was met by hundreds of mullions of pounds in gold to meet war expenditure for internal borrowing, Austria also raismg about 87% of its war goods and services supphed from that country, she also remitted expenditure in loans either at home or from Alhes In France neatly £1,000,000,000 of her holding of American railroad over 76% of the expenditure was raised in loans at home, with securities and incurred a debt of nearly the same amount BIBLIOGRAPHY. —Inter Ally Debts, compiled by Bankers’ Trust comfully 17% im loans from Alhes and foreign countries, but chiefly from Allies In the case of France, war expenditure was naturally pany of New York, Statistical Abstract of United Kingdom, Statesman’s Year Book, the (London) Economist; London Bankers Magaprolonged for a considerable period after peace owing to the re- zine; Memorandum on Public Finance (League of Nations). See also building of devastated areas, and although Germany was not na The Stock Exchange Officsal Intelligence. (A W.K) similar position, her supplies of foodstuffs, raw materials, manuWARGLA:: see Wargra factured goods and machinery were so exhausted that heavy borWAR GRAVES. With a view to ensurmg the care and perrowings were necessary to meet the situation manence of the graves of British soldiers buried in France negoSpeaking broadly, and taking for the most part, the calculations tiations took place early in the war between the Bntish miltary of the Bankers’ Trust company of New Vork, Belgwm raised authorities responsible for the marking and registration of the practically the whole of her war expenditure in loans from Allies, graves and the French Government. On Dec 29, 1915, the latter Italy raised about 52% of the costs in loans at home and 21% passed a law which provided that all Alhed graveyards on the m loans from Allies, while Portugal and Russia raised about 75% soil of France should be acquired by the Government of the repuband 95% respectively in loans , lic at its own expense, and that the rights of ownership should External Borrowings by the Belligerents.—No feature of be enjoyed in perpetuity by the Allied nations concerned. war expenditure was more remarkable than the difficulty exUnder this enactment ıt was possible for an association réguperienced by the belligerent countries in Europe during the first lièrement constituée by an Alhed Government to be entrusted with three years of the war in making payments for goods and services the care of its graves in France The result was the establishment to the United States and other neutral countries The problem in Great Britain (Jan. 1916) of a National Committee for the was one of exchange, and no description of the methods of paying Care of Soldiers’ Graves, the presidency of which was accepted for the costs of the war would be complete without a reference by the Prince of Wales. to this particular aspect of war finance In the paragraph dealing As the fighting extended it became evident that the care of the with the cost of the war to the United States a table is given graves after the war and the erection of permanent memorials showing the indebtedness of various belligerent countnes to the would be a task too extensive for a body with the limitations of United States Government and the United States nationals It the national committee to undertake. Among these limitations was is the origin of those loans which, in the main, may he regarded the lack of direct representation of the dominions and other parts as one of the concrete expressions of this special difficulty In of the Empire, whose soldiers were falling and being buried side by the first three years of the war Great Britain and other belhgerent side with those of the United Kingdom In a memorandum adcountries were largely dependent upon the United States and dressed to the prime minister, dated March 15, 1917, the prince other neutral countries for foodstuffs and for war materials lLater on, the governments of Belgium, Italy, Greece, Egypt and Owing to the effectiveness of the naval blockade by Great Britain Palestine followed the lead of France by passing equally generous some of these countries were virtually cut off from outside sup- measures,

346

WAR

GRAVES

In addition to the markmg and care of the graves, the com. of Wales, as president of the national committee, suggested that | mission was entrusted with the erection of memorials to record the formation of “a joint committee of the governments of the the names—more than 300,000 in number—of those sailors and Empire, or a statutory body of commissioners somewhat on the soldiers who have no known graves Several memorials of this lines of the development commission,” should be proposed to the nature are completed, including the three connected with the forthcoming Imperial conference The question was accordingly Navy, which stand on prominent sites at Portsmouth, Chatham laid before the conference on April 13, 1917, when a resolution was and Plymouth, the three ports intimately connected throughout conthe for charter royal a grant to majesty his passed praying Britain’s naval history with the sea service; the Gallpoh memonal stitution of an Imperial War Graves Commission, which should be at Cape Helles, the Salonika memorial at Lake Doran; the empowered to care for and maintain the graves of those fallen in memorial at Jerusalem in Palestine, the Indian memonals at the war, to acquire land for the purpose of cemeteries and to erect Neuve Chapelle ın France and at Port Tewfik on the Suez Canal: permanent memorials in the cemeteries and elsewhere The charter and the Menim Gate at Ypres The last bears the names of some was passed under the great seal of May 21, £917, and the commis-

sion, of which the prince of Wales became president, was estab-

lished. Maj.-Gen. Sir Fabian Ware, who had been 10 command of

the military organization in the field since 1915, was appointed permanent vice-chairman. Constitution of the Commission —The members of the commission are the secretary of State for war (ex-officio chairman), the secretary of State for the colonies, the secretary of State for India, the first commussioner of works and the representatives of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland The charter further provides for eight non-official members appointed from time to time by the Sovereign. In 1928 the nonofficial members were Mr Harry Gosling, Mr Rudyard Kipling, Lt.-Gen Sir George Macdonogh, Admiral Sir Morgan Singer, Sir Henry Maddocks, Gen Sir Walter Braithwaite, Capt. Lord Stanley and Maj Gen. Sw Fabian Ware The commission’s deliberations during their first year resulted in the double proposal laid before the next Imperial conference on June 17, 1918, that £10 per grave should be taken as the probable cost of the construction of cemeteries, and that the cost of carrying out the decisions of the commission should be borne by the respective governments in proportion te the numbers of the graves of their dead. Estimates are presented yearly to each of the participating governments, the respective parhaments being asked to vote a proportion of the total in accordance with the decision of the Imperial conference of 1918 referred to above The commis-

sion administers the grants in aid thus received through a finance

committee, which meets regularly at short intervals and which is attended by a representative of the Treasury of the United Kingdom to advise and assist. The principle of complete co-operation runs through all the work of the commission, the participating governments being represented in the administrative personnel, both in London and abroad, as far as 1s practicable, on the same proportional basis as has been adopted for the sharing of expenditure

Policy—One of the first acts of the commission was to lay

60,000 officers and men “

who fell in Ypres salient, but to

whom the fortune of war denied the known and honoured bunal given to their comrades in death” The list of the great memorials will be completed when those at Thiepval, Vimy (for the Cana-

dians), Villiers-Bretonneux (for the Australians in France), and Basra are added; but a number of smaller memorials commemorate those “missing” near where they fell Cemetery and memorial registers are published by the commission; these when finished will provide a complete record of the Empire’s dead The unprecedented nature of the task with which the commis-

sion was charged is obvious, 1ts complexity and magnitude will be realized when it is remembered that the 725,000 known graves

for which they are responsible are scattered all over the world in many different countries with different laws and customs, some of them the enemy countries with whom special provisions were made in the treaties of peace to ensure the graves being respected, and there are no less than 15,000 burial places in different parts of

Europe and the East where British sailors and soldiers rest, the great majority bemg in civil cemeteries contaming small groups of graves, but some 1,500 of them being cemeteries of consider-

able size, the largest contaiming 12,000 graves Permanent Maintenance.—As a guarantee that the graves and memorials shall be forever cared for, the various governments of the empire represented on the commission have undertaken to provide permanently the come required for maintenance at the accepted standard of upkeep laid down by the commission

After

discussion it was agreed that an endowment fund amounting to £5,000,000 should be established for this purpose by the United Kingdom and Domimon Governments and this fact was announced to the House of Commons on July 30, 1925, by Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, at that time chairman of the commission Gen Sir Herbert Lawrence, E R_ Peacock and Maj-Gen Sir Fabian Ware were appointed the first trustees of

the endowment fund

down as a guidmg principle that the graves of all ranks should be treated on a basis of absolute equality With this principle as a foundation, the commission, desirmg to have an impartial opinion, invited Sir Frederick Kenyon, director of the British Museum, to consult representatives of the army, religious bodies and others interested and to report as to how the commission could discharge their responsibilities with the greatest satisfaction to all concerned His recommendations, which were adopted by the commission, were briefly as follows (1) The erection of uniform headstones over all war graves (2) The erection of two central monuments in each cemetery where possible. The principal architects entrusted with the preparation of designs were Sir Edwin Lutyens, Sir Reginald Blomfield, Mr. Herbert Baker, Sir Robert Lorimer, Sir John Burnet, Mr. Charles Holden and Mr. Edward Warren The headstones are 2ft 8m in height, 1ft. 3in. in breadth and 3in. in thickness. Each stone bears at the top the badge of the regiment or unit. Then follow the military details with the name of the deceased and the date of his death, below which is carved the symbol of his faith, while at the foot of the stone is engraved a personal inscription chosen by the next-of-kin Of the two central monuments the great altarhke stone of remembrance, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, bears

died for France. About 50,000 fallen soldiers of the American Expeditionary Forces were borne back across the Atlantic to rest in thew own land. The American authorities would no doubt have hesitated to undertake a task of such difficulty had not a pledge been given before a single American battalion left the United States that no American soldier who died fighting for his country and the hberties of nations should be left to lie on foreign soil except at the

for evermore : The other memorial is the great cross of sacrifice designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield, to the shaft of which is fixed a crusader’s sword of bronze.

express wish of his next-of-kn There are 30,703 American dead buried in eight American cemeteries in Europe Six of the cemeteries containing 29,900 graves are situated in France, one, with 366 graves, is situated in Belgium, and one, with 437 graves, is

the inscription chosen by Rudyard Kipling, “Their name liveth

French and American Graves.—France, on whose soil lay over 3,000,000 allied and enemy dead, was faced with the problem of honouring her fallen soldiers without clogging the

wheels of industry and agriculture, which were beginning to revive under peace conditions, even in the devastated areas where

the graves lay thickest The British helped to solve the difficulty by concentrating al] isolated graves into cemeteries which would forever mark the British battle-ine The French adopted the further expedient of giving the next-of-kin the opportunity of having their dead re-buried at the State’s expense ın the churchyard or burial-ground of their native place, while those who were left would rest in great national cemeteries constructed by the State as a lasting monument to the heroism of the soldiers who

ALLIED CAUSE] situated in England

WAR

GUILT

The cemeteries are planned on the principle

of umform treatment of the graves, a conception which appears to have been first put into practice by those who laid out Arlington

national cemetery, a burial place of many of those who fell in the American Civil and other wars of the United States (F. W ) WAR GUILT. In Germany the question of War Guilt, the

Knegsschuldfrage, has given rise to an extraordmary agitation and a vast literature

The convinced vehemence of this national

movement is not generally understood in other countries. Where understood, 1t causes more contradiction than acceptance The result 1s amongst the difficult complications of post-war psychology No universal agreement 1s yet possible about the relative importance of the known facts and forces leading up to the

World War. Stull less possible ın our generation 1s any approach to agreement upon the inmost motives and calculations of the principal persons, upon the effects of different systems of Government, more

democratic

on

one

side, less democratic

on

the

other, or upon the comparative ethical values of rival political

ideals—as for instance, old loyalties to historic dynasties and empires contrasted with new and passionate aspirations to racial freedom Since no common ground for final judgment has been yet established even with regard to the proportionate umportance of the broadest factors—history, geography, ethnography—while opinions concerning applied ethics are as much as ever in dispute, the method adopted here is that of the “Ring and the Book” It shows the various and opposite ways in which the same facts may be viewed by equally honest and thoughtful minds Furst, these introductory words explain the origin and course of the War Guilt controversy, secondly the French standpoint is stated in a rigorously judicial temper by Monsieur Pierre Renouvin; thirdly, Herr Lutz states the German case with the same measured conviction and the same mastery of documentary evidence, fourthly, a concluding examination looks at the subject in quite another way from the standpomt of a political philosophy now generally

accepted by the calmest thinkers amongst the Englsh-speaking peoples Monsieur Renouvin and Herr Lutz differ continually in their verdicts upon successive pre-war situations, The final section shows the deeper origin of conflicting thoughts and forces and why self-justification seemed equally convincing to all the antagonists

The Allies and their great Associate made a far-reaching error when frammg the Treaty of Versailles In the heat of triumph and wrath, forgetting that victors in a war never can be accepted as ympartial judges, they introduced into the volumimous clauses of that instrument two sweeping pronouncements — Article

227:— “The

Alhed

and Associated

Powers

publicly

arraign Wiliam II of Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, for a supreme offence agaist international morality and the sanctity of treaties. . .. The Alhes and Associated Powers will address a request to the Government of the Netherlands for the surrender to them of the Ex-Emperor in order that he may be put on trial.” Article 23r:—“The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her alles

for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Asso-

ciated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her Allies ”

The first of these Articles proved a fiasco The Ex-kaiser remained safe in Holland where to all appearance, he lived happy

ever after. The other Article, charging the German nation with peculiar and almost sole War Guilt (the former Habsburg empire having disappeared), was a more serious thing. It was a new and

unnecessary humuliation, mjecting the one-sided bitterness of Wwar-passions into the terms of peace This remains in Germany and Hungary

a source

of deep bitterness,

delaying European

reconciliation, Chiefly to combat

the accusation of almost exclusive War Guilt the German Government opened its diplomatic archives and poured out the invaluable collection of documents ultimately

completed in 40 volumes under the title, Die Grosse Poltik der

347

Europaschen Kabinette, 1871-1914 Powerful associations were formed, and special publications founded, to vindicate German action, motives and honour in connection with the World War. Numerous books by individual authors, endless articles in reviews and newspapers appeared in the same sense. Apart from a handful of keen and unpopular German critics, who maintained that Habsburg blindness and the military over-confidence of the Central Empires were in fact mainly responsible for precipitating the struggle, the almost universal feeling of Germany with imcreasing fervour, repudiated the charge of special War Guilt, and put more and more of the blame on the Allies—especially on Serbia and Russia, but on French pre-war policy and British vacillation in the next degrees The agitation came to its height in Germany’s years of recovery after the adoption of the Dawes plan and the evacuation of the Ruhr Valley. The present situation is a moral deadlock, and Germany as a whole desires some formal withdrawal of Article 231 in the Treaty of Versailles As will be seen, this form of moral triumph is impracticable. It would have a one-sided effect It would by itself be interpreted as an admission by the ex-allies —with or without their former associate—that they were chiefly

in the wrong. This, their peoples do not admit now, and never will admit hereafter. The separate analyses, by Monsieur Renouvin and Herr Liitz follow in succession, below; and closing reflections by the present writer consider how a reconciling solu-

tion of the moral deadlock may be sought (J L.G) THE ALLIED CAUSE Tf the student wishes to understand the chain of events which in July 1914 precipitated Europe into the most terrible war of history, and properly to weigh the respective responsibilities of Governments and peoples for the outbreak of that war, it is not enough for him to confine his attention to the crisis occasioned by the Serajevo murders of June 28, r914 The nature of the crisis, and the attitudes of the various powers of Europe to the Austro-Serbian dispute, can be explained only by a survey of mternational politics over the long period which saw the gradual formation of the opposing groups of 1914 Bismarck’s Policy.—During the whole period from the Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) to his resignation, nearly 20 years later, Bismarck was convinced that, 1f she could obtain the support of another great Power, France was in a position to attempt a war of revenge. He accordingly endeavoured to ring Germany with a system of alliances, the ultimate object of which was to consolidate German hegemony in Europe. In 1873 he formed the Alliance of the three Emperors (Austria, Russia and Germany— the Dreikaiserbund), in 1882 the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy). The key-note of his policy was the maintenance of a system under which Russia, as well as AustriaHungary, would be bound to Germany. A constant menace to this policy, however, was the rivalry of Austria and Russia in the Balkans. Nevertheless, even after the Bulgarian crisis of 1886,

the great chancellor succeeded in keeping his hold on Russia, by means of the secret “re-insurance” treaty. At the same time, Great Britain took a step towards the Triple Alhance by consenting to guarantee, ın Italy’s favour, the status quo in the Mediterranean This was the period of the tnumph of Bismarckian policy; with the exception of France, all the Great Powers of Europe were bound, more or less directly, to Germany

No one knew better than Bismarck that the system was precarious For its maintenance he reckoned on his own activities: he was the “juggler who could juggle with five balls at once” But his successors were incapable of mamtaining his system.

Scarcely had Bismarck been compelled ın March 1890 to relinquish power as a result of his quarrel with the Emperor William IL, when the men of the “new régime,” the chancellor Capnvi, Marschall, the secretary of State, and Holstein, the éminence grise of the Wilhelmstrasse, decided to let the reansurance treaty lapse. It expired in June 1890 It was this decision which, in addition to the anticipated renewal of the Triple Alliance in May 1891, determined the tsar of Russia to treat with France. The

Franco-Russian alhance (military convention marked the end of the German hegemony.

of Aug.

1892)

:

WAR

348

Nevertheless, this shifting of the political balance did not destroy the peace of Europe. The Emperor William knew that the tsar was inclined to peace; and the German ambassador in Panis repeatedly declared that France was no less so. Moreover, after 1895, Russia yielded to the blandishments of German diplomacy and embarked upon a career of adventure in the Far East which kept her out of European affairs. It was not until later that the situation began to turn to the disadvantage of Germany; and ıt was largely due to German diplomatic action that it did so turn. 1896-1904

Two main points are of »mportance in the development of European politics during this period—(a) the attitude of Italy, (b) the attitude of Great Britain. Italy.—The object of the Italian Government was to find some outlet for its nationals on colomal territory. The adventure in Abyssinia, however, resulted in a disaster Italy had, therefore, to look nearer home. But in 1896 Great Britain denounced the “Mediterranean agreement” of 1887. If, therefore, she was to make headway in the Mediterranean, Italy had to come to some agreement with the Power whose interests were the most directly opposed to her own. That Power was France After 1896 this new turn in Italian policy became apparent in the colonial agreements of 1898 and 1900. In 1902 the rapprochement was crowned by a political agreement, in which the Italian Government placed its own interpretation on the terms of the Triple Alliance, it promised that Italy would be neutral in the event of France being compelled by direct provocation to make war on Germany. It is true that this agreement did not contradict the letter of the Trple Alliance, and there was reason in the contention of the Italian diplomats that Italy was entitled to

conclude it, but 1t was difficult to reconcile the political formula signed in 1902 with the sprit of the Alhance. Great Britain.—During the same period a profound change occurred in the general trend of British policy. The most prominent members of Lord Sahsbury’s Unionist Government of 18951900, and especially Joseph Chamberlain, were thoroughly alive to the fact that if she wished to maintam her position against the rivals who were threatening it on every side, Great Britam could not abide by her traditional policy of “splendid isolation,” The problem for Great Britain was in what quarter should she seek support In Asia her interests were opposed to those of Russia, not only in Persia and Afghamistan, but also in the Far East. In Equatorial Africa she was in conflict with France Naturally she turned first to Germany. On two occasions, in 1898 and in 1901, the British Government approached the Wilbelmstrasse with an offer of alliance, On both occasions the German Government refused the offer, in the belief that a refusal was a matter of no particular moment to Germany. Vamly Chamberlain pomted out that the consequence would be that Great Bntam would be compelled to seek diplomatic support “elsewhere,” że., from France Von Bulow, the chancellor, and his colleagues persisted in the view that a combination of this kind was unlikely; sooner or later, they thought, the Foreign Office would make further offers to Germany. By the end of rgor negotiations were aban-

doned; almost immediately afterwards the directors of British policy had grasped the necessity of a settlement of Great Britain’s outstanding colonial difficulties with France The famous agreement of April 8, 1904, recognized Great Bnitain’s nght to occupy Egypt, and the special interests of France m Morocco, and put an end to a whole series of minor bickerings, the chief of which was that connected with the Newfoundland Fisheries. There was in the treaty no general undertaking, and no political promise of any sort. It was, therefore, far from equivalent to the kind of agreement which Great Britain had endeavoured to conclude with Germany. Such as it was, however, it was an earnest of the new drift of British policy.

It remained to ke seen whether these political germs would

develop

1904-1912

During this period the development was incontestable The cardinal factor was the defeat of Russia in Manchuria, the result

GUILT

[1896-1904

of which was to throw Russia back on Europe, where she found herself faced anew with the problems she had neglected since 1895, namely the Balkan Problem and the Straits Question (q v ), But Russia was debarred for some years from playing an active part, owing to the disorganization of her army caused by the struggle with Japan German and Austro-Hungarian diplomacy seized upon the temporary eclipse of Russia as an opportunity for

a series of diplomatic adventures which were big with danger to the peace of Europe. Moroccan Crisis.—After the signature of the Franco-British Agreement of 1904, the German Government was unwilling to allow France to secure a foothold in Morocco without asking for German permission and paying the price of German complaisance As a matter of fact, German interests m Morocco were negligible, the question was one of prestige: German diplomacy refused to allow a matter of such importance to be decided without reference to Germany Another object was to test the solidanty of the Franco-British entente

The policy was put into practice to the

accompamment of a series of threatening “gestures”; the kaiser’s visit to Tangier

(March,

1905), the virtual summons

to the

French prime minister, Rouvier, to throw overboard his foreign

minister, Delcassé (June, 1905), and the demand for an. international conference to settle the Moroccan question On these points the French Government gave way, but the result was not

m accordance with German expectations The Algeciras Conference gave France and Spam police rights in Moroccan ports Moreover, German methods had given rise to the suspicion that Germany was seeking a quarrel, with the consequence that the bonds of fmendship between France and Great Britam were

strengthened

Although it did not offer France the military

alhance which Delcassé—~prematurely perhaps—thought certam, the British Government began to consider the possibility of miltary wntervention in a European war, and authorized its general staff to enter into “conversations” with the French general staff

It avoided, however, any undertaking which might bind it to any specific action mm the future. Russia.—During the Moroccan crisis, German policy gave

proof of another tendency far more alarmimg to British susceptibilities The Emperor Wham II bad sexed the opportunity afforded by the Russo-Japanese War, to endeavour to create a “continental aluance” by means of a Russo-German Treaty, to which he hoped that France would be compelled to adhere He all but succeeded in this design In July 1905 he obtained the signature of the secret Treaty of Bjorkoe; but the tsar soon after repudiated the treaty. It was to be expected, however, that the

attempt would be renewed.

It was clear that the “continental

alliance” would be aimed at Great Britam, and the Foreign Office was alive to the danger, to prevent a Russo-German combination, 1t began to consider the possibility of removing Russo-Bnitish differences This was the object of the treaty of Aug. 30, 1907, which established a compromise solution of outstanding questions in Afghanistan, Thibet and Persia. Thus, by 1907, there already existed the framework of the Triple Entente. True, the only documents so far signed between

Great Britain and Russia, and France and Great Britain, were concerned with the settlement of outstanding difficulties, and contained no formula of mutual assistance, nor even any pledge of friendship for the future The conditions where energetic and friendly co-operation between the three Powers would become possible were far from being realized No basis had been laid down for common action. Nevertheless, the German Government made no secret of its alarm at a rapprochement of which it

ae itself, by both its real and apparent policy, been the main author. Bosnia-Hercegovina.—In other ways, German and AustroHungarian policy and action tended to knit closer the bonds of the Triple Entente The Austro-Hungarian Government determined to take advantage of the temporary military weakness of Russia to secure certain advantages in the Balkans In Oct. 1908, the annexation of Bosnia and Hercegovina by Austria-Hungary was announced Serbia was alarmed at the prospect of a war with Austria-Hungary.

Russia which had, at the outset, encouraged Count Aerenthal, in

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SERAJEVO]

the hope of securing a counter-balance in an advantageous settlement of the Straits Question, protested when she found herself deprived of the anticipated compensation

The situation was, thus,

smular to that of 1914.—an Austro-Serbian dispute, volving a conflict between Austria and Russia But Russia was in no con-

dition to make war

Faced with an ultimatum from Germany, she

was compelled to recognize the annexation of Bosma and Herce-

govina, and to abandon the cause of Serbia Time was to show that she did not forget this humiliation. The “Agadir” Incident.—The next cnsis was provoked by the German Government After endeavouring—at the time of the Bosnian crisis—to share with France the profits of the economic development of Morocco (agreement of Feb 1909), the German Government

complained that this condominium was in practice

operating in a manner unfavourable to its interests, and resolved to check the growth of French influence in Morocco The Act of Algeciras gave Germany the means of doing this

The occasion

seized upon was the entry of the French troops into Fez im the spring of 1911.

The German Government contended that France

was exceeding her rights and demanded compensation Such compensation was on the point of being granted when, in June 1911,

Jules Cambon, French ambassador at Berlm, let it be understood

that the French Government was not averse to negotiations But at this point German diplomacy attempted to force the situation by the “Agadir coup” (July 1, 1911). Once again the policy of threats failed to give Germany the results expected She had demanded the whole of the French Congo She had to content herself with a slice of the Congo interland, largely because of the strong stand taken up by Great Britam, and the unmistakable warning given Germany by British statesmen The Franco-German agreement of Nov 4, 1911, put an end to the crisis, but did not efface the memory of Germany’s threats Naval Competition.—In the meantime, Great Britain was

more and more alarmed, She believed that the attempt of the Emperor William II and Admurai von Tirpitz to make Germany a great naval Power menaced her most vital interest On several occasions between 1908 and 1911, the British, who were determined to maintain their naval supremacy, tried in vain to secure some limitation of the German naval programme In Feb 1912, a last attempt was made to come to some arrangement, on the occasion of Haldane’s mission to Berlm. Negotiations broke down because, in return for a reduction—or rather a slowingdown—of her naval programme, Germany demanded a political quid-pro-quo im the shape of a promise of British neutrality which would have been the death-blow of the Entente By 1912 the consequences of this failure became apparent, to consolidate its naval position, the British Government increased the concentration of its capital ships in the North Sea; those taken from the Mediterranean were replaced by French vessels. In return for this service from the French fleet, Great Britain had to sign a document formally authorizing “technical conversations” between the general staffs of the two countries. But the letters exchanged on Nov. 22, 1912, repeated that these naval and military arrangements did not bind the respective Governments, and did not constitute any promise to intervene in a war. 1912-1914

During these years the situation in Europe gradually changed In the preceding period the weakness caused by her defeat in Manchuria had kept Russia quiet, and the first moves calculated to disturb the peace of Europe had been made by Germany and by Austria-Hungary. But it was henceforth the object of Russian Policy to repair the consequences of the reverse suffered in 1908~ 09, and to re-establish Russian influence in the Balkans An opportunity was offered in the Italo-Turkish War of 1912 The embarrassments of the Turkish Government incited the Balkan States to unite to liberate Macedonia. In this they were encouraged by Russia, who presided over the formation of the Balkan alliance Once again the Balkan crisis of Oct 1912 revived

Austro-Russian antagonism, and threatened anew the peace of Europe.

It remains to describe the attitude to this crisis of the Great Powers of Europe &

GUILT

349

In the Franco-Russian camp, France exercised a moderating influence When Poincaré (then prime minister) read the text of the Bulgaro-Serbian convention, he was amazed and protested. “This,” he said, “is a convention for war” At the request of the French Government, Russia tried too late to hold back the Balkan States In Nov. 1912, at a moment when the question of a Serbian port on the Adriatic seemed likely to lead to a war between Austria and Serbia, Russia vamly tried to secure from France a promuse of unconditional support Thus, the Russian Government, as ıt had done in previous crises, once again advised the Serbians to give way Among the Central Powers, in the autumn of rọr2, Austra could reckon on the support of Germany. But when in the summer of 1913 Vienna thought of intervening, in the “‘fratricidal strife” between the Balkan States and of supporting Bulgaria against Serbia, at the msk of a general war, she was prevented by Germany and Italy The crisis was ended by the Treaty of Bucharest. The victory of Serbia was a triumph for Russia and a momentous defeat for Austria-Hungary At Vienna there was unanimity that the treaty must be revised. The new and serious factor in the situation was that Germany, who had held back her ally in 1913, was now resolved to assist her. Germany felt that she had reached “a turning point in the development of her world-power ” There was thus no respite to the feeling of unrest in Europe At the end of 1912, the German great general staff demanded an increase in Germany’s army reserve, France replied with the Three Years’ Service Act of Aug 1913. Austria also increased her effectives Russia was engaged in the execution of an armaments scheme on a large scale, which it was not expected would be completed before 1917, The British Government was busy laying down the conditions of naval and military co-operation with the British dominions All the Great Powers were thus fairly embarked on the “Race of Armaments” Public opinion became accustomed to the idea of an inevitable war It should be noted, however, that neither Great Britam, nor France, nor Russia had any interest in provoking a general war at that time: Great Britain because she deemed 1t impossible to introduce compulsory mulitary service; France, because she was deficient in heavy artillery, Russia, because she needed several years more to extend and complete her new programme. In Germany the situation was very different The army was ready. In the spring of 1914, General von Moltke stated that conditions for Germany were as favourable as they were ever likely to be But of all the Great Powers, Austna~Hungary alone had prepared a plan of action which she wished to put into execution as soon as possible The Serajevo murders gave her the chance to do so. Serajevo.—The murder, on June 28, 1914, of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was the act of Bosnian students, subjects of Austria-Hungary; but the murderers came from Belgrade, and their arms were of Serbian origin The Austrian Government had not the shghtest proof that the Serbian Government was privy to the murder—in fact, it did not even presume so, but ıt considered the murder tọ be the consequence of nationalist propaganda for which official circles at Belgrade were indirectly responsible As a matter of fact, the Austrian Government was mainly moved by the fact that it regarded the murder as :ts long lookedfor opportunity to “settle accounts” with Serbia. Its object was to send a “punitive expedition” against the Serbian kingdom, and to “eliminate Serbia as a political factor” in the Balkans On July 5 the German Government approved the Austrian plan It took the view that Austria must act with energy, if she was to avoid disruption under the pressure of separatist movements This was, in Germany’s view; a “vital” Austrian interest But Russia had to be reckoned with. Unless Russia was prepared to

submit to a humiliation as deep as that of 1908-09, she could not afford to leave Serbia to be crushed. True, this was not a “vital mterest” m Russia’s case; but her prestige as a Great Power, and the whole of her influence in the Balkans was at stake. The German Government coolly weighed the risk to European peace involved in the policy of Austria-Hungary. War against Serbia might lead to a general war. Nevertheless the Central

350

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Powers did not hesitate to provoke the crisis. Attempted Mediation.—After long and careful preparations, in which Germany took a share, Austria-Hungary launched at Serbia’s head an ultimatum (July 23) couched in terms such as almost necessarily to cause a rupture, and then proceeded to break off diplomatic relations. The danger at once became apparent. Instantly the Russian Government declared that it would stand by Serbia; the diplomats set to work to prevent an Austro-Serbian from becoming an Austro-Russian quarrel The Power best adapted to play a mediatory part was Great Britain, who was not bound by any allance Great Britain proposed a conference of all the Great Powers, except Austria-Hungary and Russia. Germany refused to “drag her ally before the bar of Europe ” But since Russia was proposing “direct conversations” between herself and Austria, and since Great Britain was still engaged in looking for some formula of conciation, the Government of Vienna, in order, as it said, to avoid any further attempt at mediation, hastened to declare war on Serbia (July 28, 1914). From a mulitary pomt of view the declaration was an idle gesture, as the army was not ready But the diplomats of Austria-Hungary were anxious to give the umpression that Austria was about to take immediate action and that she would not allow herself to be held back by any pressure from outside This was a decision fraught with serious consequences, since it was calculated to provoke “‘counter-measures” on the part of Russia. Germany was aware of this; nevertheless, she approved the declaratıon of war; indeed, her ambassador at Vienna had even gone so far as to advise Austria to declare it. Russia.—Next Russia took a hand How was Russia to prove her wili to defend Serbia, except by miltary measures? Her reply to the Austrian declaration of war on Serbia was partial mobilization (July 29) The following day, in view of Germany's expressed resolution of supporting Austria-Hungary, Russia decided on general mobilization, before any similar step had been taken by any other Great Power But Sazonov, the Russian minister for foreign affairs, stated that his troops could remain “for weeks, with grounded arms, without crossing the frontier” Sazonov was still ready to negotiate But it was uncertam whether the Central Powers were disposed to compromise The tsar made a personal suggestion to the kaiser that the Serbian question should be referred to the Hague Court The kaiser did not reply On the same day (July 30) the Austro-Hungarian Government decided to reject a further British offer of mediation, namely, the occupation of Belgrade as a pledge, before the initiation of imternational negotiations. Despite the advice of the German chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg (who, since he had received reason to fear that Great Britain would intervene in a general war, had begun to fear the consequences of his ally’s mtransigence), the Emperor Francis Joseph, Count Berchtold, and General Conrad von Hoetzendorff, the chief of the Austrian general staff, came to an agreement to eliminate the possibility of any peaceful solution of the question The quarrel with Serbia must be settled by arms, even at the price of a European war ‘Thus the negotiations upon which the Russian Government was still ready to enter were

never begun. But the Russian general mobilization provided an opportunity of precipitating the crisis. On July 31r, AustriaHungary decided on general mobilization. The German great general staff, whose whole war plan was dependent on success at the outset, was afraid of being anticipated by Russia. On the same day Germany issued her twofold ultimatum If France was ready to remain neutral, it was the intention of the German Govern-

[GERMAN CASE

GUILT

Summary.—The above rapid survey points to two conclusions, 1 In the spring of 1914 Europe was m a dangerous situation It is true that the system of alliances, the principle of the balance of power, and the race of armaments had, even more than the bitterness of economic competition, developed an attitude of mind which was already ın itself a danger to peace. But on which nation rests the initial responsibility for this situation? Such

responsibility cannot be laid at the door of all the Powers indiscriminately Russia must no doubt bear her share of responsibihty But a survey of the development of international relations during this period shows clearly that the essential raison d'être of this atmosphere of unrest in Europe 1s to be found in the methods by which German policy was pursued It 1s quite posstble that

m 1905, and again m rgrr, Germany did not deliberately desire

war; but she acted as if she desired it. It was the actions of the Imperial Government which accustomed Europe to the idea of war. 2. The Serajevo murders gave the Central Powers the desired opportunity of “improving their position” Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity and Germany followed her Properly to weigh these responsibilities, 1t is not only the last phase of the crisis which should be considered; by then the Governments were no longer free as against their respective general staffs They

were fettered by “technical” considerations

Russia hastily de-

cided to transform her partial mobilization into a general mobilhzation. Germany listened to no advice and precipitately declared

war.

But what must be considered is: what was the conscious,

considered action of the various Governments during the penod

when they were still masters of their own decisions? The answer must be that the Austro-Hungarian Government decided to make

war on Serbia, even at the cost of a European war; it rejected attempts at mediation, 1t hastened to declare war in order to prove its will to withstand Europe Until July 28, Germany approved the action of Austria-Hungary and unreservedly supported her By that date all the essentsal preluminary conditions of a European conflict had been brought about by the action of

the Central Powers

(P Rn)

THE GERMAN

CASE

The question of War Guilt, considered as a moral problem, has no historical foundation, for in 1914 war was an institution recognized by international law. Among the general causes of war are, imperialism, nationalism and Chauvinism; economic competition with 1ts scramble for colonies and markets, armaments, arousing mutual fear and suspicion; the pursuit of vital interests and prestige, the obligations of alliances—in short, the entire

political system as it existed before the war and the responsibility for which is universal In this, by an evolution which had partly been developing for centuries, four main antagonisms had paved the way for the World War. These were, Franco-German relations and the AlsaceLorraine question, the rivalry of Russia and Austria ın the Balkans and Russia’s ambitions towards Constantinople; the naval rivalry between England and Germany; and Italy’s aspirations for Austro-Hungarian territory. Prussia’s increasing strength and her victory in 1866 (Sadowa) had roused the jealousy of France, the latter was concerned for her hegemony and determined to prevent the unity of Germany

and, at the same time, to realize her historic claims to the Rhine territory It was this, and not the question of the Spanish succession or the Ems telegram which was the decisive cause of the war

ment to demand the fortresses of Toul and Verdun, as a guarantee of 1870-71 Europe shared the view of Gladstone and his colof France’s neutrality This demand would clearly force France leagues that France undertook an “immense responsibility” at that to intervene While the diplomats were roughing out final attempts time Napoleon III voluntarily acknowledged himself to be the at conciliation, the various general staffs were working at full aggressor. It was considered reasonable and even fust that Gerpressure, It was too late to find a compromise “Quick action is many should take back from him the provinces of Alsace and Germany's asset,” was the reply of von Jigow (German under- Lorraine which had previously belonged to her, and of which the secretary for foreign affairs) to the British ambassador. On om cities speaking portion was Metz and the surrounding Aug. 2 German troops violated the neutrality of Belgium, accordstrict. ing to the plan drawn up by the great general staff On Aug 3 Great Britain, among other States, hailed the birth of the the British Government asked parliament for war-credits, at the German empire as a counter-weight to France and Russia Bis‘very moment when Germany was declaring war on France marck, from 1871 to 1890, was recognized as a “pillar” of Euro#

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GERMAN CASE]

GUILT

ean peace It was he who succeeded in averting the danger of war between England and Russia (1877~78), between Russia and

Austria (1886-87) and the war of revenge (Boulanger) which threatened to break out at the same time Russia’s growing hostihty after the Congress of Berlin caused Bismarck to form the alhance with Austria-Hungary (1879) which was acclaimed by Lord Salsbury Driven by the cauchemar des coalitions Bismarck’s sole aim m extending his alliances was to ensure the integ-

552

of 1884-85 between England and Germany on colomal questions and the Kruger telegram appeared to be completely forgotten; that the German naval programme of 1897—98 did not affect the negotiations, and that German statesmen took the ultimate rapprochement of Germany and England for granted Instead of this —under the zealous efforts of the French Government—that came to pass which Joseph Chamberlain had predicted: England’s entente with France and Russia.

valuable colonies Bismarck’s successors, with the same objects in view, lacked his masterly skill The non-renewal of the “re-insurance compact” with Russia (1890) hastened the Franco-Russian rapprochement The alliance (1891~93) was nominally, hke the Dual Alliance, a defensive one; whilst, however, the latter was intended to mamtain existing conditions, France thought to regain her lost provmces and her hegemony, and Russia had in mind her interest in the Balkans and the Dardanelles

After the division of Europe into two groups of alliances (1893) England’s relation to these groups became the deciding factor; and the fact that from the Serayevo murder of 1914 there arose a World War, was the result of the gradual development of the alliance system from 1893 onwards In order to attribute responsibility justly, therefore, the nature of these two alliances, their ams and actions, must be carefully considered It must be recollected that Lord Salisbury and Sur Francis Bertie wished to preserve England’s isolation as the balance in the scales, and that the entente with France was formed, not because of Germany’s aggressive attitude, nor because of her fleet, but because London wished to eliminate all causes of friction with France.

1896-1904

1904-1912

nity of Germany This did not involve any prejudice to France; on the contrary—aided by Bismarck, in the hope of concihating her—France was able at that period to acquire extensive and

The division of Europe into two alliances did not, in itself, constitute a menace to peace Moreover, the Triple Alliance was predominant so long as Italy adhered to it and England did not join either group. But 1t was just in this respect that mportant

Moroccan Crisis—In contrast to the Triple Alhance and to the German proposals for an alliance made to England in rgor, which aimed at maintaining the status quo, the Anglo-French entente of 1904 was an agreement made with a view to acquisichanges occurred. Delcassé, the French foreign minister, was tions: Egypt, which still belonged to Turkey, was to be acquired able ın 1899 to effect a considerable extension of the Franco- by England, in spite of repeated promises of evacuation; and indeRussian Alliance, which was directed against Germany and based pendent Morocco was to be acquired by France In regard to on the anticipated breaking up of Austria-Hungary, by setting Egypt, Germany had always acted in the interests of Great off Tripoli against Morocco in 1900 and thus creating a mutual Britain, but by virtue of treaties she had interests in Morocco, interest between Italy and France, he succeeded in 1902 in render- moreover, the increasing German trade there was greater than ing Italy a “dead weight” in the Triple Alliance. either Italy’s or Spain’s. In 1901-02 Delcassé had, during secret Anglo-German Negotiations.—The change in Anglo-German negotiations with Spain, provided for concessions to Germany on relations which occurred about the same time was still more im- the Atlantic coast of Morocco, and England, too, had repeatedly portant Bismarck himself had repeatedly sought to obtain a recognized the German interests in Morocco. France compensated union with England Now, in 1898, the initiative came from Italy, Spain and England, but she ignored Germany’s interests and London Owing to serious friction with Russia and France, the rights Contrary to the mternational compact of Madrid (1880) competent British mimisters considered that the time had come for and the Anglo-French agreement published in r904, the secret Britain to abandon her “splendid isolation? Lord Salisbury en- clauses of the latter, revealed ın 1911, anticipated a division of deavoured, first of all, to make a comprehensive agreement with Morocco between France and Spain. During the negotiations of Russia on Far Eastern and Turkish questions. When this attempt 1903 Lord Cromer had correctly prophesied that, before long, failed, owing to Russia’s attitude, the Colonial secretary, Joseph Morocco would be a “French province,” which, with the French Chamberlain, turned to Germany. His hostility to Russia was system of protective tariffs, meant that the commerce of the other unconcealed; but Germany held back from a reasonable fear of Powers would be suppressed France, however, already owned a provoking a war with Russia which would have meant a war with large colomal empire, which more than sufficed to supply the needs France also The British Navy could not offer protection against of her stationary population of 40 million; Germany, on the other the vast Russian armies; Germany had no wish to “pull the chest- hand only possessed a few colomes of no great value, and had a nuts out of the fire” for England Nevertheless several colonial population of 60 million which was increasing year by year and agreements were made between England and Germany. In Igor could not be supplied from her own products. Germany, therefore, negotiations for an alliance were renewed, and the evidence of had a vital interest m keeping open the markets of the world the British Foreign Office shows that the initiative came from That was the chief motive for her attitude in 1905, when France’s Germany. The British cabinet was split’ whilst the foreign intentions, In accordance with Lord Cromer’s prediction, became secretary, Lord Lansdowne, and a few of his colleagues were in apparent The reaction to France’s provocative behaviour and the favour of rapprochement with Germany, the prime minister, Lord desire to protect Germany’s disregarded rights, resulted in the Salsbury, and the under-secretary of State, Bertie, were strongly landing of Wiliam II. at Tangier (March 1905) and the demand opposed to it, and even Lansdowne was sceptical as to the possi- for an iternational conference. All this was accompanied by an bility of a genuine alliance The German proposal was that the undercurrent of misconceptions and blunders. In view of the Russo-Japanese War, the time seemed to Gerwhole British empire on the one side and the whole Triple Alliance on the other should be regarded as entities and that the many favourable for an attempt to shatter the entente, and she casus foederis should arise in the case of England or one of the worked for the downfall of the admittedly dangerous Delcassé, overseas dominions, or alternatively of any member of the Triple of whom the premier, Rouvier, equally recognizing his danger, Alliance, being involved in war with more than one Power. Lans- wished to be nd in any case It would have been wiser if Gerdowne, in view of the existing opposition and the ill-feeling be- many had pursued the negotiations for compensations offered by tween the peoples which had been roused by the Boer War, did not Rouvier However, there was no thought of war with France; think it possible to achieve such an agreement, but although the the shortlived treaty of Bjdrkoe (1905) envisaged rather a rapprime munister’s view was not in accord with his, he attempted to prochement between France, Germany and Russia This treaty come to separate agreements with Germany. German diplomacy was intended to protect the Continental Powers from English

was undoubtedly wrong in not seeking to follow this path although the subjects of negotiation (Morocco,

the Mediterranean;

encroachments At the Conference at Algeciras, which welded the the | entente, Germany secured equal commercial rights in Morocco,

Persian Gulf, etc) were certain to aggravate the friction with | whilst France and Spain obtained rights of a political nature The Anglo-Russian entente (1907), actively promoted France and Russia It is remarkable that at this time the disputes

by

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352

France, was also acquisitive in character, and was again mainly formed at the expense of a free, mdependent country—Persia One of the aims of this agreement also was to prevent Germany from gaining any political influence in Persia, and to exclude her as far as possible from any economic advantages. Germany, 1s0lated with Austria-Hungary, from the Powers, raised no protest.

Bosnia-Hercegovina.—In the middle of Sept 1908 the Russian and Austrian foreign ministers came on principle to an agreement in regard to the early annexation of the provinces of Bosnia and Hercegovina (which the Congress of Berlin, 1878, had placed under the admmustration of Austria-Hungary), in return for Vienna’s diplomatic support for the opening of the Dardanelles to Russian battleships Iswolski believed that he could gain the support of the entente for his aims, he failed chiefly m London. Berlin had no hand in the affair, but in the crisis which followed the annexation (1908) she afforded her ally unconditional support, under the firm conviction that war between the Powers would not take place Serbia, which Iswolski had been prepared to sacrifice to his own interests, egged on by Russia, demanded quite unjustified compensation, and mobilized As the erisis in 1909 threatened to lead to war between Austria and Serbia, the German Government put an end to it in the interests of general peace by an ultimative message to St Petersburg Iswolski, whose plans had failed mainly through his own fault, became henceforward an irreconcilable enemy of Austria-Hungary. Naval Competition.—In the meantime Germany’s naval policy had entered upon a dangerous path. She had the right in common with the other Great Powers, to provide for the defence of her overseas interests, which were then developing with impetuous energy. But England felt that the Tirpitz programme, the principal factor in the relations between England and Germany, was of a threatening nature The fleet, however, had not been built for purposes of attack, but in order to deter England from attacking Germany’s fear of British supremacy on the sea played, in this case, as important a part as England’s fear of a German

invasion, although competent Englishmen regarded this invasion as impracticable. With the agreement of 1913 fixing the proportions of ships at 16:10, naval rivalry lost most of its acuteness Agadir Crisis.—It is true that Kaiser William II was a disquieting element in European politics; his personality, however, was by no means warlike. It was with reason that, at the very beginning of his reign, those who were closely connected with him perceived in his blusterings a feeling of uncertainty, even of fear, and saw in him pathological traits Besides, apart from the question of the navy, William I. certainly had no deciding voice in German policy. The Morocco episodes, for example, were not in accordance with his views After a Franco-German agreement for economic co-operation in Morocco (1909), the carrying out of which on the part of France gave Germany the nght to complain, France, in the spring of 1911, in spite of Germany’s representations, broke the Treaty of Algeciras by the march on Fez France recognized that the German claims for compensation were justified, but the negotiations did not progress very fast, so in July, Germany sent a gunboat

to Agadir

This “thumping on the diplomatic table” was a reaction

to previous provocation France knew that Germany wanted nothing for herself in Morocco, Germany had no warlike intention, but wished only, by compensation, to put an end to the Morocco question once and for all With the consent of Sir Edward Grey, who was thoroughly mistrustful of Germany and insufficiently mformed, Lloyd George delivered a threatening speech against Germany, which precipitated the crisis. Supported by England, France received the hon’s share in the agreement of

Nov. rgrr. The crisis had serious results: the independence of

Morocco being at an end, Italy resolved to seize Tripoli, her share of the booty, by force also, and the consequent weakening of Turkey in its turn caused the Balkan States to go to war. 1912-1914

The Balkan Crisis —The Russian defeat of gos and the entente with England, 1907, had led Russia again towards her

European aims.” The Bosnian crisis was a result of this develop+

GUILT

[GERMAN CASE

ment Russian diplomacy now aimed at the union of the Balkan States. When the prime minister, Poincaré, at St Petersburg heard of the Serbo-Bulganan alliance (1912), he at once made

urgent representations against this “war” convention

Thus, too,

was a treaty of acquisition Russia was unable to prevent the Balkan States from attacking Turkey. According to Poincaré Russia “had started the motor.” A remarkable change took place

in Paris on the unexpectedly rapid collapse of Turkey. As lately as the Bosnian crisis France had declared that she would not le herself be ınvolved in war because of Russian interests in the Balkans, but now French experts and statesmen considered the chances of Russia and France in the case of a general conflict to

be “very optimistic.” Paris took the point of view that the maintenance of the balance of power in the Balkans affecteg French interests; henceforward France nourished French alliance by the Austro-Russian rivalry.

the Russo-

In Feb 1913, the Russian ambassador in London arrived at the

conclusion that of the Powers France alone would see war de. clared without great regrets On the other hand, the English and German Governments were working together for peace Austria.

Hungary, indeed, jomed with Italy in preventing Serbia from obtaining a footing on the Adriatic, but accepted Serbia’s enormous increase in territory; and when Austria-Hungary wished to intervene in the “fratricidal” war (of the Balkan States) in favour of Bulgaria she was prevented by Germany and Italy

With the Treaty of Bucharest (Aug 1913) which resulted in the practical withdrawal of Rumania from the Triple Alliance, Austria-~Hungary found herself heavily handicapped Russia had completely wiped out her humiliation of 1908—09 and the entente had acquired predominance over the Central Powers not only diplo-

matically but also materially The cohesion of these groups of allances obviously contained the danger of local conflicts turning into a world conflagration Realizing this the Government of the Reich sought repeatedly to renew good relations with Russia (Bjorkoe, Potsdam) and especially with England The neutrahty negotiations of the Haldane Mission of 1912 broke down at the end because of mutual mistrust But Anglo-German colonial treaties, which were about to be signed in 1914, loosened the tension of the relations between the two Powers, after London had at last withdrawn her objections to the Baghdad railway, 1n which

in 1903 she had refused to take her fair share were displeased with these developments;

France and Russia

France intervened de-

cidedly in the Anglo-German neutrality negotiations and in 1914 actively promoted closer relations between England and Russia,

for the foreign minister, Sasonov recognized that in a general war it was the British fleet alone that could be relied upon with certainty to give Germany her death blow. Armaments.—The Foreign Office had, as early as the close of the century, described the situation of Germany between France and Russia as dangerous, and as critical should England come to

an understanding with France (and Russia) The renewed shuffling of power in the Balkans forced the German Government in 1913 largely to increase its army Simultaneously France reintroduced three years’ service, a burden which could not have been borne for any length of time -At the Hague Conferences, Germany’s attitude had differed from the others more in appearance than in principle If German militarism was especially obvious, France in actual numbers was militarized to a far greater extent; up to 1913 only 55% and subsequently 68% of the man power in Germany against 75% in France But Russia was the most zealous in arming, having been financed for this purpose by France to the extent of many miliards In 1914 the peace strength of the Central Powers (without Italy) amounted to 1,239,000 men against 2,239,000 (and 2,639,000 in the winter half-year) for France and Russia; the war strength 3,358,000, against 5,070,000

In the winter of 1913-14 the Liman von Sanders affair brought

about a new crisis Russia considered her interests in the Dardanelles to be imperiled; England held aloof; Germany was conciliatory; France, however, accentuated her attitude of 1912-13’

the ambassador Delcassé assured Russia on behalf of the French foreign minister “that France would support Russia to whatever

GERMAN CASE]

WAR

extent she required.” The Russian war minister and the chief of

GUILT

353

Diplomacy.—London was the deciding factor for both sides.

the general staff declared categorically that “Russia was fully Timely declarations in Berlin and Vienna at an earlier moment prepared for a duel with Germany” and Austria-Hungary. In would have led to the giving up of the proposed programme,

Feb 1914, a conference of ministers at St Petersburg decided to make preliminary preparations for a later conquest of the Dardanelles. About this time, Delcassé repeatedly discussed

France’s war aim with Sasonov—the Russo-French alliance had gradually acquired the meaning that Russia should rece:ve Con-

stantinople and France Alsace-Lorraine. In this, Russia counted

for certain on Serbia’s support As early as 1908-09 it had held out hopes to Serbia of the acquisition of Austro-Hungarian terntory. These promises were renewed in 1912—13, the mmister Hartwig at Belgrade acting as a dangerous element in this matter. While Russia was in no way threatened from abroad, Austria-

Hungary’s existence was imperilled by Russia’s Pan-Slav Balkan pohcy which furthered the undermming of Bosnia and Hercegovina by Serbian societies. Germany herself was greatly alarmed

about Russia’s mighty war-preparations and the imminence of an Anglo-Russian naval convention. In all the chancelleries of Europe, war was considered to be inevitable The chiefs of the general staffs, Moltke and Conrad, anmous about the security of the Central Powers, spoke of a preventive war To this Bethmann-

Hollweg—and also the kaiser—was defimtely averse As in Berln and Vienna, in St. Petersburg, Paris and London there were highly

placed officers who, confident of victory, desired war, and this not

merely for the maintenance of the status guo

Colonel House

found, in the early summer of 1914, that France and Russia were

ready to take action as soon as England would agree And in this war-charged atmosphere the crown prince, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, a pillar of the Danubian monarchy, was murdered on June 28, 1914. It was the spark in the powder magazine of Europe. Serajevo.—A colonel of the Serbian general staff and a Serbian major had organized the assassination; it was carried out by Bosnians The Serbian Government had had knowledge of the plan, but after a weak effort to prevent it, had let the plot proceed Vienna did not know this, but at once established that Major Tankositsch and the Serbian frontier officials had aided the murderers in a decisive manner The Serbian menace was suddenly laid bare; the indirect responsibility of Serbia could not be questioned

From Berlin and other quarters Serbia was repeatedly

urged to investigate the plot, but trusting in Russia’s protection, for weeks Serbia did nothing and was thus guilty of a grave dereliction of duty In the place of an intended diplomatic action, Vienna decided, after the murder, on a punitive expedition against Serbia, which was to be eliminated as a political factor Berlin agreed to this on July 5~6, and indeed encouraged quick action, on the assumption that the outraged public opinion of the world would be in sympathy. The vital interests of Germany’s only certain ally appeared seriously menaced and her own position affected It was thought that neither Russia nor France was ready for war

and that their entry into war was improbable, although this was taken into account It was believed that England would remain neutral, and this would restrain France and Russia from extreme action This was a gross misunderstanding of the situation

Even before they were acquainted with Austria’s ultimatum (July 23) Russia and France adopted a common programme for the preservation of Serbian integrity and sovereignty But Vienna’s ultimatum and intentions touched both these points. Already on the afternoon of the 25th the French ambassador in St Petersburg gave formal assurance that France placed herself “unreservedly” on Russia’s side. On the same evening Vienna, on the receipt of an unsatisfactory reply and in view of Serbian mobilization, which had been begun, broke off relations with

Serbia and ordered the mobilization of eight army corps against Serbia.

Russia

Simultaneously, the “war preparation period” began in

Following Austria’s declaration of war on Serbia, which

was issued with Germany’s knowledge on July 28, Russia ordered, on the 2gth, a partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary, after the tsar had first consented to the general mobilization. Yet the danger of a general war, which had now arisen, might still have been averted ay

warnings in St Petersburg against too hasty miltary preparations would have secured the necessary time for the completion of negotiations But Anglo-French military and naval conventions, the whole policy of the entente, had created a moral bond, a pledge of honour for England towards France Russia and France

now counted on this. Sir Edward Grey had the fullest confidence in the desire of France and Russia for peace and had the greatest mustrust of Germany, whose ostensible plans of hegemony were as much feared by the Foreign Office as a break with Russia in the event of support being refused. Instead of warning the Russians,

Grey encouraged them on July 25 in their mobilization against Austria-Hungary, on the quite groundless assumption that German preparations were much further advanced than the Russian. Grey, however, did not want war and worked zealously for peace But his proposal for a Conference was not practical, for the

crisis demanded a rapid decision. In this respect Rome made the best proposal: namely that Serbia should offer to Europe the acceptance of the entire ultimatum m exchange for a European guarantee for Serbia Berlin recommended this solution in Vienna On the Serbian reply William II. declared (July 28) that Austria had no further ground for war. Serious reports regarding England’s attitude furthered this change of policy. Berlm urged Vienna to be satisfied with a “material security”; and Grey put forward similar proposals at the same time. Russia.—Berlin further sought to promote the conversations between Vienna and St. Petersburg that Germany had instigated; Grey also considered this the best course. A proposal of the tsar to submit the dispute to The Hague was not accepted even by Sasonov; he regarded the general war as a fact after the declaration of war on Serbia and the bombardment of Belgrade on the 29th. He had, in his own words, from that time lost all interest in the negotiations—he was in fact entirely for war. It was otherwise in Berlin; realizing the danger, the Government was from the 29th entirely for peace. It increased the pressure on Vienna begun on the 28th even to the point of threatening withdrawal of support Vienna, which had left Berlin inadequately informed on important matters, now agreed on the 30th—31st to assure Serbia’s integrity and sovereignty. Thus the Russo-French programme was practically carried out. But at the same time Russia, by her general mobilization ordered on the afternoon of the 3oth on purely technical grounds, precipitated the general war. For this mobilization, because of Germany’s dangerous situation between two fronts, and even in the opinion of the experts of the Triple Alliance, made war inevitable It was different as regards the general mobilization ordered in Austria-Hungary on mid-day of the 31st on the ground of Russia’s partial mobilization; accordimg to the Russo-French military convention, Russian and French mobilization was to be ordered, not on Austria’s mobilization but only subsequent to that of Germany’s, whereas the opposite occurred in 1914, indicating the aggressiveness of Russia’s step In this France did not seriously restrain Russia; rather Russia was encouraged by the Quai d’Orsay and by the French minister for war, in the same way as Moltke intervened in Vienna, where the German ambassador pushed on in the same way as the French ambassador in St. Petersburg However Count Berchtold has certified that he was influenced neither by von Tschirschky nor by von Moltke On July 31, the French Government declared itself determined on war although her alliance with Russia had not come into play Sir Edward Grey recognized that the Russian general mobilization had precipitated the crisis. If London and Paris had brought similar pressure to bear on St. Petersburg, as Berlin had on Vienna from the 28th onwards, the peace of Efrope might have been maintained On Russia’s decisive action, Germany on the 31st, declared a state of war emergency (Kriegsgefahrzusiand) to exist and sent an ultimatum to Russia and France, as French diplomats had

expected; the demand for the surrender of Toul and Verdun

was not presented in Paris

In taking its military measures, Ger-

WAR

354

GUILT

many was always behind France, even in the mobilization on Aug 1. Germany's declaration of war on Russia on the 1st and on France on the 3rd was, according to the Franco-Italian agreement of 1902, fully justified As recognized by international experts, if Germany, in her hemmed-in position, was to have a chance of success m a war on two fronts, she must first attack France through Belgium But before the German ultimatum to Belgium was known, England had practically been drawn into the war on Aug 2, in consequence of the Anglo-French naval convention The breach of Belgian neutrahty became the ostensible and popular casus bell. Italy decided on temporary neutrality, in view of her relations with Austria-Hungary and above all because of England's attitude. Summary.—To summarize the deeper causes of the war so long as the Triple Alhance was predommant and Russia was occupied in Asia, peace reigned in Europe Yet with the partition of North Africa (Tnpoli~-Egypt-Morocco) and Persia by the Entente, together with France’s aggression in Morocco and the pursuit of Russia’s European aims, the violent progress of which was only made possible by France’s milhards, crisis followed crisis (1905, 1908, 1911, 1912/13) Germany, indeed, contributed her share by her naval development and her misunderstood “‘Weltpolitik,” by her blustering and blunders, but it was not overpopulated and economically restricted Germany which acquired great and rich territories, but the Entente, already blessed with colonies. As regards the crisis of July 1914, it must above all be remembered that Austria-Hungary was on the defensive, whereas Russia herself was not threatened In order to draw up a scale for gauging the responsibility for the war, the following points should be stated: the first assault on the peace of the world was the murder at Serajevo (Serbia~Russia, Austria-Hungary); the second the ultimatum and the declaration of war on Serbia (Austma-Hun-

gary and Germany); the third and the decisive assault was the Russian general mobilization (Russia~France-England) From this it appears that of the Great Powers, Russia was the most guilty: then Austria-Hungary. Moreover, all the Great Powers placed their own interests above world peace; yet only France, Russia and Austria-Hungary had in 1914 definite war aims (Alsace-Lorraine, the Dardanelles, Serbia) It ıs, therefore, clear, that the Versailles thesis regarding war guilt is entirely untenable It was a disaster for Europe, that there was nowhere at the head of the Great Powers an outstanding statesman, able to master the crisis of 1914, for the great mass of the peoples had

no desire for war.

THE TWO

(H. Lv.)

SIDES OF TRUTH

and to do this in conspicuous defiance of Russia

Part of the French case is that Britan did not give m tıme a decisive warning to Germany

Second, be-

cause Berlin brought no firm restraining influence to bear upon Vienna, Herr Liitz decides that in the ominous decade before the war the Triple Entente obstructed the claims of Germany to a just share of colonial expansion, and, by its pro-Slav policy in Kastern Europe, imperilled the integrity and the very existence of the old Habsburg Double-Monarchy, compelled at last to fight for its hfe when its maintenance seemed most vital to the future safety of Germany as well. As for the more immediate ante. cedents of the catastrophe in the summer of 1914, Herr Lutz finds that the Serbian Government was a passive accessory to the murder of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand; that the extreme punitive action resolved upon at Vienna was justified in principle, that Russia, as the first Power to order general mobilization, incurred the blame for precipitating inevitably, a general conflict; but that Austria-Hungary to some lesser extent must be held responsible because of its previous partial mobilization, its resort to the first actual declaration of war (agamst Serbia, July 28), and its firing of the first shots (July 29) when Belgrade was bombarded. 1

Part of the German case 1s tha

Britain exerted no decisive restraint on Russia

These two deeply

contradictory views are, however, charges of weakness or mis. judgment against Lord Grey and the Asquith ministry, not charges of “guilt” for disastrous action like Austria-Hungary’s to 5 with and Russia’s afterwards The former Alhes as a whole remain almost unanimously of the opinion that the most fatal mfluence of all was the dismclination of Germany to modify firmly those suicidal counsels at Vienna which led, in fact, to the total destruction and disappearance of the histonc Habshy monarchy

But even this opinion, however definite, does nhot—as

we shall see—imply any accusation of “guilt,” in the sense of conscious, deliberate wrongdomg agamst William II and hs advisers, much less agamst the mass of the German people under the conditions of that régime Examples of Controversy About Former Wars.—We must

all bend ourselves to reahze how questions and their menits ap. peared at the time to others, to antagonists as well as to allies To bring to bear this just psychology, and equal understanding, js amongst the chief duties and best offices of impartial history

After the wars of former centuries and generations, questions of relative sin and righteousness were the theme of complicated

controversies long smce dead. In the middle of the roth century

the moral and legal principles at stake in the small Schleswig. Holstem affair gave rise to a voluminous and now insupportable literature At an earlier period most English people regarded France as a wicked nation and Napoleon as a bad man Similar

feelings had prevailed ın America about George III —a rigid pat.

tern of intentional virtue—and in France about Mr Pitt conceived as an evil manipulator of gold against the purest aspirations of humanity. For long after 1871 the popular German view was that France had provoked hostilities by arrogant vanity and aggressive presumption The ordmary French view was that Bis. marck with iron immorality had lured France into war, and that while “old Germany” m its divided state had represented sn amiable and virtuous civilization the spirit or Prussia’ w.:

essentially malign Again when we go back to the origins of modern Europe, we are confronted with the hundred years of rehgious wars springing out of the Reformation To attempt now with regard to them a distribution of responsibilities ın terms of relative guilt as between different persons, creeds and States would be ludicrous We know that though material self-interests of all kinds were more and more involved, the deepest motives were spiritual; born out of irreconcilable differences of conviction respecting truth and right, life and eternity.

Not

To compare year by year, crisis by crisis, detail by detail, the preceding narratives would serve no good purpose Monsieur Renouvin concludes that the World War when it came, broke out for two principal reasons First, because Austria-Hungary was determined at any risk to reduce Serbia to subjection once for all,

[TWO SIDES OF TRUTH

“Guilt”

but

“True

Tragedy.”—The

characteristic

thought of the English-speaking races applies these analogies to the World War. From this standpoint Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles has no moral weight nor judicial validity The comparative error or sagacity of different Governments and systems, their degrees of worse or better judgment, remain to be weighed;

but the conception of “Guilt,” especially as implying a moral A Ime m stain upon particular nations, entirely disappears Shakespeare considered by many to be the deepest of all apples singularly to the psychology of nations and races in this sphere; “There’s nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so.” Burke teminds us that we cannot frame an indictment against a whole people Hegel said that true tragedy 1s not a conflict between right and wrong but “between Right and Right.” This 1s accepted as a familiar truth ın private affairs, and in party-crises m the same nation such as have sometimes led to civil war Only the same principle raised to its highest. power can explain a origins of the World War—the supreme tragedy of European story. Five Centuries of Causation.—_Let us remember that some of the remoter causes were centuries earlier than any modern

responsibility

The results particularly of the Turkish invasion

of Europe and of the Reformation wars remained a definite mfluence upon the European situation at the ominous beginning of

the 20th century

Again, the new political forces set up by the

French Revolution continued to work by action and reaction.

TWO SIDES OF TRUTH]

WAR

GUILT

ng mpulse beNationalism became more and more a dominati

queathed by the roth century to its successor.

Subject races

aspired to freedom and equality, divided races to umity Older strove to historic systems, thus threatened with disintegration, and 1871 maintain themselves

In the dozen years between 1859

ns _-far-reaching indeed in their effect on the followig generatio

Europe; —repeated wars changed altogether the former aspect of the American Civil while in the same momentous period occurred

, War and the Japanese revolution In Italy began (1859-66) the long liquidation of the Habsburg imperial system deriving of partition the by later from mediaeval conditions supplemented

355

all for resorting to mutual support in these circumstances. Yet the new German policy, abandoning the secret and complicated

arrangement with the tsardom, conceived itself as withdrawing from a double game, and undoubtedly meant to be not less but more honest though ın truth it was only more crude Thus the first fatal misjudgment of the Williamte régime was in a moral sense the reverse of “Guilty” 1890-1907. Anglo-German Antagonism and Diplomatic

Revolution.—Next came by degrees the doubly-fatal breach

with Britain. The details of that process must be excluded here The main matter is plain The new German empire had become with vital maritime the recovery a great industrial and commercial power Poland But Ttalan unity was not yet completed’ and colonial possessions which it regarded as unjustly of the Trentmo from Austria remained a further goal. Above ail interests and inadequate by comparison with those of Britain, “py iron and by blood,” as Bismarck said, a new German empire lamited France, Belgium and Portugal (not to speak of Russia with its was created in spite of France; and on the plea of right as well the con- vast Siberian extension). Germany, in principle, was absolutely in as that of security, Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by entitled to aim at the creation of a formidable sea-power uerors and addition to its immense military power. Jt was a matter not of : 1871-1890. The Genius of Bismarck’s Peace-system was dangerously already Britain judgment practical of but morals scrutiny closer any its Collapse.—With this fateful event m 1871 Her Government tried through nearly four years (1898— mto modern responsibilities must begin Tragedy in Hegel’s sense isolated. remedy this untenable situation by repeated efforts at no 190r) to enters here into the soul of European affairs, but there 1s alliance with Germany. Berlin preferred to keep a free hand, question of guilt The standpoimts of these two great nations France but leaned more towards Russia; and unswervingly built up the the were opposed, partly unintelligible to each other. In what historic new fleet while mutual hostility ceaselessly increased between thought was a crime, German enthusiasm saw not only German and the British peoples. Sea-security to the island was justice but racial idealism And also practical necessity Moltke all in all, contimued 1solation became unthinkable “Provident on guard held that in any case, Germany would have to stand fear is the mother of safety.” This became a growing thought for so years In 1877—78 came a crisis quite equally fateful when of the Turkish Germany could not realize or appreciate the significance old the of liquidation final Russia ım arms began the deterthat insular spint of far-sighted precaution and of reluctant but empire in Europe The larger part of civilized opinion held of the mined resource. moral right was on the side of Russia as the champion reign— short Edward’s King during 1908 and Between 1903 to Christian races in revolt But the Turks believed themselves though his personal mfluence was no initiating factor-—the former be domg thew duty in defending very bravely what for so long of diplomatic system was revolutionized in Europe and Asia. Britain had been their own This is a typical example of that kind reached alhed herself with Japan; then settled all her old controversies conflict between dying systems and rising causes which France; and succeeded next in coming to a better underits culmination. some decades later n the World War. For at the with France threat- standing with Russia Thus the Triple Entente of Britain, Turkey, over same time, Russian policy, after the victory was founded Not only so Italy, in these circumened to open, at no distant remove, a further process of “hquid- and Russia or Vienna Berlin by upon reckoned be longer no could leave stances, might ation” mm Austria-Hungary itself But that process 1902 she was fairly certain not to act against France or Germany isolated and menaced all round—‘Feinde ringsum.” From Bismarck’s system under his sucBismarck, for this time, `‘ C o or 71 checkirg Russa et the| Bntain, The destruction of total. For different reasons Britain almost Berlin Congress (1878). le E. dosed tursel. es long os post ile cessors was already as well as France, while Italy antagonized now were Russia and on friendship with the tsardom, but its ultrmate hostility in conreality detached. But William II. and junction with France was now conceivable Beset henceforth with still a nominal ally was m consciousness at any point. They criminal no had advısers his the Iron Chancellor reason, by his cauchemar des coalitions, themselves to be acting for the best on behalf of formed the Triple Alhance of Germany, Austria and Italy supposed life and hope, They were only, in political foresight Austria-Hungary had- occupied Bosnia and Hercegovina These Germany’s been Serbian and judgment, as inferior as the Iron Chancellor had Slav provinces were essential to the coming cause of superior nationalism, then young raw and underestimated but to prove Rising and Systems 1908-1913. Fatal Years, Dying in the sequel one of the mast passionate and desperate of all Forces.—We come to the last half-decade before the World War nationalisms, by annexation speak of “guilt” in connection with the rival forces, inspired In the To after decade a than In this way within little more e ideas of justification, is an extreme triviality. of Alsace-Lorraine most principal motives of the final tragedy irreconcilabl altered Bis- 1908 the Young Turk revolution shook the Balkans and already existed both m the west and east of Europe But Aehrenwith all prospects in that quarter. Austria-Hungary under marck’s aim was peace. He maintamed it for another decade yet thal’s too emphatic guidance formally annexed Bosnia and Hercehe could, he when unparalleled dexterity 9Humouring France This before years 30 title permanent without kept her isolated He prevented colonial friction with Britain govina occupied world seemed only a technical or nominal violation from coming ta a breach Above all, in spite of the Triple Alliance, to most of the arbitrary an as serious was it way its Treaty of Berlin. In he repaired “the wire to Petersburg” by the “Re-msurance of the Far worse, Serbian national feeling looking forward to Treaty” This in effect guaranteed Russia absolutely against Aus- example, with those two provinces (since incorporated in Yugoslavia) 1nstruunion earlier his while Balkans, the in aggression an tro-Hungari and warlike protest. It was supported by Russia— violent in rose Rusby underment guaranteed the integrity of the Habsburg realms agamst bitterly disappomted in a recent hope of obtaining sian aggression Bismarck’s dismissal in the spring of 1890 by the Vienna her historic aim of free naval communiwith standing demonstrative the end At an young German emperor, clever and superficial, cation between the Black Sea and the Mediterrane but weak, bent on a personal régime for which he was exception- of March 1909 Germany's appearance “m shining armour,” ally unfitted—this, in reality, was a more tragic event than the beside Austria-Hungary, compelled Russia and Serbia to yield— assassination of the archduke nearly a quarter of a century later, and wait At once, every trace of the great chancellor’s managing and

underThis episode was of quite fatal effect It was not fully of stood until the appearance after the war of the memoirs Hoetzenvon policy ngarian Chief of Staff, General Conrad Treaty” due for renewal at that moment was allowed to lapse the Austro-Hu had x909 of spring this in convention dorff A new military Then the Franco-Russian alliance was formed at last. The most fettered Germany to the obsolete Habsburg monarchy in a way was should characteristic part of the Bismarckian system of security that would have appalled Bismarck If that monarchy at blamed be could Russia nor France Neither thus destroyed

almost conjurmng genius disappeared from the conduct of German

To the astonishment of Petersburg the “Re-insurance

356

WAR

feel itself compelled for the sake of its existence to move against Serbia, ıt was to be supported by Germany at any cost against Russian interference From that moment, Vienna—not Berln— had the imtiative Thus disappeared the last vestige of Bismarck’s system of control. But the reason was clear. Now, indeed, it was too plain that the old Chancellor’s cauchemar des coalitions might become in the next few years the gnmmest of reahties The Danubian double-monarchy with its medley of jarring nationalities—subject but rising races forming a majority of its population—was now Germany’s last and indispensable ally amongst the Powers. Germans feared now that the further weakening and gradual disintegration of this last ally, Austria-Hungary, would lead to the utter isolation and perhaps the downfall of the German Fatherland itself This gives the key to the rest of the tragedy Events soon took a turn that neither the Wilhelmstrasse nor the Ballplatz had anticipated for a moment when German policy became inextricably entangled with that of Vienna Contrary to their expectations Turkey was overthrown in 1912 by the Balkan League of Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. The Serbian victories and territomal gains were from the Austro-Hungarian point of view an almost deadly menace Had not Mazzini said with a wonderful flash of prophecy more than half a century before, “The Turkish question will be no sooner solved than the Austnan question will be raised ” When the Balkan confederates turned their arms against each other in the second Balkan War (1913) Bulgaria went down under attacks by all her neighbours and Serbia was strengthened again Every disruptive force in the

Dual Monarchy was stimulated.

Even Rumania ceased to be a

friend and threatened to become an enemy with a view to racial reunion with Transylvania where a large Rumaman majority chafed under Magyar rule When 1914 opened, peace between

the Great Powers had been preserved with difficulty It lasted only for a few months more. The Serb racial agitation threatened—legitimately from the standpoint of all nsing nationalisms— the disruption of the Habsburg system. Vienna as inevitably— holding by tradition and conviction an opposite view of nights, loyalties and duties—felt that a struggle to suppress the larger hopes of Serbian nationalism was an approaching necessity of life and death “Tragedy is not the conflict of right and wrong but of Right and Right”—as variously and irreconalably judged by mortal seeing before the event July 1914. The Explosion of a Continent.—This was the situation when on June 28, 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassmated by young Bosnian-Serb fanatics at Serajevo, his arrival there for military manoeuvres appearmg as an ostentatious threat to the Serb idea The crime was atrocious. There can be little doubt that the Belgrade Government had scent of the plot and mught possibly have averted the murders by more energetic action. But this is not quite sure Nor does the point touch the real question. Episodes of violent crime have been the common accompaniment of the struggles of subject and divided races for freedom and unity This has never been held to be a just cause for inflicting the capital penalty upon any national movement as a whole But from the standpoint of Vienna, the Habsburg cause was supreme by right, criminally jeopardised, and the occasion uniquely favourable For the preservation of the Dual Monarchy —Germany’s last ally—independent Serbia was to be reduced to insignificance. Berlin agreed—not conscious of “guilt” but, on the contrary, satisfied as to the essential moral justice of the procedure of the two Central Empires; and even unable for

some weeks to appreciate any wider view. At Berlin the old dominant Bismarckian spirit of many-sided sagacity and providential precaution no longer existed. Ignoring Russia, Vienna launched its terms of annihilating humuihation upon Belgrade. This unparalleled ultimatum was intensely convinced, but almost insanely rash as seen from the standpoint of any practical desire for the maintenance of general peace The only real hope for peace was to submit the issue to a European tribunal, such as in a similar crisis, now, would follow as a matter of course from the principles of the League of Nations Lord Grey’s proposals

ho

GUILT

[TWO SIDES OF TRUTH

for conference in this spirit were not accepted Austria~Hungary when Serbian submission to the unparalleled ultimatum was humble

enough but not quite complete, mobilzed

eight army

corps; declared war on Serbia; and on July 29 fired the first shots of the World War by bombarding Belgrade This procedure, though actuated by a conviction of Right, rested upon a deeply mistaken presumption of Might. Russia, dreading renewed joint action by the Central Empires, and prepared to face anything rather than submit again to an arbitrary summons to stand aside abjectly, took the desperate course of decreemg general mobilization As the world was then arranged, with no accepted international system of peaceful procedure, the tsardom was within its right as a Great Power which could not be expected to remain subject merely to fear

Germany was compelled as a matter of course

to mobilize at once, since her own existence might depend on that advantage of rapid efficency which her whole national system for many years had been organized to gain No people could be more convinced than were the Germans at that moment that they were standing for their life and that of their last ally, and that they had their quarrel just France was as fully involved by her own alliance and situation Germany, on the plea, and under the conviction, of stark neces. sity, forced, in accordance with the Schlieffen plan, a military passage through neutral Belgium Britain, where otherwise divisions of opinion might possibly have prevented 1mmediate interference, was unavoidably drawn in,

at once, by the violation of Belgium

For her also and for her

empire the issue of life and death had arisen

The Moral: “Thinking Made It So.”—As has been seen, full agreement, in different countnes, between equally dispassionate students, of the facts and documents, is still impossible regarding the relative merits of the causes at stake and the op. posite policies pursued There is no objective standard whereby to measure the inward psychological factors which impelled the external machinery For half a century, as we know, the rivalry of higher convictions and devotions, as well as of interests in the lower sense, had been tending by a gigantic accumulation of armaments, to this termble issue and no other. The process as Prince Bulow said long ın advance was that of “pressure, counterpressure, explosion” For over 40 years every step in the working out of the world tragedy led to steps still more ominous Two things seem especially clear to the present writer. (1) Amongst single personal events and influences the most fatal were the dismissal of Bismarck in 1890; and Wilham II’s contrasting unwisdom To him as much as to any figure in history applies Voltaire’s word, “fate ıs temperament.” (2) The Habsburg monarchy, now vanished, worked out its own doom. New nationalisms proved as destructive to it as to its former neighbouring empire, Turkey in Europe The archduke’s assassination, exciting universal horror, was a favourable moment for appealing at once to the European Areopagus as Lord Grey entreated later Instead, relying upon the closer military agreements with Germany since 1909, and reckoning doubtless that Russia would again submit as in that year, Austria-Hungary adopted a one-sided and extreme policy which—apart from the merits then or now of any plea of Justification in the abstract—was in fact of all courses open the most likely to lead to a World War and did lead to it. The method and its miscalculations proved self-annihilating “Those whom the gods wish to destroy, they first make blind” This comment offers itself But as against it another great consideration‘ is to be remembered If the World War had not come when and how1 cid in z9t- it almost cerralaly wou'd hi ve broke out within a very few years larer and she fire o1 the ‘ob-oee empire,” owing to the increasingly discordant elements in its composition, might well have been the same Near the heart of the European tragedy lay the truth that the Habsburg monarchy with its medley of 50 millions of people could not survive as it

stood; yet could not be transformed except by force from within or without; and could not attempt in earnest to maintain itself without imminent risk of dissolution,

The Disarmament

of Minds.—Thbus a charge of peculiar

WARHAM yar guilt” against any one people is null and of no effect

No

Germans, Magyars, Bulindividual anywhere looks on individual But why then, sans and Turks as members of a culpable race it will be asked, should not Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles impossible. reasons two for is be withdrawn formally? This course a damaging First, 1t would be mterpreted and exaggerated as

357

Katastrophenpolitik Osterreich(Vienna, 1921—23), H Kanner, Die et Responsabtltés Ungarns (1921), E Bourgeois and G Pagès, Origenes cke sur de la Guerre (1921), B von Siebert, Dzplomatische Aktensiu Les affaires (1921); sjahre Vorkrieg der litzk Ententepo e der Geschicht Mobalbalkamques (French Yellow Book, 1922), 5 Dobrorolski, Die der Pohtsk Grosse machung der russtschen Armee, 1914 (1922), Die ohnEuropäischen Kabmette, 1871-1914 (ed J Lupsius, A. Mendelss

DıploBartholdy, and F Thımme, 40 vols , 1922—27) , Un Livre Noirrusses (2 matie d’Avant-Guerre d'après les documents des Archives Bethman nvols 1922-23) , F. Nitti, Peaceless Europe (1922) , Th von formal proposal S. Churchill, The World Winston (1923); ungen Betracht Hollweg, cially war-plans—espe mmable recrimination on war-causes and (1923); E M Earle, Turkey, the Great Powers nghts of the Criss, 1911-1914 Railway (1923), The Falsificaitons of the Russian the violation of Belgium, and the orginal moral and the Bagdad 1923), G P and State-systems Orange Book (with introduction by C Y. von Romberg, new nationalities against former dynasties the be 1878-1919 (1923) ; Franco-German Europe, would Modern of passions, History fiercest Gooch, the That controversy, rekindling European of ons Revelati Recent and 4 (1923), , 1871-191 Relations surest means of throwing back the vital work of reconciliationin Diplomac y (1927) , B Huldermann, Albert Ballin (1923) , E Brandenand co-operation Instead Article 231 is already a dead-letter bis zum Weltkrieg (1924, Eng trans From Brsmarck Von burg, only rememFabre-Luce, Bismarck to the World War, by A E Adams, 1927); A of Victory, the moral sense; and the futuhty of Article 227 is La Victowe (1924, Eng trans, C Vesey, The Limitatigons (1924), pered with ridicule Der G Frantz, Russlands Erntritt in den Weltkrie We can say more than this Involved in an unprecedented 1926); ssche Schriftswechsel Iswolskis, rort-19rq (ed F Stieve, in diplomat world-tragedy arismg from thoughts and forces which were e Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch und sum Bayersch 1924), vols, 4 have Dze motion long before, the belligerent nations and races, as we Versailler Schuldspruch (ed P Dirr, 3rd ed Munich, 1925), 4 seen, were irreconcilable in their ideas of mght and justice, of Belgıschen Dokumente zur Vorgeschichte des Weltkrieges, 1885-191

Second any acknowledgment by the Alhes and their Associate reopen interto expunge Article 231 would

s ries, 1925)3 (s vols., 2 supplements and 2 vols, of commenta Durham, The Boghitchevitch, Les causes de la guerre (1925), M E. the of Causes and Roots The Ewart, S. J (1925), Serajevo Crime not only ın war-Sorrows and war-heroism but in an unconscious Wars, rorq-18 (2 vols, 1925), Viscount Grey, Twenty-five Years, Diary of the community of service to the future. Mutual slaughter as the 1892—1916 (2 vols, 1925), How the War Began: The King Edward an as scale stupendous a on organized Russian Foreign Office, 3—20 July, 1914 (1925); S Lee, traditional last resort, (1925); 1914 ch von Orangebu Russische ; Das 1925-27) 4 (1926) , attempted means of political settlement, was shown to be more VII (2 vols, G. Lowes Dickinson, The International Anarchy, 1904-191 Everywhere, bestial more and more and and more destructive che Gelbbuch von ror4 (ed. A von Wegerer, 1926) ; Frangosis Das the revolt of human feeling and reason against war is a movement E Jack, Kiderlen-Wachter der Staatsmann und der Mensch (1926), 1926), H Oncken, De incomparably more powerful and systematic than civilization has Les Carnets de Georges Lows (vols 1 u, 1863 bis 1870, und der Napoleons III, von seen up to now. The magnitude and method of this revolt are Rheinpolhtik Kaser (3 vols, Stuttgart, 1926); R. 1870-71 von Krieges des Ursprung movement The time our together the dominating political fact of 1926-27), R W 1-iv, (vols France la de Service Au Pomcaré, is assuredly permanent Already, it has exerted a profound in- Seton-Watson, Sarc-ev2 (1526). C Seymour The Intamate Papers of War fluence on human institutions and relations. The League of Na- Colonel House (2 yoh rez} FE Steve Jco’ey ap a the WorldDocurey0-1¢.4 (192), Britisk tions exists Though its own authority must remain insufficient (1926), Deutschlard und T robe, rsgs—Tgl and Gooch P G g (ec War the oF Ortisr on the on ments while America abstains, the Kellogg Pact has been signed rshal HL Temperley, vol. 1-viu, 7927-29) , C E Callwell, e Freld-Ma American initiative It is already improbable that war on any Sir Henry Wilson

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ton’s was a collection of many nationalities, and the kernel of The Passage of the Sambre.—At the very outset delays ocBritish and King’s German Legion troops numbered only 42,000 curred. Vandamme, who was to lead the advance on Charleroi, Blucher’s army was undoubtedly more homogeneous and included was delayed by an accident that befell the single orderly who no specially weak elements Napoleon led out a veteran army of carried the orders to the III Corps. Gérard, too, was late as his Frenchmen who worshipped their leader. But there were lines concentration had not been completed on the r4th. Zieten’s outof weakness in his force, For various reasons, neither Davout, posts fought stubbornly to delay the French advance for 24 hours Murat, Suchet, nor Clausel were employed in the “Armée du and give time for Blicher’s concentration As soon as the emperor Nord.” Marshal Soult, appomted chief of the staff, possessed reached the front he took vigorous action, nevertheless it was few qualifications for this post, and neither Ney nor Grouchy who, after noon before the Charleroi bridge was stormed At the same when the campaign began were given command of the left and time Reille crossed at Marchienne The emperor at once began right wings, possessed the ability or strategic skill necessary for the advance up both the Fleurus and Quatre Bras roads It was such positions Again the army was morally weakened by a 3 2M when Marshal Ney joined the army and was at once given haunting dread of treason, and, finally, it was too small for its command of the left wing. Napoleon then proceeded with Grouchy purpose, Locked up in secondary theatres Napoleon had left to reconnoitre the Prussian position at Gilly, and, handing over 56,500 men, of whom he might have collected over 30,000 for the command of the nght wing to the marshal, the emperor 1mthe decisive campaign in Belgium, Had he concentrated 155,000 mediately returned to Charleroi and ordered Vandamme to go to of his available force opposite to Charlero: on June 14, then the assistance of Grouchy issue would hardly have been in doubt As it was he left toomuch, theThe alhes had been caught unprepared. But as soon as Blucher to Fortune got the first real warning of ummunent danger he ordered the For his advance into Belgium in 181 5 Napoleon divided his immediate concentration of his army at Sombreffe Unforarmy into two wings and a reserve. As the foe would lie away tunately, the orders sent to Bulow were so hazy that Bulow to his right and left front after he had passed the Sambre, one did not realize the need for any special haste Thus the IV. wing would be pushed up towards Wellington and another Blucher; whilst the mass of the reserve would be centrallytowards Corps was neutralized until after the 16th But Pirch I and placed Thielemann acted with satisfactory Promptness and their corps so as to strike on either side, as soon as a force of the enemy reached Mazy and Namur by nightfall Blucher in pursuance with worth destroying was encountered and gripped To this end he had, on the 14th, massed his left wing (Reille and D’Erlon) his plan moved to Sombreffe, Wellington’s position at night was hardly safe or even satisaround Solre, and his right wing (Gérard) at Philippeville, whilst factory It was not until 3 PM that definite news of the French the central mass (Vandamme, Lobau, the Guard and the Cavalry advance reached Brussels, and even then the duke was not certain Reserve) lay around Beaumont The orders for the French ad- of the direction of Napoleon’s main stroke. Consequently he vance next day, among the finest ever issued, directed that the ordered his divisions to concentrate at their alarm-posts and await army should march at dawn and move to the Sambre at Mar- further orders, The danger of Blucher’s Position was thus chienne and Charleroi, By evening it was expected that the whole enormously increased The allies do not appear to have decided would have crossed the Sambre, and would bivouac between the upon the course to be taken in case they were surprised, and sundered allies. their system of inter-communication was most imperfect. Luckily

WATERLOO Wellington’s subordinates at the critical point acted with admirable boldness Prince Bernard, commanding the brigade at

Quatre Bras, retained bis position there to check the French

advance instead

of drawing off to mass with his division at

Nivelles. His immediate superiors approved his action. Owing to these officers Wellington retaied possession of the important strategical point of Quatre Bras. Consequently Ney’s advance struck into Prince Bernard’s advanced troops who were forced hack. But Prince Bernard firmly held his main Position at the cross-roads; and, as the day was drawing on, Ney wisely decided not to push on any farther and so risk isolating the left wing He halted and reported to the emperor, Meanwhile Grouchy and Vandamme wasted two hours deliberating in front of the Prussian brigade at Gilly. Then at 5:30 P.M. Napoleon again reached the front and vigour replaced indecision.

After a brief cannonade Vandamme advanced with the bayonet and the Prussians gave way. Grouchy then moved on Fleurus and halted for the night.

Owing to Zaeten’s skill Blucher had secured his concentration area, one corps was ın position, and two others were at hand Thanks to his subordinates Wellington still retained a grip on Quatre Bras Hs corps were assembling I., Nivelles, Braine le Comte, Enghien; II, Ath, Grammont, Sotteghem: Cavalry,

Nmove; Reserve, at Brussels Dummng the night the divisions were ordered to move to Nivelles, and at dawn the Reserve marched for Mt St Jean.

The duke had relied on information that did not come to hand His intelligence officer, Colonel Colquhoun Grant, who was in France, was ordered to send back his reports to the duke through General Dornberg at Mons On June 15 Grant reported that the French Army was advancing, but Dornberg refused to believe the report and returned it Owing to this officer’s presumptuous folly Grant’s report only reached Wellington on June 18. On the night of the 15th the “Armée du Nord” was disposed as follows —Left Wing, Frasnes to Marchienne; Right Wing, in

front of Fleurus and astride the Sambre at Châtelet, Centre (or Reserve), Guard, between Gully and Charleroi; but Muthaud’s Currassiers and Lobau’s (VI) Corps were still south of the Sambre. Thus, despite the delays, Napoleon had secured a dominant strategical position. The allies were still encouraged to attempt a risky forward concentration, whilst Napoleon’s covering forces were sufficiently far forward to be able to grip whichever ally adventured his army first. The “Armée du Nord” lay concentrated “sm a square whose sides measured 12 m. each, and it could with equal facility swing agamst the Prussians or the Anglo-Dutch, and was already placed between them.” 16th June—Early in the morning Prince Bernard was rein-

CAMPAIGN

419

breffe, the emperor would swing the reserve westward to join

Ney, who should then have mastered Quatre Bras and have pushed out a force to lnk with Grouchy, as well as another body 6 m to the northward. The centre and left wing would then march by mght to Brussels. The allies would thus be irremediably sundered Meanwhile Napoleon and the VI. Corps waited at

Charleroi for further information. Up till noon Ney took no serious step to capture Quatre Bras, which still lay at his mercy. Grouchy reported that Prussian masses were coming up from Namur, but Napoleon ignored this. Before 10 Aw. Ney reported considerable hostile forces at Quatre Bras. The marshal was ordered to crush what was in front of him and report to Fleurus. Here Napoleon arrived at 11 a.m, still leaving Lobau at Charlerot. Napoleon at once reconnoitred the situation. Only one Prussian corps was showing, but it was disposed parallel to the Namur road, as if to cover a forward concentration. Had the decisive day arrived? If so, by 2 P.M Vandamme, Gérard, Pajol and Ezelmans would be available for the assault, and the Guard and Milhaud would act as a reserve. At 2 pu Napoleon ordered Ney to secure Quatre Bras, as the emperor was attacking the Prussian corps Whichever wing succeeded first would then wheel inwards and help the other. The decisive flank had not yet become clear. Blucher had determined to fight. Wellington, on arnval at Quatre Bras, finding all was quiet, rode over to meet Blucher at Brye. Considering no serious force was in front of Quatre Bras, Wellington ended the interview with the conditional promise that he would bring his army to Blicher’s assistance at Ligny, af he was not attacked himself But on his return to Quatre Bras he found the situation already cnitical. Quatre Bras.—Ney had let slp the chance when he could have mastered Quatre Bras with ease, and thereby ensured cooperation with Napoleon He waited to mass Reille’s Corps before he advanced, though the Prince of Orange had only 7,500 troops at Quatre Bras. The Prmce had boldly scattered his force, made wise use of cover and showed a firm front to Ney. It was 2 pM. when the French attacked East of the road the Dutch-Belgians were forced back and the line wavered But at 3 pm. Merlen’s cavalry rode in from Nivelles, Picton and the sth division marched up from Brussels, and Wellington himself returned. Picton stopped the French advance, but Reille’s last division was thrown in on the French left, and a hot fight broke out. The Brunswick contingent now reached Wellington and at once attacked It was 4.15 PM. Ney had just recerved Napoleon’s 2 pu order, and he promptly pressed, his attack and almost cleared the Bossu wood, However, at 5 pu. Alten’s division arnved from Nivelles, and Ney realized that he needed D’Erlon’s corps to gain the cross-roads. About 5:15 p.m Ney learned that D’Erlon, without his knowledge, had moved eastwards to co-operate at Ligny. Then at 5-30 P.M, he recerved Napoleon’s order to seize Quatre Bras and swing in against Blucher who was pinned at Ligny Napoleon added, “the fate of France is in your hands.” Ney’s duty was clear. He must hold Wellington at Quatre Bras and allow D’Erlon to ensure that a decisive success was gained that day at Ligny. In no case could D’Erlon return in time to be of any use at Quatre Bras, Ney, beside himself with rage, sent imperative orders to D’Erlon to return and ordered Kellermann’s curassier brigade to break through Wellington’s line. The charge was admirably executed. A. British regiment, caught in line, was overthrown and lost a colour. But unsupported, the horsemen were then beaten back.

forced at Quatre Bras by the rest of his division (Perponcher’s) ; and Wellington’s other troops were now all on the march eastward except the reserve, who were heading southwards and halted at the cross-raads of Mt. S Jean until the duke had resolved that their objective should be Quatre Bras. They then marched in that direction. Blucher meanwhile was making his arrangements to hold a position to the south of the Namur-Nivelles road and thus maintain uninterrupted communication with Wellmgton at Quatre Bras. Napoleon spent the early morning in closing up his army, and writing what proved to be the most important letter of the campaign to Ney (Charleroi, about 8 a.m ): “I have adopted as the general principle for this campaign to divide my army into two wings and a reserve. . . . The Guard will form the reserve, and I shall bring ıt into action on either wing just as circumstances At that moment Ney: received a verbal message from Napoleon dictate ... According to circumstances I shall weaken one wing ordering him, whatever happened at Quatre Bras, to allow D’Erlon to strengthen my reserve... .” Here, in its simplest form, is to carry out the move to Ligny. Despite remonstrance, Ney the principle that underhes Napoleon’s strategy in 1815. Only on refused to reconsider D’Erlon’s recall and plunged into the fight, the wing on which the reserve is brought into action will a Then about 7 pm the British Guards reached Wellington and decisive result. be aimed at The other 1s to be used exclusively at last gave him the numerical superionty. Promptly the duke fo neutralize the other enemy, by holding him at bay. attacked all along the line, and by nightfall the French had been Napoleon’s plan for this day assumed that the surprised allies driven back to Frasnes, The losses were, Anglo-Dutch 4,700, would not risk a forward concentration. The emperor mtended to French 4,300 At 9 p.m., when the battle was over, D’Erlon push an advanced guard to Gembloux to ward off Blucher, and arrived The corps had reached the edge of the Ligny battlefield move up the Guard to Fleurus But once in possession of Som- when it received the counter-order. Thinking he was still under

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J Ney, D’Erlon decided to leave one division at Wagnelée and to return to the left wing. The incident was immeasurably unfortunate for the French. Had D’Erlon been used betimes at Quatre Bras, Wellington would have been crushed, ahad he only engaged at Ligny, D’Erlon would have ensured Blucher’s annihilation, But oscillating between the two fields the Corps took part in neither. At 10 pm Ney wrote a short and somewhat one-sided report to Soult. Ligny.—On the other flank there had meanwhile been waged the very bitterly fought battle of Ligny. As Blucher’s dispositions gradually became clearer the emperor realized that the first decisive day of the campaign had actually come and promptly made arrangements for defeating the Prussian army in his front. Blücher, to cover the Namur road, held with the I Corps the villages of Brye, St Amand, and Ligny, whilst behind his centre Was massed the II. Corps, and on his left was placed the ITI Corps. Wellington and Bülow on arrival would act as general reserve Bliicher’s army was quite visible to Napoleon on the bare open slopes, the II. Corps being especially exposed ‘The emperor decided to bear down Blucher’s centre and right with the corps of Vandamme and Gérard and with Girard’s division which he had drawn into his operations, containing the Prussian left meanwhile with the squadrons of Pajol and Exelmans, assisted by a few infantry. The Guard and Milhaud were m hand at Fleurus, Further, he could order up Lobau, and direct Ney to move his rearward corps across and form it up behind Blticher’s right When the battle was ripe, he would crush the Prussian centre and right between the Guard and D’Erlon’s corps. It was a somewhat complicated manoeuvre; for he was attempting to outflank his

enemy with a corps that he had subordinated to Marshal Ney

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his orders The usual Napoleonic simplicity was wanting at Ligny, and he paid in full for the want The Prussians numbered about 83,000 to Napoleon’s 71,000 (including Lobau) About 2 30 pw the sound of Ney’s guns to the westward proved that Wellington was attacked and Napoleon then opened the battle A fierce fight soon raged for the villages of Ligny and St Amand By 3 15 PM. the battle was m full swing and Napoleon wrote to Ney, saying, “The fate of France is in your hands,” and ordering the marshal to master Quatre Bras and move eastwards to assist at Ligny. Durectly afterwards, hearing that Ney had 20,000 men in front of him, he sent the “pencil-note” by General La Bédoyére, directing Ney to detach

D’Erlon’s corps to Ligny. This the ADC, in a fit of mistaken zeal, took upon himself to do. Hence the corps appeared too soon and in the wrong direction It is clear that Ney’s essential duty was to co-operate at Ligny, provided that Wellington was held fast at Quatre Bras Unfortunately, in the heat of action, Ney misread his instructions Meanwhile the emperor had ordered Lobau to move up to Fleurus The fight for the villages raged fiercely and incessantly, and the places were captured and recaptured. Generally the French had the better of the fighting, and Blucher was compelled to use up more and more of his reserves The fighting grew so furious that the troops literally melted away. Even the emperor had to call on his reserves Just as the Young and Middle Guard moved to reinforce Gérard an¢ Vandamme, the latter reported that a hostile column, 30,000

Strong, was threatening his left (in reality 1t was D’Erlon). Thus sight unnerved Vandamme’s exhausted troops, and guns had to

be turned on them to quell a panic

It was nearing 6 p.m

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poleon concluded that this could not be D’Erlon, as he had artived too’ soon and was marching

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WATERLOO Napoleon sent an officer to reconnoitre.

As the French attacks

slackened the Prussians ralhed and counter-attacked, but they were beaten back by the Young Guard By 6 30 pm Napoleon learned that the force was D’Erlon’s, and that it had withdrawn westwards ‘Thus there was no direct co-operation from the Left Wing on this decisive day. The emperor had perforce to fimsh

the battle smmgle-handed Blucher now launched a general counter-stroke against Vandamme, but the chasseurs of the Guard drove back the Prussians in disorder and Napoleon’s chance had come at last

As Lobau

formed up near Fleurus, the guns of the Guard opened on Ligny to prepare Blucher’s centre for assault.

At 7 45 PM. a crashing

salvo from 6o guns heralded a combined onslaught by Gérard, the Guard, and Milhaud. This tremendous impact of picked

troops pierced and broke the Prussian centre

Blicher promptly

launched his cavalry reserve to stem the French advance

Lead-

ing a charge in person he was dismounted and ridden over, before he was rescued and borne from the field Blucher had taken an unjustifiable personal risk, for at this crisis it was essential for the Prussians to be commanded by a chief who would keep loyally

in touch and act in concert with his colleague By 9 p.m. the battle was over and the French pressed resistlessly onwards The beaten Prussians retired to the north of the Namur road. But in the failing Lght and in the uncertainty as to events on the left wing, mmediate pursuit was out of the question. The execution had again fallen short of the conception; Bliicher though beaten was not destroyed, nor was his line with Wellmgton cut If the Prussians now retired northwards, parallel to the direction which Wellington would follow perforce on the morrow, the chance of co-operating in a decisive battle would still remain to the allies; and Gneisenau’s order issued by moonlight, directing the retreat on Tilly and Wavre, went far to ensuring the possibility of such combined action. However, Gneisenau was very remiss in not immediately reporting this vital move and the necessity for it to the duke, as it left the Anglo-Dutch inner flank quite exposed Gneisenau apparently selected Wavre, not with the imtention of assisting his ally, but rather to re-establish his own line of communication, and the presence of the Prussians on the field of battle of Waterloo must be put down to the immortal credit of Blucher and Grolmann, his quartermaster-general. Gneisenau allowed the re-establishment of his communications to overweigh the paramount necessity of arranging concerted action with his ally. Probably Wellington’s failure to co-operate at Ligny had heightened the Prussian chief-of-staff’s unworthy suspicions of the duke’s good faith. It was well for the alles that Blucher was able to resume command before Napoleon had time to profit from the dissensions that would probably have arisen had Gneisenau remained in control, The casualties at Ligny were

CAMPAIGN Wellington’s position untenable.

421 Still ignorant of Bliicher’s exact

position, Wellington sent out a well-escorted officer to establish touch with the Prussians. He reported that the Prussians were drawing off to rally at Wavre. Then, about 9 Am, a Prussian officer arrived to explain the situation and learn Wellington’s plans The duke replied that he should fall back and accept battle near Mt. S. Jean, provided he was assured of the support of one of Blucher’s corps He now subordinated everything to remaining in communication with Blucher It was 24M, June 18, before Wellington received an answer. Covered by Thielemann the Prussians had drawn off towards Gembloux to jomm Bulow, Meanwhile, soon after dawn, the French cavalry rounded up some stragglers on the Namur road, and for a tıme confirmed the 1dea that Blucher was retiring on his base. The situation was still obscure, details about what had happened to Ney were wanting, and the direction of the Prussian retreat was uncertain. At 8 a.m Ney was ordered to take up his position at Quatre Bras, or if he reported that it was umpossible the emperor would co-operate Napoleon meant that if only a rearguard opposed Ney it was to be driven off and Quatre Bras occupied. But if Wellington was still there, the marshal was to hold him fast, and Napoleon would hasten up with the reserve and crush his enemy Wellington in fact was there, but Ney did nothing to retain him, and at 10 AM. the duke began to retire northwards The last chance of bringing about a decisive French success was thus allowed to slip away. Grouchy’s Operations.—About 11 Am. Napoleon came to a decision He determmed to send two cavalry corps, and Vandamme’s and Gérard’s corps, and Teste’s division (33,000 and Irro guns) to follow the Prussians and discover if they intended uniting with Wellmgton m front of Brussels As touch had been

gained with Thielemann at Gembloux, Marshal Grouchy, who had been given command of the force, was ordered by the emperor to “proceed to Gembloux.” This order the marshal obeyed hterally

After an inconceivably slow’march, in one badly arranged column moving on one road, Grouchy only reached Gembloux on June 17, and halted there for the night. Grouchy’s cavalry who had been mm touch with Thielemann’s corps, at Gembloux, allowed it to slip away, and contact was lost for want of a serious effort to keep it. Grouchy did not proceed to the front and entirely failed to appreciate the situation, Pressing danger could only exist if Blucher had gone northwards, and northwards in the Dyle valley Grouchy should have sought for the Prussians But on June 17 the marshal pushed no reconnaissances to the northward and westward of Gentimnes. (Actually Milhaud, when marching with Napoleon towards Quatre Bras, did see some Prussian infantry retiring northwards and reported this about 9 pm to Napoleon, but he attached little importance to 1t) Had Blucher gone eastvery heavy The Prussians lost 12,000 men and 21 guns, and the wards, then no danger threatened, for Grouchy could easily have French 8,500 men. So close was the fighting that most of the held back any future Prussian advance on the lme of the Dyle Grouchy merely obeyed his orders literally and went to Gembloux 20,000 casualties lay on 2 sq m. of ground, Napoleon’s plen of ca~naign had succeeded Despite D’Erlon’s At nightfall the situation was in favour of the allies The four misadventure, Nev s ieslure had placed che Arglo-Dutch army in Prussian corps were concentrated astride the Dyle at Wavre and a precarious position, Napoleon having beaten Blucher, the latter Grouchy was actually outside them. After an unmolested retreat must fall back to rally and re-form On the other flank Ney lay in the Prussians were ready to take the field once more, and 24 front of Wellington, and the marshal could fasten upon the hours before Napoleon had deemed it possible after their defeat Anglo-Dutch army and hold it fast on June 17, sufficiently long to at Ligny Napoleon’s Pursuit of Wellington,—On the other flank, too, allow the emperor to close round its open left flank and deal it a death-blow. It was essential to deal with Wellington before things had gone all in favour of Wellington, At noon Napoleon Blucher could re-appear on the scene Wellmgton was but im- wrote to Ney that troops had been placed at Marbais to second the perfectly informed of the details of the result of Ligny. Certainly marshal’s attack on Quatre Bras, yet Ney remaimed quiescent, and Thus on Napoleon’s Blucher had despatched an aide-de-camp to warn Wellington Wellington began. his retreat unmolested that he was forced to retire, But the officer was shot and the arrival only the duke’s cavalry screen and some horse artillery message remained undelivered. Nor did Gneisenau repeat this remained on the position. As the emperor justly said, Ney had important message directly he assumed temporary command. ruined France. This was the fatal mistake of the campaign AlGneisenau’s neglect involved the alles ın an unnecessary and though Napoleon opened a rapid pursuit as the cavalry screen crumpled up and decamped, yet he failed to entangle the rear very grave risk. June 17.—Napoleon was unwell, and was not in the saddle as guard so deeply as to force the duke to return to its assistance. early as he would otherwise have been, and neither Soult nor Ney Also a tropical thunderstorm considerably retarded the French made any serious arrangements for an advance when every pursuit. Only as the light failed did Napoleon arrive opposite to mmute was golden. By early morning the duke had most of his Wellington’s position, and then by a masterly reconnaissance in army about Quatre Bras. But Blucher’s defeat had rendered force he compelled the duke to disclose the presence of virtually

422

WATERLOO

the whole army. The French halted between Rossornme and Genappe, bivouacking in the sodden fields. June 18—During the might Wellington heard that Bhicher would bring two corps certainly, and possibly four, to Waterloo, and the duke determined to accept battle. Yet so far was Wellington from divinmg Napoleon’s plan that he stationed 17,000 men (including Colville’s British division) about Hal, 8 m. to his right, to repel a turning movement that he groundlessly anticipated and to form a rallying point for his mght ın case his centre was broken. By making this detachment the duke ran a very grave nsk. But with the 67 600 men and 156 guns which he had in hand, he took up a truly admirable “Wellingtonian position” in front of Mt. S. Jean. He used a low ridge to screen his main position, exposing comparatively few troops in front of the crest He occupied Hougoumont with detachments of the British Guards and placed a King’s German Legion garrison in La Haye Sainte, the key of his position. The duke also took care to distribute the troops so that the indifferent and immature were closely supported by those who were “better disciphned and more accustomed to war.” Full arrangements for Blucher’s co-operation were made through General Mirffiing, the Prussian attaché on the duke’s staff. The duke was to stand fast and receive the attack, whilst Blucher closed round Napoleon’s exposed right. Thus the Prussians were the real general reserve on this day. Blucher kept his promise loyally, but the execution was faulty The Prussians did not start marching at dawn, and the rear corps (Bulow) was selected to lead the column. A fire that broke out in Wavre further delayed the march. But, despite his hurts, the old marshal was in the saddle Luckily the wet state of the ground (largely cornfields) and the scattered bivouacs of the French caused Napoleon’s attack to be put off until 1x 30 am Grouchy had reported at 10 PM, 17th, from Gembloux that the Prussians were retiring towards Wavre and Perwez. He stated that he meant to follow the Wavre column, if it was the stronger, and separate it from Wellington But this was impossible Grouchy was outside the Prussian left and, by following it, he must inevitably drive the allies together The emperor answered the letter at 10 Am, and directed the marshal to march for Wavre Napoleon’s original plan must be kept in mind when considering this letter. It will then be seen to mean that Grouchy was to place his force on Bhicher’s inner flank and hold him back from Waterloo. But this is just what the letter does not state precisely; accordingly Grouchy (as Ney had done previously) misread it. Meanwhile the French army formed up some 1,300 yards from Wellington’s position. Although some misgivings filled the minds of such Peninsular veterans as Soult, Reille, and Foy, none assailed Napoleon But the late hour at which the battle opened, and Napoleon’s determination to break Wellington’s centre instead of outflanking his left and farther separating the allies, deprived him of any chance of beating Wellington before Blucher could intervene. Napoleon drew up his army of 74,000 and 246 guns ım three lines in full view of the Anglo-Dutch army. It was an imposing array of veteran troops backed by the dark masses of the Imperial Guard. As their emperor rode along the lines the troops acclaimed him with extraordinary enthusiasm.

WATERLOO 11.30 Am the battle was opened with

CAMPAIGN corps had been sighted by the emperor, and that the marshal was to hasten to the field and crush Bulow. This order at least was clear, but it was sent 12 hours too late, and when Grouchy re. ceived it he was unable to carry it out. To neutralize Bulow when necessity arose, the emperor now detached Lobau together with the squadrons of Domon and Subervie The general, however, hardly drew out far enough from the French right, otherwise the magnificent resolution he displayed and the admurable ob. stinacy with which his troops fought agamst ever-increasing odds are worthy of all praise Thus as early as 130 PM the Prussian intervention deranged the symmetry of Napoleon’s battle-array

The emperor never considered breaking off the fight and seeking a more favourable opportunity of beating the allies in detail

He

was still determined to involve both Wellington and Bulow in a common ruin Second Phase——Ney was therefore ordered to attack Welling. ton’s centre with D’Erlon’s corps Owing to a misconception the columns used for advance were over-heavy and unwieldy, and the corps failed to achieve anything of importance. As D’Erlon’s

troops advanced the Dutch-Belgian brigade ın front of the nage,

which had been subjected to an overwhelming fire from the 80 French guns at close range, turned about and retired in disorder through the main position. This, however, was the solitary success secured by the I. corps; for the left division failed to storm

La Haye Samte and Picton’s division met the remainder of D’Erlon’s corps face to face, engaging them in a murderous infantry duel m which Picton fell During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of bis cavalry brigades on the enemy; and the “Union brigade” catching the French infantry unawares rode over them, broke them up, and drove them to the bottom of the slope with the loss of two eagles; but the British cavalry were driven back with great loss by fresh French horsemen hurled on

them by the emperor

So far no success against Wellington had

been achieved, and Bulow was still an onlooker. Third Phase.—Ney was now ordered to attack La Haye Sainte

agam, but the attack failed. A furious cannonade raged, and the Anglo-Dutch line withdrew slightly to gain more cover from the

ridge. Ney misinterpreted this manoeuvre and led out, about 4 P.M, Muhaud’s and Lefebvre-Desnouettes’ horsemen (43 squadrons) to charge the allied centre between the two farms For several reasons, the cavalry could only advance ata trot. As the horsemen closed they were received with volleys of case from the guns, and the infantry formed mto squares Against the squares the horsemen were powerless, and failing to break a single square, they were finally swept off the plateau by fresh allied horsemen. Kellermann’s cuirassiers and the heavy horse of the Guard (37 fresh squadrons) now advanced to support the baffled cavalry, the latter falling in as supports. The whole 80 squadrons resumed the attack, but with no better result. The cavalry gradually became hopelessly entangled among the squares they were unable to break, and at last they were driven down the face of the mdge and the most dramatic part of the battle came to an end Had these great cavalry attacks been closely supported by infantry, there can be little doubt that they must have achieved their object But they were not. In his handling of the three arms together, Napoleon on this day failed to do justice to his reputation

About 4 30 P M. Biilow at last engaged. Lobau’s men were grad-

ually overpowered and forced back into Plancenoit, the village an attack by one of Reille’s divisions on Hougoumont This was was stormed, and the Prussian round shot reached the main road. merely to draw Wellington’s attention to his right, and in this it To set his right flank free the emperor called further on his failed. Half-an-hour later a battery of 80 guns unlmbered on reserve, and sent Duhesme with the Young Guard to Lobau's the long spur to the SE. of La Haye Sainte to prepare the support Together, these troops drove Bulow out of Plancenoit, duke’s centre for the main attack. But the crest of the “Welling- and forced him back towards the Paris wood But the Prussians tonian position” sheltered the defence from the tempest of iron. had not yet changed the fate of the day Fourth Phase.—Napoleon now ordered Ney to carry La Haye After 1 p.m., and just before he gave orders for Ney to lead the main attack, the emperor scanned the battlefield, and on his right Sainte at whatever cost, and this the marshal accomplished with The garrison front he saw a dense dark cloud emerging from the woods at the wrecks of D’Erlon’s corps soon after 6 pm Chapelle Saint Lambert It was soon discovered that this was (King’s German Legion) had run out of rifle ammunition and the Bulow’s corps marching to Wellington’s assistance A letter French bursting in seized the post ‘This was the first decided was now awaiting despatch to Grouchy, and to ıt was added a advantage that Napoleon had gained during the day. The key of postscript that the battle was raging with Wellington, that Bulow’s the duke’s position was now in Napoleon’s hands, Wellington's

First Phase.—About

WATERLOO centre was dangerously shaken, the troops were exhausted, and the reserves inadequate But the Iron Duke faced the situation unmoved Calmly he readjusted his lime and strengthened the torn centre Happily for him, Pirch I and Zieten’s corps were

CAMPAIGN

423

torious Instead of concentrating his force upon one bridge over the swampy and unfordable Dyle, Grouchy scattered it in attacks upon several, and when the emperor’s despatch arrived, saying Bulow was im sight, the marshal was powerless to move westward

Towards the end of the day Colonel Vallin’s Hussars stormed the Limale bridge, and a large part of Grouchy’s force then promptly gained the left bank ‘The action continued till about 1: P.M, when it died out, to recommence shortly after dawn. Thielemann To this end he sent two battalions of the Old Guard to storm was at length overborne by sheer weight of numbers, and towards Plancenoit The veterans did the work magnificently with the tz AM he was forced to retire towards Louvain. The losses bayonet, ousted the Prussians from the place, and drove them were considerable, about 2,400 men on each side. Grouchy’s victory was barren In the far higher duty of coback 600 yards beyond it But Napoleon could not turn now on Wellington Zieten was fast coming up on the duke’s left, and operation he had failed miserably His tactical achievement could the crisis was past Zieten’s advent permitted the two fresh avail the emperor nothing, and it exposed his own force to concavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on the duke’s extreme siderable danger. Whilst pondering on the course he should folleft to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre The value low, the marshal received the news of the awful disaster that had of this reinforcement at this particular moment can hardly be overtaken the emperor at Waterloo. In a flash he realized his danger and made prompt arrangements to begin his retreat on overestimated Fifth Phase.—The French now fiercely attacked Wellington all Namur, the only line to France that was then available. This along the line; and the culminating point of this was reached when retreat he carried out resolutely, skilfully and rapidly, slipping Napoleon sent forward the Guard, less 5 battalions, to attack past Blucher and finally bringing his force to Paris. But the rapid Wellngton’s centre Delivered in three échelons, these final advance of the allies gave France no time to rally. Napoleon attacks were repulsed, the first échelon by Colin Halkett’s British was forced to abdicate, and finding escape was impossible, he surBngade, a Dutch-Belgian battery, and a brigade of Chassé’s rendered (on July 14) to the British—‘the most powerful, the Dutch-Belgian division, the second and third échelons by the most unwavering and the most generous of his foes.” The causes of Napoleon’s failure in the Waterloo campaign were Guards, the 52nd, and the Royal Artillery. Thus ended the fifth as follows:—The French army was numerically too weak for the hase gigantic task it undertook Napoleon himself was no longer the Rout of the French.—As the Guard recoiled (about 8 pw ) Zieten pierced the north-east corner of the French front, and their Napoleon of Marengo or Austerlitz, and though he was not broken whole le gave way as the allies rushed forward on their now down, his physical strength was certainly impaired Ney failed to defenceless prey Three battalions of the Guard indeed stood their grasp and hold Wellington on the critical 17th of June; and on the ground for some time, but they were finally overwhelmed After- 17th and 18th Grouchy’s feeble manoeuvres enabled Bhicher to wards, amidst the runs of their army, two battalions of the rst march and join Welkngton at Waterloo. Napoleon’s chance of Grenadiers of the Guard defied all efforts to break them. But, success was dangerously diminished, 1f not utterly destroyed, by with the exception of these two battalions, the French army was the incompetence of the two marshals whom in an evil hour he quickly transformed into a flying rabble Bulow and Pirch I. now selected for high commands. Another dominant influence in shaping the course of events was finally overpowered Lobau, once more recaptured Plancenoit, and sealed the doom of the French army But Lobau’s heroic efforts the loyalty of Bhicher to his ally, and the consequent appearhad not been in vain, they had given his master time to make his ance of the Prussian army at Waterloo Nor must we overlook last effort against Wellington, and when the Guard was beaten Wellington’s unswerving determination to co-operate with Blicher back the French troops holding Plancenoit kept free the Charleroi at all costs, and his firmness on June 18; or the invincible steadiroad, and prevented the Prussians from seizing Napoleon’s line ness shown by the British troops and those of the King’s German now at hand

Pirch I moved to support Bulow; together they

regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more

the Charleroi

read was swept by Prussian round shot. Napoleon, therefore, had to free his right flank before he could make use of Ney’s capture

of retreat

When Wellington and Blucher met about 915 PM.

at “La

Belle Alhance,” the victorious chiefs arranged that the Prussians should take up the pursurt, and they faithfully carried out the

agreement Pushing on through the night, they drove the French out of seven successive bivouacs and at length drove them over the Sambre The campaign was virtually at an end, and the price paid was great The French had lost over 40,000 men and almost all their artillery on June 18; the Prussians lost 7,000, and Wellington over 15,000 men. So desperate was the fighting that some 45,000 killed and wounded lay on an area of roughly 3 sqm

At

one point on the plateau “the 27th (Inniskillmgs) were lying literally dead in square”, and the position that the British infantry held was plainly marked by the red lme of dead and wounded they left behind them Grouchy’s Operations June 18-19.—A few words may now be bestowed on Marshal Grouchy, commanding the right wing.

The marshal wrongly determined on the 18th to continue his march to Wavre in a single column, and he determmed, still more wrongly, to move by the right bank of the Dyle

Breaking up

from bivouac long after dawn, he marched forward, via Walhain Here he stopped to report to the emperor some intelligence which turned out to be false, and he remained for breakfast. Hardly had he finished when the openmg roar of the cannonade at Water-

loo was heard

Grouchy was now urged by his genera"s, especia'ly

by Gérard, to march to the sound of the firmg, ù hè refuso o take their advice, and pushed on to Wavre, where he found the Prussians (Thielemann’s corps of 16,000 men) holding the passages across the Dyle A fierce fight (called the Action of Wavre) began about 4 pw, in which the Prussians were for long vic-

Legion. Reviewing this campaign at St Helena, Napoleon laid the responsibility for the disaster of Waterloo on the inaction of Mar-

shal Grouchy who, after he had lost touch with the Prussian army

(which had crossed the Dyle at Wavre in order to work round

to the north in the direction of Soignes), ignored the urgent representations of his officers, and m particular of General Gérard, and refused to umite his forces with the bulk of Napoleon’s army, although he could hear the sound of the guns However grave may have been Grouchy’s error, it would be unjust to characterize his failure as treason. In any case, Marshal Grouchy, in spite of the miscarriage of his first mission, fearing to depart from the orders of the emperor, showed himself deficient not only in military insight but also in character In this article the writer has been greatly assisted by the advice and suggestions of Lt Col H W L Hime,RA (A F BE.) BrsriocraPpay —Some of the principal books on the subject are’— K. v Clausewitz, Campagne de 1815 (1835, Fr. trans, 1899), H de Mauduit, Les derniers jours de la Grande Armée (1847) , W. Siborne, Campaign of 1815 (1848); J S Kennedy, Battle of Waterloo (186s) , C C. Chesney, Waterloo Lectures (1874), H T Siborne, Waterloo Letters (1891), L Navez, Quatre Bras, Ligny, Waterloo et Wavre (1903), A A Grouard, Stratégique Napoleontque, 1815 (1904), and Critique de 1815 (1907), H Houssaye, Waterloo (1907), F de Bas and T’serclaes de Wommerson, Campagne de z8r5 (Dutch-Belgian official account) (1908); A. Pollio, Waterloo (Rome, 1906); A F. Becke, Napoleon and Waterloo (1914); E Lement, La Solution des énigmes de Waterloo (1915) See also Napoleon Xet, Correspondance and Commentaires; Wellngton, Dispatches and Memorandum on Waterloo; Henri Houssaye, 1815; the works of Thiers, Charras and Quinet, the battle in Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables (untrustworthy as history) , the begimming of Stendhal, Chartreuses de Parme

424

WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH—WATER

WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH,

the Bootle and Ormskirk parliamentary divisions of Lancashire, England, at the mouth of the Mersey, 4 m. N. by W of Liverpool On account of its facilities for bathmg, firm sands, pleasant scenery and nearness to Liverpool, of which it is a suburb, it Is much frequented both by visitors and by residents WATERLOW, SIR ERNEST ALBERT (1850-1919), English painter, was born m London, and received the main part of his art education in the Royal Academy schools, where, in 1873, he gained the Turner medal for landscape-paintiog. He was elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters m WaterColours in 1880, member ın 1894, and presıdent in 1897; associate of the Royal Academy in 1890, and academician ın 1903; and he was knighted in 1902 He began to exhibit in 1872 and has produced a considerable number of admirable landscapes, with and without figures, in oil and water-colour, handled with grace and distinction One of his pictures, “Galway Gossips,” is in the National Gallery of British Art. He died on Oct 25, 1919. See Sir E. A. Waterlow, R.A. P.RW.S., by C. Collins Baker (Ari Journal Office, 1906).

WATERMARKS,

POLO

an urban district in southern Africa and widely cultivated since ancient times for its

the emblems or designs in paper used

refreshing fruit.

It 1s depicted in Egyptian paintings dating to

the time of the pyramids

The plant is a prostrate, long-running,

hairy vine, with branched tendrils and large leaves, 4 ın. to 7 m long, somewhat oblong mn outlme and deeply cut into several

narrow lobes, the leaf-stalks much shorter than the leaves The flowers, borne singly in the axils of the leaves, are light yellow, about 14 in broad, and divided into five lobes The fruit is a large berry-lke structure (pepo), spherical or oblong in form, mostly smooth and umform green or mottled with lighter portions,

with a hard but not durable rind, and red flesh contammıng numerous smooth, flat, black or white seeds Under cultivation the fruit attams very large size, often 14 ft to 2 ft or more long and

weighing from 20 lb to so lb or more, filled nearly to the mnd or white)

pleasantly flavoured

pulp, with abundant, sweet, watery juice

with red (sometimes

yellowish

The watermelon ıs

grown in most warm temperate countries, especially China, India, southern Russia, southern France, Egypt, South Africa and the southern United States. A harder, white-fleshed form, known as

preserving melon or citron, is used for making conserves In r926 the commercial crop of the United States was grown on 199,060

originally in Italy in the latter part of the 13th century. The On- acres, with a total production of 69,698 carloads (of 1,000 melons entals, who were the first to make paper, did not employ water- each), valued at $10,642,920, 70% of which were grown in Geormarks, although their method of fabricatmg sheets of paper was | 81ia, Florida, Texas and California WATER MOTORS: see Hyprautic Motors; Tursine, almost identical with that introduced into Europe during the WATER middle 12th century. WATER-OPOSSUM or YAPOCK (Chironectes mmThe original Italian watermarks consisted of devices such as crosses, circles, triangles and forms of the simplest kind that could mus), distinguished from other opossums by its aquatic habits, be readily twisted in wire. Until the middle of the roth century webbed hind-feet, and peculiar coloration Its ground colour is all watermarks were formed in outhne and were produced by the light grey, with four or five sharply contrasted brown bands use of metal wires bent to the shape of the required design. These passing across its head and back giving it a very peculiar mottled wire objects were then sewed to the mould on which the paper was appearance; the head and body together are about r4in long, to be formed, the wire leaving its impression in the wet sheet of and the tail a little more It feeds on small fish, crustaceans and paper by causing the fibres to lie thinner along its course. The other water animals, its range extends from Guatemala to southern ordinary watermarks in hand-made paper of the present day are Brazil. made in the same manner as those from the inception of the art, WATER POLO, a game which has done much to advance the only difference being in the employment of finer wire and swimming in popular favour and to improve the stamma of greater skill in their formation. Plate L, fig 3, shows the wire swimmers It is played either in a bath or open water, the teams device on the covering of a laid paper mould from the 16th cen- consisting of seven on a side The field of play must not exceed tury; fig 5 gives a section of an 18th century Dutch mould with 3oyd. or be less than royd ir lergth and the width must not he the watermarking wires in place more than zoyd The ball ured musi be round ane tow ue About the middle of the roth century a more complhcated flated and must not measure less than 2634, nor more than 28mn and artistic form of watermarking was devised and instead of in circumference It must be waterproof, with no strapped seams being limited to simple outline forms, it was possible to cause outside and no grease or other objectionable substance placed on the paper to be made in any degree of thickncss or tone desired it. The goals must be roft. in width, with a cross-bar 3ft above Fig. 1 shows a mould for the watermarking of a portrait. This the surface when the water ıs sft or over in depth, and 8ft mould has been made by first modelling the profile in a sheet from the bottom when the water ıs less than sft in depth, in no of wax so that the various degrees of light and shade may case must the water in which a game Js played be less than 3ft be had and then making intaglio and cameo dies from the Goal nets are used in all mportant matches The duration of a wax model by electrotyping Closely-woven brass wire gauze is match is supposed to be 14 minutes, seven minutes each way The then subjected to great pressure between the two electrotype officials consist of a referee, a timekeeper and two goal scorers, plates, the wire cloth or gauze taking the same contour as the the first-named official starting the game by throwing the ball into original wax relief. In forming sheets of paper on a hand mould the centre of the bath The counting point of the game, called a the water drains through the woven wire, leaving the moist pulp goal, 1s scored by the entire ball passing between the goal-posts in precisely the same thicknesses as those sculptured m the wax and under the cross-bar original, ‘The watermarking of paper in colour was invented by The players have to place themselves in a line with their respecSir William Congreve in 1818 (English patent, Dec 4, 1819, No. tive goals, and are not allowed to start swimming to the centre of 4419) and consisted in placing coloured paper stock (pulp) in the bath until the word “Go” ıs given They are usually divided various layers to form a homogeneous sheet of paper. into 3 forwards, 1 half-back, 2 backs and a goalkeeper ‘To the The foregoing treats only of watermarks that are produced in fastest swimmer is usually assigned the place of centre-forward hand-made paper where the moist pulp lies on the wire lettering and it 1s his duty to make all headway possible so as to reach the or pressed wire design during the whole process of forming the ball before the opposing forward of the other side,then pass rapidlv sheet. This naturally gives a brilliant and clear-cut watermark. back to the half or one of the backs and swim on to withm close In machine-made paper a wire cylinder known as a “dandy-roll” proximity of the opponent’s goal and wait for a pass The other or a circular rubber form is used to mpart the lettering or symbol forwards should rapidly follow him up and each man carefully to the moist paper by rolling over its surface after the web of shadow one of the opposing side In handling the ball only one paper has been formed, It is therefore not possible to produce as hand may be used, for to touch the ball with both hands at the clear or distinct a watermark on a machine as it is by the use of a same time constitutes a foul, as also does the holding of the rail finely-constructed mould in the hands of a skilled craftsman or the side, during any part of the game, the standing on or D Hv. touching of the bottom of the bath except for the purpose of WATERMELON (Citrullus vulgaris), an pe uae of resting; interfering or impeding an opponent in any way, unless the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae, gv), native to tropical and he be holding the ball; holding the ball under water when tackled,

WATERMARKS

:| |

— ———— — —

PLATE

H

m ni

HL /|

L.. w

WATERMARKS

AND

WATERMARKING

1. A complete mould (with deckle) for the watermarking of a portrait. The profile is first worked In wax so that various degrees of light and shade may be gained, and then intagllo and cameo dies are made from wax model by electrotyping 2. Hand made paper mould, combining lettering, and light and shade device for forming sheets of paper in one colour. Wires of lettering and pressed woven wire of design cause wet paper pulp to Ile In many

thicknesses, thus forming watermark In the sheet of paper 3

Wire device for watermarking figure of a camel in sheets of paper. papermakers favoured animals for watermarks

DEVICES

4. Mould for making hand-made paper, which combines the ordinary wire lettering and designs with the complicated tight and shade device. With

this mould

the oval centre

fs produced

In separate colour from

balance of sheet The wheel or star watermark (upper right-hand side) ts that of John Tate who established the first paper mill In England in 1495 Watermarking device (upper left-hand side) Is that of William

Rittenhouse

who founded

the first paper

Colonies in 1690 Old

5. Wire device for a watermark

showing a child swinging a rope

mill

In the

WATER

POWER—WATER

jumping from the bottom or pushing off from the side (except at

starting or restarting) ın order to play the ball or duck an oppo-

nent, holding, pullng back or pushing off from an opponent, turning on the back to kick at an opponent, assisting a player at the start or restart to get a good push off, throwing the ball at the goalkeeper from a free throw or refusing to play the ball at the command of the referee after a foul or when the ball has been out

of the field of play Dribblng or striking the ball 1s held to be not holding, but lifting, carrying, pressing under water or placing the hand under or over the ball when actually touching, 1s holding, dribbling up the bath and through the posts is permissible.

There 1s a penalty area, 4yds. from each goal-post and the imaginary line across the bath is not allowed to be passed by the respective goalkeepers, otherwise they commit a foul They may stand to defend their goal, touch the ball with both hands or jump from the bottom to play the ball, but in all other respects the same rules as to fouls apply to them as to other players. In any case they are not allowed to throw the ball beyond half-distance If they do so the opposing side 1s awarded a free throw

For fouls which the

referee considers to have been committed wilfully there are very severe penalties and those guilty of them are ordered out of the water until a goal has been scored, thus for the time bemg cripphng the side Deliberately wasting time, starting before the word “Go,” taking up a position within zyds of the opponent’s

goal, changing position after the whistle has blown for a free throw or other simular stoppage of play, or deliberately splashing

an opponent in the face, are all held to be wilful fouls

Whenever

the whistle blows for fouls the players have to remain in their

respective places until the ball has left the hand of the player to whom the free throw was awarded A player who has been wilfully fouled within 4yd. of his opponent’s goal line is given a

penalty throw and the consequence 1s that a close match is often

won by reason of a player deliberately breaking the rules when his goal is hotly assailed In ordmary fouls the ball must touch another player before a goal can be scored, but in penalty throws it need not Any player throwing the ball over his own goal line “concedes a corner throw to the other side, but if an opposing player sends it over it is a free throw for the goalkeeper. After each goal is scored the players return to their respective ends, waiting for the word “Go,” and at half-time they are allowed a rest of three minutes, durmg which they leave the water Fouls, half-tume and time are declared by whistle and goals by bell The game requires practice of smart and scientific passmg, side and back-handed throws and accurate shooting For this purpose “throwing the water-polo ball” contests are commonly held by the leading clubs, who also conduct competitions on points for shooting at goal The game has become popular in many European countries, and friendly matches between English and continental clubs are frequently played It has extended to all parts of the world since the British rules have been adopted for the Olympic games

(W He)

See the Amateur Swimming Association's Handbook for rules of the game and instructions to referees United States——The rules are similar to the Bnitish rules,

excepting that the United States has added two umpires, besides having a referee and two goal judges eee Spalding’s NCAA

Official Rules for Water Polo and Water

ccer,

WATER

POWER:

see ELECTRICAL

POWER

GENERATION,

Hydro-Electrıc Generation, HYDRAULIC PowER TRANSMISSION; HyorauLIcs, TURBINE, WATER WATERPROOF FABRICS: see RAINPROOF FABRICS

WATER

PURIFICATION.

The partial purification of

water probably dates back to the earliest tmes No doubt, when a water looked very turbid, ıt was strained through any convenient material, or the suspended matters were allowed to settle out on

standing We know, too, that mariners found that dirty ill-tasting water collected at one port became often sweet and clean before the next port was reached It is also not umprobable that boiling water to purify it may have been an ancient precaution

Ages ago,

everyone must have recognized the potent force of heat, and our

PURIFICATION

425

ancestors possibly had their suspicions that dirty water caused disease and hence used heat as the most hkely method of destroying impurities Probably too, all sorts of things may have been added to water with the object, 1f not of purifying it, of at least rendering 1t more potable. Certamly as far back as 1612 the ımportance of keeping filthy matters out of drinking water was wellknown, for im an indenture, relating to the New river, the following words occur: “Wee doe by these presents for us our heirs and Successors straightly charge and Comaund all pson and psons whatsoever That they or anie of them doe not hereafter cast or putt into the said new river ame earth rubbish soyle gravell stones dogges Catts or anie Cattle Carrion or anie unwholesome or uncleane thing nor shall wash nor clense ante clothes wooll or other thinge in the said river an “ . nor shall make or convey anie sincke, ditch Tanhowse dying

howse or seege into the said nver or to have anie fall into the same” As time went on sand came to be recognized as an effective filtering maternal, judged, no doubt, at first, by the clarified con-

dition of the filtered product. Sand filtration, as a practicable proposition, dates back to 1829 and the honour seemingly belongs to London (Chelsea Water Co.) Later, the pumfication of water by sand filtration became an established procedure and the method has been copied all over the world and 1s still talked about as the London system of water purification Quite apart from the bactenal “findings,” it came to be recognized that an adequately filtered water was safe as regards disease Then Koch showed why safety was secured, by proving that filtration removed 98 per cent of the bacteria By this time bacteria had been assigned a definite réle in the causation of disease The London rate of filtration 1s very slow, namely, about 2 gallons per sq ft per hour, or about 4 inches vertical drop in the same time Approximately, it is represented by observing the progress of the end of the minute hand of a watch as it hourly completes its circular journey Fine sand (about 3 ft in depth) was nearly always used, supported on a graded gravel substratum Efficacy of Sand.—At first, samtarians wondered why sand could be so effective when the separate particles were so gross in

size compared with bacteria. It came, however, eventually to be recognized that the sand particles gradually matured so that each grain was surrounded with a furry yet slimy coating Iun addıtion, the particles at, or near, the surface were observed to be enveloped and covered over with a heavy coating of shmy material which eventually became so dense as practically to stop the passage of water through it When this occurred it became necessary to empty the filter, scrape off the surface layers of dirty sand and wash it very thoroughly before replacement. When a bed was re-started the results at first were apt to be unsatisfactory, and the usual custom was to run the filtrate to waste for several hours, or days Even when the filtered water was allowed to pass ito consumption, many authorities advocated a specially low rate of filtration being maintained for several days This fltration has greatly reduced water-borne epidemic disease The increasing difficulty of securing supplies near at hand

gradually led the great towns to invade the uplands and moorlands Then new troubles arose, for although very pure and soft, such waters were often peaty and highly coloured and some of them were acid and acted upon lead. Experience showed that waters of this kind were best treated by filtering them through mechanical filters at the rapid rate of about 50 gallons per sq ft per hour, using a coagulant (sulphate of alumina, dose usually about I~2 grains per gallon) to remove the colour and render the filtered water attractive in appearance These mechanical filters are easily and expeditiously cleaned by a reversal of the flow of water Many authorities consider that mechanical filters are not so effective in removing bacteria as the slow sand filters, but when the source of supply is unexceptionable epidemiologically this 1s a matter of small importance. The point is that by the use of a coagulant they can achieve results, as regards clarification, practically impossible in the case of slow sand filters. As regards action on lead, this is a sérious matter, as lead is a cumulative poison. Fortunately, ıt is possible by the use of lime, in suitable doses, to render such waters absolutely safe for domestic use. Turning now to mote modern methods of purification, the

4.26

WATER

PURIFICATION

chlorination of water at Lincoln durmg the typhoid epidemic (about 1,000 cases and 100 deaths) there im 1905 marked a forward step to which special attention must now be directed Chlorination.—In the United States and Canada chlorination, for some years past, has been the rule, not the exception. In England, progress has been much slower, but the World War greatly altered things, thanks to the mutiative of men hke Horrocks and Sims Woodhead Further. the bold step taken by the Metropolitan Water Board in chlorinating so huge a volume of water as over 100,000,000 gal a day proved a great incentive to further investigation of this water purification The “chlorinators” plead that inasmuch as they destroy practically all the non-sponng bacteria of intestinal origin they incidentally kill all the microbes, associated with epidemic waterborne disease It 1s a bold claim, but apparently sound on the basis of current knowledge The “‘anti-chlormators” urge that a “doped” water is prima facie open to condemnation, and assert that there have been conspicuous failures in the chlorination processes in the past due to break-downs ın the plant, or to dangerous compromises between doses sufficient to sterilize the water and yet small enough to avoid taste troubles. They further clam that natural processes (e g., storage and slow sand filtration) remove at least 98°% of the total number of bacteria in the original water of whatever sort they may be, and that prolonged experience has shown that this is an absolute protection from the diseases associated with the ingestion of impure water A third school claims that all purification processes are merely a retrograde movement—that safety lies alone in choosing virgin, uncontaminated sources of water supply, requiring no sort of purification It 1s possible to sympathize strongly with this exalted attitude of mind, but practically we must face, to an increasing extent, the necessity of rendermg impure waters safe for domestic use. As regards the “chlorinators” and the “antichlorinators,” there is much to be said on both sides, and each case should be judged on its own merits Chlorination 1s an exceedingly cheap process, less than one shilling per 1,000,000 gal. of water treated may suffice. It is disputed how the chlorine acts Some say it has merely an oxidation effect, others claim that 1t has an intrinsic bactericidal action. The dose is usually from 0 25 to o-s of available chlorine per 1,000,000 (25 to 5 lb. of chlorine per 1,000,000 gallons) The t:me required for sterilization varies according to the dose and the quality of the water A few minutes may suffice, but one to five hours or more should be aimed at Administration.—The chlorme can be administered as a soluble hypochlorite (e g, alkaline sodium hypochlorite), or as a

solution of bleaching powder (chloride of lime), or as a solution

made from the gas liquefied in and liberated from metal cylinders The latter process is now most extensively used, and there are some highly ingenious forms of apparatus for measuring accurately the gas as it flows from the cylinders through the chlorine apparatus on its way to the vessels or towers used for its final solution Whatever method is adopted, it is highly important that the mixture of the chlorine and the water to be treated should be rapid and complete Successes—The success of the treatment is determined by the destruction of B. colh, a non-sporing excrementa] microbe, shghtly more hardy than the typhoid bacillus and the cholera vibrio. It is also gauged by the circumstance that there dre places where the incidence of water-borne diseases has been modified to a most gratifying extent since, and apparently as a result of, the introduction of chlormation processes Taste Objections.—Taste troubles have been a most serious factor in the problem, Frequently, m consequence, the dose has been reduced below the limits of safe sterilization Recently, however, knowledge has increased by leip= end bornes Ti: now

known that the presence of certam ^oʻies (ez pneroloit ~ustances) m excessively minute amount (less than 1 in 1,000 milhons) may be the root of the trouble These impurities may arise

from atmospheric contaminations, or be conveyed by liquid pollutions (e.g, washings from roads, etc). Fortunately, valuable remedies (taste preventers) have been found, e g., potassium permanganate and ammonia (dose about o 2 per 1,000,000 the latter in

terms of nitrogen) Even the organic matter, naturally present in waters, 1s a taste preventer, or “remover” of real value. There 1s no reliable indication that chlorinated water has any deleterious effect on man, the lower animals, fish-hfe or horticultural operations On the whole, the same may be said as regards its alleged injurious effect on metals Chlormation is a factor of great importance m water purification, although this admission may be coloured with

certain cautious limitations It can mcrease the margin of safety and can bring almost any water to any pitch of epidemiological

perfection required

In the language of “the man in the street,”

chlorine, ın doses of o 25 to o 5 per 1,000,000, Can render dan-

gerous waters safe without giving them (at all events in con. junction with taste removers) any unpleasant taste, or conferring on them any undesirable characteristics Beyond all question, chlorination has come to stay, although 1t may be wise to regard it as a most valuable adjunct to other purification processes rather than as an absolute panacea Excess Lime Process.—In 1912 a new method of purification called the excess lime process was described. In softening waters lme ıs added in amount equal to, or just short of, what is

necessary to combine with the dissolved carbonic acid im the water and with the bicarbonates Carbonate of lime 1s formed,

which, being practically insoluble, is thrown down as a precipitate

This mechanically purifies the water to a considerable extent, but

does not produce a true bactericidal effect. In the excess lime method shghtly more lme 1s added, so as to leave the water caustically alkaline, and this produces a marked bactericidal action The amount of excess necessary depends on the duration of con-

tact and the amount of impurities in the water, but one part of lime (as CaO) per 100,000 parts of water 1s usually sufficient

The followmg quotation may serve to illustrate the usefulness of the excess lime method — . .. the experments carried out by us durmg the last two years at

the Langford experimental station of the Southend Water Co, using water from two comparatively small rivers, show that by actimg on Si A Houston’s suggestion to use excess lime better results can be obtained than by the use of chlorine, since chlorine does not remove any of the organic matter m solution, whereas the excess lime will remove at least so% of this Waters, therefore, which a few years ago would have been considered quite unsuitable for a supply, and which no system of purification then known would have rendered safe, can now be utilized

The method proved highly successful (1917) at Accra (Gold Coast Colony) m dealing with an impure swamp water used for

water works purposes Its successful use in deen to decide on the retention of the River water supply, thus saving over £100,000 on In 1914 1t was shown at Sunbury that the

1913 enabled AberDee as a source of alternative schemes raw River Thames could be purified to a wonderful extent For example, the ten worst samples of the river water and of the outlet from the first tank gave, on the average, colour estimations of 155 and 37 respectively, a reduction of 76% B colh was found to be absent from 10,000 cc. of the treated water, on ten separate days The method has disadvantages for example, the cost, the difficulties attendant upon the neutralization of the excess of caustic

alkalmity and the problem of disposing of lime sludge in the case of hard waters On the other hand, the advantages are considerable

Questions of taste are elhmmated

Hard waters may be

softened and soft waters hardened by the process. waters

are not only softened

and rendered

Hard impure

safe bactertologi-

cally but mproved greatly, as judged by physical and chemical standards Water Tests.—The physical, chemical and bactenological tests uscd ir the excr-:nz ‘ion of waters heve no! olrered very materially

Caving recen, vers Pryvenchy observitiors are mede of the cowur luang a colour mear) iun ouy (eravimetricaly, or with some form of turbidimeter) and opacity (as shown, for example, by passing a beam of light through the water), etc Chemically,

the chief tests are still for ammoniacal, albuminoid and omdized

nitrogen, chlorides, oxygen absorbed from permanganate, hardness, etc , although new tests, like the determination of the hydrogen-ion concentration, are being used extensively Bacteriologically, the number of bacteria, (especially at 37° C) and the B coli

WATER test still hold the field

In connection with the latter test, a vast

amount of work has been done, but we are still uncertam what significance should be attached to the various races of B col

encountered in water analyses

The tendency ıs to insist on the

possession of, say, two positive attributes (lactose+-indol+-) which characterize human faecal microbes and then judge the matter on

a quantrtaisve basis

On the whole, the attempts to differentiate

between B coli of human intestinal origin and those derived from the lower animals, fish and birds have been most disappointing The modern teaching is that as it is economically possible, by ade-

quate purification processes, to elimimate “lactose--indol-+-B

(or nearly so) all

coli,” this standard should always be aimed

at Speaking generally, nearly all are agreed that there should be no B col: of the kind referred to in t00 cc of water in more than half of the samples examined

The interpretation of results has altered considerably during

recent years, especially ın those cases where chlorination is practised. The tendency 1s rather in the direction of condoning certain mperfections of quality (eg, the amount of organic matter present) provided that B coh is killed It is considered that if B colt is destroyed the occurrence of epidemic water-borne diseases is impossible and that therefore other inferential indices of

safety lose much of their significance But those who cling to past traditions regard chlorination as a short cut to apparent rather than real purity

Natural Methods.—These methods of purification have not been neglected of late years The value of storage is bemg increasingly recognized ‘The three factors makmmg for safety are equalization, sedimentation and devitahzation By equalization is meant the dilution and averaging of any sudden access of pollutions to the water “feeding” a storage reservoir Sedimentation means the settling out of solid impurities Devitalization implies the gradual extinction of undesirable bacteria under conditions of storage

which are unfavourable to the continued vitality of pathogenic microbes Nature’s method of purification has certain disadvantages Just as some things die, so do others multiply, sometimes with embarrassing results There are the diatoms, the protozoa, green and blue growths, etc Some of these growths give nse to taste troubles (e g , tabellaria, synura, uroglena, etc ), others exercise a serious blocking or choking effect on sand filtration processes (eg, asterionella, synedra, cyclotella, fragilaria, etc) Copper sulphate (ın doses of or to Io per 1,000,000; 1 to 10 Ib per 1,000,000 gal) has been proved to be a valuable algicidal agent The smaller doses have no injurious action on fish, but with the maximum doses care is needed, especially with trout Filtets.—A new and interesting development 1s the suggestion that rapid (mechanical) filters should be used to remove nearly all the suspended matters (including algal and other growths) from water, and worked at the very rapid rate of 100-200 gal. per sqft per hour In order to cover the additional cost involved it is hoped that it may be feasible to work slow sand filters at six instead of two gal per sqft per hour as a final filtration process. The underlying 1dea 1s that slow sand filters might be worked considerably faster than is usual if rapid filters were used antecedently to remove the bulk of the suspended matters Those who favour these departures usually advocate chlorination as an additional safeguard, or, at all events, as a stand-by measure REFERENCES —(1) Joseph Race, Chlormation of Water (1918) , (2) B A Adams, “The Iodoform Taste Acquired by Chlorinated Water,”

The Medical Officer, No

869, vol 33, No 12 (1924), (3) Nineteenth

RIGHTS

427

(1906), Dr A Houston, “B Welchu, Gastro-enteritis and Water Supply,” Engineering News Record, vol 89, p 484 (1921). The Official Circular of the British Waterworks Association gives the most up-todate account of all matters of mterest relating to water supplies, mcluding purification (A C Ho)

WATER RIGHTS.

By the law of England the property in

the bed and water of a tidal river 1s presumed to be in the Crown or as a franchise in a grantee of the Crown, and to be extraparochial The bed and water of a non-tidal river are presumed to belong to the person through whose land it flows, or, if it divide two properties, to the riparian proprietors, the rights of each extending to midstream (ad medium filum aquae) In order to give riparian rights, the nver must flow in a defined channel, or at least above ground The dimmution of underground water collected by percolation, even though malicious, does not give a cause of action to the owner of the land ın which it collects,

it being merely damnum sine iniuria, though he 1s entitled to have it unpolluted unless a right of pollution be gained against him by prescription The right to draw water from another’s well is an easement (g v ) not a profit à prendre, and is therefore claimable by custom As a general rule a riparian proprietor, whether on a tidal or a non-tidal river, has full rights of user of his property Most of the statute law will be found in the Fishery Harbours Act, 1915, and the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act, 1923 In certain cases the rights of the riparian proprietors are subject to the intervening rights of other persons These rights vary according as the river is navigable or not, or tidal or not For instance, all the riparian proprietors might combine to divert a non-navigable river, though one alone could not do so as against the others, but no combination of riparian proprietors could defeat the mght of the public to have a navigable river maintained undiverted We shall here consider shortly the rights enjoyed by, and the limitations imposed upon, riparian proprietors, in addition to those fallmg under the head of fishery or

navigation

(See also FORESHORE)

The right of use of the water of a natural stream cannot be better described than in the words of Lord Kingsdown in 1858 “By the general law applicable to running streams, every riparian proprietor has a right to what may be called the ordinary use of water flowing past his land—for mstance, to the reasonable use of the water for domestic purposes and for his cattle, and this without regard to the effect which such use may have in case of a deficiency upon proprietors lower down the stream But, further, he has a right to the use of it for any purpose, or what may be deemed the extraordinary use of it, provided he does not thereby interfere with the rights of other proprietors, either above or below him Subject to this condition, he may dam up a stream for the purposes of a mull, or divert the water for the purpose of irrigation But he has no nght to intercept the regular flow of the stream, if he thereby interferes with the lawful use of the water by other proprietors, and inflicts upon them a sensible injury” (Miner v Gilmour, 12 Moore’s PC Cases, 156). The rights of riparian

proprietors where the flow of water 1s artificial rest on a different principle As the artificial stream 1s made by a person for his own benefit, any right of another person as a riparian proprietor does not arise at common law, as ın the case of a natural stream, but must be established by grant or prescription If its origin be unknown the inference appears to be that riparian proprietors have the same rights as 1f the stream had been a natural one (Baily v Clark, 1902, 1 Ch 649) The mghts of a person not a riparian proprietor who uses land abutting on a niver or stream by

Annual Report of the Director of Water Examination, Metropolitan l the ucence or grant of the riparian proprietor are not as full as Water Board (1922), (4) Ninth Research Report by the Durector of though he were a riparian proprietor, for he cannot be imposed Water Ezaminaizon, Metropolitan Water Board (1913), (5) J C

Thresh and J F Beale, Preface to oded The and Water Supphes (1925); (5 Jeres Wan

Supply by the Excess Lime VMehod

Examination of Waters Piriic'ver of Water

Jaar o7 Siale Wedicme (Aug.

1913) ; (7) Tenth Research Report by the Director of Water Examinauon, Metropohtan Water Board (1914). -

Bwrrocraray —S

Rideal, Water and Its Purtfication (1902); J

Don and J Chisholm, Modern Methods of Purtfication (1913), A C Houston, Studzes in Water Supply (1914), A C. Houston, Rural Water Supplies and Ther Purification, and Revers as Sources oy Water

Supply (1918), A H. Hooker, Chloride of Lime ın Sanitation (1913).

See also Dr R J, Reece’s Report to the Local Government Board on

the Epidemic of Enteric Fever ın the City of Lincoln, 1904-5, No 226

as a riparian proprietor upon the other proprietors without their consent ‘The effect of this appears to be that he is not entitled sensibly to affect their rights, even by the ordinary as distin-

guished from the extraordinary use of the water Even a riparian proprietor cannot divert the stream to a place outside his tenement and there use it for purposes unconnected with the tenement (McCartney v Londonderry and Lough Swilly Rly Co, 1904, A.C 301) The limitations to which the right of the riparian proprietor is subject may be divided into those existmg by common right, those

428

WATERS

by imposed for public purposes, and those established against him head Crown grant or by custom or prescription Under the first fishery and anchorage of navigation. of right comes the public from boats (in tidal waters), and of taking shell-fish (and probas ably other fish except royal fish) on the shore of tidal waters far as any nght of several fishery does not intervene Under the the which by domain eminent of second head would fall the right State takes ryparian rights for public purposes, compensating the proprietor, the restrictions upon the sporting rights of the proprietor, as by Acts forbidding the taking of fish in close time, and the Wild Birds Protection Acts, and the restrictions on the ground of public health, as by the Rivers Pollution Act, 1876, and the regulations of port sanitary authorities The jurisdiction of the State over rivers in England may be exercised by officers of the Crown, as by commussioners of sewers or by the Board of Trade, under the Crown Lands Act, 1866 These powers have now been transferred to the Ministry of Transport. Rivers are frequently controlled by conservation under special acts, upon which their powers mamly depend (see Thames Conservators V. Kent, 1918, 2 KB 272). A bridge is erected and maintained by the county authorities, and the 1ipanan proprietor must bear any inconvenience resulting from it. An example of an adverse night by Crown grant isa ferry ora port The rights established against a riparian proprietor by private persons include the night to land, to discharge cargo, to tow, to dry nets, to beach boats, to take sand, shingle or water, to have a sea-wall maintained, to pollute the water (subject to Rivers Pollution Act), to water cattle, etc Where the river is navigable, although right of navigation is common to subjects of the realm, it may be connected with a right to exclusive access to riparian land, the mnvasion of which may form the ground for legal proceedings by the riparan proprietor (see Lyon v. The Fishmongers’ Company, 1876, 1 AC 662) There is no common-law right of support by subterranean water A grant of land passes all water-courses, unless reserved to the grantor A freshwater lake appears to be governed by the same law as a non-tidal river, surface water bemg pars sok The preponderance of authority is in favour o* *he right of the ripen proprietors as against the Crown Mosi of the hiw wil be round in Bres o% v. Cormican, 1878, 3 A.C. 648 Unlawful and malicious injury to sea and rıver banks, towing paths, sluices, flood-gates, mill-dams, etc, or poisoning fish, 1s a crime under the Malicious Damage Act, 1861 A Mill may be erected by any one, subject to local regulations and to his detaining the water no longer than 1s reasonably necessary for the working of the wheel But if a dam be put across running water, the erection of it can only be justsfied by grant or prescription, or (in a manor) by manonal custom On navigable rivers it must have existed before 1272. The owner of 1t cannot pen up the water permanently so as to make a pond of it Bathing —The reported cases affect only sea-bathing, but Hall (p 160) is of opmion that a nght to bathe in private waters may exist by prescription or custom. There 1s no common-law right to bathe in the sea or to place bathmg-machines on the shore Prescription or custom is necessary to support a claim, whether the foreshore 1s the property of the Crown or of a private owner (Brinckman v. Matley, 1904, 2 Ch. 313) Bathing in the sea or in rivers 1s now often regulated by the by-laws of a local authority

coast of Scotland have, by 11 Geo III c 31, the mght to use the shore for roo yd from Ingh-water mark for landing and

drying nets, erecting huts and curing fish The right of ferry is one of the regala minora acqurable by prescriptive possession on

a charter of barony Sea-greens are private property The nght to take seaweed from another’s foreshore may be prescribed as a servitude The riparian proprietors have several rights in the

solum of a fresh-water loch and a right in common to use its sur-

face for boating, fishing and shooting (Mackenzze v Banks, 1878,

3 App Cas 1324) As between opposite ripatian proprietors the medium filum is only of importance m determining rights of property ın the solum, or the exercise of fishing rights, where the opposite proprietors have each rights of fishing but neither has had exclusive possession See the Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Acts 1828 to 1868 In Jreland the law 1s similar to that of England In R. v Clenton, IR 4 CL 6, the Insh court went perhaps

beyond any English precedent in holding that to carry away dnft

seaweed from the foreshore 1s not larceny The Rivers Pollution Act, 1876, was re-enacted for Ireland by the similar Act of 1893 United States—In the Umted States the common law of England was originally the law, the State succeeding to the nght

of the Crown This was no doubt sufficient in the 13 orginal States, which are not traversed by mvers of the largest size, but was not generally followed when ıt became obvious that new conditions, unknown in England, had arisen Accordingly the soil

of navigable mvers, fresh or salt, and of lakes, 1s vested m the State, which has power to regulate navigation and impose tolls The admuralty jurisdiction of the United States extends to all

pubhe navigable rivers and lakes where commerce is carried on

between different States or with foreign nations (Genesee Chef v Fitzhugh, 12 Howard’s Rep 443) And ma case decided in 1893

it was held that the open waters of the great lakes are “high seas” within the meaning of s 5346 of the Revised Statutes (US v. Rodgers, 150 U.S Rep 249) A State may establish ferries and

authorize dams. But if water from a dam overflow a public highway, an indictable nuisance is caused The right of eminent domain is exercised to a greater extent than in England in the com-

pulsory acquisition of sites for mulls and the construction of levees oz ew henkrments especially on the Miesissinpi In the drier con yo

es

ue west

nal

ke rinie ci ricts, ine common law

ocrme.tor has mc to be ec -ered

arc

whe was called the

And R non Do cine vas gv duchy e+ ool ed By it the first toer ol wuer Frs a rgh. by priv“Ly or oce manon If he give notice to the public of an intention to appropriate, provided that he be competent to hold land (See EASEMENT, FISHERIES, SERVITUDE) BrsriocrapHy —R, G Hall, Essay on the Rights of the Crown on the Seashore

TACH

(1830, 2nd ed

1888), C

J Gale, Easements

(2nd ed

J W Coulson ard V A Forbes, Law of Waters (1880), §

A rcrdH & Moore Ii sor ane Lew G Fashertes (1903) For Americen cuchomes see J K Angell 7}? Rar: ot Property in Tide Waters (2nd ed 184") 4 Tregtse on the Common Law of Watercourses (7th ed 18775. 00 Washburn Ja ements 6,863), J. M Gould, Waters and W oterco ares ‘188s. J N Pomercy Law of Water Rights (1893); Kuney Iregeticn Repor. -9 re Serate on Irrigation (1909), F H Lews Sau md Musor Weter Laws (1913), L. Shaw, “The Development ot the Law ot Waters in the West,” Am Bar Assoc

Reports

(1922).

WATERS, TERRITORIAL.

In international law ‘“tern-

torial waters” are the belt of sea adjacent to their shores which States regard as being under their immediate territorial yurisdiction, subject only to a right of innocent passage through them by vessels of all nations As to the breadth of the belt and the exact nature of this innocent right of passage, however, there 1s still within the three miles’ limit, which 1s ¿nter regalia minora and may much controversy The three miles’ mut recognized and pracbe alienated by express or implied grant, and (2) a mnght of tised by the majority of States seems to have been denved from navigation and white fisheries in the same which 1s inter regalia the cannon range of the period when it was adopted as between majora and malienable A Crown charter of lands “bounded by Great Britain and the United States, towards the close of the.r8th the sea” is a habile title to prescribe a night to the solum of the century Bynkershoek, in bis Dominion of the Sea (1702), had foreshore, between high- and low-water mark of ordinary spring adopted the principle of self-protection. Since fortresses can give tides, and if the charter contain a clause cum piscationsbus 1t is effective protection within range of their cannon, he argued that a habile title to prescribe a right to the salmon fishing ex adverso the respect was not due to the presence of cannon, but to the fact of the lands. Where the foreshore is acquired under a Crown that the State was ın a position to enforce respect This ıt could grant it remains subject to public uses incidental to navigation do from any point along its shore Hence his well-known doctrine and white fishing. Persons engaged in the herring fishery off the terrae dominium fimtur, ubi fimtur armorum vis. The doctrine

(See also Ferry, WER) Scotland.—The law of Scotland is m general accordance with that of England. The Crown has (1) a right of property in the solum and salmon fisheries of the sea—and tidal navigable rivers—

WATERS, TERRITORIAL ‘efed a requirement of the age and became 2 maximum of interlaw, both for the protection of shore fishenes and for the the thatpuroses of neutrality. Denmark, Norway and Sweden maintain

al

special configuration of their coasts necessitates the exercise of jurisdiction over a belt of four miles; Chile, Turkey and Uruguay clam juris-

The diction over five miles, France, Portugal and Spam over six miles writers and speciabsts on the subject are quite as much divided. A territonal present “the Bnttsh Fishery Commussion in 1893 reported, lmit of 3 mules 1s insufficient,” and that, for fishery purposes alone, this

Imit should be extended By the convention (May 6, 1882) between Great Britam, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany and Denmark relatmg to the regulation of the fisheries in the North. sea, the Lmt of territorial waters as between the contracting parties 1s fixed at 3 m.

measured from low-water mark and from a straight lne drawn from

headland to headland at the points where they are 10 m. across. In the Bntish Act of June 29, 1893, giving effect to a subsequent convention (Nov 16, 1887) between the same parties for the regulation of the

liquor traffic i the North sea, “territorial waters” are declared to be as defined m the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878. In this Act

the definition is as follows —

“The territorial waters of Her Mayesty’s domimions in reference to the sea means such part of the sea adjacent to the coast of the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other part of Her Majesty’s dommuions, as 1s deemed. by international law to be within the territorial soveregnty of Her Majesty; and for the purpose of any offence declared by this Act to be within the jurisdiction of the admural, any part of the open sea within one marine league of the coast measured from lowwater mark shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial waters

of Her Majesty's dominions.”

The defimtion only restricts the operation of the 3 m. hmit to offences dealt with ın the Act, and does not deal with bays

The Act

of 1893 declares that the articles of the convention “shall be of the same force as if they were enacted in the body of the Act,” but this convention gives no definition of terntonal waters The jurisdiction exercised m British territorial waters under the Territonal Waters Jurisdiction Act of 1878 is asserted without distinction between them and inland waters,

League of Nations.—The subject has been exhaustively dealt

with by the Institute of International Law, the International Law Association and the American Institute of International Law. All these societies have drafted conventions dealing with the general principles governing the use of the seas, and with the particular regulations proposed to be enforced. The Institute of International Law recommends a, territorial zone of six marine mules, the International Law Association a zone of three marme miles from low water mark, whilst the American Institute leaves this zone undefined In consequence of the opinon of the Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law appointed by the Council of the League of Nations on Sept. 22, 1924, that the subject of terntoral waters was ripe for codification, a draft convention was

prepared by Dr Walther Schucking

The draft was circulated to all the States, accompanied with a questionnaire including a general question, viz., “whether there were

problems connected with the law of the territorial sea considered in its various aspects, which might find this solution by way of convention, and 1f so what those problems are and what solutions should be given to

them, and mm particular what should be the nghts of jurisdiction ofa State over foreign commercial ships within its territorial waters or in

its ports” Twenty-three States rephed in the affirmative. League of Nations Draft Convention.—By the draft convention by Dr Schucking which 1s proposed as a basis for discussion a State 13 to have an unlimited right of dominion over the sea which washes its coast to the extent of six marine miles, sub ject to the nights of common user by international law, such dominion including rights

over the air above the said zone and the soil and sub-soil beneath it Outside this zone, z¢, on the high seas, a State may only exercise control for purposes of self-protection, customs or sanitation, and other nghts may only be granted by an International Waters Office to a mparian State 1f demonstrably urgently necessary, and such

grants shall not mclude mghts of exclusive economic

user.

In the case of bays which are wholly within the ey of one State, the territorial waters shall follow the smuosities of the coast, but 1f the mouth 1s 12 marme miles acvors then the zone shall commence from a lme Crawn acro» the mouth unless ‘a greater distance than r2 marme mi'es has been estab Fed by contmuous and imMemorial usage Where islands are situate within six marme miles of the coast, the territorial zone 1s measured from the outermost , where

they are situate outside, each island will have 1ts own territorial zone of sxx marine miles Where a strait 1s wholly withm one State and neither entrance exceeds 12 marine miles, the whole waters shall be territorial Where the shores belong to different States and the strait does not exceed 12 m, the territorial waters shall be divided by the middle line The coasting trade 1s preserved as at present and also the nght of pursuit and arrest of a vessel on the high seas for an offence committed within territorial waters Whilst enjoymg the nght of mnocent passage, warships are not exempt from any special reg-

ulations which may be made

A foreign merchant vessel when in port

shall be subject to the civil jurisdiction of the mparian State

Cnmmal

429

jurisdiction shall be restricted to the punishment of offences committed on board which are not directed against a member of the crew or agaist passengers and their property and to cases in which the captain has asked for assistance and in which the peace of the port or public

order has been disturbed. All disputes arssing out of the application or

interpretation of the convention shall be referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice or to an ad koc court of arbitration

Proposed

International

Commission.—Germany,

Great

Britain and the United States are all strongly opposed to the proposal for a six miles’ territorial zone for general purposes The solution would appear to be a three mile zone with unhmited jurisdiction for all and particularly for neutrahty purposes, and an extended jurisdiction according to local conditions and requirements, eg, for fishing, for customs such as one hour’s sailing in the United States and 12 miles m Italy and Norway, for sanitation, for police purposes and for public safety Prof. Alvarez was the first to propose—at the suggestion of the present writer—the creation of an international commussion, consisting of representatives from the maritime States, to supervise the control of the ugh seas. In his draft convention presented to the Stockholm conference of the International Law Assocaton m 1924, he proposed to give power to the commission to authorize maritime States to occupy portions of the high seas for a given period for installations designed to serve one of the following purposes of general mmterest, viz (1) bases for non-military aircraft, z.¢., floating islands; (2) wireless telegraphy stations; (3) submarmecable stations, (4) lghthouses; (5) scientific research, (6) stations for assistimg the victims of shipwreck. Also to allow a State or a syndicate to occupy the high seas temporarily for the recovery of wrecks or treasure. Bays and Gulfs.—In the case of bays and gulfs it 1s generally agreed that all inland waters the entrance to which does not exceed six mules are territomal waters. But there is no agreement if they exceed this distance what the distance should be Some suggest ten mules, some twelve miles. Referrmg to the Bristol channel, Lord

Stowell m 1801 declared that the Crown had from ‘“‘a pretty remote

antiquity always asserted something of that special jumsdiction which sovereigns of other countries have clovred ard exercised over certain parts of the sea adjoming the r corsts ' In Cunninghams Case it was

held that “the whole

of this mland

sea between

the counties of

Somerset and Glamorgan is to be considered as within the counties by

the shores of which its several parts are respectively bounded.” This, said Lord Blackburn m the Concepizon Bay Case, pointed to “the

headlands ın Pembroke and Hartland pomt m Devonshire as being the

fauces of that arm of the sea”, he added, “we find a universal agreement that harbours, estuaries and bays land-locked, belong to the territory of the nations which possess the shores vorne them”

In the Moray Firth Case Lord Guthrie beld that tne Mo.. Firth within the headlands of Duncansbay heid to Rithet: pomt a distance of 73 mules, was within the territonal waters of Scotland Lord Killacky declared that the firth seemed to him to be prema facie a bay of well-marked headlands and penetrating far into the heart of the country. While admittmg that in width at the mouth and in general configuration 1t was larger than most “bays” properly so-called, he considered helpful the analogies of the Bristol channel and the Firths of Clyde and Forth. The same conclusion was reached in the case of Palk’s bay in the Gulf of Manaby by the High Court of Madras, and the claim of Queensland over the waters lymg within the Great Barrier reef, in places more than 100 m out to sea, has never been conte&ted by foreign powers. In the Fagernes (1926) p 185 Mr. Justice Hull decided that the waters of the Bristol channel west of a Ime drawn where the cherrel is ahert 2c ™ wide, was with'n the fauces terrae. Ai the hear “g n tFèecouri o° e ppeal mte e atement by the attorney-ger.era! that he was ipst™ crea by the -ecrevazy of State ta say “that the spot where ths co’ on 1¢ alleged to hese occ. rred is not

with.n ihe ] m:i to which ite Majesty extercs” the dictsive of Mr

ten iera" sovereign of Hi Juotce EL" was rever-ed by a

majority or the court

The American decisions are in lme with the British In The Allega-

neon (1885) it was held that Chesapeake bay was within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States upon the grounds that its headlands are well marked and but 12 m apart, that ıt ıs wholly withm American territory; that from its earliest history it has been claimed to be territorial waters and the claim has never been contested, that it cannot become the pathway from one nation to another; and from the doctrines of the recognized authorities upon international law, as well as the holdings of the English courts as to the Bristol channel and Conception bay. Similar judgments upon sımılar grounds were delivered in subsequent cases The following imstances show that the six mules’ limit is more honoured in the breach than in the observance. France claims as territorial waters Concale bay which is 17 m across, Norway the Varangar fiord which 1s 32 m.; Great Bntain the Bay of Chaleurs which is 16 m,

Miramiche bay which is 144 m,

and Hudson bay which is over

roo m ; the United States Delaware bay which 1s 18 m., Cape Cod bay which is 32 m, Monterey bay which is 19 m, as well as mlets of a similar character In the North Sea Fisheries Arbitration of 1910, the attorney-general on behalf of Great Britain said—it is also undoubted law that a State can exercise sovereignty over certain portions of the

sea enclosed within its territories by headlands or promontories”” The

WATER-SCORPION—WATER

430

SUPPLY

The true position 1s this:

having a population exceeding 25,000 shows that, on the average,

Hale said they may be. To render such waters territorial in the eyes of international law two conditions therefore are essential Furst the g the circumjacent Jand must be physically competent State to exclude other States from the whole of the waters so surrounded ; and secondly, the acquiescence of other States in the clams to exclude must be present. This in fact has been the practice. It may well be imperative for a State to claim such jurisdiction for reasons of national defence, police administration, sanitation, customs, commerce or 1mdustry. To lmit bays to the maximum of 12 m ‘unless a greater distance has been established by continuous and immemorial usage,” would prevent all future claims. The same objection applies to the limit of 12 m. for the entrance of straits. The question has been submitted to a

per head is 128 gallons, whilst with 50% or more metered services

claim, he said, had never been abandoned.

Inland waters are not necessarily territorial waters, but as Chief Justice

comunttee appomted by the League of Nations

(H. H L. B.)

WATER-SCORPION, an aquatic hemipterous insect of the

family Nepidae, so called from its superficial resemblance to a scorpion, which is due to the modification of the anterior pair of

legs for prehension, and to the presence of a long slender process, simulating a tail, at the posterior end of the abdomen

The

common British species (Nepa cinerea) lives in ponds and stagnant water. The common genus in the United States 1s Ranatra.

WATERSHED,

the land-form separating the head streams

tributary to two different river basins.

Alternative terms are

“water-parting” and “divide” (q.v.). WATERSPOUT, the name apphed to the funnel-shaped cloud of the tornado (g.v} when it occurs at sea, The funnel

point seems to descend slowly from the lower side of the heavy

rumbus clouds Beneath this point the sea appears agitated and a cloud of spray forms, into which the funnel point dips, and the whole has the appearance of a water column which (by eye estimation) has been given as 20 to 30 ft in diameter and 250 to 300 ft. high; the bulk of the hquid in the column consists of rainwater, The top usually travels more quickly than the base. The phenomenon seldom lasts as long as 30 minutes

WATER

where less than 10% of the services are metered the consumption

the consumption is only 52 gallons Consumption and Distribution.—The variations in con. sumption have also to be considered in designing aqueducts and distribution works. The aqueduct by which the water is carned

from the source of supply to the town terminates in a main service reservoir, and the capacity of this reservoir depends, in both gravitation and pumping schemes, upon (a) the fluctuations in supply during the maximum day, week and month as compared with the average; (b) on the time required to repair a break in the aqueduct; and (c) on the reserve required to meet the

probable maximum demand in case of fire In addition to main

service reservoirs there are minor service reservoirs with capacities of about 250,000 gallons up to 4,000,000 gallons. The maximum hourly demand for a town with a population of several hundred thousand will be 50% to 100% in excess of the average hour taken over the day: the demand of the maxmum day will be 20-40% in excess of the average day’s demand: the maximum week will exceed the average week by 15-30% and the maximum four weeks will exceed the average four weeks by 10-20%.

The hourly fluctuations and to some extent the daily fluctua. tions are usually catered for in the minor service reservoirs

which will also be first drawn upon in the event of fire, but the storage the reserve commission m practice

to meet the fluctuations over longer periods and to cover periods when the aqueduct may be out of is provided in the main service reservoir, and this would have a capacity equal to 2-4 days of the

average supply in the case of a gravitation supply; this storage would be increased if the aqueduct traversed ground liable to

subsidence and reduced if the ground were good and the aqueSUPPLY. Asufficient supply of potable water is duct, where of pipes, was in duplicate with fairly frequent cross

essential to man. The word potable means that the water be bright, clear and sparkling, free from suspended matters,

reasonably soft, free from chemical poisons and in such condition

that it cannot cause typhoid fever, cholera, diarrhoea or other water-borne disease, nor have any injurious action on metals The water should be available at such pressures as will enable a supply by gravity to reach the upper floors or cisterns. Water is needed for domestic purposes, including sanitation, also for industries, where a igh degree of purity is often needed. The availability of suitable supphes determines the location of such industries. Water must also be supphed for fire extinction, street watering, supplies to public buildings and institutions and the flushing of sewers Estimation of Requirements.—A local estimate should be made of the average daily quantity which will be required in from 25 to 50 years’ time. This estimate involves the prediction of the probable increase of population and of the quantity to be used for all purposes expressed in gallons per head per day Factors involved are the character of the town, the habits of the people and the various industries which are established or likely to be established. The rate per head varies widely not only throughout any particular country but also as between countries. General

experience indicates that almost invariably the rate per head shows an upward trend.

For example a small country town in England where there is but little industrial usage may require 18 or 20 gallons~ a large commercial city may use for all purposes 35 or 40 gallons, and in America supplies up to roo gallons are fairly common and in several instances in the United States much larger quantities are used. Liverpool may be cited as a typical large city and of the total supply of 34-7 gallons per head in 1927 domestic purposes account for 21-7 gallons, trade and shipping (supplied by meter) 9-1 gallons, public purposes 16 gallons and sundry other purposes including fire extinction 3-3 gallons. In America the higher consumption is partly due to a higher standard of living and a more lavish use of water and partly to waste due to faulty house fittings and to leaky distribution

mains; an analysis of statistics covering 136 American

cities

connections. Where a supply is pumped the aqueduct, or rising main, is usually fairly accessible, and pumping machines in duplicate, so less storage would be sufficient Should the pumps work only part of the day the storage must also be capable of meeting the demand when the pumps are idle. The amount of water required as a special reserve for fire extinction is usually small as compared with that necessary for other purposes, and is sometimes neglected, but an approximate

rule applicable to industrial towns in Britain is that 80,o007/2,

when is the population in thousands, will give the extra storage in gallons This storage should be available in the minor service reservoirs, and should be appropriate to the particular district and population supplied by each such reservoir.

Whilst the distribution mais should be capable of meeting

the maximum hourly demand, the criterion which really decides their capacity, especially in sub-districts, is the demand for fire

extinction, and for this purpose the distribution mains should be

capable of carrying m h of the average hourly rate of ordinary consumption. Thus in a sub-district having a population of 2,250 the average day’s supply might be 72,000 gallons, the average hour therefore being 3,000 gallons and the maxımum hour of the maximum

day 3,000XI 75>X1-25==6,600

whereas the fire demand would be a =500%

gallons,

of 3,000 or

13,000 gallons an hour, and the main should therefore be capable of carrying 21,600 gallons an hour.

Source of Supply.—Schemes of water supply may be divided

broadly into two groups according to the generel source ir? the method of collection, In the first or surface water group we have (x) rain water collected from roofs, etc ; (2) water from

(a) upland rivers, (b) lowland rivers; and (3) water from lakes

In the second or ground water group we have water derived from

(1) springs; (2) shallow wells; (3) deep and artesian wells; and (4) horizontal galleries, Whilst ram water from roofs or specially constructed tanks and ground water from shallow wells may,

in general, be sufficient for individual supplies or for small groups

WATER of consumers, such supplies are not suitable for public supphes and are therefore not further considered here Public water supphes may, from the nature of the works required, be divided into two broad groups—gravitational and

SUPPLY

432

able and this, in a measure, explains the moderti téndericy to the formation of joint Water Boards with the consequent reduction in

the cost of water to each constituent authority In a pumping scheme, on the other hand, the initial capital expenditure is, as a rule, much smaller, and the working expenses nvers and sometimes from elevated lakes and springs, whilst are larger but roughly proportionate to the quantity of water supphes obtamed from lowland rivers, deep wells, horizontal pumped. The capacity of such schemes can also be augmented galleries, and sometimes from low level lakes and artesian wells, from time to time as required to keep a few years ahead of the demand at relatively small cost, whereas when the demand is involve pumping Gravitational Schemes.—In the case of upland supplies the approaching the yield of an impounding reservoir ıt 1s necessary amount of storage provided must be such as will afford con- to construct another similar reservoir and duplicate increasingly tmuity of supply and the elevation should be such that when the long lengths of the aqueduct, so that it is usually advantageous reservoir is drawn down to the lowest draw-off level, 1t not only for a single authority to embark on a pumping scheme where commands the greater part, 1f not all, of the area to be supplied, there is any choice. Impounding Reservoirs—-The considerations which deterbut also allows for the necessary fall to overcome the friction in the aqueduct and for the loss of head in filtration mine the capacity of the impoundmg reservoir are dealt with As most impounded waters are soft, 1t 1s now usual to install under Reservorrs, and the type of dam by which the reservoir It may, however, be emphasized filters at the head of the aqueduct, and, during or after the may be created under Dam filtration process, the water is so treated as to have a small that frequently as much as 30 or 40% of the cost of the dam residual alkalinity which mhibits any deleterious action on the may be expended on subsurface works for preventing undue leakmatenals, especially pipes, of which the aqueduct may be con- age through pervious beds under the structure or round its structed. Whereas a large main conveying soft moorland water flanks, and a masonry dam may have to be carried to considerable may have its capacity reduced by as much as 40% by tubercula- depths to ensure that the structure rests upon material strong tion or nodular encrustation withm twenty years, the same enough to withstand the loading which is the resultant of the main conveying filtered and hardened water will not suffer water pressure and the weight of the dam itself. An essential prelimmary to the selection of the site for a dam any appreciable reduction in carrying capacity In the older aqueducts, the only way of maintainmg a reasonable capacity is is a thorough geological investigation of the area within the limits by mechanical scraping at imtervals, but once this process 1s assigned to the dam, and a general examination of the valley adopted, 1t 1s found that the necessity of scraping mcreases in above the dam; such an investigation will not only prevent waste of money in locating a dam at an unsuitable site, but will also frequency as tıme goes on The necessity for filtration and hardening or softening of enable a much closer estimate of the cost of the work than would spring waters depends upon the possibility of pollution and the otherwise be possible. In this connection the use of boreholes only geological formation from which the springs derive their water. as a means of exploration is insufficient, and may lead to erroneous Pumping Schemes.—Where the source 1s a lowland river or conclusions: they should be used to supplement the results a low level Jake the water may be abstracted by means of a obtained from trial shafts and to clear up doubtful points. The cementation process by means of which cement is injected simple intake or takes protected by duplicate screens leading to a sump from which the water is pumped mto sedimentation under pressure through drilled holes over the site of a dam, has basins, and after a period of storage depending upon the amount of recent years been used to strengthen rock which otherwise of matter in suspension and other factors it 1s filtered, hardened might have had insufficient strength, and also to seal up fissures This process or softened, and, 1f necessary, sterilized, and finally pumped mto and joints through which water might escape the service reservoir. Where the water 1s derived from deep wells therefore makes it possible to use sites or structures which might otherwise have been considered unsuitable, and in more favouror from infiltration galleries in the pervious bed or banks of a river, sedimentation is not required and, generally, filtration is able sites, to reduce the extent of the subsurface work. Gravitation Aqueduct.—In fixing the size of the various unnecessary, though such waters may require softening and portions of the aqueduct an allowance over the average daily supsteriuzation Choice of Source.—Recent developments in the methods of ply which the aqueduct is intended ultimately to carry, apart from water purification have made 1t possible to consider many waters any allowance required to meet loss of capacity due to encrusta~ as potentially suitable for public supply purposes which but ten tion, must be made to cover the filling up of the terminal service or twenty years ago would have been entirely ruled out It fol- reservoir after depletion consequent upon a burst in the aqueduct, lows that the choice between utilising a relatively pure water from and also to cover seasonal variations The precise allowance dea distant elevated source or a water of a much lower standard pends on the length of the aqueduct, its liability to interference, from a nearer source which calls for pumpimg and greater work- accessibility and the economic possibilities of terminal storage; in ing cost in filtration and other treatment, 1s now largely a question general 10 per cent. would be sufficient. this might be reduced if of cost of water This means the cost per 1,000 gallons delivered a relatively large storage—s5 or 6 days—could be economically at the main service reservoir after taking into account interest and obtained at the end of a long and costly aqueduct, and increased sinking fund charges and annual working expenses—cost of if the aqueduct were short or only 2 or 3 days’ storage could be obtamed The aqueduct ıs chiefly of cut and cover or tunnel labour, chemicals, fuel, repairs and maintenance. The initial cost of water from a gravitation scheme is usually with relatively short connecting lengths of pipe line or lines hgh because the impounding reservoir and all or part of the where the general route can more or less contour the hillsides, or aqueduct must be constructed at the outset of sufficient size to entirely or chiefly of pipe le with short intervening lengths of meet the ultimate requirements, although the initial demand may tunnel where the route crosses hills The tunnel and cut and cover portions are made capable of be but 20 or 25% of the ultimate Another factor, which applies particularly to British work, is that 1t has been the practice of taking the ultimate yield of the source for this quantity two or Parliament to msert a Clause in the Act authorising the construc- more pipe lines, side by side, may be required, but initially only tion of impounding reservoirs whereby one-tenth to one-third of one line would be laid, the others bemg added wholly or in part the yield of a catchment area is to be released in a more or less and cross-connected to the original line and to each other as the

pumping schemes

Gravity supplies may be obtained from upland

regular flow from the reservoir as “compensation water,” and this of course may place a serious additional burden on the undertakers In the United States the riparian and other interests are most frequently compensated by monetary payments It is therefore evident that for the economical development of

impounding schemes, a relatively large initial demand is desir-

growth of demand necessitates. These portions act also as break-

pressure tanks, so that the maximum pressure to which any par-

ticular length of pipes is subjected is that corresponding to the top water level in the preceding tunnel or cut and cover When of appreciable length, the tunnel and cut and cover portions should be provided with automatic self-closing outlet valves

432

WATER

designed to close when the flow exceeds the normal by more than a predetermmed amount, to prevent undue loss of water In the event of a burst in the ensumg pipes, and each pipe should have a reflux valve at its termmation to prevent loss of water in the other direction. Where an aqueduct consists wholly of pipes, break-pressure tanks of relatively small capacity are located at suitable high points, and the inlet to these tanks is controlled by some form of float regulator to prevent loss by overflow, and the outlet by a self closing valve To facihtate testing and repairs, long mains are provided with stop-valves at intervals of about 14-2 miles with scour valves at depressions, and air valves at all summits. Where the lining 1s with either cement, mortar or bitumen, it is well to combine the air-valve and an access manhole to facilitate the making of joints Where unlined pipes, hable to encrustation, are used, hatch pipes should be provided for the passage of the “scraper” Additional air valves are provided in any long lengths of main which are laid to flat gradients, or at any sudden change of gradient. Pumping Machinery. Where coal is available of suitable cost and quality, the trple expansion steam engine using superheated steam is still the most efficient pump against a constant head Where centrifugal pumps are used they may be driven by steam turbmes. The Diesel Engine has proved so reliable in ship propulsion, that it is being widely used. It 1s equally efficient in large and small units. Where electric current is cheap, motor dnven pumps are frequently adopted better terms can be obtained if the pumping avoids the peak hours of the generating station, and automatic controls can be installed to effect this.

SUPPLY that the building up of the surrounding land has rendered cover. ing necessary, and as this can only be done by throwing the reservoir out of commission, it ıs really economy to cover all but the largest reservoirs at the outset The smaller service reservoirs are located in populous districts and are invariably covered Both large and small reservoirs are constructed of concrete, re-

inforced concrete or brickwork and concrete. They may be rec. tangular, circular or hexagonal in plan, and their shape depends not only upon the contour of the ground, but also to some extent on the form of roof covering For capacities up to one millon gallons, the economic depth may be from ro to 12 feet, whilst at 30 mullions, the depth may be 30 feet Usually service reservoirs are surrounded by an earthen bank and the roof 1s soiled over The concrete floor is usually flat with sufficient fall for dramage

during cleaning, and in all but the smallest reservoirs, a division

wall of part or full height may be provided to enable a part of the storage to be available during cleaning The roof may be of flat remforced concrete slabs resting upon a system of main and

secondary beams of remforced concrete, or steel beams encased in concrete It may consist of longitudinal arches in brickwork or concrete, which spring either from girders or from transverse flying arches, these arches being supported on massive piers, or, as 1s frequently found in American practice, the piers may support

a system of concrete gromed arches

Still another and economical

form of covering consists of a series of relatively thin plain con-

crete dornes springing from concrete gromed arches which, in turn, are supported by hexagonal concrete block columns. Ample provision for ventilation should be made especially in tropical coun-

For intermittent work or small quantities, electric motors, oil tries, and in these countries mosquito netting 1s essential Apart from the main service reservoir it 1s usual to provide

engines, or gas engines, may be used Where the suction lift does not exceed about 25 feet either direct acting or centrifugal pumps may be used: where the suction

lift exceeds this limit, three-throw plunger pumps may be used in conjunction with a suction well of ample size, or where space is a consideration, as in a borehole, vertical spindle turbe centrifugal pumps may be employed Where water has to be raised from great depths by means of boreholes, the air-lift pump is frequently the only arrangement available: it has the advantage of having no moving parts, and although its efficiency is low it is considered to have advantages in certain cases, which compensate for the lack of efficiency. Rising Main.—In contradistinction to a gravitation supply, where the general hydraulic gradient and therefore the dimensions of component parts of the aqueduct are, for a given capacity, fixed within close limits by the levels of the impounding and main service reservoirs, the hydraulic gradient of the rising main is determined by purely economic considerations. The terminal level, ¢¢., the top water level of the service reservoir, 1s fixed by the level of the area to be supplied from that reservoir, but the head against which the pumps are designed to work, and which determines the hydraulic gradient under which the rising main will operate, must be above that due to the service reservoir . The carrying capacity of the main is a function of its size and hydraulic gradient: the flatter the gradient the larger the pipe and the smaller the head against which the pumps will operate, for, in addition to the purely static lift given by the difference

between the level in the suction well and the level in the service reservoir, there is the friction head which is the product of the hydraulic gradient and the length of the mam. Conversely, a smaller and Jess costly pipe may be used at the expense of increasing the pumping head, the size of the pumpmg untts, and the cost of pumping In its simplest terms, the economic size of the msing main is that diameter for which the sum of the interest and sinking fund charges on the cost of the pipe line, the pumping units and the building, the service reservoir and filters (if required) and of the annual working expenses, is a mmimum

Service Reservoit.—When the main service reservoir is sup-

plied with filtered water or deep well water it is usually covered in order to prevent contamination and algal growths Covering also helps to maintain the water at an even temperature and, especially in hot climates, prevents loss of water by evaporation. Even if reservoirs are not covered initially, it frequently happens

one or more minor reservoirs upon suitably elevated sites to meet the hourly and possibly daily fluctuations of supply in the more or less mediate vicinity, and to hold an appropriate reserve for fire extinction. Where no site at the required elevation

is available, watertowers supporting elevated tanks of cast iron, steel or reinforced concrete, holding 20,000 to 500,000 gallons, and standing 50 to 100 feet above the ground, are used. Minor

service reservoirs, located at the ends of main distribution pipes remote from the main service reservoir, are advantageous in that they enable smaller and less costly connecting mains to be used, and also give more regular pressures in the districts served Distribution.—There are two methods of charging for domestac supphes as in Britain, it may be by a water rate at so much per cent of the annual value, or, as m many American and Continental cities, at so much per 1,000 gallons by meter Where the supply is metered, it 1s to the user’s interest to maintain his fittings in proper condition, and in America, the introduction of meters invariably leads to a considerable reduction in consumption. Quite apart from leaky fittings there may be loss of water in

the distribution mains, and in a well-organised Water Department, the detection and prevention of leakage and waste is an important part of the work of maintenance The outflow from all service reservoirs should be metered, and a close observation of the rates of flow during the night hours will indicate whether there is any serious loss of water in the area suppled from that reservoir For more detailed observations, the town is divided up into districts, the night supply to each of which can by an appropriate system of valve control be made to pass through a Deacon Differentiating Waste Water Meter This meter carries a paper diagram mounted on a drum, which is caused by clockwork to revolve uniformly; each house service is controlled by a stop cock accessible to the Waterworks Officials, these cocks are closed in turn and the time ‘of doing

so is noted; where there 1s leakage taking place the closing of the cock will cause a step in the diagram, and the time at which the step occurs will, on reference to the night mspector’s log, enable that particular house to be located The fittings in that house are examined and the user is called upon to remedy the defects which are notified. When all the stop cocks in the district have been closed, there

may still be a flow recorded on the meter, and this represents leakage from the distribution system which may, as a rule, be readily

WATER-THYME—WATERTOWN located by a stethoscope in the hands of an experienced man

The

modern practice of re-surfacing roads with reinforced concrete adds considerably to the cost of mending defects m mains Native quarters in tropical towns are usually supplied from stand pipes, and unless these are very frequently inspected and well mamtained, serious loss of water may occur.

Distribution System.—Where the area of supply has a wide range of level, it 1s usual to divide it up mto zones each com-

433

smaller distribution mains, especially in tropical countries where freight and transport are heavy items of expense.

In Italy asbestos-cement pipes have been used of recent years instead of cast iron pipes im sizes ranging from the smallest distribution pipe up to large trunk mains. These pipes are made with double spigots and jointed by means of collars either of the same matenal or of cast ron with mserted rubber rings With most waters and in ordinary ground they are not lable to deter1-

manded by a service reservoir or water tower at an appropriate elevation ın order to prevent the pipes and fittings bemg sub-

oration, either mside or out. See also RESERVOIRS, DAMS,

jected to excessive pressure with consequent increased liabihty to

PURIFICATION BrstiocraPpHy —H Lapworth, “The Geology of Dam Trenches,” Trans Inst Water Eng, Vol. XVI (1971), C. P Berkey and J. F Sanborn, “Engineering Geology of the Catskill Water Supply,” Trans. Am Soc C.E, Vol. LXXXVI. (1923), H J. F. Gourley, “The Use of Grout m Cut-off Trenches and Concrete Core Walls for Earthen Embankments,” Trans Inst Water Eng, Vol XXVII. (1922); A.A

loss and waste of water, or the same result may be obtained by the use of pressure reducing valves

The same principle 1s adopted

also when the higher districts have to be supplied by pumping, or repumping, in order to restrict the quantity of water pumped to that requisite for the mgher districts only. Where current is available electrically driven centnfugal pumps are installed, and automatically come into action when the level in the upper reservoir falls to a pre-determined level

it can also be arranged that

the pumping shall be confined to certain hours if by so doing, the

peak hours at the generating station are avoided, and a more favourable tariff for current is thereby obtained The general requirements of a satisfactory distribution system

are, well laid mains of durable material, laid at such depths as

will prevent damage by frost or traffic, of sufficient capacity to meet all demands at an adequate pressure, usually not less than

3 mches internal diameter, and so arranged and intercommunicated that ın the event of a burst or for any other reason, a small section may be isolated rapidly, a sufficiency of hydrants appropriate to the various parts of the district, master meters registering the quantities delivered into the several districts; and adequate means of detecting leakage and waste Mains.—The mains may be of cast iron, steel, galvamised iron or asbestos-cement ‘The cast iron and steel prpes may be simply coated internally and externally with Dr. Angus Smith’s Solution where the ground in which the pipes are laid has no adverse effect on metals and where the water has sufficient alkalinity to inhibit corrosion or incrustation If the water is soft or otherwise likely to cause tuberculation, such pipes should either be of larger diameter to allow for the falling off ın carrying capacity, or the pipes must be lined with cement mortar or bituminous compound, and the nature of the lning 1s not only a question of cost, but also of swtability for the particular water supplied ‘The thickness of the lining depends upon the size of the pipe, being thinner in the smaller pipes. The choice of a special type of ming may restrict its use to pipes of such a size that a person can enter them 1f the making good of the internal joints from the inside is necessary in order

to secure continuity in the lining, and this consideration more particularly affects steel pipes, where the consequences of pitting are relatively of greater importance than in the much thicker cast iron pipes.

For protection against external corrosion coated steel pipes may be effectively protected by wrapping with Hessian cloth smpregnated with hot bitumen, but great care has to be taken to prevent damage to this wrapping Where the ground in which the pipes are to be laid contains particularly aggressive constituents, it may be necessary to surround the pipes with concrete or to refill the trench with other and more suttable earth. In tropical countries, where aqueduct mains traverse bad ground, they may be laid

Barnes,

“Cementation

of

Strata

WELLS, AQUEDUCTS

below

Trans, Inst Water Eng, Vol. XXXII

Reservoir

and WATER

Embankments,”

(1927); J. R Fox, “Pre-cemen-

tation of a Reservoir Trench,” Jbid ; F. W Macaulay, “Cross-connections m the Elan Aqueduct of the Birmmgham Corporation Water-

works,” Proc Inst Corrosion of Cast (1915); W J. E for the Birkenhead

C.E, Vol CCXI (1920), M R. Pugh, Iron Pipe,” Trans Am Soc. C.E., Vol. “The Cross Hill Covered Service Waterworks,” Trans. Inst Water Eng,

Bmme,

(x916) WATER-THYME

“External LXXVIII Reservoir Vol XXI.

(H. J. F. G.) (Elodea canadensis), a small submerged

water-weed, natıve of North America, it is also known as American water-weed. It was introduced into co. Down, Ireland, about 1836, and appeared in England in 1841, spreading through the country in ponds, ditches and streams, which were often choked with its rank growth Elodea belongs to the family Hydrocharitaceae, which mcludes also the frog-bit (Hydrocharis Morsusranae), the water-soldier (Stratiotes aloides) and the eel-grass (Vallsnerza spiralis).

WATERTOWN,

2 town of Massachusetts, on the Charles

river. Pop. (1920) 21,457 (27% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 34,913 There are two interesting old burying grounds, one of wnich has been in use since 1642, and a number of colonial houses The town includes mounds and earthworks thought by Prof. E. N. Horsford to be remains of a Norse settlement of the rzth century, The Federal Government maintains one of its principal arsenals at Watertown, occupying roo ac. along the river Several of the onginal low brick buildings (1816-20) are stillin use The town has numerous and varied manufactures, with an annual output valued at $60,000,000. Watertown was one of the earliest of the Massachusetts Bay settlements, founded in 1630 by Sir Richard Saltonstall and the Rev. George Phillips, and for the first quarter century it ranked next to Boston in population and area, Since then its territory has been greatly reduced The first protest in America agaist taxation without representation was made by the people of Watertown, on the occasion of a levy for erecting a stockade fort m Cambridge. The first grist mill in the Colony was established here about 1632, and one of the first woollen mills m America in 1662. Here the Provincial Congress met from April to July 1775; the Massachusetts general court from 1775 to 1778; and the Boston town meetings during the siege of Boston. For several months early in the Revolution the committees of safety and correspondence made Watertown their headquarters, and from here Gen. Joseph Warren set out for

Bunker Hill. Theodore Parker conducted Watertown from 1832 to 1834.

a private school in ,

WATERTOWN, a city of northern New York, U.S A. It has on or above the surface, but in such cases expansion and contraction, in the absence of expansion joints, may give rise to leaky a municipal airport. Pop (1920) 31,285 (81% native white); Joints, though a lead joint, with a depth of lead of 3 inches, under 1930 Federal census 32,205, The Thousand islands are 22 m. N pressure of 200 to 300 feet, will allow of a movement of as much! and the Adirondacks 45m NE The city’s parks include one of 196 ac, two large athletic fields, municipal golf links, swimming as an inch without leakage. Joints.—The joints in metal mains are usually of the socket pools and children’s playgrounds There is a beautiful public library (1904), a memorial to Governor Roswell P. Flower, whose and spigot type made with yarn and lead: of recent years various proprietary substitutes for lead have been used, chiefly in Amer- home was here Among its products, valued in 1927 at $17,796,-

ica, with the view to elimináting that caulking which a run lead joint requires, and cement caulked in an almost dry state instead

of lead has'also been adopted with some measure of success.

Galvanised pipes with screwed joints are frequently used for the

751, are automobile bodies, railroad air-brakes, paper, silk fab-

rics, knitted silk garments, women’s coats, electrical machinery, flour and breakfast foods, thermometers and optical goods The city owns a hydro-electric plant of 7,500 hp (opened 1927).

WATERTOWN—WATSON

434

Since 1920 it bas had a city-manager. The charities are financed through a community chest

Watertown

was founded in 1800,

and named after the water-power, which has been used since 1802 It was incorporated as a city in 1869. The first portable steam engine made in the United States was made in Watertown im 1847, and here in 1878 F. W. Woolworth established the first five and ten cent store

WATERTOWN,

Big W. has The

a city of South Dakota, USA, on the

Sioux river, near Lake Kampeska and Lake Pelican, 200 m of Minneapohs. Pop 1930 Federal census 10,214. The city a large meat-packing plant, flour mills and machine shops city was founded in 1882 and incorporated in 1885

WATERTOWN, 2 city of Wisconsin, U.S A, on the Rock

river. Pop. 9,299 in 1920, 10,613 ım 1930. It is the seat of Northwestern college (Lutheran, 1865), a shipping point for butter and cheese; a market for imported horses Watertown was founded about 1836 by colonists from Watertown, NY Later, especially after 1848, there was a large influx of Germans, including Carl Schurz, who began his law practice here. The village was mcorporated in 1849 and chartered as a city in 1853.

WATER TURBINE: see TURBINE, WATER.

WATER-TURKEY,

the popular name in US.A

for the

American darter (Anhinga anhinga). (See SNAKE-BIRD )

WATERVILLE,

a city of Maine, USA.

Pop. (1920)

13,351 (22% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 15,454. Water-power from the Ticonic falls, and more recently an ample supply of hydro-electric current, have made Waterville an important manufacturing centre. It has large cotton and worsted mills and other plants, with products in 1927 valued at $12,156,743. In Winslow, directly opposite, 1s one of the largest pulp and

paper mulls of New England. The city 1s the seat of Colby college, founded in 1813 as the Maine Literary and Theological Institution. The Belgrade lakes are ro m W. of the city and some of the best fishing-grounds in the State are in the vicinity Settlement here began about the middle of the 18th century. Waterville was set off from Winslow and incorporated as a town in 1802 In 1883 it was incorporated as a city, adopting a city charter in 1888

America

Its properties are similar to those of the springs at

Bad Nauheim, but the mmeral content is about five times as great. The famous glen 1s a narrow winding gorge 2 m long, with

walls from roo to 300 ft high, through which flows a small stream (with a total descent of 1,200 ft.) zm many falls, cascades and

pools. It is in a State park of 800 ac, entered from the main

street of the village. The first settlement here was made in 1738

by two men from Connecticut

In 1794 came Dr Samuel Watkins,

in whose honour the village was named ın 1852, after having been known first ag Salubria and incorporated in 1842 as Jefferson

WATLING STREET, the Early English name for the great

road made by the Romans from London past St. Albans (Roman Verulamsum) to Wroxeter (Roman Veroconium) near Shrewsbury and used by the Anglo-Saxons, just as a great part of it 1s used to-day According to early documents the name was at first

Waeclinga (or Waetlinga) straet; its derivation is unknown, but an English personal name may lie behind it After the Conquest the road was included in the list of four Royal Roads which the Norman lawyers recorded or invented (See ERMINE STREET) Later still, in the Elizabethan period and after it, the name Watling Street seems to have been apphed to many Roman or reputed Roman roads in various parts of Britain In particular, the Roman “North Road” which ran from York through Corbridge and over Cheviot to Newstead near Melrose, and thence to the Wall of Pius, and which has largely been in use ever since Roman times, was not unfrequently called Watling Street, though there was no old authority for it and throughout the middle ages the section of the road between the Tyne and the Forth was called Dere Street. For its course near London, see Royal Comm on H1st. Monuments, Inventory of London (1928).

WATSON,

JOHN

BROADUS

(1878

), American

psychologist, was born at Greenville, S C., on Jan. 9, 1878 He graduated at Furman university (M.A. 1900), continuing his studies at the University of Chicago (PhD 1903) After serving as assistant and instructor in experimental psychology at the University of Chicago he was appointed professor of experimental and comparative psychology at Johns Hopkins university in 1908, WATERVLIET, a city of New York, USA. Pop (1920) being also director of the psychological laboratory there until 16,073 (84% native white); 1930 Federal census 16,083. It has 1920. Later he was a lecturer at the New School for Social Rerailroad shops and extensive manufactures of bells, iron and steel search He became known as the leading exponent of behaviourcastings, stoves, ladders, woollen goods, paper and wooden boxes, ism (See BEHAVIOURISM) In 1917 he served as major in the asbestos products, spun silk, men’s clothing and various other com- aviation section of the Signal Corps, US Reserves, and with the modities, with an aggregate output in 1927 valued at $9,235,445. AEF. He was editor of The Psychological Review, 1908-15; he Within the city limits is a US arsenal (1807). Watervliet was became joint editor of The Journal of Animal Behavior in 1910 originally called West Troy. It was incorporated as a village in and editor of The Journal of Experimental Psychology in 1913. 1836 and as acity (under its present name) in 1896 Since 1978 it He wrote Animal Education (1903), Behavior: An Introduction has had a commission-manager form of government. In 1776 to Comparative Psychology (1914); Psychology from the Stand“Mother Ann” Lee and her followers established the first Shaker point of a Behaviorist (1919); and Bekavsorism (1925); as well as many scientific monographs and articles, settlement in America near the present site of Watervliet.

WATERWAYS: see CANALS AND CaNnatizep Rivers; In-

LAND WATER TRANSPORT.

WATSON, JOHN CHRISTIAN

(1867—

__), Australian

politician, was born at Valparaiso, Chile, on April 9, 1867, when

WATFORD, a town of Hertfordshire, England. Pop. (1931) his parents were on their way as emigrants to Australasia He was

56,799. ‘The church of St. Mary contains good monumental work of the early 17th century. There are large breweries, also cornmills, malt-kilns and an iron foundry. Bushey, on the south side of the Colne, is a suburb, chiefly residential, with a station on the L.M S, line The church of St. James, extensively restored by Sir Gilbert Scott, has an Early English chancel. Here a school of art

founded by Sir Hubert von Herkomer, R A., was closed in 1904, and subsequently revived in other hands. Other institutions are the Royal Caledonian asylum and the London Orphan asylum At Aldenham, 2 m N.E., the grammar school founded in 1599 now ranks as one of the minor English public schools

educated at the public school of Oamaru, N.Z., and as a boy

began work as a compositor. He attached himself to the Labour party in politics He was president of the Sydney Trades and Labour Council in 1890 From 1894—1901 he was a member of the New South Wales legislature. In r90z he was elected to the Commonwealth parliament, and for a short time in t904, on the resignation of Deakin, he was prime minister and treasurer. He

resigned after a few months, though he continued to lead the Labour party until 1908.

WATSON, THOMAS

(c. 1557-1592), English lyrical poet,

was born in London, probably in 1557

He proceeded to Oxford,

WATKINS GLEN, a village of New York, USA, at the ‘and while quite a young man enjoyed a certain reputation, even

south end of Seneca lake, in the heart of the Finger Lake region, Resident pop. 1930, 2,956 Federal census Medicinal

springs and the beauty of the “Glen” have made it one of the

noted health and pleasure resorts of the country, and 18 brine

abroad, as a Latin poet His De remedio amoris, which was pethaps his earliest important composition, is lost, and so is his “piece of work written in the commendation of women-kind,” which was also in Latin verse. He came back to London and

wells provide raw material for the manufacture of 170,000 tons became a law-student The earliest publication by Watson which of salt annually. The most noted of the mineral springs ıs one has survived is a Latin version of the Antigone of Sophocles, on the property of the Glen springs, a large health resort and hotel issued in 1581. It is dedicated to Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, established in 1890 to provide the “Nauheim treatment” in who was perhaps the patron of the poet, who seems to have

WATSON—WATT

435

In 1880 he published his first book The Prince’s Quest, a poem for the first time as an English poet in some verses prefixed to showing the mfluence of Keats and Tennyson, but giving little Whetstone’s Heptameron, and also in a far more important guise, mdication of the author’s mature style. Recognition came in as the author of the Hecatompatha or Passionate Centurie of 1890 with the publication. of Wordsworth’s Grave, which marked Love Thisisa collection or cycle of 100 pieces, in the manner of a reversion from the current Tennysonian and Swinburnian fashPetrarch, celebrating the sufferings of a lover and his long fare- ion to the meditative note of Matthew Arnold. Besides Words-

spent some part of this year in Paris

well to love

Next year Watson appears

Although they profess to be sonnets, they are really

written mn triple sets of common six-line stanza, and therefore have 18 lines each The metre has had no imitators. In 1585 he pubhshed a Latin translation of Tasso’s pastoral play of Aminta, and bs version was afterwards translated mto Enghsh by Abraham

Fraunce (1587).

Watson was now, as the testzmony of Nashe and others prove, regarded as the best Latin poet of England In 1590 he published, in English and Latin verse, his Meliboeus, an elegy on the death

of Sir Francis Walsingham, and a collection of Ziahan Madrigals, put into English by Watson and set to music by Byrd Of the remainder of Watson’s career nothing is known, save that on Sept 26, 1592 he was buried in the church of St Bartholomew the Less, and that in the following year his latest and best book,

The Tears of Fancie, or Love Disdamed (1593), was posthumously published This is a collection of 60 sonnets with 14 Imes each. Spenser may have alluded to Watson in Colin Clout’s Come Home Again, when he says — Amyntas quite is gone and hes full low, Having his Amaryllis left to moan.

He 1s mentioned by Meres in company with Shakespeare, Peele and Marlowe among “the best for tragedie,” but no dramatic

work of his has come down to us of Shakespeare

He was, however, forerunner

(in Venus and Adoms and in the Somnets). E G.

The Enghsh works of Watson, excepting the saint Le a collected by E. Arber m 1870. Thomas Watson’s “Itahan Madrigals Enghshed” (z590) were reprinted (ed. F J Carpenter) from the

Journal of Germanic Philology orgmal

Itahan,

m

1899

See

(vol. in, No. 3, p. 337) with the

also Sir Sidney

Lee’s

Introduction

(pp. xxxui-xh) to Ehzabethan Sonnets ın the new edition (1904) of An English Garner,

WATSON, WILLIAM (c 1559-1603), English conspirator, was born in the north of England, probably on April 23, 1559 In 1586 he became a Roman Catholic priest in France, and during the concluding years of Elizabeth’s reign he paid several visits to England, he was mprisoned and tortured more than once. Under James I he was involved in the “Bye plot,” or “Watson’s plot i It was arranged that James should be surprised and seized, while the conspirators talked loudly about capturmg the Tower of London, converting the king to Romanism, and making Watson lord keeper. One or two of the conspirators drew back, but Watson and his remaiming colleagues arranged to assemble at Greenwich on June 24, 1603, and under the pretence of presenting a petition to carry out their object. The plot was a complete failure, Henry Garnet and other Jesmts betrayed it to the authorities, and 1ts principal authors were seed, Watson being captured in August at Hay on the Welsh border They were tried at Winchester and found guilty, Watson and Clark were executed on Dec 9, 1603, and Brooke suffered the same fate a week later

Before the executions took place, however, the failure of the Bye plot had led to the discovery of the Main plot Brooke’s share in

the earlier scheme caused suspicion to fall upon his brother Henry

Brooke, Lord Cobham, the ally and brother-in-law of Sir Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury Cobham appears to have been in communication with Spain about the possibility of killing “the

king and his cubs” and of placing Lady Arabella Stuart on the throne He was seized, tried and condemned to death, but although led out to the scaffold he was not executed

It was on suspicion of being associated with Cobham in this matter that Sir Walter Raleigh was arrested and tried See the documents printed by T G. Law in The Archpriest controversy (1896-98) , the same writer’s Jeswts and Seculars (1889), and §. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol, i (1905).

SIR WILLIAM

(1858-

), English poet,

WATSON, born on Aug 2, 1888, at Burley-in-Wharfedale, Yorkshire, was

brought up at Liverpool, whither his father moved for business.

worth’s Grave the volume contamed Ver tenebrosum

(originally

published im the National Review for June 1885), a series of pohtical sonnets indicatmg a fervour of pobtical conviction which was later to find still more mmpassioned expression; also a selection with additions from the Epzgrams of 1884, and among other miscellaneous pieces his tribute to Arnold, “In Laleham Churchyard” There followed: Excursions in Criticism (1893), a collection of review articles, Lacrymae Musarum (1893); The Elopıng Angels (1893); Odes and Other Poems (1894); The Father of the Forest (1895); and The Purple East (1896), sonnets on the Armenian question, Collected Poems (1902); Selected Poems (1903); For England (1903); New Poems (1909); and also other verse, including A Hundred Poems (1922), a selection from various volumes,

and Poems,

Brief and New

(r925) In r917 Watson was knighted, Sir Wilham Watson’s poetry is contemplative, not dramatic, and only occasionally lyrical in impulse In spite of the poet’s plea in his “Apologia” that there is an ardour and a fire other than that of Eros or Aphrodite, ardour and fire are not conspicuous qualities of his verse Except in his political verse there is more thought than passion. Bearing trace enough of the influence of the romantic epoch, his poetry recalls the earlier classical period in its epigrammatic phrasing and Latinized diction By the distinction and clarity of his style and the dignity of his movement Wilham Watson stands in the classical tradition. See also section on William Watson m Poets of the Younger Generatzon, by William Archer (sg02), and for bihlography up to Aug. 1903, English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. (NS), pp. 542 and 548.

WATSONVILLE, a city of Santa Cruz county, California.

Pop. (1920) 5,013; in 1930 it had increased to 8,344 by the Federal census Over 15,000 ac. of the beautiful fertile Pajaro valley are planted to apples, which supply work for 75-100 packing houses, 25 driers, canneries and cider and vinegar works in the city Small fruit, vegetables and other agricultural products are also shipped in large quantities. Watsonville was one of the early settlements of the State, founded in 185r. It was incorporated as a city m 1903 WATT, JAMES (1736-1819), Scottish engineer, the inventor of the modern condensing steam-engine, was born at Greenock on Jan. 19, 1736. His father was a small merchant there, who lost his trade and fortune by unsuccessful speculation James made his way to London, at the age of nmeteen, to be apprenticed to a philosophical-mstrument maker, John Morgan, in whose service he remained for twelve months The hard work and frugal hving forced him at the end of a year to seek rest at home, not, however, before he had gained a fair knowledge of the trade and become handy in the use of tools On his return to Scotland in 1756 he tried to establish himself as an instrument maker in Glasgow, but the city guilds would not recognize a craitsman who had not served the full term of apprenticeship, and Watt was forbidden to open shop in the burgh The college, however, took him under its protection, and in 1757 he was established in its precincts with the title of mathematical-instrument maker to the university. Joseph Black, the discoverer of latent heat, then lecturer on chemistry, and John Robison, then a student, afterwards professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, became his intimate frends, and with them he often discussed the possibility of improving the steam-engine, the best type of which was at that time the Newcomen engine. It was then applied only to pumping water—chiefly in the drainage of mines; and it was so clumsy and wasteful in fuel that ıt was little used. Some early experiments of Watt in 1761 or 1762 had no direct result, but in 1764 his attention was seriously aroused by having a model of Newcomen’s engine, which formed part of the college collection of scientific apparatus, given him to repair Having put the model in order,

436

WATT

he was at once struck with its enormous consumption of steam, and set himself to find its cause and remedy In Newcomen’s engine the cylinder stood vertically under one end of the main lever or “beam,” and was open at the top Steam, at a pressure scarcely greater than that of the atmosphere, was

admitted to the under side, this allowed the piston to be pulled up by a counterweight at the other end of the beam Communication with the boiler was then shut off, and the steam m the cylinder was condensed by injection of cold water from a cistern

above. The pressure of the air on the top of the piston then drove it down, raising the counterweight and doing work. The injection water and condensed steam in the cylinder were drained out by a pipe leading down into a well. After some unsuccessful efforts to remedy the difficulty Watt began a scientific examination of the properties of steam, studying by experiment the relation of its density and pressure to its temperature, and concluded that two conditions were essential to the economic use of steam in a condensing steam-engine One was that the temperature of the condensed steam should be as low as possible, 100° F or lower, otherwise the vacuum would not be good; the other was, to quote his own words, “that the cylinder should be always as hot as the steam which entered it.” In Newcomen’s engine these two conditions were incompatible, and not for some months did Watt see a means of reconciling them. Early in 1765, the idea struck him that, if the steam were condensed in a vessel distinct from the cylinder, the temperature of condensation could be kept low and that in the cyhnder high Let this separate vessel be kept cold, either by injecting cold water or by letting it run over the outside, and let a vacuum be maintained in the vessel. Then, whenever communication was made between it and the cylinder, steam would pass over from the cylinder and be condensed; the pressure in the cylinder would be as low as the pressure in the condenser, but the temperature of the metal of the cylinder would remain high, since no myjection

water would touch it. Without delay Watt put his idea to the test, and found that the separate condenser acted as he had an-

the course of this work he invented a simple micrometer fo; measuring distances, consisting of a pair of horizontal haurs placed in the focus of a telescope, through which sights were taken to a

fixed and to a movable target on a rod held upright at the place whose distance from the observer was to be determined In 1768 Watt had met Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho engineering works at Birmmgham Boulton agreed to take Roe. buck’s share in the invention, and to apply to parliament for an act to prolong the term of the patent The application was successful, and in 1775 an act was passed continuing the patent for

twenty-five years

By this trme Watt had settled in Birmmgham,

where the manufacture of steam-engines was begun by the firm

of Boulton & Watt. The partnership was a happy one. Boulton left the work of venting to Watt, in whose gemus he had the fullest faith, while he attended to the business side. During the next ten years Watt developed the engine. Its first and, for a time, its only application was in pumping; it was at once put to this use in the Cornish mines Further inventions followed in quick succession

Watt’s second steam-engine patent

is dated 1781. It describes five different methods of converting the reciprocating motion of the piston into motion of rotation, so as to adapt the engine for driving ordinary machinery. The simplest way of doing this was by a crank and fly-wheel; this had occurred to Watt, but had meanwhile been patented by an-

other, and hence he devised “sun and planet wheels” and other equivalent contrivances A third patent, in 1782, contamed two new inventions of great importance. Up to this time the engine had been single-acting; Watt now made it double-acting: that is to say, both ends of the cylinder, instead of only one, were alternately put in communication with the boiler and the con-

denser Up to this time also the steam had been admitted from the boiler throughout the whole stroke of the piston; Watt now introduced the system of expansive working, in which the admission valve is closed after a portion only of the stroke 1s performed, and the steam enclosed in the cyirccr is then allowed to expand during the remainder of che s.roke, Coing additional work upon the piston without making any further demand upon the boiler until the next stroke requires a fresh admussion of steam. He observed that, as the piston advanced after admis-

ticipated. —To maintam the vacuum in it he added another new organ, namely, the air-pump, the function of which was to remove the condensed steam and injection-water along with any air gathered in the condenser. sion had ceased, the pressure of the steam in the cylinder would To further his object of keeping the cylinder as hot as the fall in the same proportion as its volume increased—a law which, steam that entered it, Watt supplemented his great invention of although not strictly true, does accord very closely with the actual the separate condenser by several less notable but still important behaviour of steam expanding in the cylinder of an engine Recogimprovements. In Newcomen’s engine a layer of water over the nizing that this would cause a gradual reduction of the force piston had been used to keep it steam-tight; Watt substituted a with which the piston pulled or pushed against the beam, Watt detighter packing lubricated by oil. In Newcomen’s engine the upper vised a number of contrivances for equalizing the effort throughend of the cylinder was open to the air; Watt covered ıt in, lead- out the stroke. He found, however, that the inertia of the pumping the piston-rod through a steam-tight stuffing box in the cover, rods in his mine engines, and the fly-wheel in his rotative engmes, and allowed steam instead of air to press on the top of the served to compensate for the inequality of thrust sufficiently to piston. In Newcomen’s engine the cylinder had no clothing to make these contrivances unnecessary. His fourth patent, taken reduce loss of heat by radiation and conduction from its outer out in 1784, describes the well-known “parallel motion,” an arsurface; Watt not only cased it in non-conducting material, but rangement of links by which the top of the piston-rod is conintroduced a steam-jacket, or layer of steam, between the cylin- nected to the beam so that it may either pull or push, and is at der proper and an outer shell. the same time guided to move in a straight hne. All these features were specified in his first patent (see STEAMA still later invention was the centrifugal governor, by which ENGINE), which was obtained in January 1769, nearly four years the speed of rotative engines was automatically controlled. Anafter the inventions it covered had been made In the interval other of Watt’s contributions to the development of the steamWatt had been striving to demonstrate the merits of his engine

by trial on a large scale. His earliest experiments left him in debt, and he agreed that Dr. John Roebuck, founder of the Carron ironworks, should take two-thirds of the profits of the invention in consideration of his bearing the costs An engine was then erected at Kinneil, near Linlithgow, and this gave Watt the opportunity of overcoming many difficulties in details of construction. Meanwhile he was gaining reputation as a civil engineer In 1767 he was employed to make a survey for a Forth and Clyde canal, which failed, however, to secure parliamentary sanction.

During the next six years he made surveys for canals at Monkland, from Perth to Forfar, and along the lines afterwards followed by the Crinan and Caledonian canals, He prepared plans for the harbours of Ayr, Port-Glasgow and Greenock, for deepen-

ing the Clyde, and for building a bridge over it at Hamilton

In

engine is the indicator, which draws a diagram of the relation of the steam’s pressure to its volume as the stroke proceeds. The eminently philosophic notion of an indicator diagram is fundamental in the theory of thermodynamics; the instrument itself is to the steam engineer what the stethoscope is to the physician. The commercial success of the engine was not slow. By 1783

all but one of the Newcomen pumping-engines in Cornwall had

been displaced by Watt’s. The mines were then far from thriving, many were even on the point of being abandoned through the

difficulty of dealing with large volumes of water; and Watt’s

invention, by its economy, gave many of them a new lease of life

His engine used no more than a fourth of the fuel that had for-

merly been needed to do the same work, and the Soho firm usually claimed as royalty a sum equivalent to one-third of the saving. Before Watt’s time the steam-engine was exclusively a steam-

WATTEAU ump, slow-working, cumbrous and excesstvely wasteful in fuel

Eis first patent made it quick in working, powerful and efficient, but still only as a steam-pump

His later mventions adapted it

to drive machinery of all kinds, and left it virtually what it is

to-day, save in three respects In respect of mechanical arrangement the modern engine differs from Watt’s chiefly in that the beam, an indispensable feature in the early pumping-engines, has gradually given way to more direct modes of connecting the piston with the crank The second difference is m the modern use of high-pressure steam It is remarkable that Watt, notwithstanding the fact that his own invention of expansive working must have

opened his eyes to the advantage of high-pressure steam, declined

to make use of it He persisted in the use of pressures that were little if at all above that of the atmosphere, while Trevithick ventured as far as 120 lb on the square inch, a curious episode m the history of the steam-engime is an attempt by Boulton and Watt to obtain an act of parhament forbidding the use of high pressure steam on the ground that the lives of the public were endangered The third respect in which a great provement has been effected is in the introduction of compound expansion Here, too, we find the Soho firm hostile, though the necessity of defending their

monopoly makes their action natural enough Hornblower had m fact stumbled on the invention of the compound engine, but as his machine employed Watt’s condenser 1t was suppressed, to be revived after some years by Arthur Woolf (1766-1837) Watt in one of his patents (1784) describes a steam locomotive, but he never prosecuted this, and when Wilham Murdoch, his chief assistant (famous as the inventor of gas-hghting), made experiments on the same lines, Watt gave him little encouragement The notion then was to use a steam carriage on ordinary roads, its use on railways had not yet been thought of. When that idea

*

437

„See J P. Muirhead, Orgon and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt (3 vols, 1854) ; Mwrhead, Lafe of Watt (1858) , Smiles, Lives of Boulton and Watt, Wilhamson, Memorials of the Lineage, etc, of James Watt, published by the Watt Club (Greenock, 1856) , Correspondence of the late James Watt on his Discovery of the Theory of the Composition of Water, edited by Muirhead (1846), Cowper “On the Inventions of James Watt and his Models preserved at Handsworth and South Kensington,” Proc Inst. Mech. Eng. (1883) , Robison, Mechanical Philosophy, vol. ui. (1822).

WATTEAU, ANTOINE

(1684-1721), French painter, was

born in Valenciennes, of humble Flemish origin At fourteen he was placed with Gérin, a mediocre Valenciennes painter But he learnt more from Ostade’s and Teniers’s pamtings in his native town. His earliest works suggest this influence Gérin died in 1702, and Watteau, almost penniless, went to Paris, where he jomed the scene-painter Métayer. Things went badly with his master, and Watteau, broken in health, worked ın a factory where devotional pictures were turned out wholesale. Three francs a week and meagre food were his reward Claude Gillot then took Watteau as assistant, but the young man soon excelled his master, whose jealousy led to a quarrel Watteau and his pupil, Lancret, entered about 1708 the studio of Claude Audran, decorative painter and keeper of the collections at the Luxembourg His chinoiseries and singeries date probably from this period Watteau painted at this tıme “The Departing Regiment,” the first picture ın his second and more personal manner, m which the touch reveals the mfluence of Rubens’s technique, and the first of a long series of camp pictures. He found a purchaser for the picture, at the modest price of 60 livres, mm Sirois, the father-inlaw of his later friend and patron Gersaint, and was thus enabled to return to Valenciennes There he painted a number of small camp-pieces, two of which are at the Hermitage ın Leningrad. After a short sojourn at Valenciennes, he returned to Paris, where he lived with Sirois. He obtained the second prize in the

took form later ın the last years of Watt’s life, the old man refused to countenance it On the expiry in 1800 of the act by which the patent of 1769 Prix de Rome competition (x709) Watteau was made an. associhad been extended, Watt gave up his share in the business of ate of the Academy in 1712, and a full member ın 1717, on the engine-building to his sons, James, who carried ıt on with a completion of his diploma picture, “The Embarkment for son of Boulton for many years, and Gregory, who died in 1804 Cythera,” now at the Louvre. Watteau now went to live with Crozat, the greatest private The remainder of his life was quietly spent at Heathfield Hall, near Birmingham, where he devoted his time to rechinicil nar- art collector of his time, for whom he painted a set of four swts Hus last work was the invention of machines for consing decorative panels of “The Seasons” He lived for six months with sculpture, one for making reduced copies, another for taking his friend Gersaint, for whom he painted m eight mornings a facsimiles by means of a light frame, which carried a pointer wonderful signboard depicting the interior of an art dealer’s over the surface of the work, while a revolving tool fixed to the shop. His health made it imperative for him to live n the frame alongside the pointer cut a' corresponding surface on a country, and m 1721 he took up his abode with M. le Fèvre at suitable block We find him not many months before his death, Nogent He continued working with feverish haste. Among his presenting copies of busts to his friends as the work “of a young last paintings were a “Crucifixion” for the curé of Nogent, and artist just entering on his eighty-third year” His life drew to a a portrait of the famous Venetian pastellist Rosalba Carriera, tranquil close, and the end came at Heathfield on Aug 19, 1819 who at the same time pamted her portrait of Watteau His restlessness mcreased with the progress of tubercular disease, and on He was buried in the parish church of Handsworth Watt was twice married—first in 1763 to his cous Margaret the 18th of July 1721 he died in Gersaint’s arms Watteau, though Flemish, was more French than his French Miller, who died ten years later Of four children born of the marriage, two died in fancy, another was James (1 769-1848), contemporaries He led a revolt against the pompous classicism of the Louis XIV period and combined a poet’s imagination with who succeeded his father in business; the fourth was a daughter His second wife, Anne Macgregor, whom he married before a power of seizing reality In his art can be found the germs of settling mm Birmmgham in 1775, survived lum; but her two chil- impressionism Later theories of ght and its effect upon the objects in nature are foreshadowed by Watteau’s fétes champétres. dren, Gregory and a daughter, died young. One of Watt’s mmor inventions was the press, patented in 1780, He is the mitiator of the Lows XV period, but his paintings are for copying manuscript by using a glutinous ink and pressing the usually free from the lcentiousness of Lancret and Pater, and Boucher and Fragonard. Watteau’s art was highly esteemed by written page against a moistened sheet of thm paper In the domain of pure science Watt claims recognition as a such fine judges as Sirois, Gersaint, the comte de Caylus, and M discoverer of the composition of water Wntmg to Joseph de Julienne, the last of whom collected pamtings and sketches, and Priestley in April 1783, with reference to some of Pnestley’s ex- published in 1735 the Abrégé de la vie de Watteau, an introduction to the four volumes of engravings after Watteau by Cochin, periments, he suggests the theory that “water is composed of de- Thomassin, Le Bas, Liotard and others. Until 1875, when Edmond phlogisticated air and phlogiston deprived of part of their latent de Goncourt published his Catalogue raisonné of Watteau’s works, or elementary heat” Watt’s views were communicated to the Royal Society in 1783, Cavendish’s experiments in 1784, and both also discovering Caylus’s discourse on Watteau delivered at the Academy in 1748. prices of Watteau’s pamtings rarely exceeded are printed in the same volume of the Philosophical Transactions £100, Then the reaction set ın, and in 1891 the “Occupation acHe was a man of warm friendships, and has numerous letters They are full of msight. his own achievements are told with cording to Age” realized 5,20c guiness at Chrishe’s and “Perfect modesty and dry humour In his old age Watt is described as a Harmony” 3,500 guineas. A he Bourgeois s ie ~ Cologne in man stored with knowledge, full of anecdote, familiar with modern 1904 “The Village Bride” fetched £5,000 The finest collection of Watteau’s works was in the possession languages and a great talker Scott so writes of him.

WATTERSON—WATTS

4.38

of the German emperor, who owned as many as thirteen, all of tionary Army, preparing to relieve it, gathered behind Avesnes, Even without the Maubeuge garrison Jourdan had a two-tothe best period, and mostly from M de Julienne’s collection At the Kaiser Fredrich museum in Berlin are two scenes from the Italian and French comedy and a fête champêtre. In the Wallace Collection are nine of his paintings, among them “Rustic Amusements,” “The Return from the Chase,” “Gilles and his Family,” “The Music Party,” “A Lady at her Toilet” and “Harlequin and Columbine.” The Louvre owns, besides the diploma picture, the “Antiope,” “The Assemblage in the Park,” “Autumn,” “Indifference,” “La Finette,” “Gilles,’ “A Reunion” and “The False Step,” as well as thirty-one original drawings Other paintings of importance are at the Dresden, Glasgow, Edimburgh, St. Petersburg and Vienna galleries; and a number of drawings are to be found at the British Museum and the Albertina in Vienna Of the few portraits known to have been painted by Watteau, one is in the collection of the late M Groult ın Paris Bxpiocrapuy.—Since the resuscitation of Watteau’s fame by the de Goncourts, an extensive literature has grown around his hfe and

work The basis for all later research 1s furnished by Caylus’s somewhat academic Life, Gersaint’s Catalogue raisonné (Paris, 1744), and

Julienne’s Abrégé For Watteau’s childhood, the most trustworthy mformation will be found ın Celher’s Watteau, son enfance, ses comtemporams (Valenciennes, 1867) Of the greatest ımportance 1s the Catalogue raisonné de Poeuvre de Watteau, by E. de Goncourt (1875), and the essay on Watteau by the brothers de Goncourt un L'Art du XVIIe siècle. See also monographs by P. Mantz (Paris, 1892), by P. Dargenty (1891), by G. Séailles (1892), by Claude Phillips (1895), by Camille Mauclair (1905, and 1920), and A. M. Hind, Watteau, Boucker and the French Engravers (1911).

WATTERSON,

HENRY

(1840-1921), American journal-

ist, was born in Washington (DC.), Feb. 16, 1840. His father, Harvey McGee Watterson, who succeeded James K Polk as a Democratic representative in Congress, was a journalist and

lawyer The son as a youth had literary ambitions, and turned to journalism, acting for a short time as music critic on the New York Times, serving on the Washington daily States, etc. During the Civil War he was attached to the staffs of Generals Forrest, Polk, and Hood, was chief of scouts in the Johnston-Sherman campaign, and edited the Rebel in Chattanooga, After further newspaper work and the first of many trips abroad he became editor of the Journal at Louisville (Ky.) In 1868, with W N. Haldeman, he founded and became editor of the Louisville Courier-Journal, a consolidation of the Courier, the Democrat,

one superiority. The French however were still the undisciplined enthusiasts of Hondschoote Their left attack progressed so long as it could use “dead ground” in the valleys, but when the Republicans reached the gentler slopes above, the volleys of the Austrian regulars crushed their swarms, and the Austrian cavalry, striking them in flank, rode over them The centre attack, ordered by Carnot on the assumption that all was well on the flanks, was premature; like the left, it progressed while the slopes were sharp, but when the Republicans arrived on the crest they found a gentle reverse slope before them, at the foot of which were Coburg’s best troops Again the discuplned volleys and a well-timed cavalry charge swept back the assailants, The French right reached, but could not hold, Wattignies. At last, after a long fight, Carnot and

Jourdan won the plateau, and Coburg drew off. His losses were 2,500 out of 23,000, Jourdan’s 3,000 out of 43,000.

WATTLE AND DAUB or DAB, a term im architecture applied to a wall made with upright stakes with withes twisted between them and then plastered over oldest systems of construction The

It is probably one of the

Egyptians employed the stems of maize for the upright stakes, these were secured together with withes and covered over with mud, the upper portions of the mazze stems being left uncut at the top, to increase the height. These uncut tops were bent out by the weight of the mud roof, and were probably the origin of the later cavetto cornice, the torus moulding below representing the heavier coil of withes

at the top of the wall

Vitruvius (ii. 8) refers to wattle and

daub; in the middle ages 1t was employed as a framework for clay chimneys, and for the filling in of half-timber

WATTMETER, an instrument for the measurement of elec-

tric power or the rate of supply of electric energy to any circut For direct current (DC.) circuits the power supplied 1s given

in watts by multyplying together the current (in amperes) and the voltage, but, when alternating currents (AC) are used with inductive circuits, this product has itself to be multiphed by the power factor—a quantity which depends on the phase rela-

tionship of the current and the electromotive force Wattmeters measuring this combined product are of three types. (a) electrostatic—used only in standardising laboratories, (b) dynamometer instruments based on the principle of the Siemens electrodynaand the Journal Haldeman and Watterson adopted a policy of mometer, and (c) induction instruments Types (a) and (b) may business integrity and interest in the public service which soon be used for both A.C. and D.C. supplies, but type (c) can be used made the Courter-Journal one of the most influential of southern only for AC. circuits. newspapers. It had its unpopular days, however, in such times WATTS, GEORGE FREDERIC (1817-1904), English

as the Reconstruction period, when it stood for concihation between the two sections, and during the Free Silver and Greenback agitations when it advocated a sound currency Watterson was Democratic representative in Congress for a short term (1876— 77). In general he sought no office for himself. In Aug, 1918 he became “editor-emeritus.” In April 1919 he resigned from the paper because of its support of the League of Nations He died at Jacksonville (Fla), Dec 22, 1921. He wrote Hustory of the Spanish American War (1898), The Compromises of Life and Other Lectures and Addresses (1903), and “Marse Henry”, an Autobiography (1919). Some of his Edstortals were collected by Arthur Kroch in 1923. See “Henry Watterson and His ‘Courier-Journal’ ” in O. G. Villard’s Some Newspapers and Newspaper-Men (1926).

WATT-HOUR

METERS, measure the total energy used

in electric circuits (fecdt). The Board of Trade unit of electrical energy is the kilowatt hour (amperes X volts hours+ 1,000). The energy taken from DC. circuits at constant voltage can be measured by ampere-hour meters which may be of the electrolytic or dynamometer type; but in A.C. circutts the power factor has to be allowed for, and dynamometer or induction wattmeters provided with a time integrating device must be employed. (See INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL.) WATTIGNIES, a village of France 54 m. SSE of Maubeuge, the scene of a battle in the French Revolutionary Wars (q.v ), fought on Oct 15—16, 1793. The Allied Army, chiefiy Austrians, under Coburg, was besieging Maubeuge, and the Revolu-

painter end cculnter was born in London on Feb 23, 1817 While łrciy mo e ihan > boy he entered the Royal Academy schools, but his attendance was short-lived, and his further art education

was confined to personal experiment and endeavour, guided and corrected by a constant appeal to the standard of ancient Greek sculpture There are portraits of himself, painted in 1834; of Mr. James Weale, about 1835; of his father, ‘‘Little Miss Hopluns,” and Mr. Richard Jarvis, painted in 1836; and in 1837 he exhibited at the Academy “The Wounded Heron” and two portraits. His first exhibited figure-subject, “Cavaliers,” was shown at the Academy in 1839, and was followed m 1840 by “Isabella e Lorenzo,” m 1841 by “How should I your true love know?” and in 1842 by a scene from Cymbeline and a portrait of Mrs Tonides At the exhibition in Westminster Hall held in 1843 mn connection with the decoration of the new Houses of Parliament, Watts secured a prize of £300 for a design of “Caractacus led in triumph through the streets of Rome” This enabled him to visit Italy in 1844, and he remained there during the greater portion of the three following years, for the most part in Florence, where he enjoyed the patronage and personal friendship of Lord

Holland, the British ambassador, For him he painted a portrait of Lady Holland, exhibited in 1848, and in his Villa Careggi, near the city, a fresco, after making some experimental studies in that medium, fragments of which are now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Encouraged by Lord Holland the artist in 1847 took part in another competition,

the third organized by the

Royal Commissioners, this time for works in oil Watts’s cart

WATTS toon “Alfred inciting lus subjects to prevent the landing of the Danes, or the first naval victory of the Enghsh,” not only gamed 4 first-class prize of £500 at the exhibition m Westminster Hall,

but was purchased by the government, and now hangs in one of

the committee rooms of the Hause of Commons

It led, more-

439

and Death,” one version of which was exhibited in 1877 and others

in 1896, and later; and “Love Tnumphant” (1898).

Sculpture.—Founded admittedly on the Grecian monuments,

there is a sculpturesque rather than pictorial quality in most of the paintings by Watts To him, sculpture was thus natural. He

over, to a commission for the fresco of “St George overcomes the

visited the studio of Behnes, but was

the Hall of the Poets in the Houses of Parhament His offer to pamt, gratuitously, a series of frescoes illustrating “The Progress

marquis of Lothian, Bishop Lonsdale and Lord Tennyson, a large bronze equestrian statue of “Hugo Lupus” at Eaton Hall (1884), and a colossal one of a man on horseback, emblematical of “Physical Energy,” originally intended for a place on the Embankment, but destined to stand among the Matoppo Hills as an enduring evidence of the artist’s admiration for Cecil Rhodes, a replica 1s now placed in Kensington Gardens, Much of his time and attention was given to the promotion of the Home Arts and Industries Association; he assisted Mrs Watts with both money and advice in the founding of an art pottery at Compton, and in the bulding at the same place of a highly decorated mortuary chapel, carried out almost entirely by local labour; and it was entirely due to his iitiative that the erection ın Postmen’s Park, Aldersgate Street, London, of memorial tablets to the unsung heroes of everyday life was begun.

not his pupil.

Among

Dragon” (1848-1853), which forms part of the decorations of his works are a bust of “Clytie” (1868), monuments to the of the Cosmos” for the interior of the great hall m Euston station was refused A similar proposition made shortly afterwards to the Benchers of Lincoln’s Inn resulted in Watts’s execution of

the fresco, ‘Justice. a Hemicycle of Lawgivers,” in the hall

While this large undertaking was in progress, Watts was work-

ing steadily at pictures and portraits

In 1849 the first two of

his great allegorical compositions were exhibited-——“Life’s INusions,” an elaborate presentment of the vanity of human desires,

and “The people that sat in darkness,” turning eagerly towards the growing dawn. In 18g0 he presented to the city of Manchester, in memory of the philanthropist Thomas Wright, the picture of “The Good Samaritan” In 1856 Watts paid a visit

to Lord Holland at Paris, where he was then ambassador, and through him made the acquaintance and painted the portraits of

Thiers, Prince Jerome Bonaparte and other famous Frenchmen. In 1867 Watts was elected ARA, in the course of the same year, R.A Thenceforward he exhibited each year, with a few exceptions, at the Academy, even after his retirement in 1896, and he was also a frequent contributor to the Grosvenor Gallery, and subsequently to the New Gallery, at which a special exhibition of his works was held in the winter of 1896~1897. With intervals of travel, he spent the greater part of his hfe in work at his studio, either at Little Holland House, Kensmgton, where he settled in 1859, or in the country at Limnerslease, Compton, Sur-| rey. Apart from his art, his hfe was happily uneventful, the sole facts necessary to record being his marriage in 1886 with Miss Mary Fraser-Tytler, an early union with Miss Ellen Terry having been dissolved many years before, his twice receiving (1885 and 1894), but respectfully declining, the offer of a baronetcy; and his inclusion in June 1902 in the newly founded Order of Merit. He died on July 1, 1904 Portraits.—Many of Watts’s distinguished contemporaries sat to him for portraits Among politicians are the duke of Devonshire (1883), Lords Salisbury (1884), Sherbrooke (1882), Campbell (1882), Cowper (1877), Ripon (1896), Dufferin (1897) and Shaftesbury (1882), Mr Gerald Balfour (1899), and Mr John Burns (1897), poets—Tennyson, Swinburne (1884), Browning (1875), Matthew Arnold (1881), Rossetti (1865, and subsequent replica) and William Morris (1870) , artists—himself (1864, 1880, and eleven others), Lord Leighton (1871 and 1881), Calderon (1872), Prinsep (1872), Burne-Jones (1870), Millais (1871), Walter Crane (1891), and Alfred Gilbert (1896); literature is represented by John Stuart Mull (exhibited 1874), Carlyle (1869), George Meredith (1893), Max Muller (1895) and Mr Lecky (1878); music, by Sir Charles Hallé; while among others who have won fame in diverse paths are Lords Napier (1886) and Roberts (1899), General Baden-Powell (1902), Garibaldi, Sir Richard Burton (1882), Cardinal Manning (1882), Dr Martineau (1874), Sir Andrew Clark (1894), George Peabody, Mr Passmore

Edwards, Claude Montefiore (1894) Even more significant from an artistic point of view is the great collection of symbolical pictures in the Tate Gallery

Subject Pictures.—Watts never wearies of emphasizing the

reality of the power of Love, the fallacy underlying the fear of Death

To the early masters Death was a bare and ghastly skele-

ton, above all things to be shunned; to Watts it is a bringer of rest and peace, not to be rashly sought but to be welcomed when the mevitable hours shall strike Sic transit (1892) shows a corpse,

with the famous inscription, “What I spent I had; what I saved I

lost, what I gave I have” So with the “Court of Death” in the

Tate Gallery. Also we have “Love and Life,” exhibited in 1885,

a replica of an earlier picture in the Metropolitan Museum, New

York, and of another version im the Luxembourg, Paris

“Love

BrsriocraPHy,—M. H. Spielmann, “The Works of Mr. G F Watts, RA, with a Catalogue of his Pictures,” Pall Mall Gazette “Extra” (1886) , Juba Cartwright (Mrs Ady), “G F., Watts, Royal Academician,

His

W ET

Life

and Work,”

Art Journal,

Extra

Number

(1896);

Monkhouse,

British

Britten, “The Work of George Frederick Watts, R A,, LL.D ,”

Architectural Review

(1888 and 1889),

Cosmo

Contemporary Artists (1889) , Charles T. Bateman, G F, Watts, R.A. Bell’s Mimature Series of Pamters (xg01); “Mr, G, F. Watts, RA, Character Sketch,” The Review of Reviews (June 1902), see also works by Pantmi (1904), G K Chesterton (1905); Mrs. Barrington (1908) , and a Life in 3 vols, by his widow (1912)

WATTS, ISAAC (1674-1748), English theologian and hymn writer, son of a clothier, was born at Southampton on July 17, 1674 The father, who afterwards had a boarding-school at Southampton, also wrote poetry, and a number of his pieces were included by mistake in vol. i. of the son’s Posthumous Works Isaac Watts studied at the Nonconformist academy,

Stoke Newington, London two years

at home,

On leaving the academy he spent over

and began to write his hymns

In the

autumn of 1696 he became tutor in the family of Sir John Hartopp at Stoke Newington, where he probably prepared the materials of his two educational works—Logick, or the Right Use of Reason in the Enquiry after Truth (1725), and The Knowledge of the Heavens and the Earth made easy, or the First Principles of Geography and Astronomy Explained (1726). In his twenty-fourth year Watts became assistant pastor of the Independent congregation in Mark Lane, London, and two years later he succeeded as sole pastor In 1712 he went to live with Sir Thomas Abney of Abney Park Watts preached only occasionally, devoting his leisure chiefly to the writing of hymns (see Hymns), the preparation of his sermons for publication, and the composition of theological work In 1706 appeared his Horae Lyricae, of which an edition with

memoir by Robert Southey forms vol ix of Sacred Classics (1834); ın 1707 a volume of Hymns; in 1719 The Psalms of David; and in 1720 Divine and Moral Songs for Children His Psalms are free paraphrases, rather than metrical versions, and some of them (“O God, our help in ages past,” for instance) are amongst the most famous hymns in the language Isaac Watts died on Nov 25, 1748, and was buried at Bunhill Fields Among the theological treatises of Watts, which are far from conventional orthodoxy, are: Doctrine of the Trinity (1722); Essay on

the Freedom of the Will (1732); and Useful and Important Questions concerning Jesus, the Son of Gog (1746) He was also the author of a variety of miscellaneous treatises His Posthumous Works appeared

in 1773, and a further instalment of them m 1779 The Works of . Isaac Watts (6 vols), edited by Dr. Jennings and Dr. Doddndge, with a memoir compiled by G Burder, appeared in 1810-18x1, His poetical works were included in Johnson’s English Poets, where they

were accompanied by a Life, and they appear in subsequent similar collections See also Thomas Milner, The Lzfe, Times and Correspond-

ence of Isaac Watts (1834); and T Wright, Isaac Watts and Con-

temporary Hymn Writers (1914). His Letters r730~1747 are printed in the Proceedzngs of the Massachusetts Hist. Soc, Series 2, vals, ix,

and xu (1895-99).

WATTS—WAUTERS

4.4.0

WATTS, SIR PHILIP (1846-1926), K.C B. (1905), British naval architect, was born in Kent on May 30, 1846, of a family who had been shipbuilders for many generations, and was trained at the Royal school of naval architecture at Portsmouth He entered the admiralty as a draughtsman, being promoted to the grade of constructor in 1883 After almost a year (Nov 1884—Oct. 1885) on the staff at Chatham dockyard, Watts left

Amendment Act of 1885 was passed He secured a clause giving magistrates power to take the evidence of children too young to understand the nature of an oath In 1889 he saw his society (of which he had been made director the same year) justified by the act for the prevention of cruelty to children, the first steppingstone to the act of 1908 (See CHILDREN-——PROTECTIVE Laws ) In 1895 a charter of incorporation was conferred on the society, but in 1897 1ts administration was attacked An inquiry was demanded by Waugh, and the commission which included Lord

the admiralty and became (1885-1901) director of the war shipPing department of Armstrong, Withworth and Co, at Elswick. During this period he designed and built, in addition to British Herschell, vindicated the society and its director Waugh had ships, many ships for foreign navies. Argentina, Norway, Portu- given up pastoral work in 1887, and he retained his post as director until 1905 He died at Westcliff, near Southend, Essex, gal, etc. He also had a large share in the modern Japanese navy On Feb. 1, 1902 he was appointed director of naval construction on March 11, 1908 Waugh edited the Sunday Magosme from at the admiralty, and in this position was responsible for naval 1874 to 1896 His The Gaol Cradle, who rocks 1t? (1873) was a construction during the decade preceding the World War The plea for the abolition of juvenile imprisonment designs committee, set up at the instigation of Lord Fisher, who ( oe Waugh, Life of B. Waugh with introd by Lord Alverstone IQI3). became first sea lord on Oct 21 1904, started the production of ships of the Dreadnought battleship and Indomitable battleWAUKEGAN, a city of Illinois, USA, on Lake Michigan, cruiser type. The responsibility of Sir Philip Watts was hardly 40m. N by W of Chicago Population 19,226 in 1920 (25% lessened. He designed many classes of battleships, and all the foreign-born white), 33,499 mm 1930 by Federal census The city battle-cruisers in the navy when the World War broke out were hes on a plateau roo ft above the lake The streets are interof his design. During his term of office his department took over sected by beautiful wooded ravines, which are bridged for traffic from private firms the designing of submarines. In 1912 he be- and utilized for parks There 1s a good harbour, with coal docks came adviser to the admiralty on naval construction In 1916 he The site of Waukegan 1s designated on a map in a history of the returned as director of his firm at Elswick. He was elected United States published in London in 1795 as Little Fort, and the F.R.S. in 1900 He died in London on March 15, r926. first settlers (1835) found decaying timbers of an old stockade

WATTS, WILLIAM

(1782-

? ), inventor, a native of The village became the county seat in 1841, and in 1849 was

Bristol found by experiment that drops of molten lead falling into water from a great height hardened mto sphencal form He thus invented round shot, shot having been up to that time oblong in shape He procured a patent, and “Watts Patent Shot”

incorporated, changing its name from Little Fort to the Pottawattomie equivalent In 1859 1t was chartered as a city. It was a post on the old Green Bay trail, built up a thriving lake traffic after 1845, and was reached by the Chicago and North Western railway in 1855

was patronized by George III., who presented him with plates of King Lung china, now on exhibition in the old shot tower, : WAUKESHA, a city of Wisconsin, U.'SA, 16 m. W of Milbuilt by Watts, on Redcliffe Hill, Bristol. waukee, on the Little Fox nver Population (1920) 12,558 (85% WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE (1832- native white), 17,176 in 1930 Federal census ‘There are mmeral 1914), English man of letters, was born at St Ives, Huntingdon, springs which were first exploited ın 1868 and have led to the on Oct. 12, 1832, his family surname being Watts, to which he establishment of institutions of healng The waters (White Rock, added in 1897 his mother’s name of Dunton He was onginally Bethesda, and others) are shipped to all parts of America and to educated as a naturalist, and saw much of the East Anghan gyp- Europe Waukesha is the seat of Carroll college (Presbyterian, sies, of whose superstitions and folk-lore he made careful study. 1846), the State Industrial school for boys (1860), and a U.S He qualified as a solicitor and went to London, where he practised Veterans’ hospital It is a shipping pomt for pure-bred Holstein for some years, and contributed regularly to the Examiner and the and Guernsey cattle It was settled in 1836, was named PrarrieAthenaeum His article on “Poetry” in the ninth edition of the ville in 1839, incorporated as a village under its present name Ency Brit. (vol. xix., 1885) was the principal expression of his (supposed to mean “fox”) in 1852 and in 1896 was chartered views on the subject. Watts-Dunton was im later years Rossetti’s

most intimate friend He was the bosom friend of Swinburne (g.v.), who shared his home for nearly thirty years before he died in 1909. In 1897 he published a volume of poems under his own name, The Coming of Love His prose romance Aylwin (1898) attained immediate success, and ran. through many editions in the course of a few months. Both The Coming of Love and Aylwin set forth, the one in poetry, the other in prose, the romantic and passionate associations of Romany life, and maintain the traditions of Borrow, whom Watts-Dunton had known well in his own early days He edited George Borrow’s Lavengro

WAUPUN,

a city of Wisconsin, USA,

60 m

NW

of

Milwaukee Pop 4,440 ın 1920; in 1930, 5,768 by the Federal census It 1s the seat of the State prison and of the Central State hospital for the insane, It was founded in 1838 and incorporated in 1857 The name means “early dawn ”

WAUSAU,

a city of Wisconsm, USA

Pop (1920) 18,661

(82% native white), and 23,758 in 1930 by the Federal census The German element predominates Wausau is in the red-clover belt of the State, where dairying 1s the principal occupation. Honey, corn, small grains and potatoes are also products The city occupies 6 sq.m, extending back to high bluffs on either side of (893) and The Romany Rye (1900), his Studies of Shakespeare the nver On the western edge, in an 80 ac park of virgin pine, appeared im Ig10; in 1903 he published The Renascence of are the tourist camp and the buildimgs of the Wisconsin Valley W onder, a treatise on the romantic movement, as a preface to the Fair and Exposition, and 5 m. W ıs the county tuberculosis third volume of Chambers’s Encyclopaedia of Enghsh Literature, sanatorium Rib hull (1,950 ft ), the highest point mm the State, is and in 1916 this, with his Encyclopedia Britannica article—both 5 m. south-west, Wausau has ample hydro-electric power, genenlarged—was republished in book form as Poetry and the erated in local plants. Granite of several colours is quarried and Renascence of Wonder He ched at Putney on June 6, 1914 there are silver-fox farms. A logging camp was established here See T. St, E. Hake and A

Theodore Watis-Dunton

C. Rickett, The Life and Letters of

(2 vols. 1916).

WAUGH, BENJAMIN (1839-1908), English socal reformer, was born at Settle, Yorkshire, on Feb 20, 1839. He passed some years in business, but in 1865 entered the congregational ministry. Settling at Greenwich he devoted himself especially to children. He served on the London School Board from 1870 to 1876. In 1884 he founded the London society for the prevention of cruelty to children, of which he was honorary secretary It was owing to information obtained by him that the Criminal Law

about 1838, and in 1840 a saw-mull was bult

‘The village was

mcorporated in 1858, and was chartered as a city in 1880. The name 1s an Indian word meaning “far away ”

WAUTERS, EMILE (1848-

_), Belgian painter, was born

in Brussels in 1848 He studied under Portaels and Géréme. In 1868 he produced a striking work, “The Battle of Hastings: the Finding of the body of Harold by Edith” A journey to Italy in

no wise affected his mdividuality, which was as marked in his

“The Great Nave of St Mark’s” (purchased by the king of the Belgians) as in his earlier work. As his youth disqualified him

WAUWATOSA—WAVES for the medal of the Brussels Salon, he was sent, by way of comsation, as artist-delegate to Suez for the opening of the canal

OF THE

SEA

441

on Beaufort’s scale of force, reckoned as having an average speed of 50 statute or land miles per hour. The writer observed that the

In 1870 Wauters exhibited his great historical picture of “Mary of Burgundy entreating the Sheriffs of Ghent to pardon the Councillors Hugonet and Humbercourt” (Liége museum) which created a great sensation. Even more celebrated was the “Madness

waves, which met the ship at a considerable angle, usually topped the honzon when the view-point was 30 feet above the ship’s waterline and that a position 43 feet above that line had to be taken up in order to be on a level with the tops of the largest waves.

mussion for two large works decorating the Lions’ stair case of the

On Feb. 9, 1907, bound from New York for Southampton there was only a moderate breeze, but the “Minnehaha” rolled heavily in a huge swell from the north-west ‘The origin of the

of Hugo van der Goes” (1872, Brussels museum), a picture which gamed for hım the grand medal at the Salon and led to the comHôtel de Ville

His vast panorama, “Cairo and the Banks of the

Nile” (1881), 380 ft by 49 ft, was exhibited with extraordinary

success in Brussels, Munich and The Hague Wauters also painted some admirable portraits, sometimes using pastel as a medium See M. H

Spielmann,

Magasine_of Art

Magazene

of Art

(1887), A

J. Wauters,

(1894); Joseph Anderson, Pall Mall Magazine

(1896), G Seraé (“Wauters as a Painter of Architecture”)

tectural Record (1901)

Archz-

swell was revealed to us by a message from the “Cedric” to the north, which reported a strong north-west gale The actual level of the trough of the waves was determined by means of a heavy rope let down over the ship’s side, and the true height of the swells, which were of nearly uniform size, was found to be slightly more than 41 feet Of the height of waves in a whole gale, Beaufort’s force ro, average wind velocity 59 miles per hour, the writer has obtained estimates from master mariners, with the details of accompanying conditions which are necessary to

WAUWATOSA, a city of Wisconsin, USA Pop. 5,818 in 1920 (84% native white) and was 21,194 in 1930 by the Federal give precise meaning to these statements.

rensus It is a suburb of Milwaukee, and is the seat of the Evangelical Lutheran Theological semmary. The city was founded

in 1847 and incorporated in 1892 The name 1s a modification of an Indian word meaning “firefly ”

WAVE ANTENNA, a horwontal radio aerial, the physical

length of which is of the same order of magmtude as that of the signaling waves to be received, and which is so used as to be strongly directional.

WAVE

LENGTH,

in radio, the distance traveled in one

period or cycle by a periodic disturbance The distance between corresponding phases of two consecutive waves of a wave train The quotient of velocity by frequency For a discussion of theory see Puysics, ARTICLES ON: Exectric Waves, for wave lengths in broadcasting and wireless see WirELESS TELEGRAPHY, Communication by Wireless.

WAVELLITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated aluminium

phosphate, Als(OH)3(POz)2+-44H,0, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system Distinct crystals are of rare occurrence, the mineral usually taking the form of hemispherical or globular aggregates with an internal radiated structure. It is translucent and varies in colour from grey or white to greenish, yellowish, etc. The hardness is 3-5, and specific gravity 2-32 It was first found, at the end of the 18th century, by Dr W. Wavell near Barnstaple, Devon, where it lines crevices m a black slaty rock.

The records prove a

height of nearly 50 feet Formula and Practice.—On Dec. 29, 1922, in the course of a prolonged storm in the North Atlantic, the wind reached and maintained for a considerable time the maximum or hurricane velocity, computed at 75 miles an hour and upwards. The “Majestic,” hove-to and rode easily among the waves which were of remarkable regularity and phenomenal size. Under these favourable conditions observations were recorded and it was found that the height of the waves from trough to crest exceeded 70 feet It is clear that the heght of the waves finally produced in the open ocean is in direct, simple proportion to the velocity of the wind The larger waves occurring at short intervals which chiefly attract attention have about eight feet of height, reckoning from trough to crest, for each ro miles-an-hour velocity of wind, but their apparent height is less when the ship is borne upon two waves.

In order to determine the height of the waves we must place ourselves so as to be on a level with the crests. In judging from this level the wave-length or distance between crests, dimensions have been obtained far below that which had been calculated by the usual mathematical formula from the period of the waves, the interval of time between the arrival of crests, and the question therefore arose whether the eye had been deceived or the calculation applied to conditions not contemplated in the mathematical theory. The answer was obtained by the writer ,on WAVERLY, a village of Tioga county, New York, US.A Pop. 1930, 5,662, Federal census The Pennsylvania borough of Dec. 21, 1911, when the “Egypt” was hove-to in the Bay of South Waverly (pop 1,251 in 1920) is separated from Waverly Biscay. The waves rose rather more than 30 feet above the ship’s only by the State line; and the neighbouring boroughs of Sayre water-line, and from the promenade deck, which gave an eye(g.v ) and Athens (8,078 and 4,384 respectively in 1920) are also height of 27 feet, the wave-length appeared to be scarcely equal part of the same community It was named after Scott’s novels. to the length of the vessel whereas the period indicated that it WAVE SCROLL, in architecture and the decorative arts, a should be greater. Ascending to the navigating bridge where the continuous line which starts as a spiral, then suddenly reverses view-point was 54 feet above water-lime the whole length of the its curvature and by a long, concave sweep rises to form the be- ship was seen to lie well within the interval between wave-crests, and the wave-length as judged from this position agreed with the ginning of the next spiral of the series : WAVES OF THE SEA. It may easily be observed that period The apparent wave-length from this elevated position when smooth water is struck by wmd the surface is imme- was also in mathematical agreement with the speed of the waves diately covered by a mbbed pattern of transverse inequalities which was determined from the time which they took to run the about one inch from crest to crest travellmg very slowly in length of the stationary ship That the eye is so greatly deceived the direction of the wind, and however long the breeze con- in judging wave-length from near the level of the crests is due tinue there is no imcrease of their size or speed immediately to the very shght convexity of the ridges, and the apparent brow adjacent to the shore off which ıt blows To leeward, however, of both the receding and advancing wave being much nearer than there is an increase in the height and speed of the ridges and the true summit On the occasion above referred to when the ship was hove-to the distance between their crests This distance is called the wave-length, the distance for which an individual ridge can be the speed of the waves (determined in unusually favourable contraced, the crest-length In the deep waters of the open ocean the ditions) was about forty-seven miles an hour when the velocity height, speed and wave-length is limited only by the velocity of of wind, calculated from the recorded number on Beaufort’s scale, the wind, but even the largest lakes have not sufficient room for was 52 miles an hour It appears therefore that only a 5 muile-anfull growth Our knowledge of the height of waves at sea is hour wind was blowing over the wave-crests, just enough to turn mostly obtained by the primitive method of finding how high a weather-cock or to make leaves rustle. Thus the wind, which above the ship’s water-line the observer must stand so that the had blown all might with great wolence in the direction of the heavy swell already runnmg in the Bay, had increased its speed passing crests shall top the horizon During a voyage from Liverpool to Boston, USA, by the so much that there was no longer any buffeting, wave and wind “Ivernia” the wmd on Dec. 7, 1900, was a strong gale, number g being an harmonious procession.

442

WAVES

OF THE

Observers are agreed that the waves finally formed m a great storm of long continuance are not so steep as those in a moderate gale. According to mathematical theory, if the speed of the waves be doubled their length is creased four-fold, and so on, the wave-length increasmg as the square of the speed. But the height only mcreases in simple proportion with that velocity, so that the steepness of the fmal waves would diminish in exact proportion to the violence of the storm.

Final Dimensions.—In pursuit of the enquiry into the final

SEA

ship. Its transit, which occupied about five mmutes, was attendeq

by only a shght mcrease of wind but was nevertheless accom. panied by a group of at least a dozen large waves among which

the ship rolled heavily Ten minutes after the passing of the cloud the ship was among waves of the same size as before. If the viewpoint durmg these three days had been the cock.

pit of an aeroplane at a considerable height, with good conditigns of visibility, the ribbed pattern of the sea would have been marked by stripes, owing to the recurrence of groups of higher and more

regular ridges

If the speed of waves so formed be greater than

dimensions of waves produced by wind by the wnter, observations were made during a voyage from Southampton to Tnnidad and back in rgt2 upon the period of the waves. The interval of time between the arrival of successive wave-crests at a fixed

surf. Observations by the writer on the Dorset coast in the winter

mark is necessarily the same as the time of subsidence and up-

of 1898~99 when a succession of great storms occurred im the

the average they will outrun the others when the wind dies down

and herald the approach of the main body by a slow-boommg

heaval of a wave-crest. It was found during the course of the North Atlantic, point to the conclusion that a group of waves voyage that a single observer could easly determine the period, of greater speed as well as greater height is associated with each and hence by calculation the speed, of the waves by trmmg with squall On the afternoon of Dec. 29, 1898, in fine weather dura stop-watch the up-and-down oscillation of patches of foam, ing off-shore wind, large breakers succeeded one another for threeand that the period of the swell then running could also be deter- quarters of an hour without interruption, one-hundred-and-thrtymined by the same means Later observations of movement of nine m alt The average mterval was 19 seconds, showing that foam patches with and agamst wind made at the turn of cur- their speed when in deep water was 664 miles per hour rent on a tidal river proved tbat the drift of the foam was too The wave-length calculated from the period 1s 1,850 feet, so slow to invahdate the results. On a subsequent voyage from that while in deep water the length of the group from front to Trinidad to Southampton, with a fresh breeze most of the way, a cup-and-ball anemometer was mounted on the navigatmg bndge, and from the reading of the instrument, combined with observation of the direction of the wind relative to the course of the ship, the speed of the wind which drove the waves was measured. The daily record of results showed no definite relation between speed of wind and wave, although in the trade-wind belt the weather conditons were steady. Fortunately, however, the direction and speed of the ocean swell, the longer undulation produced

by former winds or derived from a distance, had also been recorded The daily observations having been grouped according to the direction of the swell, it was found that when. this was the same as the direction of the waves proper, the speed of the waves was nearly as great as that of the wind, which blew across the ridges as a “hght air,” the force 1 of Beaufort’s scale, sufficient

rear was 49 miles. This main body had been heralded a few

hours earlier by the arrival of five groups of large breakers con. tainmg from four to seven members with an average terval

of 20 seconds, corresponding to a speed in deep water of 69} miles per hour The mterval elapsing between the first breaker of the first group and the last of the last group was 52 minutes,

which is comparable with the 45-minute duration of the mam body that followed in the afternoon. The time occupied by each group in discharging its breakers ranged from one minute to a little more than two minutes The data indicate therefore that squalls of one to two minutes’ duration occurring at about ten minute intervals had engendered groups of waves possessing

greater speed which had outrun the main body and reached the shore some hours earlier The longest period of swell recorded during this stormy wmter to impart a drift to the smoke from a chimney but not strong was on Feb 1, 1899 when a group of twelve breakers arrived at enough to turn a wind vane. When, however, the swell met the intervals of 22} seconds, corresponding to a speed in deep water waves or crossed their direction, the speed of the wave was much of 784 miles an hour Anemometers at shore stations m Great less than that of the wind. The height of the waves was also Britain did not record a sustamed velocity so great as this, 70 greatly reduced by these conditions, an observation which sug- mules an hour maintamed for two hours bemg the highest On gests that the rapidity with which wind raises waves on lakes the other hand velocities much greater than 78} mules per hour

and enclosed seas is connected with absence of conflicting swell. The most rapid increase of wave-height, however, occurs on the somewhat rare occasion when a rising wind on the open ocean blows in the same direction as that m which the swell is running and with a speed greater than that of the swell This was the condition which produced the large and regular waves observed in the Bay of Biscay on Dec 21, rgr1. Squalls.—In a msmg sea the tops of the waves are cut off and blown away m spray during the squalls of a few munutes’ duration which punctuate the gale, but when the storm has con-

lasting for some seconds are occasionally recorded by anemometers on our shore stations, as much as 1064 mules per hour having been registered. Waves with a speed of roo mules an hour would have a period of 286 seconds which is far greater than that of any North Atlantic swell recorded by the writer A storm which lasts for hours 1s punctuated by squalls which last for minutes, so the squalls are punctuated by gusts which last for seconds at most, and it appears that the speed of the swiftest groups of waves approximates to the average speed of wind during the squall but does not approach that of its momentary gusts Our habit of thinking of a squall as short-lived is due to the crcumstance that we are not able to keep company with 1ts progress, Individual squalls travellmg from twenty to forty miles an hour have been traced by the recording instruments of meteorological stations during an unbroken march of a thousand miles Squall-action on Waves.—Let us now consider how many

tinued for a long time the effect of a squall is to mcrease the height of the waves, and this action is especially noticeable when the storm is abating Thus on December 22, 1906 on a voyage from Liverpool to Puerto Colombia, while still in the North Atlantic, with a heavy sea and a following wmd having the, force of a moderate gale, the writer judged that a violent squall lasting four minutes increased the height of the waves by about waves are simultaneously subject to the action of a squall A seven feet As the squall travelled on, the rear of the group of squall which advances at 4o mules an hour (no matter what higher waves could be seen travelling ahead, soon to pass out be the velocity of wind developed therem) and which passes over of sight. On the next day, Dec 23, when the gale had dropped in three minutes, is two miles, 10,560 feet, from front to back, to a strong breeze, a squall of three minutes’ duration increased and this may be called its length of fetch upon the sea The the height of the waves by about six feet, and considerably in- breakers which came ın groups of four to seven on the morning creased their crest-length Two minutes after the passing of the of Dec 29, 1898 had a period of twenty seconds and the length squall the ship was among waves of the average size, but a group of the waves while m deep water was therefore 2,050 feet A of several great ridges could be seen ahead. On the following day, three-minute squall travelling at forty miles an hour would act Dec 24, the wind fell considerably and the waves were much upon five such waves simultaneously, and the waves, reacting on lower At about 5 PM. a narrow band of black cloud stretching the air, would throw it into conformable undulations superposed from the zenith to the horizon on either hand passed over the upon eddies between the crests of the water waves, A three-

WAVES

OF THE

second gust during this squall would be only 176 feet from front to back and could therefore have no comparable effect upon the

oup of waves. Tt has been pointed out that a single observer upon a vessel under way can readily and quickly determmme the period of the waves by noting the tame taken by a patch of foam in falling and nsing If a swift running, slow-heaving swell be present, 1ts period of oscillation can also be determined from the foam spots, for the slower heave 1s easily watched, not, as might be expected, camouflaged by the shorter waves. The time of subsidence and

upheaval m seconds multiphed by 34 gives the velocity of the

wave or swell in miles per hour. When nearing the northern mit of the trade-wind belt on a voyage from Barbados to South-

ampton, waves travelling 16 miles an hour were recorded by the

wniter in an easterly breeze of 19 miles an hour, together with a

swell from a northerly quarter with a period of 134 seconds and consequently a speed of 46% miles an hour, which must have been produced by a strong gale, the term for a sustained average windvelocity of 50 mules an hour. Much of the region in which the true hurricane or typhoon occurs 1s not ordinarily subject to long-period swells, and when

such are observed it is desirable that seamen should have precise data for judging the force of wind which produced them, for if

very great ıt 1s certainly associated with these whirling storms which are so disastrous to shipping. If the navigating officer will note the number of seconds occupied by the subsidence and up-

heaval of a patch of foam as it falls and rises with the swell and multiply the number by 34 he will know at once that the product is only a few mules an hour less than the velocity of the wind which produced the swell, and will therefore be able to place the distant disturbance in its category in Beaufort’s scale of force with sreater precision than if he rely upon “sea sense” unaided by measurement. In order to realise the process of wave transmission after the wind has dropped, let us picture the profile of a wave from one trough to the next following trough. The water between the first trough and the crest is rising, that between the crest and the next trough, fallmg. The contmmual rise of front 1s the advance of the wave, in the subsiding back of the mound we see the action of the propelling agent, which 1s the force of gravity ‘The less the depth of water participatmg in the transmussion, the slower will be the progress of the rising front, and for any given depth of water there is a limiting speed of transmission which can be calculated from the force of gravity. A strong gale in the North Atlantic produces waves more than 800 feet from crest to crest travelling 45 mules an hour, and after the wind drops the speed is maintamed as long as the depth of water 1s comparable with the wave-length, but when the depth is reduced from 800 to 8 feet the speed 1s dimmished to about one quarter, and the distance between crests reduced to 200 feet. Thus the league-long crests, widely separated, of the ocean swell travelling swiftly up the English Channel are bent back near the coasts of France and England, upon which rollers, ranged nearer to one another advance more slowly but reach the shore at intervals of time equal to the period of the swell. When the depth of water below the troughs is comparable to the height of the waves from trough to crest we can no longer

SEA

443

to the height of the wave varies somewhat with the slope of shore and direction of wind, but the facts may be expressed in a general way by saying that a wave crest is on the point of breaking when its height above the trough behind it is equal to the depth of water below that trough. The depth of water in front of the wave which is about to break upon a sloping shingle beach depends upon the amount of backwash which it happens to encounter from the surge of the preceding breaker and it may even fall upon bare shingle. Shingle beaches are the wave’s own making, for wherever the conditions of supply cause a pile of pebbles to gather on the shore, the stones flung up by the waves tend to collect These are driven up in the full depth of the surge flung by the breaker, but the settlement of water in the crevices of the shingle diminishes the depth of the backwash and consequently many stones are stranded The stranding action is most marked with buoyant materials, hence the wrack of driftwood, sea-weed and shells which forms a line at the highest reach of the surge. The seaward slope beyond low-water mark of spring tides at Eastbourne is extremely shght This has two consequences, first that a large wave breaks far out from the shore, secondly that its discharge is not dissipated as a surge but initiates a new kind of wave which is transmitted to the shore across the intervening sheet of shallow water. The new wave 1s the perfect type of a bore, the foammg front very steep, the slope behind so gradual as to escape the notice of the eye. The foaming ridge travels steadily towards the shore with unchanging form but diminishing height. If we fix our attention upon a particular patch of foam we shall see that it is left behind by the foaming front as long as the water has some inches depth, but when the depth is reduced to about one inch the foam of the overfall is pushed along by the advancing ridge, accumulating in a scroll of froth which is finally left stranded on the sandy beach These foaming ridges, sometimes called waves of translation, can be

followed by the eye without difficulty, their andividuahty beimg persistent, but among deep-sea waves individuality 1s strangely elusive. The eye 1s attracted by and follows trustfully the wave

which is larger than its fellows but soon finds that 1t 1s no longer lookmg at the largest wave, which is now the next behind, the first having outrun the supply of energy. Thus elusive effect is best Wlustrated mm a group of waves in smooth water such as that produced by throwing a stone into a pond, The front wave of the group flattens out until it ceases to be visible while at the rear of the group a new wave appears. In water which is deep as compared with the wave-length the rate of advance of the group is only ong half the speed of the individual waves, which travel through the group, In shallower water the waves do not

so quickly outrun the energy and when the depth is very small in proportion to the wave-length the two rates of transmission are the same, and we have the typical bore, or wave of translation. Wind always shifts during a storm, but deep-sea waves once formed travel with unchanged direction under the action of

gravity, hence we should not think of a regular procession of long-

crested ridges as typical but exceptional in a stormy sea, which is

properly and characteristically a welter of over-riding ridges culminating ın peaks which curl and break in caps of foam which the wind whips off and drifts m clouds of flying spray In the say that there is definite depth mn which the wave as a whole is course of many voyages the writer has only twice seen a really being transmitted, and m fact the rate of transmission is con- regular sea during a storm, that in the Bay of Biscay to which siderably greater at crest than trough. The ridges then cease to reference has already been made being the most spectacular bebe symmetrical, become steep-fronted and cusped, and at last cause, when morning came, the clouds broke and a brillant sun shone upon deep blue water laced and fretted with silver foam the cusp curls over in a scroll and falls. Beaches.—At Eastbourne during the larger, or spring, tides The lofty standpomt of the navigating bridge gave a broad view of the great procession of mile-long crests charging on from near the tumes of new and full moon the difference of level between high and low water is about twenty feet. At high water the horizon, regular in alignment as ranks of cavalry and advancZ on a calm day the sea is a few feet below the top of the bank of ing at a speed of more than forty miles an hour. Height of Waves.—Under certain conditions, however, the shingle. At low water the whole bank of shingle and an almost level stretch of sand beyond lies exposed. At high water on height of waves is more impressive than their crest-length or a rough day there is sufficient depth for large rollers to hold to- their speed. When during the growth of the waves in a storm the gether until near the shore, so that a spectator on the beach can condition is reached at which each ridge or peak passing near the watch the process of steepening and curling over from close quar-

ters The relation of the depth of water in which a wave breaks

ship tops the horizon, the whole character of the scene is trans-

formed

From a condition in which the waves seem mere mounds,

444

WAXAHACHIE—WAYLAND

we suddenly pass to that ın which they assume the appearance termed mountainous. When the vessel is buried in the trough of the waves only four or five ridges, comprising three or four wavelengths, intervene between the spectator and the horizon, but there 1s little to suggest that the view has been narrowed to an unusually small scale, and the steepness of the ship’s side tends to make the horizon seem more distant than if the station were a sloping eminence of equal height. Moreover, the greater stormwaves usually occur during squalls, and these are often accompanied by driving rain which hazes the atmosphere and consequently seems to extend the view The writer has observed such a narrow environment of four or five waves less than forty feet in height looking like a prospect some mules in extent with moving hills hundreds of feet high. (V. Co)

WAXAHACHIE, a town of Texas, USA

Pop 7,958 in

1920 (23% negroes) and was 8,042 n 1930 Federal census It 1s the seat of Trinity university (Presbyterian), established in 1869 The city has flour, cottonseed-oil, and cotton mills, and a petroleum refinery, The Midlothian oilfield is 1o m. N W. Waxahachie was founded in 1852

WAX FIGURES.

Beeswax is possessed of properties which

render it a most convenient medium for preparmg figures and models, either by modelling or by casting n moulds. At ordinary temperatures it can be cut and shaped with facility; it melts to a limpid fluid at a low heat; it mixes with any colouring matter, and takes surface tints well; and its texture and consistency may be modified by earthy matters and oils or fats, Figures in wax of their deities were used m the funeral rites of the ancient Egyptians, and deposited among other offerings in their graves; many of these are now preserved in museums. That the Egyptians also modelled fruits can be learned from numerous allusions in early literature Among the Greeks

during their best art period, wax figures were largely used as dolls of deities were modelled for votive offer-

for children; statuettes ings and for religious magical properties were Wax figures and models

ceremonies, and wax images to which attributed were treasured by the people held a still more important place among

the ancient Romans. The masks (effigies or imagines) of ancestors, modelled in wax, were preserved by patrician famuhes, this jus imaginum being one of the privileges of the nobles, and these masks were exposed to view on ceremonial occasions, and carried

in their funeral processions. The closing days of the Saturnalia were known as Sigillaria, on account of the custom of making, towards the end of the festival, presents of wax models of fruit and waxen statuettes which were fashioned by the Sig:#laru or manufacturers of small figures in wax and other media The practice of wax modelling can be traced through the middle ages, when votive offerings of wax figures were made to churches, and the memory and lineaments of monarchs and great personages were preserved by means of wax masks as in the days of Roman patricians. In these ages malice and superstition found expression

in the formation of wax images of hated persons, into the bodies

of which long pms were thrust, in the confident expectation that

thereby deadly injury would be induced to the person represented; and this belief and practice continued till the ryth century Indeed the superstition still survives in the Highlands of Scotland With the renaissance of art in Italy, modelling in wax took a

position of high importance, and it was practised by some of the greatest of the early masters. The bronze medallions of Pisano and the other famous medallists owe their value to the art qualities of wax models from which they were cast by the cire perdue process; and indeed all early bronzes and metal work were cast from wax models. The tête de cre in the Wicar collection at Lille is one of the most lovely examples of artistic work in this medium in existence Wicar, one of Napoleon’s commissaries, brought this figure from Italy. It represents the head and shoulders of a young girl It has been claimed as a work of Greek or Roman art, and has been assigned to Leonardo da Vinci and to

Raphael, but all that can be said is that it probably dates from

the Italian Renaissance. In Spain beautiful wax figures of saints, distinguished in form and colouring, were achieved in the realm

of religious art Till towards the close of the 18th century model-

ling of medalhon portraits and of relief groups, the latter fre. quently polychromatıc, was in considerable vogue throughout

Europe

About the end of the 18th century Flaxman executed m

wax many portraits and other rehef figures which Josiah Wedg. wood translated into pottery for his jasper ware The modelling of the soft parts of dissections, etc , for teaching illustrations of anatomy was first practised at Florence, and 1s now very common, Such preparations formed part of a show at Hamburg in 1721, and from that tame wax-works, on a plane lower than art, have been popular attractions Such an exhibition of wax-works with mechanical motions was shown in Germany early in the 18th century, and 1s described by Steele in the Tatler The most famous exhbition is that of Marie Tussaud (g v ) ın London

WAX MYRTLE or CANDLEBERRY, popular names of

species of Myrica, especially M cersfera and M_ carolmenss (bay-berry or wax-berry), small shrubs native to eastern North

America, the fruits of which have a waxy covering and are utihzed as a source of vegetable wax, used especially in New England for making candles The Sierra wax myrtle or sweet bay (M Hartwegit) 1s a simular shrub found in the Sierra Nevada mountains,

the western wax myrtle (M californica), a large evergreen shrub

with resinous wax-covered fruit, occurs along the coast from Los Angeles to Washington M Gale is the native British gale or

sweet gale (g.v) WAXWING,

Rhus succedanea is the wax-tree of Japan a bird (Bombycalla garrulus), the type of the

Passermne family Ampel:dae.

It is distinguished from almost all other birds by the cunous expansion of the shaft of some of its wing-feathers at the tip into a flake that looks hke scarlet sealing-wax

An irregular winter

visitant, sometimes in countless hordes, to central and southern Europe, it was of old tume looked upon as the harbinger of war, plague or death. The waxwing, though breeding yearly m some parts of northern Europe, is as irregular in the choice of its summer quarters as in that of its winter retreats The species exhibits the same irregular habits in America It has been found in Nebraska in “millions,” as well as breeding on the Yukon and on the Anderson river Beautiful as is the bird with its full erectile crest, its cmnamonbrown plumage passing im parts into

grey

or

chestnut,

and re-

heved by black, white and yellow —all of the purest tint—the external feature which has invited most attention is the “sealingwax” already mentioned This 1s nearly as much exhibited by the @ kindred species, B cedrorum, the cedar-bird or cedar waxwing, of North America, which 1s distinNN guished by ıts smaller size, the yellower tinge of the lower parts NATURAL HISTORY and the want of white on the CEDAR WAXWING, OR CEDAR BIRD, wings. In B japonica, of south(BOMBYCJLLA CEDRORUM) eastern Siberia, and Japan, the remiges and rectrices are tipped with red, but with no dilatation

of the feather shafts

Both the waxwing and cedar-bird seem to

live chiefly on insects in summer,

but are addicted to berries

during the rest of the year, and will gorge themselves if oppor-

tunity allow.

WAYCROSS, a city of Georgia, USA

Federal census

Pop 15,510 m 1930

Waycross ships lumber, naval stores, tobacco,

corn, Sugar-cane, and other agricultural products; and has railtoad shops, meat-packing plants, fruit and vegetable canneries, lumber mulls, a bee-hive factory and other manufacturing establishments The city was founded in 1870 and chartered m 1909

_ WAYLAND, FRANCIS (1796-1865), American education-

ist, was born in New York city on March 1 I,1796 He graduated at Union college in 1813 and studied medicine m Troy and nm New

York city In 1816 he studied theology ın Andover Theological Seminary, and mn 1817-21 was a tutor at Union college, to which

WAYLAND

THE

administration he gradually bult up the college, formed a library and gave

scientific

studies

a more

prominent

place

He

also

worked for higher educational ideals outside the college, writing text-books on ethics and economics, and promoting the free school

system of Rhode Island His Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System wn the Umied States (1842) and his Report to the Cor-

poration of Brown Umversity of 1850 pomted the way to educational reforms, particularly the introduction of industrial courses, which were only partially adopted in his hfetme He died on Sept 30, 1865 He was an early advocate of the temperance

and anti-slavery causes

He was one of the “law and order” leaders

during the “Dorr rebelhon” citizen of Rhode Island ”

of 1842, and was called “the first

His son, FRANCIS WAYLAND (1826-1904) graduated at Brown in 1846, and studied law at Harvard, he became probate judge in Connecticut in 1864, was lieutenant governor mn 1869-70, and in 1872 became a professor in the Yale Law school, of which he was

dean from 1873 to 1903 Among Wayland senior’s numerous published works are

Elements

ct Urrs! Screrre (7825, repeatedly revised and translated mto foreign ne. tes) J- mir» of Political Economy (1837), m which he w wd aree-ticce The Limitations of Human Responsibility wR Memoirs «' Adoniram Judson (1853), Elements of Intellectuat Philosopny (£054), and a brief Memow of Thomas Chalmers

(Re heLife and Labors of Francs Wayland (1867) by his sons Francas and Heman Lincoln, the shorter sketch (Boston, 1891) by James O Murray m the “American Religious Leaders” series, and an article by G C Verplanck m vol xiv. of the American Journal of Education.

WAYLAND

THE

SMITH,

hero of romance

(Scand

Volundr, Ger Wieland) The legend of Wayland probably had its home in the north, where he and his brother Egill were the types of the skuled workman, but there are abundant local traditions of the wonderful smith m Westphalia and ın southern England Hios story ıs told m one of the oldest songs of the Edda, the Volundarkida, and, with considerable variations, in the prose pirekssaga (Thidrek’s saga), while the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and Deor’s Lament contain allusions to it The first part of the tale contains obviously mythical features connected with his parentage and marriage ‘The second part concerns Volundr, lord of the elves, the cunning smith, who, with his sword Mimung, made famous in German. epic poetry, defeated in fight at the court of

king Nipopr, the smith Amulias

445

SMITH—WAYNFLETE

after five years as pastor of the First Baptist church of Boston he returned in 1826 as professor of natural philosophy In 1827 he became president of Brown university In the 28 years of his

Nuipopr, in order to secure Vo-

lundr’s services, lamed him and established him in a smithy The smith avenged himself by the slaughter of Nipopt’s two sons and the rape of his daughter Bodvildr, then soared away on wings he had prepared The story in its main outlines strongly resembles the myth of Daedalus, but the dénouement of this tale, which first appeared in European literature in the De obedientia (Opera, Venice, 3 vols., 1518-19) of Jovianus Pontanus (d 1503), is different. The Aaron of Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus was derived from this source King Rhydderich gave a sword fashioned by

Wayland to Merlin, and Rimenhild one to Child Horn English local tradition placed Wayland Smith’s forge in a cave close to the

(vol m

znd ed, Leipzig, 1887).

WAYNE, ANTHONY

(1745-1796), American soldier, was

born in the township of Easttown, Chester county, (Pa ), on Jan. I, 1745. He first saw service at the head of a Pennsylvania battahon during the retreat of Benedict Arnold, after the Quebec campaign In 1777 he was commissioned brigadier-general, as a reward for his distmmguished service at Ticonderoga He took a prominent part in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and at Monmouth he turned the fortunes of the day by his stubborn and successful resistance His greatest stroke was the storming of Stony Pomt, where in person he led the midnight attack

of his troops over the walls of the British fort. This well-planned enterprise won for Wayne the popular sobriquet of “Mad Anthony ” Wayne also did much to counteract the effect of Benedict Arnold’s treason and of the mutiny of the Pennsylvania troops In 1781 he was sent south to jom Gen Nathaniel Greene, but ın Virgimia he was deflected to aid Lafayette against Lord Cornwallis, In 1792 Washington appointed him to succeed St. Clair in the command of the western army with the rank of majorgeneral. The Government continued its efforts to induce the Indians to allow white settlements beyond the Ohio, but upon the failure of a mission m 1793 Wayne advanced to Greenville, a port on a branch of the Great Miami In July of 1794 Wayne’s regulars were reinforced by about 1,600 Kentucky muiltia, and the combined forces advanced to Fort Defiance on the Miami river Here Wayne made a final effort to treat with the Indians, and upon being rebuffed, moved forward and decisively defeated them in the battle of Fallen Timbers. This defeat, supplemented by the treaty of Greenville, which he negotiated with the Indians, on Aug 3, 1795, resulted in opening the north-west to civilization. Wayne retained his positron as commander of the army after its reorganization, and he rendered service m quelling the proposed filibustering expeditions from Kentucky against the Spanish dominions, and also took the lead in occupying: the lake posts delivered up by the British While engaged im this service he died at Erie (Pa) on Dec. 15, 1796 See J. Munsell, (ed), Wayne's Orderly Book of the Northern Army at Fort Ticonderoga and Mount Independence (Albany, 1859) ; Boyer, A Journal of Waynes Campatgn (Cincmnati, 1866) , Wiliam Clark, A Journal of Major-General Anthony Wayne’s Campaign against the Shawnee Indians (MSS. owned by R C, Ballard Thruston); Charles J Stillé, Major-General Anthony Wayne and the Pennsyivana Lane (Philadelphia, 1893), J. R Spears, Anthony Wayne (1903) , Thomas Boyd, Mad Anthony Wayne (1929).

WAYNESBORO, a borough of Pennsylvania, U.S A, near the Maryland boundary (the “Mason and Dixon Line”) Pop (1930) 10,167 by Federal census. Waynesboro lies 710 ft above sea-level, at the foot of South mountam, in the beautiful Blue Ridge region

Alto, 6m

Beneath are many

caves and caverns.

At Mont

N, is the Pennsylvania State Forest school (1903)

A

settlement was established here about 1734 For 20 years it was called Mount Vernon; then Wallacetown, until the close of the Revolution, when it was renamed in honour of Gen “Mad Anthony” Wayne A village was platted in 1797, and in 1828 it was incorporated as a borough A municipal-manager form of government was adopted in 1922.

WAYNFLETE,

WILLIAM

(1395-1486),

English lord

chancellor and bishop of Winchester, was the son of Richard

White Horse in Berkshire The earhest extant record of the Wayland legend is the repre-

Pattene

sentation in carved ivory on a casket of Northumbrian workmanship of a date not later than the beginning of the 8th century. The fragments of this casket, known as the Franks casket, were presented to the British Museum by Sir A W Franks. One fragment is in Florence

Chapel at Oxford, seems to be in the dress of a merchant

or

Patyn,

alias

Barbdur,

of Wainfleet,

Lincolnshire (Magd. Coll. Oxon Reg f. 84b), whose monumental effigy, formerly in the church of Wainfleet, now in Magdalen College

He

went to Oxford In 1430 he was head master of Winchester college In 1440 Henry VI. founded Eton College, and after visiting Winchester appomted Waynflete provost. Waynflete had to arSee also Vigfússon and Powell, Corpus poet bor. (i. pp. 168-174, Oxford, 1883); A. S Napier, The Franks Casket (Oxford, 1901), range for the financing and completion of the buildings at Eton Sarrazin, Germamsche Heldensage in Shakespere’s Trtus Andronicus In the last year (1446-47) of his provostship the full roll of (Herng’s Archi , xcvu, Brunswick, 1896), P Maurus, Dre Wreland-

sage in der Literatur

(Erlangen and Leipzig, 1902); C B_ Deppmg

and F Michel, Véland le Forgeron (Paris, 1833)

Sir Walter Scott

handled the Wayland legend m Kenilworth, there are dramas on the subject by Borsch (Bonn, 1895), English version by A. Comyn

(London, 1898), August Demmirn

(Leipzg, 1880); H

Drachmann

(Copenhagen, 1898); and one founded on K Simrock’s heroic poem on Wieland 1s printed in Richard Wagner’s Gesammelte Schriften

scholars, 70, was already complete

The provost was still in high favour with Henry, for when Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, Henry’s uncle, died (April 11, 1447) Henry wrote the same day to the chapter of Winchester, the prior and monks of St Swithin’s cathedral, to elect Waynflete as his successor On July 13, 1447, he was consecrated in Eton church, when the warden and fellows and

446

WAYS

AND

MEANS

COMMITTEE—WAZIRISTAN

others of his old college gave him a horse at a cost of £6, 138 ad ; and 138 4d tothe boys Subsequent visits to Winchester inspired Henry with the idea of rebuilding Eton church on cathedral dimensions Waynflete was principal executor of ms “will” for that purpose Waynflete, as bishop, lost no time in following the example of Wykeham and his royal patron in becoming a college founder In 1448 he obtained a licence for founding Magdalen College, Oxford On Jan. 9, 1449 Waynflete was enthroned m Winchester cathedral in the presence of the king; and, probably partly for his sake, parliament was held there in June and July 1449, when the king frequently attended the college chapel, Waynflete officiating. When Jack Cade’s rebellion occurred m 1450 Waynflete was employed with Archbishop Stafford, the chancellor, to negotiate with the rebels at St Margaret’s church, Southwark, close to Winchester House A full pardon was promised, but on Aug 1 Waynflete was one of the special commissioners to try the rebels. The king became insane in 1454 On the death of the chancellor, John Kemp, archbishop of Canterbury, durmg the sitting of parliament, presided over by the duke of York, commissioners, headed by Waynflete, were sent to Henry to ask him to name a new chancellor, apparently intending that Waynflete should be named. But no answer could be extracted from the king, and after some delay Lord Salisbury took the seals During York’s regency, both before and after the battle of St Albans, Waynflete took an active part in the proceedings of the privy council Wath a view to an ampler site for his college, Waynflete obtained on July 5, 1456 a grant of the Hospital of St John the Baptist outside the east gate at Oxford and on July 15 licence to found a college there. Having obtained a papal bull, he founded it by deed of June 12, 1458, converting the hospital into a college With a president and six fellows, to which college two days later Magdalen Hall surrendered 1tself and its possessions, its members being incorporated into “the New College of St Mary Magdalen.” Meanwhile Waynflete himself had been appointed chancellor, the seals being delivered to him by the king in the pnory of Coventry in the presence of the duke of York, apparently as a person acceptable to both parties. In October 1457 he took part in the trial and condemnation for heresy of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester Only Pecock’s books and not the heretic were burnt Waynflete presided as chancellor at the parlhament at Coventry in November 1459, which, after the Vorkist catastrophe at Ludlow, attainted the Yorkist leaders It was no doubt because of this that, three days before the Vorkist attack at Northampton, he resigned the chancellorship (1460) But Waynflete does not seem to have been regarded as an enemy by the Yorkists, though he was a personal friend of Henry’s, for the rights of the bishopric of Winchester were confirmed to him in 1462, and he took an active part in the restoration of Eton College under Edward IV, and in the building of the church, now called the chapel, at Eton Yet he recerved a pardon m 1469, and in 1471, in the latter case probably because he welcomed Henry on his release from prison In 1474 Waynflete, being the principal executor of Sir John Fastolf, who died in 1459, leaving a much-contested will, procured the conversion of his bequest for a collegiate church of seven priests and seven almsmen at Caistor, Norfolk, into one for seven fellows and seven poor scholars at Magdalen. In the same year that college took possession of the alien priory of Sele, Sussex, the proceedings for the suppression of which had been going on since 1469. The new, now the the old, buildings at Magdalen were begun the same year, the foundation-stone being

laid in the middle of the high altar on May 5, 1474 (Wood, 207)

The college was completed m 1480, and this date, not the earlier

one, is usually given as the foundation date. Magdalen College

school was founded at the gates. In September 1481 Waynflete

received Edward IV. in state at the college, where he passed the night, and in July 1483 he received Richard III there m even greater state, when Master Wiliam Grocyn, “the Grecian,” a fellow of New College, “responded,” in divinity In 1484 Waynflete gave the college the endowment for a free grammar school at his name-place, Wainfleet, sufficient to produce for the chantry-

priest-schoolmaster £10 a year, the same salary as the headmaster

of Magdalen School, and built the school which still exists almost untouched, a fine brick building with two towers, 76 ft long by 26 ft. broad The next year saw the appropriation to the college of the Augustinian Priory of Selborne, Hants Waynflete died on May 11, 1486, and was buried in Winchester cathedral The effigy in Magdalen College Chapel at Oxford ıs an authentic portrait

WAYS

AND

MEANS

COMMITTEE:

see Estimates,

EXCHEQUER WAYZGOOSE, a term for the annual outing of English printers and their employees It may be a musspelling for “‘wasegoose,” from wase, ME for “sheaf,” thus meaning harvest goose, the “stubblegoose” mentioned by Chaucer in “The Cook's Prologue ” It is more probable that the merry-making was an 1mtation of the grand goose-feast annually held at Waes, in Brabant, at Martinmas Certainly the goose has long ago parted company with the printers’ wayzgoose, which is usually held in July

WAZIR, or Vizier, a munister, usually the principal minister under a Mohammedan ruler (Arabic wazir). In India the nawab of Oudh was long known as the nawab wazir, the title of minister to the Mogul emperor having become hereditary. WAZIRABAD, a town of British India, in Gujranwala district of the Punjab, near the right bank of the river Chenab, 62 m

N. of Lahore

Pop (1921) 18,645

It is an important railway

junction. The main line of the North-Western railway here crosses the Chenab by the Alexandra bridge, opened in 1876 Boat-building and manufactures of steel and iron are carried on

WAZIRISTAN, a mountain tract in the North-west Frontier Province of India within the British sphere of influence, the boundary with Afghamstan having been demarcated in 1894 Only a portion, consisting of the Tochi valley, with an area of about 7oo sqm and a population (1903) of 24,670, 1s directly administered. Northern Waziristan has an area of about 2,310 sqm, and southern Waziristan an area of about 2,734 sqm The Tochi and the Gomal rivers enclose the central dominating range of Waziristan from north-east to south-west, geologically connected with the great limestone ranges of the Suhman hills to the south, and dominated by the great peaks of Shu-

dar (Sheikh Haidar) and Pirghal, both of them between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. above the sea From these peaks westwards a view is obtamed across the grass slopes and cedar woods of Birmal and Shawal (lymg thousands of feet below) to the long, serrated ridges of the central watershed which shuts off the plams of Ghazni

To the eastward several lines of drainage strike away

for the Indus, and are, as usual, the main avenues of approach to the mterior of the country They are the Khaisora and the Shakdu on the north, which, uniting, jom the Tochi south of Bannu, and the Tank Zam (which 1s also called Khaisor near its head) on the south The two former lead from the frontier to Razmak and Makin, villages of some local importance, situated on the slopes of Shuidar; and the latter leads to Kaniguram, the Wazir capıtal, and the centre of a considerable iron trade. Kaniguram hes at the foot of the Pirghal mountain. The Waziri tribes are the largest on the frontier, but ther state of civilization is very low. They are a race of robbers and

murderers, and the Waziri name 1s execrated even by the neigh-

bouring Mohammedan tribes, who seem inclined to deny their title to belong to the faith. Their physique 1s excellent. Except ın a few of the highest hilis, which are well-wooded, the Waziti country is a mass of rock and stones, bearing a poor growth of grass and thinly sprinkled with dark evergreen bushes; progress in every direction is obstructed by precipices or by toilsome stony ascents, and knowledge of the topography comes only as the result of long acquamtance Broken ground and tortuous ravines, by

making crime easy and precaution cmiinst ottack dife" Fave fostered violerce anorg the people and dev cioped in ther an! &

traOrcim try T2CLuS OL DUC erce ane alertness The Waziri bhi Geveloped into a raider, and a highwayman’ The women enjoy more

freedom than amongst most Pathan tribes The blood-feud is a national institution. The Waziris, who number some 48,000 fighting men altogether,

WAZIRISTAN are divided into two main sections, the Darwesh Khel (30,000),

referred to as “Wazirs,” and the Mahsuds (18,000), with smaller sections and attached tribes numbering 18,000 more. The Darwesh Khel are the more settled and civilized of the two, and inhabit the lower hills bordering on Kohat and Bannu

as the Northern and Southern Waziristan

447 Militia respectively

These forces, composed of tribesmen under British officers, with few exceptions deserted early in r9r9, and thereby provided their Mahsud compatnots with an invaluable stock of nfles and ammunition, while, more serious still, they formed a nucleus of districts and the ground lying on both sides of the Kurram river, skilled leaders for the lashkars However, in December, 1919, between Thal on the north and the Tochi Valley on the south. The an expeditionary force was under the command of Major-General Mahsuds, who inhabit the tract of country lying between the Tochi Valley on the north and the Gomal river on the south, have earned for themselves an evil name as the most confirmed raiders on the border The Mahsud country, especially that part within reach of

British posts, is more difficult even than Tirah The Tochi Valley 15 inhabited by a degraded Pathan tribe, known as Dauris, who have placed themselves under British protection smce 1895

British expeditions were needed against various sections of the Wazris in 1852, 1859, 1860, 1880, 1881, 1894, 1897 and 1902. The success of Sir Robert Sandeman in subduing the wild tribes of Baluchistan had led to a similar attempt to open up Waziristan to British civilization, but the Pathan is much more democratic and much less subject to the influence of his maliks than is the Baluchi to the authority of bus chiefs; and the policy finally broke down in 1894, when the Waziris made a night attack upon the camp of the British Delimitation Commission at Wana.

The attack was delivered with such determination that the tribesmen penetrated into the centre of the camp, and it was only with the greatest difficulty that friend could be distinguished from foe, A large force of 11,000 British troops subsequently traversed the tnbal country, destroyed their towers and dictated terms, one of

which was that the Tochi Valley should be occupied by Bnitish

garrisons. But still there was trouble, which led to the Tochi ex-

S H Climo, C.B The total of this force amounted to no less than 30,000 combatants, figures later augmented.

On Nov. 9 the first move was made up the Tochi Valley, where, on the 17th, General Climo received unconditional surrender of the Tochi Wazir tribes at a ceremonial jirga held at Datta Khel. This result enabled the stnking force to be transferred southwards to deal with the Mahsuds It was now decided to move the striking force to the Tank Zam valley and to advance in one column by that route to Kaniguram and Makin ın the heart of the Mahsud country The force was completely assembled at Jandola on the Tank Zam by December 13, whereupon a beginning was made to piquet the valley on either flank by “crowning the heights” with small fortified works On Dec. 17 the Mahsuds made a fierce and somewhat treacherous onslaught on the advanced troops of the striking force, or “Derajat column,” under cover of a parley They were driven back and the column moved next day An attempt to seize Mandanna Hill, made on the roth, failed A second attempt, on the 2oth, conducted by stronger forces as well as supported by aircraft, met with negligible resistance; the occupation of the ridge was complete Leaving too men to complete the fortification of a detached post on the hull, the troops returned to

camp No sooner had they withdrawn than a fierce Mahsud attack swept away the remaining detachment, and the hill was lost again A simular attempt to seize Taraka: or Black Hill on the Waziristan was given up by Lord Curzon The British garnsons 22nd eventually succeeded, but not before some savage Mahsud in the Tochi and Gomal valleys were withdrawn, and two corps of attacks had nearly brought about another similar defeat. The tribal militia, from 1,300 to 1,500 strong, were gradually formed to Mahsud losses, occasioned by some close quarter fighting and arreplace the British troops, Durmg the Great War, the Mahsuds tillery fire, proved very heavy for this class of warfare. Tarakai gave constant trouble and durmg the third Afghan war the militia was held as the enemy retired were withdrawn, portions going over to the enemy, Three years On the 25th Mandanna Hill was occupied afresh and permaof war succeeded the invasion, and it was not tll a motor road nently An advance of 4 miles was made to Kotkai where the was driven from Jandola through the heart of the country to column remamed until Jan 7, preparing to force a precipitous Bannu, and a large cantonment built at Razmak, close to the defile known as the Ahnai Tangi A first attempt was made on centre of the Mahsud country that order was restored, the 7th Owing to the short hours of daylight, the operation was See Grammar and Vocabulary of Wazir: Pashto, by J G Lorimer abandoned A second attempt, on the gth, met with no better (Calcutta, 1902), Paget and Mason’s Frontier Expeditions (1884); result Once more, on the toth, a third attempt failed In Mahsud Waztre Operat:ons (1902), Blue-book view of this situation, now daily growmg more unsatisfactory, CAMPAIGNS IN WAZIRISTAN General Skeen ordered a night march for the small hours of the The Wazirs are Pathans speaking Pushtoo Consequently, they Irth. This bold decision, unusual in mountain warfare, was have a very close racial and linguistic affinity with the adjacent justified by the result On the r4th the entire column passed Afghan population. The country, moreover, hes midway between, through the defile. The task was still formidable The eastern bank of the Tank the Khyber and Bolan Passes and has thus remained outside the orbit of the chief campaigns that have been fought on the north- Zam was formed by two long ridges, the nearer being christened west frontier In addition, it had never been subjected to the “Flathead Left” and the further “Flathead Right,” while to the north of a deep depression came yet another height dubbed administration of the Government of India There is no need to recount in detail the course of the earlier “Marble Arch” The right flank guard soon became heavily enexpeditions ito Waziristan In 1860, after some stiff httle actions gaged on Flathead Left while the advanced guard met with a a column of all arms occupied Kamguram and Makin, the centres heavy fire from Marble Arch and was checked. After a very of population in Mahsud country Agam, in 1879, the Mahsuds stubborn and savage action at close quarters, Flathead Left was were subjected to an economic “blockade” In 1893 a well- taken and held throughout the day, aircraft contributing to this conducted expedition under Sir W Lockhart overran Waziristan. result. The column was then able to encamp undisturbed After In 1896 Wana was occupied at the request of the Wazirs them- a night march on the 28th, the column passed through the gorge. selves In 1900 a second blockade of the Mahsuds was initiated, Although the Mahsud resistance was on the wane, Afghan emisbut dragged on for over a year until several columns had devas- saries were busy stirring them to further efforts Two Afghan tated the most fertile of the Mahsud valleys. In 1917 a brief ex- mountain guns arrived to remforce moral persuasion On Feb 1, pedition penetrated up the R Shahur and effected a temporary General Skeen once more ordered a night march against the Mahsud position, held ın great strength, near Aka Khel A striksubmission of the Mahsuds The close of the World War was followed in May, tgr9, by the ing success resulted; the enemy’s resistance collapsed with nọ outbreak of the Third Afghan War. For some time past Wazirs seeming hope of its reviving; Afghan help did not materiahze, and Mahsuds alike, excited by Afghan propaganda, had been while the two(mountain guns proved but a dismal failure, From growing bolder in their bngandage, The climax came when the this moment onwards there was to be no more serious fighting evacuation of the military posts maintained m the Tochi and But the Mahsuds showed no sign of accepting the Government’s Gumal Valleys was effected. Both these trade routes had past terms and so the column marched further up the Tank Zam been guarded by fortified posts garrisoned by native forces known Valley But there was a change of policy in that there was now pedition of 1897; and, in spite of the further lessons taught the Waaziris in two expeditions in 1902, the attempt to “Sandemanise”

4.48

WAZZAN—WEALTH

a coercive policy enforced, appropriate measures being taken for the destruction of Mahsud property On Feb 16 the column arnved at Tauda China, 2 m. distant from Makin, which centre of population and agriculture, failing submission by the Mahsuds, was to be ravaged According to the terms of an ultimatum, the days of grace expired on Feb 19,

when, until the zgth, the fortified Mahsud villages were systematically shelled or raided

On March 2 the column moved to

Kaniguram, the only so-called “town” of the the Mahsud The place itself was not occupied, the troops being kept fortified camp constructed at Ladha close by the town sulting situation proved embarrassmg A certain number were surrendered, but as a whole the Mahsuds remamed

country. within a The reof rifles untamed

WEAKFISH (Cynoscion regahs), an important North Ameri. can food-fish, so-called from its tender mouth

It inhabits sandy

shores of the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Florida and jg

greenish-brown above, silvery below, with brown markings The weakfish ıs also known as squeteague and sea-trout (its trade name). It reaches a weight of 30 Ib (average 5 Ib )

WEALD, THE, adistrict in south-east England

It includes

the portions of Sussex, Kent and Surrey enclosed between the North and South Downs With the exception of the eastern

part, it 1s drained by rivers running northward and southward through gaps in the Downs (gv) The Weald was formerly coy. ered by the forest of Andredesleah or Andredsweald (“the wood or forest without habitations”) About 1660, the total area under and hostile. The column remained at Ladha when, on April 6, it forest was over 200,000 acres The chief remains of the forests

carried out an important punitive operation north-west of Kaniguram ‘This showed the tribesmen to be still as contumacious and bellicose as ever Ladha was consequently converted into a standing camp connected with Tank by a strong series of posts down the Tank Zam valley. The Waziristan force was reduced, the Derajat column as such was broken up; one brigade remained at Ladha while another guarded the road to Tank ‘Then finally, in the autumn, the long deferred expedition to Wana was organized as the Wana Wazirs had failed to comply with the Government’s demands for reparation for the outrages of 1918-19 Moreover, the Wazirs were then undoubtedly harbouring Afghan agents who were intriguing against the Government of India On Nov. 12 the Wana column, commanded by Major-General W. S. Leslie, C.M G., left Jandola for Sarwekai where a lengthy pause was made. Then, on Dec. 15, the troops moved agam and reached Wana on Dec. 22 The only incident of the advance was a spirited little affair at the pass of Granai Mara Narai where a night march once more dislodged the Wazirs from their position virtually without fighting, The beginning of 1921 thus found a

are Ashdown,

St Leonards

and Tilgate, and the nomenclature

often indicates former woodland, as in the case of Hurstpierpoint

(Aurst meaning wood), Midhurst, Fernhurst, Billingshurst, Ashurst and many others. The forests were interspersed with lagoons; and the rainfall caused marshes The Wealden forests were used extensively for fuel m the former ironworks of Sussex The Forest Ridges, running east to west in the centre of the

Weald, preserve its ancient character

Formed of the Hastings

sands they are the main water-parting of the Weald, dividing the

Vale of Sussex from the Vale of Kent

Here the iron industry,

worked by the Romans and earher, became important m the 16th

and 17th century and died out early in the roth century, The Andredesleah formed a physical barrier which Saxons isolated from other Saxon kingdoms

kept the South

WEALTH. In economics wealth may mean either a stock or fund exsting at a given time or a flow of valuable goods and services during a period of time. In dealing with the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of concerned very ‘largely with the origins of nual income and with the disposition which annual flow of income, or national dividend,

wealth, economics js

the community’s anis made of 1t This may be conceived of one important circumstance was about to alter the entire prob- as comprising all of the valuable commodities which pass into the lem of Waziristan A great circular motor road was now to be hands of their final consumers during the year, together with the constructed from Bannu up the Tochi Valley; thence across the valuable personal services (e g , the services of the Government, of passes to Razmak and so down the whole Tank Zam valley to physicians, of actors, of household servants) rendered during the Tank. This road would allow of military operations being con- year, apart from those which come to the consumer embodied, ducted under very different conditions to those prevailing in as we might say, in the products of industry and trade. AlternaI91g-20 Moreover, the Royal Air Force was now in possession tively, the community’s annual flow of wealth may be identified of a new aerodrome at Dardoni in the Tochi Valley. Lastly, two with its annual product, which comprises the personal services 6-inch howitzers were to be stationed at Ladha. directly rendered to consumers, as aforesaid, together with the reAt the close of 1922, on the impending completion of the new sults of all that is accomphshed durmg the year in forwarding motor road, the garrison of Ladha was ordered to move into the products towards their final form and destination, and ın augmentnew and more salubrious camp of Razmak The Mahsuds, mis- ing the community’s productive equipment The two conceptaking this change for a symptom of weakness, committed acts tions overlap, for both include the products of work which 1s of open hostility. The situation grew so bad that punitive opera- performed and comes to its final fruition within the year But tions became inevitable. The plan of operations was for one one conception includes, in addition, the mpened fruits of work brigade to advance from Razmak and to unite with the brigade done in the past, while the other mcludes fruits of present from Ladha in the Makin area Before this could be effected work which will reach their matunty only in future years The the last stages of the motor road had to be completed and this money value of what we may call consumers’ real income (the proved an arduous task. Starting from Idak in the Tochi Valley first of the two conceptions) will not, mm general, be the same as the 7th Brigade reached Razmak on Jan 23, then effecting a junc- the money value of the enrucl product In a prosperous comtion with the 9th Bngade from Ladha on Feb 4 at Tauda China munity, where saving 1: growing re'auvely to consumption, the The Makin area was once more devastated; aeroplanes, 6-inch and money value of the annual product will be the larger of the two 3-7 howitzers were all employed in the task. By the rath enough It is always approximately equal to the aggregate amount of the destruction had been accomplished, and on the 22nd the last recal- net money incomes received during the year It lends itself better citrant tribes made their submission. to statistical measurement than consumers’ real income does, and, WAZZAN, a small town, 60m. NW. by N of Fez, Morocco, it is the better index of the community’s economic welfare on the slopes of the Djebel Bu-Hallal Wazain, chief town of a Viewed as a stock or fund, wealth is an aggregate of scarce and territory, has 12,910 inhabitants, of whom 594 are Europeans It valuable objects Some of these valuable objects are given by manufactures a coarse white woollen cloth, from which the nature, others are the products of man’s industry and thrift, but hooded cloaks (called ellébs) are made. Its proudest name is Dar all of them, irrespective of their origins or their cost, are valued D’manah—House of Safety—as 1t is sanctuary for any who gain prospectively, looking towards the future, with reference to their its limits, on account of the tomb of a sainted Idrisi Sherif, who importance as aids to production or to their more direct beneficial lived there in 1727, and was the founder of one of the most uses Wealth can be described by means of a stock-taking or important religious brotherhoods of the Muslim world, called inventory, but it can be summed or measured as a whole only ‘in the Taibiya After the conquest of Algeria, the sherifs of Wazzan, terms of its money value. Wealth is always something owned, chiefs of the brotherhood, were placed under the protection of whether the ownership be private or public Its value is the sum France The French troops entered Wazzan in 1920. ne ad ofthe values of existing property

brigade of Indian troops at Ladha and Wana respectively with every prospect of a permanent occupation of Waziristan But

rights Securities, such as stocks,

449

WEALTH shares and bills, are among the objects of property, but if these are to be counted as wealth, account must be taken of the circum-

stance that they are offset by an equal amount of “negative wealth” —the habilities of their issuers In arriving at the wealth of the people of a given country or region (as distinguished from the wealth within that country or region), the net balance of external

assets and external habilities must be included

It is obvious that the degree of a country’s economic well-being depends upon the character and extent of its unappropnable resources—sunshine, rainfall, rivers, harbours—as well as upon the

appropriable objects of wealth within its borders

Is not a navi-

gable river, therefore, as much an item in a nation’s wealth as a railway or a canal? Yes, in the sense that a nation’s wealth is larger because of an abundance of these natural advantages No, if ıs meant that no evaluation of a nation’s wealth is complete if separate account is not taken of such things. (See also Eco-

nomics and CAPITAL )

WEALTH, NATIONAL.

(A Yo)

The wealth of a country may

mean esther the value of the objects found within its boundaries, regardless of the ownership of those objects in part by people

ling abroad, or the wealth of the inhabitants, cluding their foreign possessions, and excluding wealth within the country held by people abroad

The confusion between these two ideas has

played havoc with discussions on such subjects as “The Taxable

Capacity of Ireland” (Vide Stamp’s British Income Property

p 369) It is the latter sense—the wealth of the inhabitants expressed in current money values—that is mainly under consideration here

Wealth in private hands (or belonging to individuals) is not easy to define, for there are various shades of ownership (1) Absolute personal disposition of the whole “fee simple” value of a house, land or other object

(2) Trust interests, where ownership is more limited and free disposal is barred, but where the ownership of a source of income for a period has a capital value. (3) Collective ownership with only potential specific allocation to individuals, such as the reserves of compames which may be of higher value in the hands of the company than the aggregation of the market value of individual mterests therem (4) Collective ownership, without the possibilty of individual allocation, or social private wealth, such as churches, clubs, etc (a) City and local property, hke waterworks, buildings and trams, having a “value” determinable by deliberate comparison with privately owned objects

(b) National property, varying from a museum which can less easily be given a “purchase price.”

to a navy,

Uses to Which the Figures of National Wealth Are Put.

—These include-

(x) Tests of “progress,” by way of comparisons between dif-

ferent years, to show the accumulation of capital, and really valid where the level of prices has remained fairly constant; tests of

the distribution of wealth, according to the form or embodiment which wealth takes, e g between houses, lands and bonds; tests of the effects of changes ın the rate of interest, or in the value of money (2) Tests of the relative “prosperity” or resources of different nations or communities, at the same point of time either as a whole, or per head of the population, and also in relation to their national debts and taxation (3) Comparisons of income with capital and property. (4) Consideration of the distribution of wealth according to

individual fortunes, and changes in that distribution

Methods of Computation.—(1) Based on data arismg through the taxation of incomes. (a) Collective Taxation or Taxation at the Source. The statistics of such taxation covering the whole profits of corporate bodies, such as public companies, before their distribution to individuals and whether actually distributed or not, obviously lead to comprehensive results. Where sources of mcome are attacked for revenue purposes, and the destination of income is ignored, it is not necessary for elaborate estimates to be made for income remaining in collective or semicollective ownership, moreover, such a tax system allows of profits being presented for different classes of business or income, and so enables them to be capitalised on an appropriate basis. There may, however, be a danger that this method will give too high a result, if sufficient allowance is not made for income going out of such companies to foreigners or persons living entirely abroad, which thus forms no part of the national income Risk of error arises in three ways. Ci.) Evasion in the tax system itself (ai) Legal omissions from the scheme of tax (ie. “garden produce” as non-taxable income, “enjoyment” income from movable property). (ui) The basis of capitahsation, viz, the number of years purchase adopted. This method, generally known as the “Giffen” method, though not invented by him, is the main basis for the valuation for the United Kingdom It will be found to a limited extent available in the Umted States, South Africa and other dominions. (b) Taxation of income on Individual Returns Where statistics of this character are available, they may be utilised for capital valuations, but only with some difficulty. If there is a rough division of income into earned income and income from property, it 1s, of course, of assistance in the capitalisation The chief defects are. (i) The considerable extent to which evasion takes place in this particular type of taxation. (ai) Omission of all income held or accumulated collectively.

(iii) Difficulty in determining the ratio of mcome to capital on the average, which makes capitalisation a far greater difficulty than under (a) (iii) above

(2) Based on Material Provided by the Annual Taxation of Capital (a) Particular Classes of Property, such as Land or Buildings Obviously these details supply a part only of the whole capital valuation, and they more properly belong to the “inventory method” referred to below Unless the values are regularly revised on uniform lines, without local differences, they form but a rough basis, and there are always difficulties in determining the extent to which other forms of wealth (se, company shares or business profits) duplicate these values Some of the Continental systems of taxation supply material of this order, and the Australian States have regularly revised valuations which are valuable because they constitute so large a fraction of the total wealth. (b) General Property Valuation—The particulars furnished by a system of annual taxation upon all classes of property, should,

in theory, form an ideal basis for a valuation As a matter of fact, however, in practice, even such a tax as the General Property Tax in the United States, is full of defects. The valuations of personal property tend to disappear altogether (as was the case during the eighteenth century with the British “Land Tax”) or else to be negligible in amount, leaving real property alone to bear the burden. This real property is assessed on very diverse

(5) Consideration of the applicability and yield of schemes of taxetion, e g, the capital levy (6) Questions relaurg to war indercniue: ard “ability to pay”

lines in different areas, and is admittedly much below the selling values in many States

Josiah Stamp in May rọrọ endeavoured to present the position

(a) Statistics of “Estates” chargeable with Duties on passing

as m rọr4 Haigh authorities had argued that the wealth of the Umted Kingdom in r9r4 was approximately £10,000,000,000, others had placed it as high as £24,000,000,000, but in each case

and scientific of all A special ad hoc valuation 1s made periodi-

The summary presented to the Royal Statistical Society by Sir

(3) Based on Data arising through Irregular Periods.

Taxation of Capital at

at Death

This method has the appearance of being the most satisfactory

the estimates were associated with polemical matters. Sir Josiah’s

cally of all wealth held in individual ownership, and it is only

figure was £14,310,000,000.

required to ascertain what proportion of the whole comes under

450

WEALTH

review in any given year, or, alternatively, at what intervals of time the same item of wealth will be recharged to duty on the average, in order to compute the total wealth belonging to individuals. But ths apparently simple task ıs, ın practıce, fraught with many difficulties, and the method of ascertaznment of the “multiplier,” though greatly improved of late years, 1s still open to doubt or inquiry upon mmportant points. The adequacy of the capitalisation of collective wealth and the impossibility of saying how much is mo# reflected in their values are serious drawbacks

(4) The Inventory Method. This method aims at a valuation, in the aggregate, of each “form” in which wealth is embodied, without regard to the owner-

s The difficulty of accurately determining any “averages” employed as factors.

If they are the results of impressions, they

may be considerably in error, and even if they are the product

of actual

observations

they

ought

usually

to be carefully

“weighted” in their application to the different classes also given the following record for previous years -—

He has

Date | £ mulions 1800

1,750 (Great Britain)

1812

Beeke

i

rubs (United Kingdom) Colquhon veeGiffen, “(Growth p

2,500

1822 1833

3,600

»

1852 | 10,000

=»;

we

2k

Lowe

Pablo de Pabrer

-

p. IIo

Pilal,

j

7

w . a

(includes personal cap:-

ship by individuals, companies, etc. It is often called the “objective” method. It depends for its success almost entirely upon the existence of statistical material compiled for other purposes, e.g, I II5 5 1875 8,548 o» a ee import and export statistics, local government taxation figures, 1885 | 10,037 ” expert valuations of mineral! resources, statistical enumerations eee 10,35 : 7 Milner of objects to which an average value can be applied Examples 1095 | £0,993 n ” Economist, following Giffen of the last mentioned are the valuation of shippmg by reference to the total tonnage multiplied by an average value per ton, or 1902 | 17,413» » Money of mming capital by the average capital invested per ton of 1903 | I5,000 4, i Giffen (so per cent, added to output, or of live stock by the number of each kind multiplied by 1885 figures, “Economic Inan average price, or even of business, by a co-efficient. There quires,” IT 362) are few classes of statistics that have not been pressed or coaxed I905 | I12,67I s» a} Fabian Society rorr | 13,716 (England and E. into service for the “inventory” method, and further illustration Wales) Crammond. can best be seen below 1912 | 16,472 (Umted Kingdom) E Crammond §. J., 1924 The chief defects of the method are: 1914 | 16,000 ,„ 5 Money 1. The impossibility of testing how far the ownership of the wealth is within the country or not It is obvious, for example, Wealth of Various Countries.—Sir Josiah Stamp’s summary that if half the farms in a country are mortgaged to or owned by of the estimated wealth of eighteen leading countries of the world foreigners, their gross value will give a false statement of naat the outbreak of the World War in 1914 is set forth in the actional wealth in the sense defined. 2. The difficulty of determining whether all forms of wealth companying table giving the total wealth for each country and

ice

Bo aen

have 3. with 4.

been included. The msk of overlapping, e g., stock and shares duplicated real property owned by companies The absence of tests of Prakt earning capacity. For example, the carriages, railway lines, stations, etc, of a railway company are all “valued,” and their aggregate comes to, say, £5,000,ooo. The railway as a whole may have been losing money for years, or, may be making several milhons a year. It is contended however that this difficulty may be exaggerated As a general rule, on capitalisation of plus and mmus “goodwill,” the differences tend to cancel out, and an aggregate of valuations as “going concerns” tends to approximate to mvested capital,

except when there are striking changes in the value of money and rate of interest British National Wealth.—Sir Josiah Stamp’s valuation of British national wealth for 1914 was as follows '— Capital value (Mullion £)

t Lands .

2. Houses, etc.

‘

3- Other profits (Sch. A)

:

a

i

e

f

78

è

š

4. Farmers’ capital 5. Sch. C, National Debt, etc. 6, Railways in the Umted Kingdom

7. Railways out of the United Kingdom 8. Coal and other mines

9. to. zr. 12. 13.

1,155

39330

22 340 1,148 1,143

655 179

Ironworks Gasworks Waterworks, canals, and other concerns (Sch, A) Indian, colomal, and foreign securities ae Coupons . Ww te oe

37 182 278 6ar 383

I5. Busmesses not otherwise detailed 16. Income accruing abroad and not remitted 17. Income of non-income-tax paying classes derived

2,770 400

14. Other profits and interest

from capital

.

.

-

.

2

ay

r8. Movable property, etc , not yieldmg income (furniture, etc . ARE I9. Government and local property =

Total valuation. . Or, in round figures

.

,

276

| Gots. 080)

also the amount per caput of the population

National capital Approxi-

Country

Amount

Estimates based mation to) Amount per head on

the work

o

accuracy |

s

of

popu-

Grade? |milon £| ijan £

United Kingdom _, , | Stamp

T.

14,500

318

United States / Official, King Germany Helfferich, etc France Pupin, Théry

II, TI. TI.

42,000 16,550 12,009

424 244 303

gary Spain Belgium Holland

III IV. ITI. Tit

TV.

6,200 2,940 I,200 1,050

12,000

121 144 157 167

TXT.

949

168

Italy Austria-Hun-

Rusa

Sweden

,

.

Norway . Denmark Switzerland Australia

Canada

Japan Argentine

“Grade I

.

Gm

.

Fellner Barthe Official Stuart

, | Neymarck

Flodstrom, beck.

Gini Gini Gini Kmwbbs

kale

Fochl-

Bankers’ Assocn

Stamp Bunge

XI.

43480

128

85

IV. IV IV. I.

220 500 800 1,530

90 176 205 318

IV. TIT

2,400 2,400

44 340

II.

2,285

300

Estimate is not likely to he accurate to.a greater extent

an ro per cent Estimate 1s not likely to be inaccurate to a greater extent than 20 per cent. Grade III. Estimate is not likely to be inaccurate to a greater extent than 30 per cent Grade IV, Pe ee: be inaccurate to a greater extent than 40

Grade II

per cent.

200 800 400

14,319 14,300

Post-War Estimates.—Qwing to economic dislocation, to the

rapid changes in the value of a common measure, gold, and to still more rapid change of national currencies as well as various other factors that must be considered, no really reliable estimates

have been possible

Many rough guesses have been made, ¢£.,

WEALTH—WEALTH

AND

INCOME

451

Natzonal Wealth of Certain Countries Year

Ae

re

£ 5,100 millions

$25,000

1923

Canada

India

1922

Rs 15,000 crores

United States France Italy

1923 1923 1923

$355,000 millions ,, Fr. 1,200,000 L 611,000,

In sterling at current rate | Current rate of exchange in May 1926 of exchange in May 1926

£20,000 milhons

£20,000 millions

1923

Great Britain

: Te stering at par

ee

£10,000

p

£72,900, y £47,600 yy £24,222

5,

$4 465= f1

£81,200, ys {14,400 ,, £6,100

$4 37=f1 82 88 fr ={x 100 15-32 hre={x

£5,400

{10,000

=»;

rg rs =£x

value But primitive wealth is not confined to things of purely practical interest Luxury articles are often most prized In the Pacific, fine woven mats (Samoa), feather capes and cloaks (Hawai), large polished axe blades (New Guinea), and ornaments of the Umted States since that time indicate that the total wealth such as whales’ teeth (Fuji), greenstone heitiki figures (New of increase an $394,500,000,000, to at the end of 1928 will amount 229 per cent. over the 1922 figure, The per capita wealth 1s esti- Zealand), or shell armlets and necklaces (Melanesia) play a most mated to have mncreased from $2,938 in 1922 to $3,287 in 1928. prominent part in the socio-economic life In primitive society rank and wealth usually go hand in hand. The prospect is that the total wealth at the end of 1929 will amount to $408,700,000,000 and the per capita wealth to $3,366. By gift, loan and rewards for service chiefs dispose of their inThe following table shows the estimated savings and increase in come to their people, and, generosity being esteemed a prime virwealth of the United States since 1922, according to two authori- tue, maintain thereby their prestige and influence The mmportance of wealth les in 1ts distribution; hoarding is condemned But as ties the economic and social life is built upon reciprocity, freedom in Savings and Wealth of the United States (in Milion $) giving is also conducive to material prosperity. Destruction of : Total wealth, as in the Amerindian potlatch, springs from an exaggeraAae P opa to. es estımates* tion of this attitude of respect for wealth ın action Wealth of the United States.—The most recent figure of the

wealth of the United States, was a Government estimate for 1922 of 321,000 mullion dollars, or, say, 65,000 milion £

The savings

aa

$ 9,200

$321,000

$2,038

$321,000

1923 1924 1925

10,800 II,I00 12,100

331,800 342,900 355,000

2,998 3,059 3:077

339,900 337,900 362,400

1926 1928

1927

1929

12,600 13,200 13,700 14,200

367,600 304,500

380,800

408,700

3,138 3,210 3,287

3,366

356,500 346,400 360,100 .

*Recent estimates by National Industrial Conference Board.

The same authorities estimate the wealth of the Empire as $210,000 million and the whole world milhon This means that the United States, with cent of the world’s population and only 5-3 per cent

entire British at $1,100,000 only 6-3 per of the world’s

_ The mampulation of primitive capital and the financing of na-

tive enterprise on a large scale proceeds along these lines When for example a Maori community desired to build a new house or canoe the chief generally took the lead From his stores ofwealth

stagesh of work‘ craftsmen At the ired gifts for: speciahst heh provided f lab l he assem where a large quantity of labour power was required bled the people and by providing them with meals, a feast or gifts of food, furnished the necessary incentive to them to undertake the task The economic activities of a primitive people are marked by this constant circulation of wealth See B, Malnowsk:, “Primitive Economics of Trobriand Islanders,” Economic Journal (1921), Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922), R Thurnwald, “Die Gestaltung der Wirtschaftsentwicklung,” Erinnerungsgabe fur Max Weber I (1923); art. “Reichtum” in M Ebert’s Reallexzkon der Vorgeschichte; R Firth, “Some Features of Primitive Industry,” Economic Journal (1926). (R F)

land area, has approximately 35 per cent. of the world’s wealth The Umted States has 78 per cent of all the automobiles ın the world, 725 per cent. of the telephones, 585 per cent of the WEALTH AND INCOME, DISTRIBUTION OF. telephone and telegraph lines, 38 3 per cent of the monetary gold, Modern enquiries into the distribution of capital wealth are 34 per cent. of the railroad mileage, 23 6 per cent of the hogs, 21 7 mainly confined to the total wealth of individuals in classes per cent of the ships, and 21 5 per cent, of the cotton spindles according to the amount of total fortune in each grade, whereas The recent stabilsation of currencies in most of the civilized enquiries to the distribution of mcome, while predominantly countries of the world, will enable, as soon as their immediate similar in the attention given to relative amounts, also extends to effects have been worked into the economic conditions, more sys- two other fields There 1s a consideration of the distribution actematıc calculations of comparative national wealth to be made. cording to trades and occupations (e g, the shares which agriculA defect of all post war estimates up to the present 1s the absence ture, mining, etc , represent of the aggregate) and the third type of information as to how the most important question of internal divides income according to 1ts economic character—interest on debt has been handled, +e, whether, 1f it is treated as wealth in capital, economic rent, the reward of work by hand or brain Distribution of Capital Wealth Amongst Individuals.— the hands of bond holders, it has been ‘deducted from the other Information on the question is almost entirely derived from the gross values of national property or not : government statistics of taxation of estates falling under hability Bretiocrapay —Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, various dates, on the “Multiplier”? See Leo Chiozza Money, The Nation’s at death It is necessary to ascertain by the tables of mortality Wealth (1914) ; Sir Josiah Stamp, British Income and Property (1916), the number of people hving at any tıme for each death in each and Current Problems in Finance and Government (J S) grade. The highest fortunes tend to be held by the oldest people WEALTH, PRIMITIVE. In primitive society the social and, therefore, the “multiplier” ın these grades 1s quite small character of wealth ıs more apparent, the freedom of mdıyiduals compared with that in the lower grades of fortune where the to dispose of it is limited by the interests of the community as & average age of those coming under hability to estate duty is lower whole The motives which lead to its accumulation are not purely The large fortune with a small multipher and the small fortune economic, for ambition and rivalry play an important part Trans- with a larger multiplier, tend to give some equality to the total fer of it from one person to another 1s ruled by etiquette, often fortunes at each grade in ages. The result of the whole computaonerous, its observance backed by force of custom. Primitive tion is generally known as the “multiplier,” and this is applicable wealth is embodied in objects of interest, these varying ın type to the total sum falling under charge in a year in order to ascertain in different cultures. Among many African tribes cattle are the the aggregate fortune of all inhabitants hving This total 1s subgreatest treasure; the Indians of north-west America chiefly stantially less than the aggregate wealth of the country, because of the large sums held collectively by companies (in reserves), by prize furs, canoes and copper plaques In some societies human clubs, trusts, societies and other corporations, which are either not beings possess an acknowledged economic worth, women and reflected at all or else only imperfectly reflected in statements of unof slaves bemg transferable wealth. The close dependence civilized people upon nature renders food a universal object of individual wealth. In the separate grades, each with its separate

452

cording to age-group and according to range of wealth as shown: Great Britain: Estimated Classification of Capital by Reference to Value of Estate and Age of Owner (Estates exceeding £5,000 only)

Total

85 and

i

|i

20~24|25-34|35-44145-54|55-64!65-74|75-834|

for the total wealth

of all classes

(Wealth

and Taxable

Capacity) Distribution of British Fortunes Mathon £

4,555

Persons

Fortune in £

169,040

to

o»

138,460

29

?

48,810

22

59,000

3

100,000

held by

LO

3

2,202 1,731

7

1,432

9009

20,579

1,615

under 10,000 5,000

”

99

11,200

I,020

”

09

2,971

405

33

653

3

195 681

» n 700?

230 322

.

25,000

3

250,000

33

500,000

33 OVET

100,000 1,000,000

750,000

“Thus we get two-thirds of the wealth held by just under 400,000 people, and the top one-third by 36,000 people I think

Age-groups

Estate

Sir Josiah Stamp gave the following figures based thereon,

15,053 million £ of which 10,500 millon £ is held by 392,256 persons

£ milhons Range of

INCOME

AND

WEALTH

“multiplier” to get the total fortune in that particular grade, the system of inter vivos giving the distribution of capital by its owners during their lifetume, which mcreases with each increase in the death duties. affects the results and has to be allowed for by (See the Colwyn Committee on Taxation special adjustments and the National Debt (App. xxiii) British Capital Estimate—By this method the aggregate value of estates in Great Britain exceeding £5,000 1m the hands of living individuals is estimated to be £11,000,000,000 This aggregate is estimated to be distributed among the living owners ac-

it is difficult to derive much reladle information as to whether

över

the tendency is for individual fortunes to become increasingly great, that is for the proportion of wealth held by a fixed per-

£

centage of the whole population to become greater

5,000 to 10,000

430|

21 | rro | 237|

10,000 to

25,000 25,000 to

50,000 50,000 to

17

22 | 95 | 440]

614]

6590]

414]

174 | 32

2,481

396|

46r|

363}

132

26

1,762

48 | 256|

349]

377|

285| 117 | 25 | 12457

100,000 to

355}

384]

302}

26

2|

237}

209|

165}

59

9

779

5

I|

ros|

162|

154|

113]

38]

I5

563)

8|

236|

341|

117]

57ļ|

21

780

500,000 to

I,000,000 Exceeding 1,000,000

180 | 363

difficult to establish a statistical proof of a kind sufficiently rigid

' for so important an assertion ” Tt ıs musleadıng to say that “two-thirds of the wealth is held by less than x per cent of the population” for, as Carr Saunders and Caradog Jones say, “It takes no account of the fact that the ultrmate units in society regarded in relation to wealth are families rather than persons The equal distribution of property implies

an caua! helding song he-¢s of households rather than an equal

i

[1,623 [2,799 |3034 |2001 | 827 | 173 | £1,000

These figures relate mainly to the position of affairs in 1923-24 It will be seen that, for all fortunes over £5,000 disregarding ages, the percentage distribution is as follows: a 5,000-

b

c

10,000

I47

14 9

II ó

10,00025,000 25,00050,000 50,000- 100,000 I00,000- 250,000 250,000- 500,000 500,000-1 ,000,000 1,000,000 and over

226

23°8

210

160 I3 2 140 TI 5'4 71

14°2 130 17:0 77 A&I g3

16:4 13 6 I5'4 97 57 ős

TO00'0

IOO O

I00 0

Col (a) gives the equvalent of the Inland Revenue table Col. (b) gives the results of computations by Sir Josiah Stamp for 192: for England and Wales only (Current Problems, p 260) Col (c) is derived from information furnished to the Select Commuttee on Increase of Wealth (War) by the Board of Inland Revenue in 1920 (App to Report p 236) as an estimate for wealth mmediately after the war, say, at June 1919 This deals with a corpus of post-war Wealth of 13,046 mullion £ distributed as follows:

Not exceeding 5,000 From §,00010,000 . I0,000-

25,000

25,000-

50,000

§0,000T00,000—

100,000 250,000

250,000- 500,000 §00,000- 750,000. 750,000-1,000,000 Over 1,000,000 i

Percentage of total

di-triquaon avvorg il virg persons, including babies m their

cradles

It gives a more just umpression to take the percentage

of occupied persons over 20 We then estimate that about 2} per cent of occupied persons over 20 hold about two-thirds of the wealth, and that about 24 in 1,000 of occupied persons over 20 hold one-third of the wealth ” Distribution of Income in Great Britain.—Dr. Bowley estimated for the United Kingdom that in 1910 all income receivers could be divided into two classes, 1-1 per cent who took 30 per cent of the whole national income and 98 9 per cent who shared the rest between them ‘The national income here apparently means that part of it accruing to individuals Another division of the same total showed that 44 per cent went to only 5% per cent of all mcome receivers Dr Bowley’s conclusions for the pre-war period were. “The broad results of this vestigation are to show that the national dividend mcreased more rapidly than the population in the generation before the war, so that average incomes were quite one-third greater in 1913 than m 1880 The increase was gamed principally before 1900, since when it barely kept pace with the dimunishing value of money The increase was shared with remarkable equality

among the various economic classes Property obtained a dimimshing share of the home product, but an unchanged share of the whole income when income from abroad is included “The only marked alteration that has been found is the increase of the mtermediate class that contains persons with small salaries, profits or earnings in other forms than wages These include clerks and others in retail and wholesale distributive trade, and the younger or less successful persons in teachmg and other profess1ons. “Manual labourers have been a diminishing proportion of the

3,948 1,054

305 80

.

1,909

14 6

.

1,241 1,400

9°5 10 8

has turned to direction, distribution and exchange, and relatively

6-8 27 13 45

ably be presumed, by the increasing services of capital to produc-

s

.

: £ millions

The statistics

affected by legal changes. The rates of mortality for the different age groups change slowly and affect the “multiplier” so that it 1s

154 | 28 | 1,538

315| 721

250,000

250,000 to

Total

96]

242]

6o | 83 | 240|

100,000

500,000

418|

have to be looked at over a considerable period, and they are

1,611

-

1,500 884 351 169 590 13,046

Il 5

r9e0 0

British population

less to production

More of the whole effort of the population

This has been rendered possible, ıt may reason-

tion, and probably also by the increased intelligence of labour s British Incomes in 1801 and 1920.—Sir Josiah Stamp made

a comparison over 120 years (1801 and 1920), the main conclusions of which were as follows:

WEALTH

AND

Of the total number of people with incomes over £200 per annum 1m 1801, the £200 to £500 class were 61 5 per cent, in 1920 vt 3 per cent, the £500 to £1,000 class were 21 3 per cent, ın 1920

1e.8 per cent, the £1,000 to £2,000 class 103 per cent, in 1920

78 per cent, the £2,000 to £5,000 class were 5-3 per cent, ın 1920 37 per cent, the over £5,000 class were then 1 4 per cent, in 1920 13 per cent In this sense there were in 1920 relatzvely fewer rich people; for each class, save the lowest, was in 1920 a

But this result 1s entirely due to

smaller percentage than before

INCOME

453

A British Official Estimate of Income Distribution.—The Board of Inland Revenue gave the Royal Commission on Income Tax (1920) a complete distribution table of the whole assessed income for 1919 amounting to 2,073 millions (subject to a considerable margin of error) as follows (revised in their 64th Annual Report, p 112) — Class of income

the 1920 preponderance of the £200 to £500 class Perhaps ıt was by 1920 easier to bring in these people to assessment than it used to be in 1801, and the numbers then may have been exceptionally

Actual

Number of

mcomes

income

Not exceeding

Exceeding £ a

£ 160

£ 488,887,960

defective. Let us assume that condition, and deal with only the

ee

2a

s

6th, nro ssatt||

300

The _fsoo to nooo class were

we get a remarkably close parallel.

» £1,000 ; £2,000 £5,000 ”

”

over

£5,

13 9%,

0o00

3 8%,

”

»

1920

4 5%

This indicates that the people with over £500 a year were in

126,206,191

700

47,904,000

74,850

800

goo

40,022,000

47,540

goo

1,000

36,583,000

38,920

1,500

118,088,285

98,430

75:554:431

44,440

i aoe

fH =

1,000

2,000

5,000

= pte

10,000 15,000

15,000 20,000

58,650,000 35,005,000

4,850 2,043

23,471,000

68

2

270

25,000 39,000

apts 17,000,000

992 5°

17,333,000 21,467,000 11,782,000 33,690,000

a 358 137 165

Total of incomes £2,000 and over

540,701,849

89,620

amongst individuals Other income not so distributed

2,287,179 ,823 260,000,000

7,800,000 :

2,547,179,823

7,800,000

30,000

40,000

4 2 7 7

22°3 ar 8 21-8 34'I

40,000 50,000 75,000 I00,000

50,000 75,000 100,000

The total nominal income increased much more than the total || Total of income distributed

not quite five times, but the people with incomes over £200 had increased on these tables 25 times, and their mcome 24 times; even 1f we suppose the old tables were only half the truth, there was ın 1920 an increase in numbers and income of 124 times, or

24 times the rate of the increase m population If we take those

Grand total of mcomes

an increase at twice the rate of increase of the population Before and After the World War—For a pre-war and post-

war comparison, Bowley and Stamp computed that the proportion

of the national income going to super-tax payers in 1911 has

been estimated at 8 per cent The super-tax mut was then £5,000 If allowance is made for the change m the value of money the

comparable figure in 1924 was £9,500 The proportion of persons

with incomes above this amount in 1924 was 54 per cent It would appear, therefore, that, measured by percentage, and allowing for the legal avoidance of super-tax, some ground has been lost by this section in the period of 13 years The following table is gıven to show the percentage of total income and individuals classified according to the source of income. Percentage of total|Percentage of total

ing {130 a year

Income class

a

Total

,

rs’

Actual

Percentage

distribution

distribution

Number [Amount $| Number | Amount ooo j milion

$

Under zero o500-

zee

2,0003,000—

5,000-

.

500

.

oe

«3,000; 5,000

10,000

10,000- 25,000 eee oe 120,000- 200,000 200,000- 500,000 Žž 500,000—1,000,000

1,000,000 and over

—-125 685

-5324 4-86

ae

15,295

A=

a

3,065 1,383

a 5174

Bie 3°68

12 39 893

9,819 | 33°35

3:937

587

. z : . x

22 rr8

200 1,828

12,531

1,000

2,808 E 672

192 n 5 2 4 2

69.6 SaaS

570 220

316

BEE

I 56

antes een +0132 -0053 *oo10

+0004,

ees

16 94

6°79

4 85 Te = 16 -98 "38 55

a

In the year 1918, for which the best information exists, it is estimated that about 86 per cent of those who had earnings had

1913714 |1922-23 | 1913—14 |1922=23 || incomes of less than $2,000 and 14 per cent more than $2,000

a Mines and manufactures po nbuHas and transport a =

individuals

income

Source

exceed-

United States: Distribution of Income.—The distribution of national income in the United States has been computed for 1918 as follows —

over £500, the numbers are 19 times, and the income 22 times as great, and halving these again, for precaution, we have, roughly,

8 are

See8

By bos

1920

population—the increase surged upwards through all the fixed classes, so that there was m 1920 a smaller population in the yanks of the poorest, with a nominal mcome of say under £80 a year, and many more in the over £5,000 Class, but the slope of distribution had hardly altered Let us examine this in the light of the total numbers and sums assessed ‘The population subjected to the tax law had increased

uae

44,696,000

1,500

1801

This result is consistent with the following theoretical solution:

372,900

o0

ig 25,000

24 23 26 25

2

400

jaa

600

1920

1920 distributed in income classes practically y the same as in 1801 9 the results But if we look at the amounts of income ım the classes, sum in the are rather different, for there was relatively a larger He gave a 1801 m than class in 1920 the “over £5,000” hands of incomes over £500 table for £ soo-{1,000 1,000— 2,000 2,000- 5,000 Over 5,000

So | es | By | ie

26 3%, ” 1920 27-3% I3 o%

:

:

£2,000

G

411,000

110,700,000

300

250

Then

total number having mcomes of over £50,000 per annum

32490,000

A

{ces,

69 82

83

ips

277

69 | 89

I0 I 15°3

81 123

The former class took 60 per cent of the national income and the latter 40 per cent It was estimated that the 5 per cent (of those

78

955

392

73°0

70°6

in the aggregate of 25 per cent, this share having declined from 33 per cent in 1913 to 1916 The National Bureau of Economic Research, working on rather scanty details, estimated that for

|

51

287

121 | xro || having earmngs) who received the largest incomes, had a share

454

WEAPON—WEAPONS

1918 the most prosperous 1 per cent of mcome receivers took 14 per cent of the total, the most prosperous 5 per cent took 26 per cent of the total, the most prosperous 20 per cent about 47 per cent of the total Starting from the top of the income scale, in order to include one per cent of the mcome receivers, they had to go down to people receiving $8,000 a year Similarly to mclude z per cent of the income receivers, they had to go down to $3,250; to include 20 per cent down to $750 approximately. The total national income increased from 65,925 million dollars in 1922 to 89,419 million dollars m 1928 BIBLIOGRAPHY —Sir J Stamp Brizsk Incomes and Property (1916) š Wealth and Taxable Capacity (2nd ed, 1923), Current Problems in Finance and Government (1924) , Carr Saunders and Caradog Jones Survey of the Social Structure of the United Kingdom, Sir Leo Chiozza Money Reches and Poverty (new ed 1913), The Natzon’s Wealth (1914) , Reports of the Royal Commussion on Income Tax, Select Committee on Taxation of War Wealth, Colwyn Committee on Taxation and the National Debt; Stamp and Bowley The National Income 1924 (1927) ; National Bureau of Economic Research Income in the United States S:

WEAPON: see ARMS AND ARMOUR; HALBERD, LANCE, SPEAR,

Sword, GUN, PISTOL, SMALL ARMS and ORDNANCE

WEAPONS,

PRIMITIVE.

Among primitive peoples it is

often impossible to say of any object whether it is a weapon of war or an implement of agriculture or the chase. Thus in Assam the knife or dao fells trees, kills animals, defends its owner against human aggression and takes heads for him A bow and arrow, may be used for war or for hunting only Instruments of war may be roughly classified as those of offence and defence. Stones.—The earliest missiles which man or sub-man ever used were the untrimmed stick or stone, hand-thrown (For Bow AND ARRow, BLow-cuNn, and the weapons of civilized peoples see separate articles). To give greater force and carrying-power to stones, devices such as the sling and the pellet-bow have been constructed Of the slings used by far the most common is the cord sling, which is found sporadically throughout the world It consists of a wide, short strip of material, which forms a pouch for holding the stone, to the ends of which one or more strings are fastened for grasping in the hand The pellet-bow, a more elaborate contrivance found in India, and Farther Indha, is a bow, fitted with two strings; fixed between these, about half-way down, is a smali pouch for holding the stone or clay pellet Throwing-sticks and Clubs.—The stick thrown by hand has also become a specialized weapon. As an object for piercmg it has developed into the dart, javelin, spear and arrow, as an object for stunning or crushing into the throwing-stick and throwing-club As an implement of the chase the throwing-stick was used in ancient Egypt and is still found m Abyssinia, India and among the Hopi of North America, as a weapon of war, however, the flat throwing-stick is practically confined to Austraha, though two specimens have also been found in the island of Santo (New Hebrides, West Pacific). In Australia the fighting boomerang (g v.) ìs rather long and narrow and curved within the plane of the flattened sides. It differs from the better known returning boom-

erang, which is of hghter build and curved out of the plane of the sides, which propeller-like twist gives it its returning powers This latter is used exclusively for fowling or asa game

The Australian

waddy, and the wlas of Fiji are throwing-clubs; the former has typically a flat triangular head, the latter is short with a spherical head and a handle carved to make the grip more sure

Other clubs

are sometimes thrown without being specially designed for the

purpose.

The many-bladed throwing-knives of certain tribes in

the Sudan, of those throughout the Congo basin and north to Lake Chad are metal derivatives of the African wooden throwmg club.

Throwing-spears——As

to piercmg mussiles, such as darts,

javelins and throwing spears, the variety is endless The simplest are composed of a single piece of wood one end of which is pointed

structed of wood or bamboo, performs the function of an extra joint m the arm. The spear lies along the spear thrower, with its butt resting against a projecting peg, or, where the thrower 15 of

bamboo, in the slight socket made by the septum of the node This device 1s typical of Australia, ıt is also used ın parts of New Guinea and in some of the islands of Micronesia, and was formerly used in Central and South America, whether in the chase or war is not clear The Eskimo and tribes of the northwest coast of America also use 1t for discharging harpoons and fish-spears

The beckeét consists of a short length of cord with a knot at one end It is wrapped once round the spear, the knot passing under the free end and being thereby kept m place The free end of the cord 1s then wrapped round the index finger of the throwing

hand The resultant action when the spear is thrown is on the same principle as that of the sling, and the spear is given greater force in its flight than 1f thrown by hand, and 1s made to spin as it fies

For use in warfare the beckett appears to be restricted

to Oceania, but as a toy it is found both in Australia and Europe, A similar contrivance was used by the soldiers of ancient Greece and Rome and also by some North African peoples who may well have borrowed it from them It differs from the beckett in that the cord is attached to the spear and ıs not retained in the hand In East Africa an unusual form of spear-thrower is found A shaft of wood terminating in a swollen head has this part hollowed

out; into ıt ıs fitted the butt of the spear. The man then mampulates the thrower as though it were a part of the spear-shaft, but it does not leave his hand. Bolas.—An unusual missile now used almost exclusively for hunting or as a game is the bolas

Among the Patagonians and the

Gauchos of La Plata, who formerly used it in warfare, it is composed of three (less commonly two) balls of stone connected with each other at a common centre by thongs several feet long One ball is usually smaller than the rest, and this is held while

whirling the bolas. The aim is to entangle the victym in the thongs rather than to kill hm. Among the Ho of Togoland, West

Afnia, a long cord with 2 stone attached at either end is similarly used for hindering an advancing enemy. Elsewhere a few tribes in Central and East Africa use the same instrument as a toy The Eskimo uses a many-thonged bolas for catching birds. Thrusting-spears and Clubs.—These are the most important weapons used in hand-to-hand fightmmg, The former are very similar to the throwing-spears, though usually heavier, and, since micety of balance is not necessary more often made without a separate foreshaft Many of them are heavily barbed as in the beautiful specimens found m Fi: Clubs are of diverse kinds. Primarily they are for bruising or crushing, but some, such as the bird-headed clubs which are used m New Caledonia are well adapted for piercing A distinction can also be made between those which are all of one piece and those having a head of different material from the shaft—usually of stone Among those of the former type the business end 1s usually considerably thicker than the shaft and carved with spikes or rugosities (sometimes in imitation of its prototype the torn-up sapling) which make ıt more effective; but in the W Pacific bat-shaped clubs, called by the early travellers “swards,” are also found, though to-day they seem to be used more often for ceremonial than. for military purposes Clubs made entirely of any material other than wood are not very common, but the nephnte mere and bone patu of the Maons are examples, and also the rhinoceros horn

clubs of the Bechuana.

These former are not only strikmg but

also thrustmg weapons, and are supplied with sharpened edges for the latter purpose Poisons.—The art of poisoning their weapons is known to many tribes. The poison ıs extracted from plants, as the upas

tree in Indonesia, and also sometimes from reptiles and insects and often hardened in the fire More usually there is a separate In many parts of the world, however, weapons are said to be shaft and fore-shaft of which the latter 1s often heavily barbed by poisoned but are not, for deaths due to tetanus which so often means of carving or the attachment of separate pieces of bone or followed wounds from these have frequently been mis-attributed wood Heads of obsidian or other stone, bone and—especially in to poison The belief arose partly from the statements of the

Africa—metal are often added.

To give greater range to the

throwing spear certain tribes use mechanical aids, of two main varieties, the spear-thrower and the beckett The former, con-

natives themselves, partly from the presence (in the West Pacific) of a green gummy substance at the base of the arrow or spearheads The latter is, however, only the vegetable cement fastening

WEAR—WEAVING head to foreshaft, while the former refer to the magical power

455

supposed to be given the weapon by using human instead of animal

tion. Instances are known of weasels being met with in packs, and then occasionally attacking human beings

primitive Armourt.—With the exception of shields, weapons of defence are not common among primitive peoples, though some have armour of a sort In New Guinea, a few tribes wear a bodycovering of basket work, sometimes with a high back to protect the neck and head. In the Gilbert Islands, owing to the dearth

weasel (P. noveboracensis) of the eastern United States, which is chocolate-brown above and turns white in winter. The shorttailed weasel (P czscognanz) 1s about sin shorter than the last and is darker m summer It inhabits Canada and the northern United States and the fur 1s an important source of ermine

edged with sharks’ teeth, as a protection against these, armour of coconut fibre is worn often covering the whole person, including the head. From West Africa and among the Baggara of the north-east occasional suits of chain mail have been recorded,

1920, 94% native white, 4,912 in 1930 Federal census

pone for the head or barbs.

of timber, native weapons of the ordmary kmd are not found, but in their stead, slender spears and many pronged “swords”

Among the American species may be mentioned the long-tailed

WEATHER:

see METEOROLOGY.

WEATHERFORD,

a city of Texas, U.SA.

Pop. 6,203 m It is the

seat of a junior college (Methodist EpiscopalY The city operates under a commission, The town was incorporated in 1878.

WEATHERING, in architecture, the sloping surface on the

probably the result of Arab influence. Plate armour is found in upper side of a coping, projecting moulding or band course, north-east Asia and on the north-west coast of America, and arranged so as to throw off rain water, known as wash ‘The among the Haida cuirasses of wooden or bone slats are used, whose expression ‘‘to the weather” is used to describe the length of a form is reminiscent of this. In Indonesia corselets of hide or basketry and wadded coats covered with feathers give protection, and helmets of cane or skin are also found in this area and in Indo-China, and Assam Shields.—Shields vary greatly in material and form. In Africa

ude and basketry are much used, the former mainly in the east and south among the cattle-rearing people In Indonesia,

Australia and the Pacific region those of wood are more common,

though basketry ones are also found. The Australian shields are small and light, suitable

for parrying blows, and in this are

similar to those of the Dinka and Mundu of the Sudan, elsewhere they are mostly for covering the most vital parts of the body.

The shield is essentially the means of defence for those who use the club and spear and who fight mainly in the open It ıs not convenient for a bow and arrow people, since it mterferes with

the free use of both hands. In New Guinea, however, this difficulty has been overcome Among the Tapiro pygmues of Netherlands New Guinea a small shield 1s hung round the neck in a net bag in such a way as to protect the chest Among the Gulf tribes of Papua a large wooden shield, which has im its upper edge a deep slot for the passage of the left arm, 1s suspended over the shoulder, so that a man can draw his bow while keeping covered the whole of his body which 1s towards the foe. See Hormman Chase.

Museum

Handbook,

Weapons

of War and of the (C . H. W.)

WEAR, river, Durham, England, nsing in the Pennine chain,

slate exposed below the edge of the next lapping course. WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833-1912), American lawyer and political leader, was born at Dayton (O ), on June 12, 1833. He studied law at Cimcinnati (0), and served on the Union side in the Civil War Im March 1865 he was breveted brigadier general of volunteers. He was a representative in Congress in 1879-81 and in 1885~80, being elected by a Greenback-Democratic fusion In 1880 he was the candidate of the Greenback party for president, and received a popular vote of 308,578, and in 1892 he was the candidate of the People’s party, and received 22 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,041,021, He died at Des Moines (Ia), on Feb. 6, r912.

WEAVER-BIRD, the name by which a family (Ploceidae) of birds are usually known, from their often elaborately interwoven nests. They are small sparrow-like birds, but the males are often conspicuously coloured Perhaps the most remarkable

is the African sociable grosbeak (Philetaerus socius), some 100 or 200 pairs build their grass nests together in one tree, forming a gigantic mushroom-shaped mass Each nest is entered from be-

low

‘The subfamily of the widow-birds

(Viduinae) have long

tail-feathers, reaching in Vidua poradisea, a bird the size of a sparrow, a foot in length This decoration is confined to the males. The Plocetdae are closely related to the Fringillidae (see Fincx), and are distributed over Africa, Australia and the warmer parts of Asia.

WEAVING.

The process of weaving consists in interlacing,

at right angles, two or more series of flexible materials, of which the longitudmal are called warp and the transverse weft Weaving, therefore, embraces only one section of the textile industry, for felted, plaited, netted, hosiery and lace fabrics lie outside this ing a great traffic in coal, and having its banks lined with factories. definition. Felting consists in bringing masses of loose fibres, such as wool and hair, under the combined influences of heat, moisture At the mouth is Sunderland (g.v.). WEASEL (Putorius nivals), the smallest European species and friction, when they become firmly interlocked in every direcof the group of mammals of which the polecat and stoat are tion. Plaited fabrics have only one series of threads interlaced, well-known members (see Carnivora) The weasel has an elon- and those at other than right angles. In nets all threads are held gated slender body, head small and fattened, ears short and in their appomted places by knots, which are tied wherever one rounded, neck long and flexible, Lmbs short, five toes on each thread intersects another. Hosiery fabrics, whether made from foot, all with sharp, compressed, curved claws, tail rather short, one or many threads, are held together by intersecting a series of slender, cylindrical, and pointed at the tip, and fur short and loops; while lace fabrics are formed by passing one set of threads close. The upper-parts are reddish brown, the under-parts white between and round small groups of a second set of threads, instead In cold regions the weasel turns white in winter, but less regularly of moving them from side to side. The invention of spinnmg (gv) gave a great impetus to the and at a lower temperature than the stoat, from which it is distinguished by its smaller size and the absence of the black introduction of varied effects; previously the use of multi-coloured and traversing a valley of 60 m. to the North narrow and picturesque valley, the stream flows land, then meanders past the bold peninsula cathedral of Durham. Later the mver becomes

Sea Through a to Bishop Auckwhich bears the navigable, carry-

tail-tip, The length of the head and body of the male 1s about

threads provided ornament for simple structures, but the demand

8n., that of the tail 24in.; the female is smaller. The weasel is for variety extended far beyond the limits of colour, and different materials were employed either separately or conjointly, together and is represented by closely allied animals m North America. It with different schemes of interlacing Eventually the weaver was

distributed throughout Europe and northern and central Asia;

possesses all the active, courageous and bloodthirsty disposition of the rest of the genus.

Mice, rats, water-rats, moles and frogs

constitute its principal food.

It can not only pursue its prey

through holes and crevices and under dense herbage, but follow

it up trees, or into the water, swimming with ease. It constructs a nest of dried leaves and herbage, placed in a hole in the ground

or hollow tree, in which it brings up its litter of four to six young ones The mother will defend her young with the utmost despera-

called upon to furnish articles possessing lustre, softness and deli-

cacy, or those that combine strength and durability with diverse colourings, with a snowy whiteness, or with elaborate ornamentation. To meet the requirements the world has been searched for

raw materials From the animal kingdom, wool, hair, fur, feathers, silk and the pinna fibre have long been procured. From the vegetable kingdom, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, ramie and a host of other less known materials are derived

Amongst minerals there are

WEAVING

456

gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, glass and asbestos. In addition, strips of paper, or skin, in the plain, gilt, silvered and painted conditions are available Finally, artificial fibres are used, especially artificial silk, which has come into very extended use. The processes of bleaching (qv), mercenzing (g.v ), dyemg (q.v). printing (see Textite Printinc) and fimshing (qv) contribute to the resultant product FABRIC

STRUCTURE

AND

DESIGNING’

The following classification will be adopted Group 1, to include all fabrics made from one warp and one weit, provided both sets of threads remain parallel in the finished article and are intersected to give the requisite feel and appearance. Group 2, to include (a) fabrics constructed from two warps and one weit, or two wefts and one warp, as in those that are backed, reversible and figured with extra material, (6) two or more distinct fabrics built simultaneously from two or more warps and wefts, as in two, three and other ply cloths; (c) fabrics built by so intersecting two or more warps and wefts that only one texture results, as ın loommade tapestries and figured repps. Group 3, to include fabrics in which a portion of the weft or warp rises vertically from the ground-work of a finished piece, as ın velveteens, velvets, plushes and piled carpets. Group 4, to embrace all fabrics in which one portion of the warp is twisted partially, or wholly, round another portion, as in gauzes and lappet cloths The structure of a cloth, and its ornamentation by weaving, is worked out by the cloth designer on squared paper Successive vertical lines of squares are taken to represent the warp threads, whilst horizontal lines similarly represent weft threads. A filled-in square then indicates that the warp thread it represents is above the weft, whereas a blank means weft above warp ‘This can be seen clearly in fig. 1. When two or more warps or wefts are used in @ cloth, different colours or kinds of marks are generally used to show the working of the different warps or wefts Thus, in fig. 15 the crosses represent ground warp above ground weft, whereas the filled squares show ground warp above the extra or figuring weft Fabrics in Group 1—These are affected by the nature and closeness of the yarns employed in their construction, by colour, or by the scheme of intersecting the threads. The most important section of this group is Plam cloth, in which the warp and weft threads are approximately equal in thickness and closeness, and pass FIG 1-—PLAIN CLOTH over and under each other alternately, as in fig. r, which shows a design, plan and two sections of plain cloth. Such a fabric would, therefore, appear to admit of but slight ornamentation, yet this is by no means the case, for if thick and thin threads of warp and weft alternate the resultant fabric may be made to assume a corrugated appearance on the face, while beneath it remains flat, as in poplins, repps and cords A plan and a longitudinal section of a repp cloth are shown in fig 2. Colour may also be employed to ornament plain fabrics, and its simplest apphcation produces stripes and checks But colour may convert these fabrics ınto the most artıstıc LU be productions. Tapestries only difer from BS BSS ASS ASSIS simple plain cloth in having each horizontal line of weft made up of numerous short

lengths of parti-coloured thread. Many fine specimens of this art have been re-

FIG

2-~-REPP

CLOTH

covered from ancient Egyptian and Peruvian tombs, and many are still produced in the Gobelms and manufactories of Europe Twills are next in importance to plain cloth on account of their wide range of application and great variety of effects; in elaborately figured goods their use is as extensive as where they provide

the only ornament. Twills invariably form diagonal ribs in fabrics, and these are due to the intervals at which the warp and weft are intersected; thus two or more warp threads are passed over or

[FABRIC STRUCTURE

under one or more than one weft thread in regular succession, Twills are said to be equal when simular quantities of warp and weft are upon the face of a fabric, unequal when one set of threads greatly preponderates over the other set Fig 3 shows the design

for an equal, and fig 4 that for an unequal twill, each of which requires four warp and weft threads to complete the scheme of intersections. If the mbs form angles of 45 degrees, the warp and weft threads per inch are about equal ın number, but for an unequal twill the material most ın evıdence should be closest and finest The angle formed may be greater or less than 45 degrees, as ın figs 5, 6, which are both de- F1G

nved as shown from the same base weave

TWILL

3.—FOUR-THREAD

Twiılls are szmple and fancy, both terms refer to the schemes of intersecting In the former the same number of warp threads are placed successively above or below each weft thread, and the nbs are of uniform width, as m figs 3, 4. In the latter more warp threads may be above one pick than another, the ribs may vary

in width and small ornament may be introduced between the tbs, as infigs 5,6and 7 Twiulls may be broken up into zig-zags, lozenges, squares and other geometrical designs, all of which may be produced by reversings mn the diagonal lines, or by reversing the weave of an unequal twill Fig 8 is a zigzag, namely, a twill reversed in one direction Fig 9g 1s a diamond, or a twill reversed ın two directions, and fig 101s a diaper, which gives a warp face in one place and a weft face in FIG 4—FOUR-THREAD

another

$ TWILL Satms and sateens form another important section of Group 1 Ina satin the bulk of the warp, and m a sateen the bulk of the weft, is on the face of a fabric If perfect im construction both

present a smooth, patternless appearance, which is due im part to the scheme of intersections, in part to using fine materal for the surface threads and placing it close enough together to render the points of mtersection mvisible, the threads of the other set being coarser and fewer in number Satins differ from twills im having each warp thread lifted, or depressed, separately, but not successively From five to upwards of 30 threads of warp and weft are required to complete the various schemes of intersecting If the intervals between the intersections are equal the weave is said to be perfect, as FIG 5 —UPRIGHT TWILL in fig 11, but if the mtervals are irregular it is said to be imperfect, asim fig 12 In Damasks a satin 1s combined with a sateen weave, and since any desired size and shape of either weave may be produced, great facilities are offered for ornamentation. But m combination neither the satin nor the sateen can be perfect in construction, for one requires a preponderance of warp, the other a preponderance of weft; ıt follows that every point of intersection is distinctly visible on both surfaces Brocades are fabrics in which both ects of threads may be floated irregularly upon the surface to produce ornamental effec' -. and they may be taken as typical of all one warp and one weft fabrics that ^re figured by irregularly floated matenil- | f

whether the threads are uniformly or ir- | regularly distributed, and whether weave or several weaves be employed

Group

2.—This

group

includes

ore

all Fi

6—RECLINING

backed and reversible fabrics, as well as TWILL

those ornamented with extra material and compounded Cloths intended for men’s wear are often backed, the object of which 1s to give weight and bulk to a thin texture without interfering with

the face effects, Either warp or weft may be used as backing, in

FABRIC STRUCTURE]

457

WEAVING

of weft the former there are two series of warp to one series to one while in the latter there are two series of weft

threads, series of Warp threads. The face material is superposed upon that of the back, but the ratio of face threads may be one or two to one of back In order to avoid disturbing the face weave, only those threads are used to bind the backing that are hidden by the face, as in fig 13, which gives the design and a transverse section of a backed fabric A is face weft, B back weft, and the circles are warp threads, of the latter C, D are be-

Fig 7—-FANCY TWILL neath both B and A. This diagram will serve equally as a longitudinal section of a warp-backed fabric, if A represents a thread of face warp, B a thread of back warp

are stitched together The circles in the upper and lower lines represent face and back warps respectively, and A, B, C are weft threads placed in the upper and lower textures. In the design, filled squares show face warp lifted above face picks, crosses show back warp lifted over back picks, dots indicate face warp hfted over back picks, and the oblique marks show the

BH binding of the two fabrics by back warp TA lifted over a face pick. Loom-made tapes|H tries and figured repps form another sec| tion of Group 2. As compared with true H tapestries, the loom-made articles have more hmuted colour schemes, and their figPe doeery SHE KO ured effects may be obtained from warp as well as weft, whether mterlaced to form 5 SATEEN a plam face or left floating more or less

and the circles are weft threads Weft backing 1s capable of giving loosely a more spongy feel to a fabric than warp, because softer materials may be used, but in these fabrics the length output of the loom is reduced by reason of the wefts beWarp-backed fabrics, ing superposed whether uniformly coloured or striped, do not materially reduce the output of a loom, for every weft thread adds to the cloth length Reversible fabrics may have either two series of differently coloured wefts or FIG 8 —ZIGZAG warps to one of the other series, in which event they may be

Every weft thread, in passing from selvage to selvage, 1s taken to the surface where required, the other portions being bound at the back Some specimens are reversible, others are one-sided, but, however numerous the warps and wefts, only one texture is produced When an extra warp of fine material is used to bind the wefts firmly together a plain or twill weave shows on both sides If a single warp is employed, two or more wefts

Back WEFT) form the figure, and the warp

seldom floats upon the surface Where warps do assist to form figure it rarely happens that more wcxwerr| than three can be used without double series to change places, as in the design and transverse secovercrowding the reed. Fig 17 tion, fig 14, or, by allowing one series to war Teao | gives the design, and a transverse g| remain constantly above the other, as in section of a reversible tapestry backed cloths, both sides may be similar FIG, 13-—WEFT BACKED FABRIC , in four colours, two of which are or dissimilar ın colour and pattem Fabrics warp or weft is on the surface, either If wefts figured with extra material may have two warps and two R a weft L series of warp or weft threads to one series corresponding threads are beneath. The bent hnes represent H| of the other set, and they may yield re- and the circles warp In this design the marks indicate the colours versıble or one-sıded cloths. The figuring showing on the surface of the cloth, and not the lifting of the may be done entirely by the extra ma- warp. Thus, crosses show No. 1 warp on the surface, filled squares terial placed above or below a ground show No 2 warp, dots show No 1 weft and oblique marks No 2 FIG 9 —DIAMOND weft on the face of the fabric. Each vertiused texture, as in fig 15, or ordinary and extra materials may be cal lme of squares represents one thread conjointly for figuring. In fig 15 the waved lines and circles repof each warp and each horizontal line repof thread a E shows which ground resent a section of the plain cloth ey resents one thread of each weft. Figured extra maternal. Compound cloths must repps differ from plam ones in having Para ww eee have at least two textures, both as distinct threads of one, or more than one, thick in character as 1f woven in separate looms. They have many advantages over backed Fie 14,—WEFT REVER- warp floated over thick and thin weft alike; or in having several differently colcloths, thus. the same design and colour- SIDLE PASTIS ing may be produced on both sides; where oured warps from which a fixed number of threads are hfted over bulk and weight are required a fine surface each thick weft thread, the figure is due to colour. Group 3. Piled Fabrics—In all methods of weaving hitherto texture may be formed over a ground of been laid in longituinferior material, and soft weft be passed dealt with the warp and weft threads have between the upper and lower textures; the dinal and transverse parallel lues. In piled fabrics, however, at right angles position a assume warp or weft the of either of portions FIG 10—DIAPER _— fabric 1s more perfect and admuts to the surface of the cloth. If sunple or elaborate patterns being wrought upon the surface, with are two series the there former simple ones beneath, as ın piqués and matelassés One texture of weft threads, one bemg intermay be constantly above the other and connected at the selvages sected with the warp to form a only as in hose pipes and pillow slips; or firm ground texture, the other beat ip‘ervals a thread may pass from one into ing the ground at bound texture into the other, in which event regular intervals, as in the design both are united, as m many styles of bedand transverse section of a covers anc vestmgs. As many as from FIG 15 —~FIGURING WITH EXTRA velveteen, fig 18; the circles and three to twelve textures may be woven WEFT waved lnes form plain cloth, simultaneously and united, as in woven pick After leaving the loom all belungə lt differently coloured, the tex- and the loose thread A'is a pile pushing a knife lengthwise between the plam | tures may change places at pleasure, as in threads A are cut by pick is severed both pieces rise vertiKıddermınster carpets. There may be cloth and the pile As each as at B. Since the pile threads are UE out Fle 1—FIVE-T HREAD {rom onc to three threads of face warp to cally and the fibres open SATEEN one of back, and the wefting may or may from two to six times as numerous as those of the ground, and rise places, a uniform brush-like surface not correspond with the warping Fig. 16 shows the face and back from an immense number of the threads weaves, the design, and a transverse section of a compound cloth is formed. Raised figures are produced by carrying that the with two threads of face warp and weft to one of back, and both A beneath the ground cloth, where no figure is required, so

Face WEFT}

ee

similarly figured on both sides by causing the threads of the

p =-

mi

nea

if

knife shall only cut those portions of the pile weft that remain on the surface The effect upon the face varies with the distribution of the binding points, and the length of pile 1s determined by the distance separatmg one point FACE WEAVE from another When chenille is used ın the construction of fig- near ured weft-pile fabrics, it 1s necessary to employ two weaving opH erations, namely, one to furnish He eee

the chenille, the other to place it ın the final fabric Chenille ıs made from groups of warp threads that are separated from each other by considerable intervals; then, multi-coloured wefts are passed from side to side in ac-

cordance with a predetermined

ae

WEFT THREADS CUTTING Point

a

iPAP MI

FIG. 16 —COMPOUND FABRIC

intersected with the weft, but at intervals of two or three picks the pile threads are hfted over a

drawn, if the wire is furnished

it leaves the loom, (¢) by printimg each pile thread before plac. ing it in a loom, so that a pattern shall be formed simultaneously with a pile surface, as in tapestry carpets; (d) by providing several sets of pile threads, no two of which are similar in colour; then, if five sets are available, one-fifth of all the pile warp must

ee

scheme ‘This fabric 1s next cut midway between the groups of warp into longitudinal strips, and, if reversible fabrics such as table-covers and curtains are required, each strip is twisted axially until the protruding ends of weft radiate from the core of warp, and form a cylinder of pile. In the second weaving this chenille is folded backward and forward im a second warp to lay the colours in their appointed places and pile projects on both sides of the fabric If chenille is intended for carpets, the ends of pile weft are bent in one direction and then 17—TAPESTRY WITH TWO woven into the upper surface of FIG a strong ground texture Warp- WARPS AND TWO WEFTS piled fabrics have at least two series of warp threads to one of weft, and are more varied in structure than weft-piled fabrics, because they may be either plain or figured, and have their surfaces cut, looped or both. Velvets and plushes are woven single and double In the former case both ground and pile warps are

wire, which is subsequently with-

[FABRIC STRUCTURE

WEAVING

458

Loose THREAD

A

B

with a knife at its outer extremity, m withdrawing ıt the pile threads are cut, but if the wire is FIG 18 ~—~VELVETEEN pointed a line of loops remains, as in terry velvet, Fig. 19 1s the design and two longitudinal sections of a Utrecht velvet The circles are weft threads, and the bent line is a pile thread, part of which is shown cut, another part bemg looped over a wire. The circles are repeated to show how the ground warp intersects the weft. In the design the filled squares show the pile warp lifted over the wires. Double plushes consist of two distinct ground textures which are kept far enough apart to ensure the requisite length of pile. As weaving proceeds the pile threads are interlaced with each series of weft threads, and passed from one to the other The uniting pile material is next severed midway between the upper and lower textures, and two equal fabrics result Fig 20 gives FIG 19,—UTRECHT VEL-

three longitudinal sections of a double YET pile fabric The circles A, B are weft threads in the upper and lower fabrics respectively, the lines that interlace with these wefts are pile warp threads which pass vertically from one fabric to the other At C, D the circles are repeated to show how the ground warps intersect the wefts, and at E the arrows indicate the cutting pomt Figured warp-pile fabrics are made with regular and irregular cut and looped surfaces If regular, the effect is due to colour, and this agam may be accomplished in various ways, such as (a) by knotting tufts of coloured threads upon a warp, as in Eastern carpets; (b) by prmtmmg a fabric after

POST,

oS

WEFT THREADS

SURO. ea

WARPS INTERSECT Wert WARPS INTERSECT WEFT

FIG

20—~DOUBLE

PLUSH

be lifted over each wire, but any one of five colours may be selected at any place, as in Brussels and Wilton carpets Fig 21 is a longitudinal section of a Brussels carpet The circles represent two tiers of weft, and the limes of pile threads, when not lifted over a wire to form loops, are laid between the wefts; the ground warp interlaces with the weft to bind the whole together When the surface of a piled fabric 1s 1rregular, also when cut and looped pile are used in combination, design 1s no longer dependent upon colour, FIG 21 ——WEAVING BRUSfor in the former case pile threads are only SELS CARPET ` lifted over wires where required, at other places a flat texture is formed In the latter case the entire surface of a fabric 1s covered with pile, but 1f the figure is cut and the ground looped the pattern will be distinct. Group 4. Crossed Weaving.—This group includes all fabrics,

such as gauzes, in which the warp threads intertwist amongst themselves to give intermediate effects between ordinary weaving and lace Also those, such as Lappets, in which some warp threads are laid transversely in a piece to imitate embroidery Plan gauze embodies the principles that underlie the construction of all crossed woven textiles In these fabrics the twisting of two warp threads together leaves large interstices between both warp and weft. But although light and open in texture, gauze fabrics are the firmest that can be made from a given quantity and quality of material One warp thread from each pair 1s made to cross the other at every pick, to the right and to the left alternately, therefore the same threads are above every pick, but since in crossing from side to side they pass below the remaining

PLAN OF GAUZE

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

FIG. 22 —PLAIN

GAUZE

threads, all are bound securely together, as in fig. 22, which shows a longitudinal section and also a plan of gauze. Leno is a muslin composed of an odd number of picks of a plain weave followed by one pick of gauze. In texture it is heavier than gauze, and the cracks are farther apart transversely. Fancy gauze may be made in many ways, such as (a) by using crossing threads that differ 1n colour or count from the remaming threads, provided they are

subjected to slight tensile strain; (b) by causing some to twist to the might, others to the left simultaneously; (c) by combining gauze with another weave, as plam, twill, satin, brocade or pile:

MACHINERY]

WEAVING

(d) by varying the number of threads that cross, and by causing those threads to entwine several ordmary threads; (e) by passing

two or more weft threads into each crossing, and operating any assortment of crossmg threads at pleasure Lappet weaving consists in diapermg the surface of a plam or gauze fabric with simple figures. This is done by drawing certain warp threads into a transverse position and then lifting them over a thread of weft to

ehe

ee Tne db -Ape

Fo daAbee

459

times the weft threads rather yarn—generally frame bobbins or cops of these yarns side by Tope; sizing the yarn to

ready for the loom Warp thread—or requires re-winding from the spinning on to larger bobbins; warping a number side on to a beam or into an untwisted lay projecting fibres and to strengthen the

| fix them m the texture, after which they

| are moved in the opposite direction and lifted over the following pick, the cloth

being generally woven with the face side

Faemecacece | down The material between one binding point and another must float loosely, and this hmits the usefulness of lappet figuring In fig 23 the thick lines showa lapFIG. 23.—-LAPPET FABRIC pet spot upon a plain texture

) Sze Á

fj

Notwithstanding diverse structure, intricate machines are not essential to the production of either simple or complex textures; the most elaborate and beautiful specimens of the weaver’s art have been manufactured upon simple machinery. WEAVING MACHINERY The longitudinal threads of a fabric are called warp, caine, twist and organzine, and the transverse threads are weft, shoot, woof, filling and tram A loom for weaving these threads into cloth must provide for. (1) Shedding, że., raising and lowermg

FIG

25 —DIAGRAM

OF HAND

LOOM

yarn for weavıng; finally, winding the sızed yarn on to the loom beam and getting it ready for weaving in the loom the warp threads in a predetermined sequence so as to form two The Hand-loom.—Durmg the 17th and the first half of the Dnes between which the weft may be passed. (2) Picking, or 18th century it was observed that wherever any branch of the placing lines of weft between the divided warp. (3) Beating-up, textile industry had been carried to a high state of excellence the or striking each weft thread into its appomted position in the looms used to manufacture a given fabric were similar in essenfabric (4) Letting-off, or holding the warp tense and dehvermg it tials, although in structural details they differed greatly Prior as weaving proceeds (5) Taking-up, or drawing away the cloth to the invention of the fly shuttle by John Kay, in 1733, no faras manufactured. (6) Temples, for stretching the fabric width- reaching invention had for generations been applied to the handwise in order to prevent the edge threads of a warp from injuring loom, and subsequently the Jacquard machine and multiple the reed, and from breaking Fig. 24 illustrates these operations. shuttle boxes represent the chief changes. A hand-loom as used Shedding 1s generally done by controlling the warp threads by in Europe at the present time (see fig 25) has the warp coiled eyed healds, which are hfted or lowered to form the shed. The evenly upon a beam whose gudgeons are laid in open steps formed weft is inserted by the shuttle after the shed has been formed, in the loom framing. Two ropes are coiled round this beam, and and beating-up is done by the reed which is moved forward by weighted to prevent the warp from being given off too freely the slay or batten. Intermittently driven rollers take up the cloth From the beam the threads pass alternately over and under two and a frictional drag, applied to the warp beam by a weighted lease rods, then separately through the eyes of the shedding rope or chain, regulates the let-off and warp tension, Power harness, in pairs between the dents of a reed, and finally they are looms require the above-named contrivances to act automatically; attached to a cloth roller For small patterns healds are used to and, un addition, (7) a weft-fork, to stop the loom when the weft form sheds, but for large ones a Jacquard machine is required Healds may be made of twine, of wire or of twine loops into HEALDS which metal eyes, called mails, are threaded. But they usually REED consist of a number of strings which are secured above and below upon wooden laths called shafts, and each string is knotted near WARP the middle to form a small eye. From two to 24 pairs of shafts WEFT may be employed, but the healds they carry must collectively - LEASE RODS — SLAY OR BATTEN t

t

[A

A FIG

TARE UP ROLLER FIG

24.—DIAGRAM

OF VARIOUS

PARTS

OF A LOOM

26—-WEAVER'S

REED

The warp threads are passed, generally In pairs or threes, through the dents or spaces between the read wires

equal the number of threads in the warp. These healds will be equally or unequally distributed upon the shafts according to the loom when the shuttle fails to reach its appomted box (9) For nature of the pattern to be woven, and the threads will be drawn Weaving cross stripes, multiple shuttle boxes are needed to bring through the eyes ın a predetermined order The upper shafts are suspended from pulleys or levers, and the lower ones are attached different colours, or counts of weft, mto use at the proper time (10) In some looms a device for automatically ejecting a spent directly or indirectly to treadles placed near the floor, The weaver cop, pirn or shuttle, and inserting a full one is requisite. (11) depresses these treadles with his feet in a sequence suited to the If a weaver has to attend to a greater number of looms than pattern and the scheme of drawing the warp through the healds usual, a device for stopping the Ioom when a warp thread fails is When the treadle is pressed down, at least one pair of shafts will essential. In addition to the loom itself, weaving machinery in- be hfted above the others, and the warp threads will ascend or cludes preparatory machines required to get the warp and some- descend with the healds to form a shed for the shuttle to be

becomes exhausted or breaks

(8) Mechanism for stopping the

WEAVING

4.60

[MACHINERY

passed through (see SuTrLe) The reed (fig. 26) is the instru- prevented. His drop boxes consist of trays formed in tiers ang ment by which weft is beaten into position in the cloth; 1t also fitted into the ordimary shuttle boxes Each tray is capable of determines the closeness of the warp threads, and guides a mov- holding a shuttle, and by operating a lever and plug with the ing shuttle from side to side It 1s made by placing strips of forefinger and thumb of the left hand the trays may be raised and flattened wire between two half round ribs of wood, and bmding lowered at pleasure to bring that shuttle containing the colour next the whole together by passing tarred twine between the wires needed into ne with the picker. The Draw Loom.—Large figured effects were formerly proand round the mbs Such a reed is placed in the lower portion of a batten, which is suspended from the upper framework of the duced in draw looms, where the warp threads were so controlled loom. In front of the reed, and immediately below the warp, by separate strings that any assortment could be lifted when the projecting batten forms a race for the shuttle to travel upon required. To the lower end of each string a dead weight, called from side to side Before Kay’s invention a shuttle was thrown a, lngoe, was attached, and a few inches above the lingoe a mai} between the divided warp and caught at the opposite selvage, was fixed for the control of a warp thread The strings passed but Kay continued the proyectmg batten on both sides of the through a comber board which held the mails and warp threads warp space and constructed boxes at each end Over each box facing the proper reed dents. Still higher up, groups of strings he mounted a spindle and upon it a driver, or picker Bands con- | were connected to neck cords; each group consisted of all strings nected both pickers to a stick which the weaver held in his right required to rise and fall together constantly If, for example, in

hand, while with the left hand he controlled the batten

A treadle | the breadth of a fabric there were 12 repeats of a design, 12

1s pressed down by one foot to form a shed; the batten 1s pushed | strings would be tied to the same neck cord, but taken to ther back till a sufficient portion of the shed is brought in front of the respective places in the comber board These parts of a draw loom reed and the depressed threads lie upon the shuttle race; a clear harness are clearly shown in fig 27 which represents a Jacquard way is thus provided for the shuttle A quick movement of the machine and harness Each neck cord, after being led through the stick tightens the cord attached to a picker and projects the perforated bottom board and over a grooved pulley, was threaded shuttle from one box to the other The batten is now drawn through a ring on the top of a vertical cord called the simple, and passed horizontally to, and tied upon, a bar rigidly fixed near the GRIFF

CYLINDER

ceiling of the weaving room attached to a bar placed several thousands of neck harness The design to be parallel lines of the sumple

‘The simple cords were similarly

near the floor From one hundred to and simple cords could be used in one reproduced in cloth was read into the by looping a piece of string round each

cord that governed warp threads to be lifted for a given shed; after which all the loops were bunched together NEEDLE

those undisturbed - Fook

By pulling at a

bunch of loops the simple cords were deflected and they caused all warp threads controlled by them to be lifted above the level of Similar bunches

of loops were

formed for

every shed required for one repeat of a design, and they were pulled in succession by the draw-boy, while the weaver attended

MAIL

~ NEEDLE

LINGOE

FIG 27—JACQUARD MACHINE AND HARNESS This method

of shedding

Is required

mented by woven floral designs

fer the production

of all fabrics orna-

forward, and the reed beats up the weft left by the shuttle As the next treadle is depressed to form another division of the warp for the return movement of the shuttle, the last length of weft is enwrapped between intersecting warp threads, and the remaining movements follow in regular succession In cases where the weft forms parti-coloured stripes across a fabric, also where different counts of weft are used, shuttles, equal in number to the colours, counts or materials, must be provided. By Robert Kay’s invention of multiple shuttle boxes, in 1760, much of the time lost through changing shuttles by hand was

to the batten and picking The Jacquard Machine.—This is the most important invention ever applied to the hand-loom, but it 1s not the work of one man; it represents the efforts of several inventors whose labours extended over three-quarters of a century ‘This apparatus has taken the places of the simple, the loops, the pulleys and the draw-boy of the older shedding motion, but other parts of the harness remain unchanged In 1725 Basile Bouchon substituted ‘| for the bunches of looped string an endless band of perforated paper by which the simples for any shed could be selected In 1728 M Falcon constructed the machine since known as the Jacquard and operated ıt through the medium of perforated cards, but ıt was attached to the simple cords and required a draw-boy to manipulate it In 1745 Jacques de Vaucanson united in one machine Bouchon’s band of paper and the mechanism of Falcon He placed this machine where the pulley box previously stood, and invented mechanism for operating it from one centre In a Jacquard machine the warp threads are raised by rows of upright wires called hooks (fig 27) These are bent at both extremities and are normally supported upon a bottom board which 1s perforated to permit the neck cords from the harness beneath to be attached to the hooks. Each of a series of horzontal needles—one of which is shown enlarged and detached at the foot of the drawing—is provided with a loop anda crank,

the former to permit of a to-and-fro movement, the latter to receive a hook The straight ends of the needles protrude about one-quarter of an inch through a perforated needle board, but the looped ends rest upon bars placed in tiers

A wire passed

through all the loops of the needles which form one vertical line

limits the extent of their lateral movement, and small helical springs impinge upon the loops of the needles with sufficient force

to press them and their hooks forward

A frame called a griff,

is made to rise and fall vertically by a treadle which the weaver actuates with one foot. This frame contains a blade for each line of hooks, and when the blades are in their lowest position the hooks are free and vertical with their heads immediately over

WEAVING

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BY COURTESY

OF

(1, 4, 7, 8) THE

MUSEUM

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AMERICAN

INDIAN,

HEYE

FOUNDATION,

SPECIMENS

(2; 3, 5,

6) THE

OF ANCIENT

1. Fragment of fabrio woven by the Incas. Taken from a grave In Pachaca-

with mao, Peru 2. Portion of the silk wrapping of tomb of Charlemagne fanciful elephant and sacred tree device In a roundel Possibly of Baghdad

the 5th manufacture, 9th century. 3. Syrian or Anatollan silk weaving of Inoa woven fabrio with century depicting Samson slaying the Ilon. 4 Ancon, Peru. 5 Syrian figures of persons. Discovered In an anoient grave in

D RECTOR

OF THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

MUSEUM

WEAVING

mounted hunters or Persian silk weaving of the 5th century, showing of the 5th or 6th engaged in the chase. 6. Syrian and Coptic flax weaving strip of Inca century. Discovered at Akhmin, upper Egypt. 7. Long narrow valley. 8. A wider fabric with typical design found In a grave In the Nasca the Nasca strip of Inca woven fabrio that was also discovered In one of valley graves

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LONDON

EXAMPLES

OF MEDIAEVAL

1 Cologne orphreys woven in silk and gold threads. Faces of the Virgin and Child are embroidered, (1425-1450). 2 Another specimen of Cologne orphrey also woven with gold and silk threads and bearing Latin Inscriptions, late 15th century. 3. Part of a narrow band with chevron spaces filled with delicate scroll ornament. Woven in silk and gold thread, 13th century. 4. Portion of Clavus or narrow band from a Coptlo tunic of the 9th or LOth century. 5. (Left) German late 12th or early 13th century orphrey woven in gold and slik threads with Latin inscription along the edges. (Right) part of broad band or orphrey woven In gold and silk threads and bearing figures of the Cruclfixlon and Annunciation. German

WEAVING

work of the 13th oentury century manufacture

7

6. Italian damask or brocade silk fabric of 15th Example of Venetian silk weaving

Design shows

Ottoman Influence, 16th century §& Byzantine weaving, 11th century. Red silk and gold thread used. 9 Fragment of Byzantine silk of the 12th century 10. Ottoman silk and gold thread weaving of the 16th century, with ogival framed ornament, 11 Plece of north Italian silk weaving, 14th century, pattern planned on original basis with fantastio birds. Cone forms contain sham Arabio Inscriptions. 12. Apparel of a Dalmatioc woven in Venice late In 15th century. The pattern deplots the Virgin in glory

MACHINERY]

WEAVING

the blades, hence an upward movement given to the griff would lift all the hooks and thereby all the warp threads. Only certain hooks, however, must be lifted with the griff, and the selection ıs made by a quadrangular block of wood, called a cylinder, and cards which are placed upon ıt Each face of the cylmder has a

perforation opposite

each needle, so that if the cylmnder be

pressed close to the needle board the needle points will enter the

holes un the cylinder and remain undisturbed But if a card, which is not perforated in every possible place, is mterposed between the cylinder card close up some responding needles is thrust back by

and the needles, the unpunctured parts of the of the holes in the cylmder and prevent corfrom entermg them Each needle so arrested the advancing card, its spiral spring is con-

tracted and its hook is tilted

If at this instant the griff ascends,

its blades will engage the heads of all vertical hooks and lift them, but those that are tilted will remain unlifted So soon as the pressing force of a card is removed from the needles the springs restore both needles and hooks to their normal positions Cards are perforated by special machinery from a painted design, after

which they are laced into a chain and passed over conical pegs upon the cylinder; the number required to weave any pattern equals the number of weft threads in that pattern The cylinder is

generally drawn out and turned by each upward movement of the griff, and restored to the needles by each downward movement, so that each face in succession is presented to the needles, and each rotatory movement

brings forward a fresh card

As the

griffe rises with vertical hooks a shed is formed, and a thread of weft 1s passed across the warp

The griff then descends and the

operation 1s repeated but with a new combination of lifted threads for each card A Jacquard may contam from roo to 1,200 hooks and needles, and two or more machmes may be mounted upon the same loom

The Power-loom.—Little is known of the attempts made before the beginning of the 17th century to control all parts of a loom from one centre, but it 1s certain the practical outcome was iconsiderable. In the year 1661 a loom was set up in Danzig, for which a claim was made that it could weave four or six webs at a time without human aid, and be worked night and day; this was probably a ribbon loom In order to prevent such a machine from mnjuring the poor people the authorities in Poland suppressed it, and privately strangled or drowned the inventor M de Gennes, a French naval officer, in 1678 munvented a machine whose chief features consisted in controlling the healds by cams, the batten by cams and springs and the shuttle by a carrier From 1678 to

461

provided with, namely, a positive let-off motion and warp and weft stop motions, and he planned to size the warp while the loom was in action With this mache he commenced to manufacture fabncs at Doncaster, and by so doing discovered many of its shortcomings, and these he attempted to remnedy. by introducing a crank and eccentrical wheels to actuate the batten differentially; by improving the picking mechanism, by a device for stopping the

loom when a shuttle failed to enter a shuttle box, by preventing a shuttle from rebounding when in a box; and by stretching the cloth with temples that acted automatically. In 1792 Dr Cartwright obtained his last patent for weaving machinery. This provided the loom with multiple shuttle boxes for weaving checks and cross-stripes But all his efforts were unavailing, and it became apparent that no mechanism, however perfect, could succeed so long as warps contmued to be sized while a loom was stationary His plans for sizmg them while a loom was in operation, and also before being placed in a loom, both failed Still, provided continuity of action could be attained, the position of the powerloom was assured, and means for the attamment of this end were supplied in 1803 by Wilham Radcliffe and his assistant, Thomas Johnson, by their inventions of the beam warper and the dressing sizing machine For upwards of 30 years the power-loom was worked under numerous difficulties. The mechanism of the loom itself, the preparatory processes and the organization of the industry were all imperfect Textile workers were unused to automatic machinery, and many who had been accustomed to labour in their own homes refused employment in mulls, owing to dislike of the factory system and the long hours of toil which it entailed Yet umprovements in every branch of the textile industry followed each other in quick succession, and the loom slowly assumed its present shape. By using iron instead of wood in its construction, and centring the batten, or slay, below instead of above the warp line, the power loom became more compact than the hand-loom, In the modern power-loom (figs 28 and 29), motion is communicated to all the working parts from a mam shaft A, upon which two cranks are bent to cause the slay to oscillate, by toothed wheels this shaft drives a second shaft, C, at half its own speed For plam weaving four tappets are fixed upon the second shaft— two, D, for moving the shuttle to and fro, and two others, E, for moving the healds, L, up and down through the medium of treadles M, M For other schemes of weaving shedding tappets

1745 little of umportance appears to have been done for the mechanical weaving of broadcloth, but in the last-named year M. Vaucanson constructed a very ingenious, self-actimg loom, on which the forerunner of the Jacquard machine was mounted; he also adopted de Gennes’ shuttle carrier. Dunng the last quarter of the 18th century it was generally believed that, on the expiry of Arkwright’s patents, so many spinning mulls would be erected as to render it impossible to con-

sume at home the yarns thus produced, and to export them would destroy the weaving industry. Many manufacturers also maintained it to be impossible to devise machinery which would bring the production of cloth up to that of yarn. It was as a protest

against the last-named assertions that Dr. Edmund Cartwright, a

clergyman of the Church of England, turned his attention to mechanical weaving More fortunate than his predecessors, he attacked the problem after much initial work had been done, especially that relating to mechanical spmnimg and the factory sys-

tem, for without these no power-loom could succeed In 1785 Dr Cartwright patented his first power-loom, but it proved to be valueless In the following year, however, he patented another loom which has served as the model for later mventors to work upon. He was conscious that for a mechanically driven loom to become a commercial success either one person would have to attend several machines or each machine must have a greater productive capacity than one manually controlled The thought

and ingenuity bestowed by Dr Cartwright upon the realization of his ideal were remarkable He added parts which no loom, whether worked manually or mechanically, had previously been

FIG.

28.—VERTICAL

SECTION

OF

A POWER

LOOM

are more numerous, and are either loosely mounted upon the second shaft or fixed upon a separate one. In either event they are driven by additional gearing, for the revolutions of the tappets to those of the crank shaft must be as one is to the number of picks im the repeat of the pattern to be woven The warp beam 1s often put under the control of chains instead of ropes, as used 1n‘ hand looms, and the chains are attached to adjustably weighted levers, whereby the effectiveness of the weights may be varied at pleasure In the manufacture of heavy fabrics, however, it may be necessary to deliver the warp by positive gearmg, which is either

WEAVING

4.62

[MACHINERY

connected or otherwise, to the taking-up motion. The cloth is in tappets is generally reached with ra shafts of healds and with drawn forward regularly as it is manufactured by passing it over patterns having 16 picks to a repeat; where they are unsutable the rough surface of a roller, I, and imparting to the roller an in- for heald shedding a dobby is used. A dobby may resemble, in termittent motion each time a pick of weft is beaten home, This construction and action, a small Jacquard; if so the selection of

motion 1s derived from the oscillating slay, and 1s communicated through a train of wheels The loom is stopped when the weft fails by a fork-and-grid stop motion, which depends for its action

healds that rise and fall for any pick 1s made by cards In other types of dobbies the selection is frequently made by lags, into which pegs are inserted to pattern in the same manner that cards

on the lightly balanced prongs of a fork, N, These prongs come in

contact with the weft, between the selvage of the web and the shuttle box each time the shuttle is shot to the side at which the

apparatus is fixed. If the prongs meet no thread they are not depressed, and being unmoved a connection is formed with a vibrating lever by which the loom is stopped On the other hand, if the prongs are tilted, the loom continues in action. If more

than one shuttle is used 1t may be necessary to feel for each, instead of alternate threads of weft. In such cases a fork is placed

beneath the centre of the cloth and lifted above a moving shuttle; if in falling 1t meets with weft it is arrested and the loom continues in motion, but if the weft is absent the prongs fall far enough beneath the shuttle race for a stop to act upon a lever and bring the loom to a stand To prevent a complete wreck of the warp it ıs essential to arrest the loom when a shuttle fails to reach its appointed box. For this purpose there are two devices, which are known respectively as fast. and loose reed stop motions The first was invented in 1796 by Robert Miller, and its action depends upon the shuttle, as ıt enters a boz, raising two blades, K, which if left down would strike against stops and so disengage the driving gear. The second was invented in 1834 by W H Hornby and William Kenworthy, it is an appliance for berating the lower part of a reed when a shuttle remains in the warp, thus relieving it, for the time being, of its function of beating up the weft On the release of a reed from the motion of the slay a dagger stops the loom. Temples must keep a fabric distended to the breadth of

PICKER

¢; eo e

‘2 eee le“

FIG, 30.—PORBY ŞHẸDDING MOTION, WIDELY USED FOR LIGHT CLOTHS REQUIRING SMALL PATTERNS, AS STRIPED SHIRTINGS AND DRESS FABRICS

are perforated. A dobby of this type is illustrated im fig 30, which shows detached the pegging of the pattern lags for a small design, filled ın circles representing pegs The pattern lags, L, act on

levers which lower hooks into contact with the oscillating griff bars B, and these lift the required heald shafts The figure shows a double acting dobby, one lag, with two rows of pegs, serving for two picks, Some dobbies are made single acting and some have rollers instead of pegs to form a pattern When multiple shuttles are required for power looms one of two types 1s selected, namely, drap or rotating boxes; the former are applicable to either hght or heavy looms, but the latter are chiefly confined to light looms

As previously stated, Robert Kay invented drop boxes in 1760, but they were not, successfully applied to the power-loom until 1845, when Squire Diggle patented a simple device for operatmg them

automatically. Since his tıme many other methods have been m-

troduced, the most successful of these being operated indirectly from the shedding motion Revolving boxes were patented ın 1843 SHUTTLE

BOX

SLAY -

FIG

The Ulustration

29 —PICKING

PARTS

OF POWER

LOOM

shows thea cone overpick mation, the tyne generally used on

the cotton looms of Lancashire and the Jute looms of Dundee

the warp in the reed, and be self-adjusting This 1s usually accomplished by small rollers whose surfaces are covered with fine, closely set points The rollers are placed near the selvages of a web which 1s prevented from contractmg widthwise by bemg drawn tightly over the points. Looms are varied in details to suit different kinds of work, but as a rule fabrics figured with small patterns are provided with healds for shedding as at 1, while those with large patterns are provided with the Jacquard and its harness Healds may be operated either by tappets or debbies, but the range of usefulness

by Luke Smuth, Many devices have heen added ta power looms with a view to reduce stoppages, among which those for the automatic supply of weft are probably the most important These efforts originated

with Charles Parker, who in 1840 obtained the first patent, but no marked success was achieved until 1894, when J H. Northrop patented a cop changer By his plan a cylindrical magazine, placed over one shuttle box, is charged with cops or pirns. When fresh weft becomes necessary the lowest cop in the hopper is pressed into a shuttle from above, the spent one 1s pressed out from ber neath and the new weft is led into the shuttle eye, while the loom is moving at its normal speed The mechanism is controlled by the weft fork, or by a feeler which acts when only a predetermmed

quantity of weft remains designed to eject an empty change a cop, but differ Northrop By relieving a

inside a shuttle, Many inventions are shuttle and introduce a full one; others in construction and action from the

weaver of the labour of withdrawing, filling, threading and imserting shuttles it was seen that a large increase might be made in the number of looms allotted to one weaver, provided suitable mechanism could be devised for stopping a loom on the failure of a warp thread and for automatically

maintaining a constant tension on the warp

With these devices

as many as tao looms have heen supervised by one weaver. Warp stop mations date from 1786, when Dr. Cartwright sus-

pended an independent detector from each warp thread until a fracture occurred, at which time a detector fell into the path of

a vibrator and the loam was stopped. The demand for warp stop

motions was, however, small until automatic weft supply mechanisms were introduced, and the majority of those devices now ın use are constructed upott similar Imes to the invention of Dr. Cartwright.

Smaliware Looms.—A operated manually, but to pec was brought into use wegh.

t

am

BY COURTESY OF (1, 2) RANSOMES AND RAPIER, LTD , (3, 4, 5) GLENFIELD AND KENNEDY, LTD , (6, 7) CHIEF ENGINEER,

1 Stoney Gates at Neuquen Barrage, Argentina, 65’ 7” span and 13’ 1” deep The counterbalance welghts are housed in the bridge piers. 2. Stonebyres Weir, River Clyde, Scotland, 38 ft span and & ft. effective depth. The crestgates are automatic. 3 Thirty-six Stoney roller gates, at Vaal River Barrage, South Africa 4 Hinged steel shutters forming movable crest weir at Mockes Dam, Modder River, South Africa. On release of the first shutter operated by hand, the remaining shutters fall automatically.

NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANALS

View shows shutters falling in succession 5 Stoney roller gate 70 ft. long and 7 ft. deep on River Irvine, Scotland. One man oan raise the gate 13 ft in 2 minutes. 6. Bridge-suspended welr at Rotterdam, New York This is one of elght similar weirs on the Mohawk River The bridge also carries a roadway 7 Taintor gates at Lyons, NY Gate on left is in

process of construction.

Both

gates are seen

in ralsed

position

WEIR

489

They, however, block up the river channel to the extent of ther height, and consequently raise the flood-level above them. This defect of solid weirs, when the riparian lands are liable to be

the Seine, employed shutters turning on a horizontal axis a little above their centre of pressure. The axis rests on an iron trestle at the back of each shutter, which is hinged to the apron of the

injured by mundations, can be slightly mitigated by keepmg down

weir and 1s supported when raised by an iron prop resting against a shoe fastened on the apron The weir 1s opened by releasing the props from their shoes, either by a sideways pull of a tripping bar with projecting teeth laid on the apron and worked from the bank, or by pulling the props clear of their shoes by chains. The weir 1s raised agam by pulling up the shutters to a horizoutal position by their bottom chains from a special boat or from a foot-bridge on movable frames, together with their trestles and the props which are replaced in their shoes. The discharge at the weir whilst 1t is raised 1s usually effected by partially tipping some of the shutters by chains from a foot-bridge Occasionally the balance 1s so arranged that the shutters tip automatically when the water level in the upper pool reaches a certain height. The addition of a foot-bridge facilitates the raising and lowering of these weirs and the regulation of the discharge, but it makes the weir more costly than the ordmary needle weir. Moreover, where large quantities of drift come down with sudden floods, the frames of the bridge are liable to be carried away and therefore boats must be relied on for working the weir as on the upper reaches of the Ohio nver. In the United States the type 1s known

the crest of the weir a little below the required level, and then raising the water level at the low stage of the river by placing

planks, called flash-boards, a few feet high along the top of the weir The capacity of a solid weir 1s mcreased by building it obliquely across the river, eg, some of the Severn weirs; or curved in plan, with the convex face up-stream 2. MOVABLE

WEIRS

Movable weirs are barriers capable of bemg lowered so as to present no obstruction to the flow of water m flood time They are constructed either upon a foundation or sill having its surface

approximately level with that of the mver bed or on the crest of a solid weir structure raised above the mnver bed. Needle Weirs.—A simple form of needle weir was employed in France about the end of the 18th century Small wooden spars called asguslles (needles), which bore on the bottom against a masonry sill and at the top agaimst wooden beams supported on

masonry piers, formed the barrier

This type, however, only pro-

vided a series of small openings between the piers. Poirée, a French engineer, devised in 1834 the movable frame weir which

bears his name and can be lowered so as to leave the whole width of the river free from obstruction In its ordinary form the Porée needle weir consists of a series of iron frames placed across a river, end on to the current, 3 to 4 ft apart, hinged to amasonry apron on the bed of the river and carrying a foot-way across the top, from which the actual barrier, resting agamst the frames and cross bars at the top and a sill at the bottom, is put mto place or removed for closing or opemng the weir. A winch 1s used to handle the frames. A needle weir built in 1891-97 across the Big Sandy river at Louisa, Ky , was the first constructed in the United States and is ngher than any in Europe. Boulé Gates.—A modzrfication of the Poirée needle weir is the Boulé gate introduced in 1874 in which panels of boards or sheet-iron set in tiers ome above another are used instead of needles to form the barrier between the frames ‘The panels are set and removed by a small derrick crane travelling on top of the footbridge The system has the advantage of forming a tighter dam which can be more easily although less rapidly manoeuvred than needles Boulé gates have been used to a considerable extent m France and on the Moskowa and other rivers in Russia Curtain Weirs.—The curtain weir, invented by Caméré, was first introduced in 1876-80 at Port Villez on the lower Seine In it wooden curtains that can be rolled up from the bottom were substituted for the needles in the Poirée weir The curtains are raised and removed, and the frames lowered by winches travelling over the service bridge. The manoeuvring of the frames and curtams is a troublesome operation and all the curtam weirs subsequently constructed have been designed for suspension from

a fixed over-head bridge (wde infra) Shutter Weirs.—The earliest practical application of falling shutters to overfall weirs was made on the river Orb in France in the latter part of the 18th century. A gate or shutter turning on a horizontal axis at the bottom was supported by a prop when raised agaist the stream and fell flat on the apron when the prop was drawn aside The difficulty experienced ın raising such a shutter agamst a head of water was overcome by Thénard about 1837 who placed a second row of shutters (counter-shutters) on the up-stream side of the weir which, rising with the stream, were retained ın an upright position by chains and stopped the flow of water

while the lower

shutters were beimg raised and

propped Shutters of modified and improved forms, some of them automatic in action, are in use at many irrigation weirs in India and other countries A modern form of shutter falling automatically 1s illustrated ın Plate, fig 4 Chanoine Weirs.—The inconveniences attending the use of counter-shutters of the Thénard type were overcome by Chanoine,

another French engineer, who, ın 1857, at thè Conflans weir on

as the Chanoine wicket The Chanoine shutter ıs adapted for use both on overfalls and in navigable passes Bear-trap Weirs.—The earliest example of that form of the shutter weir known as the bear-trap, one of the most commonly used types in North America, was constructed im 1818 on the Lehigh nver (Pa). It consists of two timber—or, in recent types, steel—gates, each hinged on a honzontal axis, inclined towards one another and abutting together at an angle in the centre when the weir 1s raised. The up-stream leaf or gate serves as the weir and the down-stream one forms its support. Both

gates fall flat on the sill floor when the weir is opened. The weir is raised by admitting water beneath the gates through culverts in connection with the upper pool and controlled by valves, and is lowered by letting the water under the gates escape into the lower pool. In its original form the bear-trap was open to several important objections such as the twisting or warping of a wide gate in raising or lowering, the friction between the leaves, and lodgement of driftwood or stones under them. Since about 1896 many improvements in the design of bear-traps have been made and there are numerous examples on North American rivers with leaves over 120 ft, wide, and with lifts up to about 17 ft. Drum-weits and Sector Gates.——The drum-weirs invented by Desfontames and erected on the river Marne between 1857—67 comprise a series of upper and under wrought-iron paddles or blades which can make a quarter of a revolution round a central axis Jaid along the sill of the weir. By means of valves the pressure of the water due to the head of the upper pool can be applied to either side of the lower and larger paddle, which is contamed in a masonry chamber, or drum, below the weir apron, and thus the upper paddle can be raised against a head of water or lowered as required ‘The disadvantage of the arrangement is the high cost of constructing the deep chambers below the weir sill, and

its use is generally restricted to over-fall weirs Several examples of the type in modified forms and on a large scale have, however, been erected in Germany, one at Charlottenberg having an upper paddle 33 ft, long and 94 ft. high.

A form of drum-weir invented by an American engineer, H M Chittenden, has been used in the United States An early example

was erected about 1895 in a weir on the Osage river near its confluence with the Missouri where a hollow, wooden sector of a cylinder having a radius of g ft. rotates on a horizontal axis and is housed when lowered yn a drum chamber below the weir

sill The weir is raised by admitting water from the upper pool into a wedge-shaped space left below the sector when it is lowered

Provision is also made for rendering the sector buoyant by forcing air into ıt so that ıt can be raised when the head of water in the upper pool is insufficient to lift it. The sector-gate applied to weirs may be said to be a development of the Chittenden drum-weir Two large gates, each roo ft.

490

WEIR

long and about 16 ft. ngh, have been constructed across the Genesee river near Rochester, NY. The gates are, when lowered, housed in concrete chambers formed between the abutments below the level of the fixed-weir crest. The steel sector-frame which forms the gate is hinged on its axial line, and the plating fixed to the cylindrical face forms the water barrier when the sector is raised The gate is operated by admittmg water from

against their supports; but with large draw-dodrs and a consider.

able head, the friction of the surfaces in contact offers a serous impediment in raising them To overcome this difficulty F G, yy. Stoney about 1875 mtroduced roller sluice gates Stoney Gates—In the Stoney sluice gate two frames, con.

taming a number of free, or live, rollers, are interposed between

the fixed framework and the moving face of the gate, so that, in. stead of a sliding friction, which m very large sluices might amount to over 300 tons, a rolling frictioti only has to be over.

CONCRETE Prek

come, which is insignificant in amount

The working is facihtated

by counterpoising the gates and roller trains

By these arrange-

ments the friction 1s so reduced that gates subjected to a water pressure of over 400 tons can be easily moved by hand-operated gearing Watet-tight jomts aré obtamed by means of suspended iron rods or tubes or by rubber strips which are jammed by the water-pressuré against the small apertures between the gates and

the fixed framework (fig 2 and Plate, fig 5)

Stoney gates have been used for openings up to 80 ft in width and for cer+h= exceecting 35 ft The first example constructed

1n the Lanet Krigton was at Belleek in 1883 in connection with the Lough Erhé drainage works

A well-known example is the

weir actoss the Thames at Richmond with three spans of 66 ft

each closed by doors tz ft high (1892-94) In order that the doors when raised may not impede the view of the river under the arches, the doors are rotated automatically at the top by

BY COURTESY OF RANSOMES & RAPIERS FIG 1—-MODERN DRUM-WEIR 53 FT. SPAN

MANGAHOO,

NEW

ZEALAND,

WITH

GATES 1

the higher pool under the sector by means of culverts and valves. Somewhat similar gates arè in use on the river Drac ın France; on the Weser at Bremen; on the Chicago drainage canal, in Norway, where one gate 1s 163 ft. long; and in Perak Automatic Crest Gatés or Weirs.—-Several forms of gates or shutters which operate automatically have been devised, particularly in recent years, for use on the crests of solid weirs to give increased height The common feature of these devices is the automatic lowermg of the gate as soon as the water rises to a certain level. Wher the water falls below this level, the gate rises again to its normal position as 4 barrier The Stickney crest gate consists of two leaves joined together at about right angles and hinged to a masonry base on a horizontal axis. Under the lower leaf is a quadrant-shaped chamber formed in the concrete or masonry of the weir which is in communication by means of water openmgs with the up-stream pool The areas

of the leaves are so proportioned that the pressure against the under side of the lower leaf preponderates until the water rises above its normal level when the gate falls These gates have been

made in sections of over 100 ft. in length and for heights of about 8 ft. For long weirs several crest gates, separated by piers, may be used Several are in use on the New Vork State barge canal system.

Another form of automatic gate consists of single leaves hinged horizontally at the crest level of the solid weit and balanced by counter-weights carried by pivoted levers or by chains and pulleys on piers raised above the weir at intervals of about so ft, the spans between the piers bemg occupied by the hinged gates Various ingenious devices at the fulcrum of the lever or in con-

nection with the pulley wheels are employed to vary automatically the balance as the gate rises and falls (Plate, fig. 4), 3. DRAW-DOOR

WEIRS

The water discharge at a weir can be regulated and considerab creased in flood time by introducing a series of openings ly in a solid weir, with sluice gates or panels which slide in grooves at the sides of upright frames or masonry or concrete prérs erected at convenient intervals apart. The sluice gates can be raised or lowered as desired from an overbridge Ordinary draw-doors of moderate size and raised against a small head of water can be readily worked in spite of the friction of the sides of the doors

|

LVE ROLLERS

jz pau CHANNEL BETWEEN OF The voltage required 1s so low and the current so high that the FIG

2.-—DIAGRAMS

OF CIRCUITS

OF VARIOUS WELDING

MACHINES

n

SSA POURING GATE & RISER W,

only convenient source is an alternating-current transformer built

into the welder and as close'as possible to the jaws which hold the parts and transmit the current to them For work of any considerable size, these machmes are not readily portable, ze, the work must ordinarily be brought to the machine The simple type of resistance welding described above 1s usually known as butt welding, and has been applied to jom sections of widely varying shapes up to 36 sqin in a section. Flash Butt Weldimg—Parts to be welded are clamped, the primary circuit closed and the ends of parts brought together slowly. When these ends touch they will “flash,” that 1s, minute particles of molten metal will fly off; this flashing 1s continued until the entire faces of the abuttmg ends have reached a welding heat when heavy pressure 1s: applied, forcing the ends together and completing the weld ‘This 1s often regarded as the preferred method of welding, as the power and time consumption are small and the personal equation of the operator is less important than in any other type of weld.

PERFORATIONS

HEATING GATE LEGEND FRAME YELLOW WAX THERMIT MOLDING MATERIAL -SPECIAL MIXTURE OF SILICA SAND AND PLASTIC CLAY BACKING-PREVIOUSLY USED THERMIT MOLDING MATERIAL IRON PLUG OR SAND CORE

RES EH FiG

3 —METHOD

OF CONSTRUCTING

MOLDS FOR MAKING THERMIT WELDS

crucible supported over the pouring gate of the mould. When the sections are red hot and the mould dried, the application of heat is discontinued, the heatmg gate plugged up and the thermit Spot Welding—Where air-tightness is not required, a lap charge in the crucible ignited, In 25 to 35 seconds the thermuit seam may be welded in spots by clamping the seam overlap reaction is completed and the thermit steel tapped from the botbetween two electrodes and passmg the necessary current between tom of the crucible into the mould where it flows around and them and through the overlapping edges of the plates As the between the sections to be welded, uniting them into one homo(Wm. Sp.) electrical resistance of the surface contact is least in the region geneous mass

4.94 WELF

WELF—WELFARE

WORK

or GUELPH,

a princely family of Germany, de- developed a more liberal spirit among employers. The second cause 1s the great prominence given by the British scended from Count Warm of Altorf (8th century), whose son

Tsenbrand is said to have named his family Welfen, ie, whelps, From his son Welf I (d, 824) were descended the kings of upper Burgundy and the elder German line of Welf Welf III (d 1055)

Government during the war to welfare in munition factories, First, a committee was appointed to investigate and report upon all questions affecting the health of munition workers, It con-

obtamed the duchy of Camnthia and the March of Verona With him the elder line became extinct, but his grandson in the female line, Welf IV (as duke, Welf I ), founded the younger lne, and

valuable reports, which formed the basis of Government regula.

sidered such matters as hours of work, canteen facilities, sanitation and protection against poisons, and it issued a number of

became duke of Bavaria in 1070 Henry the Black (d, 1126), by tions But another step was taken—namely, the creation within his marrage with a daughter of Magnus, duke of Saxony, ob- the Mimstry of Munitions, of a welfare department concerned tamed half of the latter’s hereditary possessions, including solely with the development of welfare conditions ın the thousLuneburg,

and bis son Henry the Proud

(qv,) mbherited by ands of munition factories controlled by the State, This depart-

marriage the emperor Lothair’s lands in Brunswick, etc, and received the duchy of Saxony The power which the family thus

acquired, and the consequent rivalry with the house of Hohenstaufen, occasioned the strife af Guelphs and Ghybellines (g,v) in Italy. Henry the Lion Jost the duchies of Bavaria and Saxony

by his rebellion in 1180, and Welf VI. (d. 1192) Jeft his hereditary

lands in Swabia and his Italian possessions to the emperor Henry VI. Thus, although one of the Welfs reigned as the emperor

Otto IV, there remamed to the family nothing but the lands inherited from the emperor Lothair, which were made into the

duchy of Brunswick in 1235 Of the many branches of the house

of Brunswick that of Wolfenbuttel became extinct in 1884, and

ment had a staff of mspectors, who visited the factones and arranged for the introduction of various welfare measures, and for the appomtment of large numbers of welfare supervisors, whose duty it was to deal with all matters affecting the health and comfort of the workers In these ways, the Government gave to the whole country a striking object-lesson in organised welfare work, and we can hardly wonder that such work 1s now a defimte and important factor in British industry Two British societies, one actively presided over by the duke of York, are engaged in

developing the movement. One of these works primarily with and through “welfare supervisors,” as the officers engaged in organised welfare are often termed, the other is concerned with

that of Luneburg received the electoral dignity of Hanover in encouraging firms to undertake organised welfare work, and ad-

1692, and founded the Hanoverian dynasty of Great Brita and Ireland in 1714 For its further history see Hanover. See Sir A, Halliday History of the Hause of Guelph (1827)* R D

Lloyd, Historical Cron. cod nies on

Monarchy

(cover tle, Orgie o

he sonanot

she Getas)

re Brosh biconan

(1399)

Die Anfange des welfischen. Geschlechts (Hanover, 1900)

WELFARE WORK,

E Sd mia

This term, as applied to mdustry, has

been well defined by Dr. Royal Meeker as “anything for the comfort and improvement, mtellectual or social, of the employees, over and above wages paid, which is not a necessity of the industry, nor required by law.” See INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS; OFFICE MANAGEMENT, Welfare Work in Great Britain.—Of course, ever since there have been employers some of them have done their utmost to promote the welfare of their employees, but so long as mdustry was conducted in small units, no organized welfare work was required dt was only with the introduction of the factory system that the personal links between master and man were gradually broken, and with the development of jomt stock limited hability companies, business became increasingly impersonal

As a rule, unfortunately,

in the early days of large scale manufacture, the attention of the

employing class was devoted almost exclusively to the financial and mechanical aspects of business; and the workers were regarded merely as instruments of production, not as men, women

and children whose individual well-bemg was a matter of importance. It is significant that they were generally called “hands,” while their employer was tacitly assumed to represent the controlling will and brain Gradually, however, a sense of responsibihty for the welfare of these “hands” developed. It wag due,

in Great Britain, to many causes, partly to the activities of the trade unions, partly to the development of education, which tended to break down class divisions, and to make employers and workers better acquainted with each other, and partly to the vari-

ous factory acts, These compelled every factory to adopt cer-

tain precautions and safeguards, and drew the attention of the general public to a side of industry which had been neglected But although the attitude of the employing class to the workers

was gradually changing for the better throughout the roth century,

organised welfare work has only been undertaken on an extensive seale since rgtq_As recently as 1913, a careful investigation into the facts showed that only about 30 employers in Great Britain were definitely engaged in welfare work. Fifteen years later the number had grown to over a thousand This great increase in so short a time was due to two causes. The first was the revolutionary change in the relations between capital and labour for which the World War was largely responsible. No one acquainted with industry can doubt that the war

vising them as to the best and wisest modes of procedure

Forms of Welfare Work.—Welfare work takes many forms

they are briefly indicated in the following summary, drawn up

by the (British) Industrial Welfare Society-—

Employment: Interview, Preymmary selection, Waiting hst, Records

and progress, Lost time and absentees, Transfers and promotion,

Dismissal, Transport Co-operation’ Suggestions and Committees, Works Magazme,

Complaints,

Works

and Welfare

Education Technical instruction, Contmuation Classes, Lectures Health; Protective Clothing, Rest and Cloak Rooms, First-aid and

Ambulance, Medical Service, Records and Research, Dental Service,

Optical Service, Sick Visitmg, Convalescence, Rest Pauses, Canteen, Heating, Lighting, Ventilation, Sanitation. Thrift: Sick and Benevolent Societies, Superannuation and Pension

Funds, Holiday Funds, Tool Funds, etc., Saving Schemes, Protective evices

Accident Prevention: Acadent Prevention structions, Inspections, Records, Fire Drill

Campaigns, Safety In-

Lessure: Qutdoor Activities, Indoor Games and Hobbies, Co-opera-

tion with Local Agencies, Lodgings Register, Institute and Hostel

Management, Camps and Hohday Schemes Economics of Welfare Work.—~It is not, of course, suggested that all the above activities find a place in every factory which

has definitely undertaken welfare work; but the tendency is certainly to advance from qne activity to afother.

The perusal of

the somewhat formidable list may suggest two questions which must be answered in any careful appreciation of welfare work The first is.—“Are all these measures really necessary or even desirable?” and the second is “Does it pay?” The anawer which those who believe in welfare work would give to the first question would be along the follawing umes Industry is the life-

blood of the modern nation, Most people, dumng a greater or

less part of their lives spend at least half therr waking hours at work, and if society as 4 whale is to be healthy, cultured, and

Prosperous, no employer can afford to ignora what may be termed

his social obligations towards the workers within his own factory

In a well organised community, it should ba possible for men and women to live full, healthy lives all the while Work should hot be regarded as an inevitable deduction from the happiness af life, but ag an integral part of that happiness. Therefore, just as mueh consideration should be shown towards members of the

community while at work, as during their leisure hours The State, through its factory acts, demands a steadily rising mmi-

mum

standard in working conditions, but this 3s necessarily a

soulless and unsatisfying standard

A factory which complied

strictly with all lega] requirements might yet be an appalling place in which to spend nearly half one’s waking life. on

Welfare work seeks to remedy this deficiency, and so far as it is

possible, to carry out social ideals in the factory. It regards the

WELHAVEN—WELL workers, therefore, as ends in themselves, not merely as a means to an end All welfate questions should be handled by persons carefully selected for their intelligent human sympathy. It must be

recognised that the care of thé workers is a more expert business than even the care of the most intricate and delicate machinery.

It cannot be Handed over to men who have not the necessary rience and special qualities

In a large factory the recognition

of this fact will involve the organisation of a carefully staffed labour department, while in a small one, it may only mean the handing over of all labour questions to a qualified officer who has

other duties In éither case, 1f the employment manager or the welfare supervisor be wise, he ‘will soon learn to avoid the spirit

of paternalism, which was somewhat too characteristic of many early experiments mn welfare work. He must enlist the help of the workers to achieve the desired ends. This will lead to a

better mutual understanding between employer and employed—

and probably to the establishment of works councils, where an

ever growing lst of subjects of jomt interest will be discussed by management and men. The welfare supervisor is really the liaison officer between capital and labour,

Although, in the definition of welfare work given at the begin-

nmg of this article, the question of wages was excluded, the wel-

495

the British Government’s appreciation of the value of welfare work Under the Mung Industry Act of 1920, power was given to raise a levy of a penny on every ton of coal raised to create a fund, known as the miners’ welfare fund. Up to 1927 over five mullion pounds was thus raised, of which £2,726,000 was spent on recreation and £1,696,c00 on hospitals, convalescent homes and other health services. The fund is admmustered by a central committee consisting of owners, miners and other persons appointed by the Board of Trade, and by a number of district com-

fnittees consisting of owners and miners Under a more recent act (the Mining Industry Act of 1925) the royalties welfare levy 1s producing more funds, available for pit-head baths In conclusion, there are three ideas of welfare work The first

is merely that it is a fad, or a hobby. the second that it 1s good because it pays; the third that it 1s an essential condition of good mandgemernt, and ah inevitable outcome of modern ideas regard-

ing the relationship of industry to society and the responsibilities of industrial management

Thé last 1dea is the right one

For the American aspects, see EMPLOYEES, TRAINING OF. See John Let, The Principles of Industrial Welfare (1924); BS

Rowntree, The Human Factor in Business (1925), Edgar L. Collis and Meicr Greenwoe7, The Health of the Industrial Worker (1921) ; L P Teakburt 4 $%*9r! Manual of Industrial Hygiene (1927); Chas IF Lloyd (ed) he Pattory, Track and Shops Acts, by the late Alexander Redgrave (13th ed., 1944). (B. S R.)

fare spirit, out of which welfare work springs, cannot disregard that question. It is not for the welfare officer to dictate the scale of wages, but if the management is not paying a hving wage, it is WELHAVEN, JOHANN SEBASTIAN CAMMERquite within his sphere to call their attention to the fact. MEYER (1807-1873), Norwegan poet and critic, was born at There can be no true welfare unless reasonable living wages Bergen. He first studied theology, but from 1828 onwards deare paid, or, if this is temporanly out of the question, unless every effort is being made to raise the efficiency of the organisation to the point at which their payment becomes possible. The second question referred to above “Does welfare work pay?” has in part been already answered. Of course, it is not possible to draw up a profit and loss account showing the precise cost of welfare work on the one hand and the precise gain derived from it on the other What, for instance, 1s the value, in pounds or dollars, of a spirit of co-operation between. capital and labour? What is the value of a higher standard of health, due to an efficient works medical department? These questions defy strict analysis. It can, however, be said without a shadow of doubt that welfare work pays whenever it 1s the natural outcome of a belief on the part of the management that the welfare of all engaged with them in their enterprise is a matter of real moment—+that industry is fundamentally a human activity, whose success or failure is eventually to be measured by its effect on human society. Any welfare scheme undertaken merely to “make the beggars work” or to swell the dividends of the shareholders wall never succeed Some of the finest welfare work is done in little factories, where the profits earned are not high, but where the employer

has real sympathy with his workers, and does his best to surround

them with the kind of environment he would desire for his own children. The items to enter on the debit side of his welfare account might not to any high degtee interest the works auditor. But there are also factories where very large sums are paid for welfare work, There are costly pension schemes, medical depattments and provisions for education, and recreation. Do these pay? Probably the return on the expenditure varies from factory to factory. It will depend on the spit in the factory, and the intelligence with which the expenditure is mcurred But a few

observations may suggest the angle from which this matter should

be considered. Take, for instance, a pension fund. It absorbs a given sum per annum, and all workers retire at pension age. The

cost of that fund may appear to be high—but how much are many organisations paying yearly through their wage rolls to men who ought to be on pension? Again, a factory medical or dental service may cost a considerable sum, but there is also a considerable difference between the value, say, of a purchasing agent who has aheadache, or toothache, and one who is perfectly fit We must

strike a ratio between the cost of the medical service and the

total wagé and salary bill. The former is unlikely to amount to as much as one half of one per cent of the latter Incidentally, reference may be made to a striking example of

voted himself to literature In 1840 he became reader and subsequently professor of philosophy at Christiania, and delivered a series of impressive lectures on literary subjects. In 1836 he visited France and Gerttiany; and in 1858 he went to Italy to study archaeology. Welhaven mate his name as the representative of conservatism in Norwegian literature. He represented clearness and moderation against the extravagances of

Wergeland.

He gave an admirable practical exposition of his

aesthetic creed in the sonnet cytle Norges Daemring (1834). He published a volume of Digte in 1839; and in 1845 Nyere Digte. His descriptive poetry is admirable, but his best work was inspired by his poems on old Norse subjects, in which he gives himself unreservedly to patriotic enthusiasm. His critical work mclides Ewald og de norske Digtere (1863), On Ludwig Holberg (1854). Welhavoh’s Samlede Skrifter were published

ın 8 vols at Copenhagen (1867—69).

WELL.

An artificial excavation or boring that derives some

fwd, usually water, from the mterstices of the rocks or soil which it penetrates, Wells are classified mainly according to the method of sinking, the depth, character or geologic horizon of the bed that yields the water, capacity or head of water. Thus, according to the method of sinking are wells distinguished from borings, the former being divided into ordinary shallow or surface wells as distinguished from deep, or sometimes erroneously termed artesian, wells. Such wells are generally circular excavations ranging from 3 or 4 ft. to r5 ft, or more in diameter, usually lined with brickwork, concrete or cast iron for some depth down from the surface, and may be either dug or drilled by special tools The term borings 1s applied to sinkings of smaller size, ordinarily up to 36 ın in diameter, excavated by means of a drill, either percussion or rotary, which operates either by cutting or by abrasion, and in which the débris is brought up to the surface by means of a shell-pump, hollow drill-tool, or by a hydraulic or self-clearing method Borings of this kind are usually lined with steel tubes through unstable materials, the tubes beng perforated where in contact with water-bearing strata. In addition there is the dtiven well, which is sunk by driving a casing at the end of which is a conical point; water being admitted for supply through the point or through perforations in the casing ummediately above it. Frequently, however, a well may consist of a combination of a well and boring, the boring being sunk through the bottom of the well; or adits or headings may be driven horizontally from the bottom of a well in different directions into the water-bearing stratum. The shallow well 1s sunk into water-bearing strata at or near the surface, and in populous or cultivated districts the water is apt

496

WELL

to be contaminated by sewage or other surface sources of pollution Deep wells, 1f lined to some depth from the surface, draw upon deeper zones, and usually afford larger and purer supplies The term artestan as popularly applied to wells 1s ambiguous Strictly, artesian water is water which 1s confined under pressure beneath an impervious stratum, and, nsing up through the penetrating well or boring, overflows the surface of the ground above the normal ground-water surface of the district Thus in fig. 1 there are shown two water-bearing formations A and C separated by an impervious stratum B of shales and

z a

} “a we Yee a

Fig

clays

1

TALE EOO

-=

TL

am 7

Fe

` t

1

The surface of the ground-water, or saturation level, YY in

bell

This figure BFD is known as the cone of depression, which

dies out along a line theoretically forming acircle around the well

and known as the circle of mfluence of radius BC or CD in fig z In actual practice the circle of influence may be far from a true circle, forming a figure which extends irregularly in different directions according to geological circumstances, for only in absolutely

uniform and homogeneous sand or gravel, not found in nature, could the theoretical conditions

be obtained ‘The slopes of the cone are theoretically sub-logarithmic curves, and although 1rregular mn actual practice often approximate to theory, especially in deposits of sands and gravels

KEO S Re ore

(AEEA

ee

D

VENA ANEN EANANOVINE CA Ving we

FIG 2 In solid rocks again, while borings ın the vicinity of a well ind)cate there 1s a local depression, ıt is doubtful 1f the surrounding

water-levels indicate more than the water-levels m the actual fissures and other openings penetrated The radius of the circle of influence is dependent mainly on two

the bed A stands at a higher level than that of XX in the bed C, factors, viz, the transmitting capacity of the water-bearing mebeing held down by the impervious bed B_ The well r m the shal- dium and the rate of pumping, or alternatively the lowering CF low surface bed 1s a shallow surface or dug well, which taps the at the well, but a third factor of influence is the natural slope of immediately underlying ground-water, the level of which is below the water-table in the vicinity the surface of the well The well 2 1s a true artesian or artesianTheory and practice have established that, except when excesflowing well. The well 3, in which artesian water from a lower sive, lowering of the water-level in a well in porous media 1s apstratum is tapped but does not overflow, 1s known as a non-flowing proximately proportional to the rate of pumping, and that at a or sub-artesian well. given rate of pumping, provided that is not greater than the maxiThe function of a well is to tap the underground or ground-water mum yield of the well, the water will fall to a definite level and, which may occur ın the pores of the water-bearing formations, or subject to seasonal fluctuations, remain stationary at that level if in solid rocks, the water in the fissures, joints, faults, bedding A further principle of mportance has also been established both planes and other openings. Water from porous strata is most by theory and practice, viz , that the effect of size or diameter of a freely and directly obtained from superficial beds of gravels and well 1s of less importance than might be assumed, borings of only sands of alluvial or glacial origin In hard rocks such as sand- a few feet in diameter affording copious yields not greatly less than stones, chalk and conglomerates which are exceedingly porous, those of wells of large diameter wells are capable of affording copious yields only when the groundTesting of Wells.—The yields of small wells or borings are water 1s directly tapped in open cavities, such as bedding planes, usually tested by pumping continuously over a period ranging from fissures and the like, the water ın these openings being fed and a few days to a fortnight until a permanent working-level 1s mammaintained by slow seepage from the pores of the rock from a vast tained For large public wells, however, much longer periods are area. Wells in formations such as the chalk, for example, may be required, and it may be a year or more before a final state of practically dry if sunk in the mass of the rock itself without pene- equilibrium 1s obtained trating any fissure or other natural channel with water. The term specific capacity is frequently used in relation to testThe most successful wells derive their supplies from rocks of ing, and 1s a numerical expression of the readımess with which a later age than the Palaeozoic formations With the exception of a well furnishes water to the pumps It depends on the transmisfew of the higher strata, such as the Permian limestones and sand- sıon capacıty of the water-bearing stratum, the resistance of the stones and the Millstone Grits of the Carboniferous, the older strainer when present, the thickness of water-bearing stratum penrocks in general are highly consolidated by pressure and their etrated, and to some extent on the diameter of the well This facpores cemented by minerals, hence they are incapable of affording tor 1s merely the yield per foot of lowering of the water in a well, large supplies of ground-water The sandstones of the Trias, the or the gross yield divided by the working head Successful public limestones of the Jurassic and the chalk and sands of the Creta- wells in sands similar to the Lower Greensand have 2 mean enecifc ceous have yielded the most copious underground supplies in capacity of about soo gal. per hour, ‘Tnas=ic wells s09 10 80 ene Britain and the Continent, and generally the world over the Sec- Chalk wells about 1,800 gal per hour, but the figures are extremely ondary and later formations are the most prolific In Britam the variable, maximum values being as much as double these figures glacial and alluvial gravels and sands of the Post-Tertiary are thin In the case of wells with headings, however, it is doubtful 1f the and not so extensive as elsewhere and in consequence afford only specific capacity 1s of any value as an index relatively small supplies, but in many other parts of the world Wells in Sands.—Wells in sands, especially where the deposits copious yields are obtained from these later deposits The water are fine-grained, may be lined wells of large diameter, the hning bearing properties of the crystalline or igneous rocks are similar extending to the full depth of the well The water 1s obtained to those of the older formations, and underground supplies from either by upward percolation from the bottom of the well only, or them are dependent upon the presence of fissures or Joints, hence by means of perforations, with or without fine wire-gauze strainers, the yields are almost universally small m the sides of the hning Where borings are sunk into such mateHydraulics of Wells.—Fig 2 illustrates an ordinary well KH rial the lower portion of the lning tubes may be perforated wıth sunk through a water-bearing stratum to H the surface of an 1msmall holes, which may or may not be covered with a straining mapervious bed at the level GHJ Normally the surface of the terial Frequently a series of such borings in close proximity are ground-water lies below the ground at a Jevel AE which 1s known placed at right angles to the direction of natural flow of the groundas the surface of saturation, water-table, ground-water level, or, in and connected to a common suction-pipe relation to wells, rest-level The effect of pumping water from the water Records of Actual Wells.—In Britain wells or borings in the well is to lower the water in the well to a level F known as the New Red Sandstone have afforded permanent yields up to a maxiworking- or pumping-level; which varies according to the rate of mum of 4 or 5 million gallons per diem, and the Chalk up tò'7 Pumping, becoming increasingly lower as the rate of pumping is mereased Outside the well the effect of pumping is to draw in milhon gallons per diem; but the supplies of large public wells in these formations usually vary between a few hundred thousand radially the surrounding water to the well, and the surface of to one or two million gallons per day In the Oolite yields up to 3 Saturation in the vicinity assumes the form of an inverted cone or million gallons per day have been obtained, but these are quite

WELLAND

CANAL—WELLESLEY

exceptional Wells in Millstone Grit and Coal Measures rarely afford more than 500,000 gallons per day, and other geologic formations only relatively small supplhes The effect of pumping in large public wells in Britain does not appear to extend more

than about two miles in the New Red Sandstone and about one mile in the Chalk. In California, however, a test of pumping at rates between 8 and 20 million gallons per day in alluvial deposits proved the consequent lowering to extend to five miles Of wells of record yield in other countries may be mentioned a well at St. Augustine stated by Slichter (1902) to yield 10 million gallons a day, and another in South Dakota reported to yield as

much as 114 million gallons a day The deepest boring sunk for water is probably that at Putnam Heights, Connecticut, which reached a depth of over 6,000 ft. in crystalune rock without obtaining a sigmficant supply. In Australia many artesian borings are sunk to depths of over 4,000 ft and obtain supplies ranging from 100,000 to 1,400,000 gal. per day The deepest borings in the world sunk for either oi! or water are the Olinda well, Orange County, Calif , and the Ligonier deep well near Latrobe, Pa. ‘The former 1s 8,201 feet deep and the latter 7,756 feet deep In general, except where there are true artesian

conditions on a vast scale, it is little use to sink below 1,500 feet. The effect of pumping excessive quantities of water from underground sources has frequently been to lower the general waterlevel of the district, and this has taken place under London, Birmingham and Liverpool in Britain, and around Chicago, Memphis, Savannah, the Dakota basin and other districts in the USA Artesian Basins.—The chief artesian areas in Europe are around London and Paris. In the United States the basins of Dakota, New Mexico, Potsdam and the Atlantic coastal plain are the most remarkable In Queensland, New South Wales and South Austraha deep seated artesian water is found in vast quantities, while in Africa the artesian areas of Cape Colony and the Sahara desert are of special note. The London and Paris basins derive their supplies from deep seated Chalk and Tertiary strata, the former affording supphes amounting in all to many million gallons per, day to hundreds of wells beneath London. The Dakota basin which underlies large areas in South Dakota, Colorado, Nebraska and Kansas, 1s of special interest, thousands of borings deriving artesian supplies from the Dakota Sandstone, which outcrops in the mountains to the west of the area and passes beneath the basin at depths of 1,000 ft. or more and reappears in the east at a distance of 200 m. or more from the western outcrop.

The yield of the whole basin is about 125 million gallons per day The Roswell area in south-eastern New Mexico derives its ar-

tesian supply chiefly from creviced and cavernous limestone

The

total annual yield from more than 1,400 wells is about 200,000 acre-feet which is used chiefly for the irrigation of approximately 60,000 acres of farm land The largest flowing well in the area yields over 8,000,000 gallons a day. The Atlantic Coastal Plain extends from Long island in the north to Texas in the south. The Australian artesian areas, and especially that of Queensland, afford remarkable yields The Queensland basin is esti-

mated to supply a total of over 350 million gallons per day. Over 1,000 borings have been sunk, some exceeding 4,000 ft. in depth

The New South Wales and South Australia basins are of considerably less importance.

The three basins all derive their supplies

from the Cretaceous rocks. The Cape Colony area derives its supplies from the Karoo beds of triassic age at shallow depths Nearly 3,000 boreholes have been sunk, but the individual yields are small

The Sahara basın in the vicinity of Algeria is noteworthy, in that the artesian water 1s derived from beds of Pliocene sands which outcrop in the Atlas mountams about 300 mules distant The underground water has been found to follow definite open

channels, and small fish, river-crabs and fresh-water molluscs are brought up in quantities in some of the borings, which vary from 150 to 800 ft in depth. Over roo million gallons per day

is obtained from this basin. BrsrrocrapHy —Numerous Water Supply and Irrigation Papers of the Umted States Geological Survey, in particular No 67 by C. S.

497

Slichter (1902), and the 19th Annual Report of the US. Geological Survey, Slichter and King (1897-98), where full references are given to previous investigators, pp. 381-384, W S. P 494, “Outlie of Ground-water Hydrology” by O. E. Memzer (1923), W S P 439, “Occurrence of Ground-water in the Umted States” by O, E. Memzer (1923). Baldwin Wiseman, Min. Proc Inst CE, vol. CLXV. (190506), Pt. r1z, on “The Flow of Underground Water,” where numerous

further references are given.

(H. La)

WELLAND CANAL: see Nracara River WELLES, GIDEON (1802-1878), American political leader, was born at Glastonbury (Conn ), on July 1, 1802. He studied for a time at Norwich University, Vt, but did not graduate. From 1826 to 1837 he edited the Hartford Times, making it the official organ of the Jacksonian democracy in southern New England. He left the Democratic Party on the Kansas-Nebraska issue, assisted ın the formation of the Republican Party in the state of Connecticut, and was its candidate for the office of governor in 1856 On the inauguration of President Lincoln in 1861 he was appointed secretary of the Navy, a position which he held until the close of President Andrew Johnson’s administration in 1869 Although deficient in technical traming, he handled with great skill

the difficult problems which were presented by the Civil War The number of naval ships was increased between 1861 and 1865 from 90 to 670, the officers from 1,300 to 6,700, the seamen from 7,500 to 51,500, and the annual expenditure from $12,000,000 to $123,000,000, important changes were made in the art of naval construction, and the blockade of the Confederate ports was effectively maintained Welles supported President Johnson in his quarrel with Congress, took part in the Liberal Republican movement of 1872, and returning to the Democratic Party, warmly advocated the election of Samuel J Tilden in 1876. He died at Hartford (Conn ), on Feb. 11, 1878. While Welles was in President Lincoln’s Cabinet, he kept a

diary of the stirring events happening daily. This manuscript, though greatly amended by Welles in later years, is a valuable historical source But the published diary is unreliable because

it makes no distinction between the entries that were contemporaneous and those that Welles made in his old age In 1874 Welles published Lincoln and Seward, in which he refutes the charge that Seward dominated the Administration during the Civil War His Diary was published in the Atlantic Monthly (1909-10). See Albert Welles, History of the Welles Family (New York, 1876) ; also “Is the Printed Diary of Gideon Welles Rehable?”, Amer. Hist. Rev. vol. xxx, and Life of Gideon Weles, R H. Wood.

WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY WESLEY (or WELLESLEY), Marquess (1760-1842), eldest son of the rst earl of Mornington, an Irish peer, and brother of the famous duke of Wellington, was born on June 20, 1760. He was sent to Eton, and to Christ Church, Oxford

By his father’s death in 1781 he

became earl of Mornington, taking his seat in the Irish House of Peers In 1784 he entered the English House of Commons as member for Beeralston. Soon afterwards he was appointed a lord of the treasury by Pitt In 1793 he became a member of the board of control over Indian affairs and in 1797 accepted the office of governor-general of India Wellesley seems to have caught Pitt’s large political spirit during his intercourse with him from 1793 to 1797 That both had consciously formed the design of acquirmg empire in India is not proved; but the rivalry with France made Wellesley’s rule in India an epoch of enormous and rapid extension of English power Clive won and Warren Hastings consolidated the British ascendancy in India, but Wellesley extended it into an empire For the details of Wellesley’s Indian policy see Innra: India under the Company. He found the East India Company a trading body, he left it an imperial power. He was an excellent administrator, and sought to provide, by the foundatıon of the college of Fort William, for the tramimg ‘of a class of men adequate to the great work of governing India. A firm free trader, lke Pitt, he endeavoured to remove some of the restrictions on the trade between England and India Both the commercial policy of Wellesley and his educational projects brought him into hostility with the court of directors, and he more than once tendered his resignation, which,

WELLESLEY—WELLINGTON

498

however, public necessities led him to postpone till the autumn of 1805. He reached England just in time to see his friend Pitt before his death. He had been created an English peer in 1797, and in 1799 an Irish marquess On the fall of the coalition ministry in 1807 Wellesley was invited by George III to jom the duke of Portland’s cabinet, but he déclined, pending the discussion ih pathament of certain charges brought against him in respect of his Indian admins-

tration Resolutions condemning mm for the abuse of péwer were moved in both the Lords and Commons, but defeated by largé majorities. In 1809 Wellesley was appointed ambassador to Spam. He landed at Cadiz just after the battle of Talavera, and endeavoured, but without success, to brmg the Spanish govern ment into effective co-operation with his brother m Portugal. A few months later Wellesley became foreign secretary in Perceval’s cabinet. He retired in February 1812, partly from dissatisfaction at the inadequate support given to Wellington by thé ministry,

The buildings number 38 of which 20 are halls of residence. Two other halls of residence were under construction in 1928 In add. tion to the hbrary, the most important of the buildings are Founders hall, opened in 1919, coritaining lecture rooms and department offices for the lberal arts; the Farnsworth Art build. ing; music hall and Bullngs hall for the department of music the Whitin observatory for the department of astronomy, Mary Hemenway hall contauting the gymhasium; the chapel, Alumnae hall, containing a large auditorium and recreation hall, dedicated

in tg23, and the botany laboratory, dedicated in Nov. 1927, fully equipped with all modern facilities. There were ın 1927, t,604 students, of which number 44 were registered for the master’s de-

gree ard 1,533 for the bachelor’s degrée. The official staff num-

bered 251 of whom 166 formed the instructing body. The college has had six presidents Ada L. Howard, Litt D.

(1875-82), Alice E Freeman (Mrs. George H. Palmer), B.A

PhD, LED., LLD. (1882-87); Helen A Shafer, MA, LLD’

but also because he was convinced that the question of Catholic emancipation was urgent With the claim of the Irish Catholics to justice he henceforward identified hitnself On Perceval’s assassination he refused to join Lord Liverpool’s

(1888-94), Julia J Irvine, MA, LHD, LL.D (1898-99), Caroline Hazard, AM, LittD, LLD. (1899-1916): Ellen F. Pendleton, M.A., Ltt D, LLD (1911) (E F. P.)

administration, and he remained out of office with severity the proceedings of the congress European settlement of 1814. He was one signed the protest against the enactment of

till 1821, criticizing of Vienna and the

scholar and Oriehtalist, was born at Hameln on the Weser, Westphalia, on May 17, 1844, Having studied thedlogy at the university

1815 In 1821 he was appointed lord-heutenant ot Ireland Wellesley’s acceptance of the vice-royalty was believed in Ireland to

was appointed professor ordinarius of theology in Greifswald Resigning in 1882 owing to conscientious scruples, he became pro-

brief mizietry He died on Sex 26 To+2 See Montgomery Martin, Despatches of thé Marquess Welteste

(1840); W. M. Tortens, The Marquess Wellesley (1880) ; W. H.

Hutton, Lord Wellesley (“Rulers of India” serles, 1893), and G: B. Malleson, Wellesley (“Statesmen” series, 1895), The Wellesley Papers:

Life and Correspondence of Richard Colley Wellesley by the editor of

“The Windham Papers” (2 vols, rot4).

4 beautiful residential town of Massachu-

setts, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 6,224; 1930 Federal census 11,439 On Lake Waban are the grounds of Wellesley college (gv) and opposite it is thé Hunnewelk estate, with its famous Italian dens, the fitst in the United States The Babson institute the Babson statistical centre are in Wellesley and there are private schools for girls. Wellesley was settled about 1640 incorporated in 1881.

WELLESLEY

garand four and

COLLEGE, an institution for the higher

education of women situated in Wellesley, Mass. It was founded by Henry Fowle Durant, a Boston lawyer, with the announced purpose “of giving to young women opportunities for education equivalent te those usually provided in colleges for young men.” The first charter was granted By thé Commonwealth of Massachusetts on Marck 17, 1870, under the name of Wellesley Female

seminary. This namie was changed to Wellesley college by act of legislature, March 7, 1873. In accordance With the spirit of the founder, the college is undenomindational but distinctively Christian in its influence, discipline and iistruction. The college grants the degrees of B A. and M.A, and of MS. in hygiene and

physical education

JULIUS

(1844~1918), German biblical

of the peets who of Gottingen under Heinrich Ewald, he established himself there the Corn Laws in in 1870 as Privatdozent for Old Testament history In 1872 he

herald the immediate settlement of the Catholic clams But the hope of the Catholics stil remained unfulfilled On the assumption of office by Wellington, who was opposed to Catholic emanci+ pation, his brother resigned the lord-lieutenancy He had, however, the satisfaction of seeing the Catholic claims settled in the hext year by the very statesmen who had declared agamst them. In 1833 he resumed the office of Jord-Neuterant urde- Esrl Grey's

WELLESLEY,

WELLHAUSEN,

Under the stimulus and inspiration of the

founder, Wellesley college opened in Sept. 1875, with a curriculum rerrarkably in adv-rce of its period Tor caxanp'e Wellesley was the first women’: college Lo open scien fic 'eboraror.e- Lor suden, experimentation. In fact, such work was offered at Wellesley earlier than at any other institution in the United States for either men or women with the exception of Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The campus of more than gooac., the gift of the founder, the buildings, and fixed equipment, were valued in the treasuret’s report, on June 30, 1927, at $7,281,007, amd thé trust funds at $8,520,418, of which $5,866,874 are fot permanent endowment.

fessor extraordinarius of oriental languages in the faculty of philology at Halle, was elected professor ordindrius at Marburg in 1885, and was transferred to Gottingen in 1892. Wellhausen made his name famous by his critical investigations into Old Testament

history and the composition of the Hexateuch, the uncompromising scientific attitude he adopted in testing its problems

bringing him into antagonism with the older school of biblical interpreters He died at Gottingen on Jan. 7, 1918. The best known

of his works are De gentzbus et familus Judaes

(Gottingen, 120), Der Text der Bacher Samuelis untersucht (Gét-

tingen, 1871) De Prona rind Scricacr (Greifswald, 1844); Prolegomena sur Geschichte Israeis (Berlin, 1882; Bhg. trans, 2885, 5th German edition, 1899, first published ın 1878 as Geschzchte Israels), Muhammed in Medina (Berlin, 1882) , Die Kompositzan dès Hexateuchs und der historischen Bucher des Alten Testaments (1889,

3rd ed' 1899); Israelhtische und picke

Geuhrche

* %)4, gth ed.

Tacr). Rere arabtecpe, Moire Vay (ixt), Des orn hurke Reach und sem Siurs (1502) S azen eet Vorerbetin '1884-r-) and new and, revised editions of F Bleek’s Ainlestung im das Alte Testament (4-6, 1878-93) In 1906 appeared Dze christliche Religion, mii Em»

schluss der «sraehtisch-judischen Religion, in collaboration with A

Julcher, A Harnack and others He.'so dd use? Verdi) eins Work ås a New Testament commentator LHe publ -led s Lis p'em Marc, ubersétet und erklart m 1903; D+ Jaerge am Wo tres ord Das Evangelium Lucae in 1904, and Line ung in ce eres a'en

Evangehen in 1905.

WELLINGBOROUGH,

England. Pop, (1931) 21,221

2 town

of Northamptonshire,

In 948 Edred gave the church at Wellingborough to Crowland abbey, and the grant was confirmed by King Edgar in 966 The town received the grant of a market in rzor, It was formerly famed for the chalybeate springs to which it owes its name. After its almost total destruction by fire in 1738 the town was built on its present site on the hill. The church of St. Luke has Norman and Early English portions, but 1s mainly Decorated

The gramimar-schools, founded in 1594 were endéwed with the revénues of a suppressed gild. One ıs an old Elizabethan struc-

ture

Freeman’s school was founded by John Freeman in 1712

The principal public building 1s the corn exchange.

The towr 1s

a centre of agricultural trade; but the staple mdustty 1s in leather Boots and shoes, especially uppers, are manufactured Smelting, brewing and iroù-founding are carried on, as well as the manufacture of steani-engines. Iron ore is raised, WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, isr DUKE

oF (1769-1852), was the fourth son of Garrett (1735-1781)

Wellesley or Wesley, 2nd baron and rst earl of Mornington, now remembered only as a musician He was descended from the family of Colley or Cowley, which had been, settled in Ireland for two

WELLINGTON centuries, The duke’s grandfather, Richard Colley, rst Baron Mornington (d, 1758), assumed the name of Wesley on succeeding to the estates of Garrett Wesley, a distant relative of the famous divine, In Wellington’s early letters the family name is spelt Wesley;

the change

to Wellesley

seems

to have

been

made

about 1790, Arthur (born in Ireland in 1769') was sent to Eton, and subsequently to a military college at Angers. He entered the army as ensign m the 73rd Highlanders ın 1787, passed rapidly through the lower ranks (in five different regiments),

became major of the 33rd (now the duke of Wellington’s Regt.)

499

ful but threatening aspect farther north It was uncertain whether or not a confederacy of the northern Mahrattas had been formed against the British Government.

Wellesley was charged with “the

general direction and control of military and political affairs in the territories of the Nizam, the Peshwa and the Mahratta states and chiefs” Armed with these powers, he required Sindhia, as a proof of good faith, to withdraw to the north of the Nerbudda Sindhia not doing so, war was declared on Aug 6, 1803, and Wellesley moved against the enemy A second division was to converge from the east, but on Sept, 23 Wellesley suddenly found

and purchased the Neutenant-coloneley of that regiment m 1793 that the combined forces of Sindhia and the raja of Berar were with money advanced to him hy his eldest brother But in all close in front of him at Assaye Weighing the dangers of delay, of these changes he did little regimental duty, for he was aide-de- retreat and of an attack with his single division of 4,500 men, camp to the lord-heutenant of Ireland for practically the whole

supported only by 5,000 native levies of doubtful quality, Welles-

of these years, Before reaching full age he was returned to the Insh parliament by the family borough of Trim. His first experience af active service was in the campaign of 1794-95, When the British force under the duke of York was driven out of Holland by Pichegru, In 1796 he was sent with his regiment to India, beng promoted colonel by brevet about the game time Jt was thus as a4 commanding officer that he learnt for the first tıme the details of regimental duty He mastered them thoroughly--it was to the completeness of his practical knowledge that Wellington ascribed in great part his later success It is probable, moreover, that he at this time made a serious study

ley convinced himself that an immediate

of the scence of war, As soon as he Janded m India he began to ¢. vote fixed hours to study, giving up cards and the violin. This

= dy was Cue. ed chiefly to the political situation of India, and when on his advice his eldest brother, Lord Mornington, after-

attack, though against

greatly superior forces (30,000 horse, 10,000 European-drilled infantry and raa well-served guns) in a strong position, was the wisest course

He threw himself upon the Mahratta host, and,

carrying out a bold manoeuvre under an intense fire, ultimately gained a complete victory, though with heavy loss In comparison with the battle of Assaye, all fighting that had hitherto taken place in India was child’s play Wellesley brought the war to a close by a second victory at Argaum on Nov 29 and the storming of Gawilghur on Dec 15 The treaties with Sindhia and the raja of Berar, which marked the downfall of the Mahratta power, were

negotiated and signed by Wellesley—-not yet 35 years old His ambitions now led him back to Europe, and in the spring of 1805 he quitted India. After being sent on the abortive expedition to Hanover, he was elected MP for Rye, in order tq defend

wards Marquess Wellesley, accepted the governor-generalship of his brother in the House, and in the following year he was Irish India, he became his trusted though unofficial adyiser In the war with Tippoo Sahib the 33rd was attached to the Nizam’s contin-

gent, and Colonel Wellesley commanded this division in the army of General Harris Though his military services in this short campaign were not of a striking character, he was appointed by his

brother to the supreme military and political command m Mysore,

in spite of the claims of his senior, Sir David Baird, His great faculties now for the first time found opportunity for their exercise In the settlement and administration of the conquered territory he rapidly acquired the habits and experience

of a statesman, while his military operations against Doondiah,

4 robber chief, were conducted with extraordinary energy and

success, When pressed in Mysore, Doondiah moved inte Mahratta territory, whither Wellesley followed him Here, negotiating and bargamimg with the Mahratia chiefs, Wellesley acquired a knowIntge of ‘hoir affa’rs and cn “n“ucnce over them such as no other

Bag Syran po-seserd Simple and honourable himself, he was shrewd and penetrating in his judgment of Orientals, and, unlike lis great predecessor Clive, he rigidly adhered to the rule of good faith in his own actions, however depraved and however exasperating the conduct of those with whom be had to deal The result of Wellesley’s smgular personal ascendancy among the Mahrattas came into full view when the Mahratta War broke out In the

meantime, however, his Indian career seemed likely to be sacri ficed to the calls of warfare in another quarter. Wellesley was

ordered with a body of troops to Egypt

But at Bombay he was

He returned in May 1801 10 Mysore

where he remained until

attacked by fever, and prevented from going en, The troop-ship in which he was to have sailed went down with al] on board.

the Mahratta War broke out

Wellesley, pow a major-general,

was placed m command of a division of the army charged with

the task of restoring the Peshwa, overthrown by his rival, to power. Starting from Seringapatam, he crossed the frontier on March 12, 1893, and moved on Paong The march was one unbroken success, thanks to Wellesley’s forethought and sagacity

in dealing with the physical conditions and his personal and diplomatic ascendancy among

the chieftams of the district

march of 600 m, wag condycted without even a skirmish Peshwa was restored

A

The

Sindhia and Holkar, with the raja of Berar, maintained a doybt-

1At 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, or at Dungan castle, Meath,

on April ap oy on May 1; but both place and date are uncertain, ,

secretary for a few months He was then employed in the expedition against Copenhagen, in which he defeated the Danes

in the action of Kjoge (Oct. 29). In 1808, however, began the war (see PENINSULAR War) in which his military renown was fully established. In April he was promoted lieutenant-general and placed in command of a division of the troops destined to operate against the French in Spain or Portugal, He landed at Mondego bay in the first week of August, moved southwards, and on the 2zst won the battle of Vimeiro In the midst of this engagement, however, Sir Harry Burrard landed, and took over the command. Burrard was-in turn superseded by Sir Hew Dalrymple, and the campaign ended with the convention of Cintra, which provided for the evacuation of Portugal by the French, but gave Junot’s troops a free return to France. So great was the public displeasure in England at the escape of the enemy that a court of inquiry was held After the battle of Corunna, Wellesley, who had in the meantime resumed his duties as Insh secretary, returned to the Peninsula as chief m command He drove the French out of Oporto, and then prepared to march agamst Madrid He had the support of a Spanish army, but his movements were delayed by the neglect of the Spanish Government, and Soult was able to collect a large force for the purpose

of falling upon the English line of communication ‘Wellesley, unconscious of Soult’s presence on his flank, advanced against Madrid, and defeated his mmedjate opponent, King Joseph, at Talavera de la Reina (qv) on July 27-28 But within the next few days Soult’s approach on the lme of communication was discovered, and Wellesley, disgusted with his Spanish allies, had na

choice but to withdraw mto Portugal A peerage was conferred upon him for Talavera, He was also made marshal-general of the Portuguese army and a Spanish captain-general, But his conduct after the battle was sharply criticized yn England, and its negative results were used as a weapon against the ministry, Even on the defensive, Wellington’s task was exceedingly difficult, Austria having made peace, Na-

poleon was at liberty to throw heavy forces mto the Peninsula Wellington, foreseemg that Portugal would now be invaded by a very powerful army, began the fortification of the celebrated

lings of Torres Vedras, (See FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT,) Ag summer approached Masséna moved against Portugal with 79,000 nen Wellington, unable to save Ciudad Rodrigo, retreated

down. the valley of the Mondego, devastatimg the country, and

500

WELLINGTON

business-like payment for supplies, and the excellent discipline continued to press forward but was held up definitely in front which he maintained In Feb. 1814 the advance was renewed The of the lines It was with the utmost difficulty that he could keep Adour was crossed, and Soult was defeated at Orthes At Toulouse his army from starving At length, when the country was ex- after the alhes had entered Paris, but before the abdication of hausted, he fell back to Santarem In the spring of 1811 Welling- Napoleon had become known, the last battle of the war was ton received reinforcements and moved forward. Masséna re- fought. Peace bemg proclaimed, Wellington took leave of his treated, but such were the sufferings of his army, both in the army at Bordeaux, and returned to England, where he was created invasion and in the retreat, that the French, when they re-entered duke of Wellington After the Treaty of Paris (May 30) Wellington was appointed Spain, had lost 30,000 men Public opinion in England, lately so hostile, now became confident, and Wellington, whose rewards for British ambassador at the French capital. During the autumn and winter of 1814 he reported the mistakes of the restored Talavera had been opposed in both Houses, began to be a hero In the meantime Soult, who was besieging Cadiz, had moved to Bourbon dynasty, and warned his Government of the growing support Masséna. But after capturmg Badajoz, Soult learnt that hostility to 1t Hus insight, however, did not extend beyond the circumstances immediately before and around him, and he failed Masséna was in retreat, and in consequence returned to the south Wellington, freed from pressure on this side, and believing Mas- to realize that the great mass of the French nation was still with séna to be thoroughly disabled, considered that the time had come Napoleon at heart He remained in France until Feb 1815, when for an advance ito Spain. The fortresses of Almeida, Ciudad he took part in the congress of Vienna His imperfect acquaintance Rodrigo and Badajoz barred the roads Almeida was besieged, and with French feeling was stnkingly proved in the despatch which Wellington was preparing to attack Badajoz when Masséna again he sent home on learning of Napoleon’s escape from Elba “He took the field, and marched to the relief of Almeida The battle has acted,” he wrote, “upon false or no information, and the king of Fuentes d’Onoro followed, in which Wellington was only able (Louis XVIII ) will destroy him without difficulty and m ashort to extricate the army from a dangerous predicament which “if time’? Almost before Wellington’s unfortunate prediction could pausing to inflict a check on the French at Busaco (g.v ) Masséna

Boney had been there” would have been a disaster

His attack

reach London, Louis had fled, and France was at Napoleon’s feet

on Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo failed The ban of the congress, however, went out against the common Wellington had from the first seen that, whatever number of enemy, and the presence of Wellington at Vienna enabled the men Napoleon might send against him, ıt was impossible, owing allies at once to decide upon their plans for the campaign To to the poverty of the country, that any great mass of troops Wellington and Blucher were committed the invasion of France could long be held together, and that the French, used to “making from the north, while the Russians and Austrians entered it from war support war,” would fare worse in such conditions than his the east. But Napoleon outstripped the preparations of his adverown troops with their organized supply service It was so at the saries, concentrated his main army on the northern frontier, and end of 1811. Soult had to move southwards to live, and the on June 14 crossed the Sambre The four days’ campaign that English were again more than a match for the enemy in front followed, and the crowning victory of June 18, are described in of them. Wellington resumed the offensive early in 1812, took the article WATERLOO CAMPAIGN Wellington’s reward was a fresh by storm Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, although with terrible loss, grant of £200,000 from parliament—he had already received and then advanced into Spain Marmont, who had succeeded £500,000 for the Penisular War, the title of prince of Waterloo Masséna, fell back to the Douro, but there turned upon his and great estates from the king of Holland, and the order of the assailant, and, by superior swiftness, threatened to cut the English Saint-Esprit from Lows XVIII. off from Portugal. Wellington retreated as far as Salamanca Not only the prestige of his victories, but the chance circum(g.v.), and there extricated himself from his peril by a brilliant stances of the moment, now made Wellington the most invictory (July 22) Instead of immediately following the French, fluential personality in Europe The emperors of Russia and Wellington thought it wise to advance upon the Spanish capital. Austria were still far away at the time of Napoleon’s second King Joseph retired, and the English entered Madrid in triumph abdication, and it was with Wellington that the commussioners The political effect was great, but the delay gave the French of the provisional Government opened negotiations preliminary northern army time to rally. “The vigorous following of a beaten to the surrender of Paris The duke well knew the peril of delayenemy was not a prominent characteristic of Lord Wellington’s ing the decision as to the Government of France. ‘The emperor warfare,” as Napier says Moreover, Soult, raising the siege of Alexander was hostile to Louis XVIII and the Bourbons genCadiz, pressed towards Madrid. Wellington was compelled once erally; the emperor Francis might have been tempted to support more to retire into Portugal During this retreat he announced in the cause of Napoleon’s son and his own grandson, who had been general orders that the demoralization and misconduct of the proclaimed in Paris as Napoleon II ; and if the restoration of British army surpassed anything that he had ever witnessed. Such Louis—which Wellington believed would alone restore permanent wholesale criticism was bitterly resented, but indeed throughout peace to France and to Europe—was to be effected, the allies must his career Wellington, cold and punctilious, never secured to him- be confronted on their arrival in Paris with the accomplished fact self the affections of officers and men as Marlborough or Na- He settled the affair in his usual downright manner, telling the poleon did He subjugated his army and gave it brilliant victories, commissioners bluntly that they must take back their legitimate but he mspired few disciples except the members of his own king, and refusing—perhaps with more questionable wisdom—to staff. For Salamanca his rewards included a marquessate allow the retention of the tricolour flag, which to him was a He was now invested with the supreme command of the Spanish “symbol of rebellion ” armies, and, after busying himself with preparations, in May 1873 Further, it was mainly owing to the influence of Wellington, the hour for his final and victorious advance arrived The Russian in conjunction with Castlereagh, that France escaped the disdisasters had compelled Napoleon to withdraw some of his best memberment for which the German powers clamoured, and which troops from the Peninsula. Against a weakened and discouraged was advocated for a while by the majority of the British cabinet adversary Wellington took the field with greatly increased num- Wellington realized the necessity, in the interests not only of bers and with the utmost confidence. Position after position was France but of Europe, of maintaining the prestige of the restored evacuated by the French, until Wellington came up with the monarchy, which such a dismemberment would have irretrievably retreating enemy at Vittoria (gv), and won an overwhelming damaged In the same spirit he carried out the trust imposed victory (June 21) Soult’s combats in the Pyrenees, and the upon him by the allies when they placed him in command of the desperate resistance of St. Sebastian, prolonged the struggle international army by which France was to be occupied, under through the autumn, and cost the English thousands of men But the terms of the second peace of Paris, for five yeats By the at length the frontier was passed, and Soult forced back into his terms of his commission he was empowered to act, in case of entrenched camp at Bayonne. Both armies now rested for some emergency, without waiting for orders; he was, moreover, to be weeks, during which interval Wellington gained the confidence kept informed by the French cabinet of the whole course of of. the inhabitants by his unsparing repression of marauding, his business, If he had no sympathy with revolutionary disturbers

WELLINGTON of the peace, he had even less with the fatuous extravagances of the comte d’Artois and his reactionary entourage, and bis immense

powerful

influence

was

thrown

into the scale

of the

moderate constitutional policy of which Richelieu and Decazes were the most conspicuous exponents Besides the complex administrative duties connected with the army of occupation his work mcluded the reconstruction of the military frontier of the Netherlands, and the conduct of the financial negotiations with

Messrs

Baring, by which the French Government was able to

pay off the indemnities due from it, and thus render it possible for the powers to reduce the occupation from five years to three The events of the next few months considerably modified his opimons in this matter The new chambers proved their trust-

worthy quality by passing the budget, and the army of occupation was reduced by total evacuation of had grown to such prolonged, he must

30,000 men Wellington now pressed for the France, pointing out that popular irritation a pitch that, if the occupation were to be concentrate the army between the Scheldt

and the Meuse, as the forces, stretched in a thin line across France, were no longer safe m the event of a popular rising At the congress at Aix-la-Chapelle in the autumn of 1818, which settled the question, 1t was owing to his common-sense criticism that the proposal of Prussia, supported by the emperor Alexander and Metternich, to establish an “army of observation” at Brussels,

was nipped in the bud The definitive financial settlement between France and the allies was left entirely to him On Wellington’s first entry mto Paris he had been received with popular enthusiasm, but he had soon become intensely unpopular He was held responsible not only for the occupation itself, but for every untoward incident to which it gave rise; even Blucher’s attempt to blow up the Pont de Jéna, which he had prevented, was laid to his charge His characteristically British temperament was wholly unsympathetic to the French, whose sensibility was irritated by his cold and slightly contemptuous justice Two attempts were made to assassinate him His work m Paris, however, was now finished, and on Oct. 30 he took leave of the international troops under his command On Oct 23, while still at A1x, he had received an offer from Lord Liverpool of the office of master-general of the ordnance, with a seat in the cabinet. He accepted, though with some reluctance. He organized the military forces held in case of a Radical rising It was his influence with George IV that led to the readmittance of Canning to the cabinet after the affair of the royal divorce had been settled It was only in 1822, however, that the tragic death of his friend Londonderry (Castlereagh) brought him once more into international prominence Londonderry had been on the eve of starting for the conference at Vienna—later adjourned to Verona—and the mstructions which he had drawn up for his own guidance were handed over by Canning, the new foreign secretary,

to Wellington, whose official part at the congress is outlined elsewhere (See Verona, Concress or) Unofficially, he pointed out to the French plenipotentiaries, arguing from Napoleon’s experience, the extreme danger of an invasion of Spain, but at the same time explained, for the benefit of the duke of Angouléme, the best way to conduct a campaign in the Peninsula. Wellington disliked Canning’s aggressive attitude towards the autocratic powers, and viewed with some apprehension his deter-

mination to break with the European concert

He realized, how-

ever, that m the matter of Spam and the Spanish colonies the British Government had no choice, and in this question he was

in complete harmony with Canning

This was also at first the

case in respect to the policy to be pursued in the Eastern Question raised by the war of Greek independence Both Canning and Wellington were anxious to preserve the integrity of Turkey, and therefore to prevent any isolated intervention of Russia; and Wellington seemed to Canning the most suttable instrument for the purpose of securing an arrangement between Great Britain and Russia on the Greek question, through which it was hoped to assure peace in the East. In Feb 1826, accordingly, the duke was sent to St Petersburg (Leningrad), ostensibly to congratulate the emperor Nicholas I on his accession, but more especially— to use Wellington’s own words—“to induce the emperor of Russia

to put himself in our hands”

sor In this object he signally failed. As

a diplomatist the “Iron Duke”—-whom

Nicholas, writing to his

brother Constantine, described as “old and broken (cassé)’”— was no match for the “Iron Tsar” As for the Greeks, the emperor said bluntly that he took no interest in ces messieurs, whom he regarded as “rebels”; his own particular quarrel with Turkey was the concern of Russia alone. Under stress of the immmence of the perl, which Nicholas was at no pains to conceal, the duke was driven from concession to concession, until at last the tsar, having gained all he wanted, condescended to come to an arrangement with Great Britain on the Greek question. On April 4 was signed the Protocol of St Petersburg, an instrument which—as

events were to prove—fettered the free initiative not of Russia, but of Great Britain (See TurKxey. History; Greece: History) After the death of the duke of York on December 5, 1826, the post of commander-in-chief was conferred upon Wellington His relations with Canning had, however, become increasingly strained, and when, in consequence of Lord Liverpool’s illness, Canning in April 1827 was called to the head of the administration, the duke refused to serve under him. The effect of his withdrawal was momentous in its bearing upon Eastern affairs Canning, freed from Wellington’s restraint, carried his intervention on behalf of Greece a step further, and concluded the Treaty of London, whereby France, England and Russia bound themselves to put an end to the conflict m the East and to enforce the conditions of the St. Petersburg protocol upon the belligerents. Against this treaty Wellington protested, on the ground that it involved war The battle of Navarino followed Canning died on Aug. 8, 1827, and was succeeded as premier by Lord Goderich. The duke was at once again offered the post of commander-in-chief, which he accepted on Aug, 17. On the fall of Lord Goderich’s cabinet five months later Wellington became prime minister (Jan 9, 1828). He had declared some time before that it would be an act of madness for him to take this post, but his sense of public duty led him to accept it when it was pressed upon him by the king. His cabinet included at first

Huskisson, Palmerston and other followers of Canning. The repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts having been carried in the House of Commons in the session of 1828, Wellington, to the great disappointment of Tories like Lord Eldon, recommended the House of Lords not to offer further resistance, and the measure was accordingly carried through. In May Huskisson and Palmerston voted against the Government in the East Retford question; Huskisson resigned, and the other liberal members of the ministry followed suit It was now hoped by the so-called Protestant party that Wellington, at the head of a more united cabinet, would offer a steady resistance to Catholic emancipation. Never were men more bitterly disappointed The Clare election and the progress of the Catholic Association convinced both Wellington and Peel that the time had come when Catholic emancipation must be granted; and, submitting when further resistance would have led to civil war, the ministry itself brought in at the beginning of the session of 1829 a bill for the relief of the Catholics in the face of opposition from the king and from Wellington’s own supporters Wellington, who had hitherto always opposed Catholic emancipation, explained and justified his change of front ın simple and impressive language. He had, however, to challenge the Earl of Winchelsea to a bloodless duel No mischief resulted from the encounter. As soon as Catholic emancipation was carried, the demand for parliamentary reform and extension of the franchise agitated Great Britain from end to end The duke was ill informed as to

the real spirit of the nation.

He conceived the agitation for

reform to be a purely fictitious one, worked up by partisans and men of disorder in their own interest. Wholly unaware of the strength of the forces which he was provoking, the duke, at the opening of the parliament which met after the death of George IV., declared against any parliamentary reform whatever. This declaration led to the immediate fall of his Government. Lord Grey, the chief of the new ministry, brought in the Reform bill, which was resisted by Wellington as long as anything was to be gained by resistance. When the creation of new peers was known

802

WELLINGTON—WELLS

to be imminent, however, Wellmgton was among those who counselled the abandonment of a hopeless struggle His opposition to reform made him for a while unpopular. He was hooted by the mob on the anniversary of Waterloo, and considered it necessary to protect the windows of Apsley House with iron shutters.

For the next two years the duke was in opposition

adorn the city. Wellington has ample electric tram and motor services, while its electric supply 1s from the Mangahao hydroelectrical head works (Government) near Shannon, 80 miles north. As a chef port Wellington vies with Auckland The city wags founded in 1840, being the first settlement of New Zealand

On the colonists. The capital was transferred from Auckland ın 1865 WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?~1879), English poet, was born in London, probably 1n the year 1798 He was educated at Cowden Clarke’s school at Edmonton, with Tom

removal of Lord Althorp to the House of Lords in 1834, William IV unexpectedly dismissed the Whig mmnistry and requested Wellington to form a cabinet The duke, however, recommended that Peel should be at the head of the Government, and served

Keats, the younger brother of the poet, and with R H Horne under him, during the few months that his mumistry lasted, as He met John Keats, but later quarrelled with him, In 1842 he published Stories after Nature, and in 1823, under foreign secretary On Peel’s later return to power in 1841 Wellington was again in the cabinet, but without departmental office be- the pseudonym of H. L Howard, Joseph and his Brethren For yond that of commander-in-chief He supported Peel in his Corn- the next three years Wells saw Hazlitt, as he said, “every mght,” Law legislation, and throughout all this later period of his hfe, but in 1827 the two men were estranged Wells was now pracwhether in office or in opposition, gained the admuration of dis- tising as a solicitor in London, but he went to live in the country, cerring men, and excited the wonder of zealots, by his habitual first in South Wales and then at Broxbourne, Herts, on account subordination of party spirit and party connection to whatever of his health In 1840 he left England for good. He settled at appeared to him the real interest of the nation, On Peel’s defeat Quimper, in Brittany, where he lived for some years A story in 1846 the duke retired from active public hfe He was now called Clarzbel appeared in 1845, and one or two slight sketches nearly eighty. His organization of the military force in London later, but several tragedies and a great deal of miscellaneous verse against the Chartists in April 1848, and his letter to Sir John belonging to these years are lost Wells stated in a letter to Horne Burgoyne on the defences of the country, proved that the old man (November 1877) that he had composed eight or ten volumes had still something of his youth about him But the general char- of poetry during his life, but that, having in vain attempted to acter of Wellington’s last years was rather that of the old age of find a publisher for any of them, he burned the whole mass a great mah idealized. To the umbroken splendours of his military of mss at his wife’s death m 1874. The only work he had recareer, to his honoufable and conscientious labours as a parlia- tained was a revised form of Joseph and hus Brethren, which mentary statesman, life unusually prolonged added an evening of was praised in 1838 by Wade, and agam, with great warmth, by impressive beauty and calm. The passions excited during the Horne, in his New Sportt of the Age, in 1844. The drama was stormy epoch of the Reform Bill had long passed away. Death then once more forgotten, until ın 1863 ıt was read and vecame té him at last in its gentlest form He passed away on Sept. hemently praised by D G. Rossetti The tide turned at last, Joseph and his Brethren became a kind of shibboleth—a rite of 14, 1852, and was butieti under the dome of St Paul’s BrsravcraPHy.—The Wellington Despatches, edited by Gurwood; initiation into the true poetic culture—but still the world at large Supplementary Despatches; and Wellington Despatches, New Series, remained indifferent. Swinburne wrote an eloquent study of it edited by the second duke of Wellington Unlike Napoleon’s despatches in the Fortnightly Revrew n 1875, and the drama itself was reand correspondence, everything from Wellington’s pen is absolutely trustworthy: not a wotd is written for effect, and no fact is mis- | printed in 1876, Between 1876 and 1878 Wells added various represerited. Almost all the poktical mėmozrs of the period 1830-50 scenes, which are in the possession of Mr, Buxton Forman, who contaih more or less about Wellington in his later lıfe Those of Greville published one of them in 1895. After leaving Quimper, Wells

and Croker have perhaps most of interest A good deal of information, from the unpublished Russian archives, is given in F F de Martens’ Recueil des traztés conclus par la Russie See also Sir Herbert Maxwell, Life of Wellington (2 vols, 1900) , J W Fortescue, Wellington (1925) , FE n hterature of the Peninsular War (q v.), Waterloo Campaign

qu.

WELLINGTON,

4 market town in the Wellington parlia-

went to reside at Marseilles, where he held a professorial chair, He died on Feb 17, 1879

The famous Joseph and his Brethren, concerning which criticism has recovered its self-possession, 1s an overgrown specımen of the pseudo-Jacobean drama in verse which was popular m ultra-poetical circles between 1820 and 1830 Its merits are those of rıch versification, a rather florid and voluble eloquence and a

mentary division of Somersetshire, England, at the foot of the Blackdown hils, ahd near the river Tone, 151 m. W by S of subtle trick of reserve, akin to that displayed by Webster and London by the GW railway Pop of urban district (1931), Cyril Tourneur ın moments of impassioned dialogue In 1909 4 reprint was published of Joseph and his Brethren, with 7,128 The 15th-century church of St John has a fine Perpen+ dicular tower and chancel, while the clerestoried nave 1s Early Swinburne’s essay, and remuniscences by T Watts-Dunton. English, A tower, which stands on the highest peak of the BlackWELLS, DAVID AMES (1828-1898), American econodowns, 24 m. S , was erected in honour of the duke of Wellington. must, was born in Springfield, Mass , on June 17, 1828. He graduWELLINGTON, the capital of New Zealand, the seat of ated at Willams college in 1847 and at the Lawrence Scientific government, and of a bishop ‘The governor-general also has his school, becorning assistant professor, in 1851. In 1850-65 he permanent residence here. Pop. (1927) 126,750 The city hes published with George Bliss an Annual of Scientific Discovery on the south-western shore of the North Island, on the mner shote His essay on the national debt, Our Burden end Our Strength of Port Nicholson, the site affordmg a magnificent deep harbour (1864), secured lim the appointment in 1865 as chairman of the walled in by abrupt hills. The origmal flat shore has been retlarméd national revenue commission, which laid the basis of scientific for a considerable distance and provides the site for the chief busi- taxation in the United States In 1866-70 he was special commusness part of the city, in which there are many large and imposing sioner of revenue and published important annual reports, during structures. The residential subutbs extend ovet the surrounding these years he became an advocate of free trade. The creation of hills and tertaces, and out to the seaside bays, also across the a Federal bureau of statistics ın the department of the Treasury harbour to Day’s Bay In recent years the Hutt Valley has been was largely due te his influence In 1871 he was chairman of the extensively converted to this use Two main railway lines leave New York State Commission on local taxation He did good work the town, one to Auckland and the other to Napier Reclamation in the reorganization of the Erie and the Alabama and Chattanooga operations to provide a site for a modern railway station for both failroads and on the board of arbitration for railroads In 1877 railway systems are well advanced The principal public buildings he was president of the American Social Science Association. He are governmental; the Houses of Parliament (in brick and New died in Norwich, Conn, on Nov 5, 1898 He edited many scenZealand marble) are partially completed: the town hall is an im- tific text-books, and wrote Robinson Crusoe’s M oney (1876), posifg structure founded bý King George V (as duke of York) Our Merchant Marine (1882), A Primer of Tariff Reform (1884), ih 1gor; the Victoria University College is a ted brick edifice, and Practical Economics (1885), Recent Economic Changes (1889); there are fine éducational institutions. The national museum is The Relation of the Tarsff to Wages (1888) and The Theory and established here. Several publac parks and recreation grounds Practice of Taxation (1900), edited by W C Ford,

WELLS See the tribute by W C Ford in Harpers Weekly (vol xu., Nov z9, 1898) and ane in the Journal of Poltica Economy (vol. vi. Dec 1898)

WELLS,

HERBERT

GEORGE

(1866-

), Englısh

novelist, sociologist, historian and Utopian, was born at Bromley,

Kent, on Sept, 21, 1866

His father, Joseph Wells, was a profes-

sional cricketer, the young Wells had acquamtance with those straits, compromises and vicissitudes of the Victorian “lower middle class,” which he was afterwards to descrhe, in several of his

most famous humour,

novels, with such poignant

sympathy

and nch

Grants and scholarships took him to the Royal College

of Science, at South Kensington; and in 1888 he graduated, with

first-class honours, as BSc of London University He taught science for some years, as schoolmaster and private coach: but in

1893 turned to journalism, and in 1895 published his first book, Select Conversations wth an Uncle, and began his astonishing career as a novelist with the short but vivid and powerful romance,

Tho Time Machine, At this stage, Mr, Wells was one of the brilliant group known to the ‘nineties as “Henley’s young men.” But already he had adapted his own line He was to clothe scienufic speculation in the form of fiction The Wonderful Vist and

The Stolen Bacillus and Other Stories appeared and in 1896 fallowed the grim Island of Doctar Moregu, and The Wheels of Chance, In this latter novel, Mr Wells treats the romantig aspirar

tions of the awkward and the shabby; and that strain was, later,

developed more fully in Love and Mr, Lewsham, Kipps and The

History of Mr Polly In 1897 came The Plotiner Story, a collec: tion ef tales, and The Jnvissble Man—another scientific romance. In The War of the Worlds (1898) and When the Sleeper Wakes (899) (subsequently revised, and re-published under the title The Sleeper Awakes, 1 1911), there 1s again the double interest. Mr. Wells set himself to ask, not merely what might be, but what ought to be, and the enthusiasm of the reformer was manifested. Tales of Space and Time, a callectionn of short stories, appeared in 1899, and Love and Mr Lewishamin 1900 In Anticipatzons, Mr. Wells presented his prophecies, as solid essays in constructive soclology. More essays followed in Mankind in the Making (z003). To the same period helong The First Men in the Moon (1901), The Sea Lady (1902), and Twelve Staries and g Dream (1903), The Food of the Gods (1904) 1s again scientific-sociologic romance

in A Modern Uiafua (1905) the thought was summed up.

The author was at this time preoccupied with the idea of an order of “Samurai,” self-chosen and self-dedicated aristocrats, in some degree comparable with the Guardjans mm Plato’s Republse. In this same year, 1905, came Kipps. the Story of a Simple Soul, a straightforward novel of contemporary life, which is still by many considered its author’s masterpiece 1906 saw In the Days of the Comet and The Future in America, as well as Mr. Wells’s first incursion into active politics He had been a member of the Fabian Society since 1903, but ın r906 came forward with criticisms of 1ts methods With these activities are connected This Misery of Boats (~ge7\) ard Sce:aism crd VWarrieze (1908) —both Fabian tracts in New Worids tor Oul (1903) and First

and Last Things (revised, 1917) Mr Wells explained his Socialism. The War in the Air (1908) was a further scientific romance Tono-Bungay (1909) maugurated that series of novels ın which Mr Wells dealt with contemporary history Ann Veronica, also

published in 1909, dealt with the revolt of “emancipated” young women, and The History of Mr. Polly (1910), 1s a reversion to the simple, jolly, pathetic type of Kipps. In the series inaugurated by Tono-Bungay may be placed The New Machiavelli (1911),

Marmage (1912), The Passsonate Friends (1913), The Wife of Sir Tsaac Harman (1914) and The Research Magnificent (1915) In 1914 appeared An Enghshman Looks at the World and The W orld Set Free Bealby (z915) seems a mere holiday from sexjous labours, and so does the satirical Room (1915), Mr, Wells has

written on the World War,

In Mr Britling Sees it Through

(1916), he gave a picture of the “home-front * The titles of What is Commmg? (1916) and In the Fourth Yeqr (1918) speak for themselyes, 1917 saw another philosophical work, Gog the Inus. ible King, and ın the same year the author attempted to embody

593

his philosophical ideas in fiction, with The Soul of a Bishop

In

Joan ond Peter (1918), three familiar strands are interwoven: history of a nation at war, destructive criticism of contemporary 50cial method and constructive educational ideals. Various commentaries on post-war trends were, eg, Russu im the Shadaws (1920), The Salvaging of Civtlisatzon (1921), Washington and the Hope of Peace (1922), Obviously, the most important post-war work by Mr. Wells 1s The Outhne of History (1920). He has also written a much bnefer work of the same scope--A Short History of the World (1922) Jn the general elections of 1922 and 1923 he stood unsuccessfully as Labour candidate for the University of Londan The Undying Fire (1919), Men Like Gods (1923), and The Dream (1924), are propagandist discussion; Christina Alberta’s Father (1925), is an indictment of the Lunacy Laws; Meanwhile (1927), 1n fiction form, gives an account of the General Strike; and Mr Blettsworthy on Rampole Island (1928) uses the vagaries of abnormal psycholegy, and the familar Wellsian creation of strange tribes and monsters, to produce a satire on the civilisations that lead to war We next have the intimate and sensitive ‘Introduction” to a collection of stones and poems by Catherine Weils who died in 1927 The Book of Catherine Wells was published in 1928. Mr Wells himself regards The Open Conspiracy (1928) as stating “the essential ideas of my life, the perspective of my world” Of William Chssold, which attempted a contemporary instead of an age-long conspectus, it was urged that the author confused fact with fiction in an illegitimate way, and expressed as his characters’ opinions what were really his own. Mr Wells's qualities have their defects: rapidity of judgment implies impatience towards slow democratic developments, his

strength of personal conviction entails impatience towards the convictions

of others

But he has exercised an unquestionable

influence upon his generation

WELLS, HORACE

(G. Go.)

(1815-1848), American dental surgeon,

was born at Hartford, Vt, Jan 21, 18153 He studied dentistry in Boston, 1834, and began practice in Hartford, Conn. In 1840 he

first expressed the idea that teeth might be extracted painlessly by the application of nitrous oxide gas He tested the efficacy of

the gas in this operation on his own

person in 1844 and afterwards

frequently used it ım his practice He was long thought to have been the first to use an anaesthetic in any operation, and, though

it is now known that he was preceded by Dr

Crawford Long

Cq v ), he deserves the credit of an independent discovery, which through him was first brought to the world’s attention He died in New York city Jan 24, 1848

WELLS,

SIR THOMAS

SPENCER,

ist Bart. (1818-

1897), English surgeon, was born at St Albans on Feb. 3, 1828. He was a member of Council of the Royal College of Surgeons, Hunterian professor of surgery and pathology (1878), president,

(1882) and Hunterian orator (1883) baronet.

In 1883 he was made a

He died on Jan 31, 1897. Sir Thomas is famed for his

successful and safe revival of the operation of ovarlotomy, the principles of the operation now being applied to the other abdominal viscera. His chief writings are Diseases of the Ovaries (18657 1872), Notebook for Cases of Quarian and other Abdomenal

Tumors (1865) and On Ovarian and Uterine Tumors (1882) WELLS [Theorodunum, Fontsculi, Tsdungion, Wellice, Welle), a city of Somerset, England. Pop (1931) 4,833

It lies below the

Mendip Hills and derived its name from St Andrew's Wells, which during the middle ages were thought ta haye curative properties

There was a Roman settlement on the present site, During Saxon times Wells was one of the most important towns of Wessex King Ine founded a religious hause here in 704. In 905 Wells was made the seat of a bishopric hy Edward the Elder About the year ra9x—1092 Bishop John de Villula removed the see to Bath After struggles between the secular clergy of Wells and the regulars of Bath, it was finally arranged in 1139 that the bishop should take the title of “bishop of Bath and Wells,” and should in future be elected by representatives of the monks of Bath and of the canons of Wells who were secular canons of St Augustme ‘Wells became a borough owned by the bishops before r16a, and in that

year Bishop Robert granted the first charter. Wells was represented in parliament from 1295 to 1868.

504

WELLSTON— WELSH

LANGUAGE

AND

LITERATURE

The beautiful cathedral was executed principally by Bishops tions by J Loth, Rev. Celt XXXVI et XXXVII on the dialects: Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn (1171-1191), Savaricus (1192-1205) and Transactions of the Guild of Graduates of the University of Wales Jocelyn (1206-1242) The western part of the nave, with the (Cardiff), O H Fynes-Chnton, The Welsh Vocabulary of the Bangor (1913), and Meredith Morris, A Glossary of the Demetian beautiful series of statues on the facade, is attributed to Bishop District Dulect (Tonypandy, 1910). Jocelyn With him was associated a famous architect in Elias WELSH LITERATURE de Derham, who was his steward in 1236, and died in 1245 The The earhest literature of the Cymry is preserved in about half upper half of the two western towers has never been built The central tower, 160 ft high, was built early in the 14th century; a dozen mss., written, wıth one exception, after the close of the the beautiful octagonal chapter-house on the north side, and the rath century. The most important of these, the so-called Four lady chapel at the extreme east, were the next important additions Ancient Books of Wales’, are anthologies or collections of Pieces ım the same century The whole church is covered with stone both traditional and contemporary groming of various dates, from the Early English of the choir to Up to the end of the 6th century, before Northumbrian and the fan vaulting of the central tower. Its plan consists of a nave Mercian aggression had confined the Welsh nation to its present

(161 ft. in length and 82 in breadth) and aisles, with two short

transepts, each with a western aisle and two eastern chapels

The

choir and its aisles are of unusual length (103 ft.), and behind the high altar are two smaller transepts, beyond which 1s the very rich Decorated lady chapel, with an eastern semi-octagonal apse. On the north of the choir 1s the octagonal chapter-house, the vaulting of which springs from a slender central shaft The cloister, 160 by 150 ft., extends along the whole southern wall of the nave The extreme length of the church from east to west 1s

boundaries, the whole of the district west of a line drawn roughly from the Firth of Forth to the mouth of the Exe was still Celtic

territory, and, with the exception of certain districts to be de. scribed later, spoke the British tongue, from which Welsh has developed, just as Italian has developed from Latin Traditional Literature, 550-1150—It is now generally

agreed that up to the 7th century the dominant language m Gwynedd and Dyved (the north-western and south-western corners of Wales) was Insh ‘These Irish districts were the homes of the 383 ft. The oak stalls and bishop’s throne in the choir are most important portion of the early prose literature, which, in all magnificent examples of 15th-century woodwork its vanety, is known as the Mabimogion Still stronger proof On the south side of the cathedral stands the bishop’s palace, a of the Goedelic origin of the early romances is to be found im the moated building, originally built in the form of a quadrangle by correspondence between the characters and incidents of the MabBishop Jocelyn, and surrounded bya lofty circuit wall. The hall tnogion and those of the tales of Ireland, more particularly of the and chapel are beautiful structures, mostly of the 14th century earlier cycle known as the Ultonian Fine remains of the vicars’ college, datmg from the 15th cenThe northern portion of this ancient Wales, comprising roughly tury, and other residences of the clergy stand within and near the the districts included between the Wirral peninsula

cathedral close; some of these are beautiful examples of mediaeval domestic architecture.

and the Clyde valley, was called in Welsh Y Gogledd, or the North. In many

respects the lterature emanating from this region is the best authenticated of all the cycles, because the poets of this region describe themselves and their heroes as Gwir y Gogledd, “the

The church of St Cuthbert has a fine tower with spire at the west end. It was originally an Early English cruciform building, but was much altered during the Perpendicular period men of the North.” This poetry represents the origmal Celtic Fairs were granted before 1160. But Wells is now ecclesiastical tradition ın literature, and therefore umites Welsh literature to The theological college is well known. The diocese covers all the indigenous literature of all Aryan nations The names of two Somerset except Bedminster. poets are connected with this cycle, Talzesin and Aneirin, and it WELLSTON, acity of Ohio, US.A Pop. (1920) 6,687, and 5,319 in 1930. Coal and iron are mined extensively, and there are 1s unified into one cycle by the fact that we have here a school of poetry based on a genuine and historical tradition ; that is to furnaces, foundries and machme shops To the north is Lake say, all the poems contamed in it are concerned with historical Alma park. Wellston, founded in 1871 by Harvey Wells, was heroes who actually hved in F Gogledd about the 6th century, chartered in 1876 and not with the myths of the early gods for which we must WELLSVILLE, a city of Ohio, USA Pop (1920) 8,849; look to the Mabmmogion m the Western Cycle This manner of in 1930, 7,956. The region is rich in clay, coal, oil and gas, song persisted in Wales in its greatest vigour under the princes and the

manufactures include terra cotta, sheet iron, iron James Clark, of Washington acres here, transferring it to

yellow and white pottery, sewer pipe, castings and machinery. In 1795 county, Pa., bought a tract of 304 his son-m-law, Wilham Wells, after

of Gwynedd, whose court was at Aberffraw in Anglesey, and afterwards, after the loss of Welsh independence in 1282, in the houses of the uchelwyr, the anstocracy. It underwent a great whom the town was named. It was chartered as a city in 1890 quickening under the influence of France in the 14th century and, after many vicissitudes, still flourishes in our day in what WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Welsh is is known as the Mesurau Caethion—“Un-free Metres” Its the Celtic language of Wales Old Welsh (800-1100), is known to preservation, as we shall presently see, was mostly due to Gronwy us almost entirely by means of isolated words or glosses. The Owen (1723-69) in the 18th century, and to Sir John Morristerm “cymro” or “fellow-countryman” dates from the 7th cen- Jones in our own day Thus have the primitive modes of the tury. It has been therefore impossible to record the phonetic Aryan heroic poetry descended to us in the 20th century in a system or the grammatical structure of the oldest forms in any manner which is probably unparalleled in any other country detail, The Middle Welsh period (1100-1500) is better known The eastern and central portion of ancient Wales comprised through a greater supply of valuable material. The symbol JJ to the country of the ancient Ordovices This corner of Wales, denote a voiceless / appears in middle Welsh. But rh (voiceless which came afterwards to be called Powys, or the “Settlement,”

r) dd (= Eng. th in “thou”) and f=v become regular in the modern period. As compared with Old Insh the inflectional system has become simple There are only faint traces of case fotms, the dual and the neuter gender. The infixation of pronominal objects, between the verbal participle and the verb itself continues in use to the present day. Four dialectical groups known, two Northern—(Powys and Gwynedd), spoken m Anglesea, Carmarthen and Merioneth, and two Southern, (Dyfed and Gwent), spoken in Cardigan, Carnarvon and Glamorgan

BrpriocraPHy.—John E. Southall, Wales and Her Language (1893) ; Tke. Welsk Language Census of 1901 (1904, wıth a map of yates) Sir John Rhys The Welsh People, 4th Ednlinguistic (1906), Chap. XII (Language and Literature); J Morris Jones, A Welsh Grammar Historical and Comparative Part I (1913) with addıtıons and correc-

had as its chief town the ancient Pengwern, not far from the modern Shrewsbury

It is probable that Powys had been pro-

foundly affected by Roman influences, which are reflected in its characteristic literature The product of this district was the early englyn, a form of epigrammatic verse unknown in the heroic poetry of the North, and which, if the present writer, following Sir John Rhys, is right?, was developed directly from the Latin "They are The Book of Anewin, c 1250, The Black Book of Carmarthen, c. 1170-1230, The Book of Taliessın, c. 1275, and The

Red Book of Hergest, c. 1375-1425 All four and printed by Dr. Gwenogvryn Evans

have

been

copied

*Sir John Morris-Jones in his Cerdd Dafod, mantains that the

hexameter and the englyn are independent developments of the same Aryan form.

WELSH

LANGUAGE

elegiac couplet, as recorded on British tombstones

These early

englymon, some of which have been preserved in the oldest ms

of Welsh poetry (the Juvencus ms at Cambridge), were assigned by tradition to Llywarch Hen, and it 1s probable that the bulk of them, in their original form, 1s the work of a poet of that name flourishing in the 6th or 7th century Whether they have any direct connection with the Lat hexameter or not, they have marked characteristics which separate them from the more primitive poetry of Y Gogledd This song of the East is, comparatively speaking, sophisticated and literary; it is elegiac and re-

flective m tone, and is almost exclusively a lament for dead fnends or the glory that is no more

great reserve and bleakness

In form, it is marked with

That tract of Celtic territory which is roughly included in the modern counties of Cornwall and Devon, the home of the ancient Dumnonii, seems to have been left alone by the Romans By the tnumph of the West Saxons at the battle of Deorham in 577, the Bntons of this district were, with their kinsmen of Somerset and Gloucester, completely cut off from the rest of Wales. In

the extreme west of their land, however, że., in Cornwall, they still spoke the British tongue well into the 18th century, though they made no direct contribution to Welsh literature But they had a share in the matenal of literature, which, in its effect upon the world, is of greater importance than all the rest, for to them must be given the credit of cradling the legend of Arthur. The earliest Welsh hterature knows httle or nothing of Arthur

The Northern Cycle.—In the additions to the work of the

historian Nennius, dating from about the oth century, we are told that in the time of Ida son of Eobba (reigned A.D 549-559), five poets sang in the British tongue, Talhaearn Father of Song, Neirm, Taliessin, Bluchbard and Cian Of the first and the last two we know nothing, but a large amount of poetry purporting to be the work of Nemm, or as he is generally known Aneirin, and of Taliessin has been preserved. Much controversy has raged around these names, but we here accept the conclusions of Sir John Morris-Jones, that a large portion of the verse assigned to Aneirin and Tahessin was actually sung in the 6th century Aneirin

is the reputed author of the Gododdin, but it is clear that what we possess to-day is a much later version of the orginal poem with additions by later hands The Gododdsn belongs to the Celtic and Aryan Heroic Age, which had probably come to an end by the close of the 6th century But imitations of the manner and substance of the Heroic Poetry persisted for almost 800 years, that is to say, throughout the whole period of those bards known as the Gogynfesrdd, or the post-primitive bards All the heroic poetry of the Aryan nations was probably sung or recited when the heroes whom it celebrated were still in the flesh, and it is likely that the original poet of the Gododdin described scenes which he had himself witnessed and heroes with whom he had caroused in the mead-hall. Aneirin’s poem describes the warnors, mostly men of the Gododdm, who went to battle at Catraeth against the Angles of Bernicia and Deira We know from ancient geographers that the Gododdin (Votadini) were a tribe in the south-east of Scotland, and it 1s generally agreed that Catraeth was situated at Catterick in Yorkshire. The Gododdin does not describe the battle itself, but rather the heroes who went to it A note of melancholy underlies the whole of the poem, though it is concerned with two events that are prominent m all heroic poetry—the carousal and the fight. But what marks the Gododdin

as different from most heroic poems is that 1t tells of heroes who fought and lost; its champions go singing to battle, but after

that, silence Other heroes merrily drink the mead, and slay their enemies in their great joy; here the heroes drink, and their foes exult over the fallen drunkards. The poetry of Taliessin is more varied, and somewhat more primitive in character. Of the mixed collection attributed to him, we may safely assume that most of the poems dealmg with Urien and his son Owein, lords of Rheged in the North,—the Uryence

AND

LITERATURE

505

bardic art of the Northern Cycle The diction is simple. In addition to the historical poems, there are some songs of Tahessin that deal with the early myths of the Welsh, and it is probable that these are by a later hand. The Eastern Cycle—The earliest poetry in this cycle is probably not much later than the genuine work of Aneirin and Taliessin. It is written in stanzas of three or four lines called englyn (pl englymon), and is important as the probable channel by which those outside influences travelled which quickened the conventional court poetry of the North The first examples, traditionally the work of Llywarch Hen, describe the desolation and waste that followed in the tram of the Mercians who had sacked the court of Cynddylan at Pengwern One very special characteristic marks all this englyn poetry,—the poet is always in solitude, and whether he meditates on the unhappy things of old or the desolation of the present or on external nature, he treats all his themes from the same point of view. Is the theme war?— then the poet is the sole survivor of his lord’s retmue and his own family of gallant sons Is it reigion?—then he is an anchorite in the wilderness, stillmg the weary restlessness of his heart with the sight of a bleak and unfriendly nature. He always stands in the anghenedl, in the desolate no-man’s land, and turns to the only consolation which is left to him, now that he has no longer the merry candle-ht mead-hall and the society of his fellows He turns to nature, not as Wordsworth did to seek a mystical union, but objectively to find a new interest, and an analogy to his own bleak condition Thus was developed a new kind of verse which is divided into well-marked stages, first the desolation of a ravaged country side; then the plamts of a lonely old age; then the reflections of a hermit who describes, rather than interprets, the sights and sounds of nature; then the longing of the lover who unifies all beauty ın the crucible of his own imagination; and finally, in the poet-princes of the Gogynfeirdd period, we find a new element, the love of country and one’s own people, though the verse is no longer in englyn form. This attitude towards nature persisted throughout the whole history of Welsh poetry, and 1s nowhere more deeply marked than in the Snowdon poets of the roth century, Ieuan Glan Geirionydd and Glasynys. The earliest of these englynzon contained m the Juvencus ms , are simple, and as yet contain no hint of a consciousness of external nature Later this kind of poetry degenerated mto a conventional gnomic verse which utilized well-known forms, as in The Hall of Cynddylan, to introduce a proverb at the end of each stanza. Closely connected with this poetical genre are the Verses of the Graves, in which some unknown poet lets lus fancy wander over the whole of Wales, and describes the places where the warriors of old are buried. The Western Cycle—In the extreme Western portions of Wales (i.e., Anglesey with the opposite coast of Arvon, and the peninsula of Lleyn which still bears its Irish name of “the land of the Leinster men,” and Dyved) the old Irish civilization died hard. Here grew up the legends which were utilized by some one to form the Mabinogion, that choicest flower of the Welsh genius. It is likely, however, that the impulse which caused their final re-

duction to writing came from outside It was when the Norman, in the early part of the r2th, or even perhaps in the rrth century, began to reproduce in his own tongue the marvellous stories of Britain, that Welshmen began to realize the value of their own traditions. Welsh writers treated those traditions m many different ways. (1) They reduced to writing the cyvarwyddyd, the spoken tale which formed the stock-in-trade of the lower orders

of the wandering bards; this became what is called the Four

Branches, the Mabinogion proper, namely, Pwyll, Branwen, Mana-

wydan and Matk

(2) They translated into Welsh the stories

which had already been put together in France from Welsh mate-

rial, and thus we have Peredur, the Lady of the Fountain, and Geraint. These tales were not all treated alike; to Peredur much was added from independent Welsh sources, to The Lady of the at all. (3) They and Vvain of Arthurian Romance—are genuine and contempo- Fountan a httle less, and to Geramt hardly any took an old Arthurian folk-tale of south-west Wales, added to it rary with the heroes whom they celebrate Here we have no in origin, and proIrish it of much sources, other from material flowers of rhetoric, none of the craftily worded hyperbole of Gulhwch and Olwen. (4) mark of later practitioners of the duced the charming jumble known as

praise, which is the certain

WELSH

506

LANGUAGE

British tradition, as distinguished from the British-Inish material found in the Mabsnogsan proper, had already supplied Geoffrey of Monmouth with the basis of his great work the Gesta Regum,; some of this was now re-hashed and mixed with traditions net known to Geoffrey and became the two stories of the Dream of Macsen and Lludd and Llevelys (5) Some time after 1160, when the Arthurian stories had been already disseminated all over Europe, a purely “hterary” cyvarwyddyd was composed, an independent tale imagined for the first time by the author on the model of other Arthurian romances, and this was named the Dream of Rhonabwry.

The Mabmogion, dated about aD 1100 was by no means the beginning of Welsh prose, but it was the first attempt to utilize prose for purely artistic purposes The Lows of the Hywel Dda

m the roth century, shows that Welsh prose had been for centuries used as the vehicle for legal documents The contrast between the Mabinogiom with their directness, their restraint, their

AND

LITERATURE

tale which was eventually written aş Mabinogion, They might be conjurors and court entertainers, and even jesters, but they

were forbidden to use the metres or the subjects of the higher

orders, Across this classification, which 1s somewhat analogous ta

a similar division in Ireland, cuts another, based on an entirely different principle,—the grading of the bards according to degrees

of proficiency. This classification was educational, and lay at the root of all learning in Wales. There is reason to believe that these two classifications had widely different origms, The former was probably inherent in the tribal system of the Celtic con.

querors of Wales, the latter was of religious origin, and grew out of the drmdic system

It was this latter classification which te.

mained in Wales after the loss of its jndependence, its essential

feature, the relation of disciple and teacher, has persisted almost

to our day, Jn the time of Henry IV, it led ta the holding of an eisteddfod, or session of the bards, ta canfer certificates of pro-

ficiency, and to preyent the lower orders from flooding the coun. disciplined selection, and the French Arthunan romances, with try and drifting into mere mendicancy. The modern “National their extreme sophistication is to be noted

Though the Mabino-

gion are a mass of irrelevances, though they would be laughed at by a school-hoy writing a story as a task, yet they are immortal,

The

Gogynfeirdd,

1150-1350.—During

the dark ages of

Welsh poetry, that 1s to say, hetween the 6th and the 12th centuries, httle poetry was produced, or at least preserved, Jt is true

that here and there in the “Four Ancient Books” are found poems which belong to this period; they are for the most part religious, composed probably not by the regular bards, but by the inmates of the monastic institutions where the mss. were copied Others, again, such as the fragment, mn the Black Book, of a lost Trystan and Esyllt poem, lead us to suppose that we have preserved for us only mmute fragments of a large corpus of literature dealing with such legends as underlie the Mabimogion and the romances. With the consolidation of the principality of Gwynedd under Gruffudd ap Cynan (1054-1137) and his descendants, a new song suddenly appears in that province It is as 1f a new hope had informed the activities of the bards, and the first notes tell of spring and renewed vigour. It 1s certain, however, that the poems of the first bards of this period are the culmination of long ages of literary activity of which there is now no record Critics of the last century tried to account for this sudden change by attributing it to the influence of Ireland, seemg that Gruffudd ap Cynan of Gwynedd was half an Irishman and had spent his youth in Ireland, and that his contemporary Rhys ab Tewdwr, king of south Wales

(d 1093), was thought to have been an exile in Ireland There are undoubted traces of Irish influence on the works of the bards, and especially on music, but as far as poetry 1s concerned it can be explained by the fact that Anglesey, where the court of Gwynedd was situated, had always been the stronghold of the

Trish in Wales.

The court poetry of the Gogynfeirdd was the

direct and inevitable development of the work of the primitive poets (Cynfeirdd) of the Northern Cycle It was in Gwynedd that this ancient heritage found its home, and it is in Gwynedd that the classical tradition flourishes to this day, Thus we may say that modern poetry in the ‘unfree metres’ represents the unbroken tradition of the Northern Cycle modified and augmented by the contribution of Powys, the Eastern Cycle, The Bardic System.—The organization and position of the bards of this period m the social and political life of the country seem to be peculiar to the Celtic peoples. They were divided into grades, the upper grade or Pencerdd (chief of song”) bemg a high officer of the court, whose duty it was to sing the praises of his lord and his family, and of God and the saints He was forbidden to sing of love and nature, and his field of song was mapped out and prescribed. He was not only the hard of the court, but was a kind of metrapolitan pf poetry for the whole province; under him came the Bardd. Teulu (the bard of the king’sguards) who did for the king’s household what the Pexncerdd did for the king himsalf, He also was rastricted as to subject, but

he might sing of love and mature, and such songs as wauld please

the ladies but he distasteful ta the virile warrior kings, Last of all çame many kinds of Cerddorion (musicians) who might be permitted ribaldry and satire, and who told the cyvarwyddyd or

Eisteddfod” is a development of the end of last century, which

goes back to small eisteddfoday held by learned societies at the

end of the 18th century. It was at the end of the 18th century, too, that the “Gorsedd of the Bards” was devised

One of the natural results of a bardic system of this type was an unparalleled conservatism in literature. Most of the 13th century bards, presently to be discussed, use a conventional diction which was consciously archaic, not only in 1ts vocabulary, but even m its

grammar and idiom

It could nat possibly be understaod by any

but those classes whose education had included the study of poetry, indeed it is doubtful whether the princes to whom this poetry was addressed, and who spoke a language not widely diiferent fram our modern Welsh, could understand these Gogynfedd any hetter than we can to-day, This archaicism was one of

the means by which they produced that “exquisiteness,” the aim of all bardism, and non-Celtic critics often find 1: extremely Farc

ta appreciate an artistry the methods of which differ so widely

from those of their own

Bardism often went hy families, and the first names of the

new period are those af Meilir, hig son Gwalchmai, and his grand-

son, Meilir ap Gwalchmai, who were attached to the court of Gwynedd at Aberffraw

Gwalchmai (f 1250~ge) has left on rac

ord his Gorkoffedd or “Boasting,” a spring-song typical of much that was contemporary in Ireland, Unfortunately the text is extremely defective, and we can only pick out the meaning of the poem here and there In his Praise of Owein, he displays ane characteristic of all the Gogynfeirdd, description af water, whether of trver or sea Nearly all the great posts pf this perad get their finest effects when they picture the waves red with the blood of

their enemies,

The traditional master of the archaie was Cynd-

delw (ff. r159-1200), the court bard of the prince of Powys.

The official bards of this period all used the same material and

ysed it in the same way Song and its modes were prescribed for them, and to go beyond the stated limits was tq he yn-bardic, In the roth century, Islwyn in his greatest poem cried that the muse should have “eternity for its path”; it was the cry of the great revol- against che conventions th.i have often clogged all thought in Welsh poetry. But then, the poetry of the bardic tradition was

not measured by the depth and extension of its thought, but by its exquisiteness, its value was ornamental, and to he in 4 position to

judge Cynddelw and his contemporaries, one must think of a

culture that sought not to interpret hfe but to adorn it, Now and then would burst inta sang a prince of the royal house, who was

nat of the order of the bards, hut who sang because Gad had set

a song in his heart and on his hps

Two such princes, Owein

Cyfeiliog of Powys (d 1197) and Hywel ah Qwein of Gwynedd (d 1179), stand out in clear distinction from the contemporary

bards

Qwein Cyfeiliog’s most famous work is the Hyrlas (The

Long Grey Drinking Horn), in whieh he describes hig warriors

making merry over the mead after a victorious fight Hywel ab Owein, soldier, Jover and patriot, was killed with his fosterbrothers fighting against his own kin at the battle of Pentraeth in Anglerey in 1179, His departure fram convention is even mare striking than that of Cyfeiliog; for the first time in Welsh literar

WELSH

LANGUAGE

ture We get the love of country, its scenery, its people, and its language, extolled as objects worthy of song Hywel loved beauty, in the modern sense, that is to say, he found that land and sea

and women and the Welsh speech spoken in cultured accents by

bis lady, all awoke in him the emotion of awe and wonder, and he unifies in his own experience all these beautiful things; they

depend one Upon the other; they are not merely beautiful for

their own sakes, they are part of a universal beauty He thus strikes what seems to us, satiated with the bardic praises and

pattle songs, a very “modern” note. The Gogynfeirdd alternate throughout this period between marwnad (praise of the dead) ad mokant (praise of thë hving) till the tıme when the English

conquest of Wales removed from Welsh life the occasion of both. The period ends with thé most famous of all the Welsh marwnadeu sung by Gruffudd ap yr Ynad Coch, after the death of Llywelyn the last prince of Wales.

The Later Gogynfeirdd.—-With the princes and their pageantry, there passed away the older modes and conventions of Welsh poetry. For the next 100 years, that is to say, from about 1280 to 1380, a new kind of poetry held the field. The audience that could once accept and understand the intncate and involved awdl of thë old period could no longer find the means to educate themselves for the understanding of ıt The old metrés still remained, but the language became simpler The poetical conventions which governed the old poetry having been thus in part re-

linquished, it was necessary to invent a new presentation of poetry,

which contained some element that could be regarded as a substitute for them The poets who sang in the years between the English Conquest (1282) and Dafydd ap Gwilym seem either to have returned to an éarlier poetic fashion or to have been greatly influenced by new ideas from Ireland. The probability is that both suppositions aré true, that is to say, that the poets of the bardd téeulu class, whose work has not been presetved, were greatly influenced in the trth century by the poetry of Ireland,

but that this influence dıd not penetrate into the work of the penceirddiaid until the loss of Welsh independence had madè them more directly dependent on what (to use an anachronism) might be called middle-class opinion Whereas in the early period “exquisiteness” was sought in archart precision and in the suggestion of older modes, the new poets employed colour and form to an extent bitherto unknown in Welsh poetry, and unparalleled in later times Dress, jewels, armour, ore desctibed in such a way as to convey to the mind of the modern redder exactly the same suggestion ås he gets from the old Insh jewels, such as the Tara brooch. In the same way a lady’s

hair and cheeks, her form and gestures, even her silences are amply and precisely described

in poetic words

The farnous names

in this period are those of Gruffudd ap Maredudd, Gruffudd ap Davydd, and Casnodyn, who all flourished in the first half of the 14th century. The Golden Age of the Cywydd, 1350-1450.—-The conquest

of Wales by Edward I did not put an end to the poetry associated with the royal courts of Gwynedd and Powys Its effect was to transfer its patronage from the princes to the smaller land-owners, and to dumimgh the prestige which it enjoyed in Wales. Henceforth there was to be no legal recognition of the pencerdd and his particular department of song at the expense of the bardd teulu, all the political changes in Wales served to dimitsh the

prestige of the batds who had been associated with the native

princes, and to give an opportunity to the lower orders whose work

had not hitherto been regarded as merituig preservation by the coypists Indeed, in south Wales, where the Normans had been

established for a whole century before the conquest of Gwynedd

m 1282, the old song had probably died out, and the lower orders in the South had thus had an earher opportunity of becoming

vocal While Gruffudd ap Maredudd and Casnodyn in Gwynedd were still, though ın a simpler form, following the old conventions

of the gwawd, the pencerdd’s song, the unknown bards of south Wales were developing ari entirely new literature of which we have

ho trace in the mss. before the work of Davydd ap Gwilym, who

like his contemporary Chaucer in England, thay be regarded, in his own land, as the father of modern poetry.

AND

LITERATURE

507

Davydd ap Gwilym._Davydd ap Gwilym was probably born about 1320 His family are associated with Dyved, but he seems to have spent most of his time at the home of his patron Ivor Hael in Morgannwg

In the first of his periods he wrote according to two entirely

distinct traditions. His awdlau to his patrons, his uncle Llywelyn and Ivor Hael, follow the strictest conventions of the later Gogynfeirdd; he sang these as a penderdd At the same time, he produced a large body of poetry in what must be regarded as the tradition of the bardd teulu These are cywyddau and traethodlau. The cywyddau are in couplets of seven syllables, one rhyme being accented and the other unaccented, in this first period they are not regularly in cynghonedd (alliteration) as the rules of the pencerdd’s song demanded. His other form, the traethodl, is also in couplets of seven syllables, but both rhymes are unaccented and there is no cynghanedd at all From the fact that his cywyddau are the earhest known, and that his name was always associated with the cywydd by his contemporanes, he has come to be regarded as the inventor of the cywydd There is, however, ample reason to suppose that Davydd’s work was only the culmination of a long process of development among the beirdd teulu mn south Wales who, both politically and socially, had been for a century cut off from the mam tradition of Welsh poetry, His important advance was in diction Up to this time, poetry was written in a conventional and deliberately archaic language. Davydd ap Gwilym, in is cywyddau, discarded altogether the old archaisms, and wrote in the ordinary language of the educated Welshmen of his own time His successors followed Ins lead, and the old diction was discarded for ever. He thus established the standards of modern Welsh The substance also of his poetry was new. Up to his time, the bards were confined by regulation to a few well-defined subjects, and the poetic art had now degenerated into a kind of jugglery with chchés Davydd however had listened to the songs which were then delighting the ordinary educated man un Europe, and he reproduced them in his cywyddau, Much has of late been written about his sources, and the question is not yet settled But we can trace the chief influences on his work, namely the song of the clerici vagantes, thè wandering minstrels, and of the trouvéres of France His own county Glamorgan had a bilingual aristocracy speaking both Welsh and French, and was thus especially open to outside influence The conventional divisions into which the poetry of the troubadours and trouvéres is divided, aubade, serenade, tenson, pastourelle, and so on, are faithfully and minutely reproduced in his work, Besides this, a large part of his poetry is derived from the popular songs of wandering minstréls, in Latm, French, and probably in English, in other words, whatever had become the theme of song in the Europe of the rqth century was introduced by Davydd into his cywydd He has, without much discrimination, been hailed as the greatest of love poets, but this 1s certainly to misunderstand his work. Of love poetry, as such, he has very little; love is a peg on which he hangs his exquisite nature poems, and it is in these that we must find his greatest contribution to the poet’s interpretation of life In his nature poems he made use of two conventions, the foreign convention of the Jlatai ot love-méssenger, and the purely native tradition of the dyvaked or descriptive poem. The first part of the poem is generally a conventional statetnent of his love for a lady, the second a short address to a bird, or 4 fish, or a natural

feature, such as the cloud or the wavé, praying it to take a message to the lady; the third and main portion 13 a minute description of the messenger. Davydd has been calléd the “Wordsworth of Wales,” but theré is no comparison between him and Wordsworth as nature-poets. To Davydd, nature is purely external, 1t has no mystical significance. But his treatment of ıt, curiously like that of his countryman W. H. Davies, invests it with a new wonder and significance Davydd ap Gwilym’s Contemporaries.—Davydd’s influence was twofold; not only was the cywydd established as the leading form, but the new subjects came to be recognized as themes fit for poetry. Oné of his oldest contemporaries, Gruffudd ab Adda (ff 1350), wrote a cywydd “to a birch-tree that Had been

508

WELSH

LANGUAGE

AND

LITERATURE

made into a maypole at Lianidloes,” which goes much further Llfn (1535-80) and Sién Phylip (c. 1543-1620) are among the great poets of the Silver Age of the cywydd. than Davydd 1n the direction of the modern conception of nature The Rise of Modern Prose.—One of the most striking features It has now been proved that Iolo Goch (¢ 1320-1400) was not Owen Glyndvir’s family bard, and that most of the poems to of Welsh literature is the almost entire absence of prose between Glynd@r popularly attributed to him were written neither to 1300 and 1550 The two political movements during this period Glyndŵr nor by Iolo Goch His greatest work is a cywydd to the the revolt of GlyndWr and the accession of Henry VII. had suf. Llafurwr (Husbandman) which shows traces of contemporary ficient of romance in them to repel the historian and to capture English ideas as seen, for instance, in Prers Plowman. Llywelyn the poet What prose the nation required it found im the tales Goch amheurug Hen (ff 1360-1400) wrote some of his earlier of romance, 1n the legends of Arthur, of the Grail, and of Charlepoems in the Gogynfeirdd tradition, but his Elegy to Llencu magne The little prose that was produced consisted of exercises m Llwyd, bis best-known work, ıs a cywydd and combines with extravaganza called Arazth, similar to the Rethasrec of Ireland, strnking success the Welsh tradition of the elegy with the imThe first Welsh book, Yn y Lhyvyr hwn, published in + 546, ported form of the serenade. Other poets almost contemporary consisted of extracts in Welsh from the Scriptures and the prayer with Davydd were Gruffudd Llwyd ap Davydd (f 1380-1410), book Probably in the same year was published William Saleswho sang two superb cywyddau to Owen Glyndŵr, and Rbys Goch Eryri (¢. 1365—1448) who is chiefly famous for his literary quarrel on the nature of true poetry with S:ıôn Cent and Llywelyn ap y

Moel, the author of a cywydd which gives a spirited description of one of Glynd¥r’s battles The most elusive figure in this period is Siôn Cent, to whom are attributed a large number of cywyddau brud or semi-poltical songs, and cywyddau’r byd, similar in every respect to the poems du temps jadis, so popular in every country in Europe at the beginning of the 14th century, and exemplified in the works of Villon, Dunbar, Menot and Mannque It is probable that these poems are by many hands, but the dominant thought of them all is so characteristic that it is found convenient to refer them to the traditional name of Siôn Cent. Davydd ap Gwilym’s Successors.—With the dawn of the 14th century the cywydd enters a new period The poets purified the cywydd from the last traces of the old convention Davydd Nanmor (c. 1435-95) in treatment of his subject and in imagination is ınferior to most of Davydd ap Gwilym’s contemporaries, but in his mastery of the cywydd form he has no equal. His poem to “Llio’s Hair” and his “Maiden’s Elegy,” among others, mark the zenith of that conception of poetic art which aimed at simplicity. Lewis Glyn Cothi (f. 1450-85) and Guto’r Glyn (f 1433-69) show a further advance in the handling of the cywydd metre. In their work we detect for the first time a real consciousness of nationhood among the Welsh Other

poets of this period were Maredudd ap Rhys (ff 1430-50), Hywel Swrdwal (f. 1460), Tudur Penllyn (f# 1470) and Davydd Llwyd ap Llywelyn (f. 1447-86).

bury’s Oll Synnwyr Pen, a collection of proverbs From now on Welsh prose literature begins to take definite form, and may be studied under four headings. (1) The Reformation (2) The Counter-Reformation (3) The Welsh Renaissance (4) Puritanism The Reformation.—The most important name among this group of writers is that of William Salesbury (c 1520-95) who devoted a long life to supply what he considered the means of salvation for the Welsh people, namely the Scriptures in Welsh and the ability to read and understand those Scriptures. His work,

begun ın 1546, culmmated in his translation of the New Testa. ment published in 1567

This work was largely experimental, as

Welsh prose had not hitherto been used to express abstract ideas, If we consider accuracy of idiom and fidelity to the original, Salesbury’s Testament must be called a great pioneer work Unfortunately it 1s marred by his philological foibles and the mechan1cal means which he employed to make the language intelligible in every part of Wales. In the same year, 1567, was published the Welsh prayer book, translated by Richard Davies, bishop of St, David’s (1501-81), In 1588 was published the Welsh Buble

translated by William Morgan, bishop of St. Asaph (1541-1604), aided by Edmwnd, Prys This translation revised and amended by Richard Parry, bishop of St Asaph (1560-1623), and John

Davies (1570-1644) was republished in 1620, and that 1s the version which is used to this day It would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of these three translations, the Testament

of 1567 and the Bible of 1588 and 1620, ın the development of Welsh literature The translators were in a sense forming a new prose language, and for their material used the standard language of the bards as stabilized by Davydd ap Gwilym Their success was at once obvious because from 1588 onwards there has been no break in the production of Welsh prose books The first of these were naturally translations from English and Latın written with the purpose of grounding the Welsh nation in the principles of the Reformation The following are some of the most umportant books under this heading: Deffyniad y Ffydd (1595), a translation of Bishop Jewel’s Apologia, by Morys Kyffin (c. 1555-08); Perl Mewn Adfyd (1595), a translation of Coverdale’s A Spiritual and most Precious Pearl, by Huw Lewys (1562—1634); Homshau (1606), a translation of the Homilies, by Edward James (15701610); Liwyhr Hyffordd (1630), a translation of Dent’s Plam Pathway, by Robert Llwyd (156s~-c 1650), Yr Ymarfer o Dduwitoldeb (1630), a translation of Bayly’s Practice of Prety, by Rowland Vychan (¢ 1590-1667); Liyfr y Resolution (1632), &

The Silver Age of the Cywydd, 1450-1650.—For a short time there arose a school of hterary formalısts. The chief of this school was Davydd ab Edmwnd (c 1425-1500), who at the Eisteddfod of the Bards held at Caermarthen in 1451 rearranged the 24 recognized metres His poetry, apart from its great ingenuity, has little significance His poetic heir was his nephew Tudur Aled (d 1526) who made a further rearrangement of the rules of poetry, and whose poems, in execution, mark the very zenith of the bard’s craft as conceived in that age. Unfortunately he reintroduced the trychtad and the gemau llanw in their worst form, and his work, as a whole, marks a reaction towards the poetry of Iolo Goch and other poets of Davydd ap Gwilym’s penod His contemporary Gutun Owain, though too much of his mokant consists of intolerable genealogical details, could, ın his dyvalzadau, rival even Davydd ap Gwilym in his description of nature In the latter part of this period, two events of supreme impor- translation of Parson’s Christian Directory, by Dr John Davies tance occurred—the Protestant Reformation and the accession of Mallwyd (c. 1570-1644) To these must be added a work which of the Tudors The former had little immediate influence on litera- was never published, the History of Ellis Gruffydd (b c 1500) ture, except indirectly through its effect upon the language, since, This document is now at the National Library, It sheds much light with the decline of the old Catholic educational system, the on the life of the court and the army. general appreciation of literature was dimmished ‘The Tudor The Counter-Reformation.—During the years in which the policy of encouraging the spread of English at the expense of reformed religion was being established in Wales, Welsh society Welsh, and of inducing the Welsh aristocracy to emigrate to Eng- and the Welsh language were at their lowest ebb Rome had left land, almost destroyed the old Welsh culture which was altogether Wales without spiritual guidance, and the principles of the Refbound up with the language Yet for more than a century after ormation had not taken hold. Henry VIL. the bards ‘plied their craft, though patronage was much Every book during this period bewails the general ignorance.

diminished

Siôn Tudor (c. 1520-1602) satirized the new aris-

tocracy of profiteers, ‘Edmwnd Prys (1541—1623), archdeacon of Meirioneth, is best known for his “contention” with Wiliam Cynwal, and for his biting satire on contemporary manners, William

It is probable that it was during this period that the Welsh language came nearest to extinction The Catholic writers of the Counter-Reformation regarded the new religion as something im-

ported from England, and they thought that the way to preserve

WELSH

LANGUAGE

the old religion was to insist on the old Catholic culture. This was why Gruffydd Robert (c. 1535-1611), canon of Milan, published his Dosbarth Byrr, the first printed grammar of the Welsh tongue This book is not a mere grammar, it consists of a series of dis-

cussions between teacher and disciple, and m beauty of style

it stands among the greatest monuments

of Welsh prose

Other

works stimulated by the desire to preserve the old rehgion were

Gruffydd Robert’s Drych Cristianogawl (1585), Theater du Mond

(1615), a translation from the French, and two other books in

1609 and 1611 by Dr Rhosier Smyth (¢ 1546-1625), Athravaeth Grstnogawl by Morys Clynnog (c 1525-81), and Eglurhad Helacthlawn (1618), a translation from the Italan by John Salisbury All these and some others were published on the Continent

The Welsh Renaissance.—Just as Italy and other European

countries under the Renaissance turned to the Latm and Greek classics, so Wales turned to its own classical tradition of bardism The result was the publication during this period of some of the most umportant Welsh grammars. Gruffydd Robert’s Dosbarth

AND

LITERATURE

599

were forced to seek some more profitable employment Besides, the old conditions were changing, it gradually and imperceptibly came about that the poets of the alder school had no audience. The only poets who still followed the old tradition were the rich gentlemen-farmers who “sang on their own food,” as the Welsh phrase goes. A new school, however, was rising The nation at large had a vast store of folk-song, and it was this, despised and unrecorded, that became the groundwork of the new literature The first landmark in this new development was the publication in 1621 of Edmwnd Prys’s metrical version of the Psalms, and in 1646 of the first poem of the Welshmen’s Candle (Cannwyll y Cymry) of Rhys Pritchard, vicar of Liandovery (1569-1644). These works were not written in the old metres peculiar to Wales, but in the free metres, like those of English poetry The former is of great importance, as these Psalms were about the first metrical hymns in use The latter work, the first complete edition of which was published m 1672, consisted of moral verses in the metres of the old folk-songs (Pension Telyn). Many other poets of the early part of this period wrote in these metres, such as Rowland Fychan, Morgan Liwyd and Willamd Phylip (d 1669). Poetry in the free metres, however, was generally very crude, until it was given a new dignity by the greatest poet of this period, Huw Morys o Bont y Meibion (1622-1709). Most of his earher compositions, which are among his best, and which were influenced to a great extent by the cavalier poetry of England, are love poems, perfect marvels of felicitous ingenuity and sweetness Towards the end of the period comes Lewys Morys (1700-65) Hus poetry

Byrr has been already mentioned, it was followed in 1592 by the Cambrobrytannicae . . . Instttutiones of Dr. Sién Davydd Rhys (1534-c 1617), which was an attempt to set out before the learned world regulations of bardic poetry and principles of the Welsh language ‘This work is the foundation of all later grammatical studies, though Rhys was far surpassed in scientific knowledge by Dr. John Davies of Mallwyd, who published his Antiquae Linguae ... Rudwmenta m 1621 and his great dictionary Dictionarium Duplex mn 1632. The Latin-Welsh portion of this dictionary was based on the work of Thomas Wilhams of Trefriw (¢. 15so-c alone does not seem to warrant his fame, but he was the creator of a new period, the inspirer and patron of Gronwy Owen. Like his 1618), which is still in manuscript Puritanism.—So far the writers of Welsh prose had contented brothers Richard and Willam, he was an accomplished scholar. themselves with translation. It was left to a Puntan, Morgan His poetry, except a few well known pieces, will never be popular, Llwyd (16z9-59), to make an orgmal contribution to Welsh because it does not conform to the modern canons of taste. The Revival, 1750.—The middle of the 18th century was, after religious thought. He came under three influences from the outside world, namely, the Quakers, the Fifth Monarchy Men, and the 14th, the most fruitful period of Welsh literature Up to this Jacob Boehme, the German mystic His chief work Llyfr y Tri time, Wales had lain in a terrible stagnation, both social and Aderyn (The Book of the Three Birds) (1653) is a disquisition in literary, a people, who had till now never lacked self-expression in two parts, on the theory of government and on relgious liberty, literature, had become inarticulate. It was clear that one of two under the form of a disputation between the Eagle (Cromwell or things was essential if Welsh was to survive as a language of the secular power), the Raven (the Anglcans or organized culture—either a re-creating literary influence frém the outside, ichgion) and the Dove (the Nonconformists or the followers of or some great spiritual or mtellectual revival which would stir the the inner light) In this and in many other works, notably people once more into articulate expression. It was a coincidence Llythur ir Cymru (1653), he expounded a mystical gospel, which that both these events should happen in Wales at the same time The first event was the adoption by Gronwy Owen, inspired by (unfortunately as some think) had very httle influence, though Lewys Morys, of the literary standards of the English Augustan many editions of his books were published From the time of Morgan Liwyd till well m the roth century, classicists, the result was the re-introduction into Welsh poetry of translations, mostly of theological works, continued to pour out of the Welsh press, and it is almost impossible to thread one’s way amongst these thousands of books Many of them were inspired by the activities of the S P C K , and among the clergy who produced books of this description were Edward Samuel (16741748), who published among other works Holl Ddyledswydd Dyn, a translation of The Whole Duty of Man (1718), Moses Wil-

hams (1684-1742), a most diligent searcher into Welsh mss. and a translator, Griffith Jones of Llanddowror (1683-1761), the father

of Welsh popular education, Iago ab Dewi (?1644~1722) and Theophilus Evans (1694-1769), the famous author of Drych y Prif Oesoedd (1716 and 1740) This book, like Llyfr y Tri Aderyn and FY Bardd Cwsc, has an established position for all time ın the annals of Welsh literature We come now to the greatest of all Welsh prose writers, Ells

Wynn o Lasynys (1671-1734)

His first work was a translation of Jeremy Taylor’s Holy Living, under the title of Rheol Buchedd Sanctadd (1710) His next work was theimmortal Gweledsgaetheu y Bardd Cwsc (1703). The foundation of this work was L’Estrange’s translation of the Suefos of the Spaniard Quevedo The Rise of Popular Poetry, 1600-1750.—When Henry VII. ascended the throne, the old hostility of the Welsh towards the

English disappeared

Naturally enough the descendants of the

old Welsh gentry began to look towards England for recognition and preferment, and their interest in their own little country began to wane. The result was that the traditional patrons of the Welsh could no longer understand the language of the poets, and the poets

the cywydd and the awdl in all ther traditional correctness of form, but with a new and larger content Around Gronwy Owen were grouped other poets who thus established a classical school of poetry which is alive to this day, the more important among them were William Wynne of Llangynhaval (1704-60), and Evan Evans (1731-89) Much of the literary activity represented by this school was associated with the Welsh community in London, and with the establishment of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion The direct result of the efforts of the London Welshmen to preserve and spread the knowledge of Welsh literature was the establishment of local eisteddfodau which were periodically held in different parts of Wales under the auspices of the learned societies These eisteddfodau, by offering a chair for an awd! (this practice it must be noted only dates from the end of the r8th century), perpetuated the classical form, ie, cynghanedd and the unfree metres, which would have otherwise certainly disappeared. Thus Gronwy Owen is the fountain-head of modern classicism and ıt is natural that his works should be the basis of modern literary studies at the schools and in the university. His successors, the eisteddfodic bards, though greatly inferior to him in poetic power,

did much to reintroduce the knowledge of the classical forms; chief among these was Dafydd Ddu Eryri (1760-1822) who, both as a writer of awdlau and as a grammarian was the teacher of the roth century. His successor, Dewi Wyn o Eivion (1784-1841),

was the first to deviate from the strictness of the old tradition, and much of his work is strikingly deficient in quality. Eben Vardd (1802-63) was the last of the 19th century eisteddfodic

510

WELSH

LAWS

bards who made any real contribution to hterature; he is the greatest poet of the descriptive school. After him eisteddfodic poetry, #e, poetry in the classical tradition, suffered eclipse, the last 40 years of the 19th century, though an enormous mass of so-called poetry was produced, saw what was probably the nadir of popular taste The end of the 19th century was marked by a rèaction back to Gronwy Owen and Davydd ap Gwilym. The Free Metres, 1750-1890.—The classicists of the 18th century were quite unaware of the Methodist Revival, but ıt was the mtensity of the religious emotion now set free for the first time that broke the inarticulateness which had befallen Wales.

The vast store of experience and expression which had been accumulating out of sight in the Pension Telyn (Folk Poetry)

was at last displayed in the hymns of William Wilhams Pantycelyn (1717-91), almost the first poet to use the free metres for a serious purpose. Pantycelyn’s hymns in time became by themselves a kind of national hterature, and 1t was on this basis that

all modern poetry in the free metres rests, so that in judging Welsh poetry, it must always be remembered that the modern form of it is less than two centuries old Pantycelyn was followed by many hymn-writers, the last and greatest bemg Anne Griffiths (1776-1805) who alone shows a trace of that mysticism which was lost in Wales after Morgan Llwyd. The hterary mportance of the hymns les in their preparation of the Welsh language for secular poetry All the poetry of the r9th century betrays its religious ongin, the later poetry no less than the earlier, John Blackwell (Alun) (1797-1840) may be regarded as the father of the modern secular lyric. Much of his inspiration came from contemporary English songs and in originality he is inferior to Ieuan Glan Geirionydd (1795-1855) who founded the “Eryri” school of poetry inspired by the natural scenery of Snowdonia; the best known member of this school is Glasynys (1828~70). These earlier lyric writers were followed by a more Bohemian group consisting of Talhaearn (1810-69), Mynyddog (1833-77) and Ceiriog (1832-87). Ceiriog was the greatest lyrical writer of the century He was the last of the Welsh Victorians Only one poet, Islwyn (1832-78), made a success of the long poem. His Ystorm, which is a series of mystical meditations on lrfe and art, is in the first rank. Prose, 1750-1880.—For a long time after 1750 Welsh prose though abundant in quantity had a very narrow range Few writers rose above theological controversy, and the humaner side of literature was almost altogether neglected. The end of the 18th century, however, m Walés as well as in England, saw much activity in political thought, which was the direct result of the French Revolution. The most important of the early political writers was John Jones Glan y Gors (1767-1821), the author of two political pamphlets, much influenced by Tom Paine. Later when modern Liberalism began to emerge, political writing, after the establishment of the periodical press, became an important patt of Welsh literature. The greatest political thinker and writer of the century was Samuel Roberts (1800~85), who, with Gwilym Hiraethog (1802-83), may be regarded as having, through his prose writings, formed the habit of thought still prevalent in Wales. Literary criticism up to the middle of the toth century had been confined to the work of eisteddfod adjudicators who were still acting on the old classical theory, st pictura poests The first appearance of a criticism which might bė said to follow European standards was in the articles of Lewis Edwards (1809-87), the founder and editor of the Traethodydd, though his ideas were dominated by the Edinburgh school. Literary criticism made no progress at all until the great revival in the 20th century, It was in this period that Wales had her national novelist, Daniel Owen (183695), a writer of the Dickens school, who like his master “wrote mythology rather than fiction.” Hig novels, in spite of their rather obvious sentimentality, must always remain the most importaht document for the study of this extraordinary period of theocracy in Wales,

The Second ReVivalu—The most important event in Welsh hterature Was the founding of the university (1878-1905). The

immediate result was a great widening of the horizons, accompanied by a strong reattion towards the old Welsh classical ideas

The two men who had most influence on this new movement were Sir Owen Morgan Edwards (1858-1920) and Sir John Morris-Jones. The former in his numerous books, both by the charm of his style and by the lure of his smagination, made the

Welsh conscious of their literary identity, and he was certainly

the imspiring genius of the new movement on its purely hterary side The latter, by insisting that correctness was the first

essential of style and sincerity thé first essential of the literary art, revolutionized first the product of the Eisteddfod, and then hterature in general. Another critic, whose worth 1s only slowly being recognized, and whose fearless essays stung the nation into sincerity was Emrys ap Iwan (1851—96). The extent of the new literary révival 1s hardly credible to anyone whose study of Welsh ends with 1900 Almost every department of literature 1s represented by work which may bear

comparison with sumilar work ın any country m Europe. Poetry

has again become significant. Thomas Gwynn Jones has shown that the camgheredd ard the old treatin; ean answer any demand

MACE UL I une Ou” surerpre «01 of life, his work 1s, homen, aol com cee o no uca re os Robert Williams Parry has “ough ‘nk .o poetry the gift of poetic observation, expressed in a faultless technique which had disappeared from Welsh poetry with Davydd ap Gwilym The more popular poets, E1vion Wyn (d. 1926), Wil Ifan, and Crwys, though still under the domination of the old sentimental view of life, are as much the product of the new Revival of Learning as the more academic poets.

In prose there has been equal progress. A new literary criticism has been enriched by the influence of European ideas, which can

be most clearly seen im the work of Saunders Lewis. No long novel of great merit has heen witten though ‘he work of Tegla

Davies bears many

traits of pure gem.

The younger prose

writers have developed the art of the short story to a high de-

gree, the early promise of Dewi Williams has not been fulfilled,

but Kate Roberts’s work stands by itself as a striking example of the impact of contemporary Welsh life on a sensitive nature Starting with no traditions, drama has made considerable progress, though it has been retarded by material reasons, Two dramatists deserve special mention, D T Davies and R G Berry. The

Report of the Government’s Departmental Committee on Welsh suggests that the language will be more fully used in education BrsriocrapHy —(Note

only books dealing with htaeati-e ‘p conceal

or with a section of it ate included Er uor- oÙ poct cal vorh= are only mentioned when they contain en ir‘ioduct on dealuag vieu

literature) T Stephens, Literaturé of the Kymry (and ed,, 1876); Gweirydd ap Rbys, Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1300-1650 (188s) , C Ashton, Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1651~1850, J Loth; Les

Mabimogions (2nd ed, 1913), Contributions à PÉtude des Romans de la Table Ronde (1912); T Shankland, Drwygwyr Cymru, reprinted from Seren Gomer (1899), G Lleyn, Llyfryddiaeth ý Cymry (and ed., Llanidloes, 1869); C Ashton, Bywyd aè Amserau yr Esgob Morgan (Treherbert, 1891), I Ffoulkes, J Cemriog Hughes, e fywyd

az wath (Liverpool, 1887) ; I Williams, Dafyd? ap Gr. m ri Gyfoeswyr (Bangor, 1ot4); I Wilhams and H Lew «19's Geer ui (Brrror 17-25% Moi''s-Jones, Cerdd De'nd (rots). L

Fran”

Gwynn Gymry

Jones, G cits Tada 4'in (Cardiff, 1926); Llenyddsaeth y (Daien 1315., Th M Chotzen, Recherches sur la Poésie

ae De ear Garym (Arie om 1927), W J Gruffydd, Llenyddmth Cymri e 5o “Liverpool” x922), Llenyddiaeth Cymru, 15-1565 (Wroxhom ->25 I h vab Mathonwy (Cardiff, 1928)

pee elo many

atel:

m the C, wmrođor,

Transactions of the Hon

Society of Cymmrodorion’ Zettschrift fur Celtische Philologie; Revue Celtique; Cymru

(Carnarvon and Wrexham) , Bermad

(Liverpool),

Geninen (Carnarvon) , Llenor (Wrexham) (W.J Gr) WELSH LAWS or LEGES BRITANNIAE. The earhest and best manuscripts of these, whether in their original Welsh or Latin, do not date from before t1r75~1200,

Confessedly recen-

sions and reflecting current politics, they bear notwithstanding so striking a general resemblance to one another, that ıt is hard

not to credit their common tradition, namely, that they hail from

one original codification of British law and custom by King Howel

Dda (ée,, the Good), who died 950

The Welsh manuscripts

fall into three classés, éach of which begins with its ows type of

prefate

(1) Those which refer exclusively to the king of

Abetffraw in north-west Wales and give other indications that

they pertain to that kingdom, +e, Gwynedd or Venedotia, of

WELSHPOOL-—WENCESLAUS which Aberffraw in Anglesey was the chief royal residence. The

5IF

for Australia and Canada, and gave at the southern end

jurist Torwerth ap Madog (¢ 1200) would seem ta be responsible upon the stadium, which had an area of ro ac, and accom-

for this recension, which Aneurin Qwen in 1841 dubbed, not inappropriately, “the Venedotian code” (2) Those which refer

exclusively to the king of Dinefwr (anghce Dynever) in “the South,” but would seem from the preface ta have prevailed in Powys. The jurists favoured are Morgeneu and his son Cyfnerth

Owen unfortunately called these “the Gwentian code” as pertainmg to south-east. Wales, of which the manuscripts provide no

mdication. (3) Those which refer ta bath the kings of Dinefwr

and Aberffraw, stating expressly that of all the kings in Wales

gold 1s payable only to these two

But as they put Dinefwr be-

modated nearly z09,e00 people

Here were staged numeroun

ceremonies, spectacles and athletic contests. Besides those men-

tioned above, each major division of the empire overseas had its pavilion, the most notable being those of India, South Africa, New Zealand and Malaya ‘There was a British government pavilion, with, exhibits by various government departments and a scientific exhibit organized by the Royal Soclety There were

also a palace of arts, an amusement park, an artificial lake and many other features designed at once to demonstrate the vast

resources of the empire and te attract the public, (Seg alse Ex-

fore Aberffraw and refer to Rhys ap Gruffudd (d 1197), one of HIBITION’ Brisa Empire) the Dinefwr kings, and contain a special section on Dyfed or

Demetia ın south-west Wales, they certainly pertain to “the South” Owen, however, called them insufficiently ‘the Dimetian

Part of the exhibition site is now being used for new factories, film studios, ete The manor of

Wembley belonged to the priery of Kilburn until that foundation was dissolved by Henry VIIT

WEMYSS (wamz), EARLS OF, title of a Scottish family code” The jurist named im the preface is Blegywryd, who is otherwise known as having intervened in a dispute jn 955, where who had possessed the lands of Wemyss in Fifeshire since tha he is described as “that, most famous man” (Bk, of Lian Dav, 12th century, In 1628 Sir John Wemyss, created a baronet m 319), He 1s also known from seme ancient Latin verses to have

been a teacher of law in Howel’s court and to have written a hook

of Jaws for the king, which haok the king gave “ad partem dex-

teram,” ze, to “the South,” m Welsh Deheubarth, which stands for “Dextera Pars Britanniae,” the south part of Britannia or Wales (omitting however Morgannwg, the country from Swansea

to Chepstow),

That these three classes really represent law books in vogue in Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth, respectively, seems to be implied or reflected in the preface of the last mentioned class, where we are told that “Howel ordered three Jaw books to be made, one for the daily court to be always with him, another

for the court of Dinefwr, the third far the court of Aberffraw, so that the three divisions of Wales, ta wit, Gwynedd, Powys and

r625, was raised to the peerage as Baron Wemyss of Elcho; and in 1633 he bacame earl of Wemyss, and Baron Elcho and Methel, in the peerage of Scotland

He took part with the

Scettish parliament against Charles I, and died in 164g On the death of David, and earl of Wemyss (160-1679), the estates and titles passed to his daughter Margaret, countess of Wemyss,

whose son David, 3rd ear] of Wemyss, succeeded on her death

in 1795, His son James, 4th earl (1699-1756), married Janet,

daughter of Colonel Francis Charteris, who had made a Jarge

fortune by gambling. His son David, Lord Elcho (1721-1787), was attamnted for his part m the Jacobite rising of 1745, the estates passing to his younger brother James, while the title remained dormant after his father’s death, though it was assumad

by Elcho’s brother Francis, who took the pame of Charteris gn

his maternal grandfather’s estate. A reversal of the Deheubarth should have the authority of law in their midst, at inheriting ther need, always and ready.” Readers for their gmdance should attainder wag granted 1 1826 to his descendant Francis Charteris bear in mind, (1) That the earliest mss, extant were written when Wemyss Donglas (1772-1853), who had been created Baron Wemyss in the peerage of the United Kingdom in the Norman French had long interfered in Welsh affairs and had Wemyss of

1821, and had assumed the name of Charteris Wemyss Douglas already permanent possession of most of the petty kingdoms on inhenting some of the Douglas estates thraygh a female of south Wales; when also Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of ancestor. Thenceforward the title descended m the direct ling

the Kings of Britain was further confirming men’s minds i the

bizarre notions of the Welsh past, which had ongmmally been set

gomg by the book called De excidio Britanmae used by Bede.

(2) That Howel Dda was not an origina] begetter of Welsh law.

WEMYSS, parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, embracing the vil-

lage of East Wemyss, the burgh of barony of West Wemyss and the police burgh of Buckhaven

(with Methil and Inner:

@ fishing port on the north of the Firth of Forth. Coal What Howel did was to “put together the laws af Britannia” leven), mining is the principal industry, A new dock was opened at (s¢, Wales) with the consent and after the consideration of the wise men of his realm, assembled jn one place (3) That it 1s not

conducive to sound knowledge to accentyate the “triha]” nature

of the Welsh laws No term for “tribe” appears, Ta read “tribes,”

therefore, into the Welsh laws is not only to force the text, but to

obfuscate the emergence of Wales inta the Dark Age from Romano-British Christian civilization.

BrarincrapHy—A

Owen, Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales

(1841), A, W Wade-Evans, Welsh Mediagval Law (1909); T. Lewis, Llanstephan Ms. 116 (Cardiff 1912), J, E Lloyd, History of Wales

(1912) pp

283-356, G Evans, Facsimile of Clark Codex

T.P Ellis, Welsh Tribal Law (1926) Aberystwyth re

WELSHPQOL,

(1921),

x

ene

a town of Montgomeryshire, Pop (1932)

5,637. Welshpool was thrice burnt by the Llewellyngs in 1233, 1257 and 1275, and often stands out, in connection with conflicts around the red castle of the princes of Upper Powys (r2th century onwards) this castle is now the seat of the earl of Powys. The park contains some af the largest oaks ıp the country,

WELWITSCHIA; seg GYMNOSPERMS

Pop of Buckhaven, Methil and Innerleven Methil in r9r3 (1931), 17,643; af Wemyss parish, 26,619 Nets are made at Buckhaven and there are a brewery and a linen factory at Hast

Wemyss, On the shore are two square towers attributed to Mac-

duff’s castle; and near them are the remarkable caves with archaic sculptures from which the district derives its name (weems, from

the Gaelic, wamha).

family of the name.

Wemyss castle 1s the ancient seat of the

It was at Wemyss

castle that Mary,

queen of Scots, first met the earl of Darnley, in 1565, and her

room is still known as “the Presence Chamber.” WEN.

The popular name for 4 sebaceous cyst, 4¢, an ade-

noma (see TuMopR), formed from a sebaceous gland end therefore occurring in the neighbourhood of hairy parts, particularly

the scalp and neck The fatty or sebaceous material collects in the centre of the mass and the normal opening of the duct of the gland 1s ofLen recognizable on the surface as 4 minute point A wen may be as large as a hen’s egg, The treatment is surgical remoyal.

WENATCHEE, acity of central Washington, Ų S.A

Pop

(1920) 6,324 (91% native white); and in 1939 1t was 11 627 We-

natchee is the distributing centre for four fertile valleys which WEMBLEY, an urban district of Middlesex, England The population grew very iapidly since the opening of the 20th cen- constitute a vast apple orchard, with 40,090 ac, under cultivation,

tury

Population

(1931) 48,546

Wembley Park was the site

producing annually 18,099 car-loads of the finest frut

A blossom

Alpine gardens, and This covered a festival 1s held every spring There are lakes, mountain resorts within an hour’s drive, Wenatchee was chartered A main thoraughfare, Kingsway, in 1892.

for the British Empire Exhibition mm 1924-25 semi-circular

tract

of about

south and in the grounds

24 m, with railways north and

leading from the north entrance, was flanked by the palaces of industry and of hoysing and transport, and by the buildings

WENCESLAUS (1361-1419), German king, and, ag Wences-

laus TV , king of Bohemia, was the son of the empergr Charles LY,

WÊN-CHOW-FU—WENSLEYDALE

512

and Anna, daughter of Henry II, duke of Schweidnitz. Born at Nuremberg on Feb 26, 1361, he was crowned king of Bohemia in June 1363, and invested with the margraviate of Brandenburg in 1373. In September 1370 he married Joanna (d 1386) daughter of Albert I , duke of Bavaria, and was elected king of the Romans

or German king at Frankfort on June 10, 1376, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on July 6 following He took some part in the government of the empire during his father’s hfetime, and when Charles died in November 1378 became sole ruler of Germany and Bohemia, but handed over Brandenburg to his half-brother Sigismund Germany was tom with feuds, the various orders for the establishment of peace were disregarded, and after 1389 the king paid very little attention to German affairs In 1383 he inherited the duchy of Luxemburg from his uncle Wenceslaus and in 1387 assisted his half-brother Sigismund to obtain the Hungarian throne For some time Wenceslaus ruled Bohemia successfully, but he quarrelled with the nobles; and in 1394 the king was taken prisoner and only released under pressure of threats from the German princes Having consented to lhmitations on bis power in Bohemia, he made a further but spasmodic effort to restore peace in Germany He then met Charles VI, king of France at Reims, where the monarchs decided to persuade the rival popes Benedict XIII and Boniface IX to resign, and to end the papal schisms by the election of a new pontiff Many of the princes were angry at this abandonment of Boniface by Wenceslaus, who had also aroused much indignation by his long absence from Germany and by selling the title of duke of Milan to Gian Galleazzo Visconti. The consequence was that in August 1400 the four Rhenish electors met at Oberlahnstem and declared Wenceslaus deposed Though he remained in Bohemia he took no steps against Rupert TIT, count palatine of the Rhine, who had been elected as his successor He soon quarrelled with Sigismund, who took him prisoner in 1402 and sent him to Vienna, where he remained in captivity for nineteen months after abdicating in Bohemia In 1404, when Sigismund was recalled to Hungary, Wenceslaus regained his freedom and with it his authority in Bohemia His concluding years were disturbed by the troubles which arose in Bohemia over the death of John Huss, and which the vacillating king did nothing to check until compelled by Sigismund In the midst of these disturbances he died at Prague on Aug. 16, 1419. His second wife was Sophia, daughter of John, duke of Bavaria-Munich, but he left no children. See Th. Lindner, Geschichte des deutschen Reiches vom Ende des

igten Jahrhunderts tis zur Reformation, part i (Brunswick, 1875— 80), and “Die Wahl Wenzels,” in the Forschungen zur deutschen Ge-

schichte, Band mv (Géttingen, 1862-86), F M Pelzel, Lebens-geschichie des rémischen und bohmischen Komgs Wenceslaus (Prague, 1788-90); F. Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, Bande iii and iv (Prague, 1864-74), H Mau, Konig Wenzel und die rhe:msschen Kurfursten (Rostock, 1887) The article by Th Lindner in the

Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, Band xh, should also be consulted for a bibliography, and also the same wniter’s work, Das Urkundenwesen Karls IV. und seiner Nachfolger (Stuttgart, 1882).

WEN-CHOW-FU,

a city in the province of Che-Kiang,

China, and one of the five ports opened by the Chifu convention

(1876) to foreign trade, situated on the river Gow, about 20 m

from the sea The population is estimated at 80,000, The site is said to have been chosen by Kwo P’oh (AD 276~

324) a celebrated antiquary, and the town became known as Tow, or Great Bear, from a supposed topographical similarity of the neighbouring hills to the constellation Later, through another legend, it became known as the Deer city, or Luh. During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) it received its present name (“mild

district”)

The city is enclosed in a wall built in the roth cen-

tury, which is about 4m

in circumference

WENDEN or VENDEN, now Cesis or Tseziz, a small town of Latvia on the Gauja river Here are the ruins of a former castle of the Brethren of the Sword, afterwards (from 1237) of the grandmaster of the Teutonic Knights, In 1577 the garrison blew it up to prevent it from falling into the hands of Ivan the

Terrible of Russia It was rebuilt, but was burned in 1748

tern hills. Wendover is on the Upper Icknield Way and traces ofa British settlement have been found John Hampden and Edmund Burke represented the borough. From the time of Edward IV

weekly markets were held for over four hundred years, and fairs have been held in October and May from that day to this. WENDT, HANS HINRICH (1853), German Protestant theologian, was born in Hamburg on June 18, 1853 He be. came in 1885 professor ordinarius of systematic theology at He.

delberg, and ın 1893 was called to Jena His work on the teaching of Jesus (Die Lehre Jesu, 1886-90; Eng trans of second part

1892) made him widely known. He also edited several editions (sth to 8th, 1880-98) of the Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles in H A W Meyer’s series Eis works include: Die christliche Lehre von der menschlichen Vollkommenhest (1882), Der Erfahrungsbeweis fur die Wahrheit des (1897), and Das Johannesevangelium (1900; Eng. trans,, ai

1902).

WENGEN

(4,190 ft ), a health resort and winter sports cen-

tre situated on a ledge on the slopes of the Jungfrau in the Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. The place is hnked with Inter-

laken and Lauterbrunnen by a rock railway. From the Little Scheidegg a branch leads to the Jungfraujoch (11,340 ft.) where is the highest station in Europe WENLOCK, borough of Shropshire, England, on the river Severn Pop. (1931) 14,152 It includes the towns of BROSELEY,

Mavetzy and Mucw WeENLOcK (gu)

The parish of Madeley

includes Ironbridge and Coalport, with part of CoALpRooxpate

(qu)

The district contains hmestone quarries, some coal-mines

and iron-works Wenlock (Weneloche) is said to be of pre-Roman origin, but owed its early importance to the nunnery founded c. 680 by St Milburg This was destroyed by the Danes but refounded as a priory by Earl Leofric in rory. It was again deserted after the Conquest until Roger de Montgomery founded a house of the Cluniac order on its site The town was a borough by prescription, and its privileges began with the grants made to the priory and its tenants It was incorporated by Edward IV. in 1468 and the charter was confirmed in 1547 by Henry VIII and in 1631 by Charles I In the report of 1835 the borough is said to consist of 17 parishes and to be unfit for corporate government, By the charter of Edward IV the town obtained the right of sending two members to parliament, but was disfranchised in 1885 The first grant of a market and fair is dated 1227, The right is still valid

WENNERBERG,

GUNNAR

(1817-1901), Swedish poet,

musician and politician, was born at Lidköping, of which place his father was parish priest, on Oct 2, r817 In his twentieth

year he became a student at Upsala In 1843 he became a member of the musical club who called themselves “The Juvenals,” and for their meetings were written the trios and duets, music and words, which Wennerberg began to publish in 1846. In the following year appeared the earliest numbers of Gluntarne (or “The Boys”), thirty duets for baritone and bass, which continued to'be issued from 1847 to 1850 These remarkable productions, masterpieces in two parts, presented an epitome of all that was most unique and most attractive in the curious university life of Sweden In 185ọ Wennerberg travelled through Sweden, singing and reciting in public, and his tour was a long popular triumph In 1860 he published his collected trios, as The Three He suc-

ceeded Fahlcrantz in 1866 as one of the eighteen of the Swedish Academy He was minister for education (Ekklesiastikminister)

in the Adlercreutz government (1870-7 5), and sat first in the lower, then in the upper house of the legislature until he was nearly eighty He died, on Aug 24, 1001, at the royal castle of Lecké WENSLEYDALE, JAMES PARKE, Baron 1868), English judge, was born near Liverpool on March 22,(17821782, He was educated at Macclesfield Grammar school and Trinity college, Cambridge. He was a junior counsel for the Crown in

the Queen’s trial In 1834 he was transferred from the king's bench to the court of exchequer, where for some 20 years he

exercised considerable influence. The changes introduced by the _WENDOVER, a market town in Buckinghamshire, England Common Law Procedure Acts of 18 54, 1855, proved too much for Pop. (1921) 2,366. Tt is situated in a shallow defile of the Chil- ‘his legal conservatism and he resigned in December of the latter

WENSLEYDALE—WERFEL

513

ear The Government, anxious to have his services, as a law |wife of Sir Henry Johnson, and afterwards to a descendant of jord in the House of Lords, proposed to confer on him alife Anne’s daughter Margaret, Edward Noel, who was created Vispeerage, but thıs was opposed by the House of Lords (see PEER- count Wentworth of Wellesborough ın 1762 The viscountcy beAGE), and he was eventually created a peer with the usual re- came extinct at his death, and the barony again passed through mainder (1856). He died at his residence, Ampthill Park, Bed- the female line in the person of Noel’s daughter Judith to the fordshire, on Feb. 25, 1868, and having outlived his three sons, latter’s daughter Anne Isabella, who married Lord Byron the the title became extinct. Parke was perhaps the last of the great poet; and from her to Byron’s daughter Augusta Ada, whose hus“plock-letter lawyers,” the men to whom technicalities were the band was in 1838 created earl of Lovelace. The barony of Went-

breath of hfe. Of his devotion to the intricacies of pleading the stories are innumerable; best is perhaps that of his taking one

of hus special demurrers to read to a dying friend.

“It was so

exquisitely drawn,” he said “that it must cheer him to read it.”

worth was thereafter held by the descendants of this nobleman in conjunction with the earldom of Lovelace

WENTWORTH,

PETER

(1530-1596), English politician,

‘was a prominent Puritan leader in parliament, which he first entered as member for Barnstaple in 1571. He was examined by the Star Chamber in connection with a speech delivered in parliaSee E. Nanson, Bulders of Our Law (London, 1904) ment on Feb 8, 1576, and spent some time in the Tower He WENSLEYDALE, the upper valley of the river Ure in was enduring a third mmprisonment in the Tower when he died on Yorkshire, England. The valley widens into the Vale of York Nov. 10,1596 While in the Tower he wrote A Pithie Exhortation As far up as Hawes, broken hmestone crags of the valley walls to her Majesty for estabhshing her Successor to the Crown, a with high lymg moors beyond them contrast with the fertile valley famous treatise preserved in the British Museum. Peter Wentbottom. Beyond Hawes, towards the source, the valley becomes a worth was twice married, his first wife, by whom he had no chilbleak, wide, shallow drift-covered area with much wilder scenery dren, was a cousin of Catherine Parr, and his second asister of On both sides, throughout the dale, steep sided tributary valleys Sir Frances Walsingham, Elizabeth’s secretary of State His third with torrent streams are numerous Magnificent moramic hills son, Thomas Wentworth (c 1568-1623), recorder of Oxford, was may be seen between Masham and Jervaulx ‘The dale is an ardent opponent of royal prerogative in parliament, where he characterized by terraced hills caused by the fact that the lime- represented Oxford from 1604 until his death. A grandson, Srr Peter WENTWORTH (1592-1675), represented stone beds are thin and form sequences with shales and sandstones, and by abundant waterfalls. The chief falls are Ays- Tamworth in the Long Parliament, but refused to act as a comgarth Force where the Ure descends in three cascades extending missioner for the trial of Charles I He was a member of the over 14m. in length and with a total fall of over 100 ft.; Hardraw council of State during the Commonwealth; but was denounced Force near Hawes, the finest of all, which leaps over a projecting for immorality by Cromwell in April 1653, and his speech in reply ledge of limestone 96 ft. high, leaving a clear passage behind it; was interrupted by Cromwell’s forcible expulsion of the Comand Mill Gill Force on a tnbutary near Askrigg In the bed of mons. By his will he left a legacy to John Miton, and considerthe Mill Gill above the falls are narrow canyon-like gorges with able estates to his grand-nephew Fisher Dilke, who took the name peculiar solution drainage, which is also found in the Buttertubs of Wentworth; and this name was borne by his descendants until dropped in the 18th century by Wentworth Dilke Wentworth, pass near Hawes and in Oxnop Gill north of Askrigg. At Bainbridge are the remains of a square Roman camp. great-grandfather of Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke (qv). Jervaulx abbey, the ivy-clad ruins of which stand on the right WENTWORTH, WILLIAM CHARLES (1793-1872), bank of the river, was founded in 1156 by Cistercians from Byland the “Australian patriot,” was born in 1793 in Norfolk Island, the who had previously settled near Askrigg ‘The remains are mainly penal settlement of New South Wales, the son of D’Arcy Wenttransitional Norman and Early English and are not extensive. worth, the government surgeon of the settlement. The son was The chapter house, refectory and cloisters remam in part. educated in England, but he spent the interval between his schoolIn Serjeant Hayes’ Cugate’s Case, prmted m Holdsworth’s History of Enghsh Law, Parke figures as “Baron Sussebutter ”

Above the small town of Middleham rises the massive Norman ing at Greenwich and his matriculation (1816) at Peterhouse, keep of a rath century castle; subsidiary buildings surrounding Cambridge, in adventurous exploration in the Blue Mountains, the tower date down to the 14th century. The castle was a Australia. Having been called to the bar, he began to practise in stronghold of Warwick the “King-maker” In Coverdale, near Sydney. With a fellow barrister, Wardell, he started a newspaper, Middleham, are the curious remains of the Premonstratensian the Australian, in 1824, to advocate the cause of self-government abbey of Coverham, founded here in the 13th century and re- and to champion the “emancipists”—the incoming class of ex-contammg the gatehouse and other portions of Decorated date. victs, now freed and prospering—against the “‘exclusivists”—the Farther up the valley, standing high on the north side, is Bolton officials and the more aristocratic settlers With Wardell, Dr. castle, founded in the time of Richard I. Its walls, four corner William Bland and others, he formed the “Patriotic Association,” towers, and fine position still give it an appearance of great and carried on a determined agitation both in Australia and in strength. Wensley must have been an important centre in very England, where they found able supporters They attacked the governor, Sir Ralph Darling, who was reearly times Eight pre-Norman sculptured stones, dating from the 8th to the rzth centuries have been discovered in the walls of called in 1831 to give evidence before a select committee of the the church. The present church was built in the 13th century. House of Commons on his administration. The Constitution Act It possesses some interesting carved woodwork dating from about of 1842 was generally recognized as mainly Wentworth’s work In 1510, a large proportion of which was brought from Easby abbey the first legislative council, he led the “squatter party.” He was the founder of the University of Sydney (1852), he led at the period of the dissolution of the monasteries WENTWORTH, the name of an English family, various the movement which resulted in the new constitution for the members of which are separately noticed. (See also FITZWILLIAM, colony (1854), and in 1861 became president of the new legisROCKINGHAM, STRAFFORD, CLEVELAND, LOVELACE) The Went- lative council. For some years before 1861 he lived chiefly ım worths trace their descent to William Wentworth (d. 1308) of England, where in 1857 he founded the “General Association for Wentworth Woodhouse, Yorks Thomas Wentworth (r5or- the Australian Colonies,” with the object of obtaining from the

1559) was summoned

to parliament as Baron Wentworth

of

Nettlestead in 1529 ‘The last baron Wentworth in the male line was Thomas (1613-1645), son of Thomas Wentworth, rst earl of Cleveland (gv.). His daughter Henrietta Maria became Baroness Wentworth in her own tight on her grandfather’s death This lady, who was the duke of Monmouth’s mistress, died unmarried in 1686 The barony of Wentworth then reverted to Cleveland’s daughter Anne, who married the 2nd Lord Lovelace, from whom it passed to her. grand-daughter Martha (d 1745),

government a federal assembly for the whole of Australia; and in

1862 he definitely settled in England, dying on March 20, 1872 His body was taken to Sydney and accorded a public funeral.

WERDEN,

a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the

river Ruhr, 6 m. by rail S of Essen. Pop (1925) 13,201. Werden

grew up around the Benedictine abbey, dissolved in 1802 WERFEL, FRANZ (1890_+), German writer, was born

in Prague on Sept. ro, 1890, and lived successively in Prague, Hamburg, Leipzig, Vienna and Breitenfeld, near Vienna, His early

WERGELAND—WERNIGERODE

514

poems, Der Weltfreund (1912), Wir Sind (1913), Einander (r915) and Der Gerichtstag (1919), were difficult but beautiful

in expression, and were animated by the idea of the community of souls in all living things The World War and subsequent political troubles gave Werfel’s work a strongly revolutionary tinge; his brotherhood seemed best attaimed by the destruction of obstacles erected by tradition. His two novels, Nzcht der Morder, der Ermordete ist schuld (1920) and Der Ab:turtententag, deal with the problems and revolt of adolescence, but are less fine than his yerse, which ranks with the most powerful in modern German lit-

erature Troades mensch (1924); burgers

His dramatic works melude an adaptation of Euripides’ (1915); a very brilliant symbolic trilogy, Der Spregel(1920); the more conventional Juarez und Maximilian Paulus unter den Juden (1926) and Der Tod des Klein(1926) He also wrote a novel on the opera Verdi (1924)

See A. Luther, Frang Werfel und seme besten Buhnenwerke

(1922).

WERGELAND, HENRIK ARNOLD (1808-1845), Nor-

wegian poet and prose writer, was born at Christiansand on June 17, 1808 He was the eldest son of Professor Nikolai Wergeland (1780-1848), who had been a member of the constitutional assembly which proclaimed the independence of Norway in 1814 at Eidsvold He established libraries, and tried to alleviate the widespread poverty of the Norwegian peasantry But his numer-

ous and varied writings were coldly received by the critics, and a monster epic, Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias (Creation, Man

and Messiah), 1830, showed no improvement in style remodelled in 1845 as Mennesket,

It was

From 1831 to 1835 Wergeland

was submitted to severe satirical attacks from J S Je Welhaven and others, and his style improved in every respect His popularity waned as his poetry improved, and in t8:5 he found bivcelf a really great lyric poet, but an exile frum voliic tntucace In

that year he became keeper of the royal archives

July 12, 1845

He died on

In rg08 a statue was erected to his memory by

his compatriots at Fargo, North Dakota His Jan yan Huysums Blomsterstykke (1840), Svalen (1841) Jaden (1842) Jddenden

(1844) and Den Engelske Lods (184+), fore: q sezes OF Ipieres.-

ing narrative poems in short lyrical metres

Wergeland’s Samlede Skrifter (9 vals, Christiania, 1852-1857) were

edited by H. Lassen, the author of Henrik (1856) and the edito~ of hie Brie (1957) Henrik Werseland (Conenhouer, r277), Forrattsr-Le arom (Chisuane, 857) ‘or

Wergeland og hans Samtid See also H Schwanenfiugel, and J G Kraft, Norsk a detailed bibliography,

WERMUND, an ancestor of the Mercian royal family, a son

1771 went to Leipzig, where he studied law and mineralogy

Ip

1775 he was appointed inspector and teacher in the mining schoo] at Freiberg He devoted himself for 40 years to the development

of the school, which rose to be one of the centres of scientific

intelligence in Europe

He died at Freiburg on June 30, 1817

One of the distinguishing features of Werner’s teaching was

the care with which he taught lithology and the succession of

geological formation; a subject to which he applied the name geognosy His views on a definite geological succession were inspired by the works of J, G Lehmann and G C Fuchsel (17a2~

73) He showed that the rocks o: the earth fallow each other in

a certain definite order. He had never travelled, and the sequence

of rock-masses which he had recognized m Saxony was believed

by him to he of universal application (See his Kurze Klassifika tion und Beschresbung der verschiedenen Gebsrgsarten, 1787) He taught that the rocks were precipitates of a primaeval ocean

and followed each other in successive deposits of world-wide ex.

tent Volcanoes were regarded by him as abnormal phenomena probably due to the combustion of subterranean beds of coal Basalt and simular rocks, already recognized by other observers as of igneous origin, he believed to be water-formed accumulations of the some ancient acean Hence arose one of the great historical controversies of geology Werner’s followers preached the doctrme of the aqueous origin of rocks, and were known ag Neptunists; thar opponents, who recognized the important part

taken in the construction of the earth’s crust, by subterranean

heat, were styled Vulcanists R. Jameson, the most distinguished of his British pupils, was for many years an ardent teacher of

the Wernerian doctrines, Though much of Werner’s theoretical work was erreneous, science is indebted to him for sq clearly demonstrating the chronological suceession af rocks See3 G Erich Leber becnrtevun, 1G Werners (Leipzig, 1825)

Lye'l, Prager of Ger og: (i8.c}

Ges'og, KIRS acade?

os

ted Sir A. Geike, Founders o

WERNER, ALFRED (1866-1919), French-Swiss chemist, was horn at Mulhouse qn Dec 12, 1866, In 1886 he went to Zurich to study, and later worked at Zurich with Lunge and in Parig with Berthelot, but returned 1n 1893 as extra-ordinary profassor of chemistry at Zurich

In 1895 he was made ordmary

nrofessar of chemistry cm eproir*mes* he held ur‘ bis death on Nox, 3,25 9 Hews eucrced che Nober prize in 1973, Wer evs egress work vos w. h ITan zah on the = creochemis: ary os che oximes (gts Du. be geet es co tr) ion 'o chemistry wis the co-aicr ailoz cbeors of Vajency (go> wach he put

ef Wibtlaeg and father of Offa He appears to have reigned in forward in 1893 By means of this theory not only was a simple Angel, and his story is preserved by certain Danish historians, method of classifying complex inorganic compounds made avail-

especially Saxo Grammaticus

According to these traditions, his able, but new and unsuspected cases of geometrical and optical

reign was long and happy, though its presperity was eventually

marred by the raids of a warlike king named Athislus, who slew Frowinus, the governer of Schleswig, in battle. Frowinus's death was avenged by his two sons, Keto and Wigo, but thew

conduct in fighting together against a single man was thought

isomerism were brought to hght (See Isomerism’) Although Werner’s views met with some opposition and had to be modified

slightly they undoubtedly gave a great stimulus to the development of certain branches of chemistry Attempts are being made to bring the theory into line with the modern views on the struc-

to form a national disgrace, which was only obliterated by ture of theatom the subsequent single combat of Offa. It has been suggested Valency, 1927)

that Athislys, though galled king of the Swedes by Saxo, was

really identical with the Eadgils, lord of the Myrgingas, men: tioned in Widsith, As Eadgils was a contemporary of Ermanaric (Eormenric), who died about 379, his date would agrea with the

(See N V Sidgwick, The Elecirqmc Theory of

‘Werner wrote Neuere Anschauungen auf dem Gebret der anorgan Chemie: it has been translated into Enghsh See obituary notice in Jaur Chem Soc, p 1639 (1920)

WERNHER, SIR JULIUS CHARLES, tst Bart (18507

indication given by the genealegias which place Wermund nine 1912), British South African financier, was born at Darmstadt generations aboye Penda, Frowinus and Wigo are doubtless to in t850 After working as a clerk im Frankfurt and London, he be identified with the Freawine and Wig who figure among the

entered the German army on the outbreak of the Franco.German war He was sent to Kimherley in 181 by Jules Porges, diamond merchant, and eventually became a partner in the firm, returning see Orra; also Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, edited by A. to London in 1880 as British representative. In 1888 he became a Holder, pp. xog Æ (Strassburg, 1886), Vitae duorum Offarum (m life governor of the De Beers Corporation Beit (gv) was now Wats’s edition of Matthew Paris, London, 1640) See also H. M a member of the firm, and in 1889 when Porges retired the name Chadwick, Origin of the Enghsh Natson (Cambridge, 1904) of the firm was changed to Wernher, Beit & Cq Sir Julius WernWERNER, ABRAHAM GOTTLOB (ry5Q-281r¥), father her, who was ereated a baronet in 1908, spent large sums on pub= of German geology, was born m Upper Lusatia, Saxony, on Sept. lic objects, including education He gave £10,c00 to the National 25,1750. He was educated at Bunazlau, Silesia, and in 1764 joined Physical Laboratory and, with Beit, endewed the South African his father at Count Solm’s iron-works at Webrau and Lorzendorf university wıth £500,000 He died in Londen on May a1, 1912

ances

of the ae ef Wessex,

ar the story of the aggression against Wermund in h told by the Damsh historans and alsobythe ine sine Of

with the idea of ultimately succaeding him as inspector Th WERNIGERODE, a town in Prussian Saxony, on the north 1969, however, he entered the mining school at Frefburg, and in slopes of the Harz mts. Pop (1925) 20,163

WESEL—WESLEY The counts of Wernigerode, who can be traced back to the early rath century, were successively vassals of the margraves of Bran-

denburg (1268) and the archbishops of Magdeburg (1381) On the extinction of the family in 1429 the county fell to the counts of Stolberg ‘The latter surrendered 1ts military and fiscal indendence to Prussia in 1714,

WESEL, JOHANN RUCHRAT VON (4d. 1481), German theologian, was born at Oberwesel early in the rsth century.

He

appears to have been one of the leaders of the humanist movement un Germany, and to have had some intercourse and sym-

pathy with the leaders of the Hussites

mnBohemia

Erfurt was in

hus day the headquarters of a humanism which was both devout and opposed to the realist metaphysic and the Thomust theology which prevailed in the universities of Cologne and Heidelberg Wesel was one of the professors at Erfurt between 1445 and

1456, and was vice-rector in 1458

In 1460 he was appointed

preacher at Mainz, in 1462 at Worms, and in 1479, when an old and worn-out man, he was brought before the Dominican mquisitor Gerhard Elten of Cologne. The charges against him

were chiefly based on a treatise, De indulgentus, which he had composed while at Erfurt twenty-five years before He had also written De potèstate ecclesiastica He died under sentence of

imprisonment for life in the Augustinian convent in Mainz in

1481 The best account of Wesel 1s to be found in K Ullmann’s Reformers before the Reformation is tract on Indulgences 1s published in Walch’s Monumenta Medd Aévi, vol 1, while a report of his tral 18 given m Ortuin Gtatius’s Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugzen-~ darum (ed by Browne, London, 1660), and d'Argentré’s Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus (Paris, 1728) See also Otto Clemen’s

art in Herzog-Hauck’s

Realencyklopadie

Kirche (3rd ed , Leipzig, 1908), xx. 127

fur prot. Theologie und

WESEL, a town in the Prussian Rhine province at the confluence of the Rhine and the Lippe, 46 m. S W. of Munster and 35 m. NW. of Duisburg Pop (1925) 24,027 Wesel, formerly known as Lippemunde, was one of the points from which Chazlemagne directed his operations agamst the heathen Saxons. Incorporated in 1241, it became a flourishing commercial town, and though repeatedly subject to the counts of Cleves, was a member of the Hanseatic League, and as late as 1521 a free imperial city. It was occupied by the Spaniards, the Dutch and the French m turn, and was ceded to Prussia m 1814 There ıs a junction of seven railway limes and it 1s also a centre for river traffic. Wesel canine some quent or¢ houses cra a town hv ccting from 7396, wh on eleborte tagece sad con meng a Veluwe ol silver

515

at Lyme Regis on Feb. 15, 1670. His son, JoHN WESTLEY, grandfather of the founder of Method-

ism, was born in 1636 and studied at New Inn Hall, Oxford, where he became proficient in Oriental languages and won the special regard of John Owen, then vice-chancellor. Cromwell’s Triers ap~ proved him as minster of Winterborn-Whitchurch, Dorset, in 1658 The following year he married the daughter of John White, the patriarch of Dorchester. In 1661 he was committed to prison for refusing to use the Book of Common Prayer. His candour and zeal made a deep impression on Gilbert Ironside the elder, Bishop of Bristol, with whom he had an interview. He was ejected in 1662 and became a Nonconformust pastor at Poole. He died in 1678, his widow survived him for 32 years One of his sons, Matthew, became a surgeon in London, where he died in 1737. Another son, SAMUEL, was trained in London for the Nonconformist mimstry, but changed his views, and, in Aug. 1683, entered Exeter college, Oxford, as a sizar He dropped the “t” in his name and returned to what he said was the orginal spelling, Wesley, In 1689 he was ordained and married Susanna, youngest daughter of Dr. Samuel Annesley, vicar of St. Giles, Cripplegate, and nephew of the ist earl of Anglesea Annesley gave up his hving in 1662, and formed a congregation in Little St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate Samuel Wesley was appointed rector of South Ormsby m 1691, and moved to Epworth in 1697. He had tò children, of whom eight died in infancy. His lawless parishioners could not endure his faithful preachmg, and in 1705 he was con fined in Lincoln castle for a small debt Two-thirds of his parsonage was destroyed by fire in 1702 andin 1709 ıt was burnt to the ground He managed to rebuild the rectory, but his resources were so heavily strained that 13 years later it was only half furnished Samuel Wesley wrote a Lfe of Christ in verse (1693), The History of the Old and New Testament in Verse (1701?), a noble Letter to a Curate, full of strong sense and ripe experience, and Dissertations on the Book of Job (1738). He died at Epworth

m 1735. Susanna Wesley died at the Foundry, London, in 1742 and was buried in Bunhill Fields.

Their eldest son, SamvEL Westry (1690-1739), was born in

London, entered Westminster school in 1704, became a Queen’s scholar in 1707 ahd in 171z went up to Christ Church, Oxford He returned to Westminster as head usher, took orders and enjoyed the intimate friendship of Bishop Atterbury, Harley earl

of Oxford, Addison, Swift and Prior. He became headmaster of

islands, The Weser is connected by canal with the Elbe WESERMUNDE. An urban district in the province of

Blundell’s school at Tiverton in 1732 and died there on Nov. 6, 1739. He was a finished classical scholar, a poet and a devout man, but he was never reconciled to the Methodism of his brothers. His poems, published in 1736, reached a second edition in 1743, and were reprinted with new poems and a Life by W. Nichols (1862). CHARLES WESLEY (1707—1788) was tħe r8th child of the Rector of Epworth, and was saved from the fire of 1709 by his nurse. He entered Westmunster school in 1716, became & King’s Scholar and was captain of the school in 1725. He was a plucky boy, and won the life-long friendship of the future earl of Mansfield by fighting battles on his behalf Garret Wesley of Ireland wished to adopt his young kinsman, but this offer was detlined and the estates were left to Richard Colley on condition that he assumed the name Wesley. Charles Wesley was elected to Christ Church in 1726. John had become fellow of Lintoln the previous March Charles

Hanover, Germany, formed by union of several older admunistrative units. Pop (1925), 73,491 It is an important fishing Port at the mouth of the Weser with steel industries, fisheries, fish salting and ship-fitting mdustries and general commerce.

was acting as their father’s curate, his brother “awoke out of his lethargy.” He persuaded two or three other students to go with him to the weekly sacrament. This led a young gentleman of

plate

WESER,

one of the chief rivers of Getmany, 440 m. long,

formed by the union of the Werra and the Fulda at Munden, flowing generally north and entermg the North sea below Bremerhaven, between Jade bay and the estuary of the Elbe The fairway up to Bremen has a minimum depth of 18 feet and boats

of 350 tons can usually go up to Munden, thanks to locks and weirs which avoid rapids Above Munden, the Weser arises from the junction of the Werra and Fulda, both navigable; the Aller, Wumme, Geeste and Hunte being also navigable Below the junction of the Hunte the Weser’s channel is divided by

The principal portion of Weserminde was formerly Geestemünde

lost his first 12 months at Oxford in “diversions,” but whilst John

Christ Church to exclaim,

“Here is a new set of Methodists

Welswe, near Wells in Somerset Their pedigree has been traced back to Guy, whom Athelstan made a thane about 938. One branch of the famuly settled m Ireland. Sir Herbert Westley of Westleigh, Devon, married Elzabeth Wellesley of Dangan in Ireland.

sprung up”? The name quickly spread through the university, and Oxford Methodism began its course. In 1735 Charles Wesley was ordained and went with his brother to Georgia as secretary to Colonel, afterwards General, Oglethorpe, the Governor. The work proved uncongenial, and after enduring many hardships his health failed and he left Frederica for England of July 26, 1736 He hoped to return, but in Feb 1738 John Wesléy came home, and

and Charmouth in Dorset valued at £35, 108 per annum.

Charles found that his state of health made it necessary to resign his secretaryship. After his evangelical conversion on Whit Sunday (May 21, 1738), he became the poet of the Revival.

WESLEY

(Famiry),

The

Wesley

family

sprang

from

Their third son, Bartholomew, studied both medicine and theology at Oxford, and, in 1619, married the daughter of Sir Henry Colley of Kildare In 1660 he held the rectories of Catherston

ejected in 1662 and gamed his living as a doctor

He was

He was buried

WESLEY

516

He wrote about 6,500 hymns. They vary greatly in merit, but Canon Overton held him, taking quantity and quality into consideration, to be “the great hymn-writer of all ages.” Their early volumes of poetry bear the names of both brothers, but it is generally assumed that the original hymns were by Charles and the translations by John Wesley For some years Charles Wesley took a full share in the hardships and perils of the Methodist itinerancy, and was often a remarkably powerful preacher. After his marriage in 1749 his work was chiefly confined to Bristol, where he then hved, and London He moved to London in 1771 and died in Marylebone on March 29, 1788 He was strongly opposed to his brother’s ordinations, and refused to be buned at City Road, because the ground there was unconsecrated He was buried in the

to Oxford, where he was appointed Greek lecturer and moderator of the classes He gained considerable reputation in the dis. putation for his master’s degree ın February 1727 He was now free to follow his own course of studies and began to lose his love for company, unless it were with those who were drawn like himself to religion In August he returned to Lincolnshire, where he assisted his father till Nov. 1729 During those two years he

paid three visits to the university In the summer of 1729 he was up for two months Almost every evening found him with the little society which had gathered round Charles. The Holy Club.—When he came into residence in November he was recognized as the father of the Holy Club It met at first on Sunday evenings, then every evening was passed in Wesley’s room or that of some other member They read the Greek Testament and the classics, fasted on Wednesday and Friday, received the Lord’s Supper every week, and brought all their life under review In 1730 Wilham Morgan, an Irish student, visited the

graveyard of Marylebone Old Church Charles Wesley married Sarah Gwynne, daughter of a Welsh magistrate hving at Garth, on April 8, 1749 She died in 1822 at the age of ninety-six Five of their children died as infants and are buried in St. James’s Churchyard, Bnstol. Their surviving daughter Sarah, who was engaged in literary work, died unmarried in 1828. Charles Wesley, Jr. (1759-1834), was organist of St George’s, Hanover Square He published Sex Concertos for the Organ and Harp in 1778. He also died unmarried Samuel, the younger brother (1766-1837) (q v.), was even more gifted than Charles as an organist and composer, he was also a lecturer on musical subjects Two of his sons were Dr. Wesley, sub-dean of the Chapel Royal, and Dr Samuel Sebastian Wesley (q v.) (1810-1876), the famous organist of Gloucester cathedral

Wuliam Law’s books impressed him and on his advice the young

Brerrocrapuy.—A volume of Charles Wesley’s sermons with memoir appeared ın 1816; Lives by Thomas Jackson (1841) and John Telford

tutor began to read mystic authors, but he soon laid them aside Wesley had not yet found the key to the heart and conscience of

(x886) , Journal and Letters with Notes by Thomas Jackson (1849) ,

The Early Journal (1736-39) with additional matter (1910) , Poetecal Works of Jokn and Charles Wesley (13 vols, 1868) ; Methodist Hymn Book Illustrated by J. Telford (1906), Adam Clarke’s Memoirs oj the Wesley Family (1822) ; Dove’s Biographical History of the Wesley Family (1832); G. J Stevenson, Memorials of the Wesley Family (1876); Tyerman’s Life and Times of Samuel Wesley, M A o,

(

WESLEY, JOHN (1703-1791), English divine, was born at Epworth Rectory on June r7th (OS) 1703 He was the 15th child of Samuel and Susanna Wesley (See Westey FAMILY) His mother’s training laid the foundation of his character, and under her instruction the children made remarkable progress On Feb. 9, 1709, the rectory was burnt down, and the children had a narrow escape On the duke of Buckingham’s nomination, Wesley was for six years a pupil at Charterhouse In June 1720 he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with an annual allowance

of £40 as a Charterhouse scholar His health was poor and he found it hard to keep out of debt, but he made good use of his opportunities. A scheme of study which he drew up for 1722 with a time-table for each day of the week ıs still to be seen in his earhest diary The standard edition of Wesley’s Journal (1909) has furnished much new material for this period of Wesley’s life, Curnock

having unravelled the difficult cypher and shorthand m which Wesley’s early diaries were kept, He reached the conclusion that the religious friend who directed Wesley’s attention to the writings of Thomas 4 Kempis and Jeremy Taylor, in 1725, was Miss Betty Kirkham, whose father was rector of Stanton ın Gloucestershire Wesley frankly disclaimed inward holiness He was ordained deacon on Sept 19, 1725, and admitted to priest’s orders on Sept 22, 1728 In 1726 he had been fellow of Lincoln His private diaries, seven of which are in the hands of Mr Russell J. Colman of Norwich, contain monthly reviews of Wesley’s reading It covered a wide range, and he made careful notes and abstracts of it He generally took breakfast or tea with some congenial friend and delighted to discuss the deepest subjects, At the coffee house he saw the Spectator and other period-

gaol and reported that there was a great opening for work among the prisoners The friends agreed to visit the Castle twice a week and to look after the sick in any parish where the clergyman was willing to accept their help Wesley’s spirit at this time 1s seen from his sermon on “The Circumcision of the Heart,” preached before the university on January 1, 1733 In 1765 he said it “contains all that I now teach concerning salvation from all sin, and

loving God with an undivided heart ” Wesley rose at four, lived on £28 a year and gave away the remainder of his income

his hearers

He says, ‘From the year 1725 to 1729, I preached

much, but saw no fruit tomy labour Indeed it could not be that I should, for I neither laid the foundation of repentance nor of preaching the Gospel, taking 1t for granted that all to whom I preached were believers, and that many of them needed no repentance From the year 1729 to 1734, laying a deeper foundation of repentance, I sawa little fruit But it was only a little, and no wonder, for I did not preach faith in the blood of the covenant From 1734 to 1738, speaking more of faith m Christ, I saw more fruit of my preaching” Looking back on these days in 1777, Wesley felt ‘the Methodists at Oxford were all one body, and, as it were, one soul; zealous for the religion of the Buble, of the Primitive Church, and, in consequence, of the Church of England, as they believed it to come nearer the scriptural and primitive plan than any other national church upon earth” The number of

Oxford Methodists was small and probably never exceeding twenty-five John Clayton, James Hervey, Benjamin Ingham and Thomas Broughton, were members of the Holy Club, and George Whitefield jomed it on the eve of the Wesley’s departure for Georgia Mission to Georgia.—Wesley’s father died on April 25, 1735, and in the following October John and Charles took ship for Georgia, with Benjamin Ingham and Charles Delamotte John

was sent out by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and hoped to labour as a missionary among the Indians, but though he had many interesting conversations with them the mission was found to be impracticable The cabin of the “Simmonds” became a study for the four Methodists The calm confidence of their Moravian fellow-passengers amid the Atlantic storms convinced Wesley that he did not possess the faith which casts out fear Closer acquaintance with these German frends in Savannah

deepened the impression Wesley needed help, for he was beset by difficulties Mrs Hawkins and Mrs Welch poisoned the

mind of Colonel Oglethorpe against the brothers for a time.

Wesley’s attachment to Miss Hopkey also led to much pain and disappointment. All this is now seen more clearly in the standard

icals He loved riding and walking and was an expert swimmer He preached’ frequently in the churches near Oxford in the months succeeding his ordination, and in April 1726 he obtained leave from his college to act as his father’s curate The new material in the Journal describes the simple manner of his life,

scrupulously followed every detail of the rubrics. He msisted on baptizing children by trine immersion, and refused the Com-

land, and enjoyed a dance with his sisters

the altar compositions of psalms and hymns not inspected of

He read plays, attended the village fairs, shot plovers in the fen-

bë

a

In October he returned

edition of the Journal

Wesley was a stiff High Churchman, who

munion to a pious German because he had not been baptized by

a minister who had been episcopally ordained. At the same time he was accused of “introducing mto the church and service at

WESLEY

S7

authorized by any proper judicature.” The list of grievances presented by Wesley’s enemies to the Grand Jury at Savannah

was held in the end of 1739 at the Foundry in Moorfields which Wesley had just secured as a preaching place Grave disorders

gives abundant evidence of his unwearying labours for his flock. The foundation of his future work as the father of Methodist hymnody was laid m Georgia His first Collectton of Psalms and

had arisen in the society at Fetter Lane, and on July 23, 1740,

“real state” of their hearts The bands united in a conference every Wednesday evening. The society first met at James Hutton’s shop, “The Bible and Sun,” Wild Street, west of Temple Bar. About Sept 25, it moved to Fetter Lane Wesley describes this as the third beginning of Methodism After the field preach-

or the places which lay between them On his way to Newcastle that year Wesley visited Birstal, where John Nelson, the stonemason, had already been working On his return he held memorable services in the churchyard at Epworth Methodism this year spread out from Birstal into the West Riding. Societies were also

Wesley withdrew from 1t About 25 men and 48 women also left and cast in their lot with the society at the Foundry. The centenary of Methodism was kept in 1839. translations from the German, and on his return to England he Wesley’s headquarters at Bristol were in the Horse Fair, where published another Collectzon in 1738, with five more translations a room was built in May 1739 for two religious societies which from the German and one from the Spamsh In April 1736 Wesley had been accustomed to meet in Nicholas Street and Baldwin Street. To meet the cost of this Captain Foy suggested that formed a little society of thirty or forty of the serous members of his congregation. He calls this the second nse of Methodism, each member should give a penny per week When it was urged the first beg at Oxford in November 1729 The company m that some were too poor to do this, he replied, “Then put eleven Savannah met every Wednesday evening “m order to a free con- of the poorest with me; and if they can give anything, well: I yersation, begun and ended with singing and prayer.” A select will call on them weekly, and if they can give nothing I will give for them as well as for myself.” Others followed his example and company of these met at the parsonage on Sunday afternoons In 1781 he writes, “I cannot but observe that these were the first were called leaders, a name given as early as Nov. 5, 1738, to those rudiments of the Methodist societies ” who had charge of the bands in London. Wesley saw that here Tn the presence of such facts we can understand the significance was the very means he needed to watch over his flock. The leadof the mission to Georgia Wesley put down many severe things ers thus became a body of lay pastors. Those under their care against hunself on the return voyage, and he saw afterwards that formed a class It proved more convenient to meet together and this gave opportunity for religious conversation and prayer. As even then he had the faith of a servant though not that of a son In London he met Peter Bohler who had been ordamed by the society increased Wesley found it needed ‘still greater care Zmzendorf for work in Carolna By Bohler Wesley was con- to separate the precious from the vile.” He therefore arranged vinced that he lacked “that faith whereby alone we are saved.” to meet the classes himself every quarter and gave a ticket On Wednesday, May 24, 1738, he went to a society meeting in “under his own hand” to every one “whose seriousness and good Aldersgate Street where Luther’s Preface to the Epistle to the conversation” he found no reason to doubt. The ticket furnished Romans was being read. “About a quarter before nine, while he an easy means for guarding the meetings of the society against was describing the change which God works in the heart through mtrusion “Bands” were formed for those who wished for closer fath in Christ, I felt my heart strangely «warmed I felt I did communion Love-feasts for fellowship and testimony were also trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation, and an assurance introduced, according to the custom of the primitive church was given me that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and Watch-nights were due to the suggestion of a Kingswood colher saved me from the law of sim and death.” Mr. Lecky points out m 1740 Wesley issued the rules of the united societies in February the significance of that event. “It 1s scarcely an exaggeration to say that the scene which took place at that humble meeting in 1743. Those who wished to enter the society must have “a desire to flee from the wrath to come, to be saved from their sins,” Aldersgate Street forms an epoch in English history The conviction which then flashed upon one of the most powerful and When admitted they were to give evidence of their desire for most active intellects ın England is the true source of English salvation “by doing no harm; by doing good of every possible sort; by attending upon all the means of grace.” It was expected Methodism” (History of England in Eighteenth Century, ii. 558) Wesley spent some time during the summer of 1738 in visiting that all who could do so would contribute the penny a week sugthe Moravian settlement at Herrenhut and returned to London gested mm Bristol, and give a shilling at the renewal of their on Sept 16, 1738, with his faith greatly strengthened He preached quarterly ticket. Wesley had at first to take charge of the conmm all the churches that were open to him, spoke in many religious tmbutions, but as they grew larger he appomted stewards to resocieties, visited Newgate and the Oxford prisons. On New ceive the money, to pay debts, and to reheve the needy The Year’s Day, 1739, the Wesleys, Whitefield and other friends had memorable arrangement in Bristol was made a few weeks before a Love Feast at Fetter Lane In February Whitefield went to Wesley’s field of labour was extended to the north of England in Bnstol, where his popularity was unbounded When the churches May 1742. He found Newcastle ripe for his message English. were closed against him he spoke to the Kingswood colliers in Christianity seemed to have no power to uplift the people Dramthe open air, and after sxx memorable weeks wrote urging Wesley dnnking was an epidemic Freethinkers’ clubs flourished The doctrine of election had led to a temporary separation to come and take up the work Wesley was in his fmend’s congregation on April r, but says, “I could scarcely reconcile myself between Whitefield and the Wesleys ın 1741 Wesley beleved that to this strange way of preaching in the fields . . having been the grace of God could transform every hfe that received it. He all my hfe (till very lately) so tenacious of every point relating preached the doctrine of conscious acceptance with God and to decency and order, that I should have thought the saving of daily growth in holiness Victory over sin was the goal which he souls almost a sin, if it had not been done in a church.” Next set before all his people He made his appeal to the conscience nm day Wesley followed Whitefield’s example His fears and prej- the clearest language, with the most cogent argument and with udices melted away as he discerned that this was the very method all the weight of personal conviction Hearers like John Nelson felt as though every word was aimed at themselves No preacher needed for reaching the multitudes Foundation of the “Society.”—On May 1, 1738, he wrote in of the century had this mastery over his audience. His Evangelihis journal: “This evening our httle society began, which after- cal Arminianism is shown in his four volumes of sermons and his wards met in Fetter Lane” Among its “fundamental rules” we Notes on the New Testament Itinerary Work.—Up till 1742 Wesley’s work was chiefly confind a provision for dividing the society into bands of five or ten persons who spoke freely and plainly to each other as to the fined to London and Bristol, with the adjacent towns and villages

Hymns (Charlestown, 1737) contains five of bis incomparable

ing began converts multiplied

They found all the world against

them, and Wesley advısed them to strengthen one another and

talk together as often as they could. When he tned to visit them

at their homes he found the task beyond him, and therefore

invited them to meet hum on Thursday evenings.

Ths meeting

formed in Somerset, Wilts, Gloucestershire, Leicester, Warwick-

shire, Nottinghamshire and the south of Yorkshire. In the summer Charles Wesley visited Wednesbury, Leeds and Newcastle Next year he took Cornwall by storm The work in London was prospering In 1743 Wesley secured a west-end centre at West

Street, Seven Dials, which for fifty years had a wonderful history Wesley’s writings did much to open the eyes of candid men In August 1747 Wesley paid his first visit to Ireland, where he to his motives and his methods Besides the incomparable Journgl had such success that he gave more than six years of his life his Appeals to Men of Reason and Religion also Produced an to the country and crossed the Irish Channel forty-two times extraordimary effect in allaying prejudice and winning respect He Ireland has now its own conference presided over by a delegate constantly sought to educate his own people No in the 18th from the British conference. Wesley's first visit to Scotland was century did so much to create a taste for good man reading and to in 1752. In all, he paid 22 visits supply it with books at the lowest prices Sir Leshe Stephen Such extension of nis field would have been mmpossible had not pays high praise to Wesley’s writings, which Wesley been helped by a heroic band of preachers Wesley says: the mark without one superfluous flourish” As went “straight to a socal reformer “Joseph Humphreys was the first lay preacher that assisted me in Wesley was far in advance of his time He provided work for England, in the year 1738? That was probably help in the Fetter the deserving poor, supphed them with clothes and food m seasons Lane Society, for Wesley then had no preaching place of his own of special distress The profits on his cheap books enabled him John Cennick, the hymn-writer and schoolmaster at Kingswood, to give away as much as £1,400 began to preach there in 1739 Thomas Maxwell, who was left to stock to help struggling businessa year He established a lending men and did much to reheve meet and pray with the members at the Foundry during the debtors who had been thrown into prison He opened dispensaries absence of the Wesleys, began to preach Wesley hurried to Lon- in London and Bristol and was keenly interested inmedicine don to check this irregularity, but his mother urged him to hear Wesley’s supreme gift was his genius for organization He was Maxwell for himself, and he soon saw that such assistance was of by no means ignorant of this. “I know this is the peculiar talent the highest value. The autobiographies of these early Methodist which God has given me.” Wesley’s special power lay in hs preachers are among the classics of the Evangelical Revival As quickness to avail himself of circumstances and of the suggestions the work advanced Wesley held a conference at the Foundry in made by those about him. The Class-meeting, the love-feast, the 1744. Besides himself and his brother, four other clergymen watch-night, the covenant service, leaders, stewards, lay preachwere present and four “lay brethren” It was agreed that “lay ers, all were the fruit of this readiness to avail himself of sugges. assistants” were allowable, but only ın cases of necessity. This tions made by men or events necessity grew more urgent every year as Methodism extended In 1751 Wesley marred Mary Vazeille, a widow, but the union One of the preachers in each circuit was the “assistant,” who had was unfortunate and she finally left him. John Fletcher, the general oversight of the work, the others were “helpers,” The vicar of Madeley, to whom Wesley had turned as a possible succonference became an annual gathering of Wesley’s preachers. cessor, died in 1785. He had gone to Wesley's help at West Street In the early conversations doctrine took a prominent place, but after his ordination at Whitehall in 1757 and had been one of as Methodism spread the oversight of its growing organization his chief allies ever since He was beloved by all the preachers, occupied more time and more attention In February 1784 and his Checks ta Antinomi anism show that he was a courteous Wesley’s deed of declaration gave the conference a legal constitu- contravers ialist Charles Wesley died three years after Fletcher tion. He named one hundred preachers who after his death were During the last three years of his hfe John Wesley was welcomed to meet once a year, fill up vacancies in their number, appoint a everywhere His visits were public holidays president and secretary, station the preachers, admit proper Wesley preached his last sermon m Mr Belson’s house at Leathpersons into the ministry, and take general oversight of the societies. erhead on Wednesday, Feb 23, 17915 wrote next day In October 1768, a Methodist chapel was opened in letter to Wilberforce, urging him to carry on his crusade his last New York against At the conference of 1769 two preachers, Richard Boardman and the slave trade; and died in his house at City Road on March 2, Joseph Pilmoor, volunteered to go out to take charge of the work. 1791, in his eighty-eighth year, He was buried on March 9, in In 1771, Francis Asbury, the Wesley of America, crossed the graveyard behind City Road chapel (J Tz) Atlantic i manera grew rapidly, and it became essential the to eBrsriocrapr original mss,y—-The with standard notes fromedition of thegupubiered Journal, enlarged Wesley's from noe oe provide its people with the sacraments In September 1784 edited Y Curmock (8 vols. 1o ~16), Wesley ordained his clerical helper, Dr Coke, supermtende T ard li a nt (or Wesley" a Pee Fons Wele. tha dras Basler" pen bishop), and instructed him to ordain Asbury as his colleague | Wesley's

Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Vasey were ordained by Wesley,

Standard Sermons were edited by E H geeake W A.Toke

United States)

Fourdey zon,

Sugden

an

We ‘Upthodees ten ee) Coke and Creighton to administer the sacraments arber, The 'Phaloso fie of Tehn Wesley had reached the conclusion in 1746 that 19America, (1923), J, Telford, The bishops and | Lefe of John Wesley (1924) and © Wesley lrg «ne? Porerel's or Jahn Weer presbyters were essentially of one order, (See Meteoprsa: | (19245) Gs Fars, John Wi wey, Cher tin Philocooher ene? Crone

He told

(26)

W.H

Hutton

John Weste

(t627)

D D

Tho.

Joun Wesiey as q Social Re-ormer (1428), Wo Wakmshay, his brother in 1785° “I firmly believe that T : Johr am a Wesley (1928). : ae scriptural eqioro-ros as truch 1: oy “ast in See also Muizopiom, Dag'an | o7 Faroe, |M etțhodist bodies, and Wesrexy FAMILY, the article, on the separare for the urinter-uy ee success104 J kaor Lo be a table, which no A e man ever did ar can prove.” WESLEY, SAMUEL (1766-1837), English musical com Quer QLulnauons ior rhe adminiposer, son of Charles Wesley, was born at Bristol, Feb, stration of the Àsacraments inl Scotland, the 24, 1766 colonies ' and England Though suffering far

many years from an accidental injury to the followed. The interests of his work stood first with Wesley, He brain, Wesley was one of the most did everything that strong words against separation brilliant organists and most could do to accomplis hed extempora neous performers of his time. He may hind his societies to the Church of England; he also did every- | indeed þe regarded ag the father thing that legal documents and ordinations of modern English organ-playing, could the permanence of that great work for which God do to secure | for he it was who, aided by his friends Benjamin Jacob and C F had raised him | Horn, first introduced the works of Sebastian Bach to English up. In the words ofCanon Overton and of Eng Ch, 1714-1800) ,

Rev F, H, Relton (Hist. organists, not only by his superb Playing, hut by editing with

“Tt js purely a modern

notion that the | Horn, in 1$T0, the first copy of Das wohltamperirte Clavier ever Wesleyan movement ever was, or ever was intended to he, except | printed in England by Wesley, a church movement,” Despite his strong Sayings, it ;number of ms. and Wesley died on Oct. II, 1837, leaving a vast printed compositions, was Wesley who broke the Jinks to the church, for, as Lord WESLEY, SAMUEL SEBASTIAN (1879-187 mantel put it, “ordination is separation.” . , 6), English composer and organist, natural son of Samuel Wesley, the j con on of his itinerancy js given in emifamous | nent composer, was born in London on Aug. E o which the first part appeared about 1739. his 14, 1820, He was Mr Birrell | one of the Children of the Chapel as arg it the Most amazing record of human Royal from 4879, held various exertion ever unimportant posts as organist from the age of fifteen and later ọn aen by man.” The development of his work made a

tre- | in 1832 he was appointed to Hereford Cathedral Shar En strain upon Wesley’s powers, He generally He was suctravelled | cessively organist at Exetcr Cathedral Leeds aa pee miles a year and preached parish church, Winsermons a week, | chester and Glouceste s rule was always to look a mob im thefifteen r Cathedrals He again conducted the Three face Choirs Festivals of 1865, 1868, 18 71 and 1874, A civil list pension

WESLEYAN

METHODIST

of £ido a year was conferted on him in 1873, he died at Glouces-

CHURCH

519

was the first English organist of his day As a composer he 15 still

leaders more conspicuous Advance was Imes now laid down. The preachers had distinction between those whotrn Wesley brethren should cease In the munutes

is sérvice in E, published with a rather trenchant preface in

“Rev” appears before the names of preachers who were merbers of the Missionary Committee Jabez Bunting (g.v.), who had become the acknowledged leader of the conference, wished to have its young mınısters set apart by the imposition of hands, but this scriptural custom was not introduced till 1836 The introduction

ter on the rgth of April 4376, and was buried at Exeter.

Wesley

highly esteemed for the dignity and beauty of his anthems, the finest of which are “Blessed be the God and Father,” “The Wilderness,” “Ascribe unto the Lörd” and “O Lord, Thou art my God.”

1848, became widely known

WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH, one of the chef branches of Methodism Sée MetuHopism and Westry, JouN Jn 1790 there were 294 preachers and 71,668 members in Great Britain, 19 missionaries and 5,300 members on the mission stations, 198 preachers and 43,265 members in the United States.

The crisis was serious. The large proportion of Wesley's members had been taught to observe the sacramerits and desired that pro-

vision should be made to admuister therm in their chapels

But

on May 4, t791, exghteen laymen met at Hull and expressed the conviction that the usefulness of Methodism would be pro-

moted by its céntinued Corinectioti with the Church of England. A trenchant teply was prepared by Alexander Kilham (g v.), one of the younger Methodist preachers

The conferefice met 11 Manchester on the 26th of July, r79x A letter from Wesley (dated Chester, April 7, 1785) was read, beseeching the members of the Legal Conference not to use their powers for selfish ends but to be absolutely mmpartial in stationing

the preachers, selecting boys for education at Kingswood School, and disposing of connectional funds The conference at oncé resolved that all privileges conferred by Wesley’s Poll Deed should

be accorded to every preacher 1n full connection To supply the lack of Wesley’s supervision the circuits were now grouped together in districts. As to the sacraments and the relations of Methodism to the Church of England the decision was “We engage to follow strictly the plan which Mr. Wesley left us” This was ambiguous and was interpreted variously. Some Held that it forbade the administration of the sacraments except wheré they were already permitted; others maintained that ıt left Methoisin free to follow the leadings of Providence The conference of 1792 was so much perplexed that it resorted to the casting of lots, The decision was thus reached that the sacraments should not be administered that year This was really shelving the questioh, but it gave time for opinion to ripen, and m 1793 it was resolvéd by a large majority that “the societies should have the privilege of the Lord’s Supper where they unanimously desired it ” In 1794, this privilege was definitely granted to ninéty-three societies The feeling in Bristol was very strong Thé trustees of Broadmead, who were opposed to the admunistration of the sacrament by the preachers, forbade Henry Moore to oc« cupy that pulpit. Nearly the whole society thereupon withdrew to Portland Chapel The conference of 1795 had to deal with this controversy It prepared a “Plan of Pacificdtion” whith was approved by the conference and by an assetmbly of ttustees, and was welcomed by the societies. The Lord’s Supper, baptismi, the burial of the dead and service ın church hours were not to be conducted by the preachers unless a majority of the trusteés, stewards and leaders of any chapél approved, and assured the conference that no separation was likely td ensue The consent of conference had to be given before any changé was made In 1796, Alexander Kilham, who refused to abstam from agitation for further reform, and accused his brethtén of ptiestcraft, was expelled from their ranks and the New Connexion was formed

with 5,000 members (see MetHoprist New Connexion). The conference of 1797 set itself to remove any ground for distrust

among the societies and to enlist their hearty support in all branches of the work. Annual accounts were to be published of various funds The Circuit Quarterly Meeting had to approve

the arrangements for the support of the preachers. Local preachers had to be accepted by the local preachers’ meeting, and the powers

of trustees of chapels were considerably extended

The constitu-

tion of Methodism thus practically took the shape which it tètamed till the admission of lay representatives to conference in t878 No period in the history of Methodism was more critical

quietly made along the agreed in 1793 that all had ordained and their of conference for 1818

of laymen into the Wesleyan Conference in 1878 was commemorated by a Thanksgiving Fund of £297,500 Meanwhile, Methodism was growing into a great missionary church Its work in the West Indies was firmly established in Wesley’s lifetime In 1786 eleven hundred negroes were members

of the society in Antigua The burden of supermtending these missions and providing funds for their support rested on Dr

Coke, who took his place as the missionary bishop of Methodism In 1813 he prevailed on the conference to sanction a mission to

Ceylon. He sailed with six missionaries on the 30th of December, but died in the followmg May in the Indian Ocean. To meet these new responsibilities a branch Missionary Society had been formed m Leeds in October 1813, and others soon sprang up in various

parts of the countty. Methodist Missions really date from 1786 when Dr Coke landed at Antigua

The area of operations gradu-

ally extended Missions were begun in Madras, at the Cape of Good Hope, in Australia, and on the west coast of Africa Two

missionaries weré sent to the Friendly Islands in 1826, and in 1835 a mission was undertaken among the cannibals of Fiji, which

spread and deepened till the whole group of islands was transfortned. The work in China began in 1851, the Burma mission was established in: 1887 The rapid progress of the Transvaal and Swaziland missions has beer almost embartassmg The Missionary Jubilee fn 1863+1863 yielded £179,000 for the work abroad. As the growth of the missions permitted conferences have been formed in various countries Upper Canada Had its conference in 834 Trincein r8s2 Austra ia in 1855 South \fricain 1x82 The missionary revive! which marked the Nouinghan Corierence of

1906 quickened the interest at home and abroad and the Foreign

Field (monthly) is proniinent among missionary periodicals

In 1834 Hoxton Academy was taker as a traming place for min-

isters

Didsbury College was opened m 1842, Richmond in 1843

Headingley was added in 1868, Handsworth in 188r. The Centenary of Methodism was celebrated in 1839 and £221,939 was raised as a thank-offering. £71,609 was devoted to the colleges at Didsbury and Richmond; £70,000 was given to the missionary society, which spent £30,000 on the site and building

of a mission-house in Bishopsgaté Within, £38,000 was set apart for the removal of chapel debts, etc. In 1837 Methodism had nine infant schools and twenty-two schools for elder children A grant of £5,606 was made from the Centenary Fund for the provision of Wesleyan day-schools. The conference of 1843 directed that greater attention must be given to this department, and a committee met in the following October which resolved that 700 schools should be established 1f possible withim the next seven years, and an Education Fund raiged of £5,000 a year. In 1849 the Normal Training College for the education of day-school teachers was opened in Westminster, and in 1872 a second college was opened in Battersea for schoolmistresses Besides 1ts day-schools, Methodism possesses the Leys School at Cambridge, Rydal Mount at Colwyn Bay and boardingschools for boys and girls

The Forward Movement in Methodism dates from the period of the Thanksgiving Fund, Large mission-halls have been built in the principal towns of England, Scotland and Ireland The Forward Movement of the ‘eighties will always be associated with the name of Hugh Price Hughes (g v.). Village Methodism shared in the quickening which the Forward Movement brought to the large towns. Chapels which had been closed were reopened; an entrance was found into many new villages Weak circuits were

grouped together and gained fresh energy and hope by the union The great event of Methodist history in the present century

than this, and ın none was the prudence and good sense of its was the Twentieth Century Fund begun by Sir Robert W Perks

520

WESSEL—WEST we need not doubt that its dimensions were largely increased

in 1898 From the total sum of £1,073,782 grants were made as follows. General Chapel Committee, £290,617, Missionary Society, £102,656; Education Committee, £193,705, Home Missions, £96,872; Children’s Home, £48,436 The Royal Aquarium at Westminster was purchased and a central hall and church house as the headquarters of Methodism erected, For this obyect £242,206 was set apart. BrsrrocraPHy —For

recent

statistics see

article

OE

under Ceawhn

In his reign the Chronicle mentions two great

victories over the Welsh, one at a place called Bedcanford in 571, by which Aylesbury and the upper part of the Thames valley fell

into the hands of the West Saxons, and another at Dyrham n Gloucestershire ın 577, which led to the capture of Cirencester Bath and Gloucester Ceawlin is also said to have defeated Aethel.

ane

berht at a place called Wibbandun in 568. In 592 he was expelled

1 = for biographical reference see WEsLEY (Jomn). An extensive and died in the following year. Of his successors Ceol and Ceol. ography ıs given by J S. Simon (see below) See also Dr. George wulf we know little though the latter ıs said to have been engaged Smith and others, A New Hzstory of Methodism (1909), Poetical in constant warfare Ceolwulf was succeeded in 61x by Cynegils, Works of J. and C. Wesley; Wesley’s Works (1771-74, 1809-13; ed Benson, 1829-31; ed Jackson 1856-62) Standard ed of Wesley’s whose son Cwichelm provoked a Northumbrian invasion by the Journal (ed N. Curnock, 1910), Cam Mod Hast, vol vi, L attempted murder of Edwin in 626 These kings are also said to Tyerman, Life of George Whitefield (1876), J H Overton, The have come into collision with the Mercian king Penda, and it is English Church im the Eighteenth Century (new ed, 1887), J] H possible that the province of the Hwicce (q v ) was lost in their Overton and F Relton, The English Church (1714-1800) (1906); J.S Simon, Revival of Religion mn England 1m the Erghteenth Century time. After the accession of Oswald, who married Cynegils’s (1907) “Methodism” in Hastings’ Ency of Religion and Ethics, daughter, to the throne of Northumbria, both Cynegils and W. E, H. Lecky, Hest of England mm the Etghieenth Century (new ed, Cwichelm were baptized Cynegils was succeeded in 642 by his 1892), J. H. Rigg, The Leving Wesley (3rd ed, 1880), The Church- son Cenwalh, who married and subsequently divorced Penda’s manship of J Wesley (1887), R. Green, Bebliography of the Works of J and C Wesley (2nd ed, 1906), Wesley’s Veterans; Lives of sister and was on that account expelled by that king After his return he gained a victory over the Welsh near Pen-Selwood, by Early Methodist Preachers (Finsbury Library)

WESSEL, JOHAN (c 1420-1489), Dutch theologian, whose real name was Wessel (Basil) Harmens Gansfort, was born at Groningen. He was educated at the famous school at Deventer, which was under the supervision of the Brothers of Common Life, and im close connection with the convent of Mount St Agnes at Zwolle, where Thomas 4 Kempis was then living At Deventer Wessel imbibed that earnest devotional mysticism which was the basis of his theology and which drew him irresistibly, after a busy life, to spend his last days among the Friends of God in the Low Countries. From Deventer he went to Cologne and then to Paris to pursue his studies After a visit to Rome, where he was in contact with the leading humamists he returned to Paris

where he gathered round him a band of enthusiastic young students, among whom was Reuchlin In 1475 he was at Basel and in 1476 at Heidelberg teaching philosophy in the university, After thirty years of academic hfe he went back to his native Groningen,

and spent the rest of his life partly as director in a nuns’ cloister there and partly in the convent of St Agnes at Zwolle His remaining years were spent amid a circle of warm admirers, friends and disciples, to whom he imparted the mystical theology, the zeal for higher learnmg and the deep devotional spirit which characterized his own hfe He died on Oct. 4, 1489, with the confession on his lips, “I know only Jesus the crucified.”

which a large part of Somerset came into his hands

In 661 he

was again attacked by the Mercians under Wulfhere At his death, probably in 673, the throne is said to have been held for a

year by his widow Sexburh, who was succeeded by Aescwine, 674676, and Centwine, 676-685. According to Bede, however, the kingdom was in a state of disunion from the death of Cenwalh

to the accession of Ceadwalla m 685, who greatly increased its

prestige and conquered the Isle of Wight, the inhabitants of which he treated with great barbanty After a brief reign Ceadwalla went to Rome, where he was baptized, and died shortly afterwards, leaving the kingdom to Ine By the end of the 7th century a considerable part of Devonshire as well as the whole of Somerset and Dorset had come into the hands of the West Saxons On the resignation of Ine, in 726, the throne was obtained by Aethelheard, apparently his brother-in-law, who had to submit to the Mercian king Aethelbald, by whom he seems to have been attacked in 733 Cuthred, who succeeded in 740, at first acted in concert with Aethelbald, but revolted in 752. At his death m 756 Sigeberht succeeded. The latter, however, on account of his misgovernment was deserted by most of the leading nobles, and with the exception of Hampshire the whole kingdom came into the

hands of Cynewulf

of the princes

who

Sigeberht, after putting to death the last

remained

faithful

to him, was

driven

See Vita Wessel Groningensis, by Albert Hardenberg, published mto exile and subsequently murdered, but vengeance was afterin an incomplete form in the preface to Wessel’s collected works wards taken on Cynewulf by his brother Cyneheard. Cynewulf (Amsterdam, 1614; this preface also contains extracts from the works was succeeded ın 786 by Berhtric, who married Eadburg, daughter of several writers who have given facts about the life of Wessel) ; of the Mercian king Offa, Her murderous conduct. led to the - Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformatzon—the second volume of the German edition 1s a second and enlarged edition of a previous king’s death in 802 Berhtric was succeeded by Ecgberht (gv), work entitled Johann Wessel, em Vorganger Luthers (1834) , A. Ritschl, who overthrew the Mercian king Beornwulf m 82 5. This led to History of the Christzan Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation the establishment of West Saxon supremacy and to the annexa(Edinburgh, 1872); E W Miller, Wessel Gansfort; Life and Writings. tion by Wessex of Sussex, Surrey, Kent and Essex one Works translated by J. W. Scudder (2 vols, New York, Aethelwulf (gq v.), son of Ecgberht, succeeded to the throne of 1917),

Wessex at his father’s death in 839, while the eastern provinces A simular division took

WESSEX, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain. Ac- went to his son or brother Aethelstan

cording to the Saxon Chronicle, it was founded by two princes, Cerdic, and Cynnc his son, who landed in 494 or 495 and were followed by other settlers in sor and s14 After several successful battles against the Welsh they became kings in 519 around the southern part of Hampshire In 530 Cerdic and Cynric are said to have conquered the Isle of Wight, which they gave to two of their relatives, Stuf and Wihtgar. Cerdic died in 534. Cynric defeated the Britons at (Old) Salisbury in 552 and again in conjunctién with his son Ceawlin at Beranburh, probably Barbury hil near Surndon, in 556 At his death in 560 he was succeeded

by'#Ceawlin, who is mentioned by Bede as the second of the

English kings to hold an imperium in Britain With him we enter upon a period of more or less reliable tradition. How far the earlier part of the story deserves credence is still much debated

It is worthy of note that the dynasty claimed to be of the same

drigin as the royal house of Bernicia

Whatever may be the truth about the origin of thé kingdom,

ak! forse

place on Aethelwulf’s death between his two sons Aethelbald and Aethelberht, but on the death of the former in 858 Aethel-

berht umited the whole in his own hands, his Aethelred and Alfred renouncing their claims succeeded in 865 by Aethelred, and the latter This was the period of the great Danish invaston

younger brothers Aethelberht was by Alfred in 871, which culminated in the submission of Guthrum in 878 Shortly afterwards the kingdom of the Mercians came to an end and by 886 Alfred’s

authority was admitted in all the provinces of England which

were not under Danish rule From this time onwards the history of Wessex is the history of England See Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1892-99), Bede, Hist. Eccl. and Continuatio, edited by C Plummer (Oxford, 1896), “Annales Lindisfarnenses,” in the Monumenia Germ.

fast. xx

(Hanover, 1866); Asser, Lefe of Kmg Alfred, ed W. H.

Stevenson (Oxford, 1904), W (London, 1885-93).

WEST, BENJAMIN

de G Birch, Cartulartum Saxonicum (F GMB)

(1738-1820), English historical and

WEST—WEST portrait-painter, was born on Oct 10, 1738 at Springfield, Pennsylvania, of an old Quaker family from Buckinghamshire.

521

AFRICA

merges into the Sahara. While it mcludes the Cameroons and the Gabun it does not mclude Angola, which ıs properly West-

He showed artistic talent at an early age, and at the age of Central Africa. As defined, West Africa has an area of about eighteen settled m Philadelphia as a portrait-painter He then 3,000,000 sqm not reckoning the Sahara region. The population about 40,000,000. removed to New York, and in 1760, through the assistance of is Physical Features—In physical features West Africa prefrends, he was enabled to visit Italy, where he remained nearly three years On leaving Italy he settled in London as an historical sents a fairly simple structure. The coast makes a great bend

from south to east, and then south again, but ıt is of a remarkably regular outline, and the only good natural harbours are in the estuaries or mouths of the rivers. A coast plain varying from was one of the four artists who submitted to the king the plan a narrow strip to 50 or 60 m. deep is succeeded by an area of members; earliest the of one was he for a royal academy, of which dense forest In some places, as mn the Niger delta, the forest and in 1772 he was appointed historical painter to the king He painted large pictures on historical and relgious subjects, con- comes to the water’s edge and then consists of mangroves The coast line 1s usually low and often ill-defined, and behind it run cerved, as he believed, in the style of the old masters, and so high did he stand in public favour that on the death of Sir lagoons and creeks, so that considerable areas are forested swamp North of the forest area the ground rises to a comparatively low Joshua Reynolds, un 1792, he succeeded him as president of the Academy. He died in London on March 11, 1820, and was buried plateau, formmg mountain ranges parallel to the coast. In the east rise the mountains of Adamawa, which are the outliers in St. Paul’s. West’s large “Death of Wolfe” is interesting as of the plateau which there marks the lmit of the Congo basın introducing modern costume From Adamawa a volcanic range runs south-west, culminating An account of West’s hfe was published by Galt (The Progress of From a submerged peninsula exGenus, 1816) See also H T Tuckerman, Book of ihe Artists at the coast in Mt Cameroon

painter. George III. took him under his special patronage and

commissions flowed m upon him from all quarters.

In 1768 he

(N.Y, 1868).

WEST, THE, a term of special significance in the United States because the major direction of settlement has always been westward To New Englanders at the begining of the 19th cen-

tury “west” meant western New York, and to those of the Middle Atlantic shore 1t meant the Ohio valley. As settlement proceeded the “west” was continually carried forward and followed the retreating frontier across the country. Before the Civil War the Mississippi valley was “west” but for the next generation

this region had become the “Middle West” (g.v) and a “Far West” had grown up beyond. For the characteristics of this transitory “west” and its significance in American life see the article Tue AMERICAN FRONTIER. Since the disappearance of a definite frontier about 1890 the use of terms has become more stable, but the West still begins in a different place for every person For easterners ıt usually begins at the Mississippi river, for some others the natural place of dehmitation would seem to be where the prairies blend mto the plains, a line slightly beyond the western border of the first row of States west of the Mississippi. From this lne to the Pacific stretch three successive geographical divisions, the plains, the mountains and the Pacific slope The last is the oldest in settlement Migration leaped across the arid plains and the forbidding mountains to the fertile agricultural valleys of Oregon or to the gold placers of Cahforma It then dnbbled back through the mountains separating and collecting again where ever mineral wealth was found Lastly it spread thinly over the plains in the ranching frontier, which after 1890 was largely replaced by the denser homesteading population. The Pacific slope has come to be known as the “Coast.” The real West, then, is made up of the last frontiers, the mountains and the plains Its population 1s more varied in character than m any other major portion of the country Settled during and after the Civil War by southermers, middle-westerners, and easterners, 1t possesses different characteristics from the older sections Except in the few cities developed social strata are scarcely noticeable Out of the west, or the “Coast” have come the more democratic governmental ideas, notably the initiative, referendum and recall Wyommg as a territory provided for woman suffrage and was the first State of the Union and perhaps the first ın the world to do so, Property rights of women were also early made more nearly equal to those of men In all cultural fields, though people carried with them the ideas of their backgrounds, the lack of established traditional

institutions made modification and experiment easier, Dependence on the public schools became greater as the influence of other institutions declined

WEST AFRICA, As a geographical region West Africa may

be taken to include the coast lands from Cape Blanco to the estuary of the Congo, the basins of the Niger, the Senegal and

Gambia, and of the Volta and other rivers entering the Gulf of Guinea.

Eastward it extends to Lake Chad, and northward it

tending from Mt

Cameroon

mse the islands of Fernando

Po,

Pnncipe, St. Thomas and Annobon From the western face of the Adamawa mountain streams descend to form the Benue More important to hydrography of the country are the Futa Jallon mountains, which are parallel to the coast Climate.—The climate of the coast and forest regions is hot and excessively humid. Variations of temperature are normally not great and the average 1s about 80° F. The yearly rainfall is from 80 to 100 in m most districts; in the Kasamance region of Senegal and in the Niger delta the fall is frequently 150 in ma year The climate of the interior is, as a rule (Senegal is an exception), hot and dry, with temperature often higher than on the coast, but with much greater daily variations. In the inland regions the rainfall is generally not above 30 in a year, but in some places may be 60 in, while in the north—as at St Louis, Senegal—it is but r2 inches In the coast regions the ramy season lasts nine months or more, in the interior that is usually the length of the dry season The difference is largely due to the fact that the coast is subject to the moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic, and that the rise to the plateau intercepts these winds, while the interior 1s more subject than the coast to the harmattan, the dry, hot wind from the desert. Malaria, dysentery and other diseases prevail, and no part of West Africa is suitable for permanent occupation by Europeans, though in some regions, such as the Bauchi plateau, whites can live. Forest and Plain.—The great forest belt extends from the Gambia to the Congo and covers probably some 700 coo sqm Along the shores, lagoons and creeks there are mangrove forests, behind which are great areas of oil palms Besides the oil palms are other palms, including the coconut palm Other characteristic trees of the dense forest are mahogany, cedar, ebony and walnut The rubber vine and rubber trees are abundant. In the more open forest are giant baobabs and shea butter trees, and in the north gum-yielding acacia. The open country usually begms about 7° N latitude Its general character 1s that of a granite and sandstone plateau forming undulating plams traversed by the alluvial valleys of the great rivers West of the Niger at Timbuktu, as far as Mopti, the Niger valley 1s a wide, marshy, fertile plam Withm the Niger bend in the French Sudan, and east of the river to Lake Chad, are considerable areas of grassland giving pasture to large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats, and much arable land These plains cover over 1,000,000 sqm., without reckoning the open country on the Cameroons plateau. In the extreme west, in Senegal, the country north of the Gambia is a sandy plain without surface water for eight months of the year, but with excellent pasturage after the rains Two large regions, the French Niger Colony, which lies immediately north of (British) Nigeria, and Mauretania, the country north of the lower Senegal, which between them have an area of over 500,000 sqm, are half or more than half Saharan in character In small part they have cultivated land and a considerable area of pasture

622

WEST AFRICA

Natives dnd Etrropeans.—The vast majority of the people are of the negro race, but in the region orth of the great forest

belt other races have been represented from the earliest period of which there is record

Egyptian influences spread westward

from the Nile valley in ancient times, and mm all likehhood there were migtations of various clans It is possible that the Fula people camie originally from the East. Again the Sahara proved

atid thereafter, partly thfough iriertia, they were ousted by rivals frotn other places untul, 1 the end, they were able to retam only the small patch of territory known now 4s Portuguese Guines Among the other Powers the struggle was keenest for the Gold Coast—with its double attraction of gold and slaves. Here a

perfect patchwork of forts was built~-Dutch, British, Danish,

north of the lower Senegal, along the middle course of the Niger and i the Lake Chad region Thus the negto peoples were in

Swedish, even German (the Braddenburgers) It was not until late m the roth century that the coast became definitely British, (See Gorn Coast ) On the Guinea Coast generally the Dutch were for å tme the most powerful European State Their power waned in the 17th century and they gave up Senegal to the French in 1678, and though Senegal was afterwards seized by the British, it became definitely French after the downfall of Napoleon The Gambia had been contended for by British and French, the former gaining possession of the lower river Towards the end of the

seen, of open plains watered by large and navigable rivers, had

with the establishment in 1846 of Libreville as a homie for former

no barrier comparable to that of the forest zone, and Berbers

from North Afrita crossed the desért and settled in the region

contact with the Mediterranean world and to some extent shared it& civilization After the Arab conquest of North Africa m the ath century, Arab tribes settled ım the Lake Chad and other districts, and the influence of Islam spread over a wide area. By 18th century the British laid the foundations of Sierra Leone, the 11th century Mohammedanism had become the religion of making there a home for ex-slaves, the first settlement of Amenmany of the negroes, and pilgrims travelling eastwards to Mecca can negroes was made in what is now Liberia in £821; the British with renewed, or strengthened, the connection of West Afrıca acquired Lagos in 1861 as a step to ending the slave trade in the Nubia and Egypt Long before the risé of Islam the peoples of Bight of Benin, and the French claim to the Gabun had begun this northern part of West Africa, copsisting largely, as has been

developed well organized States, of which the oldest known, Ghana (or Ghanata), is thought to have been founded in the

3rd century AD Later arose the empire of Melle and the more famous and moré powerful Songho: (Songhay) empire. These were mainly west of the Niger; east of that river the Hausa—stull

largely pagan—founded several States and around Lake Chad grew up the powerful empire of Bornu Marking the importance, comnmercial and political, of these States, large cities wete founded.

The trade of all these countnes was, to a small extent, eastward to the Nile valley, but chiefly across the Sahara to the Barbaty States, the principal routes leadimg to Morotco and Tripoli The barrier presented by the forest belt appeared almost insuperable to trade with the south, though there was some traffic with its warlike inhabitants The routes across the Sahara weré well known; along them passed great camel caravans with slaves, gold dust, ostrich feathers and leathern goods curiously wrought

slaves The Spaniards acquired the island of Fernando Po towards

the end of the 18th century with settlemerits on the Muni river

For a long while the European Powers established oñ thè Guines

coast made no attempt to exercise jurisdiction outside the limits of their forts, but gradually the authority of the whites was acktiowledged by thé coast peoples. France was the first nation

setiously to undertake the conquest of the intetior. From 1854 they pushed inland from Sehegal-—tackling the forest bélt last and mainly from thé north At that period, however, the British had begun to péhetrate inland by way of thé Niger and the Benue,

while along the coast, apart froni the French posséssions, their

influence was parathount, notably in the Niger delta and the Cameroons While this influence was exercised ho claim to ŝoveteignty was made in those regions and when, in 1884-85, the

“scramble” for Afti¢a bécami# acute, Geriiahy was ablé to drive the Togoland wedge between the Gold Coast (British) atd Da-

lead to any revival of tradé, pattly because one of its maih suip-

homéy (French) and also to sécuré the Catfiérotns For the regt, Great Britain sectited Nigeria afd 4 fairly janesarea for the Gold Coast, thé greater putt of the hinterland falling, however, to

into the orbit of Western influence and the development of a new and richet commerce with the outer world was accomplished from

Arnica ) The giving to France and Great Britam, after the Wotld Wart, the tiandate to administer the former Gerriian colénies,

the south, with the breaking of the barrier of the forest belt The inhabitants of the detisé forest arid of the Guinea toast had not been affected by the contact with the outer world which their northern btethren had possessed. Pure négroes, these south-

and roads through the forest belt, and by placing stéamers ot

The modern occupation of North Afnca by European Powers, begun with the capture of Algiers by the French 1h 1830, did not

ports was the salé of slaves

The bruiging of the western Sudan

ern folk were véry primitive, nor did they develop any Séafaring uistitict which might have led them to the discovery of

other lands But among them the Yoruba, the Ashanti, the Dahomi and the Beni created well organized and powerful kingdoms All the southérn tribes had a profound belief 1 religion, chiefly showi in spirit, that is, ancestof worship and in the power

of spirits to control the life of the living. In communal ofganization theré was a thoroughly democratic element: the most powerful king was subjéct to the cofitrél of a council of chiefs. These peoples were made known to Europe by the discoveries of the Portuguese navigators in the 15th century, and for dve? 300 years

France. (The “scramble” and partition are described in the article added responsibilities of these Powers ia West Africa

By thé establishment of péacé and by the building of railways

the Niger afid other tivers, the northern countriéd Were at length

brought into communication with the outer world by 4 shorter and much safer route than the Sakata, and the cOmmercé of the Guinea coast was reinforced by the produce of the north. The great development in trade from about 1890 was due, however,

to the fhsistent demands of Europeatt and Afierican indiistry for “jungle produce,” notably oil and rubber

The coast-péople

fitst, and later the tribes of the interior, were brought into ever growing contact with Western civilization. Contact with Europeans also led to new waits, intellectual and social, and in various districts to 4 keen demand for education,

This development took place under the guidance of French and British adtnimstrators. If Liberia be excepted, nowhére was there slaves, ivory, peppét's and spices and gold to the Europeans, and an independent African State left. In general the éffect of thé getting from them gin, gunpowder and guns, beads, cotton cloths, contact between the white and black was favourable to the and “Kafir truck” generally. For over a century the Portuguese African, What result would ultimately How frorn tha different weré left undisturbed by Etiropean tivals on the Guinea coast, systems pursued by the French and the British in their dealing Spain not interferitig, in accordance with the bull of Pope Alex- with the African retained to be seen. Here only the mait diffèrander VI of 1493 ahd the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494. But etice can be stated The British, as far as possible, maintained after the Reformation the Protestant Powers paid nö attention in existencé, naturally tnder ultimate control by the colonial adto the papal bull (which the Spaniards later on also disregarded). ministration, the native States with their own rulers, Govtheir contact with the outer world was miainly through providing

Thé English weré arnotig the first to challenge the Portuguese:

ernthents and treasuries

This waa the st: cm K.iown ak facizect

they wére ttading on the Gold Coast by the middle of the 16th century, and were quickly followed by other nations, the Dutch

tule

guese were forced by the Dutch to withdraw from the Gold Coast,

employed for purely local purposes, were, in effect, Governthent

and the French proving the most formidable. In 1642 the Portu-

The French governed their colonies directly, thit dt Euro-

pean officials werë everywhere in charge of the administration

Former rulers lost all attributes of sovereignty, and native chiefs,

WESTARP—WESTBURY officials. The French sought also to infuse French ideas into the African; the British essayed the difficult task of trying to pwd up a civilization which, while taking what was suitable from the West, would be essentially African As mndicated, the greater part of West Africa belongs to France, and all the French colontes are jomed one to another to form a continuous block, while each of the British protectorates is

523

ties of Tubingen, Breslau, Leipzig and Berlin He entered the civil service in 1886, becoming Director of Police m Schöneberg (1904), President of Police (1908) and Oberverwaltungsgerichts-

rat (1908). In 1920, after the establishment of the German Republic, he retired, In 1908 he had entered the Reichstag as a Conservative. In 1919 he opposed the government on the ques-

tion of fulfillmg the terms of the Allied ultimatum. From 1925 he was chairman of the Reichstag group of the German National People’s party After the revolution the Conservative party colony mcluded). The British share 1s about 430,000 sqm ; was embodied in the Nationalist party, without entirely losing the negro republic of Libera covers approximately 40,000 sqm; its own identity. At the beginning of 1928 it issued an appeal the small remainder consists of Portuguese or Spanish enclaves for votes for the candidates of a “people’s National Blac,” in and a fraction of the Belgian Congo But on the population basis opposition to the Nationalist party candidates, together with a the British possessions lead with roughly 21,500,000 inhabitants, programme advocating the restoration of the monarchy by legal while the French area has na more than 16,090,000 people The means This action led to the resignation of Count Westarp from regions most densely populated are on the coast and in the forest the leadership of the party

neighboured by foreign territory. Of some 3,090,000 sq.m. France admmisters about 2,600,000 (the Cameroons and the Gabun

belt, notably the Gold Coast, Dahomey, the Niger delta and

WESTBOROUGH,

a town of Massachusetts, USA, occu-

Yorubaland (where there are many large towns). Products and Trade.—The outstanding product is oil in vari-

pying 22 sqm. Pop (1930) 6,409. It was the birthplace of Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin It was settled about 1659.

the Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Dahomey, the Niger» delta and the Cameroons export great quantities of palm oil and palm ker-

of All Sats, formerly St. Clement, was given by Henry I. tq the

ous forms, Besides palm oil itself, palm kernels, ground nuts, . WEST BROMWICH, town in Staffordshire, England, 6 m. benniseed, sesame, copra and shea butter are exported for ther north-west of Birmingham Pop (1931) 81,281 Although of oils, Senegal and the French Sudan, the Gambia and Northern ancient origin, the appearance of the town, like its growth as Nigeria are conspicuous fer the cultivation of the ground nut; an Industrial centre of the Black Country, is modern. The church convent of Worcester,

from which it passed to the priors of

Sandwell, who rebuilt it in the Decorated perad, the present structure (1872) following their plan. The chief public buildings one of the m im sources of ‘he wor'd’s supply Cocoa js also ipn- are the town hall, the Institute, the free hbrary and law-courts, creasingly culuvatec in Nugetia ane -he Ci meroors Cotton grow- The picturesque Qak House (16th century), was opened as a

nels, Other products of prime importance are cocoa, principally from the Gold Coast, which, since the World War, has become

ing for export dates from 1905 and 1s likely tọ become important

Of sylvan products other than oil, “wild rubber” was of great value in the closing years of the roth century and for a few years after, Sinca about roro it has been largely ousted by plantation rubber from the Far East, but in the Cameroons, the Gabun, Nigeria and elsewhere there are now rubber plantations, and plantations on a vast scale have been begun in Liberia. The export

museum and art gallery in 1898 Sandwell Hall, a tormer seat of the Earls of Dartmouth, was demolished mn 1925, the site, with remains of a Benedictine priory, 1s preserved as an open space,

WESTBROOK, a city of Maine, U S.A. Pap. (3929) 9,453 (80% native white); 1930 Federal census 10,807, The river

provides water-power, and the city manufactures paper, silks and cotton goads, Westbrook was separated from Felmouth in of timber is the chief dustry in the Gabun and in almost all 1814 and incorporated as the town of Stroudwater, adopting its the ather coast districts timber, largely mahogany, is exported present name in 1815, in honour of Col. Thomas Westbrook, an Fishing is of some account in various districts; the French have Indian fighter, A charter was granted in 1889 WESTBURY, RICHARD BETHELL, 187 Baron (1800~ given much attention to the fishing grounds off the coast of

Mauretania

The internal trade is large and active.

Mineral production, up to 1929, was almost wholly from the Gold Coast and Nigeria In Nigeria tin and coal are extensively mined: the Gold Coast has nat only its gold mines, but vast beds of manganese, which were discovered in 1974, and bauxite. The Gold Coast also produces “sand” diamonds, some 26 to the carat, which find a ready market Gold is found in the rivers of Senegal and in Bambuk, salt comes from north-east of Timbuktu

73), lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son of Dr, Richard

Bethell, and was horn at Bradford, Wilts., on June 30, 1800. He was educated at Wadham college, Oxford, and in 1823 was called to the bar at, the Middle Temple. He was appointed vice-chancellor of Lancaster in 1851, His most important public service was the reform of the then existing mode of legal education, a reform which ensured that students before call ta the bar should have at least some acquaintance with the elements of the subject

External trade has grown very greatly since the beginning of which they were to profess

In 1851 he obtained a seat in the

House of Commons, where he continued to sit, first as member for Aylesbury, then as member for Wolverhampton, until he was raised to the peerage Attaching himself tọ the liberals, he became vilaed at £€3 797,c02 In French West Africa, owing to the post- solicitor-general in 1852 and attorney-general ın 1856 and agem war Wuctua 1on= in rhe value of the franc and to differences in m r859 On June 26, 1861, on the death of Lord Campbell, he methods of returns, comparison 1s nat so exact, but £5,000,000 for was created lord chancellor, with the title of Baron Westbury of 1909 and £25,000,000 for 1927 represent approximately the vol- Westbury, county Wilts, The ambition of his lfe was to set on ume of trade, The chief ports are Dakar (French), Freetown foot the compilation of a digest of the whale law, but for various (Sierre Leone), Takoradi (Gold Coast), Lagos, Part Harcourt reasons this became mmpracticable While personal corruption is the 20th century, largely, 1f not chiefly as the result of the opening up of the country by the building of railways In British West Africa in 1900 the trade was valued at £7,896,000; in 1927 it was

(all British) and Duala, in the Cameroons

BrstiocrapHy—Annual reports on French West Africa are issued

by the Colonial Office, Paris A biblography isgiven in the Annuazre Général (Pans 1928 ed,); French West Africa, a British Foreign, Office handbook (1920) For the British West African possessions

Domzmons and Coleraal Office Last (London, yearly, with see The hsts of parlamentary papers), The Statesman’s Year Book; the British West African number” of The Times (Qct 30, 1928), J. Hutchinson and J M Dalzicl Mors of West Tropical Africa (1928); Osman Newland

West

Arreca

4 Merdhnok

impcted to hrr he acted with some laxity, and after Parliamen. ry enquiries he rerignec (x865).

All these have good | not

sheltered harbours and have railway connection with the inland

markets, most of the other ports are open roadsteads

of Practscal Information

(1922), See also the articles Gutver Ferncu Was AFRICA, NicERIA, Lapeata, Gorn Goasi, Sisicir, ete (F,R C)

In 3872 he was appointed arbitrator under the European Assurance Society act 1872 Perhaps the best known of his

judgments is that delivering the opinion of the judicial commuittee of the privy council in 1863 against the heretical character of certain extracts from Assays and Reviews, His principal legislative achievements were the passing of the Divorce act 1857, and of the Land Registry act 1862 (generally known as Lord Westbury’s act), the latter of which in practice proved a failure, What chiefly distinguished Lord Westbury was the possession of a blistering tongue

He waged a remarseless war on the clergy

20, 1873, __),German politician, in general and bishops in particular He died on Julyspecial WESTARP, KUNO, Count (1864anof Bishop Wilberforce, his was horn at Ludom, Aug. 12, 1864, and educated at the universi- within a day of the death

524

WESTBURY—WESTERMARCK taneously, m the preparation of a new text ın conjunction with

tagonist in debate among the clergymen of England See T. A. Nash, Life of Lord Westbury

Hort

(2 vols, 1888).

WESTBURY, an urban district of Wiltshire, England

Pop

(1931) 4,044. All Saints’ church 1s Norman and later, with a magnificent nave A chained black-letter copy of Erasmus’ “Paraphrase of the New Testament” 1s preserved in the south chapel In the suburb of Westbury Leigh 1s the “Palace Garden,” a moated site said to have been a royal residence in Saxon tumes Westbury figures in Domesday as a manor held by the king

The earliest mention of the town as a borough occurs in 14421443. The charter of incorporation 1s lost (tradition says 1t was burnt), and the town possesses no other charter

The borough

returned two members to parhament from 1448 In 1832 the number was reduced to one, and ın 1885 the representation was merged in that of the county

WEST

CHESTER,

a borough

of south-eastern Pennsyl-

vania, U S.A. Pop (1920) 11,717 (78% native white); 12,325 ın 1930 It is the seat of a State normal school (1871) and several academies of long standing. The Turk’s Head inn dates from 1762 On the outskirts of the town are a number of fine estates, where thorough-bred horses and cattle are raised West Chester was settled in 1713, succeeded Chester as the county seat about 1784, and was incorporated as a town ın 1788, as a borough in 1799. The Battle of Brandywine (Sept 11, 1777) was fought 7 m to the south, and on Sept 20 Gen Wayne, with a small force, was surprised and routed by the British at Paoli, 8 m. NE.

WESTCOTT,

BROOKE

FOSS

(1825-1901),

English

divine and bishop of Durham, was born on Jan 12, 1825, near Birmingham His father, Frederick Brooke Westcott, was a botanist of some distinction Westcott was educated at King Edward VI school, Birmingham, and at Trinity College, Cambridge He took his degree in January 1848, obtaming double-first honours In mathematics he was twenty-fourth wrangler, Isaac Todhunter being senior. In classics he was senior, being bracketed with C B Scott, afterwards headmaster of Westminster Westcott then remained for four years m residence at Trinity In 1849 he obtained his fellowship, and took holy orders. Among his pupils at Cambridge were his school friends J B. Lightfoot, E. W. Benson and F J A Hort (gqgu) He devoted much attention to philosophical, patristic and historical studies, but 1t soon became evident that he would throw his strength nto New Testament work In 1852 he became an assistant master at Harrow, where he taught for nearly twenty years under C J. Vaughan and Montagu Butler. The writings which he produced at this period created a new epoch in the history of modern English theological scholarship. These are History of the New Testament Canon (1855), which, frequently revised and expanded, became the standard English work upon the subject; Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles (1859); Introduction to the Study of the Gospels (2860), expanded from his Nornsian essay; The Bible in the Church (1864); The Gospel of the Resurrection (1866), and a History of the Enghsh Buble (1869) In 1868 Westcott was appomted examming chaplain by Bishop Connor Magee (of Peterborough), and in the following year he accepted a canonry at Peterborough, which necessitated his leaving Harrow But the regius professorship of divimty at Cambridge fell vacant, and Westcott was elected to the chair on Nov I, 1870

This was the turning-pomt of his life He now occupied a great

Position for which he was supremely fitted, and at a juncture in the reform of university studies when a theologian of hberal views, but universally respected for his massive learning and his devout and single-minded character, would enjoy a unique opportunity

for usefulness Supported by his frends Lightfoot and Hort, he threw himself into the new work with extraordinary energy. His

Commentaries on St. John’s Gospel (1881), on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1889) and the Epistles of St John (1883) resulted

from his public lectures One of his most valuable works, The Gospel of [tfe (1892), a study of Christian doctrine, incorporated the materials upon which he was engaged in a series of more priVate- and esoteric lectures delivered on week-day evenings Be-

tween the years 1870 and 1881 Westcott was also continually engageil-in-work‘for the revision of the New Testament, and, simulR

ke

In the year 1881 there appeared the famous Westcott and

Hort text of the New Testament, the outcome of nearly thirty years of incessant labour The reforms m the regulations for degrees in divinity, the formation and first revision of the new

theological tripos, the inauguration of the Cambridge mission to Delhi, the institution of the Church Society (for the discussion of

theological and ecclesiastical questions by the younger men), the meetings for the divinity faculty, the organization of the new Divinity School and Library and, later, the istitution of the

Cambridge Clergy Training School, were all, in a very real degree the result of Westcott’s energy and influence as regius professor

To this list should also be added the Oxford and Cambridge pre-

liminary examination for candidates for holy orders

In 1883 Westcott was elected to a professorial fellowship at

King’s Shortly afterwards he was appointed by the crown to a canonry at Westminster, and became examinig chaplain to Arch. bishop Benson He held his canonry at Westminster in conjunction with the regius professorship The strain was heavy but preaching at the Abbey gave him a welcome opportunity of deal. ing with social questions. His sermons were generally Portions of a series, and to this period belong the volumes Christus Consummator (1886) and Social Aspects of Christianity (1887) In March 1890 he succeeded his friend Lightfoot as bishop of Durham The new bishop surprised the general public, which had supposed him to be a recluse and a mystic, by the practical interest he took in the mining population of Durham and in the great shipping and artisan industries of Sunderland and Gateshead In 1892 he procured a peaceful solution to a long and bitter coal strike He was a staunch supporter of the co-operative movement He was practically the founder of the Christian Social Union, and an ardent supporter of foreign missions His last book, Lessors from Work (t9s*) was dedicated to the memory

of his wie, who died in “hat year

He preached a farewell sermon

to the miners in Durham cathedral at their annual festival on July 20, and died on July 27 The following 1s a bibliography of Westcott’s more important wntings, giving the date of the first editions —Elements of the Gospel Harmony (1851), History of the Canon of First Four Centuries (1853) , Charactersstecs of Gospel Miracles (1859) , Introduction to the Study of the Gospels (1860) , The Bible ın the Church (1864), The Gospel of the Resurrection (1866) , Christian Life Manzfold and One (1869) , Some Points in the Religious Life of the Universities (1873) Paragraph Psalter for the Use of Chowrs (1879) ı Commentary on the; Gospel of St John (1881), Commentary on the Epistles of St. John (1883) ; Revelation of the Risen Lord (1882) , Revelatzon of the Father (1884) , Some Thoughts from the Ordinal (1884) , Christus Consummator (1886), Socal Aspects of Christianity (1887); The Victory of the Cross. Sermons in Holy Week (1888) , Commentary on the Emstle to the Hebrews (1889) , From Strength to Strength (1899) ; Gospel of Is'e (18,2) The Incernatian and Common Life (1893) , Some Lessons G? the Revised Version ot the New Testament (1897) , Christian

Ibert: at Jate Tas eon from Work (1901) RaSee the Liye by his son B. F Westcott (1903), and also that by J Clayton (1906).

WESTERLY,

a town of Rhode Island, USA, separated

from Connecticut by the Pawcatuck river. Pop. (1920) 9,952 (26% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 10,997 It embraces the villages of Westerly and Bradford, and Watch Hull, a seaside resort with a summer population of 5,000 Westerly was settled in 1661 and the town was organized in 1669

WESTERMANN, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (d 1794), French general, was born at Molsheim in Alsace He accompanied Dumouriez on his campaigns and was arrested as an accomplice in his negotiations with the Austrians He succeeded in proving

his innocence, and was sent with the rank of general of brigade into La Vendée, where he distinguished himself by his extraordinary courage. He was then summoned to Paris, where, proscribed with the Dantonists, he was executed on April 5,, 1794 ae P. Holl, Nos généreux alsacens . .. Westermann

T9090

i

(Strasbourg,

WESTERMARCK, EDWARD ALEXANDER, (1862), Finnish anthropologist, was born at Helsingfors on Nov 20, 1862 He was educated at'a lyceum in his native town, and at the University of Finland where he later became professor of

WESTERN moral philosophy

ASIATIC

In 1890 he went to England, and in 1907 was

appomted professor of sociology at the Umversity of London

He made a special study of primitive marriage and ethical origins,

and published The Origen of Human Marriage (1889); The History of Human Marriage (1889, sth ed rewritten in 3 vol.

1921), The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (1906), Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco, 2 vol (1914) WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE from Egypt to

Archaic Greece

Racially, as well as geographically, the whole Mesopotamian region 1s one The Chaldaeans of the earlier settlements—a mixture of Sumerian and Semitic elements—the Babylonians and the Assyrians, all had the same broad characteristics un their architecture as in their beliefs The vast plam, watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, was hable to flooding Hence, the terraced platform was an indispensable preparation for all Mesopotamian building The ziggurat, or terraced pyramid, was its principal feature but would have been impossible,

by itself, without a base on which to stand Herem lies the great contrast between the architecture of Babyloma and Assyria and that of the dry, firm sand of Egypt Chaldaea.—Under this head may be included the architecture of the lower Mesopotamian region from the earliest times till the effective rise of Assyria,c 1275 BC The principal factors are (1)

the early Sumerian centres of Ur, Erech, Larsa and Lagash, dating from ¢ 3500 BC or earlier, to ¢ 2200 BC, (2) the overlapping power of Akkad which became the dominating power c. 2700-2600 Bc,under Sargon I and Naram Sin, and (3) the rise of Babylon, c. 2200 BC, culminating in the reign of the great lawgiver, Hammurah Each important Chaldaean settlement was primarily the home of the reigning god and of the local ruler as his priest Ur was devoted to the cult of the moon-god, Nannar, and of his wife, Nin-Gal. The ziggurat—zo0o ft by 150 ft and still 70 ft high— is a solid mass of brick in high stages and built with bitumen mstead of mortar, standing on a brick-paved terrace having a clear front space 300 ft long and 174 ft wide It is the work of Ur Engur, 3rd dynasty king of Ur (c. 2300 Bc) and of his son, Dungi There is no doubt that the final or temple stage was finished with great richness At Abu Shahrein there were evidences that the topmost chamber was lined with a mosaic of agate, alabaster, marble and gold, fixed with gold-headed copper nails This technique has been borne out by recent finds at Ur (g.v ). The retamıng walls of the terrace at Ur are massively constructed of sun-dried brick with sloped faces having a series of shallow buttresses Burnt clay cones are built in at intervals and the circular inscribed ends of these show on the face On the terrace were cultural buildings and the houses of the god and his wife. Remarkable results have been disclosed by recent excavation, The earliest tomb structures, far below terrace level, go back to ¢ 3500 BC and show astonishing facility in the construction of barrel vaults and semi-domes of crude brick Bricks, both crude (or sun-dried) and burnt, were the great building material of Mesopotamia, a natural result of the rich stiff clay which was the subsoil everywhere “The walls, constructed and repaired with bricks stamped with names of lords of the locality, contain in themselves alone an almost complete history” (Maspero) Plaster was the usual finish on this brickwork An important decorative work is the “stela” (inscribed tablet or pillar) of Ur Engur, 15 ft high and 5 ft. wide, with carvings ın panels of unequal heights—arranged horizontally—and an inscription (cf., the later Assyrian stela of Shalmaneser II m the British Museum) At Tell-el-Obeid, near Ur, was a temple of ¢ 3500 nc “At the door

stood statues of ons made of copper and on each side of the door were columns encrusted with mosaic in mother-of-pearl and red and black stones” (Woolley, Times report, 1925). There is a Greek perfection im the green stone door socket at Ur, “shaped

as a serpent with a hollow in the top of ıts head, wherein the

pivot of the door hinge turned” (ibid.),

At Lagash (Tello) there is a palace platform 174 ft by 69 ft., rismg 40 ft above the plain It belongs to the time of Gudea, ¢ 2600 Bc.

There is a distinct arrangement in the setting-out of

the buildings and the treatment of portions of the external wall is characteristic—deep

rectangular

grooves

arranged

vertically at

ARCHITECTURE

525

regular intervals, or rows of semicircular projecting pilasters, like “gigantic organ pipes ” At Erech (Warka) the treatment is rendered more decorative by diaper, chevron and spiral patterns, coloured, which are formed of terra-cotta cones sunk deep mto solid plaster. Tello is justly celebrated for the quality of its sculpture (now in the Louvre) m excessively hard stone, which is comparable with the early dynastic work of Egypt. Assyria.—The plan of an Assyman palace can be seen in Sargon’s great centre at Khorsabad, on the east bank of the Tigris The whole palace area is some 79 ac., of which about $ rd is given over to the palace, the remainder being platform area contaiming the ziggurat and other ritual buildings; but the palace was placed on the centre of the nver front of a square enclosure containing the town, occupying, roughly, a square mile and surrounded by a fortified wall strengthened with towers at tervals The courtyard system is at once evident in the palace and there is more symmetry (or at least dehberate grandiose arrangement) than is apparent at first sight It is also impossible to judge of the effect of such a work as this from a plan only and without taking into account the accessories of Assyrian architecture—the coloured tile decorations, the gigantic human-headed bulls or lions of the

entries and, above all, the magnificent reliefs which are so evident from the show cases of the British Museum. For precision and delicacy of treatment, fine sense of design and mastery in the rendering of animal form, these reliefs can compare with the architectonic sculpture of any age The entire absence of the column in all Mesopotamian buildings is noticeable. Babylon.—The latest rebuildmg of Babylon by Nebuchadrezzat J] in 604 BC, after the destruction of Nineveh by the Medes, Babylonians and Scythians, exhibits one of the greatest building achievements that has ever been attempted. It was to some extent a continuation of earlier work by the later Assyrian kings and Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadrezzar The palace (or rather palaces) proper, as at Khorsabad, can only be considered as incidents im an immense area which Jay on the east

bank of the Euphrates for the most part, but also crossed ıt The outer wall on the east side consists of two thicknesses of brickwork, respectively 23 ft and 253 ft, with an intervening space of 40 ft This was filled m and a roadway 86 ft. wide constructed on the top. The labour involved recalls the buildmg of the pyramids of Egypt Various coloured stones were used as paving slabs The decorations of the palace were in the prevailing Babylonian style of coloured and glazed tiles—lons, bulls, dragons, flower forms and formal patterns, executed with extraordinary verve and richness of colour Inscriptions record that “the chamber of Marduk, lord of the gods” was “furnished with shimng gold” and that eight bronze serpents at the doorways were covered with silver The Ishtar gate is in a remarkable state of preservation and gives a clear indication of the character of the chains of towers that encircled the palace. The building actıvities of Nebuchadrezzar were contmued by his successor Nahbonidus, who became a restorer of sacred sites m Chaldaea He effected a great levelling up and rebuilding scheme at Ur The greatest ziggurat of Mesopotamia—the Birs Nimriid—z1 m S of Babylon, was completely restored by Nebuchadrezzar. It was the more usual type which had its origin in early Chaldaea. Its irregular form facilitated ascending stepways between the stages. The whole intention was radically different from the tomb idea of the Egyptian step pyramid (see EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE) The Mesopotamian ziggurat was a “mountain” bult in solid stages having a shrine for the divmity at its summit. Saturated with the idea of man’s conflict with invisible powers, the art expression of Mesopotamia is remote from the humanistic thought of Greece and the modern world. Nevertheless, it contained some forms of great importance m the history of architectural development. (1) The fortified walls with their square towers, especially at gateways, entered into the mediaeval use of Europe, (2) the round pilaster strips of external walls reappear in the Sassanid palaces of the 3rd and 4th centuries ap, as well as in the Romanesque churches of Italy; (3) hons or other carved pedestals as bases for columns also reappear in Italian

526

WESTERN

ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE

Romanesque work, (4) the bronze bands of the gates of Shalmaneser II (860 8 c.—now ın the British Museum) were so perfect that a very complete restoration of the gates 1s possible and they remain one of the finest examples extant of metal-craft

on such a large scale before mediaeval times, (5) the magnificent output of glazed tile relief which, originating in Babylonia, was characteristic of Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian work, was translated into new forms by later Persian artists and became the greatest contribution of the Middle East to architectural decoration; (6) lastly and most important of all there is the first use of the arch, vault and semi-dome—with all that is meant by that anticipating the construction of Rome, not a few centuries

but some 3,000 years later. Persia.—The Neo-Babylonian empite was founded ın an insecure age and perished, with all its splendour, 1t1 338 B.C, only 66 years after the final collapse of Assyria. The real masters of western Asia during this period were the Medes i the first 1tstance, followed by the Persians, to whom they were allied but by whom they were subsequently conquered (550 BC). The Medes overran Asia Minor and subdued the great Ionian State of Lydia—an important event, as it brought western Asia into direct contact with Greek culture. The 6th century temple of Artemis at Ephesus was built by Croesus, king of Lydia, and Cyaxares, the Mede, may have seen this as well as the temple of Sardis, the capital. There are comparatively few architectural remains from this warlike period and from the succeeding one of Cyrus, the great Persian, conqueror of Media and Babylonia The most important is the “tomb of Cyrus” at Passargadae— 4 very interesting stone-built monument recalling the tombs of Lycia and certamly foreign to its district, though ıt has been suggested that it may be a Persian adaptation of the stepped towers

of Mesopotamia

Cambyses, son of Cyrus, effected the complete

conquest of Egypt, and his successor Darius (521 BC) con-

solidated the empire and founded Persepolis Xerxes, following him, continued building at Persepolis, mvaded Greece and after a ten years’ conflict was finally routed at Plataea (479 BC) We note the geographical position of Media and Persia on the Iraman plateau, at a high elevation above and to the east of the Tigris valley Stone of superb quality was abundant m this region and may partly account for the entirely new plan principle that is discovered in Persian architecture The Persian palaces at Persepolis and Susa were built on raised platforms enclosed by terrace walls and approached by step-ways, reécalling in this way those of Mesopotamia; but the structures above were columnar halls, like those of Egypt. The largest of these— the hall of the roo columns at Persepolis—is 225 ft square, though its columns were only 37 ft. nigh as agamst 67 ft in the smaller hall of Xerxes on the same site In many respects also the details were partly Egyptian and partly Greek The gateways of the hall of Xerxes have the colossal winged genii associated with Assyrian palaces and the staircase leading to the terrace has wild-beast rehefs on its balustrade (though these are not purely Mesopotamian in feeling), but the comices over the doors are Egyptian in form and the side posts of the doors in the hall of roo columns have a surface decoration m low-relief set in panels, the idea of which is strongly reminiscent of Egypt. The much discussed columns of the hall of Xerxes are frankly bizarre. They had no permanent influence on future wotk But the halls of the Persians were probably the finest that have ever been built and ther décorative craft work of the early sth century B.C was equal to any Greek work of similar technique The Hittites, —-Hittate architecture must be considered an anticlimax after the developments previotsly described, but it constituted an element of stability influencing the whole of the east Mediterranean region at a most important period, from c 15001000 B.C , a period in which Mesopotamia was comparati vely escent and which sutvived the zenith and dechne of Aegean quiThe earlier Hittite palace of importance was at Boghaz-K art. ew in north Anatolia; the later was at Carchemish, on the Upper Euphrates

there are abundant examples of the latter in vigorous rehefs. At

Carchemish, also, there were some carved lions of a rather fine though archaic type, which appear to have carried columns though this ıs not certam; but of their decorative function as guardians of an entrance there can be no doubt Crete—Not even the discoveries of 1925 to 1928 in southern Babylonia have been so arresting as the disclosure of the civilization in Minoan Creté which forms the connecting link between Egypt (see EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE) and Greece (see GREEK ARCHITECTURE). The island formation of Crete was favourable to settled development, as the sea formed an insuperable obstacle to nomadic tendencies This may of itself have accounted for the steady progression of Crete in systems of rectangular construction, which rapidly absorbed all circular or oval construc.

tions (except for certain tomb structures) and culminated jn

palaces of great size The immensely important site of Knossos situated some four miles mland from Candia, the mediaeval capital of Crete—contains on its palace site the clearest evidence of unbroken continuty in development from early Neolithic times till about 1400 Bc. We have here therefore a Mediter-

Tanéan tradition which, though it had contacts with Egypt and Mesopotamua, is neither African nor Asiatic and which became

one of the life-giving sources of all later European att, The vital force of Minoan building development hes in 1ts amazing output of palace construction which reached its culm.

nating pont during the third Middle Minoan penod (c t706-

1580 B.C) Many centuries before history and im a remote island of the Meditetranean there were building developments which were not matched in a domestic sense till the era of the greatest

palaces of the Renaissance There was a certain amount of faced masonry but 4 thorough system of wooden construction prevailed as a framework to a general infiling of—for the most part—-such very rough rubble that it survives practically as mere earth The ner walls, where not faced with large, thin gypsum slabs, were covered with lime plaster of superb quality, varying in thickness from 2 or more in. to the thmnest possible coating of stucco The ultimate finish was colour, on a slp of the finest stucco, forming a true fresco It 18 remarkable that so much of this apparently flumsy construction and finish should have survived for more than 2,500 years 14 a setni-northern climate by no means altogether dry. Knossos.—The frescoes at Knossos enable us to re-construct the entire hfe of the period. The variety and scale of the subjects represented were extraordinary-—Ife-size figure processions and bull-grappling scenes: landscapes with figures, animals, birds atid marine creatures, set as definite picture-subjects within borders; ceremonial scenes, often with crowds of figures and architectural backgrounds—the last mentioned extremely valuable m their structural suggestion and n therr proof that the buildings of the palace were themselves coloured The floors of the principal rooms were paved with gypsum slabs covered with thin hard coloured stucco Some of the ceilings must also have been of

coloured plaster, in semu-geometrical or running patterns

The

principle of coloured decoration was carried through the whole of the palace: even the storage rooms of the basement were finished

with deep-red plaster, having skirtings and dado Imes in grey and white The fresco finds show that the elaborately dressed Minoan ladies were able to watch spectacular displays from windows with great facility; also that windows were large and had “tmullons ”

Columns must have been of wood and have formed part of

the colour scheme Column bases of circular or oval form projected shghtly above the floor and were of gypsum or limestone

A few were of coloured marble or beautifully variegated stone

indicating a technique of which no further details are available Of architectural details and accessories the most important are

some wonderfully carved stone bands with rosettes and other patterns; the gypsum benches that lined the walls of some of

the rooms (those in the “Throne Room,” dating from the last

, and on the same latitude as the Assyrian sites but phase of the late Minoan period, being associated with a gypsum throne of unique character, showing clear indications of a wooden Somé 360 miles to the west, The architectural evidences were a-rttdée and primitive kind and the sculpture similarly so; of origin), the stepped balustrades of the staircases and of the lowbut level tanks that were probably associated with religious

rites,

WESTERN

ASIATIC

and, even more important, the niched seat or throne raised three steps as a centrepiece behind a low parapet at one end of the principal suite of apartments in the “Royal Villa,” with its strong

suggestion of the raised altar and apse of later Christian usage The layout and economy of the great centre which contained

these features has been preserved almost entire in its ground plan. Broadly, it is a square of about 4oo ft with a central open court

175 ft long and nearly too ft. wide. At the northern end of this,

towards the sea, is the main entrance passageway, but this entrance was masked and probably strongly guarded. The mam State entrance was on the west side, an indirect entry looking on to a great paved court and leading to the south terrace. Here the king may have “sat in the gate” The impressive size of the entry—which has a large central column dividing a total span of 37 ft—-and the frescoed richness of the processional way leading from it, formed a fitting approach by a double turn to a great suite of State apartments going northwards and raised some 8 ft above the central court. The greater part of this western area was carried on the massive basement walls which are now existing, the floor being below the level of the central court. The outstanding feature of this basement is its great series of storage magazines, over 200 ft in length.

On the east side of the central court the ground descended smartly to a pleasant river valley A deep cut in this slope held the most perfectly preserved portion of the palace—the domestic quarter-—accessible from the central court by a fine staircase in tiers of two flights round a newel wall. This staircase affords conclusive evidence of three storeys: in all probability there was a fourth storey The domestic quarter at Knossos is the most complete epitome of Minoan planmng on a grand scale that exsts The open balustraded area on the farther (east) side of the grand staircase was one of a system of five internal areas which gave light and air to the whole group of apartments These

areas were faced with limestone and paved with pebble cement, in contrast to the gypsum finish of covered quarters Descending shafts and a perfect system of underground drains, all stonebult, carried away the roof water and other drainage Two smaller staircase systems served the treasury and the queen’s apartments respectively On the upper floors must have been bedrooms and nurseries and other rooms for general use. The whole system ends gracefully on a columned piazza with a spa-

cious verandah above, overlooking the river. Phaestos, Hagia Triadha, Gournia, etc—The palace of Phaestos, near the south coast of the island, is distinctly inferior to Knossos in size and importance, but it was probably the seat of a king, though perhaps a tributary one It supplements in an admirable way many things that Knossos has lost, owing to the

fortunate fact that the great stepway leading to its State apart-

ments still exists complete and is here a truly monumental feature, about 42 ft across The peristyle character of at least a considerable part of the central court at Phaestos is clearly evident and also the existence of smaller courts of peristyle type. The little summer palace of Hagia Triadha, near Phaestos, is

more complete in a domestic sense Its fragment of “cat and bird” fresco is one of the greatest treasures of Minoan art There were other centres in the eastern part of Crete, of which Gournia, close to the north coast, is the most that has so far been discovered Its whole of the palace at Knossos, but it contains tiny palace. Tt also illustrates, equally with

perfect Minoan town extent is less than that streets, houses and a Knossos and Phaestos,

the skilful choice of a Minoan site The last two centuries of the late Minoan period were a time of decadence and re-occupation, following conquest (c 1400 B c.)

by some outside power, probably Mycenae on the mainland of Greece. Architectural remains which are pre-Greek and yet sub-

sequent to 1000 BC

are practically non-existent

The most impor-

tant is a unique temple building, of which considerable fragments were found, at Prinias in Crete (c. yoo Bc.). The doorway of this—cut out of soft stone and now in the Candia museum—is strongly reminiscent of Egypt There is the same tendency to put shallow relief sculpture on architectural members. The horse appears for the first time in these reliefs The lintel has an

ARCHITECTURE

527

opening above it, flanked by seated figures of semi-Egyptian character, while the lintel itself has a full-length female figure carved on its underside, probably the mother-goddess of the earlier age Mycenae and Tiryns.—Mycenae is the outstanding example

of a maimland architectural development intimately associated

with the zenith and decline of Crete. There are the same motives

in palace planning, and the same decorative outlook; but Mycenae —and even more pronouncedly the neighbouring fortress of Tiryns —show a cyclopean method of construction hardly found in Crete.

The most impressive single feature is the Lion gate of the citadel of Mycenae;

the greatest structural

works

are the “beehive”

tombs of the same centre, particularly the largest and best preserved—the so-called “Treasury of Atreus,” which was undoubtedly a tomb, The galleries (or side entrance passages) of Tiryns can justly be placed beside them. We see quite clearly that this massive building development in stone reflects an age of insecurity, when powerful kings built fastnesses which were key positions, in

periods succeeding one another

approximately

from

1700 to

1200 8c. The Lion gate is an appropriate incident in such a fast-

ness. Its rude but semi-scjentific cyclopean construction absorbs a feature which has made it famous—the great slab above the hntel, carved with two majestic maneless lions fronting a central pillar, The beasts’ heads are gone and may have faced the spectator, but whether in stone or in bronze we do not know.

The existing remains are in a very hard breccia stone. The beehive tomb shows by contrast, a fine method of construction, The doorway to this tomb, even in its nearly stripped condition, 1s the most

important purely architectural work of

prehistoric times in Europe.

Its scale js impressive, the inner

lintel is 294 ft long, 164 ft. deep, 3 ft. high and 120 tons in weight The finish was given by attached half columns, applied rosettes and bands of various forms, all richly carved in greygreen and purple porphyry-like stones Some considerable fragments of these are in the British Museum, The tomb 1tself-——which

is nearly 50 ft. wide—is a pointed dome, but (as in more ruined

Cretan examples) ıs built with overhanging stones laid fat There is no sign of a true radiating arch or vault anywhere, the keystones of the vaulted galleries at Tiryns being the nearest approach to such construction Troy.—The city of Hissarlik, or Troy, on the eastern shore of the Dardanelles, is the remaining work of Mycenaean times

on the mainland which need be noticed It can show nothing of positive architectural value which cannot be seen at Tiryns or

Mycenae.

The great yalue of Troy is its burg or fortified site

showing successive strata dating from c. 3000 to 1000 Bc. As at Mycenae and Tiryns, the central round hearth is found, which was practically unknown in Crete. That this was a northern feature is certain. Another fact of interest is the use of crude brick for walling~-an important link with Mesopotamia. So far as we are aware, there was no continuity of tradition between the architectural forms of the Aegean civilization and those of historic Greece (see Grerx ARCHITECTURE), but there were several root forms, particularly in the plans of buildings, which are common to both and bring Greek structures much nearer to Aegean ones than to any others (1) The idea of the Greek temple plan can be seen clearly in the megaron (hall) with its extended side walls at Mycenae and the contemporary Troy; (2) the plan of the Athenian propylaea or great entrance gateway to the Acropolis is based directly on forms in Crete and on the mainland; (3) the high course of upright marble slabs at the base of the cella wall in the typical Greek temple of the sth century BC. can be seen in the west wall of the palace of Knossos and other Minoan sites; (4) the use of the column for various purposes is very much the same in both epachs The decorative use of fresco in Cretan houses and palaces deserves special mention, as its influence on Greek and subsequent painted decoration may have been profound, but only the threshold of this enquiry

has, so far, been reached.

The sense of decorative values and

the acute observation of natural forms conventionally rendered, all produced in pure colour, bring the best Cretan fresco into line with Chinese and Japanese painting; and the oriental touch is surer than in the somewhat parallel art of Tel-el-Amarna (see

WESTERN

528 EGYPTIAN

ARCHITECTURE;

Brstiocrarpy.—For

ARCHITECTURE;

Chaldaea,

much

information

In the Perth area some 50 bores supply water to the city,

is contained m

Fremantle and adjoming districts while the northern basinslargely

Times reports of excavations at Ur (Jan 1925 to March 1928) pending publication in more permanent form. See also J E. Taylor in Journ of R. Asiatic Socy xv. (1855); W K Loftus, Travels and Researches

in Chaldaea and Susiana (1857); E de Sarzec, Découvertes en Chaldée (1884-1912, for Tello), G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Hestoire de VArt dans l'Antiquité, vol ih (1884). All these are admurably summarized im G. Maspero, Dawn of Cuwilization (trans. M L McLure, 1914). For Assyria, Sir H. Layard, Nenevehk and Babylon (1853) , G Perrot and C. Chipiez, op. cit and Hist of Art in Chaldaea and Assyria (trans W. Armstrong, 1883). For Babylon, R. Koldewey, Das wieder erstehende Babylon (1925; also trans by A. S. Johns), Das Ischiar Tor ın Babylon (1918) For Persa, M Dieulafoy, L’Art antique de la Perse (1885) and L’Aeropole de Suse (1890), G N Curzon, Perssa and the Persan Question (1892); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Hist of Art im Persia (Eng

trans

1892).

K

For the Hittites, O. Puchstein, Bogaskoi, die Bauwerke (1912); J. Garstang, The Land of the Hrtittes (1910), D G. Hogarth and L. C. Woolley, Carchemish (1914 and 1921). A good general account covering the whole field 1s E Bell, Early Architecture in Western Asta

(1924).

For the Aegean area (Crete), refer also tural aspects, D. Mackenzie, Cretan Palaces tion, Annual of the British School at Athens, For fresco, D. T. Fyfe, “Pamted Plaster

to periodicals. For strucand the Aegean CzvilizaXI. XII., XIII and XIV Decoration at Knossos,” Journ. of R. Inst. of Brit. Architects, X. 4 (1902); N Heaton, “Mural Paintings of Knossos,” Journ. R Soc of Arts (1910) , “Minoan Lime Plaster and Fresco Pamting,” RJ.B.A. Journ, XVIII (1911), and m Teryns (see below). See also article on AEGEAN CIVILIZATION For Aegean area (mamland) refer to article on AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, particularly (for fresco) G. Rodenwaldt and others, Tiryns (1912 et seq). (D T F) A general account covering the whole field (not quite up to date on Crete) 1s E. Bell, Prehellenic Architecture in the Aegean (1926)

WESTERN

AUSTRALIA,

the largest of the States,

occupying 975,920 sqm The length 1s about 1,480 m and the breadth about 1,000 m while over one-third of the total area (37-3% =364,000 sq.m) hes north of the tropic of Capricorn Its distance from the populous eastern parts of the continent is offset by its position with regard to the ocean routes leading to the homeland, to which it is the nearest, and from which it is,—in spite of the Panama Canal—the first Australian land of call

Physiography.—The

broken coast-line of the north-west,

formed by the marginal submergence of a deeply dissected plateau, contains several fine areas of enclosed waters which flank a main gateway between the Pacific and Indian oceans Large tidal ranges—up to 38ft. in Hanover bay—and in some cases tidal currents (e g, King Sound) are a disadvantage. Moreover, southward from this the sandy Ninety Mile Beach, and further on, the low, stragghng, and often shallow inlets, promontories and islands, fringed in places by coral reefs, form part of a relatively undistingwshed and inhospitable coast

where exposure and siltmg (due partly to recent coastal elevations) present difficulties to harbour construction The estuary of the Swan River forms a notable exception, Fremantle being one of the best and most commodious of natural harbours, while Geographe Bay is also relatively protected. From Cape Naturaliste onwards much of the south and south-west is flanked by high, rocky and exposed coasts in which such inlets as King George Sound form excellent harbours (Albany), while further east this passes over into the unbroken cliffs of the Nullarbor Plain area (g.v.). As a whole Western Australia is a closed land-mass and has no relatively large maritime indentations, To water-supply, owing to the climate, peculiar importance attaches. Four main, besides parts of smaller, artesian basins He wholly or in part within the State; the Eucla or Southeastern (¢, approximately the Western Australan portion of the Nullarbor Plam); the Coastal Plains basin in the south-west (Cape Leeuwin—Dongarra); the North-western or Carnarvon basin (Gantheaume bay—Onslow); and the Desert or Broome basin. The extent and capacity of the Eucla and Broome basins has not yet been fully tested though they are both, and particularly the latter, large, and, in general, apart from the Coastal Plains basin, the resources have as yet not been fully exploited oO 230 bores, yielding 66,760,000 gal.; depths from 3,325-39 eet):

AUSTRALIA

oF ArT).

Periops

underhe coastal lowlands

and enhance

their natural pastoral

value The wells ın the Perth area are notably fresh, but around Eucla and some in other parts they are saline Fresh discoveries of artesian or sub-artesian supplies are from time to time reported eg, in the Northern Goldfields pastoral area, and there are, in addition, considerable reserves of shallow-seated sub-surface

waters (eg, in the Perth and other coastal lowlands). In the interior large areas can be made available for the carrying and movement of stock (¢ g, Murchison area and cf the Wiluna-Hall’s Creek route) by means of wells many of which are natural—soly. tion pits in limestones, “native wells,” “gnamma holes,” etc Un. fortunately these shallow supplies are saline over considerable tracts (¢g, m the Wheat Belt and Kalgoorlie areas), while the vast number of “lakes” in the interior are little more than saline flats akin to the widespread clay-pans The lack of adequate fresh water m the interior south-west has been met by a vigorous policy of surface (rainfall) storage and reticulation

Chief amongst such schemes is the Gold-Fields Water-supply

Scheme

by which

water

derived

from

a catchment

im the

Darling ranges behind Perth is stored in the Mundamng reservoir

(760 ac, 4,650

milhon gal) and conducted thence by means

of a pipe-line with 8 pumpıng stations to a service reservoir (12,000,000 gal) at Bullabulling 307 mules distant Thence the water is reticulated by gravity to Kalgoorlie (44 m); it is also supphed to 30 towns “en route,” to mines, and to agricultural areas (soo extensions) (Total area covered 16,000 sq m; total length of mains [1926]* 1,454 miles; total consumption. 1,161,000,000 gal per ann—railways, c 8%; mines, 22%, “other,” 70%, Capital cost, £3,642,000, revenue, £179,400, expenditure, £218,950) There ıs an extensive system of water-supply to towns (1926. 23 towns, pop ¢ 14,000; 108,000,000 gal ; inciuding railways) and to agricultural areas Climate.—Western Australia covers such a wide area that several distinct climatic regions are included in it, though observations for considerable areas are scanty or lacking (a) The north has a “monsoon” climate, with prevailing hgh temps. (85°~70°), a markedly summer rainfall (November-Aprl with max. December, January, February) brought by depressions (“lows”) from the tropical seas to the north-west The rains are heavier in the north and tail off southwards and they are irregular and often torrential, causing severe floods in the valleys, (b) the north-west, lying south-west from the above, is charactenzed by its high summer temps —there is a large area with averages over go°; by ats long and severe heat spells—at Marble Bar temps. over roo° have been recorded on 103 consecutive days—and by an extremely erratic rainfall (10-20 in) Thus in the north rain falls mamly Jan-March but further south winter rains predominate and these reach occasionally as far north as Broome, This region is visited in summer, but at irregular intervals (45 during 50 years) by intensely developed cyclonic depressions

The Cossack coming from the north-west (‘“Willy-Willies”) and Onslow areas im particular suffer from their destructive violence (c) the South-western “winter-rain” region comprises most of the south-west of the State. Temperatures here range from

50°—-80° with occasional short heat-spells, though condi-

tions are progressively less equable towards the interior. The weather is dommated by the passage (west—east) of large anticyclonic (high-pressure) and cyclonic (low-pressure) systems which involve variations (chiefly short-period) of temperature, wind-direction, etc Occasional rains penetrate southwards from

the north and fall in summer, but the chief rainfall is brought by the “lows” from the Indian Ocean and this falls in winter (May~ Oct) and is relatively reliable. (d) Of the vast interior hittle definite is known, but of the more settled portions it may be

said in general that they partake of the character of the areas described and form inland extensions of them (See KALGOORLIE) Rainfall, however, decreases to ro in. or (av ann.) less and it also becomes less reliable The range of temperature (ann. and diurnal) becomes greater (up to 30° or more), and in

parts the chmatic conditions become those of a desert.

This

MINING AND AGRICULTURE]

WESTERN

desert approaches the coast in the north-west and rums thence proadening ın an east and south-east direction into the winter

rainfall area, the rather higher (average) rainfall in the north beng counteracted by higher temperatures Of the Western Australian chmate it may be said that, in spite of the heat, dryness, pumidity and dust which afflict parts in various degrees and seasons, in general ıt is not unhealthy

Vegetation, Timber, etc.—Most of the State is clothed,

though unevenly, with vegetation, even arid portions having some scrub, heath, or wiry grasses. In the north (Kimberley Divisions) the coastal lowlands, river valleys and ranges carry in parts patches of forest which may contain some useful tumber. But the predominant type is grassland with trees, savanna adapted to the annual dry season Inland and southwards, as

rainfall dimimshes, this type degenerates mto scrub and passes

mto the scrub (“desert gums”) and spinifex of the sandier intenor Along part of the north-west coast les a belt of grasslands backed by scrub which affords useful grazing, and mangroves, common

farther north, line parts of the coast here also

AUSTRALIA

529

Saw-mulling 1s commenced (eg, Mundaring and South Perth) an important industry In 1925-26 some 329 million super ft were cut, much of the product being used locally but considerable quantities are exported abroad largely through Bunbury

(qv). Other forest products are sandalwood, a shrub (¢ 18 {ft high) which grows sporadically upon sandy soils over much of the south-west mterior It yields a wood especially valued in China, to which it 1s exported, and also an essential oil Mallet bark has valuable tanning properties. Wasteful exploitation caused production to decline, but reforestation is now in progress. (See also AUSTRALIA: Forestry, and below. Statistical Survey sv Manufacturing Industries, in which “Wood-working” refers largely to saw-milling; also sv. Trade exports) Mining.—This industry has dechned greatly ın recent years Western Australa (1926) was the second largest producer of

minerals (after New South Wales) but the value of her total output was relatively small (£2,372,000, cf New South Wales, £16,319,000), the number of men employed had fallen to 5,437, and mineral exports represented only 109% of the total value of exports (cf 1903 845%) Gold 1s the most important mineral produced (68-25% of the Commonwealth total) Most of the well-known fields are still bemg worked but the Coolgardie, Mount Margaret and Murchison areas were by far the most important (eg,'E Coolgardie gold-field. 50% of miners, and 73% of output, of gold in State) More recently there have been indications of a slight revival m Western Australan mining and great prospects undoubtedly he before the Wiluna gold-field

But farther south the poor country approaches close to the coast (see above, Climate), and from hereabouts stretches southeastwards into the little-known east-central interior the scrub and spmifex type which at best has poor pastoral value On the southern side of this poor belt m the north-west “shoulder” of the State (Ashburton, etc ), a better type of scrublands begins to appear and south and east from the Gascoyne River (se, from the begimmmg of the regular winter rainfall area) begins the (qgv.) Coal. The only field bemg worked (1927) was at Collie mulga pastoral country possessing also good sub-surface waters This extends south-eastwards inland to c lat 29° S where it (7 collieries producing 501,000 tons) The coal 1s consumed within the coal reserves being a particular passes over into the begmnings of the southern forest country— the State (largely by railways), boon m view of Western Australia’s position and her relative the Salmon gum open-forest lands of the Kalgoorlie, etc goldshortness of power resources Recent borings for oil in the north fields This forest has proved invaluable to the miming mdustry by supplying miming timber and fuel. In the south-western cor- (Kimberley Division) though mconclusive give some promise Also ner of the contment—z.e , the portion lymg south-west of a bne (See also’ Austratra: Minerals; Minmg and Metallurgy. Survey Production; Mining running approximately from Sharks bay (c¢ lat. 25° S) to near Kacoorzie; and below, Statistical [giving figures for 1927]; Exports, above, Water-supply ) Israelite bay (c lat 33° S, long 124° E )—the belts of vegeLand Settlement, Agriculture, Dairying, etc.——Western tation, as mdicated above, appear to follow rather closely the Australia, though founded as a colony as early as 1829, grew belts of (winter) rainfall Thus the gold-fields forest (Morrell— slowly and in 1890 when it became a self-governing State the av m to-20 of belt the in Salmon gum) passes southwards, population was only 46,290 The gold-boom of the “nineties” ann rainfall, into the mallee, jam and wandoo forests farther nearly quadrupled this total (1900. 179,708) Thereafter came a south-west, though mallee and saltbush country prevail towards lull, followed by a dechne owing to the war of 1914-18 At the southern (Bight) coast The prevailing types are mow euca- present the population is again increasing steadily (1927-28: ¢ lyptus—the “jam” is an acacia—and the belts referred to (jam, 15,000) ‘These statistics are significant in that they reveal the wandoo, York gum, marri or red gum) form a transition vital factors controling Western Australian development In zone in which trees of increasingly better growth pass over into 1914 Western Australia had barely begun to emerge from the the real forest area of the State This lies SW. of (approxi- more purely pastoral and mining régime which formed the earlier mately) the 15 in rainfall line and is c. 350 miles long and 50- stage in the development of most Australian States She is now roo m wide, about 4 of the total forested area of the State fully launched upon a course of intensive land settlement (1e, ¢ 20,000,000 out of c. 100,000,000 ac.) being contamed men and capital not only from overseas but herein, though probably only some 3,000,000 acres Carry mer- She is attracting lands is chantable timber. A line drawn from about Gingin to rather from her Eastern neighbours, the area of occupied rapidly expanding—during each of the last two years, 1926—27 valuable most the perhaps east of Albany marks off what is up taken were lands new of ac Here the distribution of types is and 1927—28, some 13 million timber area in Australa conditional purchase and farms. G 418,000 ac, markedly dependent upon rainfall and soils Behind the immedi- (1927-28: progress the and ac) 12,823,000 leases and pastoral ate coastal fringe ın the south lie, in the areas of 40-30 in rain- grazing continues. The ‘3,000 farm scheme” now being maugurated is fall, c 250,000 ac of karri forest composed of handsome gants “probably the largest single (land-settlement) scheme which has 200-250 ft ın height yielding tough wood valuable, when ‘powell- ever been undertaken by a Government in Australia” It aims ised,” for constructional purposes, etc. From near Busselton to 3,000-3,500 new 1,500 ac wheat-and-wool farms about Marginsup (N of Fremantle) the 5 m wide strip of at establishing country (c 12,500 sqm or 8,000,000 ac) which block of the in ft) 150 c height (average tuart supports coastal limestones from Southern Cross and the main (gold-fields) southwards lies part of the growing in more open formation But the greater eastwards of the Esperance~Norseman railway line area (40-25 in rainfall) north of the karri forests 1s occupied railway line, existing ratl-heads in the South-western Division the of west and mamly by jarrah interspersed with marri (c 8,000,000 ac, of miles of railway line and 6,000 m of roads, besides which some 2,750,000 ac are commercially useful). The jarrah Some 600 works, will be required and some water-conservation large prefers lateritic soils and the trees, which in good areas average £8,000,000 expenditure will be involved of which the Commontoo ft in height, yield first-class hardwood resistant to weather- wealth and British Governments will supply shares. and mg and insects which is in demand for paving-blocks, piers Wheat.—In the first 70 years of her existence Western Ausother out-door constructional purposes The area “dedicated” only c. 15 million bu of wheat; altogether produced tralia to forests has been recently largely extended (1,832,000 ac ) she produced 35,187,195 bushels. All the and a total of 3,000,000 ac is aimed at. Vigorous measures are in the year 1927-28 increased their wheat areas in recent years States have now being taken to control and regenerate the trmber reserves southern the greatest relative and the planting of pines (soft-woods) on a large scale has been but Western Australia has probably shown

WESTERN

530

increase, In 1927-28 422,000 ac. were added and in the period 1920—21 and 192829 nearly 2,000,000 ac (excluding wheat areas cut for hay’ 1928-29, 250,000 ac, estimated), an increase of

156% (South Austraha, 56%, Victoria, 22% ın the same period)

Moreover while the yield per ac. is very fair (11-12 bu per ac, cf Austrahan average ten years 1916-26: 12.41 bu), the seasonal fluctuations have been less marked than in some of the eastern States. N.S.W | Victoria | S Aust,

1926-27

1927-28 Increase (+) or decrease (—)

47 37 27°01

46 88 26°16

35 56 24°06

~20°36 | ~2072 | —11°50

W. Aust.

30 02

35 18( mill bus

+5°26

Further, Western Australia’s exports of wheat have mounted in value from virtually nil to nearly £7,009,000 within the 22 years 1905~06—1927-28 The reasons for this lie to some extent in physical circumstances. Some 93,500 sqm. of territory in the south-west of the State recerve an average rainfall of rom. or over during the winter growmg season (Apml~—Oct. inclusive), and the belt of country climatically suited to wheat-growing 1s bounded by a line running from the coast north of Geraldton

(c lat. 27° 30° S) south-eastwards

via Southern Cross and

AUSTRALIA

[PASTORAL INDUSTRIES

the drer lands of the eastern wheat-belt, where the crops wil grow but will not seed, being largely used. With the increase jn grain production and the growth of more intensive farming (see below) the area under hay has significantly dechned (1923 431,600 ac.;

1928

354,000

ac)

The product 1s mainly con-

sumed locally Dairying, Frust-growing, etc.: The belt of coastal country which extends from about Gingin (¢. 50 m north of

Perth) and runs southwards past Bunbury round to about Albany, and which 1s served by the South-Western railway and also, farther east, by the Great Southern Railway systems, contains the bulk of the natural dairying, mixed-farming and fryt areas of the State,

Its natural condition is largely forest-land

(see above), with plentiful surface water, mild climate (30-40 in

av ann. ramfall) and varied but predominantly good souls, being distinguished from the jarrah belt proper which has latenitic soils more suitable to forests Clearing 1s difficult and expensive and progress has been slow but there 1s developing here one of the

great dairying districts of Australia Dairying is only im its mfancy m Western Australia but the number of dairy cattle 3s rapidly increasing (1916: 31,000; 1927: 67,000), scientific methods are becoming general—largely owing to the teachng and example of the State dairy farm at Denmark—and the yield per animal is increasing. In 1927 Western butter, 44 million Ib.; cheese, 164,000 lb ; 2,000,000 lh. (cf tor4: 415,000 Ib, 2,675 spectively) and should, at the present rate,

Australia produced: bacon and hams, c

lb; 122,400 Ib relong 124° E) On the south-west the mits are partly geological soon dispense with (soils) but mainly set by heavier rainfall, and coincide in the the dairy products it has so far imported from the eastern States main with the eastern mits of the heavy (jarrah) forest area (see Statsstzcal Survey: Imports), The revolution, for such Within this to~20m rainfall area, though there 1s much rocky, it 1s, which 1s taking place, is due partly to the adoption of “subsaline and otherwise unsuitable terrain, the surface 1s generally terranean” clover cultivation with superphosphates. Sheep also flat, often monotonously so The rainfall, though fluctuating, is almost everywhere form a part of the mixed farming régime in relatively reliable, so that a smaller fall 1s economically as valu- the “south-west” and very heavy carcasses and fleeces are grown, able as the heavier but more erratic falls in some of the wheat- Frust-growing 13 also practised, the forests cleared from the welllands of the Eastern States Experience, seed-selection, “dry- drained hill slopes being replaced by orchards. The fruit mamly farming,” and an appreciation of the value of light lands and grown so far is apples, but a beginning has heer meade of growmz increasing skill in dealing with them, the growing use of artificial oranges and other sub-tropical fruits, Vines ure el- cuinen! manures—almost entirely superphosphates—the extension of mainly along the inner margins of the coastal belt north and mixed wheat-and-sheep farming, and water conservation have south from Perth (cf. the Swan River valley), the grapes, raisins, all played a part m the expansion referred to, the work of the currants and wie (1926-27. 292,000 gal, 1927-28, ¢. 350,000 State agricultural services, the State Agricultura] Bank, etc, gal ) haying found an increasing market The sandy and swampy being also largely responsible. A hot sunny summer fot rpening coastal margins which are near Perth are also found very swtNorseman

to the sea coast at about Israelite bay (Jat. 33° S;

the harvest is shared by the eastern States, as 1s also the general benefit of an expanding world market, and perhaps the reliable winter rainfall, cheap land, and an enterprising railway-construction and settlement policy are the chief factors in attracting settlers and capital from the eastern States. Clearing is lightest mm the eastern (Salmon gum, etc.), heaviest m the western (Wandoo, etc) part of the wheat-belt, and the agricultural seasons—ploughing, sowing, harvesting, etc—hbecome progressively

later as the wetter south-west and southern coastal areas are approached, where, however, heavier yields are apt to be obtained (e.g., 30-42 bu. in the Gnowangerup district north of the Stirling range) Dependent on wheat-growing is the manufacture of agricultural machmery and the making of superphosphates (e.g, fertilizer factories near Perth and in construction at Geraldton, Output, 1923. 93,000 tons; 1926~27: 187,000 tons, In 1927-28 217,900 tons were carried over the State railways) Western

Australian wheat is of good quality. The value of wheat exports T 1927728 was £6,994,528, Fremantle alone shippmg 5,683,000 ags The export trade is now being greatly strengthened by the

Government policy of (voluntary) inspection and guarantee and

it is significant of Western Australia’s commercial position that amongst her customers she mcludes South Africa, India and Egypt Oats are the cereal second in importance to wheat The

yield of grain was (1926~27) nearly three million bu (124 bu. per ac.) and for 1928-29 some 559,000 ac, are sown The grain is not of such good quality as that which comes from wetter climates (e g, Tasmania) and a considerable area is cut for hay Tay, as elsewhere in Australia, is an important crop since roots and similar fodders are not so plentiful as in the moister Jands

of north-west Europe. Wheat, barley and oats all provide hay,

able for market-gardening and large quantities of vegetables are now bemg grown, while in addition to the above poultry-farm-

ing is also a msing industry

Pastoral Industries—Various.—-As elsewhere in Australia the pastoral industry was a pioneer, though in places it followed upon, and partly subserved, mining (¢ g., Goldfields area) Similarly it yields, broadly speakimg, to closer settlement as cattle yield, upon Jands suitable to both, to the more profitable sheep, Important exceptions, however, are the mixed sheep-and-arable and also the dairy farming systems already noted, where the agricultural and pastoral economy imterpenetrate, or rather cooperate, to intensify and stabilize production, Thus the southwest portion of the State contains perhaps 50% of the total sheep population, anda fair amount of stock-fattening (meat) is carried

on here also

Sheep as an independent product are favoured by

the light and relatively dry claumate of the south-east, centre and north-west portions of the State, in the north, with its heavier

(summer) rajnfall 2nd rerk-gcrowme_ grasses +hev yield in importance to cit le ‘The Weererm Aurian Nall bor Pleams (g.v) have not yet been developed, the wide area between these and the

wheat belt (4¢, approximately around the Kalgoorhe goldfields)

suffers from lack of good water-supply, though the after-growth

of the cleared forests affords a fair pasturage. Along the west and north-west coasts, as far as about Port Hedland and also for some 150-250 m inland the natural vegetation (~~le7 saltbush, grasses, etc) affords pasture varying locill, in cu'luy but

mostly good, and here also supphes of good sub-surface water

are widespread Recent progress has also been reported i the flocks of the northern area (Fitzroy basin around Derby). The far eastern interior has probably httle pastoral value, but an enormous tract comprising the west-centre of the State (North-

WESTERN

TRADE AND TRANSPORT]

ern Coolgardie, Murchison, Mount Margaret gold-fields areas up to c. lat 25° S.) has excellent underground waters, good fodder, and is now one of the leading sheep areas As settlement has advanced, so fencing, well-smking, water-conservation (including

the provision of stock-routes, e.g, along the west coast; Hall’s

Creek-Wiluna, etc ), stock-management and breeding improve and become more widespread, though rabbits, and in some areas (e.g,

the Wandoo forest) poison plants, cause losses. Western Australia now carries some 8,500,000 sheep (nearly all mermo) which

yielded (1927) 59,350,000 Ib. of wool, the average weight of

fleece having advanced to c 7-1 lb or approximately the Commonwealth average, and the all-round progress in the industry has been marked. An indication of the distnbution and relative importance of the sheep areas is afforded by the wool exports

of thew respective ports. Geraldton,

2,230,000;

(1928) Fremantle,

Carnarvon,

1,710,000;

55,340,000 1b;

Port Hedland, 1,-

430,000; Onslow, 270,000; Albany, 10,000; Roebourne, 96,000 Ib (See Statistical Survey: Exports) Cattle for slaughter purposes are kept to some extent in the south-west and also m the rougher lands (eg, upper river basins) throughout the west interior wherever sufficient water and fodder are available But by far the greater number of the State’s 850,000 head are m the north (Fitzroy basin, with centre Derby) and in the extreme north-east (Antrim plateau and Ord basın, with centre Wyndham) Here plains (1,000-20,000 ac ) are interspersed with rougher ridge and hill country and the 30—s0 in. summer rainfall produces rank, though not wholly satisfactory, fodder. Land and black labour ate cheap and here is the region of vast cattle runs (500,000 ac. and upwards) held by such firms as Messrs Bovril (Australia) Estates, Vestey Bros, etc. The Government freezing works at Wyndham are efficiently managed, they work for the

five winter months

(April-September) and deal with c 25,000

head of cattle per season ‘The white workers (200-300) are brought up each season from Fremantle. Note on the Northern Areas (Kimberley Division) .— Mining has proved profitable, but the area has not been thoroughly tested Pearl-shell fishing centrmg on Broome 1s of tried

value (1925. 246 boats, employing 1,750 men [largely Asiatics], obtained c. 1,400 tons of pearl-shell [£210,000] and pearls [£60,300]) The proposal of the Commonwealth Government that the area should be handed over to Federal control was rejected The air service (see below) marks an advance Towns, Manufacturing Industries, Communications, Trade.—The greater part of the interior of the State is, and will probably remain, apart from relatively impermanent mining centres, sparsely populated by human bemgs whatever its sheep and cattle population may ultimately be Most of the increase is taking place around or near the coasts, the south-west corner being chiefly notable. In this zone of coastal, or sub-coastal, settlement ports naturally play a promment part Perth (q¢.v ), with its port Fremantle, holds a key position upon what is perhaps the most important part of the coast Commercially if not physically it hes midway between north and south Convemient to important goldfields and also to the still more important and developing

AUSTRALIA

531

the manufacture of superphosphates and railway engineering (Midland Junction, etc.), while the supply of electrical power has also assumed large proportions (see Statistical Survey: Manufacturing Industries). Communications —Over large parts of the interior camels (1927. 4,837), mules and donkeys (1927: 10,300) still form indispensable means of transport, and in the northern intenor the bullock-waggon has barely begun to yield to the motor-tractor Elsewhere, as settlement and roads advance, or even before that stage, the flat terrain encourages motors while the aeroplane here, as in north-east Aus-

tralia, must be looked upon as a pioneering vehicle. The PerthDerby (1,467 m) service, caliing at Geraldton, Carnarvon, Onslow, Roebourne, Whim Creek, Port Hedland, Broome “en route,” is carried out by fo Wiens < = West Australian Airways Ltd. ABORIGINES OF THE KIMBERLY DIS. subsidised by the CommonTRICT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA wealth Government This company completed in June 1928 its first million miles of commercial flymg and had then cartied 1,250,000 letters and 70 tons freight with very little serious mishap but with almost untold benefits—including urgent medical assistance—to the settlers in the far north In April 1929 will be maugurated an air-service (by the same company, also with Commonwealth subsidy) from Perth-Adelaide with 4 large machines having a normal cruising speed of tos miles per hour. Raslways were first developed in the coastal lands behind Geraldton (Geraldton— Northampton, 1879), Albany—Fremantle to connect various mining, timber and agricultural areas with their ports and one another. Later the great mineral lines were run out far into the almost unknown mterior—Perth to Kalgoorlie 375m, with extension to Laverton, 586 miles; Geraldton to Meekatharra

334 m ; to Sandstone. 309 m, Perth to Meekatharra 600 m, etc ; and in the north-west an isolated line, Port Hedland~Marble Bar: 114 m. These lines have also proved invaluable in opening up the pastoral interior. In the railway-system of the southwest, with its curious herring-bone pattern, can still be distinguished the timber, the mineral, and the agricultural lines, but the outstanding feature of recent construction is the development of wheat-belt lines reaching out long arms eastwards to draw grain and wool in to the main trunk systems (cf. the similar development in the South Australian Mallee [see SOUTH AUSTRALIA]

and the Victorian Wimmera [see Vicrorta]). In the north these

debouch upon Geraldton, but by far the greater number upon Fremantle. Of this development the Norseman—Esperance (gq v ; Kalgoorlie-Esperance: 258 m) lne now being completed is a

logical continuation, as will be the extension across to it of the existing grid from the present rail-heads on the west (see above re the “3,000 farm scheme”) The Western Australan railways south-west, it lies besides, upon or near a world sea-route and 1s are, somewhat unfortunately, of narrow (3’6”) gauge, and though terminal to the shortest land-route to the eastern States. With its like most Australian railways they are often built for developpopulation of ¢ 192,000 the metropolitan area contains nearly half mental purposes (see AUSTRALIA Raslways), recent returns have of the total population of the State Apart from Perth and some been encouraging. The railways are mainly State-owned, but there ports—of which Albany, Bunbury, Geraldton (ggv) may serve are considerable lengths of private (mineral and timber) lines of aS examples—the towns of Western Australia generally known semi-permanent nature but mostly open to general traffic. Of the hitherto have been associated with miming (eg., Coolgardie— transcontinental (Commonwealth Government, 4’-84) line, a5y Kalgoorlie, g.v.) The settlements of the south-west, destined one m. lies in Western Australia, and, apart from its increasing pas-

day perhaps to become important are as yet mainly small agricul- senger and goods services (see below), it will doubtless help to tural and, usually also, railway centres of which in their youth it is develop considerable areas of pastoral lands provided adequate Manu- (non-saline) water-supplies can be uncovered. (See Statistical factures, in the stage of development indicated, are naturally Survey: Railways ) confined mainly to the metropoltan—and particularly to the Trade, the general nature and extent of which can be gauged Fremantle (g v )—area, to the gold-fields, and to the primary from the foregoing, and also from the appended statistics (Trade ; producing centres (sawmilling, butter and cheese making; ba- Shipping; Ports: see also above Pastoral Indystries: wool excon curing, ore crushing and concentrating) Nevertheless, ports) has in recent years been increasmmg in volume and variety, in the relative isolation of the community, mdustrial activity has Fremantle taking the lion’s share. As an index of growth, theremade considerable progress in recent years, noteworthy being fore, the trade of this port is valuable. perhaps sufficient to remark that they are numerous

WESTERN Shipping Statistics 1903-04

1927-28

Shipping tonnage (net)

626,692

3,462,776

Cargo tonnage Revenue collected Wheat shipped Flour shipped Shed floor space Oil fuel bunkered

§60,000 £79,361 3,132 bags nil 72,000 sq ft. nil

1,679,545 £581,849 5,083,104 52,132 340,000 103,583

bags tons sq ft tons

A considerable portion of Western Australian trade 1s with other Austrahan States and it 1s significant that in the year 192728 imports to the value of £621,000 entered Western Australia by the overland railway lne from eastern States, while only £15,500 worth of exports proceeded east by that route Shipping services include (@) the main overseas lines which now make Fremantle (not Albany’) their first Australian port of call, and Fremantle is the largest oul-bunkermg port ın Australa, (b) services plying to other States; (c) coastmg services plymg, mainly, northwards up the coast and back. From Western Australia submarine cables connect (1) Broome through Java (Banjoewangie), etc , to London, Broome being connected by an overland ne with Perth and thence, via Albany, Eucla, and Port Augusta, with South Australa and the eastern States, (2) Fremantle with Durban, (3) Fremantle-Adelaide (alternative to the overland lme), (4) Broome via Java—as in (1)—and Cocos Island with South Africa. Statistical Survey.—Area and Land Occupation: 975,920 sqm (624,588,800 ac.)=3281% of Commonwealth—364,000 sqm (=37-3% of total area) within tropical zone Coast-line. 4,350 miles Alienated or in process of alienation (1928) 33,322,223 acres; leases and licences. 237,428,424 ac., unoccupied. 353,838,153 ac. (pastoral leases. c. 233,400,000 acres; mining: c 84,000 acres, timber. ¢ 1,676,000 acres) Population (June 1928): 400,048 (males: 216,530; females. 183,518. In addition, aborigimals [1927]. ¢ 23,000)=¢ 63% of population of Commonwealth, c. 0 4 persons per sq mile Birth rate ¢ 22, death rate c g per 1,000 Total increase, including immigration, (average 1923-27, five years): 9,700 per annum

AUSTRALIA

[STATISTICAL SURVEY

(11 millon Ib), hides, etc, £553,000 Gold. £660,700 Frut: £192,000, Pearl shell, £186,000 Imports £18,287,876 Value

per caput (1926-27)

£4845

(Interstate. £9,276,329; overseas

£9,011,547 ) Clothing, etc , £4,039,000, machinery, etc : £2,100. ooo, hardware, £1,535,000, motors, etc, £1,165,000; dairy prod. ucts, £1,105,000, tobacco, etc , £715,000

(b) Shipping (all categories

1926-27).

Cleared: 799 vessels

(3,796,500 tons) Cargo discharged, 793,650 tons; shipped, 1.. 000,800 tons Total overseas cargoes (discharged and shipped), 1,401,000 (c) Ports: Total trade (1927-28), Fremantle, £30,639,000

Bunbury, £2,256,700; Geraldton, £1,124,100, Albany, £708,ooo, Wyndham, £263,500, Carnarvon, £253,000, Busselton £213,500,

Broome, £195,200,

Port Hedland, £109,200

(mainly 3’ 6”), of which ¢ 277 m. open for general traffic The

State railways in 1928 showed a net profit of £26,671 Dunng 1928, 152 mules were under construction, surveys for 240m (Gov. ernment lines) were completed and surveys for 294 m, were in progress Finance (1927-28): Revenue. £9,807,950 (£25 009 per caput) ; expenditure. £9,834,410 (£25076) Public debt (net) £67,528,626, average interest payable’ 452%, £168 801 per caput, Cheque-paying banks (10). liabilities (2nd quarter, 1928) £18,223,851; assets, £22,138,245. Commonwealth Savings Bank (WA) (1928). deposit accounts- 87,980, amounting to £2,823,goo (£32092 per deposit). State Savings Bank deposits, ¢ 189,000, £7,695,935 (c £40,250 per caput) Schools Savings Bank: deposits 51,860, £89,890 (£1 732 per caput). (OH TR) See- E de C Clarke “Natural Regions in Western Australa” in Journal Royal Soc Western Australa, vol mi, No. 14 (1926); W C $. McLintock. The Swan Geography (1923), Western Austraha: An Official Handbook (1928)

HISTORY (1927: 13,546) Metropohtan (1927) c 191,800=c 49% of total population in Perth and suburbs (87,563 acres) Both the western and northern coasts of the colony are pretty Occupations (Census 1921 total population 332,732). Bread- accurately laid down on maps said to date from 1540 to 1 550, winners: 146,926, of whom. primary producers, 49,400; industrial, where the western side of the continent terminates at Cape 32,704; commercial, 21,960, transport and domestic, each, c Leeuwen The discovery of the coast may be attnbuted to 14,200; professional, 13,500 Portuguese and Spanish navigators, who were in the seas northProduction (estimated annual value dumng last three years): ward of Australia as early as 1520. The Dutch explored the coast ¢. £30,000,000 Agricultural: £10-11 millions; manufacturing, in the 17th and the French in the 18th century 5-6 milhons, pastoral, £5,500,000, forestry and fisheries, £2,The earliest settlement was made from Port Jackson, at the end 500,000; mmng, £2,320,000; dairying, etc , £1,600,000 of 1825, when, owing to a fear that the French might occupy King Mining: (1926) Total £2,720,400 Gold. £1,735,000 (78 75% George sound, Major Lockyer took formal British possession of of total Western Australian mining output and 64 7% of total Aus- it with a party of convicts and soldiers, 75 ın all, though Vantralian gold output) (sinking); silver and lead, £30,500 (fluctuat- couver had previously done som 1791 Yet the Dutch had long ing), tin, £13,300 (fairly constant); copper, nil (1923: £65,100); before declared New Holland, which then meant only the western coal (1928) all Collie: 514,800 tons, £414,450 (rising). portion of Australia, to be Dutch property. This convict estabAgriculture. Area devoted to cultivation and being cleared hshment returned to Sydney m 1829 In 1827 Captain Sturling (1927): 10,475,000 ac. (under crop, 3,325,000 ac , fallow, 1,677,- surveyed the coast from King George sound to the Swan river, ooo acres). Wheat: 2,571,000 acres; 30,022,000 bu (11-12 bush- and Captain Fremantle, RN , in 1829 took official possession of els per acre) (1928 ¢ 3 million acres, 35,134,000 bushels) Hay: the whole country Stirling’s account stimulated the emigration 359,000 ac., 424,000 tons, Oats 235,000 ac, 2,717,000 bushels. ardour of Sır F Vincent and Peel, Macqueen, etc, who formed Orchards. 18,500 acres. Vineyards: 5,275 ac , 292,000 gal wine. an association, secunng from the British Government permission Pastoral and Dasrysng (1927): Horses, 165,000, cattle, 847,- to occupy land in Western Australia proportionate to the capital ooo; sheep, 8,448,000, pigs, 59,800 Production (1926~27): but- invested, and the number of emigrants they despatched thither tér, 3 83 million lbs,; bacon and ham, 2-7 million Ibs In this way Mr Peel had a grant of 250,000ac, and Colonel Manufacturing Industries: Factories (1926-27) ‘ 1,216, employ- Latour of 103,000 Captain (afterwards Sir James) Stirling ing 20,424 hands Value added by process £6,907,000 Food and founded the Swan River Settlement, the towns of Perth and Fredrink factories 2t2 (employing 2,725 hands); clothing, 167 (3,150 mantle, and was appointed heutenant-governor in 1829 The hands); wood-working, 161 (5,775 hands); machmery, etc , 147 people were scattered on large grants The land was poor, and (4,000); vehicles, saddlery, etc, 137 (1,240) the forests heavy, provisions were at famme prices; and many Trade, Commerce, Communications: (a) Trade Total (1927— left for Sydney or Hobart Town. The overland journey of Eyre 28): £36,528,650 Exports: 218,240,775 Value per caput (1926~ from Adelaide to Kg George sound in 1839-40, through a 27) £3995 (Interstate. £1,345,000; overseas, £16,896,000) waterless waste, discouraged settlers: but Grey’s overland walk W keat: £6,994,500 (15,716,000 centals) ; flour, £1,008,000 (1,708,- in 1838 from Shark’s bay to Perth revealed fine rivers and good ooo centals) Wool: £4,963,000 (61,244,600 Ib) Twmber: £1,- land in Victoria district, subsequently occupied by farmers, gra265,000; sandalwood, £147,000. Cattle products beef. £136.000' mers and miners. The difficulties of the settlers had compelled gM.

Eb af

i

aoeead

R

i

(d) Railways State Government lines (1928) 3,977 m (3! 6” gauge). Commonwealth Government (transcontinental lme, Western Australan section Kalgoorlie—South Austrahan border) ¢ 454 m. (4’ 84” gauge) In addition, c 884 m pnivate railways

WESTERN

INDIA

STATES

them to seek help from the British treasury, in the offer to accept convicts These came in 1850, but transportation ceased in 1868, m consequence of loud protests from the other colonies The progressive history of Western Australia may be said to commence in 1870, with the beginning of partial representative

government under the presidency of Governor Sir Frederick Weld

The colony was fortunate m possessing two explorers of the best

practical type—the brothers, John and Alexander Forrest. The object of thew expeditions was to find more land available for pastoral or agricultural settlement Perhaps the most famous of these journeys was that accomplished by Mr. (afterwards Sur) John Forrest between Eucla and Adelaide in 1870, Other explorers—notably Mr Ernest Giles, the Gregorys and Mr. Austin —also contributed to the growing knowledge of the resources of the vast territory. In 1882 the government geologist reported indications of auriferous country in the Kimberley district, and the first payable goldfield was shortly afterwards “proclaimed” there Wuthin five years goldfields were proclaimed at Yuilgarn,

about 200m to the east of Perth, and the discovery of patches of rich alluvial gold in the Puilbarra district quickly followed, but the rush for the Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie goldfields did not begin until 1893 A bul enabling the queen to grant a constitution to Western

Australia received the royal assent on Aug 15, 1890. This provided for a governor, a legislative council and a legislative assembly, the two bodies to be appointed by the governor until the population reached 60,000 In 1893 the Colonial Parliament

passed an act so amending the constitution For a long time the advantages of federation were not so apparent to the people of Western Australia as to those of the eastern colonies They were slow to grasp the principles of the bill framed at the Federal Convention which had held its sittings since 1886 in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne, and they hesitated to join the Commonwealth without receiving a pledge for the retention of their own customs dues for five years Early m 1900 Sir John Forrest as premier made an unsuccessful attempt to obtain this concession On a referendum of the electors, a majority of over 25,000 votes decided in favour of federation, as the Constitution Act provided that this state should have the nght to enact her own tariff as against the sister states for the desired five years, decreasing annually at the rate of one-fifth

of the amount of the original duty until the whole disappeared By two Constitution Acts, Amendment Acts (1899 and 1911), the legislative council is muted to 30 members representing 10 electoral provinces The members retain their seats for six years, must be 30 years of age, have had two years’ residence in the state, and be either natural-born British subjects or naturalwed for five years The legislative assembly consists of 50 members, elected for three years

WESTERN

INDIA

STATES

AGENCY,

an agency for

Indian States in Kathiawar, Cutch and Palanpur, formed in 1924 The States included are Bhavnagar, Cutch, Dhrangadhra, Dhrol, Gondal, Jafarabad, Junagadh, Demdi, Morvi, Nawanagar, Palanpur, Pahtana, Porbandar, Radhampur, Rajkot, Wadhwan, Wan-

kaner Formerly under Bombay, they now have direct relations with the Imperial Government through an agent in Rajkot. WESTERN PACIFIC RAILROAD CORPORATION,

THE, incorporated

under the laws of Delaware,

on June

29, 1916, is a holdmg company and the owner of the entire preferred and common capital stock, except directors’ qualifying shares, of the Western Pacific Railroad Company (the operating company) The corporation, along with other valuable assets,

owns a one-half interest, or 150,000 shares of the no-par value common stock of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad Company, as well as the equity ın 50,000 shares or one-half of the capital stock of Utah Fuel Company The capital structure of the corporation is as follows: Capital stock, 6% preferred (par $100), $40 000,000 outstanding; common stock (par $100), $60,000,000

outstanding The funded debt consists of $5,175,000 in 4% gold notes, due Oct. 1, 1930.

For the year 1927, the Western Pacific Railroad Company, subsidiary of this corporation, showed total operating revenue of $16,-

AGENCY—WEST

HAM

533

433,463, the largest in the history of the company. Beginning early in 1927, the operating company began an extensive programme of improvements covering the next few years, this contemplated an expenditure of approximately $18,000,000, of which $10,000,000 will be charged to operatmg expenses, the balance to capital In addition, a further expansion of this pro-

gramme was decided upon in 1928 under which it was proposed to extend and improve present facihties and to acquire or to construct new lines to serve territory not adequately provided with transportation. This second programme involved the additional expenditure of approximately $24,000,000, all with the ultimate objective of placing the properties mn a position to compete properly with other transcontinental lines and to take care of anticipated increase in business. (M JC) WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COMPANY, THE, was incorporated in New York, April, 1851, as The New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company to construct, own and operate a telegraph line from Buffalo, N Y, to St Louis, Mo., via Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati. The capital was fixed at $360,000 In 1856 the name was changed to The Western Umon Telegraph Company By construction, consolidations (more than 535 telegraph companies having been absorbed) and extensions, the plant and business grew until on Jan. x1, 1929 the capital stock was $105,000,000, the funded debt $73,005,000; the plant comprised 216,169 m. of pole Imes, 1,852,069 m of wire; 3,545 m of landline cables; 30,680 knots of ocean cables, 24,842 telegraph offices For the year 1928 operating revenues were $131,771,000 and expenses were $120,310,255 The company’s telegraph service is universal in the United States, and through its cable system extends to Great Britain and Europe, South America, West Indies, Mexico and Canada. By connections 1t goes to all parts of the world (N C) WESTER WEMYSS, ROSSLYN ERSKINE

WEMYSS,

1st Baron

cr. 1919, GCB.,

1918, (1864-

ž ),

British sailor, was born in London on April 12, 1864 He entered the navy in 1877. Rear-admiral of 2nd Battle Squadron 1912-13 and of the 12th Cruiser Squadron 1914, he was made vice-admiral 1916 and admiral of the fleet 1919 He commanded a squadron during the landing of the British troops in Gallipoli (1915), was commander-in-chief in the East Indies and Egypt (1916-17), deputy first sea lord, and afterwards first sea lord of the Admiralty (1917-19) and a member of the War Cabinet (1918) In 1924 he published The Navy in the Dardanelles Campaign

WESTFIELD,

a city

of Massachusetts.

Pop

(1920)

18,604 (24% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 19,775 The streets of the city are arched with fine old elms It is the seat of a State normal school (1844). Its manufactures (including boilers and radiators, paper, envelopes, bicycles and baby carriages, underwear, thread and pasteboard boxes) were valued at $13,160,610 in 1927. The manufacture of whips and lashes, begun early in the 19th century and engaging more than 40 concerns at its height, was the city’s leading industry until the multiplication of automobiles cut down the market Westfield academy (1800-66) was a famous secondary school. A trading post known by the Indian name Woronoko was established here about 1640, and in 1669 Westfield was set off from Springheld and incorporated. It was incorporated in 1914, but rejected the act; and again in 1920, accepting 1921 There 1s a municipal airport.

WESTGATE-ON-SEA,

a watering-place in the Isle of

Thanet. Pop (1921) 5,096. There are gardens and promenades over ı m in length, a marine drive along the cliffs, and golf links BIRCHINGTON, to the west (pop. 3,503), is also a growing resort The church of All Saints is Perpendicular, with an Early English tower, and contains some interesting monuments WEST HAM, a borough of Essex, England, forming an eastward suburb of London, Pop. (1931) 294,086. The old church of All Saints has a good Perpendicular tower, and in the restoration of 1866 some early mural painting was discovered, and a Transitional Norman clerestory, remaining above the later nave West Ham Park (80 ac.) occupies the site of Ham House, the residence of Samuel Gurney, the banker and philanthropist. Few large houses now remain, but the smaller houses have greatly increased.

534

WEST

HAVEN—WEST

INDIES

[PHYSICAL FEATURES

Within the borough are the extensive railway works of the the Caribbean chain, no deep-sea deposits have yet been found LNE railway at Stratford. This industrial centre is continued in the Lesser Antilles and there 1s no evidence that the area ever eastward to East Ham, where the old village church of St. Mary sank to abysmal depths The mineral wealth of the islands is not remarkable (ol Magdalene retams Norman portions At the time of the Conquest West Ham belonged to Alestan silver, 1ron, copper, tin, platinum, lead, coal of a poor quality, co. and Leured, two freemen, and at Domesday to Ralph Gernon balt, mercury, arsenic, antimony, manganese and rock salt elther and Ralph Peverel. It received the grant of a market and annual have been or are worked Asphalt 1s worked to considerable adfair in 1253 The lordship was given to the abbey of Stratford, vantage among the pitch lakes of Trinidad Opal and chalcedony and, passing to the Crown at the dissolution, formed part of the are the principal precious stones Climate.—As im most tropical countries where considerable dowry of Catherine of Portugal, and was therefore called the Queen’s Manor. It was incorporated in 1886. West Ham returns heights are met with—and here over 15,500 sqm lie at an eleva4 members to parliament. tion of more than 1,500 ft above sea-level—the climate of the

WEST HAVEN, a town of Connecticut, U.S A. Population

It is mainly a residential and industrial Savin Rock, rising out of Long Island sound, is a popular pleasure resort, West Haven was taken from New Haven in 1822 and united with North Milford to form the town of Orange. It was incorporated as a borough in 1873; reverted to Orange town after 1920; and in 1921 was incorporated as an independent town, was

25,808 in 1930

suburb of New Haven.

West Indies (in so far at least as heat and cold are concerned)

varies at different altitudes, and on the higher parts of many of

the islands rather low temperatures are found, These islands all he in the path of the north-easterly trade winds and ther chmatic conditions are typical of islands im this belt. With the exception of part of the Bahamas, all the islands he be. tween the annual isotherms of 77° and 82° F The climate, how. eyer, 18 everywhere marine, and the extreme heat is greatly tem-

WEST INDIES, THE, sometimes called the Antilles (g.v.), pered by the steady trades, by the daily sea breezes, and by cool,

an archipelago stretching in the shape of a rude arc or parabola from Florida in North America and Yucatan m Central America to Venezuela m South America, and enclosmg the Caribbean sea (615,000 sqm.) and the Gulf of Mexico (750,000 sqm in area), The land area of all the islands is nearly 100,000 sqm, with an estimated population of about 9 millions, that of the British islands about 12,009 square mules. The islands differ widely one from another in area, population, geographical position and physical characteristics They are divided into the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti and Porto Rico), and the Lesser Antilles (comprising the remaimder). The Lesser Antilles are again divided into the Windward islands and Leeward islands. Geographically, the Leeward islands are those to the north of St Lucia, and the Windward, St. Lucia and those to the south of it; but for administrative purposes the British islands a the Lesser Antilles are grouped as is shown, in the table given

ater,

Geology—The West Indies are the summits of a submerged

mountain chain, the continuation of which towards the west must be sought in the mountains of Honduras, In Haiti the chain divides, one branch passing through Jamaica and the other through Cuba, the Cayman islands and the Misteriosa Bank In Cuba and Haiti there are schists which are probably of pre-Cretaceous age, and have, indeed, been referred to the Archaean; but the oldest rocks which have yet been certainly identufied in the West Indies belong to the Cretaceous period Throughout fhe Greater Antilles the geological succession begins, as a rule, with volcanic tuffs and conglomerates of hornblende-andesite, etc., in the midst of which

are intercalated occasional beds of limestone with Rudistes and other Cretaceous fossils. These are overlaid by sediments of terrigenous origin, and the whole series was folded before the deposition of the next succeeding strata, The nature of these Cretaceous deposits clearly indicates the neighbourhood of an extensive area of land; but during the succeeding Eocene period and the early part of the Oligocene, a profound subsidence Jed to the deposition

of the Globigerina chalks and white Radiolarian earths of Jamaica,

refreshing nights Frost occasionally occurs in the cold season, but snow is unknown The seasons may be divided ag follows The short, wet season, or spring, begins in April and lasts from two to six weeks, and is succeeded by the short dry season, when the thermometer remains almost stationary at about 80° F In July the heat creases and continues until September or October, when the great rainfall of the year begins, accompanied frequently by tremendous and destructive hurncanes. This season 1s locally known as the “hurricane months,” The annual rainfall averages about 60 mches December marks the beginning of the dry season, which, accompanied by fresh winds and occasional showers, lasts till April, The average temperature of the air at Barbados, which may be taken as typical, is, throughout the year, 80° F in the fore.

noon, and about 82° in the afternoon

The maximum is 87°, and

the mmmum 75°, Flora—The flora of the islands is of great variety and richness, as plants have been mtroduced from most parts of the globe, and flourish either in a wild state or under cultivation; gram, vege-

tables and fruits, generally common m cool climates, may be seen growing in luxuriance within a short distance of like plants which only attain perfection under the influence of extreme heat, nothing being here required for the successful propagation of both but a difference in the height of the lands upon which they grow, The

forests, which are numerous, produce the most valuable woods and delicious fruits. Palms are in great variety, and there are

several species of gum-producing trees, Some locust trees have been estimated to have attained an age Of 4,000 years, and are of immense height and bulk Pimento is peculiar to Jamaica For centuries almost the whole care of the planters was be-

stowed upon the cultivation of the sugar-cane and tobacco plant, but in modern times attention has been turned to the production of other and more varying crops. Crops of tobacco, beans, peas, maize and Guinea corn are penular and a species of rcc which requires no flooding for ic -uccessiul pronegaion 1s iate’s produced Hymenucune striatum covers many oi the plains, ana affords food for cattle Fauna.—The fauna of the region is Neotropical, belonging to

Cuba and Haiti The Greater Antilles must, at this time, have been almost completely submerged, and the similar deposits of that region which includes South and part of Central America, alBarbados and Trinidad point to a similar submergence beyond the though great numbers of birds from the North American Windward islands, In the middle of the Oligocene period a mighty of the, Holarctic realm migrate to the islands The residentportion birds, upheaval, accompanied by mountain foldimg and the intrusion of however, 18 genera of which are certamly Neotropical, show beplutonic rocks, raised the Greater Antilles far above their present yond doubt to which faunal region the islands properly belong level, and united the islands with one another, and perhaps with The non-migrating birds mclude trogons, sugar-birds, chatterers, Florida, A subsequent depression and a series of minor oscilla- and many parrots and humming birds, Waterfowl and various Hors finally resulted in the production of the present topography kinds of pigeons are in abundance. Mammals are, as in most The geology of the Lesser Antilles is somewhat different, In some of the islands there are old volcanic tuffs which may possibly island groups, rare. The agouti abounds, and wild pigs and dogs are sufficiently numerous to afford good sport to the hunter, as be the equivalents of the Cretaceous beds of Jamaica, but volcanic well as smaller game, in the shape of armadillos, opossums, muskactivity here continued throughout the Tertiary period and even rats and raccoons Reptiles are numerous: snakes—both the boa

down to the present day. Another important difference is that and adder-—are innumerable, while lizards, scorpions, tarantulas except in Trinidad end Barbados,

which do not properly belong to and centipedes are everywhere Insects,too,are very numerous, and

Sey

BY LEE,

MARINE CORPS OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH, COURTESY OF (2) THE US SCREEN (5) THE CANADIAN PACIFIC STEAMSHIPS AND ASSOCIATED

v

tae Ve n

Ses rI it Sk

(6, 11) THE CUNARD NEWS, LTD , (7, 10)

SCENES 1 View of St. Thomas

IN THE

(Charlotte Amalie), the only town on the US

It Is a coallng station and possesses one of the island of St Thomas finest harbours in the West Indies

second 2 “La Ferrlare,” the oltadel of Henri Christophe (ruled 1811-20), Erected on a peak near Cape Haitien, this negro king of Haiti citadel is a remarkable monument to the early years of the first State In the world governed constitutionally by negroes

3 Aertal view of the coast of Cuba, the largest Island and one of the three republlos of the West Indies, estimated area, 41,634 sqm since 4 Weaving hats In Curagao The Island has been a Dutch possession

the Dutch style. 1634 and the principal town, Willemstad, is built inSpanish, English,

STEAMSHIP COMPANY, E M NEWMAN COPR

WEST

5

and

m.

The college was founded by Col. Christopher Codrington

(1668-

GALLOWAY, PUBLISHERS

and is affiliated with the University of Durham

Natives on the way to market In Martinique, Lesser Antilles, arca 380 sq.m.

a French

7. Typical hut and peasants (yzbaros) In Porto Rico

(4) THOMAS F PHOTO SERVICE

never contain

colony of the

The houses, which

more than one room, are raised on poles as protection

agalnst inseots, and thatched with grass and palm leaves

& Country scene in Porto Rico, most easterly of the Greater Antilles, and

a possession of the United States 9. Native hut In Jamaica. Jaymaca Is a native word, meaning the Island of springs

10

native words

The grounds of Codrington College at Bridgetown, capital of Barbados, 155 sq a British Island, the most easterly of the West Indies, area

(1, 3, 9) EWING LTO , PHOTOGRAPHS, (8) FROM PUBLISHERS PHOTO SERVICE,

INDIES

1710) 6

The negroes speak a curlous dialect consisting of

Dutch

PLATE

INDIES

WEST

11

of sugar Cutting and loading sugar cane In Porto Rico. The cultivation cana, successfully undertaken throughout the islands, is an Important

industry of Porto Rico, where sugar has been produced since 1548 the View of St. George, a town on the Island of the same name In Bermudas. About 680 m from the American coast, the Bermudas

are much visited for health and pleasure

WEST

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS]

INDIES

535

Government.—The British West India colonies are either Crown colonies—that is to say, their government is absolutely under the control of the British Colonial Office, the official memsheep are kept for the sake of their flesh alone, as the chmate bers of their councils predominating, and the unofficial membets being nominated by the Crown, as in the Windward and Leeward is not adapted for wool-growing Area and Population.—The following list of the West Indian islands—or they have a measure of representative government, — as in the Bahamas, Barbados and Jamaica, in which all or part population and area their islands gives of the legislatures are elected and are more or less independent of Crown control. The laws of the various colomes are English, Area, Name square | Population, 1921 with local statutes to meet local needs. The governors and high mules officials are appointed by the Crown, other officials are appointed by the governor Each governor acts under the advice of a privy Bntish— council. In matters of detail the colonies present a variety of Bahamas 4,404 53,031 Jamaica 4,207 858,188 forms of government (See the separate articles ) Federation has Turks island 224 5,612 been widely discussed and 1s held desirable by many, but in view Leeward islands. of the insular character of the colonies, the considerable distances Virgin islands. 58 5,082 separating some of them, and in many instances the lack of comSt. Kitts, Nevis and Anguila 150 38,214 mon interests (apart from certam broad issues), the project Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda 108 29,767 Montserrat er 32 12,120 appears to be far from realization. Domunica 305 37,059 The only fortified places in the British West Indies are Jamaica, Barbados 166 156,322 Barbados and St. Lucia—all of importance as coaling stations. Windward islands In many of the islands there are local volunteer forces. St Lucia 233 53,221 (1922) In the French islands the Guadeloupe group and Martinique St Vincent L503 46,220 (1922) Grenada 133 66,302 have each a governor-general and an elective council, with, furTnnidad 1,862 thermore, representation in the French parhament The Dutch Tobago II4 \ 365,913 colonies are governed much as are the English, but have less share French— in the admmustration. Porto Rico ıs organized as a territory of Guadeloupe, St Martin (part), etc. 688 229,839 (1922 the United States, having a goverhor appointed by the President Martinique 5 385 244,439 Dutch— of the United States, a local legislature of senate and house of St Martın (part) ; 17 2,527 (z922) representatives elected by popular vote, and 1s represented in the Curaçao 210 34,482 (1922 national Congress by a resident commissioner The government Bonaire 05 8,829 (1922) of the Virgin islands of the United States 1s civil, not military or Aruba 69 7,288 (1922) naval, and consists of a governor appointed by the President of St. Eustatrus i ‘ 7 1,213 43922) Saba g i Se os 5 1,699 (1922 the United States, aided by a colonial council in each municipality. United States— In most matters Danish law still prevails St Thomas 28 10,191 1917) Economic Conditions——The West Indian islands have sufSt Jobn 20 059 (1917, fered from periods of severe economic depression, though from St. Croix . 84 14,90% (1917 Porto Rico . . 3:435 | 1,299,809 (1920, the early years of the 20th century there has been good evidence a aa of recovery and development An obvious reason for temporary arti 10,204 | 2,045,000 (zoas + depression is the liability of the islands to earthquakes and hurriCuba (and adjacent islands) 44,164 | 3,123,040 (1922 canes, in addition to eruptions in the volcamic islands, such as Dominican Republic 19,332 897,495

are often annoyitig Among domestic animals mules are largely reared, and where the country affords suitable pasture and forage cattle-breeding is practised. Goats abound, and large flocks of

*Estimate.

those in St. Vincent and Martinique in 1902. The islands do not offer opportunities for ordinary labouring

mnmigrants. Barbados is the only island where the land is entirely settled, but the settlement, planting and development of lands elsewhere involve a considerable amount of capital, and manual on a few of the islands, particularly St Vincent and Domunica, labour 1s provided by the natives or East Indian coolies. Attempts are there natives left Even here they are but few in number and to settle European labourers have been unsuccessful. Besides sugar, the principal products of the islands are tobacco, of mixed race rather pure-blooded Elsewhere the West Indian Carib 1s virtually extmct. His place has been taken only coffee, cocoa, fruits and cotton. Grenada is almost entirely, and in patt by the invader. Although the white race (either from Spain Trinidad, Dominica and St. Lucia are largely, dependent upon cocoa The fruit and spice trade is of growing importance, and or north-western Europe) was the conqueror and first settler on all of the islands, and although for @ century or‘so it seemed there is a demand for bottled fruit in Canada and elsewhere. The that the West Indies, hke the mainland of the New World, would variety of fruts grown ıs great, the bananas and oranges of become filled with a European population, most of the Islands Jamaica, the hmes of Montserrat, Domunıca and St. Lucia, and have not proved suitable for permanent settlement by this race. the pine-apples of the Bahamas may be mentioned as characteristic. It must be borne in mind, however, that the islands as a In Cuba and Porto Rico the whites have become firmly established and now constitute about 75% of the total population. But whole cannot be said to possess a community of commercial 1mupon all the other islands the white race has failed to hold its terests Even the industries already indicated are by no means own, In nearly every other part of the archipelago Africans now equally distributed throughout the islands; moreover, there are vastly outnumber all other races These people, brought in to certain local mdustries of high importance, such as the manufacmeet the needs of tropical agriculture, have survived the condi- ture of rum in Jamaica, the production of asphalt and the working tions presented by the tropics far better than their masters, and of the oul-fields in Trinidad, and the production of arrowroot in St. Vincent. Sponges are an important product of the Bahamas, the West Indies have become virtually a racial extension of Africa, In the republic of Haiti some nine-tenths of the popula- ahd salt of the Turks islands Rubber plantations have been suction are negroes and the remang tenth is mulatto. In Martinique cessful in several islands, such as Trindad, Dominica and St. only about 1% is not black or coloured (mulatto). In Barbados Lucia (See further articles on the various islands.) Modern Developments in the British West Indies---The the negroes outnumber the whites eight to one. According to the census of 1921 there were in Jamaica 817,643 coloured and black, World War and the boom which followed brought about a remarkto 14,476 whites Most of the other islands present a similar able temporary access of prosperity to the British West Indies, racial composition In the Dutch islands, in some of the Bahamas ther total trade rising from £20,993,559 in 1913 to £54,691,548 the proportion of negroes is somewhat smaller, in 1920 The chief staples, sugar, rum, molasses, cacao, cotton

Racially, the character of the West Indies has undergone a marked transformation since their occupation by European nations The aboriginal race has almost entirely disappeared Only

and ın Trinidad

536

WEST

and arrowroot, all commanded greatly enhanced prices. The total exports are about £15,000,000, imports about £20,000,000 The Sea Island cotton industry, which owed its development in the West Indies to the ravages of the boll-weevil in the United States, received a check m 1920, through the appearance of the still more dreaded boll-worm m St. Kitts and Montserrat, to which ıt was brought by a Brazilan vessel. A comparatively new industry, which has made rapid progress in British Gwana, 1s that of rice. The colony used to 1mport large quantities of rice for the Indian immigrants, but in 1905 was already able to cover her own requirements and in 1926 exported rice to the value of £44,000.

Almost as rapid has been the development of the petroleum industry in Trinidad. The existence of petroleum deposits in Trmidad has long been recognized As far back as 1864 oil was struck, but it proved impossible to make a financial success of the enterprises concerned About r900 Mr Randolph Rust, a local resident (mayor of Port of Spain in 1921), imported modern oil-boring machinery and successfully struck oil at Aripero ın rg0r. Other prospectors came on the scene, and in rgr10 followed the successful flotation of the Trinidad oul-fields, and Trinidad enjoyed an extraordmary boom The new industry, which was officially inaugurated ın 1911, developed rapidly With many new wells being drilled it ıs certain that the production of oil, which m 1927 amounted to 5,200,000 barrels and in 1928 to about 6,200,000, will undergo further material expansion As the outcome of the report of a committee appomted by Lord Milner in 1919, the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture was founded in 1921, with headquarters at St Augustine, about 7 m E. of Port of Spain, Trinidad. An important feature of the college is the provision for research and investigation work which its laboratories and fields afford The site was given by the Government of Tnnidad and Tobago, whose planters gave £50,000 towards the erection of the college building Maintenance 1s provided for by Imperial grants and contributions from the Govern-

ments of certain West Indian and West African colomes Attached to the college 1s an instructional sugar factory, towards which the British sugar machinery firms contributed plant to the value of £20,000.

Imperial Preference——The British Fmance Act of r918 provided for the granting of a preference of one-sixth off the duties on sugar, molasses, tobacco, coffee, cacao and other products

INDIES entering the Dominion

[ARCHAEOLOGY Canada was to withdraw the benefit of

the British preferential tariff from any British colony Producing cacao beans which did not extend to her a satisfactory reciprocal preference She was to admit, free of duty, bananas produced m British colonies and impose a duty of 5o cents per bunch on foreign bananas The West Indies on their part were to give in. creased tariff preferences, namely 2s per barrel or bag of 196 Ib of Canadian flour, and in the case of Jamaica, the Bahamas and British Honduras a preference not less than 30% on dary products, meat and apples, and in the other colonies a preferential duty of not less than one-third of the general rate With a guarantee against loss ensured by the colonies, Canada has undertaken to maintam new freight, mail and passenger services among the

West Indian group

Brstiocrarny —A E Aspinall, The British West Indies, They Present Position and Prospects (1921) ; Handbook of the British West

Indies (1926), W G A O Gore, The West Indies To-Day, articles reprinted from The Temes (1922), A Shipley, Islands West IndianAegean (1924); G Manmgton, The West Indies (New York, 1925). See Colomal Reports (Annual) and the Colonial Office hst

ARCHAEOLOGY At the time of Columbus the West Indian groups of islands were inhabited by tribes of two distinct South American

ethnic stocks; the Greater Antilles by a branch of the Arawak people (known as Tainan); the Bahamas by another Arawak branch (the Lucayan), and the Lesser Antilles by the Canb The West Indies, ın the first instance, seem to have been populated by a wave of Arawak immigration, followed by a second wave of Carib immigrants, who, by the end of the fifteenth

century had exterminated the male population of the Lesser Antilles, and had even obtained a foothold on the eastern end of Porto Rico ‘The culture of the two races appears to have been very similar, though the Taman were superior in craftsmanship The Carib practised cannibalism, a custom which was rare (even if it existed at all) among the Tainan It is possible that certain Maya influences from Yucatan had affected the ethnography of, at any rate, western Cuba; and there are indications that the Lucayan inhabitants of the Bahamas were in touch with the tribes of Florida, though, in this case, they appear to have given more than they recerved The Tainan lived under the rule of a number of hereditary chieftains, known as Cacique, whose rule was mildly despotic, who were leaders in war, and also

exercised certain priestly functions Inheritance of rank seems per gallon on rum. The preference on to have passed to the eldest son, or failing male issue to the eldest sugar was increased in 1925 and stabilized for ro years by the son of the late Cacique’s sister As to property, among the general populace, the sister’s son was the normal heir The Carb Finance Act of 1925 Canadian Preference.—Followmmg an inqury in 1909 by a organization appears to have been rather more democratic The Royal Commission, a conference was held at Ottawa in 1912 be- chiefs were essentially war-leaders, and the adult members of the Carbet (or “Men’s House”) constituted a sort of council Chieftween representatives of the Domimion and the British West Indian colonies, the Bahamas, British Honduras and Jamaica ex- tainship was not necessarily hereditary, but depended to a great cepted, to consider the question of closer trade On April 9, r912 extent on personal prowess ‘The difference was the natural outa reciprocal trade agreement was signed, the basis of which was come of circumstances The surviving Tainan had been in long a mutual preference of 20% on the chief products of the countries occupation of the larger islands, and were comparatively sedentary The Canb, with only small islands at their disposal, were still concerned, In 1920 a second conference was held at Ottawa at which all a semi-migratory people, engaged in the conquest of fresh terthe West Indian colonies, and also the Imperial Government, were ritory. Though all the islanders practised agriculture (maize represented. A new agreement was signed on June 18, 1920, and bemg the most important crop), cultivation played a more 1mbrought into force in May 1921, under which Canada agreed to portant part ın Tainan culture, while the fishing industry was more give to British West Indian products a tariff preference of 50%, important among the Carib Canb organization, which was dewhilst the British West Indies similarly agreed to extend to Cana- vised to provide for long fishing-excursions or military raids, gave dian products tariff preference of 50% m the case of Barbados, rise to rumours of “Amazon” tribes in the Caribbean, since the British Guiana and Trimdad, 334% in that of British Honduras, early explorers occasionally encountered islands peopled, apparthe Leeward Islands and the Windward Islands, 25% in Jamaica ently, only by women Again, the practice of the Carib of taking and 10% in Bahamas, the legislature of which colony afterwards the Arawak women as wives, after killing the men, led to a dual voluntarily increased the preference to one of 25%. Certain linguistic system on certain islands; the women (and their products were specifically dealt with, the preference on Cana- daughters) speaking Arawak, while the men and elder boys (who dian flour entering the West Indies being not less than 1s per from an early age accompanied their fathers mm their various 196 lb., and that on West Indian sugar being not less than 83-712 voyages) spoke Carib cents per roo lb on 96° test. The rehgion of both peoples was a form of nature-worship In 1925 a new and more comprehensive agreement was signed A number of aetiological myths have been preserved, mostly of a under which West Indian produce (other than tobacco, cigars and very inconsequential nature (for details see bibliography) Ceralcohol) was to enjoy a preference of 50% off the full duty on tain high powers, connected with the sky and ram, were pro-

imported from within the Empire into the United Kingdom, and a preference of 2s. 6d

HISTORY]

WEST

has as wide a connotation, including both the great powers, and

images of wood and cotton (the latter often enclosing the bones

of ancestors), and amulets and even ceremonial paintings on the

pody Both Tainan and Carib were expert in the handling of stone, though the former were superior. The practice of flaking was practically non-existent, and implements and ceremonial objects were prepared by polishmg The comparative superiority of the Tainan rested to a great extent on the fact that they had access to a larger, and more varied, supply of raw material. In fact on certain of the Carib islands (notably Barbados) workable stone was non-existent, and implements were carved from fossil shell Certam stone products of the Tainan artisan show remarkable proficiency, especially the large “horse-collar” fetishes (principally from Porto Rico, and probably connected with tree-wor-

ship), the so-called “three-pointed stones” (also chiefly related to Porto Rico, and probably connected with the cult of the cassava), and the pestles and axe-blades of Jamaica, of which the latter, in qualities of form and polish, challenge comparison with the celts of any other region of the world In the Greater Antilles gold was collected from the rivers, or by excavation, and worked

mto ornaments by means of hammering, the process of casting being unknown Pottery, of rather a rude nature, was made, more particularly by the Taman, but m no case approximated to the wares of Central America or Peru. One product, which possessed both an economic and religious significance, was the tobacco-plant, known as Cohksba or Cogtoba, the smoke of which was inhaled through tubes termed Tabaco.

The name of the tube became transferred to the plant, and has survived in modern civilization The inhalation of tobacco-smoke was practised at important ceremonies, and eventually reduced the officiating priest to a state of coma, during which he experienced visions which were regarded as divine Tay T.A J.) HISTORY The archipelago received the name of the West Indies from Columbus, who hoped that, through the islands, he had found a new route to India The name of Antilles was derived from the fact that Columbus, on his arrival here, was supposed to have reached the fabled land of Antia Columbus first landed on San Salvador, generally identified with Watling island of the Bahamas, and several voyages to this new land were made m rapid succession by the great discoverer, resulting in the finding of of most of the larger islands, and a more mtimate knowledge

those already known

537

INDIES

pitiated, and the spirits of ancestors and tree-spirits, were objects of common worship Most of the idols fall under the class of “fetishes,” to which the word Zemi was applied This term is almost exactly parallel to the Peruvian word Huaca, and

‘The importance of its latest possession

was at once recognized by the court of Spain, and, by 1540, Spanish settlements had been made on all of the larger islands and upon many of the smaller ones. The natives were promptly reduced to a state of serfdom or virtual slavery, being distributed, with the lands upon which they lived, among the conquistadores,

mm the form of encomsendas or repartamientos, mstitutions which were designed to bring the Indians into subjection to Spanish au-

thority, to provide them with the imstruction necessary for be-

coming Christians, and to furnish the Spanish settlers in these tropical islands a labour supply for the fields and mines The the decisystem resulted in great oppression and brought about mation of the natıve population The small remnant that surthat extent an such to vived mingled with the Spanish population few individuals of pure Indian blood could be found on the principal islands.

Spam was not long allowed to retain an undisputed hold upon British, Dutch, French and Danish seamen, coming down the path of the trade winds in their sailing vessels and

the West Indies

thus touching at the islands as the first outposts of the New

this region whose World, soon asserted their claims to parts of persistent warfare fabled wealth had stirred all Europe and a e of which began to be waged for its possession, in consequenc

the Spaniards found themselves gradually but surely forced from

many of their vantage grounds.

In 1625 the British began their colonization of the West Indies

by establishing a settlement upon the diminutive island of St.

Chnstopher (St Kitts) 23 m. long by 5 broad. This was quickly followed by other settlements on St Eustatius, Barbados, Tobago and St Croix (all in the same year, 1625), and upon Nevis (1628), Antigua and Montserrat (1632). Other English settlements were made within the next few decades and by 1713 Britain had such a firm hold in the West Indies that the Treaty of Utrecht recognized her claims to the Bahamas, Jamaica, the Caymans, the Caicos and Turks, as well as to most of the islands upon which the settlements above listed had been made and to some others of lesser importance. The first care of the English was to find out the agricultural possibihties of the islands, and they diligently set about planting tobacco, cotton and indigo About 1650 sugar-cane came to be systematically planted, and it is from this crop that the greatest prosperity of the West Indies has come Plantation agriculture has long been the basis of economic, social and political development Meanwhile the French also had been attracted to the islands A French West India company was mcorporated in 1625 and a settlement established on the island of St Christopher, where a small English colony was already engaged in clearing and cultivating the ground. These were driven out by the Spaniards ım 1630 but only to return and again assume possession Another colony was planted by the French beside the English settlement on St. Eustatius, and Grenada was occupied at the same time, both in 1625. Dominica followed in 1632 and Martimque in 1635, while Guadeloupe, St Bartholomew and St Martin were settled upon in 1648. The Treaty of Utrecht confirmed France in possession of most of the above islands and in addition, the western

half of the island of Haiti (St Dominique), Désirade, St. Lucia and St Croix St Martin she was to share with the Dutch. eral lesser islands also were included in her domain

Sev-

Although the Dutch were slightly later in getting a secure foothold in the West Indies, the treaty of 1713 allowed them to retam St. Eustatius, Saba, a part of St Martin, and the group of

islands (Aruba, Curacao and Bonaire) along the coast of Tierra Firme (Venezuela). This latter group had long been the hold of Dutch contraband trade with the Spanish main, on pmncipally from the well-protected lagoon harbour Schattegat (St. Ann’s bay) The Danes, too, had planted

strong-

carried of the colonies

on at least one of the West Indies islands and the Treaty of Utrecht left them in possession of St Thomas and St. John, to which St. Croxx was later added. The Spanish thus had lost nearly all of the smaller islands and their holdings were limited principally to Cuba, Porto Rico and the eastern half of Hispaniola (Haiti) The West Indies had become a region of great

political complexity, with nearly all the maritime nations of western Europe represented on the map. During the 17th century and into the beginning of the 18th, the celebrated buccaneers, French,

British and Dutch, infested

to the Caribbean and neighbouring seas, doing much damage legitimate trade and causing commerce to be carried on only under armed protection and with much difficulty and danger. In fact, piracy hngered off the coasts down to the early years of the roth century

Few important political changes were made in the West Indies after the Treaty of 1713 until the period of the wars for independence in America, when both the Spanish and the French parts of the island of Haiti were able to break away from the mother countries and establish the new nations of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, 1804 and 1844 respectively The next great change in the political map was made in 1898 when the SpanishAmerican War brought independence to Cuba and the acquisition of Porto Rico by the United States In 1917 the Danish West Indies also passed into possession of the United States by purchase, Denmark receiving $25,000,000 for her three islands of St Thomas, St. John and St. Croix, which are now known as the Virgin islands of the United States One of the most important developments in the history of the

West Indies was the abolition of slavery. In the French, British,

538

WESTINGHOUSE—WESTMACOTT

Dutch and Danish islands the negro and mulatto element had become so numerous that it was no longer possible to hold them in bondage Long contmued agitation and repeated revolts, particularly in the French colony of Haiti, where the white popu-

June 1912 he received the Edison Gold Medal for “meritonoys achievement in connection with the development of the alternat. ing current system for light and power.” In 1893 this system was

installed at the Chicago exposition He built dynamos for the power plants at Niagara Falls, for the rapid transit systems of

lation was nearly exterminated, made it necessary to remedy the evil In 1838 the British freed all the slaves ın therr West Indies possessions, the French and Danes following ten years later. The reform came more slowly m the Dutch and Spanish colonies, and it was not until 1873 that the former freed all their slaves,

New York city, and for the London Metropolitan Railway, Westinghouse also devised a method for conveying gas through long-distance pipes, thus making it a practicable fuel He died m

conitmued until 1886. Emancipation, while marking an important advance in human liberty, brought serious consequencés in its train The freed men have been unable to maitain the economic prosperity of former times, while, wherever they are

U.S A, was founded by George Westinghouse (qv). In 1882,

whilé in the Spanish islands of Cuba and Porto Rico slavery

not under the direct control of foreign government, political and social conditions leave much to be desired

Since acquired athwart nication

the opening of the Panama Canal the West Indies have increased importance, due to their strategic location the ocean highway leading to that interoceanic commu‘This has not added greatly to the economic value of

the islands but has made their numerous excellent harbours rank

high as naval bases Cuba has granted to the United States use of two of her strategically situated bays, Guahténamo Bahia Honda, the latter covering the Straits of Florida, and former guarding the Windward passage into the Caribbean

the and the be-

tweett Cuba and the island of Haiti, On Porto Rico the harbour

of San Juan serves thé same putpose, guarding the gateways to

the east and the west of this island, while the spacious, nearly

land-locked harbour of St Thomas in the Virgin islands of the

United States guards the Virgin passage,—the principal feature

that led the United States to desire this group of small islands, and to secure thern from Denmark at a fabulous price. Jamaica,

Barbados and St. Lucia play somewhat thë same patt among the Bnitish holdings in the West Indies, constituting 4 series of fortified points that place Great Britam in a strong position in the Caribbean.

New York on March 12, 1914. WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC

TURING

COMPANY,

AND

MANUFAC-

situated at East Pittsburgh, Pg

Westinghouse began the manufacture of direct-current electne hghting generators. After a study of alternating current devel-

opment and the purchase of many patent rights, George Westing. house set up, with the assistance of Wilham Stanley, a system which is the basis of presetit-day alternating-current generation

and distribution. The first commercial alternating-current light-

ing plant was installed ın Buffalo, N Y , in 1886

Later developments have been the alternating-current system, the induction (Tesla) motor; the rotary converter, the single-reduction-gear street-railway motor, the electro-pneumatic system of multiple-unit train control; the alternating-current sys. tem of railway electrification, as exemplified by many American railroads, the single-double-flow turbine; the turbo-generator; the floating-frame reduction gear for turbme-driven ships; and con-

tributions to the art of radio broadcasting

For the year ending

March 31, 1927, the sales were $185,543,087 and the number of employees was 40,000 The outstanding capital stock was $118,503,250 The former export department 1s now reorganized as the Westinghouse Electric International Company (E M He)

WEST

LOTHIAN

or LINLITHGOWSHIRE,

south-

eastern county, Scotland, has an area of 76,861 ac (excluding water) The surface rises gradually from the Firth to a hilly

district in the south, with summits up to 1,000 feet History.—Traces of the prehistoric inhabitants still enst. Stone cists have been discovered at Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newhsraphy of the British Colontes, vol 1i. (Oxford, revision of 1968) ; C. W. ton and elsewhere, on Cairnnaple is a circular structure of remote Eves, C.M.G, The West Indies (4th ed, London, 1897) , A. Caldecott, B.D, The Church in the West Indies tT ondan 185%) Robert T Al, but unknown date; and at Kipps is a cromlech that was once surCuba and Porto Rico, with tne other Isl.rd, cf the Wet Indies rounded by stones The wall of Antoninus lies for several miles (London, 1898); Amios Kidder Pike MWittars or the We Iris in the shire, and Roman camps can be distinguished The his(New York, 1896); H de R. Wather The Wet Inetes ond he Brh h torical associations mamly cluster round Linlithgow (q.v.) Empre (London, 190i), J H Sterk. Graces, to the West hans Agriculture and Industry—About three-fourths of the (London, 1898, seg); A. E. A-vrali Gade 'o che West Inches 1907); J Å Froude, Te Emebsh w une Wes lhdvs county, the agriculture of which is highly developed, 1s under cul1888); J Rodway, The West Indies and the Spanish Main tivation The best land is found along the coast, as at Carnden 4896); Sit Harry Johuston, The Negro in the New World and Dalmeny. The farming is mostly arable, permanent pasture 1910); J.W Root, The British West Indies and the Sugar being practically stationary (at about 23,000 ac). Dairy farming Industry (1899) ; Colonial Office Reports; Reports of Royal Commissions, 1897 and 1910, J. W Spencer, “Reconstruction of the Antillean provides fresh butter and milk for Edinburgh. There are large shale oil works at humerous places, and imContinent,” Bul? Geol, Soc Amer., vol vi, D. 103 (1898) (Abstract in Geol Mag, 1894, pp 448-451): see also a seres of papers by J. W portant ironworks; coal is also largely mined, and steel is made Spencef in Quart. Journ Geol. Soc, vol Ixvi., Ixvilt (1901, 1902); at Armadale. Fire-clay 1s extensively worked Old silver mines R, T. Hill, “The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica,” Bull, Mus Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. xeav. (1899) ; Chester Lloyd Jones, near Bathgate have been reopened recently. Limestone, freestone Caribbean Interests of the United States (New Vork, 1919); H dHill, and whinstone are all quarried. Paper is made at Linlithgow and Roosevelt and the Carcbbean (NY. 1924) + Charles H Sherril, “Islands Bathgate, and distilling carried on at Linlithgow and Bo'ness fot Debts,” N. Am Rev, (Jan 1928); A.W H Hall, Report on the Bo’hess is the principal port Economic and Financwl Conditions in the Britlsh West Indes, LonCommunications The L NE Railway company’s line from don, 1922; C S S Higham, The Development of the Leeward Islands, 1660-1688, Cambridge, 1921; F. W Pitman, The Development of the Edinburgh to Glasgow controls the approaches to the Forth British West Indes, London, 1918, A H Verrill, Isles of Spice and bridge. The Union canal (3: m long), connecting Edinburgh Palm, New York, 1916; H Wrong, Government of the West Indies, with the Forth and Clyde canal, crosses the county. Londoh, 1923; W M. Davis, The Lesser Antilles, New York, rga5. Population and Admivistration.—In 1931 the population i (G M McR) was 81,426, 170 persons spoke Gaelic and English, while 5 spoke WESTINGHOUSE, GEORGE (1846-1914), American ine Gaelic only The chief towns (193i pop ) are Bathgate (10,097), ventor and manufactiirer, was born at Central Bridge (N Y.), on Borrowstounness (10,095); Armadale (4,854); Linkthgow Oct 6, 1846. He entered the Union Army in the Civil War in (3,666) and Whitburn (2,440) The shire returns one member 1863, but in 1864 Was appointed third assistant engineer in the to parliament, and 1s part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians, Selnavy. In 186§ he invented a device for replacing derailed cars kirk and Peebles, with a resident sheriff-substitute at Linhthgow. and also a reversible steel railway frog. In 1869 he patented his The county 1s under school-board jurisdiction, and thete ate acaduir-brake and organized the Westinghouse Air Brake company, emies at Linhthgow, Bathgate and Bo’ness In 1872 he invetited the automatic air-brake This brake was WESTMACOTT, SIR RICHARD (1775-1856), British quickly adopted by railways in America and gradually in Europe. sculptor, was born in London in 1773. As a boy he worked ın the He also developed 4 system of railway signals, operated by com- studio of his father, a sculptor of some reputation. In 1793 be BrstiocrApay —Sir C, P Lucas and C. Atchley, A Historical Geog-

pressed air with the assistance of electrical contrivances,

In went to Rome and became a pupil of Canova, then at the height

WESTMEATH—WESTMINSTER of his fame

Hence, his real sympathies were with pagan rather

than with Christian art In 1805 he was elected an associate, and m rsi a full member of the Royal Academy, London In 1827

he succeeded Flaxman as Royal Academy professor of sculpture.

Westmacott 1s best represented by his pedimental figures over the portico of the British Museum, completed in 1847, and ins colossal nude statue of Achilles in bronze, copied from the onginal on Monte Cavallo in Rome and set up in 1822 by the ladies of England in Hyde Park as a compliment to the duke of Wellmgton He died on Sept 1, 1856. WESTMEATH, a county of Ireland in the province of

Lemster

The area is about 709 sq miles

539

Hugh Richard Arthur, end duke (b. 1879).

Pop (1926) 56,796-

Westmeath is a county of carboniferous limestone. The only heights are Knocklayde (795 ft), Hill of Ben (710 ft.) and Knockayon (707 feet) A considerable system of eskers, notably north of Tullamore, diversifies the surface of the limestone plain A large surface 1s occupied by bog The loughs of the county have a combined area of nearly 17,000 acres. In the

north, on the borders of Cavan, is Lough Sheelin, with a length of s m, and an average breadth of between 2 and 3 m., and adjommg it is the smaller Lough Kinale In the centre of the

WESTMINSTER, a part of London, England; strictly a city

in the administrative county of London, bounded east by “the City,” south by the river Thames, west by the boroughs of Chelsea and Kensington, and north by Paddington, St. Marylebone and Holborn Westminster was formed into a borough by the London Government Act of 1899, and by a royal charter of the 2oth of October 1900 it was created a city The city comprises two parliamentary divisions known as the Abbey and St George’s, Area, 2,502 7 acres Pop (1931) each returning one member 129,535 The City of Westminster, as thus depicted, extends from the western end of Fleet Street to Kensington Gardens, and from Oxford Street to the Thames, which it borders over a distance of 3 m, between Victoria (Chelsea) Bridge and a point below Waterloo Bridge It thus contains a large number of national and imperial public buildings from the Law Courts in the east to the Imperial Institute in the west, including Buckingham and St. James’s palaces and the National Gallery But the name of Westminster is more generally associated with a more confined area, namely, the quarter which includes the Abbey, the Houses of Parliament, the government and other buildings in

Catholic Cathedral, and the parts immedicounty is Lough Derravaragh, 6 m long by 3 m broad at its Whitehall, the Roman adjacent to these. widest part To the north of 1t are Loughs Lene, Glore, Bawn and ately Westminster Abbey.—The Abbey of St. Peter is the most south others, and to the south, Loughs Iron and Owel. Farther in the British empire. The Thames was is Lough Ennell or Belvidere, and mm the south-west Lough Ree, widely celebrated church expanse of fen land from great a by times early a great expansion of the river Shannon, forming part of the bordered in while near the point where the Abbey boundary with Roscommon ‘The loughs are noted for their trout. Chelsea and Battersea, of a mile in cirthree-quarters perhaps Westmeath was severed from Meath (qv) in 1543 The insur- stands was a low island as Thorney or Bramble islet. Tributary rection of 164x was concerted at Multifarnham abbey, and cumference, known the marsh, flankthrough north formed channels both in the wars of this period and those of 1688 the majority streams from the north and south, and were once connected by a of the estates in the county were confiscated. There are a con- ing the island Tyburn, which the to These channels belonged siderable number of raths or encampments~ one at Rathconrath dyke on the west ground of Hampstead There have been is of great extent, another at Ballymore was fortified during the flowed from the high of Apollo and of a church founded under “King wars of the Cromwellian period and those of 1688 and was after- stories of a temple more probability in the statement of Stow that wards the headquarters of Gen. Ginkel, when preparing to þe- Lucius”; there is King Sebert founded a church of St Peter on Thorney Isle, and siege Athlone, and there is a third near Lough Lene, the coming of St Peter himself to hallow his new The soil is generally a deep rich loam well adapted both for legend relates of Offa, king of Mercia (785), deals with the tillage and pasturage, The occupations are almost wholly agri- church A charter certain land to the monastery of St Peter; and cultural, dairy farming predommating. Flour and meal are conveyance of the church, defining by a charter dated 951 restored Edgar King largely produced, The only textile manufactures are those of the boundary of Westminster, extending fiezes, flannels and coarse linens for home use. The county (not certainly genuine) the Marble Arch south to the Thames and from terms) modern (in would benefit from the proposed extension of the Shannon elecCity boundary, the former river Fleet Westminster tricity scheme to Lough Ree Water communication with Dublin east to the foundation. In rogo Edward the Confessor took is furnished by the Royal canal, The counties of Longford and was a Benedictine of a new church, cruciform, with a central and up the erection Westmeath return five members to Dail Eireann. It was consecrated in 1065 before the Contowers two western WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. fessor died, but building was continued afterwards In 1245 Henry The title of marquess of Westminster was bestowed in 1831 upon about the rebuilding of the church east of the nave. Robert Grosvenor, 2nd Harl Grosvenor (1767-1845), Whose TIL set Church.—The present Abbey is a cruciform structure cone The grandson, Hugh Lupus Grosvenor (1825-1899), was created duke of nave with aisles, transepts with aisles (but in the south of Westminster in 1874. The family of Grosvenor is of great sisting the place of the western aisle is occupied by the eastern , transept antiquity in Cheshire, The ancestors of the dukes ofWestminster apsidal form, with six were cadets of the knightly cloister walk), and choir of polygonal

the Crosvenors of Eaton, near Chester, chapels (four polygonal) opening north and south of it, and an house of Le Grosvenur, Their baronetcy dates from 1622 eastern Lady chapel, known as Henry VII's chapel. There are Sm THOMAS GROSVENOR, the 3rd baronet (1656-1700), in 1676a two western towers, but in the centre a low square tower hardly 1665), married Mary (d, 1730), heiress of Alexander Davies (d. roof. The main entrance in common lands scrivener, who brought to the Grosvenor family certam now covered by some of the most fashionable quarters of the ), (1731-1802 GROSVENOR West End Hois grandson, SIR RICHARD and was created Baron Grosvenor mm 176 and Viscount Belgrave raceof breeder Earl Grosvenor in 1784, The xst earl, a great

earl horses, was succeeded by his only surviving son Roser,his 2nd London

developed (17671848), who rebuilt Eaton Hall and House of property, which was rapidly increasing in value. In the of Commons, where he sat from 1788 to 1802, he was a follower

Pitt, who made him a lord of the admisalty and later a commis-

sioner of the board of control, but after 1806 he left the Tories

and jomed the Whigs He was created a marquess at the coronation of Wilham IV. in r831 Huen Lorus (1825-1899), grand-4 son of the preceding, was created a duke in 1874, and was

member of parlament for Chester (1847-69), and master of the

horse under Gladstone (1880-85), but he left the Liberal party grandson over Home Rule for Ireland, He was succeeded by his

rises above the pitch of the use is that in the north transept The chapter-house, cloisters and other conventual buildings and remains he to the south The total length of the church (exterior) is 531 ft and of the transepts 203 ft in all The breadth of the nave without the aisles is 38 ft. 7 m. and its height close upon ro2 ft These dimensions are very slightly lessened in the choir The exterior is finely proportioned, but the building has been much altered. Wren designed the western towers, completed in 1740 after his death, and Sir Gilbert Scott and Pearson rebuilt the north front Within, the Abbey is a superb example of the pomted style. The body of the church is remarkably uniform, because, although the bulding af the new nave was continued with intermissions defrom the tath century until Tudor times, the Early English sign in the eastern part was carried on The choir, with its radiating chapels, plainly follows French models Exquisite ornament is seen in the triforium arcade, and between some of the arches

540

WESTMINSTER

in the transept are figures, specially finely carved though much mutilated, known as the censing angels Henry VII’s chapel replaces an earher Lady chapel, and ıs the most remarkable building of its period It comprises a nave with aisles, and an apsidal eastward end formed of five small radiating chapels A splendid series of carved oak stalls lunes each side of the nave, and above them hang the banners of the Knights of the Bath The fan-traceried roof, with its carved stone pendants, is exquisite. The choir stalls in the body of the church are modern. The reredos is by Scott, with mosaic by Salviati Ceremonies and Monuments.—From William the Conqueror onward every sovereign has been crowned in the Abbey excepting Edward V. The coronation chairs stand in the Confessor’s chapel That in use dates from the time of Edward I, and contains beneath its seat the stone of Scone, on which the Scottish kings were crowned. It ıs of Scottish ongin, but tradition identifies 1t with Jacob’s pillow at Bethel. Here also are kept the sword and shield of Edward III., still used ın the coronation ceremony. The second chair was made for Mary, consort of Wıliıam ITI. Subsequent to the Conquest many kings and queens were buried here, from Henry IJI to George II A part of the south transept is famed under the name of the Poets’ Corner

The north transept contains many monuments to states-

men, and the abbey is crowded with tombs and memorials of famous British subjects, the custom of burial here being traditionally linked with the presence of the shrine of Edward the Confessor. The burial of “The Unknown Warrior” in the centre of the nave after the World War is a notable commemoration of the sacrifice made by the people mm that war A number of undistinguished persons also have their tombs in the Abbey. Conventual and Other Buildings——The monastery was dissolved in 1539, and Westminster was then erected into a bishopric, but only one prelate, Thomas Thurleby, held the office of bishop In 1553 Mary again appointed an abbot, but Elizabeth reinstated the dean, with twelve prebendaries Of the conventual buildings, the cloisters are of the 13th and r4th centuries On

the south side of the southern walk remains of a wall of the refectory are seen from without. From the eastern walk a porch gives entry to the chapter house and the chapel of the Pyx The first is of the time of Henry III, a fine octagonal building, its vaulted roof supported by a slender clustered column of marble, It was largely restored by Scott There are mural paintings of the r4th and x5th centuries The chapel or chamber of the Pyx is part of the undercroft of the original dormitory, and 1s early Norman work of the Confessor’s tıme It was used as a treasury for the regalia in early times, and here were kept the standard coins of the realm used in the trial of the pyx now carried out at

the Mint The undercroft is divided into compartments by walls; above it ıs now the chapter hbrary To the south-east les the picturesque Little Cloister, with its court and fountain Near it

while a number of scholarships and exhibitions are awarded at the

older universities In the College dormitory a Latin play is annually presented, in accordance with ancient custom. The boys

have the privilege of acclaiming the sovereign at the coronation

in the Abbey There is a long standing custom of struggling for the possession of a tossed pancake on Shrove Tuesday The wm. ner of this Pancake Greaze 1s rewarded by the Dean

St. Margaret’s.—On the north side of the Abbey, close beside it is the parish church of St Margaret It was founded m or soon

after the time of the Confessor, but the present building is Per. pendicular, of greater beauty within than without. St Margaret’s

1s officially the church of the House of Commons Westminster Palace: Houses of Parliament.—A royal]palace

existed at Westminster under Canute, but the building spoken of by Fitzstephen as an “incomparable structure furmshed with a breastwork and a bastion” 1s supposed to have been founded by Edward the Confessor and enlarged by Wilham I The Hall, called Westminster Hall, was bult by Wiliam Rufus and altered by Richard II. In 1512 the palace suffered greatly from fire, and

thereafter ceased to be used as a royal residence

St Stephen's

chapel, originally built by King Stephen, was used from r 547 for the meetings of the House of Commons, which had been held previously ım the chapter house of the Abbey, the Lords used another apartment of the palace. A fire in 1834 destroyed the whole palace save the historic hall

and the present buildings were erected on the site 1840-67, The south-western Victoria Tower is 340 feet high

The Clock Tower

329 feet high contains the clock called Big Ben after Sir Benjamm Hall, First Commussioner of Works at the time when the clock

was erected Of the modern rooms, the House of Lords is an ornate chamber, 97 ft in length, that of the Commons is 70 ft. long

Westminster Hall.—The origmal Hall was finished m 1099,

during which year it 1s recorded that King William Rufus held his first court in the Hall Little remains of Rufus’s Hall beyond its walls which have been encased with modern linmgs The unsurpassed open timber roof was erected by King Richard IT in 1304, when Richard appointed John Gedeney to supervise the work of repair to the Hall, with power to engage any necessary masons, carpenters and labourers. Hugh Herland, a master carpenter in the service of the king, was appointed controller to Gedeney and it is probably to Hugh Herland that we owe the creation of the magnificent roof The span of the roof 1s 67 ft 6 in without any intermediate supports, and its construction presented a problem the solving of which had not previously been attempted. The roof was designed with an upper triangulated framed structure consisting of the main collar beam, principal rafters, and queen posts, with a crown post centrally supportmg the heavy ridge piece. This upper tnangular framed structure was supported on two cantilever structures embodying the lower principal rafter, the hammer post, the hammer beam, the wall post and the curved strut between wall post and hammer beam, the whole roof being tied together by a great curved brace or arch springing from the corbel at the foot of the wall post passing the hammer beam, the hammer post with its crown at the centre of the main collar beam Evidence is available of repairs being carried out to the structure and the roof on many occasions, but the most drastic restora-

are slight ruins of the monastic infirmary chapel of St Catherine. West of the main cloisters are the Deanery, Jerusalem chamber and College Hall, the building surrounding a small court and dating mainly from the r4th century. This was the abbot’s house Its most famous portion is the Jerusalem chamber, believed to be named from the former tapestries on its walls, representing the holy city The College Hall, adjoining it, is now the dining-hall tion work was undertaken in recent years and was not completed of Westminster School Westminster School.—St. Peter’s College, commonly called until r922 This restoration became an urgent necessity owing to the ravages of the “Death-watch beetle” (the Xestobuum TosWestminster School, is one of the ancient public schools of England. A school was maintained by the monks from very early sellatum) whose operations durmg many years had caused the roof to become entirely unsafe. Investigation undertaken by His times Henry VIII. took interest in it, but the school owes its Majesty’s Office of Works revealed an actual danger of a collapse present standing to Queen Elizabeth The school buildings he of a portion of the roof. The ends of many of the principal east of the conventual buildings, surrounding Little Dean’s Yard, which, like the cloisters, communicates with Dean’s Vard The rafters, the purlins and some of the main collar beams were found buildings are modern or largely modernized The Great Schoolroom to be hollowed out to a thin shell by the attacks of the beetle is a fine panelled hall Ashburnham House, containing one of In the restoration various expedients were tned to destroy the the school houses, the library and many class-rooms, is named beetle and its eggs, the most satisfactory result being obtained by spraying the affected timbers after they had been thoroughly from the family for whom it was built, traditionally but not cer- cleaned with a solution of ortho-para-dichlor-benzene. A system of tainly, by Inigo Jones. The finest part remaining is the grand was adopted for supporting the roof structure, staircase. There are a number of scholars, called King’s Scholars, steel reinforcement. and this was so placed as to be invisible.

WESTMINSTER—WESTMINSTER Westminster Hall was the seat of the chief law court of Eng-

land for centuries and Wallace, Richard I1, Charles I, Titus Oates, 1s thus one of the chief

BANK

LIMITED

541

bearing on the growth of the later law” The statute Quia Emptores of 1290 is sometimes called the statute of Westminster III

1t witnessed the trials of, among others, Sir Thomas More, Thomas Campion, Warren Hastmgs and Queen Caroline. It WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF. Under this heading are centres of English history included certam of the more important councils of the English Whitehall.—Northward from Parliament Square a broad, Church held within the present bounds of London. Though shghtly curving thoroughfare leads to Trafalgar Square This the precise locality is occasionally uncertain, the majority of the 1s Whitehall, which replaced the narrow King Street Here, be- mediaeval synods assembled in the chapter-house of old St. Paul’s, tween the Thames and St James’s Park, formerly stood York or the former chapel of St Catherine within the precincts of WestHouse, a residence of the archbishops of York from 1248 Wolsey minster Abbey or at Lambeth The councils were of various peautified the mansion and kept high state there, but on his fall Henry VIII acqwred and reconstructed it, employed Holbein m its decoration, and made it his princrpal residence. Imgo

Jones designed a new palace for James I, but only the banqueting hall was completed (1622), and this survived several fires, by one of which (1697) nearly the whole of the rest of the

palace was destroyed The hall, converted into a royal chapel by George I., and now housing the museum of the Royal United Service Institution, the buildings of which adjoin it, is a fine specimen

of Palladian

architecture,

and its ceiling is adorned

with allegorical paintings by Rubens The principal government offices are situated in Whitehall. On the left, followmg the northerly direction, are the Boards of Education, Trade, Local Government, etc The Home, Foreign, Co-

lomal and India Offices occupy the next block. Downing Street, separating these from the Treasury, contains the official residences of the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chancellor of

the Exchequer The Horse Guards was built in 1753 on the site of a guard-house dating from 1631 The portion of the Admiralty facing Whitehall dates from 1726 and is plain and sombre, but there are new buildings on the park side. On the nght of Whitehall, besides the banquet hall, are the War Office, and Montagu House The Cenotaph, erected m memory of those who fell in the World War, stands in Whitehall Trafalgar Square is an open space sloping sharply to the north On the south side, facmg the entry of Whitehall, is the Nelson column (1843), 145 ft in height, a copy in gramte from the

temple of Mars Ultor in Rome, crowned with a statue of Nelson Behind the terrace on the north nses the National Gallery (1838), with its splendid collection of pamtings. The National Portrait Gallery is on the north-east side of the National Gallery Westminster Cathedral.—aA short distance from Victoria St

towards its western end, stands Westminster Cathedral (Roman

Catholic) Its site is somewhat circumscribed, but it is a remarkable modern building (1896-1905) in early Christian Byzantine style with a stately domed campanile.

WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF, two English Statutes passed during the reign of Edward I Parliament having met at Westminster on April 22, 1275, passed the statute of Westminster I In the words of Stubbs (Comst Hust cap xiv.).— “This act is almost a code by itself; it contains 51 clauses, and covers the whole ground of legislation. Its language now recalls that of Canute or Alfred, now anticipates that of our own day; on the one hand common right is to be done to all, as well poor as rich, without respect of persons; on the other, elections are to be free, and no man is by force, malice or menace, to disturb them The spirit of the Great Charter is not less discermible. excessive amercements, abuses of wardship, irregular demands for feudal aids, are forbidden in the same words or by amendmg

enactments

The inquest system of Henry II., the law of wreck,

and the institution of coroners, measures of Richard and his ministers, come under review as well as the Provisions of Oxford and the Statute of Marlborough ” The second statute of Westminster was passed in the parliament of 1285. Like the first statute it is a code in itself, and contams the famous clause De donis conditionalibus (g.v), “one

of the fundamental institutes of the mediaeval land law of Eng-

land” Stubbs says of it. “The law of dower, of advowson, of appeal for felonies, is largely amended; the institution of justices of assize is remodelled, and the abuses of manorial jurisdiction

repressed; the statute De religiosis, the statutes of Merton and Gloucester, are amended

and re-enacted

Every clause has a

types, each with a constitutional history of its own.

Before the

reign of Edward I, when convocation assumed substantially its present form (see CONVOCATION), there were convened m London various diocesan, provincial, national and legatme synods, dur-

ing the past six centuries, however, the chief ecclesiastıcal assemblies held there have been convocations of the province of Canterbury. From the time of Edward VI on, many of the most vital changes im ecclesiastical discipline were adopted ın convocations at St Paul’s and in the Abbey. Brsiiocrapuy —For acts of synods prior to the Reformation see W Lynwood, Provincale (1679), and best of all Wilkins, for the canons and proceedings of convocations from 1547 to 1717 consult E, Cardwell, Synodalza (2 vols, 1842); for translations and summaries, Landon, Manual of the Councils of the Holy Cathohe Church (1893) and Hefele, Conczliengeschichte, vol iv ff , see also T Lathbury, 4 History of the Convocatzon of the Church of England (and enlarged edition, 1853); A P Stanley, Historecal Memorials of Westminster Abbey (qth revised ed, 1876), 411-413, 495-504, H. H Milman, Annals of St. Paul’s Cathedral (and ed, 1869).

WESTMINSTER BANK LIMITED. British joint stock banking company, one of the “Big Five” of British banking. The London and Westminster Bank, in which it had its beginning, was the pioneer of jomt-stock banking in London, and was founded, in the face of strenuous opposition, in 1834 Its inception was the outcome of the persistent efforts of W R Douglas and a group of friends, who, dissenting from the popularly held belief that the Bank of England had legally a complete monopoly of joint-stock banking within a radius of 65m of London, and interpreting the restriction to apply only to banks of issue, resolved to test their case, and applied to parliament for a definition of the Bank of England’s powers. The law officers of the Crown upheld the view that the bank’s charter did not prevent the formation of jomt-stock banks in the London area, provided that they did not issue notes, and the legality of such institutions was affirmed by the Bank Charter Renewal Act of 1833. On the removal of this legal obstacle, Douglas’s committee formed a bank of deposit which they termed the London and Westminster Bank. In March 1834 the bank commenced operations, with a paid-up capital of only £50,000, and with £30,000 in its tills In 1854, admission to the London Bankers’ Clearmg House was secured, and the bank became a limited liability company ın 1880. The company absorbed from time to time a number of private and joint-stock banks In 1909 amalgamation was effected with the London and County Banking Company, which had an important business un London and the home counties. The London County and Westminster Bank (Paris), of which the entire capital was held by the parent bank, was established in 1913, and opened branches in France and Belgium. The affiliation of the Ulster Bank, Ltd., took place in 1917, and other amalgamations followed

with Parr’s Bank, Ltd. (1918), with the Nottmgham and Notts Banking Company (1919); the Yorkshire bankmg-houses of Beckett and Company (1919), etc. The bank has built up a strong position as an issuing house, especially in relation to the stocks of British Dominions and Corporations. The title of the institution was shortened in 1923 to Westminster Bank, Lid, and at the same time the foreign auxiliary became Westminster Foreign Bank, Ltd. At the beginning of 1928, the bank had 970 offices, of which 189 were in the metropolitan area Its authorized capital was £33,000,000, of which £30,533,127 had been subscribed, and £9,320,157 pad up. The reserve equalled the paid-up capital Current, deposit and other accounts totalled £280,612,019 The head office of the bank is in Lothbury, London (L C. M)

542

WESTMORLAND

WESTMORLAND, EARLS OF. Ralph Neville, 4th Baron Neville of Raby, and 1st earl of Westmorland (1364-1425), eldest son of John, 3rd Baron Neville, and his wife Maud Percy (see Nevite: Family), was knighted by Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of Gloucester, during the French expedition of 1380, and succeeded to his father’s barony in 1388. He was repeatedly engaged in negotiations with the Scots, and his assistance to the court party against the lords appellant was

rewarded ın 1397 by the earldom of Westmorland He married as his second wife Joan Beaufort, half-sister of Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry ITV, whom he joined on his landing in Yorkshire in 1399. He already held the castles of Brancepeth, Raby, Middleham and Sheriff Hutton when he received from Henry IV

the honour and lordship of Richmond for hfe The only rivals of the Nevilles in the north were the Percies, whose power was broken at Shrewsbury in 1403; and the wardenship of the west marches was now assigned to Westmorland, whose influence was also paramount in the east, which was under the nominal wardenship of the young Prince John, afterwards duke of Bedford. In May the Percies were in revolt, with Thomas

Mowbray,

earl

marshal, and Archbishop Scrope Westmorland met them on Shipton Moor, near York, on May 29, 1405, and suggested a parley between the leaders. By pretending accord with the archbishop, the earl induced him to allow his followers to disperse Scrope and Mowbray were then seized and handed over to Henry at

Pontefract on Jan 3. The improbabilities of this narrative have led some writers to think, in face of contemporary authorities, that

Scrope and Mowbray must have surrendered voluntarily If Westmorland betrayed them he at Jeast had no share in their execution Thenceforward he was busily engaged in negotiating with the Scots and keeping the peace on the borders. He did not play

the part assigned to him by Shakespeare in Henry V , for during Henry’s absence he remained ın charge of the north, and was a member of Bedford’s council, Of his daughters, Catherine married in 1412 John Mowbray, second duke of Norfolk, brother and heir of the earl marshal, who had been executed after Ship-

earldom in 1841

He entered the army in 1803, and in 1805 took

part ın the Hanoverian campaign as aide-de-camp to General Sir George Don

He was assistant adjutant-general in Sicily and

Egypt (1806-07), served in the Pemmnsular War (1808-1 3), was British military commissıoner to the alied armies under Schwarzenberg, and marched with the allies to Paris in 1814. He was subsequently promoted major-general (1825), heutenant-general

(2838) and general (1854), although the latter half of his hfe

was given to the diplomatic service

He was British resident at

Florence (1814-30), and ambassador at Berlin from 1841 to Bsr when he was transferred to Vienna He retired in 1855, and died at Apthorpe House, Northamptonshire, on Oct. 16, 1859, He composed several operas, took a keen interest in the cause of music in England, and in 1822 made proposals which led to the foundation in 1823 of the Royal Academy of Music His wife Priscilla Anne (1793~1879), daughter of William Wellesley-Pole, 3rd eax] of Mornington, was a distinguished artist, His pubhshed works mclude Memows of the Early Campaigns of the Duke of Wellington in Portugal and Spam (1820), and Memoir of

the Operations of the Aled Armies under Prince Schwarzenberg and Marshal Blucher (1822) See also Correspondence of Priscilla, Countess of Westmorland, 1812-1870 (1909).

Francis Warm

Henry, reth or 18th earl (1825-1891),

fourth son of the preceding, served through the Punjab campaign of 1846, and at Gujrat on Feb. 21, 1849 as aide-de-camp to Lord Raglan

WESTMORLAND,

He went to the Crimea

a north-western county of England It

reaches the sea in the Kent estuary in Morecambe Bay. Area (exclusive of water)

7757

sqm

Prof

major and three mmor physical divisions

Marr recognizes three

The largest, the slate

tract, is west of a line from the foot of Ullswater to Ravenstonedale In this we find Ordovician (Borrowdale volcanic series) and Silurian rocks (see Laxe District) which form a region of moun-

tains and fells with deep-cut valleys The chief peaks are Helvellyn (3,118 ft), Bow Fell (2,960), Fairfield (2,863), Cringle Crags (2,816), Red Screes (2,541), High Street (2,663), High Raise (2,634) and Langdale Pikes (2,401) with the lakes of ton Moor; Anne married Humphrey, first duke of Buckingham, Ullswater, Haweswater, Grasmere, Rydalwater, Elterwater and Eleanor married, after the death of her first husband, Richard le Despenser, Henry Percy, 2nd earl of Northumberland, Cicely Windermere (in part in the county) The second division embraces the New Red Sandstone tract of the upper Eden valley with its base married Richard, duke of York, and was the mother of Edward through Penrith reaching to near Kirkby Stephen. Most of the IV. and Richard IIT. The earl died on Oct, 21, 1425, and a fine area hes between the 500 and 1,000 ft contour. To the east 1s

alabaster tomb was erected to his memory in Stamdrop church

close by Raby castle, See J, H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV. (4 vols,

1884-98).

CHARLES, 6th earl (1543-1691), eldest son of Henry, sth

earl, by bis first wife Jane, daughter of Thomas Manners, rst eatl of Rutland, was brought up a Roman Catholic, and was

further attached to the Catholic party by his marriage with Jane, daughter of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey. He was a member

of the council of the north in 1569, when he joined Thomas Percy, 7th earl of Northumberland, and his uncle Christopher Neville, in the Catholic rising of the north, which aimed at the liberation

the third major division, that part of the Pennine hills within the county boundary It is a moorland tract with Milburn Forest (2,780 ft.), Duften Fell (2,403), Hilton Fell (2,446) and other heights, The high ground (average 1,000 ft) in the triangle between Kendal and the southern boundary of the county includes

Kendal Fell, Farleton Knott and Whitbarrow.

The chief rivers

are the upper waters of the Eden (with the Lowther and the

Eamont), the Tees, the Lune and the Kent.

History and Early Settlement.—Implements of ground or

polished stone have been found in Westmorland, some of rather special types such as certain supposed “sinkers,” objects shaped like two acorns base to base with a transverse groove between

of Mary, queen of Scots, On the collapse of the ill-organized in- them; they seem not to have been hammers. A group of monu-

surrection Westmorland fled with lus brother earl over borders, and eventually to the Spanish Netherlands, where the he died on Nov 16, 1601. He left no sons, and his honours were forfeited by

ments extends from Little Salkeld near Penrith in Cumberland

of the Crown until 1645.

extra, standing apart, another called Mayborough, another (an earthwork) called King Arthur’s Round Table, all in Cumberland At Gunnerheld (near Shap) is a double circle A barrow at Crosby Garrett is of special importance Canon Grenwell considered that the Romans probably found a considerable indigenous population, necessitating defence on their part, and their roads and camps are

his formal attainder in 1571. Raby castle remained in the hands

The title was revived in 1624 in favour of Sir Francis Fane

(c. 1574-1629), whose mother, Mary Neville, was a descendant He was created baron of Burghersh and earl of Westmorland in 1624, and became Lord le Despenser pn his mother’s of a younger son of the first earl

to near Shap in Westmorland; ıt includes a circle, near Penrith,

called Long Meg and her daughters, 68 stones with “Long Meg”

death in 1626. His son Mildmay especially east of the Eden. Fane, and or 8th ear] of Westmorland (c, 1602-1666), at first a feature The earliest English settlements were by Anglian tribes, in the 6th century in the neighbourhood of Kendal. The northern disthe parliament, John Fane, 7th or rath earl of Westmorland trict remained unconquered, until the close of the yth century (x682?—176

sided with the king’s party, but was afterwards reconciled with

2), served with distinction in various under Marlborough, and was made in 1939 Heutenant-campaigns general of the

ioe armies,

OHN Fang, 11th or zyth ear] (1784-1859), only

Ioth earl, was known as Lord Burghersh ae

son of Jo ae z m

when Ecgfrith drove out the Britons and established the Northumbrian supremacy over the district. The Danes arrived in the

oth century and the Norsemen in the roth. Westmorland is men-

tioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 966. At the time of the Domes-

day Survey the barony of Kendal belonged to the crown

The

WEST

NEW

YORK— WESTPHALIA

annexation of the northern portion of Westmorland to the crown

543

morland 1s in the diocese of Carlisle.

The county returns one

was accomplished by William Rufus, in tog2 Westmorland was member to parlament BrariocrarpHy —J. C Cox, Cumberland and Westmorland, County estabushed as an admmistrative county by Henry I in 1131, by Churches (19173), J. E Marr, Westmorland (1909), Geology of the the separation of the northern part from the land of Carlisle Lake District (1916), W J Sedgefield, The Place-names of CumThe division of Westmorland mto wards origmated with the

system of defence against the Scots, each barony being divided

berland and Westmorland morland (1920)

(1915), D

Scott, Cumberland and West-

nto two wards, and each ward placed under a high constable. Loner NEW YORK, a town of New Jersey, USA, on the ‘ 2 From early times the4 political history of Westmorland is a ee ee) SORELLE as oe 29,926(30% record of continuous inroads and devastations from the Scots Appleby was frequently raided and in 1388 it was sacked and al-| producing goods valued at $16,098,602. It was mcorporated in most completely ruined In the Wars of the Roses, Westmorland | 13898 WESTON, a city of West Virginia, USA, the county seat of favoured the Lancastrians and in the Civil War of the r7th cen-| white); 8,646 m tury the chief families were Royalists. Appleby Castle surren- | Lewis county Pop 5,701 m 1920 (92% native

deredm 1648, but the Royalist feelmg was shown mm the joy which | 1930 by the Federal census

The city hes 1,025 ft above sea-

1745 | jevel, in a rich blue-grass region, containing immense coal deIt

The Jacobite rismg of and great stands of poplar and oak found many adherents in Westmorland, and a skirmish took place | posits, oi! and gas wells greeted the news of the Restoration

various is the headquarters of nine lumber companies, and inhas1818, and The town was incorporated

ae

on Clifton Moor.

There are very few notable ecclesiastical buildings, though the | manufacturing plants

ruins of Shap Abbey, near

the market

town

of that name

should

was

chartered

as a city in

1847

WESTON-SUPER-MARE, a seaside resort of Somersetbe remarked ‘The Perpendicular western tower and other fragm W. by S ,of Lonments remain. Late Norman work is preserved ın some of the | shire, England, on the Bristol channel, 1374

churches, as at Kirkby Lonsdale, and in a few castles castles are Appleby, Brough, Brougham and Kendal

Among the | don by the GW.R

In the Ken- | Portishead Railway

It ıs served also by the Weston, Clevedon &

Tt is

Pop of urban district (1931) 28,555

by Worlebury hill. Intermuttent dal district are the houses, Levens Hall dating from the 16th cen- | sheltered from the north and east by the ebb and flow of the tide. tury, and Sizergh Hall embodying part of an ancient castle. The | springs exist, which are affected 4 town of Essex county, New Jersey

WEST ORANGE, formal gardens at Levens Hall are remarkable. Lowther Castle, In Llewellyn Pop (t920) 15,573; im 1930 it was 24,327. near Penrith, is a fine modern mansion. had his laboraThe economic development of Westmorland has been slow and | Park is the home of Thomas A Edison, who has 1887 since Orange West in tones | unfavourable being ground the of unmportant, the rugged nature WESTPHALIA (Ger Westfalen), a province of Prussia to agricultural prosperity, while the lack of fuel hindered the}

was carried on in the | The area of the province is 7,806 sqm, its length both from north

growth of manufactures Sheep-farming ig about 130 miles moorland districts, however, and the Premonstratensian house at| to south and from east to west an extension of the great NorthShap exported wool to Florentine and Flemish markets in the | Nearly half of Westphaha is

by outcrops of the underlying rath and x4th centuries Kendal was a centre of the clothing |German plain, which is broken is not very fertile, except in the Hellweg, a industry in the 14th century. In 1589 the county suffered severely | Cretaceous beds, and the Lippe There are extensive and Haarstrang the between zone from the plague of Paderborn 1s a sandy Climate and Agriculture.—The county may be considered | fens in the north and west, and north is drained in the north by the plain The Senne the called waste | to lie within an area having 4o to 60 in, mean annual fall The summer temperature is mild

which tise close together in The helm-wind (gv) is char- | Ems and in the south by the Lippe, their basins arë the Vechte and

acteristic of this district. Less than one-half of the total area is | the Teutoburger Wald

Between

rivers flowing into the Zuyder Zee The triangular under cultivation, and of this 61% is in permanent pasture, both | other smallportion of Westphalia, most of which is included in cattle and sheep being largely kept ‘The fell land furnishes | southern and slate lulls nourishment for the hardier breeds of sheep ‘The sale of these, | Sauerland (“south land”), is a rugged region of affluents the stock cattle, horses and pigs, and dairy produce is the staple of | wooded valleys drained chiefly by the Ruhr with its Eder ‘The and Sieg the by south the in and , etc Méhne, Lenne, | in formerly was Westmorland of part large A the farmers’ income Rothaargebirge, or Rotlager the to the hands of “statesmen” (see CUMBERLAND) whose holdings | hills rise in the south-east

in the Winterberg plateau with the Kahler Asten were usually small. The proportion of landowners of this class | culminating (2,713 ft), the highest summit in the province. The Rotlagerhas greatly decreased. the watershed

Manufactures and Communications—Woollen

ture, chiefly confined to Kendal, is the chief mdustry.

manufac- | gebirge, Eggegebirge and Teutoburger Wald form Bobbin | between the Weser and the Rhine and Ems

The Weser divides

several | the Wiehengebirge from the Wesergebirge by the natrow pass making, paper making, the manufacture of explosives and and hydro- | called Porta Westfahca small industries are carried on, and use the water-power

in the south, which is cold in electric power available at points. Granite, roofing slate, marble, | The chmate is temperate except winter and has a heavy rainfall. The crops include grain of all graphite and a little coal, iron, lead and barytes are obtained fruit and hemp. The potatoes, buckwheat, beans, The main lines of the L M.S.R. traverse the county, ascending | kinds, peas and extensivé, especially in the north-east heavy gradients, of which the most severe crosses Shap Fells. | cultivation of flax is veryin great numbers in the plains, yield the Swine, which are reared The railways connect, east and west, by means of branches.

and the rearing of Population and Administration.—The population in 190r | famous Westphalian hams; horse-breeding was 64,303; in 1931, 63,398. It is the only county in England | cattle and goats are also important in coal and iron

The mineral wealth is very great, especially which has a density of population of less than 100 per sqm. The} of any other province general character of the dialects of Westmorland 1s that of a basis | The production of coal is greater than that Prussia The great Ruhr coal-field extends from the Rhineof | speech the of Anglian speech, mfluenced to a certain extent by the centre being Dortcurrent amongst the pre-Anglian peoples of Strathclyde. The | land into the province as far as Unva,

in the north at Ibbenbüren. people show a well-marked Scandinavian influence, Three distinct | mund, and there is a smaller coal-field The production of iron oré, chiefly south of the Ruhr, is exceeded can be made out.

dialects Rhine province. After coal and The municipal boroughs are Appleby, whuch is also the county | in Prussia only by that of the minerals are zinc, lead, pyrites and copper. town (pop 1,618) and Kendal (15,575). The urban districts ate | iron the most valuable stone, marble, slate and potter’s clay are Ambleside (2,343), Grasmere (988), Kirkby Lonsdale (1,370), | Antimony, quicksilver, in the Hellweg and Shap (1,227) and Windermere (5,701). The county is in the | also worked, and there are brine springs

northern circuit, and the assizes are held at Appleby. It has one | mineral springs at Lippspringe, Öynhausen, etc

d

which chiefly dècourt of quarter sessions and is divided ito six petty sessional | ‘The manufacturing industry of the province, very extensive Iron and steel divisions Kendal has a separate commission of the peace. West» |pends upon its mineral wealth, 1s

544

WESTPHALIA

goods are produced in the so-called “Enneper Strasse,” the valley of the Ennepe, a small tributary of the Ruhr with the town of

Hagen, and in the neighbourmg towns of Bochum, Dortmund, Iserlohn and Altena, and also in the Siegen district The brass and bronze industries are carried on at Iserlohn and Altena, those of tin and Britannia metal at Liidenscheid, needles are made at Iserlohn and wire at Altena The very important linen industry of Bielefeld, Herford, Minden and Warendorf has flourished in this region since the 14th century. Jute is manufactured at Bielefeld and cotton goods in the west Paper is extensively made on the lower Lenne, and leather around Siegen. Other manufactures are glass, chemicals, sugar, sausages and cigars An active trade is promoted by several trunk lines of railway which cross the province and by the navigation of the Weser (on which Minden has a port), Ems, Ruhr and Lippe Beverungen is the chief market for corn and Paderborn for wool. The population in 1925 was 4,806,713, or about 616 per sqm It is very unevenly distributed, and in the industrial districts has been increasing very rapidly; it includes a considerable element of Polish workpeople As at the peace of Westphalia, the bishoprics of Munster and Paderborn and the former duchy of Westphalia are Roman Cathohc, while the secularized bishopric of Minden and the former counties of Ravensberg and Mark (former possessions of Brandenburg) and Siegen (Nassau) are predominantly Protestant. The province ıs divided into the three governmental departments (Regierungsbezirke) of Minden, Mimster and Arnsberg Munster is the seat of government and of the provincial university The inhabitants are mainly of the Saxon stock and speak Low German dialects, except in the Upper Frankish district around Siegen, where the Hessian dialect 1s spoken

History.—Westphalia, “the western plam” (in early records

Westfalani), was originally the name of the western province of the early duchy of Saxony, including the western portion of the modern province and extending north to the borders of Friesland. When Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony fell under the ban of the empire in 1180, and his duchy was divided, the archbishop of Cologne, Philip of Heinsberg, recerved from the emperor Frederick I. the Sauerland and some other districts which became the duchy of Westphalia. The duchy received a constitution of its own, and was governed for the archbishop, afterwards elector, by a marshal (Landmarschall, after 1480 Landdrost), who was also stadtholder, and presided over the Westphahan chancellery. This system lasted till 1803 By the settlement of 1803 the Church lands were secularized, and Prussia received the bishopric of Paderborn and the eastern part of Munster, while the electoral duchy of Westphalia was given to Hesse-Darmstadt After the peace of Tilsit, the kingdom of Westphalia was created by Napoleon I. on Aug 18, 1807, and given to his brother Jerome (see Bonaparte). It included the present governmental department of Minden, but by far the larger part of the kingdom lay outside and chiefly to the east of the modern province, and

comprised the Hanoverian department of Hildesheim and in part that of Arensberg, Brunswick, the northern part of the province of Saxony as far as the Elbe, Halle, and most of Hesse-Cassel. The area was 14,627sq m , and the population nearly two millions Cassel was the capital A constitution on the French imperial pattern granted by the king remained practically inoperative, an arbitrary bureaucratic régime was imstituted, the finances were

from the beginning in a hopeless condition, and the country was drained of men and money for Napoleon’s wars In Jan 1810 most of Hanover was added, but at the end of the same year half the latter, together with the city of Minden, was annexed to the French empire At the congress of Vienna (1815) HesseDarmstadt surrendered her share of Westphaha to Prussia, and the present province was constituted Brsriocrarnpy—J S Seibertz, Landes- und Rechtsgeschichte des Hersogtums Westfalen, 4 vols (Arnsberg, 1839-75) ;_R. Walmans, Die Kaiserurkunden der Proving Westfalen, 2 vols. (Minster. 1867~ 81); M Janson, Die Herzogsgewalt der Ersbischofe von Koln in Westfalen (Munich, 1893) , O Weddigen, Westfalen, Land und Leute (Paderborn, 1896), G. Schulze, Heimatskunde der Proving Westfalen

der Proving Westfalen in 19ten Jahrhundert (Munster, Ig00), G Serviéres, L’Allemagne frangazse sous Napoleon Ier (1904), H Tem.

berg, Die Hutien- und Metalindustrie Rheinlands und Westfalens 4th ed (Dortmund, 1905), J A. R Marriott and C G. Robertson, The Evolution of Prussia (1915).

WESTPHALIA,

TREATY

OF, the name given to two

treaties concluded on Oct 24, 1648, by the Holy Roman Empire with France at Munster and with Sweden and the Protestant estates of the Empire at Osnabruck, by which the Thirty Years’ War (qv ) was brought to an end As early as 1636 negotiations had been opened at Cologne at the instance of Pope Urban VIII, supported by the seigniory of Venice, but failed owing to the dismmclination of Richelieu io stop the progress of the French arms, and to the refusal of Sweden to treat with the papal legate In 1637 the agents of the emperor began to negotiate at Hamburg with Sweden, though the mediation of Christian IV, king of Denmark, was rejected by Sweden, and the discussions dragged on for years without result. In the meantime the new emperor Ferdinand III proposed at the diet of Regensburg in 1640 to extend the peace of Prague to the whole empire, on the basis of an amnesty, from which, however, those Protestant estates! who were still leagued with foreign

powers were to be excluded

His aim was by settling the internal

affars of the empire to exclude the German princes from particapation in negotiations with foreign powers; these efforts failed

The Comte d’Avaux, French envoy at Hamburg, proposed in 1641 that negotiations should be transferred to Munster and Osnabruck A preliminary treaty embodying this proposal was concluded between the representatives of the emperor, France, and Sweden at Hamburg on Dec 25, 1641. The two assemblies were to be regarded as a single congress, and neither should conclude

peace without the other The date fixed for the meeting was July I1, 1643, but many months elapsed before all the representatives arrived, and the settlement of many questions of precedence and etiquette caused further delays England, Poland, Muscovy, and Turkey were the only European powers unrepresented The war continued during the deliberations The chief representative of the emperor was Count Maximilian von Trautmansdorff, to whose sagacity the conclusion of peace was largely due The French envoys were nominally under Henry of Orleans, duke of Longueville, but the marquis de Sablé and the comte d’Avaux were the real agents of France. Sweden was represented by John Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor, and by John Adler Salvius, who had previously acted for Sweden at Hamburg The papal nuncio was Fabio Chigi, afterwards Pope Alexander VII Brandenburg, represented by Count Johann von Sayn-Wittgenstein, played the foremost part among the Protestant states of the empire. Of June 1, 1645, France and Sweden brought forward propositions of peace, which were discussed by the estates of the empire from Oct. 1645 to April 1646. The settlement of religious matters was effected between Feb 1646 and March 1648. The treaty was signed at Munster by the members of both conventions on Oct 24, 1648, and ratifications were exchanged on Feb. 8, 1649 ‘The papal protest of Jan. 3, 1651, was disregarded Sweden received western Pomerania with Rugen and the mouths of the Oder, Wismar and Poel in Mecklenburg, and the lands of the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden, together with an indemnity of 5,000,000 thalers. The privileges of the Free Towns were preserved Sweden thus obtamed control of the Baltic and a footing on the North Sea, and became an

estate of the empire with three deliberative voices in the diet The elector of Brandenburg received the greater part of eastern Pomerania, and, as he had a claim on the whole duchy since the death of the last duke in 1635, he was indemnified by the bishoptics of Halberstadt, Mmden, and Kammin, and the reversion of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which came to him on the death of the administrator, Prince Augustus of Saxony, in 1680 The elector of Saxony was allowed to retain Lusatia. As compensation for Wismar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin obtained the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg and some lands of the Knights of St

42¢ Reschsstande, princes, nobles, and cities holding immedhately of (Minden, 1900) ; È. Haselhoff, Die Entwickelung der Landskultur im t | the emperor. i

WEST Jobn. Brunswick-Luneburg restored Hildesheim to the elector of

Cologne, and gave Minden to Brandenburg, but obtained the alternate succession to the bishopric of Osnabruck and the church lands of Walkenried and Gromngen Hesse-Cassel received the prince-abbacy of Hersfeld, the county of Schaumburg, etc The elector of Bavaria was confirmed in his possession of the Upper Palatmate, and in his position as an elector which he had obtained m 1623 Charles Louis, the son and heir of Frederick V, the count palatme of the Rhine, who had been placed under the ban of the Empire, received back the Lower Palatinate, and a new electorate, the eighth, was created for him. France obtained the recognition of the sovereignty (which she had enjoyed de facto since 1552) over the bishoprics and cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, Pinerolo in Piedmont, the town of Breisach, the landgraviate of Upper and Lower Alsace, the Sund-

gau, the advocacy (Landvogter) of the ten imperial cities in Alsace, and the nght to garrison Phihppsburg Dummg the Thirty Years’ War France had professed to be fighting against the house of Austria, and not agaist the empire. It was stipulated that the ummediate fiefs of the Empire in Alsace should remain in

enjoyment of their liberties, but it was added as a condition that the sovereignty of France in the territories ceded to her should not be impaired The mtention of France was to acquire the full

rights of Austria in Alsace, but as Austra had never owned the

landgravıate of Lower Alsace, and the Landvogtei of the ten. free

POINT

545

Not only was the central authority replaced almost entirely by the sovereignty of about 300 princes, but the power of the empire was materially weakened in other ways It lost about 40,o00sq m of territory, and obtained a frontier against France which was incapable of defence Sweden and France as guarantors of the peace acquired the right of interference ın the affairs of the empire, and the former gained a voice in its councils For many years Germany thus became the principal theatre of European diplomacy and war

But if the treaty of Westphalia pronounced

the dissolution of the old order in the empire, it facilitated the growth of new powers in its component parts, especially Austria, Bavaria, and Brandenburg The treaty was recognized as a fundamental law of the German constitution, and formed the basis of all subsequent treaties until the dissolution of the Empire. See the text m Dumont, Corps unzversel diplomatique, vi 429 ff (The Hague, 1726-31); J. G von Meern, Acta pacis Westphalicae publica (Hanover and Gottmgen, 1734-36), Instrumenta pacis CaeSareo-Suecicae et Caesareo-Gallzcae (Gottingen, 1738) , “A.A.” (Bishop Adam Adami), Arcana pacis Westphalzcae (Frankfort, 1698), ed J G von Meiern (Leipzig, 1737) , K. T. Heigel, “Das Westfahsche Fnedenswerk von 1643-48” m the Zezischrift fur Geschichte und Polatzk (1888) ; F. Philippi and others, Der Westfalsche Frieden, en Gedenkbuch (Munster, 1808); Journal du Congrès de Munster par F Ogier, auménier du comte d’Avaux, ed. A Boppe (1893) ; Cambridge Modern History, iv. p 39s ff and bibhography, p. 866 ff., J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, ch. xx. (A.B.G)

cities did not in itself ımply possession, the door was left open WEST POINT, a national military post on a 3,500 ac. reservafor disputes Louis XIV. afterwards availed himself of this ambig- tion on the west bank of the Hudson river in Orange county, NY, uous clause in support of his aggressive policy on the Rhine The USA., 50 m. N. of New York city. The West Shore railway, the mdependence of Switzerland was at last formally recognized, as Hudson River Day Line and the Storm King highway all serve was that of the United Netherlands in a separate treaty. West Point. Apart from these territorial changes, a universal and uncondiThe United States Military Academy, located at West tional amnesty to all those who had been deprived of their posses- Point, trains young men for commissions in the military service. sions was declared, and it was decreed that all secular lands should By law, the supervision of the Military academy is vested in the be restored to those who had held them in 1618. Some exceptions War Department. Candidates for admission must be unmarried were made in the case of the hereditary dominions of the emperor. and between 17 and 22. The course is four years. The academic Even more umportant than the territorial redistribution was year extends from Sept. r to June 4, the remainder of the year the ecclesiastical settlement. By the confirmation of the treaty is devoted to military training in summer camp at West Point. of Passau of x552 and the religious peace of Augsburg of 1555, The annual pay of a cadet is $1,072, which is sufficient to meet his and the extension of their provisions to the Reformed (Calvinist) actual needs. Upon graduation a cadet may be commissioned a Church, toleration was secured for the three great religious com- second heutenant in the regular army. The authorized strength (1928) of the corps of cadets is 1,374 munities of the empire Within these limits the governments were bound to allow at least private worship, liberty of conscience, and By the acts of Congress approved on May 4, 1916 and June 8, the nght of emigration, but these measures of toleration were 1926, cadets may be appointed from the following sources: four not extended to the hereditary lands of the house of Habsburg. from each State at large, two from each congressional district, two The Protestant minority in the imperial diet was not to be coerced from each Territory, four from the District of Columbia, two by the majority, but religious questions were to be decided by natives of Porto Rico, 122 from the United States at large and amicable agreement. Protestant administrators of church lands 180 from among the enlisted men of the regular army and obtained seats in the diet. Religious parity was established in the National Guard. Four Filipinos are also authorized, but they may imperial chamber (Reichskammergericht), and in the imperial be commissioned only in the Philippine scouts. There are two methods of meeting the educational requirements deputations and commissions The difficult question of the ownership of spiritual lands was for admission to the Military academy: By passing an entrance decided by a compromise. The edict of restitution of 1629 was exammation or by submitting a satisfactory educational certificate annulled By the important provision that a prince should from an institution accredited by the Miltary academy Physforfeit his lands if he changed his religion an obstacle was placed ically, the candidate must be at least 5 ft 4 in. tall, of sound body m the way of a further spread of the Reformation. The declara- and free from any disorder of an infectious or immoral character, tion that all protests or vetoes by whomsoever pronounced should Upon admission each cadet takes an oath of allegiance to his be null and void dealt a blow at the intervention of the Roman country and agrees to serve in the U.S. army for eight years unless sooner released by proper authority. curia in German affairs. The basis of military training at West Point is discipline. Cadets The constitutional changes made by the treaty had far-reaching are taught absolute and unquestioned obedience, The training is effects. The territorial sovereignty of the states of the empire was recognized They were empowered to contract treaties with progressive, from the simplest duties of the soldier to the command of small combat units under simulated war conditions. Eleone another and with foreign powers, provided that the emperor and the empire suffered no prejudice. By this and other changes mentary traimng in all branches of the service is given to all men, the princes of the empire became absolute sovereigns in their own but no arm of the service is emphasized. The mulitary training dominions. The emperor and the diet were left with a mere aims to develop leadership With the exception of drills after shadow of their former power. The emperor could not pronounce classes in autumn and spring months, and the study of minor the ban of the empire without the consent of the diet The diet, tactics during the school year, no other military work is given durin which the 61 imperial cities gained the right of voting on all ing the academic year. The summer is devoted entirely to military imperial business, and thus were put on an equahty with the training; then the first, or senior class, goes to Ft. Monroe, Va., princes, retained its legislative and fiscal powers in name, but where it fires fixed and mobile long-range guns Nearby, at Ft. practically lost them by the requirement of tmanimity among the Eustis, these cadets fire light artillery and at Langley field they study aeronautics and actually pilot planes. three colleges.

546

WEST

VIRGINIA

The West Point system of training aims to balance the development of body, mind and character Athletic teams represent the academy in competition with other colleges in football, basketball, baseball, track, lacrosse, cross-country running, hockey, tennis, golf, swimming, boxing, wrestling, fencing, rifle and pistol shooting, soccer and polo. Eighty per cent of the upper classmen are members of some corps team. All cadets take the same technical course, which is rigorously

thorough rather than extremely difficult

Mathematics is stressed

more than any other subject. The other subjects covered are Englsh, French, surveying, tactics, drawmg, history, chemistry, natural and experimental philosophy, Spamsh, engmeering, ordnance and gunnery, economics, government, hygiene, military art and military law With the majestic Hudson on one side and graceful mountaim ranges in the background, the site of the Military academy 1s one of the most beautiful spots to be found anywhere The Gothic

buildings of native grey stone seem to be a part of their natural surroundings The riding hall ıs one of the largest m the world. The hbrary, built in 1841, contamned 120,000 vols in 1928 and many rare manuscripts, maps and trophies. Here are some original paintings by Stuart and Sully and sketches by Whistler Here also are memorials to former cadets, James McNeill Whistler and Edgar Allan Poe. Cullum Memorial hall, completed in 1899, resembles the second Erechtheum which stood on the Acropolis (400 B.c)} The new Cadet chapel, completed ın roro, is the most beautiful building at West Point. Around the 60 ac plain are the following monuments: “Dade and his Command,” erected in honour of Maj F L Dade, who with rro of his men was ambushed and lulled by the Seminole Indians of Florida m 1835, the French monument which was presented to the corps of cadets by the students of the L’Ecole Polytechnique of France in 1917; a gramite statue to Col Sylvanus Thayer, the “Father of the Academy,” and its supermtendent from 1817 to 1835, a brohze statue of Maj Gen. John Sedgwick, who was killed in action at Spottsylvania in 1864, Battle monument, erected to the memory of the 2,230 Regular Army officers who fell, during the Cıvıl, War, ın defence of the Union, the eques-

recommended the establishment of a military school at West Point. In his annual message to Congress in 1793, and in his last message ın 1796 he again strongly presented his plea for, “A Multary Academy where a regular course of instruction is given ”

At last, March 16, 1802, Congress passed a bill providing for the estabhshment of a military academy and located it at West Pomt. The academy, with ten cadets, was first opened on July 4, 1802,

By the act of Congress of April 29, 1812, the academy was reor. ganized with 250 cadets. In 1817 the academy was organized along

its present lines

Since the establishment of the academy 16,391

cadets have been admitted and 8,486 graduated

(1928)

BIBLIOGRAPHY —E, C Boynton, History of West Poi (1863) , H C Dane, The West Pont Centennial (1878), J. P. Farley, West Point in the Early Sixties (1902), E S Holden, The Centennial of the

United States Military Academy (t904); M Schaff, The Shirit of Old West Point (1907) , R. C. Richardson, West Point, An Intimate Picture of the National Mihtary Academy

(1917) , the Annual Reports of the

superintendents, The West Powt Gude Book.

(B F F)

WEST VIRGINIA, a State in the Appalachian Mountain region of the eastern United States, lying between lat. 37° 10’ and 40° 40’ N, and long 77° 40’ and 82° 40° W_ The boundanes give the State an oval shape except for two extensions, the one to the north between Ohio and Pennsylvania, and the other to the east between Maryland and Virginia, which are usually called

“panhandles” and give the State its nickname, “the Panhandle

State” The area 1s 24,170 sq.m., of which 148 sqm 1s water, Physical Features.—The State 1s divided mto two distinct

physiographic areas (1) the Allegheny plateau on the west, comprising perhaps two-thirds of the area of the State, and forming a part of the great Appalachian plateau province which extends

from New York to Alabama; and (2) the Newer Appalachian or Great valley region on the east, beng a part of the large province

of the same name which extends from Canada to Central Alabama, The Allegheny plateau consists of nearly horizontal beds of hmestone, sandstone and shales, including important seams of coal; inclines slightly toward the north-west, and is intricately dissected by streams mto a maze of narrow canyons and steep-sided hills Along the Ohio river, these hills rise to an elevation of 800 to 1,000 ft. above sea-level, while toward the south-east the elevation intrian statue of Gen Washington, with his arm extended blessing creases until 3,500 and 4,000 ft are reached along the south-east the institution for which he was one of the first to see the need, margin of the plateau, which 1s known as the Allegheny Front and Kosciuszko’s monument, érected by the corps of cadets in 1828 The entire plateau area is dramed by the Ohio river and its tribuin honour of this Polish patriot. taries, Starting at the north the first of these tributaries 1s the In the hills behind the academy are seven old redoubts and Monongahela, which crosses into Pennsylvania before it joins the connecting trails, built during the Revolutionary War, Forts Put- Ohio, Its headwater valleys 1n the north-central part of the State nam, Clinton and Constitution were also built during this war, are among the most beautiful and fertile in West Virginia. A sysTrophy Pomt is rich in trophies of all American wars. In the tem of dams renders the Monongahela navigable as high as FairWest Point cemetery lie the remains of graduates and fellow mont Farther south, entering the Ohio river at Parkersburg, 1s officers of all wars, from the Revolution to the World War. the Little Kanawha river which drains seven or eight central Historical Sketch—The land now occupied by the reservation north-western counties About 40o m below, at Point Pleasant, the originally belonged to the British Crown. In 1723 and later in Great Kanawha river, the principal tributary in West Virgima, 1747; tracts wete granted to settlers by royal letters-patent, The enters the Ohio. This river drains over one-third of the State and first settlement at West Point probably dates from 1723. Con- its headwaters reach far back into the long mountam valleys On stitution island (280 ac) was the gift (1908) of Mrs Russell its banks the capital of the State, Charleston, is situated, and along Sage and Miss Anna B Warner., its mam valley and branch valleys several of the principal railAt the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, both the colonists way lmes are built. The river itself is navigable as far as Montand the British realized the importance of gaining possession of the gomery, about 30m above Charleston, and 1g used regularly by Hudson River valley, and West Point became the strategic centre. barge lines. In the south-west the Gayandotte, Twelve Pole, Big In July 1779, Gen Washington established his headquarters at Sandy and Tug rivers complete the plateau dramage system All West Point m the Moore House, which stood in what is now known of West Virginia enjoys complete dramage; and not a square mile as Washington valley. His headquarters remamed thére until of marsh land is to be found November. In 1780 Ma) Gen. Benedict Arnold, who had assumed In the Newer Appalachian region, the same beds which lie horicommand

of West Point and the surrounding dependencies, committed treason in attempting to turn West Pomt over to the

zontal m the plateau provinces were long ago thrown into folds British The plot was discoveted, but Arnold fled to the British, and subsequently planed off by erosion, leaving alternate belts of As early as May 1776, Gen Knox had proposed a military hard and soft rock exposed. Uphft permitted renewed erosion to away the soft belts, leaving mountain ridges of hard rock school for the United States, and in October of the same year wear separated by parallel valleys The mountain ridges vaty in height Congress passed a resolution, “Resolved, That a Commuttee of to over 4,000 ft , the highest pomt in the State being Spruce Knob five be appointed to prepare and bring in a plan of a Miltary Academy at the Army” No action was taken until after thè (4,860 ft.) The parallel valleys are drained by streams flowing close of the Revolution. Gen Washington and his military leaders north-east and south-west those in the north-east being tributary agreed that West Point had heen the key to the whole United to the Potomac, which flows to the Atlantic ocean, and those States and should always be fortified, Actordingly, Washington farther south tributary to the Great Kanawha, which enters the Ohio and then flows to the Gulf of Mexico. The valleys between

WEST

VIRGINIA

the ridges, although not always easy of access, provide broad areas of nearly level agricultural land The rivers flowing north-east and south-west, after running between parallel ndges for long distances, often turn suddenly through transverse passes formed by

erosive cutting of “gaps” through ndges One of the best known is Harper’s Ferry where the Potomac has cut through the Blue Ridge Fiore.—The plateau portion of the State is still largely covered

by hardwood forests, but along the Ohio river and its principal tributaries the valuable timber has been long removed and con-

siderable areas have been wholly cleared for farming and pasture lands Among the most ymportant trees of this area are the white and chestnut oaks, the black walnut, the yellow poplar and the cherry, the southern portion of the State containing the largest reserve supply. The eastern Panhandle region has a forest region similar to that of the plateau district, but between these two areas of hardwood there 1s a long belt where spruce and white pine cover the mountain ridges Other trees common in the State are the persimmon, sassafras, and, in the Ohio Valley region, the sycamore Hickory, chestnut, locust, maple, beech, dogwood and paw-

paw are widely distributed

Among the shrubs and vines are the

547

and natural gas resources attracted increasing numbers af Americans from neighbouring States, principally Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvama, Kentucky, Maryland and North Carolina. Later there came an increasing number of foreigners In 1920 foreigners numbered 61,906, or 4.5% of the white population, and were chiefly Italians, Hunganans, Poles, Austrians and Russians employed in the coal mines. Whites born of native parentage composed 89 5% of the white population In addition, there were 86,345 negroes EXTRACTION and 121 of all other races. The oF negro population had approxiMINERALS mately doubled since 1900 Forty AGRICULTURE, ANUFACTURIENG of the 59 counties showed an 1nFORESTRY, AND MECHANICAL ARD ANIMAL crease in population between OCCUPATIONS HUSBANDRY 1g10~20, those having the highest rate being Logan (183-3%), Hancock (90%), Raleigh (65%) and Harrison (54.6%) The increases were chiefly in mining and industrial centres, several of the agriOCCUPATIONS OF THE 491,116 PERSONS TEN YEARS OF AGE AND OVER cultural counties showing a deENGAGED IN GAINFUL EMPLOY- crease The percentage of popuMENT, 1920 lation living in cities of more than 2,500 inhabitants increased from 18 7 in rgrIo to 25.2 Ín 1920 The ten largest cities with their population for 1925 as estimated by the

blackberry, black and red raspberry, gooseberry, huckleberry, hazel and grape Gunseng is an important medicinal plant Wild ginger, elder and sumach are common, and in the mountain areas, rhododendrons, mountain laurel and azaleas Climate.—Like most mountain States West Virginia has a Census Bureau were Huntington, 63,485, Wheeling, 56,208; healthful climate It does not suffer from great extremes of heat or Charleston, 49,019; Clarksburg, 30,402; Parkersburg, 21,299, cold Winter temperatures range from a mean of 26° in the north- Fairmont, 20,959, Bluefield, 17,529; Morgantown, 13,811; Mareastern mountains to 34° in the south-west along the Ohio river, tmsburg, 13,544; Moundsville, 11,660 Government.—The present Constitution which superseded the the summer temperatures are 67° and 74°, respectively Between the last killing frost in the spring and the first killing frost in the first Constitution of 1863, was adopted Aug, 1872 This Constitufall there is an ample growing season which in the Ohio valley is tion may be amended (1) by a constitutional convention, the memabout a month longer than in the more exposed plateau and moun- bers of which shall be elected by the people and the acts of which tam districts, Precipitation is greatest in the mountains (over 50 shall be ratified by the people, or (2) by amendments which must wn annually); and it is smallest over the Ohio valley, the eastern be passed by a two-thirds majority of each house of the legislature and approved by a majority of the voters at the next general elecPanhandle, and the extreme south-east (35 to 40 in annually) Snows are frequent during the winter and sometimes deep in the tion All citizens above 21 years of age have the nght of suffrage provided they have resided in the State one year and in the county higher plateau and mountain regions

Population.—-The population of West Virginia at the various

censuses since its organization as a State has been as follows’ 442,014 in 1870, 618,457 in 1880, 762,794 i 1890; 958,800 in 1900; I,221,1IQ IN 1910; 1,463,701 in 19205 1,729,205 in 1930, ! A f pf ae

Moraes s

Fairmount, _ Clarksburg

“& PParkersburg Fin f

7 re

5

Y

f

h Hunngton ý

À

“ate

HARLESTON T

Gautey Bridge

IVY

I

WEST VIRGINIA

A

oe B\uehield MAP

OF THE

o

MAIN

Sn ROADS

QF WEST

VIRGINIA

in which they expect to vote 60 days The executive department consists of the governor, secretary of State, superintendent of free schools, auditor, treasurer, attorneygeneral and commissioner of agriculture, all elected by the people at the time of the presidential election and for a period of four years The governor is ineligible for re-election for a second consecutive term. He appoints, subject to the consent of the senate, all State officers whose selection is not otherwise provided for

The legislature, consisting of the senate and the house of delegates, meets at the capital on the first Wednesday in January of odd-numbered years. The senate is composed (1927) of 30 members, chosen from 1g districts for a term of four years, one-half the membership retiring bienmally The house of delegates is composed (1927) of 94 members elected biennially, each county choosing at least one A constitutional amendment, ratified in 1920, provided that all regular sessions of the legislature should convene for a period not to exceed 15 days, during which all bills are to be presented, but none but emergency bills passed or rejected A recess of both houses must then be taken until the Wednesday after the second Monday of March following, whereupon the legislature reassembles to consider and vote upon the bills. In the reconvened session no bill may be introduced except with the consent of three-fourths of all the members elected to each house The governor may veto a bill, or in case of an appropriation bill, the separate items, but this veto may be overridden by a simple majority of the total membership of each house The

The 199% increase in population between 1910-20 was less in rate than the increase of the four preceding decades (39:9%, 23:3%, 25:7% and 27-49%). The increase from 1920 to 1930 was governor may convene the house in extraordinary session if he 181. The density of population increased from 18-4 per square

deems it necessary.

The judicial power is vested in the supreme court of appeals, In 1930. mile in 1870 to 508 in 1910, to 60-9 in 1920 and to 72 English, the circuit courts, such inferior courts as may be established, The origmal settlers of West Virginia were generally

, Scotch-Irish or Pennsylvania German.

To these were added a

large number of Irish between 1839 and 1850 and a considerable

number of Germans after 1848 The next wave of settlement came

after the Civil War, when the exploitation of the coal, petroleum

county courts, the powers and duties of which, however, are chiefly police and fiscal and justices of the peace The supreme court of appeals, consisting of five judges, elected for terms of 12 years holds regular terms twice a year at Charleston and special terme

548

WEST

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at such times and places as may be designated by the court. The circuit court is composed of 23 circuits with 24 judges. Inferior courts are established by special act of the legislature to relieve the circuit judges, and are found in eight counties of the State. Generally they have crimunal jurisdiction only As in Virgimia, the county is the unit of local government, though an unsuccessful attempt to mtroduce the township system was made in the first Constitution. Finance.—The total wealth of the State as estimated by the Federal Census Bureau increased from $660,000,000 in 1900 to $4,678,000,000 in 1922

The per caput wealth in 1922 averaged

$3,040 The assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $2,095,430,997 Of the 1927 valuation real estate amounted to $1,225,178,580, personal property to $387,198,230 and public utilities to $483,054,187 Counties with the highest assessed valuation in order were Kanawha, Cabell, Harrison, Ohio, Marion and Monongalia On the assessed valuation in 1925 ($2,133,491,000) a direct tax

totalling $48,761,528 was levied by the State, counties, school districts and municipalities. Out of each $100 levied, $6 12 was levied by the State, $32 18 by counties, $49 25 by school districts and $1245 by municipalities Besides the direct property tax, the State collected during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1926, a total of $6,959,287 from special taxes Of this $3,159,152 was derived from a gross sales tax. A sales tax of two cents a gallon on gasolene (raised to four cents in 1927) netted $2,766,005 An inheritance tax contributed $802,761 The remainder was obtained from miscellaneous sources Total receipts of the State for the same fiscal year were $81,057,978, and total dısbursements were $77,479,291 For the year endmg June 30, 1928; the receipts were $80,321,246 and the disbursements $88,989,495 leaving a balance of $5,680,273. In 1915 the amount of the debt to

Virginia, which had been in controversy since the Civil War, was fixed by the US Supreme Court at $12,393,929, plus 5% interest until paid. Besides this debt, the State had incurred a bonded debt of $47,000,000 for highway construction Money to pay the annual interest and sinking fund is derived from auto licences and the gasolene sales tax The total bonded indebtedness on June 30,

1928 was $56,499,700

Bluefield Coloured Institute at Bluefield, serving the coloured population in the southern part of the State, gives a regular high school course plus rorme] and junior college courses West Virgima Cory. ue Toninu e at Institute, also serves the coloured population, offermg preparatory, normal and college courses There are State schools for the white deaf and blind at Romney and for the coloured at Institute. West Virgima university 1s located at

Morgantown, and is divided ın 1ts organization into colleges of arts and science, engineering, agriculture, law and school of medicine

and pharmacy. Private denominational colleges of importance are

Bethany college at Bethany, West Virginia Wesleyan college at Buckhannon, Davis and Elkins at Elkins, Greenbriar college (for women) at Lewisburg, Salem college at Salem and Morris Harvey college at Barboursville Charities and Corrections.—In 1925 there were 14 State charitable, correctional or penal institutions in operation, all of them managed and governed by the State board of Control The

governor appoints the chief executive officer or head of each institution There is a State board of children’s guardians which has control and custody over dependent and neglected children Mines and Quarries.—The extraction of minerals ıs the most important industry in the State Muneral products were valued at

$41 2,866,535 in 1923, and $350,000,000 in 1927

In 1923 West

Virginia ranked second among the States ın total value of its mmeral output, but ın 1925 ıt dropped to fifth place The decrease m the value of the coal output and the increased value of petroleum produced in other States were chiefly responsible for the decrease inrank Next to coal the chief minerals, according to the value of

their 1925 output, were. natural gas, petroleum, clay products, natural gas gasolene, stone, sand and gravel and lime

The production of coal has increased with remarkable rapidity, In 1923, for the first time the State’s production exceeded 100,000,000 tons In 1925 1t amounted to 123,061,985 tons, and in 1926 it reached 147,209,000 tons, an increase of approximately

40,000,000 tons 1n two years, but in 1927 1t declined to 146,088,121 tons In 1926 the output was but slightly below that of Pennsylvania, the leading State in the production of bituminous coal. It amounted also to more than one-fourth the supply of bitummous coal mined in the United States in that year During the year

On June 30, 1926, there were in the State 346 banks (124 of 1925 there were 793 companies reporting 1,208 operating coal them national banks) with resources and liabilities totalling $446,- mines The total of all men employed in connection with the coal 653,000 The capital, surplus and undivided profits amounted to $73,339,000 The deposits were $329,644,000, of which $154,822,S 150 ooo were on time accounts. Education.—Rapid progress in education between 1920 and 1925 is shown by the increase in the public school enrolment from 346,256 to 392,823, the increase in the days of attendance per pupil from an average of 102-8 to 128 per year, and the mcrease in public school expenditures from $11,402,000 to $23,777,000, or from $2600 to $49 oo per child of school age. The days of attendance per pupil and the expenditures per pupil are still below the averages throughout the United States as a whole, but they represent an increase sufficient to place West Virginia in the lead of all other States south of the Mason and Dixoh line except Maryland and Delaware Of the 1925 enrolment 360,399 were in the kindergartens or elementary schools High school enrolment increased from 16,360 in 1920 to 33,603 in 1927, and the number of high schools from 164 to 225 in 1927 ‘There were m 1927,:

y

12,062 elementary and 2 775 Ingh school teachers to whom a ‘otl

of $17,001,094 was paid m siare: There wae un 19-4, 3,571 pupils in private schools. The New River State school at Montgomery and the Potomac State school at Keyser came into existence as State-supported preparatory schools at a time when there was a dearth of public high schools They continue to offer the final two years of preparatory work and have added the first two years of college work, so that they operate as junior colleges. There were in 1928 six State normal schools for whites. Three of them, located at Huntington, Fairmont and Athens, gave complete four-year teacher’s courses. One, located at Glenville, gave a two-year normal course, while the remaining two, located at West Liberty and Shepherdstown gave both a two-year normal and a two-year junior college course

1897

81927 COAL MINED, 1892-1927

mines was 117,748 During the year 1925 the average price received by the pick miner was $0 51 per ton, or an average annual wage of $1,502 Mmes operated an average of 155 days m 1924 and 194 days m 1925 The State department of mines regularly inspects all mines and maintains mine rescue stations at Charles-

ton, Kilsythe, Elkins, Meadowbrook and Williamson Between 1910 and 1923 labour troubles were frequent in the mining dis-

tricts, due mamly to the determined attempts of the umions to organize the West Virginia miners During the strikes of bitumi-

nous miners in 1927 and 1928, however, West Virgina remamed

WEST

HISTORY]

VIRGINIA

generally quiet At the present rate of consumption West Virginia alone could supply the whole United States with coal for 250 years to come

From 1909 to 1924 West Virginia held first place among the

States in the production of natural gas, but in 1924 dropped to third place, bemg passed by Oklahoma and California The

gradual decrease in production 1s revealed by contrasting the 244,004,000,000

CU ft

produced

m

1915

with

180,000,000,000

cuft. produced in 1927 In 1925, 74,250,000,000 cu ft. were consumed in West Virginia and the remainder in Ohio, Pennsylvania,

Kentucky and Maryland to which it was transported by under-

549

counties in 1926 were Berkeley, Hampshire, Jefferson and Morgan Tobacco 1s cultivated mainly in the south-west near the Kentucky border. The other crops are well distributed A large share of the crop of the State ıs fed to the live stock An incentive to live stock raising 1s the large amount of excellent pasture land on the hillsides or in the stream bottoms

for the animals is everywhere of 1,330,000 animals, valued tion of $406,000 since 1925 of them milk cows), 133,000 and 15,000 mules.

Water

abundant In 1927 there was a total at $37,982,000, a decrease in valua‘There were 484,000 cattle (207,000 horses, 509,000 sheep, 189,000 swine

Chickens in 1925 were valued at $4,164,255

ground pipe hnes A large share was used in the production of About 5,000,000 are raised annually. Manufactures.—There has been a steady advance in manugasolene In 1924 there were 152 plants which produced 61,549,000 gal valued at $7,154,000 There were also 18 plants producing facturmg In 1914 there were 2,749 establishments employing carbon black from natural gas, the output of which was valued

at $2,125,000 in 1924 Between 1880 and 1910 West Virgima was one of the leading petroleum producing States of the Union

The peak of production

was reached m the year 1900 when the State ranked second m

output

Production then began to decline

From rgrr to 1915

the annual average was 10,487,000 bbl ; in 1926 it amounted to 5,975,000 barrels. The rank in 1926 was roth, activity contmued, nevertheless. In 1924 there were 57 stone quarrying plants producing

2,618,290 short tons of stone valued at $3,040,154

Of this

2,334,250 tons were limestone and 284,040 tons were sandstone Much limestone was also used for burning hme West Virgima is also the centre of the sand supply for its own 65 glass plants (in 1928), as well as those in eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvama Sand used for this purpose m 1924 amounted to 516,638 short tons, valued at $1,188,093 Other sand and gravel valued at $2,012,555 was used for buildmg and road-paving purposes Salt fields on the Gauley mver, on the Kanawha from Kanawha falls to Pt Pleasant and up the Ohio river to Pomeroy Bend are still actrve and use the evaporative process Iron deposits in Hampshire, Hardy and Grant counties may be valuable Agriculture and Live Stock.—Agriculture plays an important réle in the State. In 1925 there were 90,380 farms upon which 455,204 people, or 27-83% of the total population, made ther homes. Farm lands occupied 8,979,847 ac of the 15,374,080 ac, estimated land area of the State. Of this farm acreage, 1,921,139 ac was reported as crop land The value of farm property in 1925 amounted to $374,841,159 (land, $251,792,553, Ladies frog 360 c39 irn'emente and machmery, $15,686,000) , he Viue of 'ves.ock 01 Zarns ws estimated at $36,318,000 In 1925 and 1926 the crop value amounted to $75,700,000 and

$74,700,000 respectively

For a long period after settlement agriculture was backward in West Virginia Pioneer conditions lasted longer m the mountains, transportation was poor, and the hills and streams discouraged all but a limited and patchy cultivation of crops Farmers passed the State by for the more level fields of the prairre west After 1880 development was constant until about 1910 The World War was responsible for a temporary increase in actavity and production, but the period of agricultural depression that followed resulted in a serious setback Between 1920 and 1925 there was a decrease of 22,720 in farm population, a decrease in area of farm land amounting to 589,941 ac, a decrease of $55,000,000

m value of farm land, a decrease of $28,000,000 in value of farm

hvestock Counties with the greatest percent of their area in farm lands were Jackson (91 5%), Gilmer (91 1%), Lewis (88-1%),

Cabell (88%), Marshall (86.8%), Clay (86 4%), Roane (85 5%).

The acreage of important crops in 1926 was as follows tame hay, 771,000, Indian corn, 499,000; oats, 207,000, wheat, 147,000; potatoes, 47,000, buckwheat, 36,000; rye, 12,000; tobacco, 10,000 The total value of important crops was in 1926 as follows. tame hay, $19,691,000; Indian corn, $15,479,000, potatoes,

$8,320,000,

oats,

$3,420,000,

wheat,

$3,175,000;

tobacco,

$1,615,000, buckwheat, $684,000, sweet potatoes, $528,000 and rye, $172,000 Besides field crops there are orchard crops valued

chiefly annually from $8,000,000 to $10,000,000 Fruit 1s raised ‘The leading apple in the eastern and northern Panhandles

71,078 wage earners at a total of $43,784,000 in wages and pro-

ducing an output valued at $193,511,000 In 1925 the establishments had decreased to 1,395, or almost half, but wage earners had increased to 80,700, wages had more than doubled, amounting to $105,892,000, and the value of products was close to 24 times that of 1914, or $470,821,582 In 1927 the capital invested amounted to $536,282,093 and the value of the products was $76,688,822 Leading, with a value of $92,565,227 in 1925, are the products of the 16 steel works and rolling mills in the State Products of the 64 glass factories were second with a value of $47,884,426 Third, with a value of $33,347,557, were the products of car and general construction in repair shops of steam rauroads. Lumber and timber products amounted to $26,787,495, to which may be added products valued at $8,247,546 of planing mills Other leading mdustmes and their values in 1925 were. slaughtering and packing, $14,620,703, leather (tanned, curried and finished), $13,348,975; petroleum refining, $11,865,085; and coke, pottery, including porcelain ware, $10,535,436 Wheeling, Huntington and Parkersburg are the $10,109,703 chief industrial centres The State is rich m power resources which should have much to do with the future growth of industry. The vast coal resources are close at hand Natural gas in many instances furmishes a still cheaper power. Finally, with one exception, the State has greater potential water-power in her rivers than any State east of the Mississippi river Transportation and Commerce.—Railway development in West Virginia has been due largely to the exploitation of the coal and lumber The mileage increased from 2,228 in 1900 to 3,996 m 1920 and 4,595 in 1928 Despite the increased use of motor vehicles no railroad mileage has been abandoned as in other States. Smce the issue of bonds to the amount of $50,000,000 in 1919, road building has proceeded with great rapidity. Of the 3,785 m. in the State system in 1928 there were 2,366 m paved and 878 m. graded or partly graded Motor vehicles increased in number from 13,279 In 1913 to 227,836 in 1926 The river and its branches are used for the shipment of coal. History —The western part of Virgina was not explored until long after considerable settlements had been made in the east In 1671 Abraham Wood, able trader and frontiersman, sent out a party under Capt Thomas Batts, which ascended the Roanoke river in south-western Virginia and crossed near tts headwaters to the New river, a westward flowing stream Thus river they descended to the point where it breaks through Peter’s mountain at Peter’s falls on the Virginia~-West Virguma boundary The pass was later to be one of the chief highways of early western trade and settlement. Other explorations m the 17th century are unknown Doubtless after 1700 pioneer traders with the Indians frequently penetrated the Potomac region above Harper’s Ferry, but with the exception of Van Metre, who in 1725 traversed the valley of the South Branch, they left no record. In 1726 or 1727 the first known cabins in the State were built at Shepherdstown by some Germans from Pennsylvania who crossed the Potomac at the “Old Pack Horse Ford” and by Morgan Morgan on Mill Creek in Berkeley county. Within a few years other settlers from Pennsylvania and Maryland settled on various creeks flowing into the Potomac as far west as the South Branch In 1736 an exploring party traced, the Potomac to its source Advance

550

WEST

WARWICK

up the South Branch was rapid The diary kept by George Washington, who between 1748 and 1751 surveyed much of this land for Lord Fairfax, recorded many squatters, largely of German origin, in the remon. The insecurity of title on the Fairfax grant prompted many to go still gher up the branch and its forks into Pendleton county. By 1750 a few of the frontiersmen were crossing the Allegheny divide nto the Greenbriar and other rivers whose waters eventually reached the Ohio Christopher Gist, a surveyor in the employ of the first Ohio company, in 175152 explored the country along the Ohio river north of the mouth of the Great Kanawha Later the Ohio company, merged with the Walpole company, sought to secure from the king the formation of a 14th colony with the name “Vandalia.” The westward

advance was abruptly terminated by the outbreak of the French

ernment of Virginia, chose Francis H

Pierpont as governor and

provided for the election of other officials and a legislature

Jy

August the convention reassembled at Wheeling and adopted an

ordinance providing for a popular vote on the formation of a new State. At the subsequent election there were 18,489 votes cast for a new State and only 781 agaist

A constitutional conven.

tion (delegates to which were elected on Oct 24) met at Wheeling in Nov. 1861, and in Feb. 1862 submitted a Constitution which was ratified by the people in April. In May 1862 the legislature of the “restored Government” voted its consent to the erection of the proposed new State

Application for admission to the Union

was then presented to Congress, which granted its permission subject to the insertion of a Constitutional provision for the gradual abolition of slavery. On June 20, 1863, following the addition of this provision the State was admitted. f Durmg the Cıvıl War trans-Allegheny West Virgima suffered comparatively bttle McClellan’s forces gained possession of the

and Indian War (1754-63) and many of the settlements were forced back by Indian depredations At the close of this war the English king, hoping thereby to prevent future conflicts with the Indians, issued (1763) a proclamation forbidding further settle- greater part of the territory m the summer of 1861, and Union tnent beyond the divide until arrangeménts could be made with control was never seriously threatened In 1863, however, Gen, the Indians, but this proclamation was ignored Between 1764 Imboden, with 5,000 Confederates, overran a considerable por. and 1774, when settlement was agai temporarily stopped by tion of the State. Bands of guerrillas burned and plundered in Indian attacks, ıt is estimated that the lne of settlement advanced some sections and were not entirely suppressed until after the The State furnished about 36,000 soldiers to the actoss the Alleghenies and through the wilderness to the Ohio at war ended an average rate of 17 m per year. The valleys first settled were Federal armies and somewhat less than 10,000 to the Confederate those of the Monongahela, Greenbriar and the New Rivers and After the war partisan feeling ran high In 1866 the State adopted thence down the Great Kanawha to the Ohio By 1779 it is esti- a constitutional amendment disfranchising all who had given aid mated that there were 30,060 people in the West Virginia region. to the Confederacy In 1871, however, even before the Democratic In the face of this relentless advance the savages grew more hos- Party secured political control, the amendment was abrogated by In 1872 an entirely new tle The result was Dunmore’s War of 1774 The governor of the adoption of the Flick amendment Virginia, Lord Dunmore, led a force over the mountains, and co- Constitution was adopted under Democratic control The Demoperating with a body of miltia under Gen Lewis, dealt the ocrats continued to carry the State until 1896 when the elections Shawnee Indians under Cornstalk a crushing blow at Point Pleas- were carried by the Republicans. Republican rule thereafter was ant (g.v ) at the junction of the Kanawha and Ohio rivers During not broken till 1916, when a Democratic governor was chosen,

the Revolutionary War which followed closely, the settlers in Republican strength is due to the increasing industrial developWest Virginia were generally active Whigs and many servéd in the ment of the State, which has brought capital and settlers from neighbouring Northern States Continental army The largest chapter in the history of the State 1s doubtless that Social conditions m western Virginia were entirely unlike those existing in the eastern portion of thé State The population was dealing with this great industrial awakening. The East had an not homogeneous, as a considerable part of the :mriigration came Iricreasing demand for timber, coal and oi and West Virgma by way of Pennsylvania and included German, the Protestant was close at hand The former handicap of lack of transportation Scotch-Irish and settlers from the States farther north. Duting was overcome after the Civil War by the rapid extension of railthe Revolutionary War the movement to create another State way lines up the principal valleys. Petroleum, first obtained in beyond the Alleghemes was revived, and a petition (1776) for large quantities on the Little Kanawha river in 1860, increased the establishment of ““Westsylvania” was presented to Congress, in production slowly until 1889 and thereafter, with the discovery on the ground that the mountams made an almost impassable of new sands and new drilling methods, rapidly until 1900 when barrier between the west and the east The rugged nature of the the State ranked second in the Union in output Coal muming, western country made slavery unprofitable, and time only m= which had scarcely begun before the Civil War, increased slowly creased the social, political and economic differences between the until the nmeties when it responded to the demands of Pittsburg two sections of the State, The convention which met in 1829 to and other cities It is now an important economic factor in the form a new Constitution for Virginia, against the protest of the life of the State BrpriocrarHy.—Lhe West Virginza Handbook and Manual published trans-Allegheny counties, continued to require property qualifica~ tion for suffrage, and gave the slave-holding counties the benefit annually by the clerk of the senate contains much important informaof miscellaneous nature The reports of the State departments and of three-fifths of thew slave population in apportioning the tion commissions are brought together bienmally in West Virginia Pubhe State’s representation m the lower Federal House As a result Documents, and are invaluable. For general description see H Ganevery county beyond the Alleghenies except one voted to reject nett, “Gazetteer of West Virginia,” bemg Bulletin 233 of the US. the Constitution, which was nevertheless carried by eastern votes. Geological Survey (1904) For detailed descriptions of counties and Though the Virginia Constitution of 1850 provided for white natural resources see thè County Reports and Bulletins of the West Virginia Geological Survey For history see V A Lewis, History of manhood suffrage, the distribution of representation among the West Virginia (1889) , T C. Miller and H. Maxwell, West Virginia and

counties was such as to give control to the section east of the Blue Ridge mountams. Another grievance of the West was the disproportionate expenditure for mternal improvements at State expensé in the east, The Civil War merely furnished the occasion for séparation from the mother State In 1862 when the Virgima convention adopted the Ordinance of Secession only nine of the 46 delegates from the present State of West Virginia voted to secede. After the ordinance had been ratified by the people, 4 convention of newly elected trans-Alleghehy members of the legislature, and other delegates, met at Wheeling (June rt, 1862) and declared

the acts of the Secession Convention void, and declared vacant

the offices of those in the Virginia government which adhered to

it. A second Wheebng convention formed the “reotgariized” gov`

her People (1913), J M. Callahan, Sems-Centennal History of West Virgina (1914) and History of West Virgima Old and New (1923), i Callahan, Evolution of the Constitution of West Virginia

(root)

J OC McGrezot, The Di-vptinn

of Vino.

(t52z)

West

Vanu Piciri Dont Hry ocr Beare oome h rnme ooa) Jeseth Diddrdee Voter gr e Senest ene Inbe

ea

B arse aie er Persu Vetyee ts tots Ponr yh maisa etseg), YS Wrhes Cigar tes srt Bader Wir're (osse tR, Bienma Rr

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vard

me Quercer’y

Review (1923— ın progıess).

Archyve- lino e

Civet-cs)

we’

The hee

West Vir-

Virgima

(J. M. Ca.)

WEST WARWICK, in Rhode Island, USA. Pop (1920) 15,46x (31% foreign-born white) and 17,696 in 1930 Federal census. It etnibraces several manufacturing villages with large cotton mills, and the aggregate factory output in 1927 was valued at $22,277,157.

West Warwick was organized in 1913.

WETHERSFIELD—WEXFORD WETHERSFIELD, a town of Hartford county, Connecticut, USA Population (1920) 4,349; 1930 Federal census 7,512. It is a beautiful old town, a residential suburb of Hartford and the seat of the Connecticut State prison Among the interesting

old buildings are the Webb house, in which Washington and Rochambeau met in 178r to plan the Yorktown cam-

552

reaches 2,409 ft in Blackstairs Mountain, and 2,610 ft m Mount Leister on the border of Co. Carlow. In the southern district,

a hilly region, reaching in Forth Mountain a height of 725 ft, forms with Wexford Harbour the northern boundaries of the baronies of Forth and Bargy, a peninsula of flat and fertile land

The river Slaney enters the county in the north-west and flows

Count de pagn, the First Church of Christ (Congregational), built in south-east to Wexford Harbour. Its chief tributary, the Bann, 1761, and the old academy building (1804) now used for town flows south-westwards from the borders of Wicklow The Barrow ofices and the public hbrary There is a giant elm on Broad Street Green with a girth of 265 feet Wethersfield was settled yn 1634, by colonists from Watertown, Mass, and is the oldest permanently inhabited town in the State. With Hartford and Wmdsor in 1639 1t framed the Fundamental Orders of the Colony of Connecticut. WETTIN, the name of a family from which several of the royal houses of Europe have sprung ‘The earhest known ancestor 1s one Dietrich, count of Hassegau or Hosgau, on the left

forms the western boundary of the county from the Blackstairs

mountains till its confluence with the Swr at Waterford Harbour

The northern portion of Wexford was included in Hy Kinselagh, the peculiar termtory of the Macmorroughs, overlords of Leinster, who had their chief residence at Ferns.

Dermod Macmorrough,

having been deposed from the kingdom of Leinster, asked help of Henry II, king of England, secured the aid of Strongbow, and obtained assistance from Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice Fitzgerald of Wales In 1169 Fitzstephen landed at Bagenbon on the (d. side of Fethard, and captured the town of Wexford After DedoI south sons His 982 in killed was who Saale, the of bank the territory of Wexford to Fitzstephen and 1009) and Frederick (d 1017) received lands taken from the this Dermod granted Macmorrough having died in 1172, Strongbow became right the on Fitzgerald. Wettin of Gau or county Wends, including the lord of Leinster At first Henry II retained Wexford, but in 1174 bank of the Saale. Dedo’s son Dietrich IT married Matilda, daughter of Ekkard I, margrave of Meissen. Their son Dedo he committed it to Strongbow. Wexford was one of the twelve counties into which the conIL obtained the Saxon east mark and lower Lusatia in 1046, but stated to have been mn 1069 quarrelled with the emperor Henry IV. and was compelled quered territory in Ireland is generally of the possessions of to surrender his possessions He died in 1075, and his lands divided by King John, and formed part passed to Jobn ultimately It Pembroke of earl Marshal, with Willam were granted to his son Henry I, who in 1089 was invested who in 1446 was made earl of Waterthe mark of Meissen. In 1103 Henry was succeeded by his Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, was seneTalbot George 1474 In cousin Thimo (d. 1104), who built a castle at Wettin, and was ford and baron of Dungarvan called by this name. Henry II, son of Henry I, followed, but schal of the hberty of Wexford. The district was actively concamCromwellian the during and died childless in 1123, his cousm, Conrad I, son of Thimo, cerned in the rebellion of 1641; clamed Meissen, of which he secured possession in 1130, and paign the town of Wexford was carried by storm in 1649 Wexford being there leaders the in 1135 the emperor Lothair II. added lower Lusatia to his was the chief seat of the rebellion of 1798,

possessions. Conrad, abdicating in 1156, his lands were divided between his five sons, when the county of Wettin fell to his fourth son Henry, whose family died out in 1217. Wettin then passed to the descendants of Conrad’s youngest son Frederick, and in 1288 the county, town and castle of Wettin were sold to the archbishop of Magdeburg, eventually becoming incorporated in the kingdom of Prussia

Conrad I and his successors had added largely to their possessions, until under Henry I, the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen, the lands of the Wettins stretched from the Oder to the Werra, and from the Erzgebirge to the Harz mountains The subsequent history of the family is merged ın that of Meissen,

Saxony and the four Saxon dukedoms. In June 1889 the 800th

anniversary of the rule of the Wettms in Meissen and Saxony was celebrated with great splendour at Dresden See G. E Hofmeister, Das Haus Wettin (Leipzig, 1889) , K. Wenck,

Die Wettiner im raten Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1877); Kammel, Fest-

schrift gur 800 johrigen Jubelfeier des Hauses Wettin (Leipzig, 1889) ;

and H B Meyer, Hof- und Zentralyerwaltung der Wettiner (Leipzig, 1902)

"WEXFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,

bounded

north by Wicklow,

east and south by St

George’s

Channel, and west by Waterford, Kilkenny and Carlow The area

is 576,757 acres or about 902 sq. miles. Pop (1926) 95,812 Owing to the number of sandbanks navigation is dangerous near the shore The only safe harbour on the east coast is Wexford Harbour, which, owing to a bar, is not accessible to large vessels at ebb-tide The artificial harbour of Rosslare, outside Wexford Harbour to the south, was therefore opened in 1906 On the

south coast the great inlet of Waterford Harbour separates the

from Waterford and Kilkenny, and among several inlets

county Bannow Bay is the largest South from Crossfarnogue Point are the Saltee Islands, and Coningmore and Coningbeg, beyond the latter of which is the Saltee hghtship Point 1s the Tuskar Rock

South-east from Greenore

An elevated ridge on the north-western boundary forms the termination of the granitic range in Wicklow, and in Croghan Kinshela, on the borders of Wicklow, rises to a height of 1,985

feet

On the western border, another range, situated chiefly in

Carlow, extends from the valley of the Slaney at Newtownbarry to the confluence of the Barrow with the Nore at New Ross, and

the priests. Evidences of the Danish occupation are seen in the numerous raths, or encampments, especially at Dunbrody, Enniscorthy and

New Ross

Among the monastic ruins special mention may be

made of Dunbrody abbey, of great extent, founded about 1178 for Cistercian monks by Hervey de Montmorency, marshal of Henry II ; Tmtern abbey, founded in 1200 by Wiliam Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and peopled by monks from Tintern abbey in Monmouthshire; the abbey of St. Sepulchre, Wexford, founded shortly after the invasion by the Roches, lords of Fermoy; Ferns abbey, founded by Dermod Macmorrough (with other remains including the modernized cathedral of a former see, and ruins of a church); and the abbey of New Ross, founded by St Alban in the 6th century Old castles include Ferns, dismantled by Parhamentary forces in 1641, and occupying the site of the old palace of the Macmorroughs, Enniscorthy, founded by Raymond le Gros; Carrick Castle, near Wexford, the first built by the English; and the fort of Duncannon The soil of the county of Wexford consists mostly of a cold stiff clay resting on clay-slate Pre-glacial sands and gravels are used for liming fields, under the name of “manure gravels,” on account of the fossil shells which they contain The interior and western districts are much inferior to those round the coasts In the south-eastern peninsula of Forth and Bargy the soil is a rich alluvial mould mixed with coralline sandstone and limestone The peninsula of Hookhead, owing to the limestone formation, is specially fruitful In the western districts of the county there are large tracts of turf and peat-moss. The principal crops are barley, oats, potatoes and turnips The numbers of cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are well mamtained. Except in the town of Wexford the manufactures and trade are of small importance The town of Wexford is the headquarters of sea and salmon fishing districts, and there are a few fishing villages on the inlets of the south coast

A branch of the Great Southern railway enters the county from the north-east and serves Wexford by way of Enniscorthy, with a branch westward to New Ross from Macmine Junction Palace line of East, on this branch line, 1s also served by the Kildare the same system. Wexford has railway connections with Rosslare, with also it connects and a line across the south of the county

WEXFORD—WEYLER

552 Waterford (Co. Waterford). barges vessels barges The to Dail

There is water communication for

by the Slaney to Enniscorthy; by the Barrow for larger to New Ross, and by this nver and the Grand Canal for to Dublin administrative county of Wexford returns five members Eireann.

WEXFORD, a seaport and the county town of Co Wexford, Ireland. Pop (1926) 11,870 Wexford was an early colony of the English, having been taken by Fitzstephen It was the second town that Cromwell besieged in 1649 It was garrisoned for Wulliam ITI. n 1690 In 1798 it was made the headquarters of the rebels, who, however, surrendered it on the 21st of June In 1318 the town received a charter from Aymer de Valence, which was extended by Henry IV im 1411, and confirmed by Elizabeth in 1558 By James I. it was in 1608 made a free borough corporate Wexford Harbour, formed by the estuary of the Slaney, 1s about 5 m from north to south and about 4 from east to west. There are quays extending nearly goo yd. A bar at its mouth prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more than 12 ft. An artificial harbour was therefore opened at Rosslare in 1906, and this 1s connected with Wexford bya railway (8? m ) owned by the Great Southern company, and 1s served by the passenger steamers of the Great Western railway of England from Fishguard. Some remains exist of the old walls and flanking towers The Protestant church, near the ruins of the ancient abbey of St. Sepulchre or Selsker, is said to occupy the spot where the treaty was signed between the Irish and the English mvaders in r169. At Carrick, 2 m. W., the Anglo-Normans erected their first castle. The principal exports are agricultural produce, live stock and whisky Shipbuilding is carried on, and also tanning, malting, brewing, 1ron-founding, distilling and the manufacture of artıficial manure, flour, agricultural implements, and rope and twine Wexford is the headquarters of salmon and sea fishery districts

Notable portraits are. Lionello d’Este in the Friedman collection New York and Charles the Bold in the Berlin Museum, Among his later works are “The Annunciation” in the Metropolitan Museum

of Art, New York, and the triptych with the “Adoration of the Kings,” the “Annunciation” and the “Presentation” mn the Munich

Pmakothek.

Van der Weyden attracted many followers and his

influence was widespread

It is evident m the work of Diench

Bouts, Memline and Martin Schongauer He died at Brussels on June 16, 1464 and was buried in the church of St. Gudule See Sir Martm Conway, The Van Eycks and their Followers (1921), M Friedlander, Roger van der Weyden, Dre alt meder. landısche Malere: (1925)

WEYGAND,

MAX

at Brussels Jan. 21, 1867

(1867-

), French soldier, was bom

Having entered the muihtary college at

“St. Cyr in 1885, as a foreigner, he proceeded to the cavalry school at Saumur. He was appointed sub-leutenant in 1888 and after successive promotions commanded the sth Hussars in 1912

On

Sept 21, 1914, as a temporary colonel, he was appointed chief of the general staff of an army, and m Aug

general of brigade

1916 he was made a

From the outset of the World War he was the

immediate assistant of Marshal Foch, whom he succeeded as the French representative on the Inter-Allied General Staff m IQI},

In April 1918 he resumed his work as Chief of the General Staff under Marshal Foch, which post he held during the remainder of the War, and in this capacity he was considered by many to be what Berthier was to Napoleon But, and here the balance was in his favour, he proved himself capable of personally directing operations on a very large scale in Poland In Aug 1920, when Warsaw was surrounded and threatened by a Soviet army, at a distance of only 20 km, Gen Weygand arrived, and speedily reconstituting the disorgamsed Polish army, launched an offensrve against the Bolsheviks’ vulnerable points. In December the enemy was ın retreat When WEYBRIDGE, an urban district m Surrey, England; Pop. the people of Warsaw acclaimed hım, he said: “My rôle was (1931) 7,359 It Mes in the flat valley of the river Wey, 1 m merely to fill up the gaps; it was the heroic Polish nation itself above its junction with the Thames The river is locked up to which won the victory ” Godalming, and navigation is assisted by cuts. The Roman CathoWeygand became a member of the Conseil Supérieur de la lc church of St Charles Borromeo was the temporary burial place Guerre, and was made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour on of Louis Philippe, who lived at Claremont in Esher, and other Sept 1,1920 In Nov and Dec 1922 he served as military expert members of his family In 1907 the Brooklands racing track for on the French delegation to the Lausanne Conference, and in motor-cars was opened near Weybridge It has a circuit of 244 Jan 1923, he was sent to the Rhine to imspect the Allied troops, m. round the mner edge, and cluding the straight finishing track The same year he succeeded Gen Gouraud as high commissioner is 34 m in total length; its maximum width is 103 ft, and it will in Syria, where he proved himself to be a remarkable organiser take ten cars abreast. He was recalled to Paris on Nov 29, 1924, and placed in charge of

WEYDEN, ROGIER VAN DER [originally ROGER DE LA

PASTURE] (c 1400-1464), Flemish pamter, was born in Tournai, and there apprenticed in 1427 to Robert Campin. He became a gild master in 1432 and m 1435 removed to Brussels, where he was shortly after appointed town painter Hus four historical works in the Hotel de Ville have perished, but three tapestries in the Bern museum are traditionally based on their designs In 1449 Rogier went to Italy, visiting Rome, Ferrara (where he painted two pictures for Lionel d’Este) and Milan The well-known little Madonna with four saints at Frankfort, was probably painted at Florence The “Entombment” in the Uffizi was probably also painted m Italy On returning (1450) he executed the triptych with half-length figures of Christ, the Virgin and saints in the Louvre; and for Pierre Bladelin the “Magi” triptych, now mn the Berlin gallery, Van der Weyden’s style is dry and severe as compared with the painting of the Van Eycks, his colour is less rich than theirs, arid he lacks their sense of atmosphere On the other hand, he cared more for dramatic expression, particularly of a tragic kind, and his pictures have a deeply religious intention. Comparatively few works are attributed with certainty to this painter; early works are “The Descent from the Cross” in the Chapter House of the Escorial; the John the Baptist threepanel altar-piece in the Berlin Museum, the three-panel altarplece of the Virgin, two panels of which are in Granada Cathedral and the third in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the “Crucifixion” at the Vienna gallery, that in the Johnson collection,

the Centre des Hautes Etudes Militares. ' WEYLER Y NICOLAU, VALERIANO,

marquess of

Tenerife (1839Palma de Majorca infantry at Toledo, passed into the staff his class Two years

), Spanish soldier of Prussian descent, born at He entered at sixteen the military college of and when he attained the rank of heutenant, college, from which he came out at the head of afterwards he became captain, and was sent to Cuba at his own request He distinguished himself in the expedition to Santo Domingo, especially in a daring reconnaissance with few men into the heart of the enemy’s lines, for which he got the cross with laurels of San Fernando. From 1868 to 1872 he served also brilliantly against the Cuban rebels, and commanded a corps of volunteers specially raised for him in Havana. He returned to Spain in 1873 as brigadier-general and took an active part against the Carhsts in the eastern provinces of the Penmsula in 1875 and 1876, for which he was raised to the rank of general of division Then he was elected senator and created marquess of Tenerife He was captain-general in the Canary Isles (1878-83) and after-

wards in the Balearic islands and in the Philippines (1888)— where he dealt very sternly with the native rebels of the Carolines,

of Mindanao and other provinces. On his return to Spain in 1892 he was put in command of the 6th Army Corps in the Basque Provinces and Navarre where he soon quelled agitations, and then became captain-general at Barcelona until Jan 1896 In Cataloma, with a state of siege, he made himself the terror of the anarchists

; and socialists On the failure of Martinez Campos to pacify Cuba, Philadelphia The “Seven Sacraments” altar-piece at Antwerp is Weyler was sent out by the Conservative government of Cénovas almost certainly his, likewise the triptych of the Beaune hospital del Castillo, and this selection met the approval of most Spaniards,

WEYMAN—WHALEBONE

553

duced to two and ceased in 1885 The mediaeval fairs are no attempted to do this by a policy of inexorable repression which longer held. As early as 1293 trade was carried on with Bayonne, raised a storm of indignation and led to a demand from America and six years later a receiver of customs on wool and wool-fells mentioned at Weymouth, while wine was imported from Aquifor his recall This recall was granted by the Liberal Government 1stame In 1586 sugar 1s mentioned as an import, and in 1646 deal of Sagasta, but Weyler afterwards asserted that, had he been left boards were brought from Hamburg. The town suffered severely months six in alone, he would have stamped out the rebellion during the Civil War, being garrisoned by the parliamentary ambitious and strong a as reputation his Spain to return his After troops in 1642, taken by the earl of Carnarvon in 1643, and sursoldier made him one of those who in case of any constitutional disturbance might be expected to play an umportant réle, and his rendered in the following year The town is described as “but httle” in 1733, but a few years afterwards it gained a reputation political position was naturally affected by this consideration, his appomtment m 1900 as captain-general of Madrid resulted indeed as a watering-place, and George III in 1789 paid Weymouth the first of a series of visits which further ensured its popularity in more than one ministerial crisis Twice minister of war (1901, See H J Moule, Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters, Minute 1905), he was captain-general at Barcelona (Oct 1909) and,

who thought him the proper man to crush the rebellion. Weyler

without bloodshed, quelled the disturbance connected with the execution of Francisco Ferrer

WEYMAN,

STANLEY

(2855-1928),

JOHN

English

novelist, was born at Ludlow, Shropshire, on Aug 7, 1855, the son of a solicitor. He was educated at Shrewsbury School, and at Chust Church, Oxford He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1881, joing the Oxford circuit He had been practising as a barrister for eight years when he made his reputation

as a novelist by a series of romances dealing with French history. The House of the Wolf (1889), A Gentleman of France (1893), Under the Red Robe (1894), Memoirs of a Mimster of France

(1895), and others

He died on April ro, 1928

Among his later novels were

Shrewsbury

(1898), Sophea (1900), Count Hanmbal

(1897), The Castle Inn

(1901), In King’s Byways

(1902), The Long Night (1903), The Abbess of Viaye (1904), Starvecrow Farm (1905), Cheppong (1906), The Wild Geese (1908),in The the Great House (1919), Ovington’s Bank (1922), The Traveller Fur Cloak (1925), Queen’s Folly (1925)

WEYMOUTH, a town of Massachusetts, U S A , Pop. (1920)

The 15,057 (82% native white), 1930 Federal census 20,882 town’s area of 19 sqm _includes four islands besides the peninsula Back Weymouth the and River Fore between the Weymouth River On the latter, about 2 m from its mouth, is a US. naval magazine The surface of the country is rough. Great Hill (at one of the narrowest parts of the peninsula) 1s about 140 ft above

Books,

and

other Documenis

of the Borough

of Weymouth

and

Melcome Regis, AD 1250 to 1860 (Weymouth, 1883); John Hutchins, ae and Anizquities of the County of Dorset (3rd ed , Westmunsier, 1860).

WEYPRECHT, KARL

(1838-81), German polar explorer,

was born on Sept. 8, 1838, at Konig in Odenwald, Germany In 1856 he became a cadet in the Austrian navy and in 1861 an officer He made several voyages to the Orient and to America and spent two years on a coast-survey of Dalmatia. At his stance two expeditions were sent out to explore Novaya Zemlya and to attempt a northeast passage That of 1871 reached 78° 48’ north In 1872 the second got caught in the ice off Novaya Zemlya and dnfted north and west for over a year On Aug 30, 1873, Weyprecht and his men caught sight of Franz Joseph Land, previously unknown ‘They wintered on one of the islands and spent the first half of the summer in 1874 making extensive explorations In the autumn they returned to Novaya Zemlya, having spent almost three years in the Arctic. Weyprecht urged that scientific methods and investigation should dominate polar exploration and advocated a series of simultaneous, co-operative observations from polar observing stations His plan was reported favorably by the International Meteorological Congress and studied by two successive mternational polar conferences held at “Hamburg and Berne As a result 15 expeditions were sent out by 11 countries, the historic Greeley expedition being one of the two financed

by the Umıted States Weyprecht published Dre Metamorphosen the rivers. In the township are the Fogg Library (1898, n South des Polareises (1879), and Praktische Anleitung zur Beobachtung Weymouth) founded by a bequest of John S Fogg, and the Tufts der Polarlıchter und der magnetischen Erscheinungen in hohen Tufts Quincy by Library (1879, in Weymouth village), endowed Breiten (1881) The best account of the Franz Joseph Land expeand his sister Susan Tufts, Traffic on the two rivers in 1927 dition 1s the translated account of his lieutenant J. Payer, New 1635 the amounted to 1,449,364 tons, valued at $13,807,985 In Lands Withut the Arctic Circle (2 vol , 1876) Weyprecht died in plantation of Wessaguscus (settled by Thomas Weston in 1622) Michelstadt on Mar 29, 1881 was incorporated as a town. In 1637, Round and Grape islands were annexed

WEYMOUTH

See also Karl Weyprecht, Ermnerungen und Briefe (1881).

and MELCOMBE

of Dorsetshire, England

__), Austrian sculptor, WEYR, RUDOLF VON (1847his art educaIt is formed of was born on Mar. 22, 1847, at Vienna, and received concerned himself

REGIS,

Pop (1931) 21,982.

a seaport,

tion at the academy im his native city He Weymouth, on the Wey, and Melcombe Regis on the north-east most with decorative sculpture, chiefly in the revived rococo of the river, the two towns being contiguous The situation style This he executed with great facility and rapidity, excelling is enclosed to the south by the Isle of Portland. A mile SW of especially in relief His work perhaps shows no great depth of Weymouth is Sandsfoot Castle, a fort erected by Henry VIII

for the protection of the shipping The exports clude Portland stone. The G W R. provides passenger steamers to Guernsey and Jersey. Bronze weapons and Roman interments have been found, but first mention of “that place called Weymouth” occurs in charters of King Aethelred, dated 866-871 and 895-940 The firstcharter was granted in 1252 by the prior and convent of St Swithin, to By whom the manor had been granted by Edward the Confessor. merthis Weymouth was made a free borough and port for all chants, the burgesses holding ther burgages by the same customs of six as those of Portsmouth and Southampton The demand in ships from the town by the king m 1324 shows its importance

thought but does reveal an amazing faculty of decorative inven-

tion Special mention should be made of the frieze of the Triumph

of Bacchus in the Hofburg theatre, his Furies and Graces in the Raimund theatre, the frieze in the rotunda of the Art Museum of Vienna glorifying the Hapsburgs as patrons of art, decorations in the Natural History Museum, the relefs from Gnillparzer’s dramas on his monument at the entrance of the Volksgarten, the fountam representing Naval Power on the facade of the Hofburg and his statue of the pamter Hans Canon in the Stadt-Park

WHALE: see CETACEA WHALEBONE, the inaccurate name under which the ba-

the 14th century, but there is no mention of a mayor until 1467. early in Probably the town suffered at the hands of the French

leen plates of the mght whale are popularly known; the trade-name of whale-fin, which the substance receives in commerce, is equally misleading. Whalebone is formed in the palate on the roof of the mouth and ıs an exaggeration of the ridges, often horny in

Commercial disputes with Melcombe led to amalgamation in 1571, . and the town received its charter from James I in 1616. Melcombe Regis first returned two members to parliament in

mals Three kinds are recognized by traders—the Greenland, yielded by the Greenland whale, Balaena mysticetus, the South Sea, the produce of the Antarctic black whale, B australs; and the Pacific or American, which is obtained from B. yaponzca. Of these

were the 1sth century, though in 1404 the men of Weymouth victorious over a party which landed ın the Isle of Portland

in 1319, four members being returned by

1307, and Weymouth rethe united boroughs until 1832, when the representation was

character, which are found on the roof of the mouth of all mam-

the Greenland whalebone is the most valuable

It formed the only

WHALE

554

staple known in earlier times, when the northern whale fishery was

a great and productive industry. This whalebone usually comes into the market trimmed and clean, with the hairy fringe which edges the plates removed. To prepare whalebone for its economic applications, the blades or plates are boiled for about 12 hours, till the substance is quite soft, in which state it is cut ether into narrow strips or into small bristle-hke filaments, according to the use to which it is to be devoted. Whalebone is light, flexible, tough and fibrous, and its fibres run parallel to each other without uses, referred to by William le form the plumes on helmets poses to which whalebone was

mtertwisting One of its earhest Breton in the 13th century, was to Steel ıs now used for several purformerly applied, especially ın the

umbrella and corset industries, Whalebone is, however, still m demand among dressmakers and milliners and for brushes for mechanical purposes, a use patented by Samuel Crackles ın 1808

When whalebone came into the English market in the 17th per ton In the 18th century

century it cost at first about £700 its price ranged from £350 to £500 century it fell as low as £25 Later but with the decrease m whaling scarce, and upwards of £2,000 per land whalebone.

WHALE

FISHERIES,

per ton, hut early m the 19th it varied from £200 to £250; the article has become very ton has been paid for Green-

The dangerous craft of whaling

undoubtedly occurred in times too early for systematic record,

The Eskimos traded the “bone” to the Greenland whalers, having apparently attacked the whales when they rose to breathe in the

narrow water-lanes among the 1ce—a position the great whaling

fleets of the Antarctic to-day find favourable for ther operations, In the 9th century whaling was carried out by the Northmen, as is clear from QOchthere’s account of his voyage, given to King Alfred; and according to a later statement it took place off the Flanders coast un the same century Alfric, archbishop of Canterbury, mentions whaling n the 11th century, though it 1s not clear

that he claims it as an Enghsh fishery. The Basques also made a very early start, and by the 13th century had made whaling an important industry At first only whales approaching close to the shore were attacked—-very possibly, mm the first instance, onlythose which accidentally had stranded, Later, watch was kept from specially built towers, and on a whale being sighted near shore the men put aut in boats to the attack, armed with harpoons and lances, killed the whale and towed it to shore. The whales becoming more inaccessible, either from lessening numbers or from increased wariness, or from both these causes, and the possibility of boiling down (or “trymg out”) the blubber on a ship

having heen demonstrated, ships of as much as rno tons burden were built for whaling, ships of a specially seaworthy type, and the whalers went further afield, They reached Newfoundland

FISHERIES and over 350 ships took part in it

The Dutch predominance continued until the middle of the cen, tury, whose latter half witnessed a recrudescence of British whal. ing, assisted by bounties, which at first did much for American

(then colomal) whaling also Hull, Liverpool, Whitby, became whaling ports, and Leith, Dunbar and Dundee participated The

whaling vessels were of some 350 tons burden, carried so men and six whaleboats

They used to barrel the blubber for trying

out on return; but later the Scottish brought it back in bulk in large tanks; the whalebone was brought whole, as was, for its oj] the jawbone

The rest of the carcase was abandoned

The high

price of whalebone, reaching at times £500 per ton, was a maternal factor in the success of whaling during this period, particularly in America

The

fishing was

prosecuted

vigorously;

at times as

many as 50 ships being im sight of one another on the grounds Before the middle of the roth century, however, 1t had begun to wane, owing apparently both to the growing scarcity of right whales and the use of substitutes for whale products, particularly of coal gas as an illummant. Hull, the last English port for the Greenland grounds, ceased whaling in 1868; Dundee and Peter. head, owing in part to a strong local demand ın the jute factories for whale oil, continued to a later date, but, in spite of the intro. duction of whalers with auxilary steam power, and the capture of seals and other animals as well as whales, their fleets decreased and ultimately disappeared Whaling in the main Atlantic, the Pacific and the Antarctic was

developed chiefly from the Newfoundland ports, and from Nantucket and New Bedford, Before 1700 the industry had passed through most of the coastal stages Part was taken in the Greenland fishery, and from the capture of a sperm whale (Physeter catodon) offshore mn 1712, American whaling spread down the whole length of the Atlantic, and before 1800 had reached the

Pacific. The mdustry grew rapidly and was well established by

the Revolution. Notwithstanding the vicissitudes of wars, from which American whaling suffered, perhaps, even more than did the European undustry, a marked power of recovery was always shown

Shortly before 1850 the fleet numbered 680 sail in all, and all but 40 odd ships were employed in the Pacific in the pursuit of sperm and right whales, About the same date the right whales found mn the neighbourhood of Bering strait, the bowheads, were hunted for the first time The value attached to sperm oul, which was used for both ointments and candle making, had much to do with this development

A simular recovery followed

the American Civil War; but the use of petroleum for lighting, and the more con-

stant prospects offered to capital in other industries, caused American whaling to dwindle away, By 1900 the sperm whaling

waters, apparently, before the end of the 14th century, and later was nearly entirely dead, and the mam those of Greenland, where they took a different whale, evidently whaling that of the small fleet followmg the right Greenland whale, Balaena mysticetus, and not the Biscay the bowhead. The grey whale, Rhacinactes whale, B, biscayensis of their own coasts glaucus, was also hunted in tke I-go07s Early Whaling.—The next important whaling was that of of the western coast, but dic - ot lorg c7Spitsbergen The English were the first particrpants in the fishery, dure the destruction In .h> *shenes c1 which arose from observations made in 1557 by voyagers of the the open sea mentioned above (all south Muscovy company. They were shortly followed by the Dutch, BY GOURTESY OF WHALING MH» of the Arctic) Great Britain took an active OLD DARTMOUTH HISTORIwith whom they shared (and contested) the industry throughout SEUM, part, They were first in the Pacific and CAL SOCIETY the first part of the 17th century, though Biscayan, Danish and BLUBBER HOOK USED IN predominated for a time in the Indian other ships took part A whaler about the opening of this period THE OLD DAYS OF WHALE ocean, their participation, however, began was of 200 tons burden, with a crew of 55 men, and was provided FISHERY IN REMOVING m 1775 and lasted less than a century THE BLUBBER FROM THE with five pinnaces (for which 48 oars were carried), The whales, WHALE The hardships of these fisheries, known of which eight kinds are mentioned, were taken at first in the collectively as the Southern Whaling, must bays, and one of the reasons for the Dutch predominance, which have been extreme The ships were away three or more years and was well developed by about 1650, was that when the whales dis- provisioned accordingly. Their crews must endure and work m appeared from the coast they followed them along the ice more

constantly than did the British ships, The boats carried 300 fathoms of rope for thelr “harping irons” or harpoons On shore the boiling vats were built in, with a stokehold below. Extensive stations grew up in the islands, Smeerenburg or “Blubbertown,” a Dutch station had bakeries, traders ın spirts and tobacca, and a church, and was visited by a thousand whalers annually Early in the 18th century the whaling had spread as far as Davis straits,

tropical conditions, and in the rigorous climate of South Georgia and even of more southern latitudes, The attack by open boats (though usually four worked together) in mid ocean, with the

added possibility of bemg towed out of sight of the mother ship, and the risk of fire in such whalers as tried out the blubber on

hoard, must have made the calling hazardous ım the extreme. Modern Whaling.—The Sven Foyn gun was first used near

the Norwegian coast; ut was carried on small steamers, and the

WHALE

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AND

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SEALING

COMPANY,

WHALES 1

School of whales feeding and spouting ıng

2

3

heated

air from

the lungs after

LTD,

The spouting ıs caused by forclong

periods of halding

into the stomach and pumping It full of steam and alr

breath

The company

This method Is used only when the whale

1s to be taken to a shore factory

(4)

AND

Gunner preparing to fire Whaling ship nearing a school of whales. The harpoon has a pointed bombhead which explodes harpoon gun on Impact Wide barbs open with the explosion aud hold harpoon firmly ın flesh of whale Whale “buoyed” for towing tn. The carcass with seal birds swimming about it, has been Inflated by forcing a sharp perforated steel tube flag is planted In the body

PLATE I

+ Se "$a 38 4

ne a

n Ae

a

‘

FISHERIES

THE

NEW

ZEALAND

HIGH

COMMISSIONER

WHALING 4

Towing

home

the catch

The dead whale,

with flukes removed

to pre-

vent their wearing the vessel, has been made fast alongside 5. A second shot showing the explosive effect of the bomb attached to the harpoon head. In rough weather, three or more shots are often necessary before the whale is struck in a vital spot

6. A whale

catcher.

These

ships, 90-140

tons

burden,

are seaworthy,

easlly handled and capable of making 15 knots per hour Tha harpoon gun is mounted high on the fore-castle. The crow’s nest for the lookout Is unusually high. The ships are fitted with steam winches fixed to the bedplates in the forward hold where the whallng gear is stowed

WHALE

Pirate IT

FISHERIES

tea

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Pees

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OF

(1, 5) THE

SOUTHERN

WHALING

AND

SEALING

COMPANY,

LTD ,

(2, 4)

WHALES 1

THE

AND

Right whale or whalebone whale being drawn on shore to flensıng plane This species yields true baleen (whalebone) and attalns a length of 65 feet

SOUTH

AFRICAN

i

7

en

Bison,

a

RAILWAYS,

(3) THE

NEW

ZEALAND

-je

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Br

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HIGH

COMMISSIONER,

(6)

TH

SORLLE

WHALING 4

off by means of steam winches Cutting up whale carcasses after blubber has been stripped ‘The oarcasses are used În the manufacture of oil and fertilizer, and in some countries, as Japan, for food Blood of the whale Is dried and used for fertilizer

2. Flensing a humpback whale, Durban, Natal The humpback has blackand-white markings with white splotches on its under surface. The latter are probably sears left by barnacles and parasites. Large catohes of this species are made In the Mozambique Channel and off the Cape of Good Hope

5. View on board a floating blubber factory

3

6

Flensers beginning to strip blubber from fin whale. The longitudinal silts are made with flensing knives and the blubber is then stripped

n

r

i

BY COURTESY

£:

Sactin? Ak

Pr, Tali

tt

a

AR

Captured whales are stripped

and dissected In the wate and the pieces heaved on the deck of the ship where they are cut Into smaller pieces for trying out Westfold Whaling Station on South Georgla Island, which is the centre

of the South Atlantic and Antarctio whale fisheries

WHALE

FISHERIES

555

whales, bemg taken near shore, were towed back to harbour for fiensing and extraction of oil The harpoon, which Weighs over

day. A factory, however, possesses batteries of such boilers. There are various improved types, designed to spéed up production zoo lb., 1s some 4 ft. long The cap contains an explosive and a or to economize fresh water, of which a great supply otherwise 1s tıme fuse, which sets it off three seconds after stnking. The head necessary, the Hartmann plant, for instance, in which the material behind the cap has four hinged 12 in barbs, which open out in the is inside a rotating horizontal cylinder pierced by sharply bevelled body of the whale. The warp is attached to a rng, which is free to holes, can yield 150 barrels a day from mixed material, or 225 barshde along a groove running nearly the whole length of the shank, rels from blubber. It should be added that extensive use is made of mechanical transport, the meat, etc., being raised in large hoppers working up inclined runners outside the factory to the level of the boiler top All oil is now brought to post in bulk in large r tanks. The material taken from the boilers after oil has been Q extracted is specially dred as whole meal or as guano. The most recent development is the use of large ships furnished with a ramp in the hull, usually at the stern, up which the whale can be drawn bodily for treatment Such ships, if need be, work in the open sea, i eee ae ec 7 ahr whereas the factory alongside which the whale is flensed must be r im the shelter of shore or ice Old Atlantic lmers have been adapted for the work, and 17,000 tons burden is a not uncommon size. A vessel of 12,500 tons, to take an instance, is furnished BY COURTESY or OLD DARTMOUTH HISTORICAL SociETY AND WHALING MUSEUM g with seven Hartmann boilers, one especially for bone and 12 IMPLEMENTS USED IN WHALE FISHING ABOVE, A BLUBBER FORK, ordinary boilers With her three catchers, she has a complement

poten. ety

CENTRE, HEAD

DARTING

GUN;

BELOW,

A HARPOON

OF LATE

TYPE WITH

SWIVEL

when teady for use, the head, forepart of the shank and ring are

in front of the guri-barrel, and the first part of the warp is coiled

on a plate projecting over the ship’s bows and immediately below the gun A charge of 220 grammes of explosive such as ballisite or of black powder is used, in a cotton bag which is fastened to an hourglass-shaped wooden buffer, ended with rubber discs, and fitting the barrel

of 180 men, and can deal with 12 whales a day. Shore stations are temporary settlements, with hospital, cmema, etc.

Thuis buffer acts as tamping, and disappears on dis-

charge With the explosive named the barrel remains clean

The

guns uséd are mostly muzzle loaders, though breech loaders aré

available The range is usually 30 to 4o yards The first discharge is sometimes immediately fatal, and slaughter is, in many cases, quicker than with the older methods The “catchers” have grown in size, power and speed

They can

now, though not without difficulty, travel from the Cape to South Georgia under their own power Essentially they are small steamers with fore-foot much cut away for facility in turnimg, with a high bow on which the gun 1s mounted, built with a pronounced flare to minimize the shipping of water at the gun A first class boat will exceed 200 tons gross, and is about 130 ft long She has a powerful winch, and to reach ıt the warp passes from the bows over a sheave or pulley on the mast, which in turn is suspended by 4 warp which còmmutucates with two powerful accumulator

Products.—Whale meat is uséd in Japan. On Norwegian stations ıt is utihzed fresh Cut into 20 kg blocks, it is refrigerated for shipment by special railway cars It is sold at about half the price of beef Only the best meat is used, but in a ṣo ft. whale this will reach 24 tons. Whalebone, though less valuable and in the whales now hunted less abundant, is still useful, that from the

fin whale being used mainly for brushes Oil, however, is the chief product of modern whaling. (See WHALE OL.) Ambergris, which 1s used as a fixative for perfumes, is found in 4 small perceritage of sperm whales, and is a pathological product; it is never abundant, and is usually searched for owing to its great value. Whale meal is a valuable constituent of both cattle and chicken food, and whale guano has general utilty as manure Spread and Extent of Modern Whaling.—The Svend Foyn

gun was used first for whales off the Norwegian coast; and finnus (Balaenoptera physalus), bottlenose (Hyperoodon rostratus), and

sei (Balaenopiera borsalis) are still taken there. Its use spread to

Scottish and other waters, and in 1904 Capt Larsen founded the first company for Antarctic whaling. This whaling rapidly grew to be the chief part of the mdustry Norwegian, British and Argen-

tine companies are at work, though the main part of the operations are in all cases carried out by Norwegian.

The chief bases are in

springs lying along the keel of the ship, excessive and sudden the dependencies of the Falkland Islands—South Georgia, South strain on the warp is in this way minimized The main length of Orkres- South Shctiands ad So. h Sencwich and these fn recent warp is hot on the winch drums, but in bins on each side of the yeor~ bave (excluamg Jen n) cccoun ed for verrly two- bues of hold, from which it 1s paid out to them. A good catcher will have

the world’s productions

In the r927-28 season, possibly owing

a speed of +4 knots and a complement of rz men, under the gunner,

to unusually favourable conditions due to ice distribution, whaling

who 18 also the master. Several catchers, ustially from threé to six,

showed a tendéncy to spread from the more southerly stations

work in c6-operation with one factory. Factory Processes.—Parts of the tail flukes of the dead whale are removed to reduce resistance, and a chain 1s passed round the shank, by which the carcase is towed to thé factory. Steam

along the ice edge, in that season the total production of these dependencies was 804,000 barrels, or 136,000 tons.

Since t925

the Ross sea has been laid under contribution The tendency to employ pelagic whalers, 7¢, those capable cf power is much used at the factory. By it the whale is drawn tip embarking and treating the whale in the open ocean, is undoubtedly the slope or ramp to the flensing stage. Here skilled flensers cut increasing, and great sums of money have already been invested a V-shaped flap at the head, and secure in it a hook, a warp to in these craft, Apart from the Antarctic, they have been employed which this is attached is then take to a winch, by which a strip on the African coast, where the humpback (Megaptera nodoza) of blubber the whole length of the whale is peeled off It is cut is the chief species taken. Evidently the extension of whaling into “hook” pieces of some 20 kg, atid dragged to the intakes far from land basés will greatly increase the destruction entailed, of the boilers. After the blubber, the best of the meat is selected already immense. A large (89 ft.) blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) may yield nearly 28 tons of oil, but this, though now the and removed (at such stations as the meat is utihzed for food) The remainder of the carcase is then cut into pieces for the meat. chief species hunted, is far abové the average of even that large and bone boilers, steam saws bemg employed very largely. The species, the catch probably represents over 12,000 whales Regulation.—It is natural that 4 destruction so rapid should materal is more finely divided by revolvmg knives and, in some cases mincers, before boiling down. All modern boilers are pres- awaken fears that the rate of destruction is greater than the stock sure boilers, the heat being supplied by steam, usually at 65 Ib of whales can replace. Whales breed slowly, the females giving pressure, acting in closed vessels The boiler is fitted uternally birth to young (as a rule one only) probably once in two years at with removable platforms, fitted gradually as it is filled. This most It has been said that the discovery of the Greenland whale prevents blocking, and provides channels for the steam and oil alone saved the Biscay whale from extinction. The Norwegians, Usually one boiler can give about 20 barrels of oil (3% tons) a the greatest whaling nation, took in all seas 51,400 barrels of oil i

WHALE

556

OIL—WHALLEY

in 1904, in 1927 they took 704,000 barrels The need of some regulations is felt almost universally, and some are in force The Falkland Islands Government prohibits the capture of right whales and, except by permit, of humpbacks This and other

Governments prohibit the shooting of calves and cow whales with calves Many authorities insist on the total utilization of the carcase as far as practicable, and the Falklands permit whaling only under hcences which prescribe the number of catchers to be employed. None of these regulations deal with operations in the open ocean , About the year 1926, a well-equipped marine laboratory at South Georgia, the RRS “Discovery,” and a vessel (“Wiliam Scoresby”), specially built for marking whales for the purpose of tracing their movements began mvestigating these problems A cruise to study conditions along the ice edge was projected by Christiansen of Sandefjord Attempts are made at co-ordinating all results by a committee of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, which works in touch with the Economic committee of the League of Nations. Brstrocrarny—T Beale, The Natural History of the Sperm-Whale (London, 1837), W S. Tower, A History of the American W kale Fishery (Philadelphia, 1907), J.R Spears, Story of New England W halıng (New York, 1908); C R Markham, “On the Whale-Fıshery of the Basque Provinces of Spam,” Proc. Zool. Soc London (1881); T Southwell, “Notes on the Seal and Whale Fishery,” Zoologist (London, 1884-1907), and “On the Whale-Fishery from Scotland, with some Account of the Changes in that Industry and of the Species Hunted,” Ann Scoit Net. Hist (1904); G M. Allen, “Some Observations on Rorquals off Southern Newfoundland,” American Naturahst (1904); R C Haldane, “Whalimg in Shetland, 1904,” Ann Scott, Nat Hust

(rg05),

and “Whahng

m

Scotland,” Zc. (1907),

E

L

Bouvier,

“Quelques impressions d’un naturaliste au cours d'une campagne scende PInst. Oceano-

tifique de SAS. le Prince de Monaco, x90s,” Bull

graph. (Monaco, 1907).

(J O.B.)

WHALE OIL. The oils derived from whales fall mto two sharply defined classes Sperm oil, obtained from the head cavity of the sperm whale or cachalot, Physeter catodon, and the oils obtained from the right whales (genus Balaena) and the rorquals (genera Balaenoptera and Megaptera) Sperm oil is not a true fatty oil, inasmuch as ıt usually contains only traces of glycendes; it consists mamly of fatty acids in combination with higher monohydric aliphatic alcohols, and 1s therefore included im the category of liquid waxes Sperm whales, when fully grown, may yield up to 145 barrels of oil each, on the average the cows yield about 25 barrels, and the bulls from 75 to go barrels (each barrel contaming about 2golb. of oil) Large amounts of spermaceti are present in the crude oil, especially in that from the head, which 1s clear and liquid immediately after removal from the animal, but soon solidifies. In the refineries the oil 1s allowed to stand in refrigerators for several days at a temperature of 32° F and pressed m

hydraulic presses

The oil so obtamed (about 75% of the crude)

owing to its more pronounced tendency to gum

The oi obtamed from the blubber, that is, the layer of fat immediately beneath the skin, from all species of whales othe

than the two mentioned above, is a true fatty oil, Consisting almost entirely of glycerides. It was formerly known as “tram oil” (German “Tran”) ‘The amount of oul obtaimable from the

fully-grown animal varies with the species, as is shown im the

following table-— Whale

Yield in barrels of

31 5 gallons

Right whale, Pacific » Atlantic

25 to 250 25 3) 150

Humpback whale, Pacc z » Atlantic Finback whale, Pacific 5 » Atlantic Cahforman grey whale

IO IO IO 20 Is

Orca or killer whale

Beluga or white whale

Treating

the

Blubber.—The

„ IIO ,, 00 „ 70 ,, 60 5, 60

I,

6

Hay

3

“sulphur-bottom”

whale 15

stated to yield 6 tons of oil, 34 tons of guano and 3 cwt, of The first quality oil ıs that yielded by the right whalebone whale, the “southern oul” bemg of lower quality The “finner whale oil” 1s a still lower grade Some whalers still “try” the blubber on board ship, although this practice has been almost superseded by the modern procedure of rendering the blubber in

central stations on shore

In these stations the blubber 1s stripped

clean from every particle of flesh as soon as possible after the capture of the whale, and cut into strips, which are then further divided in chopping machines The mass is then placed in large

pans and boiled with open steam

The onl which first runs off

varies in colour from pale yellow to almost water-white This oil has a very slight fishy smell and is known as “whale oil No

o” “Whale ol No

1,” the oil obtained on further boiling the

comminuted mass, is slightly darker in colour and possesses a

more pronounced odour These two oils are stored in large vessels in the cold, and the deposited stearine or “whale tallow” (consisting largely of palmitm) 1s removed by pressing in a hydraulic press After removal of oil No 1, the mass 1s subjected to steam in digesters at a pressure of from 4o to solb per sqin, whereby “whale oil No 2” ıs obtained, which is brown in colour with a strong odour. A still darker oul, “whale oil No 3,” 1s obtamed by adding the flesh, cut into rough lumps, together with the bones, and again digesting under steam pressure Finally, “whale oil No 4” (“carcase oil”) 1s obtained after the mass has putrefied, in some cases the bones are worked up separately, yielding “Whale Bone Ol” The better qualities of oil contain only small amounts of free fatty acids, and can be bleached by treatment with fuller’s earth The lower qualities of oil, however, may contain upwards of 50% of free fatty acids, and cannot always be bleached successfully In common with other marine oils, whale oil contains considerable amounts of highly unsaturated fatty acids, including members of the clupanodonic acid group, in which the molecule contains four pairs of doubly-hnked carbon atoms It has yet to be seen whether blubber oils contain, as do codliver and some fish body oils, any notable proportion of the

will not deposit stearine at 38° F (“cold test”), and is known as winter sperm oil Oils having a cold test of 32° F have also been prepared, the yield being 67% The press residues are twice re-pressed, first at a temperature of 50° to 60° F. yielding about 9% of spring sperm oil and secondly at 80° F, yielding a further 5% of ol. The press cake (about 11% of the crude oil) consists of crude spermaceti. Spermaceti, which consists principally of fat-soluble vitamins cetyl palmitate, also occurs in smaller proportions ın the oils The best quality whale ols are used as burning oils and for from other Cetacea (For uses see SPERMACETI ) Sperm Oil.—Sperm oil is a pale yellow oil with a slightly soap-making When the margm of price between liquid and sohd fats permits, large quantities of pale whale oil are hydrogenated fishy smell it may be recognized by the low specific gravity, 0-875 to o 880, the low saponification value, 125 to 130, and the (hardened), producing a white tallow-lke fat suitable for edible purposes Whale ol 1s also used for batching jute and other vegehigh proportion of unsaponifiable matter (about 40%) table fibres, for quenching steel plates and for Jeather-dressing Sperm oil 1s largely used for the lubrication of spindles and It figures as an ingredient of lubricants for screw-cuttmg maother light machinery It is valued on account of its freedom from gumming tendencies, and also because the viscosity chines, The magnitude of the whaling industry may be gauged decreases less with increase of temperature than is the case with from the following figures for the years 1925 and 1926 the production of whale oil was 1,072,000 and 1,120,000 barrels respecmineral oils

Arctic sperm oil, a kindred oil closely resembling sperm oul

in its

constitution,

is obtained

from

the

bottlenose

whale,

tively.

1926

The United Kingdom imported nearly 51,000 tons m

(See also Oms ANp Fars )

WHALLEY,

(E.L,G H W.)

EDWARD (c 161s5-c 1675), English _Hyperoodon rostratus, Each animal yields about eight barrels of the oil, which has a distinctly lower value than true sperm oil, regicide, was the second son of Richard Whalley, who had been sheriff of Nottinghamshire in 1595, by his second wife Frances

WHARTON—WHATELY Cromwell, aunt of Oliver Cromwell,

On the outbreak of the]

WHARTON,

557

EDITH

Amer-

(1362-

NEWBOLD

Jones, a born and a Civil War he took up arms for the parliament, became mayor | ican wniter, the daughter of George of Cromwell’s regiment of horse, and fought with distinction | in New York city, and was educated at home, but spent most of Edward marred she 1885 In France and Italy in hfe later her | by m the campaigns of 1643 to 1647 When the king was seized

the army, he was entrusted to the keeping of Whalley and his | Wharton, a Boston banker, and a few years later she began her chaplains at the bidding of the parliamentary commussioners, | ner’s Magazine The House of Muth (1905) definitely estab-

regiment at Hampton Court. Whalley refused to remove Charles’s | hterary career by contnbuting poems and short stories to Scriband treated his captive with due courtesy, receiving from Charles | lished her reputation. The very brief novel Ethan Frome (r9rx)

In the second Civil | 1s comparable only to the work of Hawthorne in the grimness of

after us fight a friendly letter of thanks

War, Whalley again distinguished himself as a soldier, and | its tragedy of New England love and frustration

Her splendid

which she when the king was brought to trial he was chosen to be one of| sense of character, her cutting irony, her technique—in

the tribunal and signed his death-warrant. He took part in Crom- | shows a decided kinship to Henry James—have secured for her a well’s Scottish expedition, was wounded at Dunbar, and in the | high place m American hterature Mrs Wharton's long resıdence autumn of 1650 was active in dealing with the situation in north | ın Europe has caused her to write a number of books of travel,

Britain Next year he took part in Cromwell's pursuit of Charles | such as Jtalan Villas and Thess Gardens (1904), but her reputathese

TI and was in the fight at Worcester

He followed and supported | tion rests chiefly on her novels and short stories

Among

lus great kinsman 1m his political career, presented the army | are: Crucial Instances (1901), The Fruit of the Tree (1907); petition to parliament (August 1652), approved of the protecto-| Xingu and Other Stortes (1916); The Age of Innocence (1920); rate, and represented Nottinghamshire in the parhaments of 1654 | A Son at the Front (1923), the four volumes portraying the life and 1656, taking an active part ın the prosecution of the Quaker | of old New York. False Dawn, a story of the ’40s, The Old

James Naylor He was one of the admmistrative major-generals, | Mazd, the ’s0s, The Spark, the ‘60s, and New Years Day, the and was responsible for Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Warwick | *7os, published together in 1924, the novels Twihght Sleep (1927), (1929). She and Leicester He supported the “Petition and Advice,” except | The Children (1928), and Hudson River Bracketed as regards the proposed assumption of the royal title by Cromwell, | discusses her own method in The Writing of Faction (1925)

See L. M. Melish, Bibliography of the Collected Writings of Edith and became a member of the newly constituted House of Lords| 1657. On a Protector’s death, at which he was |Wharton (1927) and R. M Lovett, Edith Wharton (1925)m Pe present,

his support to Richard, his regiment)

he in vain gave

In| 7, 1820

him from his command as a representative of the army

Ameri

1820-1

WHAR

refused to obey his orders, and the Long Parliament dismissed | writer and TO

a eae

nn

eee Me

After holding various professional and ecclesiastical

November 1659 he undertook an unsuccessful mission to Scotland | posts, he settled in Washington, DC, where in 188 5-88 he was

Columbian (now George to arrange terms with Monk At the Restoration, Whalley, with | lecturer and professor of criminal law at the Department of State. his son-m-law, General Wilham Goffe, escaped to America, and | Washington) university and solicitor of was a leading American and treatises legal many wrote Wharton New| at landed at Boston on July 27, 1660, living successively DC

Haven and at Hadley, Massachusetts, the government at home| ne to ponn oi arrest. Li account of Whalley’s life is m Mark Noble’s uTHORITIEs —An Regscides, and also of he family m Noble’s M

ieee

He died in Washington,

authority on international law Feb 21, 1889 a

oe ee

i

i

eee {a

ee

of the Englsh prefaced to the first volume of the Revolutionary the Protectoral House of Cromwell, vol ix (1787, 2nd ed) , see besides | of Francis Wharton,” Correspondence; Asa W. Russell, “Francis Wharton, LL.D , Gardmer’s and Clarendon’s histories of the period, Peck’s Desiderata | Diplomatic Editor, Professor, Author and Clergyman,” Publicist, Lawyer, D.D, | Stiles’s Ezra flight), king’s the of account Whalley’s (r779, curtosa vol. 18 (1911).

The article | Case and Comment, aoa tecy e of a saa Kiaat T. (2794, ee : . admıra 1s an 20 ab. Cb. e m 1 WHARTON, HENRY (1664-1695), English writer, was Whalley’s sojourn in America 1s dealt viih m Aarons papaa pibBaron Wharton (1520-1572), born ished by the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in the Hutchinson | descended from Thomas,9, 2nd 1664, studied at Gonville and Caius eo published (1865) by the Prince Society, see also Atlantic | at Worstead on Nov. was ordamed deacon, and San-

onthly, vi 89-93; Pennsylvama Mag, i 33-66, 230, 359, F B.| college, Cambridge

me rae eee Whalley and Goffe, New Haven Col halle G t 0 wt Soc. Papers, u (18 PEI of Core, (Boston, Frem commemorate 1877),of their and Dixwell, with1D abstract history, by Philagathos

1793), Palfrey’s Hest of New England, u. (1866) ; Notes and Queres,

sth seres, vii 359 (bibliography of American works on the regicides).

ee

(Famity). The Whartons of Wharton were an WHARTON

and in 1543 Tomas

family, of England old north568) (ags was created a baron. The fifth baron, THOMAS HARTON (1648-1715), was created in 1706 earl and in 1714

park ae of Wharton, The rst marquess is famous as the a author of the political ballad, Lsllsburlero, which “sang James II eethree kingdoms ” Wharton was lord-lieutenant of Ireland of Swift, who attacked him the wrath incurred (No. e's reign, 3 Verres as in the and Examiner 14), and drew a separate “char-

of him, which is one of Swift’s masterpieces,

Addison

In 1687 he

chaplains of croft, archbishop of Canterbury, made him one n gente his Seah

è er Tand appointed him in succession to two Kentish livings

He died

on March s, 1695, and was buried in Westmunster abbey.

Wharton’s most valuable work is his Amgha sacra, a collection of the lives of English archbishops and bishops, which was published of in two volumes 1n 1691 In the Lambeth hbrary there are 16 volumes A hfe of Wharton is included in George Wharton’s manuscripts D’Oyly’s Life of W. Sancroft (1821)

WHATELY, RICHARD (1787-1863), English logician and theological writer, archbishop of Dublin, was born in London on Feb x, 1787 He was educated at a private school near Bristol, and at Oriel College, Oxford. In 1811 he was elected fellow of Onel, and in 1814 took orders. During his residence at Oxford he a very Bonaparte, to Napoleon Doubts relative wrote his : < ; : gs cs Historic

HistoryAfterhismarriage See ead ths Gospel dedicated to him the fifthvolume of the Spectator, giving himaA ||ta and in 1822 was appointed Bampton lecturer. The lecOxford, tures, On the Use and Abuse of Party Spirit in Matters of ReWas different “character” from Swift's His first wifeig acter”

was an authoress, whose poems, including HARTON (1632—1685),

and DryWalter celebrated byduke were (1698-1731), Rochester, an Elegy den His on son,Lord Pare Warton of Wharton, succeeded to his father’s marquessate and fortune, and in 1718 è




wonder of our days” (Moral Essays, i 179). After spending ”

aoe estates he went abroad and gave eccentric support to the outlawed in 1729, and at his death the ee titles

For the history of the family see E. R. Wharton’s Whartons of Wharton Hall (1898).

gion, were published in the same year. In August 1823 he removed to Halesworth m Suffolk, but in 1825, having been appointed principal of St. Alban Hall, he returned to Oxford His treatise on Logic (1826), originally contributed to the Encyclopaedia Metropolstana, gave a great impetus to the study of logic

throughout Great Britain

A similar treatise on Rhetoric, also

contributed to the Encyclopaedia, appeared in 1828, In 1829 Whately became professor of political economy at Oxford, but of lectured only for two years, as he was appointed archbishop

Dublin in 1831. One of his first acts was to endow a chair of

558

WHAUP—WHEAT

political economy ım Trinity College out of his pnvate purse In 1837 he wrote his well-known handbook of Christian Evidences, which was translated during his lifetime iuto more than a dozen languages At a later period he also wrote, in a simular form, Easy Lessons on Reasomng, on Morals, on Mind and on the British Constitution. Among his other works may be mentioned Charges and Tracts (1836), Essays on Some of the Dangers to Christian Faith (1839), The Kingdom of Christ (1841) He also edited Bacon’s Essays, Paley’s Evidences and Paley’s Moral Phiosophy. His cherished scheme of unsectarian religious instruction

was defeated by the opposition of the new Catholic archbishop of Dublin, and Whately felt himself constramed to withdraw from the Education Board From the beginning Whately was a keensighted observer of the condition of Ireland question, and gave much offence by openly supporting the state endowment of the Catholic clergy as a measure of justice During the terrible years of 1846 and 1847 the archbishop and his family were unwearied in their efforts to alleviate the miseries of the people. Whately died on Oct, 8, 1863 Whately may be said to have continued the typical Christianity of the 18th century—that of the theologians who went out to fight the Rationalsts with their own weapons It was to Whately essentially a beef m certain matters of fact, to be accepted or rejected after an examination of “evidences.” Hence his endeavour always is to convince the logical faculty, and his Christianity mevitably appears as a thing of the intellect rather than of the heart Whately’s qualities are exhibited at their best in his Logic, which is, as it were, the quintessence of the views which he afterwards applied to different subjects He wrote nothing better

[BOTANY AND CULTIVATION

followed by the plumule leaves. The main axis or stem extends httle and the lateral buds upon it grow into short stems upon which buds also arise, and these in turn produce short stems and buds; such branching of the young plant, termed “tillermg,” which

occurs close to the ground, continues for a variable length of time dependent on the variety of the wheat, the time of sowing, con. dition of the soil and other factors The many short stems produced are at first hidden by the leaves, later they rapidly elongate or “shoot” upwards forming the straws of the crop. The much branched aus of a strongly “tillered” plant may thus give rıse tO 5, 10, 20 Or even

ears, all of which

100 straws and

have come from the

embryo of a single grain. The inflorescence or ear of wheat consists of a notched axis or rachis which bears

on

FROM GROOM, "ELEMENTARY BOT- flattened

ANY” (G BELL k EONS)

alternate spikelets,

sides one

at

from each

18-25 notch

Each spıkelet has a thın central axıs—the

FIG. 2 —A SPIKELET OF rachilla At the base are two hoat-shaped WHEAT chaffy scales, the empty glumes, then follow a number of flowers arranged alternately along the rachılla,

each enclosed between a flowering glume and palea, the former of which may or may not terminate in a long beard or awn The flower is very simple, consisting of three stamens and a featherystyled ovary, at the base of which are two mmute membranous

scales termed lodicules. The number of flowers m a spikelet varies m different races of wheat, but m ordinary bread wheat is 4-6 ‘or more, of than the luminous Appendix to the work on Ambiguous Terms. which usually not more than two or three In 1864 his daughter published Miscellaneous Remams from his develop into grain, the rest being abortive. commonplace book and in 1866 his Life and Correspondence m two After the ear escapes from the upper volumes The Anecdotal Memoirs of Archbishop Whately, by W. J. leaf sheath flowering takes place in five or Fitzpatrick (1864), enliven the picture six days, when the glumes surrounding the WHAUP: see CURLEW. flowers are pushed apart by the lodicules WHEAT. Among the three or four most important cereals which swell and become turgid at this The filaments of the flower FROM GROOM, “ELEMENTARY BOY utilized as food by man wheat (Triticum) occupies the first place period It 1s the cereal above all others from which good bread can be lengthen rapidly and the anthers dehisce at ANY" (G BELL & SONS) 3—FLOWER OF made and in this form ıs consumed by the their tips. Some of the abundant pollen FIG WHEAT most highly civilized nations of the world. falls on the feathery stigmas, often before The grain from which the plant 1s grown the flower opens, the rest being shed into the air Normally the is a caryopsis or nut-lke fruit contammng glumes remain separated about 15-20 mmutes and then close, a single seed. The thin shell or pericarp of self-pollination and self-fertilization 1s the rule, but crossing from the fruit and the coat of the seed are so pollen brought to the flower by air currents before the glumes closely united when ripe that they cannot close 1s common in warm climates and not infrequent nm Britam be separated. The colour of the grain is in some seasons Flowering goes on throughout the day The usually a pale creamy tint or some shade lowest flower of each spikelet opens first, of red buf, in certain Abyssinian wheats it the rest followimg in succession upwards is purple The surface is smooth except at The first spikelet to flower les ın the the tip which is covered with hairs, the middle third of the ear, and flowering dorsal side 1s convex, the ventral side havprogresses upwards and downwards from mg a longitudinal furrow At the base of this point, the last to open being those of the grain on the dorsal side is an oval the terminal and basal spikelets respecwrinkled patch which covers the embryo tively The whole ear completes its flowerof the seed The embryo possesses several ing in five or six days in warm weather, but rudimentary rootlets and a terminal bud, is prolonged to six or eight days when the x E from which the stem and sky is overcast. eaves of the future plant develop Its drosi a After fertilization the grain begins to position, relative size ahd parts, as wellAS ate! (eet e develop, its volume increasing day by day FROM GROOM, “ELEMENTARY BOT the structure of the rest of the grain are FIG 1—INFLORESCENCE The pericarp expands as the seed within ANY” (G RELL & SONS) shown in the longitudinal section given m OF WHEAT enlarges, and reaches its maximum size in FIG, A-——DIAGRAM OF fig 2. Beneath the epidermis are a few layers of cells belong- four or five weeks, when the water con- FLOWER ing to the pericarp; within these is the seed coat which sur- tent is about 70% of the weight of the gram Later the dry rounds the embryo and the endosperm or floury part of the weight increases, the water content gradually decreasing to seed Fhe outer layer of the endosperm consists of cubical 12—14% when the grain is mpe. At the time of maximum volcells containing minute aleuron grains composed of protems ume the grain is green, the embryo almost completely formed and The rest, which makes up the bulk of the endosperm, 1s a mass the cells of the endosperm contain a large amount of water At of thin-walled cells within which are vast numbers of «arch this s age ~1¢ grain 1s sa‘ to be “rk upe ” on squeezing it yields grains imbedded in a matrix of proteins from which the gluten so a white hawd in which doat ve~1 * unbers of starch grains In the essential to the manufacture of good porous bread is derived “yellow ripe” stage which follows, the grain has assumed ats Life-history—Germination of the grain occurs in a few days creamy or reddish tint,—the chlorophyll of the cells of the periwhen sown in warm soil; the rootlets, breaking out first, are. soon carp having disappeared,—and the endosperm now kneads like

BOTANY AND CULTIVATION]

WHEAT

559

and the Basque districts of Spain Small amounts are also grown when the characteristic colour of the grain is clearly marked, its iw other parts of the world for horse and cattle food endosperm becomes harder and the flinty or mealy character 1s Macarons: wheats are tall solid-strawed kinds with bearded ears and sharply keeled glumes. The grain is narrow, pointed at each established The time taken in the npening process depends on the variety end, with hard translucent endosperm specially suitable for the of the wheat, and the climate of the locality m which it 1s grown; manufacture of macaroni and other similar pastes These wheats yn the south of England the time elapsing between the date of have glabrous leaves and resist drought well, giving good crops appearance of the ear from the of grain m districts with a low ramfall They are cultivated throughout the Mediterranean leaf-sheath and the production of region, in Central Asia, India, ripe grain 1s from 8-9 weeks for South Africa and the warmer * most wheats regions of North and South Species and Races.— The America classification of the vast number Rivet or Cone wheats are tall of forms of wheat presents numsolid-strawed forms with heavy, erous difficulties, and many atbearded ears, sharply keeled tempts have been made by botglumes and large, plump, bluntanists since the tıme of Linnaeus tipped grains with a characteristic (1753) who recognized five dorsal hump. The endosperm of species Most of these schemes of the grain 1s soft and starchy, are based upon differences in the more susted to the biscuit-maker morphology of the ear, and the than the baker of bread Some majority refer to a comparatively varieties of rivet, often named few of the known forms and mummy, miracle or seven-headed these chiefly herbarum speciwheats, have branched ears. The mens The most comprehensive rivet wheats have soft, velvety classification based upon the FROM GROOM, “ELEMENTARY BOTANY” (G BELL & SONS, LTD ) study of living plants of prac- FRON PERCIVAL, “JHE WHEAT PLANT” (PUSK- leaves and require a warm climate PART OF FIG 5—-DISSECTED for full development. They are tically all known kinds growing WORTH) FLOWER FIG. 7 —MACARONI WHEAT grown chiefly in countries alang under similar conditions is that

wax or dough

In two or three days the “ripe” stage is reached

given in Professor Percival’s monograph, The Wheat Plant. In this work are recognized eleven cultivated species or races, which fall mto three groups as follows.—Group I Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L ). Group II. Emmer (T. dicoccum Schub.) , Macaroni wheat (T durum Desf ); Rıvet wheat (T turgidum L), Egyptian Cone wheat (T, pyramidale Perciv,); Khorasan wheat

the northern side of the Mediterranean from Poxtugal to the Caucasus, though small amounts of some varieties are met with

in the warra parts of other cauntnes In addition to the three races of wheat mentioned above and belonging to the Emmer group, are three comparatively small

uncommon

races, viz-—Egyptian cone, Polish and Khorasan

wheats. The Egyptian cone wheats are endemic in Egypt; they reHI. Bread wheat (T vulgare Host ), Club wheat (T. compactum Host ); Indian Dwarf wheat (T. sphaerococcum Percy ), Spelt semble the rivet wheats in their velvety leaves, and dorsally: humped gram, but have short or Dinkel (7. Spelta L) The straw, comparatively short dense chromosome number of the ears and are early. wheats of group I is 14, that of Polish wheat 1s a tall-strawed group II. is 48, while that of

(T. orientale Perciv ); Polish wheat (T. polonicum L). Group

land endemic in Spain and §po-

group III is 42.

radically found in other countries along the Mediterranean, the

Einkorn (German, one grain); Engrain (French; Small spelt). | The wheats of this race have oz the ten years before the World War, when their \: us avercged £40,000,000 sterling per annum Forty years eu" cr 12.he sixties of the roth century, imports of wheat were only about 1,500,000 tons, so that they were increased more than threefold during that period Of the total imports of wheat into Britain about one-half comes from Empire countries, Canada being now the chief source of supply within the empire. More wheat is received from the United States than any other non-British country, so that North America supplles 60% of the total xmports. In the five years

1922~26

imports

from

Empire

countnes

averaged

2,481,000

tons per annum, Canada furmshing over 60% of this quantity, Australa about 23% and India about 13% In the same period

imports from other countries averaged 2,593,000 tons, of which

the United States supplied 60% and Argentina 34%, with Ger`

WHEAT

UNITED STATES]

many and Russia the next most important suppliers. These last two countries sent rather over 100,000 tons each mn 1926 Since immediately before the World War there has not been any very appreciable change in the proportion of the total

British imports obtained from the Empure and other countries, respectively, but there have been appreciable changes m the proportions obtamed from individual countries.

In the five years 1909-13 the average annual imports from India were larger than from any other country, but in 1922-26 India took only the fifth

place, supplies from that country having declined by two-thirds. Supplies from both Canada and the Umted States, on the other hand, have mcreased by about two-thirds, while Russia, which in 1909-13 supplied about 15% of the total imports, in 1922-26

furnshed less than 1% The average follows —

annual British ports

Countries from which consigned Argentma

Chile Germany

of wheat have been as

1909-13

Tons

835,000

877,000

789,000 034,000

44,000 1,567,000

38,000 13,000

Russia United States

Total non-British countnies* Australia

Canada

1922—26

Tons

29,000 44,000

2,678,000 | 2,593,000 588,000

574,000

969,000

328,000

2,488,000

2,481,000

908,000 | 1,555,000

India

Total Bntish countries*

563

are to-day a centre for the production of the soft red winter wheats. The opening of canals in the Potomac valley and New York enabled the movement of this wheat to the more populous eastern seaboard, and the building of railroads greatly speeded and extended the process. The most rapid expansion of American wheat production took place immediately after the Civil War, and occupied the period from 1866 to about 1890. It was due to three principal factors First, the development of large-scale harvesting and threshing machinery, which had been the goal of inventors for years prior to the war Secondly, the advance of settlement from the rolling forested lands of the East to the relatively level open prairies and plains of the great West, with their better wheat soils, and suitability to machine operations Thirdly, the release of a large body of adventurous young spints from the armies, with a desire for the strenuous life of the new frontiers Wheat was the domunant crop in this new inland empire Favourable soil and climate, level open fields, and large machinery units made production profitable on low-priced land, much of it homesteaded Wheat was a concentrated crop, readily storable under frontier conditions, and haulable by team for relatively long distances in summer or winter. Being a staple food crop, it always was readily saleable. Distinct wheat-growing areas have developed, based on differences in the kinds of wheat grown, or in the methods of growing them Most of the country grows winter wheat, but two classes of spring wheat are grown near the northern boundary. The five great commercial classes of wheat in America are (1) Soft red

winter, (2) hard red winter, (3) hard red spring (common), (4) durum (hard amber spring), and (5) white wheat, which con-

sists of both winter and spring wheats, both club and common, but all having white kernels. The soft red wimter wheats occupy the humid eastern United The trade in wheat is worldwide, prices in practically all coun- States from the Atlantic Ocean westward to about the line of 30inch ramfall, which runs from eastern Texas to north-western tries being affected as much by the total world supplies as by the yields of local crops. In the latter half of the year the trade 1s Towa, and thence eastward to the Great Lakes They are used chiefly influenced by the yields or prospective yields in Europe primarily for making pastry flours, and for blending with, the and North America, whereas in the early months of the year the stronger hard wheats in the manufacture of bread flour. The hard red winter wheats occupy the southern two-thirds of crops of Argentina and Australia have an important effect on the trade It is to be remembered that the trade is worldwide; that the Great Plams area, and also eastern Montana and some dryin every month of the year wheat 1s beg harvested in some part land areas in Idaho and Oregon These wheats are used directly of the globe; and that in very many countries wheat is sown in for making bread flour for domestic use and for export as wheat the autumn, so that the crop 1s subject to the good and bad in- or flour, or for blending with soft wheats for both domestic and fluences of weather for long periods For these reasons prices export purposes The hard red spring wheats predominate in Minnesota, the fluctuate daily according to the reports received on the markets regarding the changing prospects of the yields and the actual re- Dakotas, eastern Montana, and far northward into Canada, where sults of the harvests in different countries Important changes in an isolated production district 1s found in the Peace River valley price levels, however, most often take place in the British sum- at about latitude 56° N They are used for blending with the soft mer and early autumn, when the crops of the northern hemisphere, wheats m the making of bread flours and command premium prices which produces much the larger proportion of the world’s yield, when of high quality The durum wheats are found in western Minnesota and the are being harvested (H C L;J R B) adjacent eastern portions of the Dakotas ‘These extra hard WHEAT PRODUCTION IN AMERICA wheats are grown primarily for the making of semolina, a fine Wheat was introduced to the mfant Enghsh colonies in Vir- meal from which are manufactured the various edible pastes such ginia and Massachusetts soon after their settlement in 1607 and aS macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and noodles Some is milled 1620, respectively. It had been introduced to Mexico by the Span- and manufactured in America and some is exported. The white wheats occupy a small district in New York and ish, however, probably as early as 1530 Strangely enough, however, ıt was not wheat but maize, or Indian corn, that became the adjacent Ontario, and larger districts in the Pacific Northwest and staple meal of these English colonists m America, and more than in California They are used for making pastry flours and for blending with harder wheats in the making of bread flours. Large once saved them from starvation There were good reasons for the superiority of corn over wheat quantities are exported The wheat-growing areas of the United States may be divided on the Atlantic coast, The soil and chmate were better suited to it Maize was much easier to plant, cultivate, and harvest in the climatologically into humid (more than 30 inches of precipitation), semi-arid (15-30 inches), and arid (less than 15 inches). In rough clearmgs, among stumps and stones Maize was more easily the humid areas, soft red winter wheat 1s grown ın a rotation with ground and cooked with primitive kitchen utensils. Wheat production developed commercially with the westward corn and hay or pasture In the semi-arid Great Plains area, the hard red winter wheat and the hard red and durum spring wheats with chmates, progress of settlement to better wheat soils and the mcreasing of towns and cities, and with improved facilities are grown in rotation to some extent with corn or sorghums, and to a small extent with legumes, such as alfalfa, sweet clover, and for handling the crop ın field and mill The first American wheat belt stretched from Delaware and Maryland to central New York red clover In the arid region west of the Rocky Mountains the precipitation of two years is necessary to produce one crop of This district stall grows much wheat The States of the Ohio valnext centre of commercial wheat production. They wheat. The land is bare-fallowed in the alternate season to conTotal

5,166,000% | 5,074,000"

*Includes imports from countries not named.

ley were the

564

WHEAT

serve moisture for the succeeding crop. Very little rotation of crops can be practiced.

In general, wheat is a cool-weather plant About two-thirds of the American wheat crop 1s of winter varieties, germinating and making vigorous root growth with diminishing temperatures in the

[UNITED STATES

export, 180,000,000

A large part of the wheat used in making

flour for domestic use and small quantities of the grain used for feed and seed enter into trade Between 1923 and 1927 about 560,000,000 bu. were shipped annually from Wwheat-growing

districts of the United States Most of the wheat entering into trade is produced west of the fall, and vigorous shoot growth with the slowly increasing temperatures in the spring and early summer. Spring wheats must be Mississippi river The Great Plains States from Texas north and sown as early as possible, just as soon as the frost ıs out and Oregon, Washington and Idaho produce large quantities of wheat the land can be worked, so that their early growth may be in cool in excess of local requirements Most of the surplus of the northern Great Plains moves to Minneapolis, a large mulling centre, or weather. Ripening occurs in warm to hot weather The northern limit of successful production of winter wheat has to Duluth for shipment to eastern mulls or to the Atlantic Coast been moving steadily northward durmng the last fifty years North ports for export Much of the grain from the central Great Plains Dakota is now the only one of the wheat-growing States of the moves through Chicago, St Louis and Milwaukee for eastern millnorthern boundary which does not produce winter wheat The ing centres and for export, and from the central and southern production of hard red winter wheat extends across the Ca- Great Plains to Kansas Cıty or smaller primary markets for millnadian boundary from Montana into southern Alberta. The north- ing, or to New Orleans and Galveston for export The most mern limit of spring wheat production also is moving north with the portant primary market or concentration point on the Pacific Coast is Portland development of earlier vaneties and better methods The diversity of the wheat of the United States 1s an important Wheat grows best on relatively heavy soils, such as clays, clayEach of the five leading commercial loams, and loams, but does not do well on sandy loams, and factor in its marketing sands, to which rye 1s much better adapted. In general, the higher classes of wheat 1s produced within a reasonably well defined region from which it ıs regularly marketed. Most of the the fertility of the soil the better the wheat yields The wheat crop is subject to many hazards during its growth hard red spring 1s produced in the northern States, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana Most of the durum and harvesting Some are chmatic, others are biologic The chief climatic hazard 1s winterkillmg, due to one or more of several 1s produced in North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana The causes, including fall drought, winter drought, alternate freezing hard red winter wheat 1s the product of the southern and central and thawing, soil blowing, low temperatures without snow cover, Great Plains, whereas the soft red winter wheat is the product of and smothering by 1ce Other causes of climatic mjury are the more humid southern and eastern parts of the United States There are two chief centres of white wheat production, the spring or summer drought, hot winds, hail storms and wind storms Among the chief biologic factors are rodents, insects and fungous eastern lake states, the Pacific Coast states and Idaho A very diseases. Rodents usually are not very destructive to wheat, large part of the hard red spring wheat is marketed through although squirrels, rabbits and prairie dogs take their annual toll. Minneapolis or Duluth and practically all of it 1s annually conInsects often cause heavy losses. The most destructive are Hes- sumed within the Umted States A large proportion of the durum sian fly, jomt worms, aphids (“green bugs”), grasshoppers, white is marketed through Mmneapolis and Duluth and a large part of

grubs and wire worms Fungous diseases, individually and collectively, may be tremendously destructive to the wheat crop The heaviest losses are caused by two stinking smuts, loose smut, stem rust, leaf rust, seedling blights, scab and foot-rots Average yields of all wheat in the United States vary around 14-5 bushels per acre This often is cited against America because yields i England and Germany are rather more than double this quantity. There is no fair comparison England and Germany are both wholly in the cool humid chmate so favorable to wheat. The United States, with its enormous area, covers much territory which is relatively hot and dry, and where yields naturally are low American farmers, using large-scale machinery and much land, produce enormously more wheat per man than the farmers of Europe, where land is scarce, wages are lower, and much hand labour 1s used Consumption of wheat per capita increased in America until about the end of the last century This was due to increasing prosperity, abundance of cheap wheat, improved milling and baking, and increasing population in cities where bread was largely used in a somewhat restricted dietary More recently per capita consumption seems to be decreasing Among the causes are (a) increasmg buying power of the workers m industry, (b) broadening dietary due to greater production of truck crops around cities, refrigerator transportation, cold storage, and household refrigeration, (c) campaigns agamst white bread (probably a temporary influence), and (d) relatively higher price of wheat While the influence of these different factors may vary in the future, it: is doubtful if the per capita consumption ever will mse to its former level On the other hand, many peoples in other lands, now subsisting chiefly on millets, gram sorghums, and rice, may eat more

wheat when it is economically possible

(C R Br)

Wheat Trade of the United States.—About two-thirds of the wheat crop of the United States enters into domestic trade and a little more than one-fifth of the crop is exported In the past

the durum marketed 1s for export, mostly through Duluth, The most important hard red winter wheat market is Kansas City but large quantities of this wheat also move through Chicago, St Lous, New Orleans and Galveston There is nearly always a surplus of this wheat for export. A large proportion of the soft red winter wheat 1s consumed within or near the areas of production, St Louis is the most mportant pnmary market for this kind of wheat Considerable quantities are distributed through eastern markets and small quantities are exported On the average, however, there is very little soft red winter wheat available for export

Small quantities are normally produced for export from the Pacific Coast states Most of the white wheat produced im the eastern states 1s used locally while considerable quantities of western white wheats are exported In years of normal production in all classes considerable quantities of hard red winter, durum and white wheats are exported, but only small amounts of soft red winter and hard red spring wheats Wheat

Year

1922

1923 1924 1925

Exports from the United States, by classes, 1922-27

Hard red | Durum)

Hard | Soft red red | White | Total*

spring

winter | winter

I,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 bushels | bushels | bushels |bushels | bushels | bushels 17,046 | 41,837) 38,892! 23,243 | 13,7d8 |Te4 acr 3:152 | 16,546 | 26,997! 13,305, 179033 TATY 37,143 | 31,278 | 107,510 7820 17729 ThE 4c 3,150 | 30,332 | 19,739! 2,522 ' roe 9 OATS,

1926

19271

1,562 | 21,875 | 75,000] 3.,250 | 2 02! 786 axe!

6,806 | 21,780 | 63,979] T2613

29545 t3613-

United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Foreign News on Wheat, F S.-WH-z8, June 14, 1928

“Totals reported by the Department of Commerce Distribution by classes made on basis of inspections for export and Canadian inspection

of United States wheat {Ten months

ear

five seasons (1923-27) production has averaged a httle more than 810,000,000 bushels The total supply has been utilized about as Small quantities of wheat are annually imported from Canada, follows seed, 85,000,000 bushels, feed, 60,000,000; flour for most of ıt to be mixed with United States domestic wheat to domestic use, 485,000,000 bushels and wheat, includmg flour for | produce flour for foreign markets. This wheat is imported and

WHEATEAR—WHEATSTONE’S ound in bond

In years when the hard red sprmg wheat crop

of the United States 1s very short small quantities may be mported, duty paid, for domestic consumption Futures exchanges are important in the marketmg of the wheat crop, much of the future trading being negotiated at Chicago and some at Minneapolis and Kansas City The United States has ex-

BRIDGE

565

a justice of the marine court of the city of New York from 1815 to 1819, and reporter of the United States supreme court from 1816 to 1827 In 1825 he was a reviser of the laws of New York His diplomatic career began in 1827, with an appomtment to Denmark as chargé d’affaires, followed by that of minister to

Prussia, 1837 to 1846 During this period he had published a Digest of the Law of Maritime Captures (1815), twelve volumes of Supreme Court Reports, and a Digest; a great number of historical articles, and some collected works; Elements of Internatonal Law (1836), his most important work, of which a 6th edition with memoir was prepared by W B. Lawrence and an $373.578 000 eighth by R H Dana (qv.), Hzstowe du Progrés du Drott des Gens en Europe, written in 1838 for a prize offered by the French Academy of Moral and Pohtical Science, and translated in 1845 | by William B Lawrence as A History of the Law of Nations in $561 051000 Europe and America; and the Right of Visitation and Search (1842) The Hrstory took rank at once as one of the leading works on the subject of which it treats. Wheaton’s general theory is that international law consists of “those rules of conduct which reason deduces, as consonant to justice, from the nature of the society existing among independent $942,303 000 nations, with such definitions and modifications as may be established by general consent.” He died at Dorchester, Mass, on

ported a surplus of wheat in every year of its history except 1836 The first great stimulus to exports was the repeal of the British Corn laws which went into effect ın 1850, but the greatest expansion came after the Civil

1900

| ea ||tian 602.708.000 BU

War, from 1866 to 1880 Exports | 110 reached a high point ın the World War period and then declined, 635 121,000 BU. but continued in large volume A large proportion of the exports

of both wheat and flour are for northern Europe, with the United Kingdom the most important buyer Central and South America furnish a stable market and shipments to the Orient are increasing, (OCS)

WHEATEAR,

1,025 801,000 BU

March

a city of Ihnois, USA

Pop. (1920) 4,137

(88% native white) , 7,258 in 1930 by the Federal census The city was founded in 1837, and incorporated in 1859.

WHEATSTONE,

England by the end of February The cock bird, with his bluish1925 grey back and light buff breast, set off by black ear-coverts, | |wings, and part of the tail, ıs 676.429 rendered conspicuous in flight by his white rump. When alarmed

11, 1848

WHEATON,

Oenanthe

oenanthe, one of the earliest spring migrants, often reaching

000 BU

$957,907 000

SIR CHARLES

(1802-1875), English

physicist and the practical founder of modern telegraphy, was born at Gloucester m Feb. 1802 Wheatstone was educated at several private schools. He became a musical mstrument maker and carried out a number of experiments ım acoustics Wheatstone was so excessively shy that he was unable to lecture in public and many of his inventions were first described by Faraday

in lis Friday evening discourses at the Royal Institution By 1834 his originality and resource in experiment were fully recognized, and he was appomted professor of experimental philosophy at King’s College, London, in that year About this tume Wheatground, a large amount of soft THE SUPPLY material ıs collected, and on ıt from five to eight pale blue eggs are stone made his determmation, by means of a revolving mirror, laid Wheatears were formerly trapped for the table ın enormous of the speed of electric discharge in conductors, a piece of work numbers on the Downs The wheatear ranges throughout the Old leadmg to enormously important results The great velocity of World, extending in summer far within the Arctic circle, from Nor- electrical transmission suggested the possibility of utilizing it for way to the Lena and Yana valleys, while it winters in Africa be- sending messages, and, after many experiments and the practical yond the equator and in India. It also breeds in Greenland and advice and business-like co-operation of William Fothergill Cooke some parts of North America About eight species are included in (1806-1879), a patent for an electric telegraph was taken out m their joint names in 1837. the European fauna, but the majority are inhabitants of Afnca. Wheatstone’s best work was in the invention of complicated Several of these are birds of the desert. and delicate instruments. He was interested in cryptography; he Amongst allied genera ıs Saxicola which includes two well- deciphered a number of the mss in the British Museum, and known British birds, the stonechat (g.v) and whinchat (q.v ).

both sexes have a sharp Mono- CHART SHOWING HOW THE VALUE

syllabic note that sounds hke or THE WHEAT CROP IN THE UNITED chat The nest is placed under- STATES CHANGES ACCORDING To

The wheatear and its alles belong to the family Turdidae, the

thrushes (g.v )

WHEATLEY,

born on shire, he years on Glasgow

JOHN (1869-1930), British statesman, was

May 18, 1869 Educated in village schools in Lanarkworked ih the coal mimes till 1891. After serving two the Lanarkshire county council, he was elected to the city council in 1912, becoming a baille, and acting as

leader of the Labour group

He was also chairman of the Scottish

National Housing Council In 1922 he was elected MP for the Shettleston division of Glasgow. A member of the Independent Labour party from 1908, he was on its administrative

council in 1923 and 1924

As mmister of health in the Labour

Government he was responsible for the Housing Act of 1924, which provided for a continuous building programme over a period of 15 years, designed to secure the erection of 2,500,000 houses to be let at rents within the means of the working class

Population. He died on May 12, 1930.

WHEATON, HENRY

(1785~1848), American lawyer and

diplomat, was born at Providence, R I., on Nov. 27, 1785. He graduated at Brown University m 1802, was admitted to the bar in 1805, and; after two yeats’ study abroad, practised law at Providence (1807—12), and at New York city (1812-27)

He was

invented a cryptographic machine.

He wrote papers on the trans-

mission of sound in solids, the explanation of Chladni’s figures and the invention

certina (g.v)

of new

musical instruments,

eg, the con-

He invented the kaleidophone which presented

visible the movements of a sounding body and the stereoscope, He also wrote papers on the eye, the physiology of vision, binocular vision and colour Wheatstone showed that the electrical sparks from different metals give different spectra. His most important inventions are in electricity; he played a prominent part in the development of telegraphy on landwires and carried out the first expermments with submarine cables. He devised the “A B.C.” telegraph instrument, an automatic transmitter, and various forms of electrical recording apparatus Wheatstone became F.R.S. in 1837; and ın 1868, after the completion of his masterpiece, the automatic telegraph, he was

knighted

He died on Oct 19, 1875

Wheatstone’s Scientific Papers were collected and published by the Physical Society of London in 1879 Buographical notices of him will be found in the Proc Inst C E., xlvu 283, and Proc Roy. Sod, xx1v., xvi. For his connection with the growth of telegraphy, see Nature, xı 510, and xi 30 seq.

WHEATSTONE’S

BRIDGE,

a network of six conduc-

tors of which four, AB, BC, CD and DA form a closed circut

WHEEL—WHEELOCK

566

while the others, AC and BD, contam a battery and a galvanometer respectively When the resistances of the first four are so adjusted that no current from the battery m AC flows through the conductor BD containing the galvanometer it follows that the resistance of AB : that of BC -: the resistance of AD . that of DC. Hence the resistance of DC is determined if the ratio of the first pair (the “ratio arms”) 1s known together with the exact magnitude of the third (AD) This is the principle of the Post Office Box, the Metre Bridge, the Carey Foster Bridge, the Callendar-Griffths Bridge, and of many other devices for the comparison of resistances, inductances, and capacitances The arrangement was devised by S. H Christie in 1833, and used by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1847 (Scientific Papers, p 129, or Phil Trans 1847). (See INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL)

WHEEL, a circular frame or solid disc revolving on an axis,

of which the function is to transmit or to modify motion See MecHanics Vehicular wheels in the earliest times were circular discs, either cut out of solid pieces of wood or formed of separate planks of wood fastened together and then cut mto a circular shape Such may be still seen in use among primitive peoples to-day The ordinary wheel consists of the nave (O Eng. nafu; cf. Ger, Nabe, alued with “navel”), the central portion or hub, through which the axle passes, the spokes, the radial bars inserted in the nave and reaching to the peripheral rim, the felloe or felly (O. Eng felge, Ger. Felge, properly that which fitted together, Teut felhan, to fit together ) See also CARRIAGE, CHARIOT, CAR; MOTOR-CYCLE, BICYCLE

Horse-Drawn

VremIcCLES;

Moror-

Malone, N Y, June 30, 1819

He studied at the University of

Vermont for two years and in 1845 was admitted to the bar First as a Whig, and then, after 1856, as a Republican, he was

promment for many years in State and national politics He was a member of the State assembly in 1849-50, a member and president pro tempore of the State Senate in 1858-59, and a member of the national House of Representatives mm 1861-63, and aga in 1869-1877 He was the author of the so-called “Wheeler Com.

promise,” by which the difficulties between contending political

factions in Louisiana were adjusted in 1875. Nomunated for vice president by the Republicans in 1876 on the ticket with President Hayes, he was installed in office through

Electoral Commission ( aoeAr 187

the decision of the

He died at Malone, June 4, 1887.

sketch m W

D. Howells, Sketch of R B, Hayes

WHEELER, WILLIAM MORTON

(1865—

__), Amen-

can zoologist, was born at Milwaukee March 19, 1865

ated from the German-American

He gradu-

Normal College m 1884, re-

cerved the PhD degree, 1892, from Clark University, Sc D. from the University of Chicago, 1916 He was assistant professor of embryology, University of Chicago, 1896-99; professor of zoology, University of Texas, 1899-1903, curator of invertebrate zoology, American Museum of Natural History, 1903-08 In 1908 he

was made professor of economic entomology and dean of Bussey, and

m

1926 professor

a member

of entomology,

of the National Academy

at Harvard

of Sciences

He 1s

and is asso-

ciate editor of the Biological Bulletin, Journal of Morphology

and of the Journal of Anemal Behaviour Huis publications mAnts, Their Structure, Development and Behaviour (1910); Socsal Life Among the Insects (1923), Fotbles of Insects and Men (1928), and monographs on numerous species of ants

WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE, a form of torture (g v ) clude. or of execution formerly ın use in France and Germany, where the victim was placed on a cart-wheel and his limbs stretched out along the spokes. The wheel was made to revolve slowly, and the man’s bones broken with blows of an iron bar Sometimes it was mercifully ordered that the executioner should strike the criminal on chest or stomach, blows known as coups de grâce, which at once ended the torture, and ın France he was usually strangled after the second or third blow. A wheel was not always used In

He also translated and annotated The Natural History of Ants, from the French of René Antoine F de Réaumur (1926) WHEELING, a city of West Virginia, USA Pop 56,208 in 1920, 87% native white, and 61,659 n 1930 by the Federal

census The city’s area of 11 8 sqm comprises a natrow strip of bottomland (640 ft. above sea-level), bulls rising behind ıt on the east and an island over a mile long Bridges connect with some countries it was upon a frame shaped lke St Andrew’s cross that the sufferer was stretched The pumishment was abol- Bellaire, Bridgeport and Martins Ferry, Ohio In addition to several parks and 20 playgrounds within its limits, the city has ished m France at the Revolution It was employed in Germany as late as 1827, A murderer was broken on the row or wheel at a country recreation centre of 750 ac , bequeathed by E. W OgleEdinburgh in 1604, and two of the assassins of the regent Len- bay. There is a municipal market, combmed with a large auditonum The city operates under a council-manager. nox thus suffered death Wheeling 1s surrounded by vast coal-fields, and is plentifully WHEELER, JOSEPH (1836-1906), American soldier, was born at Augusta, Ga., in 1836, and entered the US cavalry from supplied with natural gas and steam-generated electric power West Point in 1859 He resigned to enter the Confederate It has over 200 diversified manufacturing plants, with an output service. In a short time he became colonel of infantry and took in 1927 of $62,383,622 uncluding iron, steel, tin plate, proprietary part in the desultory operations of 1861 in Kentucky and medicines, hand-rolled stogies, china and porcelain, nails, glass and Tennessee. He commanded a brigade at the battle of Shiloh, but paper Bank debits in 1926 aggregated $567,631,000. The assessed soon afterwards he returned to the cavalry arm, in which he won valuation for 1927 was $121,540,963 Wheeling was founded in 1769 by Col Ebenezer Zane (1747~ a reputation second only to Stuart’s After the action of Perry1811) of Virginia, and two brothers In 1774 a strong stockade ville he was promoted brigadier general, and m 1863 major general Thenceforward throughout the campaigns of Chickamauga, Chat- was built at the top of Main street hill, and named Ft Fincastle tanooga and Atlanta he commanded the cavalry of the Con- in honour of the then governor of Virginia, but after 1776 called federate army in the west, and when Hood embarked upon the Ft Henry, after Patrick Henry Attacks from hostile Indians were Tennessee expedition, he left Wheeler’s cavalry to harass Sher- frequent. Durmg one of them (Sept 1, 1777) when the ammuman’s army during the “March to the Sea” In the closing nition in the fort failed, Elizabeth Zane, an 18 year old sister of operations of the war, with the rank of heutenant general, he com- the founder, faced the fire of the enemy to bring a keg of powder manded the cavalry of Joseph Johnston’s weak army in North from a cabin 60 yd. away In Sept 1782, the fort was successfully defended by 42 inhabitants against a detachment of British Carolina, and was included im its surrender. At the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, in 1898, Presi- soldiers and 250 Indians. The town was laid out by Col. Zane dent McKinley commissioned Wheeler as major general of Umted In 1793, mcorporated in 1806 and chartered as a city in 1836 States volunteers He commanded the cavalry in the actions of The national road was completed to this point in 1818, and for Guasimas and San Juan, was afterwards sent to the Philippines some years Wheeling was its western terminus as later it was in command of a brigade, and in 1900 was commissioned a for some years of the Baltzmore and Ohio railroad Wheeling was brigadier general in the regular army, He died on Jan. 25, 1906. the headquarters of the Virginians opposed to secession, was the

He wrote The Santiago Campaign (1898)

:

See John Witherspoon Du Bose, General Joseph Wheeler and the Army of Tennessee (1912) ; W C Dodson, Campaigns of Wheeler and hus Cavalry (18909), from material furnshed by Wheeler.

capital of the new State until 1869 and again from 1875 to 1885

The old capitol is now the city hall,

WHEELOCK, ELEAZER

‘

(1711-79), American educator,

born at Windham, Conn,, April 22, 1711 He graduated at Yale WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887), vice in 1733, studied theology, and in 1735 became a Congregationalist president of the United States from 1877 to 1881, was born at preacher at Lebanon, Conn He also took young men into his

WHELK—WHIG house to ñt them for college

One of these was a Mohegan Indian,

Samson Occum, who made such excellent progress, that Wheelock decided to found a free school where both whites and Indians could be educated With aid from various sources he conducted

567

and The Censure of a Loyall Subject (1587). See the edition of woe and Cassandra by J. S. Farmer, x910, in Tudor Facsimile

WHEWELL, WILLIAM (1794-1866), British philosopher

and Master of Trinity, historian of science, was born on May 24, 1794, at Lancaster. He was an exhibitioner of Trinity college, Cambridge, second wrangler in 1816, became fellow and tutor of his college, and, in 1841, succeeded Dr Wordsworth as master He township of land on the Connecticut nver Thither he went with some 30 Students in 1770, and with other settlers, they founded was professor of mineralogy from 1828 to 1832, and of moral philosophy (then called “moral theology and casustical divinity’) the town of Hanover, In recognition of the patronage of Lord Dartmouth the new college was named Dartmouth College He from 1838 to 1855. He died on March 6, 1866 Whewell was a famous Cambridge figure of his day, and there died at Hanover, April 24, 1779 His son, John Wheelock (1754-1817), succeeded hmm as presi- are many amusing stories about him His first work, An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics (1819), co-operated with those dent of Dartmouth, WHELK, the name given to a large number of marine gas- of Peacock and Herschel mn reforming the Cambridge method of tropod molluscs (see GASTROPODA, MOLLUSCA) with solid spiral mathematical teaching, to him im large measure was due the recognition of the moral and natural sciences as an integral part shells, and m particular to the members of the genus Buccinum of the Cambndge curnculum (1850) In general, however, in which the common whelk (Buccimum undatum) is placed especially in later years, he opposed reform: he defended the Fusus anitquus, the “hard whelk” of British fishermen, is another common form of whelk. The rock whelks (Murex) and dog- tutorial system, and m a controversy with Thirlwall (1834) opposed the admission of Dissenters; he upheld the clerical whelks (Purpura) are allied forms All these molluscs are placed fellowship system, the privileged class of “fellow-commoners,” and in the sub-order Rachiglossa of the streptoneurous Gastropoda the authority of heads of colleges in university affairs. He opposed and are distingwshed by their carnivorous and aggressive habits and the modification of their mouth-parts as an eversible pro- the appointment of the University Commission (1850), and wrote two pamphlets (Remarks) against the reform of the university boscs The radula (rasping tongue) is simple as compared with (1855). He advocated as the true reform, against the scheme of that of the plant-eatmg gastropods, and consists usually of three entrusting elections to the members of the senate, the use of collarge teeth suited for tearing animal tissues The nervous system lege funds and the subvention of scientific and professorial work. is condensed by the approximation of the constituent ganglia and His philosophical reputation rests mainly on his History of the the shortening of the commissures The eggs are deposited in Inductive Sciences, from the Earhest to the Present Time (1837), horny capsules which are usually aggregated in clusters. which was mwtended as an introduction to the Philosophy of the The common whelk has a wide distribution in the North AtInductive Sciences (1840). lantic and ranges from the eastern seaboard of North America Whewell’s other works include Elements of Morality, including Polity to the coast of Siberia On the east side of the Atlantic the (1848); the essay, Of the Plurality of Worlds (1854), mn which he such a school at Lebanon from 1754-67, but without a large attendance Desiring a more favourable location, Eleazer accepted the offer of Gov Wentworth of New Hampshire of a

southern limit of its distribution seems to be the south end of the argued a t the probability of planetary hie; the Platonic Dialogues Bay of Biscay It is found at all depths from low water mark for Enghsh Readers (1859-61), Lectures on the History of Moral down to about roo fathoms and on many kinds of bottom Cer- Philosophy in England (1852) , an edition and abridged translation of Grotius, De zure bells et pacts (1853), and an edition of the Mathetain varietal forms are said to occur at greater depths It is a mattcal Works of Isaac Barrow (1860). carnivore, eating both living animals and carrion, especially other Full bibliographical details are given by Isaac Todhunter, W. molluscs, e g , clams and scallops Indeed Petersen considers that Whewell: an Account of his Writings (2 vols, 1876). in Danish waters the whelks prey on the plaice when caught WHICHCOTE (or Waurrcucotrt), BENJAMIN (1609in nets Danish fishermen have estimated that one-third of the 1683), English divine and philosopher, was born at Whichcote year’s catch is lost in this way In the British Isles the whelk is hall, Stoke, Shropshire, and educated at Emmanuel college, Camcaught by the use of wicker crab-pots baited with living crabs, by bridge, where he became fellow in 1633 In 1644 he became dredging and by “trotting” (line-fishmg with crabs tied together provost of King’s college, Cambridge, in place of Samuel Collins as bait) who was ejected In 1650 he was vice-chancellor of Cambridge See W. J Dakin, “Buccinum,” Proc and Trans. Liverpool Biological university Cromwell in 1655 consulted him over extending tolerSociety (1912). (G. C. R.) ance to the Jews His Puritan views lost him the provostship WHETSTONE, GEORGE (1544?-1587?), Enghsh drama- of King’s college at the Restoration of 1660, but on complying with the Act of Uniformity he received the living of St. Anne’s, tist and author, was the third son of Robert Whetstone (d 1557) In 1572 he joined an English regiment on active service in the Blackfriars, London and in 1668, of St. Lawrence Jewry, London Low Countries, where he met_George Gascoigne and Thomas He is regarded as the founder of the school of Cambridge PlatoChurchyard Gascoigne was his guest near Stamford when he nists He died in May 1683 See John Tulloch, Ratzonal Theology, ii 59-84 (1874) ; and Masters died in 1577, and Whetstone commemorated his friend in a long elegy He wrote. Rocke of Regarde (1576), tales in prose and in English Theology, edited by A. Barry (1877). verse adapted from the Italian, The right excellent and famous WHICKHAM, urban district in Durham, England Pop Historye of Promos and Cassandra (1578), a play in two parts, (1931) 20,782 The church of St Mary has Norman and Transidrawn from the 85th novel of Giraldi Cinthio’s Hecatomith:; tional portions, and ım the neighbourhood is the mansion of Heptameron of Crvill Discourses (1582, reprint in Hiazlitt’s Gibside (17th century)

Shakespeare’s Library, vol ii 1875), a collection of tales which includes The Rare Historie of Promos and Cassandra From this

prose version apparently Shakespeare drew the plot of Measure for Measure, though he was doubtless familar with the story in its earlier dramatic form Whetstone accompanied Sir Humphrey

Gilbert on his expedition m 1578-79, and the next year found

him m Italy. The Puritan spirt was now abroad m England, and Whetstone followed its dictates in his prose tract A Mzrour for Magestrates (1584), which in a second edition was called A Touchstone for the Time. In 1885 he returned to the army in Holland, and he was present at the battle of Zutphen. His other works are a collection of military anecdotes entitled The Honourable Reputation of a Souldier (1585); a political tract, the English Myrvor (2886), ee ae on distinguished persons,

WHIG and TORY, the names used to denote two opposing political parties in England, were nicknames introduced in 1679 during the heated struggle over the bill to exclude James, duke of York, from the succession to the Crown. The term “Whig”— whatever be its origin i Scots Gaelic—was used of cattle and

horse thieves and was thence transferred to Scottish Presbyterians, Its connotations in the ryth century were therefore Presbyterianism and rebellion, and ıt was applied to those who claimed

the power of excluding the heir from the throne when they deemed it desirable ‘‘Tory” was an Irish term suggesting a Papist outlaw and was applied to those who supported the hereditary

right of James in spite of his Roman Catholic faith. The names were party badges until the roth century The Tories placed relance on the Crown; the Whigs on the greater nobibty. It may

568

WHIG

be fanciful to trace this cleavage as far back as Magna Carta, but at least ıt must be remembered that the later ideals of popular or democratic government are entirely irrelevant to the creeds of Whig and Tory The revolution of 1688-89 changed the position, forcing a majority of Tones to recognize allegiance to other than hereditary mght to the Crown, and for a time they were thrown back on their opposition to religious toleration and to foreign entanglements, the expression of two cardinal principles of the older Toryism Again in 1714 the failure of the Tory munisters to act together and themselves to determine who should succeed Anne, and the subsequent flight of their leader, Bolingbroke, discredited the Tories as Jacobites, and gave 50 years of political power to the Whigs During this period the Whig landowners, with no effective king to fear, secured their hold on parliament by controlling a large proportion of the borough representation, and the Tories came to advocate, not only an effective balancing force m the Crown, but also the safeguard of a wider franchise and a purified electoral system. When George III came to the throne in 1760 the name of Whig covered many personal factions, for their long prosperity had brought disunion, and the new king, attempting to restore the monarchy to influence, could easily attach to himself some of these groups The followmg 25 years were complicated by the formidable body of “king’s friends,” who cannot properly be called by either name Even the American revolution cannot be considered in terms of the two parties. The nation emerged from the mixing bowl in 1784, with a new Toryism, led by the younger Pitt and a new Whiggism, leavened by the industrial interests and by the beginnings of a Radicalism which took up the demand for electoral and philanthropic reform In contrast to Whig changes, the Tory party began to acquire the reputation of resistance to change, but the Reform Bill of 1832 and the willingness of Canning and Peel to face change, even through party disunion, led to the transformation of Toryism into the Conservatism of Disraeli, which while retaining its devotion to the Crown and the Established Church, expanded 1ts fervent nationalism into a wider imperial outlook, a legacy from those Chathamite Whigs who were rarely at ease within the ranks of their nominal allies. Meanwhile, the commercial and radical wing of the great Whig party, abandoned by its more conservative members, became the main body of the Liberal Party, and Whiggism ceased to have any important political meannmg (See also CONSERVATIVE Party, LIBERAL Party.) (G.H G)

WHIG PARTY, 2 political party prominent in the United States from about 1824 to 1854 The name had been in use immediately before the Revolution and durmg that war to designate those who favoured the colomial cause and independence. The first national party system of the United States came to an end during the second war with Great Britam ‘The destruction of the Federalist Party (g v.) through a seres of suicidal acts which began with the alien and sedition laws of 1798, and closed with the Hartford convention of 1814-1 5, left the Jeffersonian Republican (Democratic) Party in undisputed control. Soon, however, the all-inclusive Republican Party began gradually to disintegrate and a new party system was evolved, each member of which was the representative of such groups of ideas and interests, class and local, as reqwred the support of a separate party Hach new party, disguised during the early stages of organization as the personal following of a particular leader or group of leaders, kept on calling itself Republican. Even during the sharply contested election of 1824 the rival partisans were

known as Jackson, Crawford and Calhoun, or as Clay and Adams Republicans (see Democratic Party) It was not until late in the Administration of John Quincy Adams (182 5-29), that the supporters of the President and Henry Clay, the secretary of State, were first recognized as a distinct party and began to be called by the accurately descriptive term National Republicans But after the party had become consolidated, ın the passionate campaign of 1828 and later, in opposing the measures of President Jackson, it adopted in 1834 the name Whig, which, through memorable associations both British and American, served as a protest agaist executive encroachments, and thus facilitated

PARTY union with parties and factions, such as the Anti-Masonic Party

(qv). The new name announced not the birth but the maturity

of the party, as the maugural address and the messages to Con. gress of President J Q Adams had set forth clearly its national. izing, broad-construction programme. The ends for which the Whigs laboured were: first, to mam. tam the mtegrity of the Union, second, to make the Union thoroughly national, third, to maimtaim the republican character of the Union, fourth, while utilizing to the full the inheritance from and through Europe, to develop a distinctly American type of civilization; fifth, to propagate abroad by peaceful means American ideas and institutions Among the policies or means which the Whigs used mm order to realize their principles were the broad construction of those provisions of the Federal Constitutution which confer powers on the National Government, protective tariffs, comprehensive schemes of internal improvements under the direction and at the cost of the National Government,

support of the Bank of the United States, resistance to many acts

of President Jackson as encroachments on the legislative branch of the Government and therefore hostile to republicanism, coah-

tion with other parties in order to promote national as opposed to partisan ends, resort to compromise in order to allay sectional irritation and compose sectional differences; and the expression of sympathy with the lberal movement in other lands The activity of the Whig Party together with the activities of the disparate elements which preceded their formation into a

party, covered a period from the election of 1824 to the repeal of the Missour: Compromise in 1854 In two respects, namely,

the rise of the new radical democracy under Andrew Jackson, and the growth of sectionalism over the slavery issue, this period

was highly critical. In view of these events the most difficult task of the Whigs, under the patriotic and conservative leadership of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, was to moderate and enlighten, rather than antagonize, the new democracy and to attempt to overcome the disrupting influence of the slavery issue

The election of 1828 gave to Andrew Jackson the Presidency, and to the people, in a higher degree than ever before, the control of the Government Opposition to Jackson’s radical policy brought about, under Whig leadership, a coalition of parties which influenced deeply and permanently the character, policy and fortunes of the Whig Party. It became the champion of the bank, of the nght of Congress, and of the older and purer form of the civil service, In strict accord with their own principles, however, the Whigs supported the President during the nullification controversy (see NULLIFICATION) The majority of the Northern Whigs, with the entire Southern membership of the party, disapproved the propaganda of the Abolitionists on the ground of its tendency to endanger the Union, and many from a like motive voted for the “gag rules” of 1835-44 (see Apams, J Q) whi in sor i not in letter, violated the constitutional right of pe.t.ion In tre election of 1832 Clay was the nommee of the National Republican

Party for the Presidency Gen W. H Harrison was nominated by the anti-Jackson groups in 1836, and in 1840 purely on the grounds of expediency he was the nominee of the Whig Party. The election of Gen. Harrison in the “log cabin and hard cider” campaign of 1840 proved a fruitless victory; the early death of the President and the anti-Whig poltics of his successor, John Tyler (g.v ), shattered their legislative programme. In 1844 Clay was the Whig candidate, and the annexation of Texas, involving the risk of a war with Mexico was the leadirg issue The Whigs opposed annexation and the prospec: ot stucess seemed bright, until an injudicious letter wrr en oy Clay turned the anti-slavery element against him and lost hım the Presidency The triumph of Polk ın 1844 was followed by the annexation of Texas and by war with Mexico The Whigs opposed the war largely for political reasons, but on patriotic grounds voted supplies for its prosecution. The vast territorial expansion, at the cost of Mexico, brought to the front the question of slavery in the new domam. The agitation that followed continued through the presidential election of 1848 (in which the Whigs

elected Gen

Zachary Taylor), and did not subside until the

passage of the “Compromise Measures of 1850” (qv.). To its

WHINCHAT—WHISKY authors this compromise seemed essential to the preservation of

569

producing countries wine is the liquor which is subjected to dis-

the Union, but 1t led directly to the destruction of the Whig Party tullation, various types of grain are used in the north. It is of In the North, the fugitive slave law grew daily more odious,

but a commuttal of the party to the repeal of the law would have driven the Southern Whigs mto the camp of the Democrats In an endeavour to allay sectional stnfe, the national Wg convention of 1852, the last that represented the party in its entirety,

gave to the Northern Whigs the naming of the candidate—Gen Winfield Scott—and to the Southern the framing of the platform with its “finality” plank which committed the party to an acceptance of the laws regulating slavery as final Two years later the repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the Kansas-Nebraska Act demonstrated that ‘“‘finality” could not be maintaimed, and that in committing the Whig Party to the policy of its mamtenance the convention of 1852 had signed the death-warrant of the party. BreriocRapHyY —J A Woodburn, Polzizcal Partzes and Party Problems n the United States (1903) , Eber M Carroll, Origens of the Whig Party (1925); A C Cole, The Whig Party in the South (1913) Much yaluable material can be obtamed from the biographies, works, memors, etc,of the public men of the period

WHINCHAT (Saxıcola rubetra), a bird alhed to the wheatear (g.v) and stonechat (g v ). The whinchat is a summer migrant,

somewhat larger than the stonechat and preferring enclosed land, It ranges over Europe and West Asia, wintering in Africa.

>- WHIP, in English parliamentary usage, denotes a member,

chosen by the leader or leaders of a political party for the special duty of securing the attendance of the other members of that

party on all necessary occasions, the term being abbreviated from the whipper-in of a hunt. The name is also given to the summons urging members of the party to attend Political party whips are always members of parliament, and for the party in

power (te, the government) their services are essential, seeing that the fate of an important measure, or even the existence of the government itself, may depend upon the result of a division in the House The urgency or importance of the notice sent by the whips to their following is mdicated by the number of lines underscoring the notice, a four-line whip usually signifying the extremest urgency. The chief government whip also holds the office of patronage secretary to the treasury, so called because when offices were freely distributed to secure the support of members, it was his chief duty to dispose of the patronage to the best advantage of his party He is still the channel through which such patronage as is left to the prime minister is dispensed He is assisted by three jumor whips, who are officially appomted as junior lords of the treasury; their salaries are £1,000 a year each, while the patronage secretary has a salary of £2,000 The parties not m office have whips who are unpaid. The whips also arrange for the “pairmg” of such of the members of their party as desire to be absent with those members of the opposition party who also desire to be absent. The chief whips of ether party further arrange in consultation with each other the leading speakers in an important debate, and also its length, and give the list of speakers to the speaker or chairman, who usually falls m with the arrangement ‘They take no part in debate themselves, but are constantly present in the House during its sittings, keep-

ing a finger, as ıt were, upon the pulse of the House, and constantly informing their leader of the state of the House. When any division is regarded as a strictly party one, the whips act as tellers in the division. An interestmg account of the office of whip is given in A, L. Lowell’s Government of England (1908), vol 1 c, xxv.

WHIPPING: see FLoccrne. WHIP-POOR-WILL (Antrostomus vociferus), so called

interest that m all cases, doubtless owing to their stimulating properties, the same significance attaches to the terms generally applied to strong alcoholic liquors, eg , eau de vie and aqua vitae, and Robert Burns uses these terms synonymously. At first usquebaugh referred not only to the plam spirit derived from grain but also to compounded beverages prepared by the addition to the spirit of sugar and flavourings such as saffron and nutmeg.

Whiskies are sometimes classified accordmg to their geographical origin.—Scotch, Imsh and American, but the chief differences are due to the secondary products—higher alcohols, esters, aldehydes, etc Manufacture.—The process of manufacture may be divided into three stages: (1) Mashing or the preparation of the liquor known as wort. (2) The fermentation of the wort to produce the wash. (3) Separation of the spint from the wash by distillation. The wort is prepared by mixing various grains with malt, the nature and proportion being subject to considerable variation. In Irish pot-still distilleries malted and unmalted barley, oats, wheat and rye are generally used, whilst for Scotch pot stills malted barley 1s practically the only material In the patent stil distilleries in both countries, the wort usually consists of maize, barley, rye (malted and unmalted) and oats, the first, which is seldom used in the pot still whiskies, beg the principal ingredient.

The malt or mixture of malt and grain is crushed and raised to a suitable temperature with hot water, the diastase of the malt thus converting the starch into sugar. During this process other substances, the exact nature of which is not thoroughly understood, are obtained in solution From these are derived the secondary constituents already referred to which impart to the various brands their distinctive flavour The Scotch pot '

still or malt whiskies fall into four main types (1) The Highland malts produced chiefly in the Speyside or Glenlivet district constitute one of the most popular They possess a full ethereal flavour which affords evidence of the fact that the malt has been cured over peat fires. (2) The Lowland malts of the south, although possessed of an excellent full flavour, are not so distinctive as those produced in the north and approximate more closely in taste and smell to the patent still spirit. (3) Those produced in Islay have a particularly strong flavour, due in part to the “peated” malt, and are used to a considerable extent for blending purposes (4) Those produced i Campbeltown are similar to the Islays but their flavour is more pronounced. The patent still spirits do not display the great range and va-

niety of flavour and bouquet observed in spirits of pot still origin. This is due in part to the fact that the patent stills render pos-

sible a much higher degree of rectification and also to the employment of malt which has not been cured over peat fires. Pot Stills.—The pot stills used are not of standard design. In their most simple form they consist of a vessel in which the wash 1s boiled and to which is attached a pipe or “still head” to carry the vaponzed ingredients of the wash to a condenser whence ‘ the distilled liquor falls into a receiver. The heat is supplied directly from a fire, or, in the more elaborate types, by means of steam, coils or jackets The neck was originally made long to prevent the boiling wash being mechanically carried over into the receiver by frothing or spraying. In effect it has a certain rectifying action condensing and returning to the retort the ingredients boiling at a higher temperature. This rectification is mm many instances mcreased by the addition of baffle plates in

from its cry, is an American bird about a foot long, allied to the nightjars (q v ), which it resembles in habits. It is common in the eastern United States.

the tube or small condensers so arranged that liquid condensed therein shall be returned to the retort and not passed into the

‘The term is derived from the Celtic

stills are usually larger than in Scotland, having a capacity up to 20,000 gallons, The method usually adopted, while varying in detail, is more complicated than that followed in Scotland. Three distillations take place. Strong low wines, weak low wines, strong

WHISKY

receiver.

This is often effected by an additional pipe or “‘lyne

or WHISKEY, a potable alcoholic liquor dis- arm” connecting the rectifier with the retort. In Ireland the

tilled from cereal grams

uisque-beatha afterwards contracted to usquebaugh meaning water of life The distillation of alcoholic beverages from fermented

liquors became general throughout the whole of Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, but, whilst in the southern grape

feints and weak feints (see SPITS) are collected and the re-

WHISKY

379

sultant whisky fraction has a higher strength, viz, 24 to 30 overproof The still usually known as the “patent stil” was in its original form devised by Aeneas Coffey in 1831 (See Spirits) It consists essentially of two columns, the “rectifier” and the “analyser.” Each column is subdivided horizontally mto a series of chambers by means of perforated copper plates The columns are filled with steam passed m at the bottom of the analyser. The wash 1s pumped from the “still charger” through a pipe which passes from the top of the rectifier to the bottom and then to the analyser, where it is discharged on to the first plate. In its course through the rectifier the pipe traverses each chamber twice by means of a double bend In this way the wash is heated almost to boling pomt before ıt ıs discharged, the ascending steam and vapours ın the rectifier being cooled at the same time by the descending wash The wash cannot pass through the perforations of the plates m the analyser owing to the pressure of the steam and, by an imgenious device of a safety valve and a drop pipe fitted to each plate, an inch of wash accumulates on the plates before any can be discharged to the chamber below By the continuous upward discharge of steam through the wash the latter is gradually deprived of 1ts alcohol and other volatile constituents which are carried with the steam back to the rectifier where they are condensed. The temperatures of the chambers of the rectifier are successively cooler from bottom to top resulting in a separation of the condensed liquor into various fractions. At one pomt the temperature 1s approximately that at which strong ethyl alcohol condenses and the chamber at this point is fitted with a special arrangement for carrymg off the liquor condensed therein. In the first and last stages of the dıstillation the spint collected ıs not of sufficient strength and 1s returned to the still, whilst a further device facilitates the collection of the fusel oil, which is of use in commerce. Its value has been enhanced in recent years by the demand for solvents used in cellulose lacquers. Its composition vanes considerably.

One examined by Dr. Beil for the royal commission on whisky contained Amy! Alcohol

Butyl Alcohol

we “8°.

Propyl Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol

634

- 432%

:

;

+ 3349

fag

- 179% 5 53%

Composition.—As already indicated the proportion of secondary constituents is higher mm the pot still than in the patent still spirits. This is particularly the case with the “higher alcohols” and “furfural.” The latter 1s almost invariably absent from the patent still product immediately after distillation, although a trace may be found after long storage. The proportion of these two ingredients may therefore be accepted as a basis for differentiation between the two types of spirit. The age of the spirit is an important factor The following values expressed in grammes per 100 litres of absolute alcohol are a summary of an extensive examination by Schidrowitz and Kaye of various types of whisky =

g

“3

rg

g

e

pot s, averagé

of roo samples

Aris pot e , average of 6 samples

.

Scotch paint sa average of 4 samples

Irish patat stil average of 6 samples Irish pot still, new .| The same type 13 years in plain wood cask Scotch patent still, new | The same type 2 years in plain wood

The same type 2 years in sherry wood

a

ty ood

>

gi8 | g8 ||8| a3] sS] 3 F 7 |e EE 30°9 | 60°6 | 14,

38

4

25

2

`

? £

?

18.6

200 | 26 60

*2

.

6.

iia

SEAE

RNE

8

ESA

10

28

28

233

8

4I

Ped I

32 4

47 a5

264 | 21 63 2

44 :

|3684 96

14

25

100

5

trace | 144

58

40

441]

7 |. 988 | tapers

6

47

j

26 | trace | 87-6

American rye whisky is prepared in Canada from rye ang malt only The following 1s a summary of results of analyses made by Wiley of the United States Department ot Agriculture,

E

4

wal Bl 3 29

212 /ee/8€ | fe8/3= a eS | ma] New, average samples Old, average

samples

of

19/

of

76

114}

506/

1476 | 137

2664}

178 | 24 | 3486

|352 | 27:6 | 4:6 | 668-8

Maturation.—The alterations which take place mm the character of a spint durng storage may be attributed to (c) the type of cask and method of storage, and (0) the interaction of various ingredients.

(a) The secondaty constituents most affected by ageing—par-

ticularly in the pot still whiskies—are the volatile acids and the aldehydes Pot still whisky is usually stored in sherry casks or ‘iy well seasoned casks which have formerly contained spint

The

wine or spirit in the cask slowly diffuses mto the wood, the ethyl alcohol passing through and evaporating, whilst such ingrechents ag

lngher alcohols and esters are held When the cask is emptied the alcohol remaining absorbed is transformed by oxidation inte acids, aldehydes and esters. On the cask being refilled with the new spirit the constituents thus formed are partially extracted, particularly during the earlier period of storage

Whisky stored ın bottle

and commercial spirit of high strength storea in metal containers are not subject to the same alterations Cb) The reactions which take place within the spirit are much more complex and difficult of explanation They may im part be attributed to the unintentional presence of small quantities of impurities derived from external sources during the process of manufacture and dependent upon the varying conditions Thus Thorpe found pyridine bases, allyl alcohol and allyl aldehyde probably derived from the peat, and acrolein due either to the oil extracted from the grain or to the soap which is occasionally added to the contents of the still to prevent frothing In new pot still spirit Schidrowitz found evidence of the presence of pyrrole and phenolic and sulphurous bodies all of which would interact with the natural ingredients of the spirit to produce substances which would not otherwise be present Artificial maturing of spirit is sometimes attempted and vantous methods have been adopted, the object being to reduce the proportion of secondary ingredients, particularly aldehydes, and thus ‘to eluminate the harshness of new spirit Blending.—During the past fifty years the practice of blending has gradually extended, particularly in Scotland and now very little “self-whisky” or unblended whisky is sold. It serves two purposes (1) To produce a brand of standard flavour This 1 particularly the case in the products of the pot still, the flavour of which owing to the differences in the grains of successive seasons

is liable to considerable variation (2) To meet the popular demand for a cheap mild flavoured spirit. The best brands usually consist of approximately half Highland and Lowland malts, a sniall quantity of Islay and the remainder patent still spirit Consumption.—In common with other alcoholic beverages the consumption of whisky in Great Britam has shown a marked decline in the last few years, due partly to the increased duty on

spirits and doubtless also to the change in the popular taste and habits. The followmg table shows the quantity in proof gallons of home made spirits retained for consumption in each part of the United Kingdom, excluding spirits delivered for methylation and other commercial uses.

England

Scotland

1913-14

17,800,592 | 6,173,453

1626-47

8,397,562 | 2,009,235

1919—20 | 12,548,385 3:546,247 1923—24 9,041,823 | 2,641,323

Ireland

Total

2,730,694 | 26,794,739

1,731,239, | 17,825,871 313,749" | 12,896,805 215,175* | 10,712,002

*Notthern Ireland only.

WHISKY

INSURRECTION—WHIST

During the same period the quantity per head of population fell from 0-58 to o 24 proof gallons The number of distillenes in Great Britain and Northern Ireland has also shown a tendency to

dechne, falling from 140 in 1923 to r21 in 1926. In Canada, rye whisky forms the greater proportion of the potable spints, of which 3,924,100 proof gallons were produced in 1925 and 4,179,442

proof gallons in 1926. WHISKY

(F.G.ELT)

INSURRECTION,

THE,

an

upnsing

in

western Pennsylvania m 1794 against the Federal Government occasioned by the attempted enforcement of the excise law (enacted by Congress, March 1791) on domestic spirits. The common prejudice in America against excise in any form was felt with especial strength ın western Pennsylvania, Virgima and North Carolma where many small whisky stills existed Albert

Gallatm (g v.) took a leading part constitutional manner, but under the movement soon developed into The Federal revenue officers and feathered; but in Sept 1794,

in some cases were tarred President Washington, using the new powers bestowed by Congress in May 1792, despatched

a considerable force of mulitia agamst the rebellhous Pennsylvanans, who thereupon submitted without bloodshed, the in-

fluence of Gallatin being used to that end. Bradford fled to New Orleans; some of his more promment supporters were tried for treason and convicted, but promptly pardoned. In American history this so-called “rebellion” is important chiefly on account of the emphasis ıt gave to the employment by the Federal Executive of the new powers bestowed by Congress for interfermg to enforce Federal laws within the States, It is indeed inferred from one of Hamilton’s own letters that his object

m proposing this excise law was less to obtain revenue than to provoke just such a local resistance as would enable the central government to demonstrate its strength.

WHISPERING

BELLS

(Emmenanthe

pendulfiora), a

North American herb of the water-leaf family (Hydrophyllaceae),

known also as California yellow bells, native to mountain slopes from central Cahforma to Utah and southward to Mexico. It isa low, much-branched, sticky-hairy annual, 10 in. to 20 1n high, with deeply-cut leaves and bell-shaped, cream-coloured or yellow flowers, 4 in. long, borne on slender, pendulous stalks in loose

clusters. This characteristic plant of the chaparral (g v.) is grown in gardens for its showy, persistent flowers. When dry after fruiting these give forth a shght rustling sound. WHIST, a game of cards of English origm gradually evolved from several older games which succeeded each other under the name of triumph, trump, ruff anc honours, whist and swabbers, and finally whist. Whist was so called because of its requiring silence and close attention It 1s believed that the earliest mention of whist is by Taylor, in 1621. In the muddle of the 18th century Edmund Hoyle and others published rules and maxims for playing. However, it remamed for Dr. Henry Jones, of London, whose pen name was Cavendish, to work out a complete system for scientific play. His first code was published,

under the title of Whist Development in 1863 He further improved the game and published several editions of his Laws and Principles of Whist and finally several editions of Cavendish on Whist, the 22nd being published shortly before he died. Forming the Game.—Whist is played by four persons, two sides of two partners each, with a full pack of 52 cards, equally

distributed

The partners are determined by cutting; the highest

two play against the lowest two, and the lowest has the choice of

cards and seats In cutting, ace is the lowest card. There should be two packs of cards of different coloured backs, one pack being shuffled while the other is being dealt. All must cut from the same pack

the dealer being the last to play Each player must follow suit, that is, play the suit that was led, if he can. If he is void of that suit he may discard or trump. The

DC

in expressing resentment in a

the agitator David Bradford excesses,

Before every deal the cards must be shuffled.

The

dealer must present the pack to his right hand adversary to be cut, the adversary must take a portion from the top of the pack and place it toward the dealer At least four cards must be left in each portion; the dealer must unite the two by placing the one not removed in cutting upon the other. When the pack has been properly cut and reunited, the dealer must distribute the cards one at a time to each player in regular

977

rotation, beginning at his left The last card, which is the trump, must be turned face up before the dealer, where ıt must remain until it is his turn to play to the first trick. This card is known as the trump card and the suit to which it belongs is the trump suit; the other three suits are known as the plain suits The eldest hand or player on the left of the dealer opens the game by placing one of his cards facc upward upon the table. The three other players each play a card to it in rotation, commencing with the second hand, or player to the left of the leader,

EAI Z

four cards thus played constitute a trick. The highest card of the suit led, or the highest trump takes the trick. The trick is taken in by the partner of the winner and placed face downward at his left hand Z, 4 on the table. The winner of the first trick

POSITIONS OF PLAYERS AT A WHIST TABLE, A & B BEING PARTNERS

AGAINST

Y AND

BEING THE'DEALER

becomes

the leader to the next, and

this routine is continued until all the cards are played, there being 13 tricks in all. The deal then passes to the next player on the left, and so on to each player ın turn. A game consists of seven points, each trick above six counting one upon the score The cards in each suit are divided into two classes: “high” cards and “small” cards. The five high cards are ace, king, queen, jack and ten, the eight small cards are the nine to deuce inclusive The English Leads.—Under the English system the high cards were led without regard to the number of cards in the suit The king was led when accompanied by the ace or queen, or both The queen was led from the top of sequence of queen, yack and ten, and the ten was led from the combination of king, jack, ten and small cards. Having no combination in hand from which a high card could be led, the hand was opened with a small card, the smallest’ from a sut of four, the penultimate from a suit of five, and the antepenultimate from a suit of six or more. The American Leads,—One of the foremost authors and players of America was Nicholas B. Trist of New Orleans. He corresponded with Cavendish (Dr Jones) a great deal about the game, and in the course of the correspondence suggested to Jones that instead of the penultimate and antepenultsmate, when opening the game with a low card, the fourth best, counting from the top, be led, and then when the card or cards smaller than the fourth best were played the number of cards originally held in that suit could be counted. Trist further suggested that they revise the igh card leads to show the number in suit by the original leads as follows: from ace, king and others lead the king to show four, but lead the ace to show five or more, from king, queen and others still lead the king to show four; but lead the queen to show five or more. Cavendish approved these changes and named this new system the “American leads” in honour of the American author who suggested them The American leads thus formulated and accepted on both sides of the Atlantic became the standard of play for all whist clubs Following the rules for the leads, in opening the game came the rules for the “conventional plays.” Second Hand Play.—The old English idea that second hand has nothing to do but to “play low” is not a rule of modern whist. The proper play may be a high card or a low card, depending entirely on the card led, the inferred combination from which led, the cards of that suit held, the strength or weakness of trumps. There are three things for second hand to do of importance in

the order named. (a) Wm the trick as cheaply as possible; (b) prevent third hand from wmning too cheaply, (c) retain command of opponent’s suit as long as advisable (x) On a high card led, play the lower one of any two higher cards in sequence, or ace alone on an honour led (2) On a low card led, play a high card if holding any combination of that suit from which you would lead a high card, otherwise play low. Third Hand Play.—In the play of third hand the main point

572

WHIST

to have in mind is that the suit led is your partner’s and you are | no intermediate card may lie on your left. to assist in establishing it as follows: (1) Wın the trick if necessary and as cheaply as possible, (2) prevent fourth hand from winning too cheaply, thus forcing out the adverse high cards, (3) get rid of the high cards of that suit as soon as possible to prevent blocking your partner’s long swt; (4) with four exactly of your partner’s suit retain the lowest one to return to him when his suit 1s established, which will enable him to re-enter and bring in his long suit

Fourth Hand Play.—lIt is the duty of fourth hand, with few

exceptions, to win the trick as cheaply as possible, unless already won by your partner. Exceptions occur during the progress of the hand, when it becomes desirable to win or not to win, accord-

ing to the position of the cards, either to get the lead, or to throw

it for advantage The Trump Suit.—The trump suit has been very aptly termed

the artillery of the hand, and the proper manoeuvring with this ordnance requires the greatest courage and generalship on the part of the players. However, the student will gain a sufficient knowledge of the elementary tactics required from a careful study of the following rules — (1) Lead trumps from six or more without regard to value (2) Lead trumps from five 1f they include two honours, or if you hold one good plain suit (3) Lead trumps from four if you have two strong suits, or if your own or partner’s long suit is established (4) Lead trumps from three or less to stop an actual or impending cross-ruff (meaning that each partner 1s ruffing or trumping the other’s suits, led alternately for that purpose) or when you can draw two of your opponent’s trumps for one of yours, your partner having none (5) When strong in trumps give the trump signal, which is made by the high-low play, at first opportunity (6) With four or more trumps echo your partner’s call or lead (7) Always return your partner’s trump lead, or lead to his trump call at first opportunity. (8) With four or more do not trump a doubtful trick Your passing and discard will give your partner valuable information (9) With thrce trumps or less trump freely, using your short trumps to make all the tricks possible (10) Do not force your partner 1f weak in trumps yourself, but always force the adverse strong hand. (rr) Being the commanding suit there is no necessity for anxiety in “making” the high cards, as in plain suts, and you play a more backward game, generally leadıng fourth-best

`

Cb) It ıs not proper to finesse in your partner’s long sut, with one exception Holding the ace and queen of his sut, play the

queen on a low card led, and if 1t wins the trick, the ace may be

returned later. (c) The expediency of finessing or not can only be determined by practised players from careful observation of the cards. The Eleven Rule.—Acting on the theory of the fourth-best led, when leading a small card, R F Foster, of New York, worked

out and published a useful convention known as his “eleven rule,” which has become the most popular addition to the rules of the game This rule enables all players to know at once how many cards are held by the other three players that are superior to the fourth best card led, and is thus explamed By numbering all the cards of a suit from deuce to ace, the 13 would number

a total of 14 (2 to 14 inclusive) When any player leads his fourth best, he has remaining in his suit just three cards higher than the one led, deduct these three from 14, the remainder is II, being the whole number in suit, exclusive of the three known to be in the leader’s hand Therefore, to ascertain the number of cards superior to the fourth best led that are out against the leader, we have only to deduct the face value of the card led from rr, and the remainder will be the number of higher cards held by the other hands Then the dealer’s partner from his hand can tell how many cards are held by the two opponents that are

superior to the card led, and by noting them as they fall, can

tell when the suit is established. This valuable rule is used by

all good players of both whist and auction bridge. The Laws of Whist—The laws are made for the comfort and

convenience of all persons who want to play a good game and in the best form. The strict observance of the laws will prevent disputes and add much interest to the play. The player who is not

acquainted with the laws and rules 1s often at a semous disadvantage and liable to commit petty errors for which the penalties are severe The penalties are taken from the code of the laws, The Penaltves-——If dealer reshuffles the pack after it has been properly cut, he loses his deal There must be a new deal by the same dealer—(z) If any card except the last is placed face up in the pack, (2) if during the deal or during the play of the hand the pack 1s proved incorrect or imperfect It is a misdeal:— (x) If the dealer omits to have the pack cut (2) If he deals a card incorrectly and fails to correct the error before dealing another card.

(3) If he counts the cards on the table or in the remainder of (12) The rule for leading is this. If the trump swt contains the pack, at least three honours or the ten with two face cards, or any (4) If he does not deal to eath player the proper number of seven cards, lead as in plain suits; otherwise lead fourth-best. cards and the error is not “discovered” before all have played the General Rules.—(1) Open the game by leading trumps if first trick strong enough. If not strong enough in trumps, lead from your (5) If he places the trump card face downward upon his own best long suit. If your only long suit was opened by right oppo- or any other player’s cards. nent, lead from your best short suit A misdeal loses the deal unless during the deal either of the (2) Never lead a singleton as an original lead. It is more im- adversaries touch a card or in any other manner mterrupt the portant to give correct information to your partner than to try dealer to deceive opponents, A singleton may be led later ıf weak The following cards are liable to be called by either adversary in trumps. (zr) Every card faced upon the table otherwise than in the (3) Always lead from the top of a sequence regular course of play. (4) It is advisable to lead through the strong hand and up to: (2) Every card thrown with the one led or played to the curthe weak hand rént trick The Discard—(r) The first discard should be from your (3) Every card so held by a player that his partner sees any weakest suit unless trumps are led or declared against you, in portion of its face which case the first discard should be from your best protected (4) Every card named by a player holding 1t. suit All cards lable to be called must be left face upward upon the (2) The discard after the first should be made to protect and table A player must lead or play them when they are called, strengthen the hand as much as possible. provided he can do so without revoking : (3) The discard of the best card of a suit signals that you hold Leading Out of Turn.—If any player leads out of turn, a suit entire command of that suit may be called from him or his partner the first time it is the turn (4) The discard of the second best signals that you have no for either of them to lead more of that suit. Revoking-—To revoke is to renounce in error without being The Finesse.—(a) The finesse belongs to the higher order of | corrected m time A player revokes if when holding one or more play and consists in the attempt to take a trick with a card lower | cards of the suit led, he plays a card of a different suit. The penthan your highest card and not in sequence with it, trustmg that | alty for revoking is the transfer of two tricks from the revokmg

WHISTLER—WHITAKER

573

he found time to wnte charming prose, reflecting the meticulous care which he bestowed upon his person and surroundings Whistler’s “Ten o’clock” lecture was a statement of his convictions concerning art, and, hke his “Gentle Art of Making Enea goad to his adversaries in the domestic circles Whist still holds its own, however, with mies,” acted by its very brilliance as 1883 Whistler exhibited 51 etchings and drypoints at the Fine In has League the older clubs and players The American Whist lithographs were shown 70 1896, in Art and London, Society, 1891, in organization its since year every congress annual met in During his hfetime he produced nearly 400 etchings and drymeeting alternately m cities east and west. Solo or Solo Whist 1s a modification of whist, the chief points and probably 150 lithographs At the Grosvenor gallery, distinctrve feature bemg that a single player generally has to newly opened in 1877 by Sir Coutts Lindsay, his paintings inoppose the other three The game in America adheres to the cluded some “nocturnes,” and of the International Society he was English rules in the larger Eastern cities, but it 1s played very the first president. Whistler took the utmost care in the tones used on the floor httle In the west a variation, “Slough,” has superseded “Solo.” The literature of the game 1s now hmıted to Cavendish on W hist, m and walls of his studios, m the dresses worn by his sitters, and

side to their adversaries. Whist or Bridge.—The game of auction bridge has become very popular all over the world in the last 25 years, and has far surpassed the game of whist, especially with the young people and

England and the Gist of Whist, by Charles E Coffin, n America (C.E Co.)

WHISTLER,

JAMES

ABBOTT

McNEILL

(1834-

1903), painter, was born at Lowell, Mass., USA, m 1834, of Irish-American parents. His grandfather emigrated to America. He belonged to a family of soldiers At the age of 17, after

spending some time in St Petersburg (Leningrad), where his father was acting as an engineer,

the painter was

entered

at West

Pomt Miltary academy, but left because his studies proved quite unsatisfactory After trymg to enter the Navy he became a draughtsman ın the Coast Survey Department at Washington The

precision of the work was, however, more than he could bear, so in 1854 he sailed to England and thence to France, in 1855, where he studied for two years ın the Paris ateher of the then prominent painter, Charles Gabnel Gleyre He then came to the conclusion that nothing further could be learned in such academic surroundings Gleyre, who maintained the Ingres traditions, was accounted by Whistler a “bourgeois Greek” and when, later, the pupil offered a picture for the judgment of the official Salon,

it was promptly refused Nothmg daunted in his mdependent spint, he sent it to the Salon des Refusés, where it scored an unqualified success Recognition of his genius came very tardily, England especially bemg extremely unsympathetic, an attitude provoked by the American’s delight in mystifying the English painters, critics and public and in returnmg their ridicule His contempt for the prevailmg fashion was reflected in his dress, which was immaculate almost to dandyism, whilst his unpunctuality was a source of exasperation.

even went so far as to redecorate a room in the house, at Knightsbridge, of F R Leyland This room has been transferred to the Freer Museum, Washington In 1886, Whistler was elected President of the Royal Society of British Artists His failure to be re-

elected caused no surprise He remarked that “the artists had come out and the British had remained ” But the British Museum bought his etchings and he was the recipient of honours from nearly every foreign Government. A deep religious sympathy is evident in his paintings of “Miss Alexander” and “Carlyle.” He died in London on July 17, 1903, at the age of 69 years To Whistler must be credited the full realization of the analogy between music and colour in their powers of expression. He described his pictures as symphonies, harmonies, nocturnes and so forth, mstead of adopting the story-telling titles or doggerel verse then usually employed. This new nomenclature caused at first much resentment and derision, but 1s to-day accepted as perfectly natural and appropriate The values, or degrees of tone were, to this sensitive pater, almost the beginning and end of art He was painfully aware of his weakness as a draughtsman, which deprived his drawing of that sureness which proclaims a master of line Whistler held that a good arrangement of simple masses provides the most important features of a picture, and that attention to tone values ensures serenity, which a study of Velasquez, who always used a severely restricted palette, will reveal. He may also have been attracted to Vermeer of Delft, whose work possesses the same quahty of quiet dignity He considered, too, that to avoid completely any feeling of interruption, pre-Raphaelite detail must be shunned; and that, even in tone arrangements, extremes were not advisable for fear of over-accentuation Thus many of his first paintings are executed in a middle key. Towns, where the atmosphere is often slightly thick and quiet greys prevail, have been the source of inspiration for many a “tone-painter” smce Whistler produced his delightful Thames pictures.

In pamting, Whistler was closely affiliated to the French Impressionist movement. Sentiment and anecdote are nearly always absent from his work, which relies for its effect upon the sacrifice of minute detail and brilhant colouring to the exquisite arrangement of tones and upon the emphasis on the musical quality of colour A study of his pictures will reveal the fact that, far from justifymg Mullais’ description as “a man who had —Whistler’s The Gentle Art of Making Enemies never learned the grammar of his art,” he had invented a gram- wasBrsuiocrapHy published by the Ballantyne Press in 1890. The following catamar more simple yet more capable of expression than anything logues of his paintings, etc, may be consulted: Catalogue of Whistler known in the Western hemisphere, a contrast to the more favoured Memorial Exhibition (1905) ; H. Mansfield, Descriptive Catalogue of Etchings and Drypomts of J. A M Whistler (Chicago, Caxton Club, pre-Raphaelites The art of Whistler was subjected to various influences, among 1909); F. N Levy, Catalogue of Paintings in Oil and Pastel by J. A. M. Whistler (Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y, 1910); them those of Courbet, Velasquez, Puvis de Chavannes, Hogarth Catalogue of Works by J. A. M Whistler, with a bibliography and Tintoretto, but his own personality is always uppermost The (Victoria and Albert Museum) , W histler:ana (Freer Gallery of Art, shops of Amsterdam provided the blue and white porcelain which Washington, 1928). For biography and criticism see’ H Beraldi, Les before the days of eager collectors adorned his paimtings He Graveurs du XIXe Siécle, vol. xu. (1892); Su Frederick Wedmore, Etchings (1899), R. Way and G R_ Dennis, The Ari was an admirer of Japanese colour-prints which, used as packing Whistlers of James McNeill Whistler, 2 vols. (7903), and Memories of James for other articles around the year 1860, were soon imported for McNeill Whistler, the Artist (1912); Menpes, Whistler as I Knew ther own decorative virtues. Whistler used them in such pic- Him (1904); A. Jerome Eddy, Recollections and Impressions of Histoire de J A, M Duret, T. (1903), Whistler McNeill tures as “The Balcony,” “La Princesse du Pays de la Porcelaine” James A. E R. Pennell, The Life of and “The Golden Screen” The result 1s the perfect modification Whistler et de son oeuvre (1904); J andKennedy, The Etched Work

of Eastern influences by European traditions and ideals. Here was

a step towards a more abstract conception of art. Lithography, the discovery of Senefelder, was perfected by Whistler, whilst his etchings are marvels of delicacy and bear

out his own contention that the area covered should be in ratio to the strength of the means employed His condemnation of the large plate as an abomination may be regarded as an admission of his own limitations.

During the greater part of his life, he

produced an average of 12 etchings or lithographs each year; yet

James McNeill Whistler (1908), E G of Whistler (Grolier Club, New York, 1910) ; Don C. Seitz, Writings by and about Whistler: a Bibliography (Edinburgh, 1910) ; A Alexandre, “J. McNeill Whistler,” Les Arts (Sept. 1903); A. E. Gallatin, Whistlers Pastels, and other Modern Profiles (1913), and Portrazts of Whistler: a Critical Study and Iconography (1918).

WHITAKER,

JOSEPH

(1820-1895), English publisher,

was born in London on May 4, 1820 In January 1858 he started the Bookseller, and în 1869 published the first issue of Whitaker’s Almanack, the annual work of reference, which also met with

WHITBREAD—WHITE

574

immediate success In 1874 he published the first edition of the Reference Catalogue of Current Literature. Whitaker died at Enms field on May 15, 1895

WHITBREAD, SAMUEL

(1830-1915), English politician,

born at Cardmgton, Beds, on May 5, 1830, the grandson of Samuel Whitbread, M.P. for Bedfordshire, was head of the brewery founded by his great-grandfather from 1867 to 1889, and then became chairman of the company to which it was transferred Like his father and grandfather, he became Liberal M P. for Bedford (1852-95). He died at Biggleswade on Dec 25, 1915. WHITBY, market-town and urban district, Yorks , Eng Pop (1931), 11,441. The town is situated on the cliff-bound north-east coast, at the mouth of the river Esk, which follows a wooded course almost due east through the open, high-lying moors The old town of narrow streets and picturesque houses stands on the steep slopes above the mver, while the modern residential quarter 1s mainly on the summut of the west chff On the east chf, which dominates the harbour, called of old Streoneshalh, the ruins of the famous abbey hold a commanding position The existing ruins comprise parts of the Early English choir, the north transepts of slightly later date, and a richly Decorated nave The west side of the nave fell in 1763 and the tower in 1830 On the south side are the foundations of cloisters and domestic buildings Extensive excavations are being carried out ım the castle ruins Whitby is first mentioned by Bede, who states that a religious house was founded here in about 657 It included establishments for monks and, until the Conquest, for nuns of the Benedictine order, and under Abbess Hilda it acquired considerable celebrity. In the gth century the town was destroyed by the Danes, but was later refounded and became the centre of a Danish colony, it was the most prosperous town in the district until laid waste by the Conqueror. Henry I made a grant of a burgage to the abbot and convent of Whitby and, towards the end of the 12th century, the abbot granted the town a free burgage to the burgesses In 1200, King John, bribed by the burgesses, confirmed this charter, but the following year, on. bemg bribed by the abbot, he quashed it as injurious to the dignity of the church of Whitby. The struggle continued until the 14th century, when a trial resulted in judgment against the burgesses. In 1629, Whitby petitioned for incorporation on the ground that the town was in decay through lack of good government, and received letters patent giving it self-government. But m 1674-75 the Crown restored to the lords of the manor all liberties ever enjoyed by the abbots of Whitby in Whitby and Whitby Strand, probably in gratitude for the part they played in the Cıvıl War Whitby has been a port at least since the r2th century, ranking seventh in England in 1828. Here were constructed the ships for Captain Cook’s voyages. The yard was used for building ferroconcrete boats during the World War Wooden ships are still built, and rope and sail making are carried on. In mediaeval times herrings and cod from the North sea formed the only industries Whale fishing began in 1753 The manufacture of alum from rocks near Whitby was an mportant industry from the beginning of the ryth century to

well into the roth century. The Yorkshire Lias was the sole source in England. With the development of Çleveland iron, the trade declined, but alum is manufactured for medicines, tanning and dyeing. Jet was also mined Adjoining the abbey is Whitby Hall, built about 1580 from the matenals of the monastic buildings, and enlarged and fortified about 1635. A little below the abbey is the parish church of St. Mary, originally Norman, but much altered The geological and antiquarian museums at Whitby are famous.

WHITCHURCH, whan district, north Shropshire, England

Pop. (1931) 6,016, Whitchurch is mentioned as a borough in the 14th century. The parish extends into Cheshire Whitchurch was famous for its turret clocks, many of those in the churches of N. Shropshire havmg been made there.

WHITE, ANDREW

DICKSON

(1832-1918), American

educationalist and diplomat, was born in Homer (N Y ) on Nov. 7, 1832 He graduated at Yale (A B.) m 1853, studied at the Sorbonne in 1854, and at the University of Berlin in 1855-56, mean-

while serving as attaché at the U S Legation at St. Petersburg in 1854-55 He was professor of history and English hterature m 1857-63, and lecturer on history in 1863-67 at the University of Michigan He dreamed of a great university with professors in every field, rich libraries and museums and stately buldings, the whole free from denommational control, open to men and women alike After approaching various men of wealth, his alhance during his State senatorship (1864-67) with Ezra Cornell, who promised to give such an institution a site and $500,000 endowment, enabled him with the addition of the New York land.

grant, to establish at Ithaca (N.Y.) the present Cornell university, to which as first president and after 1885 as a member of the board of trustees and executive committee he devoted his best energies and much of bis wealth He combined in an unusual degree the qualities of scholar and man of affairs He served on the commission to Santo Domingo, and on the commission on the Venezuela boundary, as United States minister to Germany in 1879-81 and to Russia in 1892-94, and as ambassador to Germany in

1897-1903

In 1899 he was president of the American delegation

at The Hague Peace Conference Although Dr. White listed numerous unfinished projects in his Autobtography (1905), his vanous activities did not prevent him from completing several works The most outstanding are A Hestory of the Warfare of Science with Theology wn Christendom (1896), and Seven Great Statesmen m the Warfare of Humanity with Unreason (1910). He

died at Ithaca (NY) on Nov 4, 1918. The Cornell school of history and political science appropriately bears his name, and the rich. collection of books which he gave the university is housed in a special room in the main library ,

WHITE, EDWARD DOUGLASS (1845-1921), American jurist, was born on a plantation in the parish of Lafourche, La, Nov. 3, 1845, his father being 7th governor of Louisiana. He was

educated at Mount St. Mary’s, Md, Georgetown, DC, college, and, after the outbreak of the Civil War, at the Jesuit college in New Orleans During the latter part of the war he served as a private in the Confederate army. He studied law in the office of Edward Bermudez, later chief justice of Louisiana, was admitted to the bar in 1868, and practised law in New Orleans In 1874 he was elected to the State senate, and four years later was appointed associate justice of the Louisiana supreme court In 1891 he was elected to the US Senate, and before completing his term was appointed, in 1894, associate justice of the US Supreme Court by President Cleveland In roro he was appointed chief justice by President Taft Many of his notable opinions were delivered in connection with the Sherman anti-trust law. Of special importance were his opinions requiring the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company in rgrz. As chief justice he administered the oath of office to President Wilson in 1913 and 1917, and to President Harding in 1921. He died at Washington, D.C, May 109, t92r

WHITE, SIR GEORGE

STUART

(1835-1912), British

field marshal, was born in County Antrim on July 6, 1835 He was educated at Sandhurst, and in 1853 joined the Inniskillings, with which regiment he served in India during the Mutiny in 1857 In the second Afghan War (1878-80) he was second in command of the Gordon Highlanders, whom he led in their charge at the battle of Charasiah, receiving the Victona Cross In 1881 in command of the Gordon Highlanders, he took part in the Nile Expedition of 1884-85 As brigadier in the Burmese War (188587) he rendered distmguished service, and was promoted majorgeneral; when Sir Frederick (afterwards Lord) Roberts left Burma in 1887, White was left in command of the force charged with the duty of suppressing the dacoits and pacifying the coun-

try This he accomplished with a thoroughness which earned the thanks of the government of India

He was in command of the

Zhob expédition in 1890, and in 1893 he succeeded Lord Roberts as commander-in-chief in India; and during his tenure of this office directed the conduct of the Chitral expedition in 1895 and

the Tirah campaign in 1897. Returning to England in 1898 he became quartermaster-general of the forces; and on the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 he was given command of the forces in T?

WHITE Natal. He defeated the. Boers at Elandslaagte on Oct 21, 1899, and at Retfontein on the 24th; but the supenor numbers of the Boers enabled them to invest Ladysmith, which Sir George White defended in a siege lasting 119 days, from Nov 2, 1899 to March 1, 1900, m the course of which he refused to entertain Sir Redyers Buller’s suggestion that he should arrange terms of capitulation with the enemy (See LADYSMITH, SŒGE AND RELIEF OF) After the relief of Ladysmith, White, whose health had been imed by the siege, returned to England, and was appointed gov-

emor of Gibraltar (rgoo-1904)

King Edward VII, who visited

the fortress in 1903, personally gave him the baton of a field marshal In 1905 Sir George White was appointed governor of Chelsea Hospital, and decorated with the Order of Ment He died

in London on June 24, 1912

See T. F. G Coates, Sur George White (1900).

WHITE, GILBERT (1720-1793), Enghsh writer on natural

history, was born on July 18, 1720, at Selborne, Hants

He was

educated at Basingstoke under Thomas Watton, father of the poet, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where in 1744 he was elected to a fellowship Ordamed 1m 1747, he became curate at Swarraton the same year and at Selborne m 1751. In 1752 he was nommated

jumor proctor at Oxford and became dean of his college In 1753 he accepted the curacy of Durley, and afterwards received the college living of Moreton Pinkney, though he did not reside there In 1761 he became curate at Farmgdon, near Selborne, and in 1784 he again became curate in his native parish He died in his home, The Wakes, Selborne, on June 26, 1793 Gilbert White’s daily life was practically unbroken by any great changes or incidents; for nearly half a century his pastoral duties, his watchful country walks, the assiduous care of his garden, and the scrupulous posting of his calendar of observations made up the essentials of a full and delightful hfe His four

brothers were all interested in science, and White corresponded with the chief botamsts and antiquarians of his time. In 1771 he sketched out to Thomas Pennant the project of “a natural lustory of my native parish, an annus hestorico-naturalis, comprising a journal for a whole year, and illustrated with large notes and observations Such a beginning might mduce more able naturalists to write the history of various districts and might m time occasion the production of a work so much to be wished for—a full and complete natural history of these kingdoms.” Yet the famous Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne did not appear until 1789

It was well received and is constantly reprinted

575

spired by his early death, but Byron agreed with Southey in

forming a high estimate of the young man’s promise

His Remams, with his letters and an account of his hfe, were edited (3 vols., 1807-22) by Robert Southey See prefatory notices by Sir Harris Nicolas to his Poetical Works (new ed., 1866) in the “Aldine

Edition” of the British poets, by H K Swann im the volume of selections (1897) m the Canterbury Poets; and by John Drmnkwater to the edition in the ‘Muses’ Library.” See also J T. Godfrey and J. Ward, The Homes and Haunts of Henry Kirke White (1908).

WHITE, HUGH LAWSON

(1773-1840), American states-

man, was born in Iredell county (NC), Oct 30, 1773- In 1787 he crossed the mountains mto East Tennessee (then a part of North Carolina) with his father, James White (1737-181 5) Hugh became in 1790 secretary to Governor Wiliam Blount, and in 1792-93 served under John Sevier against the Creek and Cherokee Indians, and according to the accepted tradition, killed with his own hand the Cherokee chief, Kingfisher He studied ın Philadelphia, and ın 1796 be was admitted to the bar at Knoxville He was a judge of the superior court of Tennessee (1801-07), a State senator (1807-09), and (1809-15) was Judge of the newly organized supreme court of errors and appeals of the State From 1812 to 1827 he was president of the State Bank of Tennessee, the only western bank that in the trying period during and after the War of 1812 did not suspend specie payments In 1821-24 he was a member of the Spamsh Claims Commission and in 1825 succeeded Andrew Jackson in the US Senate, serving until 1840 and being president pro tem in 1832-34 In the Senate he supported m general the measures of President Jackson, though his opposition to the latter’s mdiscriminate appointments caused a coolness between himself and Jackson In 1830, as chairman of the committee on Indian affairs, he secured the passage of a bill lookmg to the removal of the Indians to land west of the Mississippi. He was opposed to Van Buren, Jackson’s candidate for the presidency in 1836, was himself nominated in several States as an independent candidate, and received the 26 electoral votes of Tennessee and Georgia About 1838 he became a Whig in politics, and when the Democratic legislature of Tennessee structed him to vote for Van Buren’s sub-treasury scheme he objected and

resigned (Jan. 1840). His strict principles and his conservatism won for him the sobriquet of “The Cato of the United States Senate” He died at Knoxville, April 10, 1840

See Nancy N. Scott (ed) A Memoir of Hugh Lawson White (Philadelphia, 1856).

WHITE,

STANFORD

(1853-1906), American architect,

was born in New Vork city on Nov 9, 1853 He was the son of He worked m Boston with Henry H Richard Grant White Richardson, whom he helped in designing Trinity church, of that city. In 1878 he went abroad for further study, particularly of the Gothic tradition in which he found his keenest satisplants an acorn where he thinks an oak 1s wanted, or sows beech- faction In 188r he became a member of the firm of McKim, nuts m what is now a stately row. The encyclopaedic mterest in Mead and White, New York city He designed the Washington nature, although in White’s day culminating m the monumental arch in Washington Square, the Century and Metropolitan clubs, synthesis of Buffon, was also disappearing before the analytic the Tiffany and Gorham buildings, New York city, and the buildspecialism inaugurated by Linnaeus; yet the catholic interests of ings of the New York university and the University of Virginia of Augustus the simple naturalist of Selborne fully reappear a century later in He designed the pedestals for several of the statues St Gaudens, whose close friend he was, and a number of memothe greater naturalist of Down, Charles Darwin. The Life and Letters of Gilbert White of Selborne, by his great grand- rial monuments and stamed glass windows. He was murdered by nephew, Rashleigh Holt-White, appeared in 1901 Harry Thaw in New York city, June 25, 1906. See American 299; Sketches and Designs by WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806), English poet, was Artists by Royal Cortissoz, p Grant White (1920), also Letters born at Nottingham, the son of a butcher, on March 21, 1785 Stanford White: ed Lawrence Record. 30, Architectural vol White, Stanford of He was articled to a lawyer. Capel Lofft encouraged hım to pubWHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1 867), founder of St John’s lish Clifton Grove, a Sketch wm Verse, with other Poems, dedicated a William College, Oxford, of a clothier, and was was son White, to Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire The book was violently attacked in the Monthly Review (Feb 1804), but White was in born at Reading He became a merchant in London and a mem-

Whute’s 1s the first book which raised natural history into the region of literature, much as the Compleat Angler did for angling Its charm les in the sweet and kindly personality of the author, who on his rambles gathers no spoil, but watches the birds and field-mice without. disturbing them from their nests, and quietly

some degree compensated by a kind letter from Robert Southey ber, and then master of the Merchant Taylors’ Company, growing Through the efforts of his friends, he was entered as a sızar at St. wealthier he became an alderman and sheriff of the city of London

the Muscovy Company, he was knighted John’s college, Cambridge, spending a year beforehand with a One of the promoters of mayor He defended the city against Sir Close application to study induced a serious illness, in 1353, and chosen lord

private tutor

and fears were entertained for his sanity, but he went into residence at Cambndge, with a view to taking holy orders, in the

autumn of 1805

The strain of continuous study proved fatal, and

he died on Oct. 19, 1806. He was buried in the church of All Saints, Cambridge.

Thomas Wyat and his followers, and took part in the trial of the

rebels, as he had done in the case of Lady Jane Grey In 1555 White received a licence to found a college at Oxford, which, dedicated to the Virgin Mary and St John Baptist, was opened

Much of his fame was due to sympathy in- in 1560. He died at Oxford on Feb. 12, 1567, and was buried

WHITE—WHITEFIELD

576

m the chapel of St. John’s College White had some share in : founding the Merchant Taylors’ School in London

WHITE,

WILLIAM

ALLEN

(1868-

), American

journalist, born at Emporia, Kansas, Feb. 10, 1868. He attended the University of Kansas but left to edit the El Dorado Republcan In 1891 he went to Kansas City and became an editorial writer on the Star and m 1895 purchased the Empona Dazly and Weekly Gazette An editorial written mn 1896 entitled “What’s the Matter with Kansas?”, an impassioned plea against populism, made him and his paper nationally known He refused to run for political office. Three books of short stories, The Real Issue (1896), The Court of Boyville (1899), Strategems and Spoils Jn Our Town (1906), gave (xg01), and a volume of sketches, him wide reputation as an interpreter of life in the country towns of the Middle-West. In 1909 he published his first novel, A Certain Rich Man, which passed through many editions Then followed The Old Order Changeth (1910), political essays, God's Puppets (1916), short stories, and Jn the Heart of a Fool (1918), another successful novel.

Turning to mterpretative biography,

he wrote a Life of Woodrow Wilson (1924), Calvin Coolidge, the Man Who is President (1925), and Masks in a Pageant (1928). Many of his best editorials are collected in The Editor and His

People (1924).

He was sent to France by the American Red

Cross as an observer ın 1917, was a delegate to the Russian Conference at Prmlupo, 1919, and 1s a director of the Rockefeller Foundation, Woodrow Wilson Foundation and Walter Hines Page Foundation.

WHITE,

WILLIAM

HALE

(1829-1913). see RUTHER-

FORD, MARK

WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY, K.C.B , 1895 (1845-

1913), English naval architect, was born at Devonport on Feb. 2, 1845, and at 14 became an apprentice in the dockyard there. After spending three years at the Royal School of Naval Architecture, South Kensington, he jomed the constructive staff of the Admiralty, and acted as confidential assistant to the chief constructor, Sir Edward Reed, until Reed’s retirement. In 1872 White

school to prepare for the university, and m 1733 entered as , servitor at Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating in 1736 There

he came under the mfluence of the Methodists (see Westzy) In 1736 he was invited by Wesley to go out as missionary to Georgia, and went to London to wait on the trustees. Before setting sail he preached mn some of the principal London churches

and in order to hear him, crowds assembled at the church doors long before daybreak. On Dec 28, 1737, he embarked for Georgia

which he reached on May 7, 1738. After three months’ residence there he returned to England to receive priest’s orders, and to raise contributions for the establishment of an orphanage As the

clergy did not welcome him to their pulpits, he began to preach in the open air

At Kingswood Hill, Bristol, his addresses to the

collers soon attracted crowds, and his voice was so clear and powerful that it could reach 20,000 folk His fervour and dramatic action held them spell-bound, and his homely pathos soon

broke down all barriers of resistance “The first discovery of their being affected,” he says, “was by seeing the white gutters made by their tears, which plentifully fell down ther black

cheeks.” He agam embarked for America in August 1739, and

remained there two years, preaching in all the principal towns He left his incumbency of Savannah to a lay delegate, and was suspended for ceremonial irregularities.

During his absence from England Whitefield found that a divergence of doctrine from Calvinism had been mtroduced by Wesley, and notwithstanding Wesley’s exhortations to brotherly kindness and forbearance he withdrew from the Wesleyan Connexion Thereupon his friends built for him near Wesley’s church a wooden structure, which was named the Moorfields Tabernacle. A reconciliation between the two great evangelists was soon effected, but each thenceforth went his own way. In 1741, on the

invitation of Ralph and Ebenezer Erskine, he paid a visit to

Scotland, commencing his Jabours mm the Secession meeting-house, Dunfermline But, as he refused to limit his munustrations to one

sect, the Seceders and he parted company, and without ther countenance he made a tour through the principal towns of Scatland, and was everywhere received with enthusiasm From Scotland he went to Wales, where on Nov 14, he married a widow structor. In April 1883 he left the service of the Admuralty, at named James The marriage was not a happy one On his return the invitation of Lord (then Sw W G.) Armstrong, to organize a to London in 1742 he preached to the crowds in Moorfields during department for the construction of warships of the largest size the Whitsun hohdays After a second visit to Scotland, Juneat the Elswick works. In October 1885 he returned to the Ad- October 1742, and a tour through England and Wales, 1742miralty as director of naval construction, retaming that post until 1744, he embarked in August 1744 for America, where he rethe beginning of 1902. More than 200 vessels of various types mained till June 1748 On returning to London he found his were added to the British navy, at a total cost of something congregation at the Tabernacle dispersed; and his circumstances

was appointed secretary to the Council of Construction at the Admiralty, in 1875 assistant constructor, and in 1881 chief con-

were so depressed that he was obliged to sell his household furmture to pay his orphan-house debts Relief soon came through his acquaintance with Selina, countess of Huntingdon (g.v ), who appointed him one of her chaplains. The remainder of Whitefield’s life was spent chiefly in evangelizing tours in Great Britain, Ireland and America. It has been stated that “in the compass of a single week, and that for years, he spoke in general forty hours, and in very many sixty, and that to thousands.” In 1748 the synods of Glasgow, Perth and Lothian passed vain resolutions intended to exclude him from churches, m 1753 he compiled his hymn-book, and in 1756 opened the WHITE ANT: see Termite; Soctat Insects. WHITEBAIT (Fr. Blanchaille), the name given to the fry chapel which bears his name in Tottenham Court Road, London of the herring and sprat, and formerly erroneously thought to be On his return from America to England for the last time the a distinct species, Clupea alba These young fish, which are much change in his appearance forcibly impressed Wesley, who wrote in esteemed for the table, are found in large numbers in estuaries his Journal: “le seemed to be an old man, being fairly worn out (Firth of Forth, Thames, etc.) and at certain times along the coast, in his Master’s service, though he had hardly seen fifty years” but it appears that the large concentratıons which make the fishery When health was failing him he placed lumself on what he called “short allowance,” preaching only once every week-day and a commercial success occur only in estuaries. In spite of the large numbers of whitebait caught, it is improb- thrice on Sunday In 1769 he returned to America for the seventh able that this has any noticeable effect on the subsequent herring and last time, and arranged for the conversion of his orphanage fisheries In the year 1926, 3,127cwt of whitebait were landed m into Bethesda College, which was burned down in 1773. He died on Sept 30, 1770, at Newburyport, Mass. He was buried before ports of England and Wales, and sold for £3,916 WHITEFIELD, GEORGE (1714-1770), English religious the pulpit in the Presbyterian church of the town where he died leader, was born on Dec. 16, 1714, at the Bell Inn, Gloucester, of Whitefield’s printed works convey a totally inadequate idea of his which his father was landlord. At fifteen he was taken from oratorical powers, and are all in fact below mediocrity. They appeared school to assist his mother m the public-house, and for a year in a collected form in 1771—72 in seven volumes, the last containing and a half was a common drawer He then again returned to Memows of his Iafe, by Dr. John Gilles His Letters (1734-70)

like 100 millions sterlmg, and for the design and construction of these ships White was ultimately responsible. In addition to his work at the Admiralty, he was professor of naval architecture at the Royal School from 1870 to 1873, and when in the latter year it was moved to Greenwich to be merged in the Royal Naval College, he reorganized the course of instruction and acted as professor for eight years more His Manual of Naval Architecture is a standard text-book White, who was elected FRS. in 1888, read many professional papers before various learned and engineering societies. He died in London on Feb 27, 1913.

WHITEFISH—WHITELOCKE moprised in vols. i, ii and in of hi wibbshed Separately Hos Select Works, a a ared m

1850

E

See Lives by Robert Philp (1837), L Tyerman

(2 vols, 1876-77), J P Gledstone (187r, new ed 1900), and W H

Lecky’s History of England, vol u, (1878~90),

WHITEFISH, the name of fishes of the genus Coregonus

of the salmon family. These are silvery fishes with rather large scales, and with a small toothless or feebly toothed mouth, they feed on minute crustaceans Marine species, entermg rivers to breed, are chiefly arctic, but a number of fresh-water species mhabit Europe

and North

America, especially in lakes.

species of Coregonus reach a length of more than 18 inches

Few

For the British species see GwyNIAD, PoLLAN and VENDACE, see also SALMON AND SALMONIDAE

WHITEHALL, a village of Washington county, New York, USA, at the head (south end) of Lake Champlain, 65 m N. by E of Albany It 1s on Federal highway 4, is served by the Delaware and Hudson railway and is the northern terminus of the State Barge Canal system Pop, (1920) 5,258; mn 1930 it was

3191, In 1786 the village was named Whitehall and in 1806

it was incorporated During the War of 1812 ut was fortified and was a base of supphes for operations agaist Canada WHITEHAVEN, seaport, market town, municipal borough,

Whitehaven parhamentary division, Cumberland, England, 41 m SW of Carlisle on the LMS railway Pop. (1931) 21,142 At the mouth of a river, the harbour 1s protected by two piers. It

has a large dock and a tidal harbour and extensive quayage Regular summer communications are maintamed with the Isle of Man The exports are principally coal, pig iron and ore, steel and stone There are collieries near the town, the workings extending beneath the sea, there are also iron-mines and works, engineering works, and shipbuilding yards From 1832 until 1918 it was a parlhamentary borough returning one member. Whitehaven (Witofthaven) was a possession of the priory of St. Bee which became crown property at the dissolution of the religious houses It was acquired before 1644 by relatives of the earl of Lonsdale, who secured the prosperity of the town by working the coal-mmes. From 1708 the harbour was governed by 21 trustees, whose power was extended by frequent legislation, until, in 1885, they were incorporated In 1894 a municipal corporation was created by charter in that year The harbour was entrusted to 15 commissioners.

WHITEHEAD,

ROBERT

(1823-1905), English inventor,

was born at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, on Jan 3, 1823, the son of James Whitehead, owner of a cotton-bleaching business In 1837 he was apprenticed to a firm of engineers in Manchester, and in 1844 joined his uncle at the works of Phihp Taylor and Sons, Marseilles In 1847 he set up a busmess of his own in Milan, later joining the staff of the Austrian Lloyd Company at Trieste, where he was manager from 1850 to 1856. In 1856 he began to work for the Stabilimento Tecnico Fiumano, building several Austrian warships, and carrying out preliminary experiments for the Whitehead torpedo, completed in 1866. In 1872 Whitehead bought the Stabilmento Tecnico Fiumano, converting the works entirely to the production of torpedoes and their acces-

sories (See TorPepo ) In 1876 he improved his torpedoes with the “servo-motor,” and gradually increased their speed. His work was perfected in 1896 by Obry’s invention, subsequently acquired and improved by Whitehead, of the gyroscope, which guaranteed precision of aim SeeG

E Armstrong, Torpedoes and Torpedo Vessels (1901).

577

and Poems in 1774. See memoirs by his friend William Mason, prefixed to a complete

edition of his poems (York, 1788), His plays are printed in Bell’s Britsh Theatre (vols 3, 7, 20) and other collections, and his poems appear in Chalmers’s Works of the English Poets (vol 17) and similar compilations.

WHITE HORSE, VALE OF, the name of the valley of

the Ock, which joins the Thames from the west at Abingdon, Berkshire, England The vale is flat and well wooded, its green meadows and fohage contrasting with the bald summits of the White Horse hills on the south On the north a lower ridge separates it from the upper Thames valley, but local usage sometimes extends the vale to cover all the ground between the Cotswolds (on the north) and the White Horse hills Wantage is the only town in the heart of the vale, but upon the hulls villages are numerous. Towards the west, above Uffington, the hills reach a culminating point of 856 ft in White Horse hill. In its northern flank, a gigantic figure of a horse 1s cut, the turf being removed to show the white chalky sub-soil beneath. This figure gives name to the hill, the range and the vale. It is 374 ft long and of the rudest outline, the neck, body and tail varying little in width. Its origin is unknown. The figure, with others of a similar character elsewhere mn England, is considered to be of high antiquity, datmmg from before the Roman occupation. Many ancient remains occur in the vicimty of the Horse On the summit of the hill there 1s an extensive and well-preserved circular earthwork known as Uffington castle. Within a short distance are Hardwell castle, a square work, and, near Ashdown park, a small camp traditionally called Alfred’s A smooth, steep gully on the north flank of White Horse hill is called the Manger, and to the west of it rises a bald mound named Dragon’s hill The name, properly Pendragon, 1s a Celtic: form signifying “chief of kings,” and may point to an early place of burial To the west of White Horse hill lies a dolmen called Wayland Smith’s cave The White Horse itself has been carefully cleared of vegetation from time to time, and the process, known as the “Scouring of the White Horse,” was formerly made the occasion of a festival A grassy track represents the ancient road or Ridge Way along the crest of the hills and other earthworks in addition to those near the White Horse overlook the vale, such as Letcombe castle above Wantage Among interesting village churches in the vale is the fine Early English one at Uffington The length of the vale 1s traversed by the main line of the GW railway, between Didcot and Swindon.

WHITE LEAD: see Leap. WHITELEY, WILLIAM (1831-1907), English “Universal Provider,” was born at Agbrigg, near Wakefield, Yorkshire, on Sept. 29, 183x, the son of a corn-factor. In 1851 he made his first visit to London to see the Great Exhibition, and m 1852 he obtained a situation in a draper’s establishment in the city In 1863 he himself opened a small shop for the sale of fancy drapery in Westbourne Grove, Bayswater, London He made a consistent practice of marking all goods in plain figures and of “dressing” his shop-window attractively, both unusual features m the retail trading of the time, and to this, coupled with the fact that he was satisfied with small profits, he largely attributed a success in which his own genius for organization and energy played a con-

spicuous part

In 1866 Whiteley added general drapery to his

other business, opening by degrees shop after shop and department after department, till he was finally enabled to call himself

the “Universal Provider,” and boast that there was nothing which

his stores could not supply. “Whiteley’s” was, in fact, the first great mstance of a large general goods store in London, held under one man’s control In 1899 the business, of which the sums in ornamenting a piece of land near Grantchester, after- profits then averaged over £100,000 per annum, was turned into wards known as “Whitehead’s Folly ” William was educated at a limited liability company, Whiteley retaining the bulk of the Winchester college and Clare Hall, Cambridge He became a fel- shares On Jan, 23, 1907, he was shot dead, after an interview in

WHITEHEAD,

WILLIAM

(1715-1785),

English poet-

laureate, son of a baker, was born at Cambridge, and baptized on Feb 12,1715 His father had extravagant tastes, and spent large

low of Clare in 1742 At Cambridge Whitehead published an epistle “On the Danger of writing Verse” and other poems In 1757 he

his private office, by Horace George Rayner, who claimed (but, as was proved, wrongly) to be his illegitimate son and who had

was appointed poet-laureate in succession to Cibber. Whitehead’s most successful play was the School for Lovers (Drury Lane,

been refused pecuniary assistance. Rayner was convicted of mur-

Feb, 10, 1762)

David Garrick then made him his reader of

plays, Whitehead died on April 14, 1785. He collected his Plays

der, but the death-sentence was commuted to penal servitude,

WHITELOCKE,

BULSTRODE

(1605-1675),

English

lawyer and parliamentarian, eldest son of Sir James Whitelocke

578

WHITE

MOUNTAINS—WHITE

(g.v ), was baptized on Aug 19, 1605, and educated at Merchant Taylors’ school and at St John’s college, Oxford, where he matriculated on Dec. 8, 1620. He was called to the bar in 1626 and chosen treasurer in 1628. He was M P. for Stafford in the parliament of 1626 and had been appointed recorder of Abingdon and Henley. In 1640 he was chosen member for Great Marlow in the Long Parliament He took a prominent part in the proceedings against Strafford He drew up the bill for making parliaments indissoluble except by their own consent, and supported the Grand Remonstrance and the action taken in the Commons against the illegal canons; on the militia question, however, he advocated a joint control by king and parliament. On the outbreak of the Great Rebellion he took the side of the parliament He was sent to the king at Oxford in 1643 and 1644 to negotiate terms, and the secret communications with Charles on the latter occasion were the foundation of a charge of treason brought against Whitelocke and Denzil Holles (qg.v.) later He was again one of the commissioners at Uxbridge in 1645. Nevertheless, he opposed the policy of Holles and the peace party and the proposed disbanding of the army in 1647, repudiated the claims of divine authority put forward by the Presbyterians for their Church, and approved of religious tolerance. He thus gravitated towards Cromwell and the army party Under the Commonwealth he was nominated councillor of State and became a commissioner of the New Great Seal In 1653 he went on a mission to Christina, queen of Sweden, to conclude a treaty of alliance and to secure the freedom of the Sound. On his return he again became a commissioner of the Great Seal, and also a commissioner of the Treasury In 1654 and 1656 he sat as MP for Buckinghamshire As a lawyer, Whitelocke supported a bill introducing the use of English into legal proceedings, drafted a new treason law, and introduced modifications into chancery procedure. His resistance to the ill-considered changes in the court of chancery proposed by Cromwell and the council, however, led to his dismissal from the commissionership of the Great Seal He still advised Cromwell on foreign affairs, and was chairman of the committee to urge Cromwell to accept the crown In Dec. 1657 he became a member of the new House of Lords. He was again a commissioner of the Great Seal under Richard Cromwell, and was a member (May 14, 1659) and president (Aug 1659) of the council of State On the expulsion of the Long Parliament, in which he had a seat, he was included in the committee of safety which superseded the council He again received the Great Seal on Nov 1 On the failure of his plan to persuade Fleetwood to forestall Monk by making terms with Charles, he retired to the country. He lived at Chilton, in Wiltshire, dying on July 28, 1675 He was the author of Memorials of the English Afars from the beginning of the reign of Charles I. . . . pubhshed 1682 and reprinted, largely a compilation from various sources, composed after the events and abounding in errors. His work of greatest value, his Annals,

still remains in ms m Lord Bute’s and Lord (Hist. Bret Comm III, Rep, pp 202, 217, Mus. 997, add. mss 4,992, 4,994) ; his Journal -.. was published 1772 and re-edited by (add. mss. 4,902, 4,991 and 4,995 and Hist

de la Wart’s collections also Egerton mss Brit of the Swedish Embassy Henry Reeve in 188s MSS Comm. III Rep, 190, 217) ; Notes on the King’s Writ for Choosing Members of Parlament .. were published 1766 (see also add mss. 4,993) ; Memorsals of Enghsh Affairs from the supposed expeditidn of Bruce to this Island to the end of the Reign of James I, were published 1709; Essays Ecclesiastical and Civil (1706); Quench not the Sint... (171Z); Some theological treatises remain n ms, and several others are attributed to him See the article by C. H Firth in the Dict Nat Biog, with authorthes there quoted; R H Whitelocke, Memozws of B Whitelocke (1860); H Reeves edition of the Swedish Embassy, Foss’s Judges of England; Eng. Hist. Rev., xvi. 737; Wood’s Ath. Oxon, m 1,042.

_ WHITE

MOUNTAINS,

the portion of the Appalachian

mountain system which traverses New Hampshire (U.S.A ), between the Androscoggin and Upper Ammonoosuc rivers on the north and the lake country on the south They cover an area of about 1,300m, are composed of somewhat homogeneous granite rocks, and represent the remnants after long-contmued erosion of a region formerly greatly elevated The geological formation is an igneous ejection of granite, burst through horizontal strata.

The foundation seems to have lifted from the depths and bears upon its shoulders a huge covering of mica slate that often extends

RUSSIA

a quarter of a mile below the summit The group is divided into two main portions by Crawford Notch, the valley of the Saco river. To the west of the notch are the Franconia mountams where Mt Lafayette, the highest peak, stands 5,269 ft above sealevel To the east bes the Presidential range, so called because

the chief summits are named after the US

Presidents

Of th

group Mt, Washington 1s the highest peak, rising 6,293 ft above the sea Thirteen other summits have an elevation exceeding 5,000 feet Some of the best known are Mt. Adams, 5,805 ft , Mt Jef-

ferson, 5,725 ft., Mt Clay, 5,554 ft , Mt Monroe, 5,390 ft , and Mt. Madison, 5,380 feet See the article New Hamesuire, the Guidebook, part 1 (Boston, 1907), published by the Appalachian Mountain Club, and Appalg (1846 seq ), @ periodical pubhshed by the same club aes

WHITE PLAINS, a city of New York, USA, the county seat of Westchester county, 24 m N N E. of the Grand Central station m New York city, on the Bronx river, midway between

the Hudson and Long Island sound

It ıs served by the New York

Central and electric railways and motor-bus lines

Pop. (1920)

21,031 (20% foreign-born white and 5% negroes) , 1930 by Federal census 35,830. White Plains 1s a beautiful residential suburb spreading over Io sqm _ of rolling tree-clad hills and meadowlands, with the Bronx River parkway running through it and three lakes (Silver, Kensico and Rye) m the vicinty The city’s assessed

valuation for 1929 was $138,634,673

The early traders called this region “the white plains” from the

groves of white balsam which covered it In Nov. 1683, a party

of Connecticut Puritans came from Rye (in the terntory then in dispute between New York and Connecticut), bought land from the Indians and established a settlement ‘Their title was contested by the heirs of John Richbell, and the controversy was not settled until 1722 In 1759 White Plains succeeded Westchester as the county seat In the early summer of 1776 the Third Pro. vincial Congress of New York met here, in the old court house on South Broadway (where an armory now stands). From the steps of this bwlding the Declaration of Independence was officially read for the first time in New York on July r1, 1776, and here New York was first declared a State and the work of drafting its first Constitution was begun In Oct 1776, Washington withdrew his forces from the north end of Manhattan and concentrated them near White Plains On Oct 28 the Americans (about 1,600) de-

fending rude earthworks on Chatterton’s hill (on the west bank of the Bronx river) were attacked by 4,000 British and Hessians, and after making a stubborn resistance retreated in good order across theriver The American loss was about 125; the British, 250, The old Miller house, in North White Plains, was occupied at intervals by Washington as his headquarters before the battle and again m the summer of 1778 In 1779 a Continental force under Aaron Burr was stationed here for some months, and in July 1781, the Heights of Greenburgh, west and south-west of the city, were occupied by parts of Lauzun’s and Rochambeau’s French army White Plains was incorporated as a village in 1866 and as a city in 1916

WHITE RUSSIA,

a republic of the Russian USSR

Area

125,703 sqkmn Pop (1926) 4,979,712 Poland hes to the west, the Ukrainian SSR to the south, the provinces of Bryansk and Smolensk to the east and the Pskov district of the Leningrad Area to the north In the north and west there are hulls, the Lysaya Hulls north of Minsk being the highest (over 1,000 ft),

but the south-east is 4 low and marshy plain sloping to the Pripet river, and the swamps and marshes lying south of it, and forming part of a great lacustrine depression The Western Dvma flows through a morainic region and its bed is interrupted by waterfalls due to boulders and outcrops of ‘harder rocks, as is that of the Dnieper. The Berezina canal links these two rivers and thus

avoids some of these difficulties

Among the numerous streams

of the Republic are the Drut, Berezina, Pripet and Sozh, tnbutaries of the Dnieper, and various streams flowing into the Niemen

and the Western Dvina

Fishing in these streams and the numer-

ous lakes is productive, and about 200 artrficial breeding ponds

exist The chief kinds of fish are pike, bream, sandre, perch, dace,

tench, crucian-carp, silurus and ling. Fishing for export ceased

WHITE

SLAVE

during the recent wars and did not begin again until 1923

1924-5 the catch was about 800 tons as against a normal yield of 9,500 tons Steam navigation was also greatly lessened by the destruction of the war years and ıs still far below pre-war level, the severance of the former opening to the Baltic via the Western

Dvma 1s another factor in the dimimshed freightage

The forest wealth of the region has been markedly dimmuished by destructive exploitation before the World War and by the ruthless cutting of forest during 1914-21 for the conflicting armies At present about 25% of the region 1s under forest, oak m the south and pme and fir in the north Much timber is

exported through Latvia for foreign markets, the rest going to the Ukraine, the Crimea and the Moscow region

TRAFFIC

579

In | Polish rule The official documents of the Litva dukes, however,

In dependence

on the forest there are saw-mulling, wood-working, match and

paper factories, but many were razed to the ground during the war period and production 1s much dimimshed. A tenth of the surface 1s covered with bog, and peat working 1s increasmg This

peat and the numerous waterfalls are potential sources of electrical energy, little developed as yet in the republic, a station at Osinovich 1s under construction (1928) The soils in the republic are not very favourable to agriculture, being mainly of the ashcoloured forest type, with some clays and sands The climate is less continental than that of the rest of Russia and ıs under the influence of the Baltic and Atlantic, the ramfall averages about 30 inches per annum Frost lasts for 130 to 140 days, while the summer temperature averages 18 5° C Agriculture.—These climatic and soul conditions are favour-

able to stock-raising, which is carried on successfully, pig-breeding having developed lately There 1s not much dairying except near the towns for local supply Cattle diminished markedly in the war years, and their progress towards more normal numbers was

sharply set back by the slaughter of 1926-7 consequent on the bad harvest In 1924-5 manuring for meadows was introduced in some places, with great benefit to the hay crop Agriculture is still pre-eminently of a grain character, though potato and flax cultrvation began to crease in 1924 The chief crops are rye and oats The region is, however, comparatively densely peopled and the local grain supply 1s altogether msufficient, 267,000 tons of imported grain being used in 1926-7 ‘The strip system prevails, though ın some places mmdividual farms have replaced it In spite of the devastation of the area, restoration of sowing has been more rapid here than elsewhere in Russia. The cutting off of the western regions from Russia has altered

continued to be written in White Russian for some time after this. Under Ivan the Great (1462-1505), part of the White Russian territory was wrested from Poland Under Basil III. (15051533), the power of Moscow extended to the Dnieper river, but during the “Time of Troubles” the territory was regained by Poland, and by the truce of Deulino, Poland retamed Smolensk and all the terntory west of ıt. The struggle between Russia and

Poland continued at intervals, but White Russia remained in Polish hands until the Treaty of Vilna 1656, when Poland ceded White Russia and the Ukraine to Russia. But war broke out again between the two countries and ended disastrously for Russia, though she retained the district of Smolensk, and the

Ukraine east of the Dmeper. The deep division between the Poles and the Russians on the question of religion ultimately led to further troubles, and when in 1766 the Polish diet refused to grant equal nghts and full liberty of conscience to non-Roman Catholic subjects, the flame of rebellion broke out at Slutsk in White Russia. In 1742 the first partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria made the Western Dvima and the Drut the Russian frontier, so that a portion of White Russia with 1,600,000 mhabitants came under Russian rule By the second partition of Poland in 1793, Russia acquired all the rest of White Russia, a large part of Black Russia (the territory between the Pripet and

the Niemen, west of the Berezina), and the Ukraine west of the Dmieper, and in 1795, by the third partition extended her territories to include Courland and all the rest of Lithuania and Black Russia During this long struggle between Poland and Russia, the territory of the White Russians was repeatedly fought over and devastated, and a general low level of cultural and economic conditions in the region ensued and is still evident to-day. In 1812 the unfortunate country was crossed by Napoleon’s army on its march to and from Moscow via Smolensk, and suffered further

devastation, from which it had not recovered when war broke out in 1914 It then lay close to the war zone and shared in the disorder and disasters of the Russian retreat in 1916. After the 1917 revolution a Committee of Workers, Soldiers and Peasants of the Western Front was formed and an attempt to establish a soviet system was thus made. But in February, 1918 Minsk and the whole region as far as the Dnieper was

occupied by German troops, withdrawn in November 1918, after the revolution in Germany. The Soviet of Workers and Peasants then declared an independent White Russian Republic and efforts the balance and direction of trade In accordance with the long and tragic history of this region of struggle with difficult natural were made to form a joint Lithuanian and White Russian Reconditions and with perpetual mvasions the standard of hfe is public But early in 1919 war again broke out with Poland and low and illiteracy 1s common Here, as in most other places in Polish troops occupied the district. Finally, by the treaty of Riga, Russia, there 1s insufficient accommodation in school for children 1921, peace was declaréd between Poland, Russia and the Ukraine, and at least 40% of the present generation are receiving no edu- the western part of White Russia passing under Polish rule For cation Since 1921 a Communist University and an Institute of exact details of the new boundary, see British and Foreign State White Russian Culture, with a Polish and a Jewish section have Papers, 1921, vol. cxiv, published in 1924. The Soviet governbeen established in Minsk. The population consists of White ment in 1924 and 1926 extended the boundary of White Russia Russians 80%, Jews 8%, Great Russians 7%, Poles 2% with some eastwards, and the towns of Vitebsk and Gomel, with a strip of Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Letts, etc. The admimistrative centre is territory on the east bank of the Sozh, are now included in it.

Minsk (gv)

Other towns (g¥v,) are Vitebsk, Gomel, Mogilev,

WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC,

The movement for the sup-

pression of the international traffic in women and children for immoral purposes may be said to some extent to date from the atpurest of the three great Slav divisions, Great Russians, Little tempt, ım the middle of the roth century, to introduce what may Russians (Ukrainians) and White Russians. They took refuge be described as a system of State regulation of vice into England from Tatar raids in the swamps and marshes Their dialect is akin This system owed its introduction to the remarkably high incito Great Russian, but political causes separated the two races, and dence of venereal disease at that period among soldiers and sailors, the White Russians, like the Ukraimians, were for some time under and as a result, in 1864, the first of the Contagious Diseases Acts non-Russian rule In physical type they are brachycephalic, aver- was passed ‘There were then, and still are, two bodies of opinion; age cephalic index 85, greater than that of the Great Russians, in some cases the State recognized prostitution as a necessity possibly because of imtermuxture with the Poles Their hair is which could not be overlooked, but which called for control by hght brown or brown, with a decided reddish tinge and their eyes registration and sanitary supervision, in other countries a strong light brown Apparently they recerved the name “White” Rus- body of opinion favoured no such recognition, In 1875 a meeting stans because of their costume, white smock, bast shoes with was called by Josephine Butler in Geneva to consider white slave traffic from its international aspect and in its relation to state white leggings, and a white homespun coat. History.—After the rise of Lithuania, the region became sub- regulation, and as a result the International Federation for the ject to the princes of that country and when the Litva prince Abolition of State Regulation of Vice was formed In 1898 and became king of Poland, the White Russian territory fell under 1899 William Alexander Coote, the secretary of the National Vig-

Bobrwsk, Borisov, Orsha and Polotsk The White Russians are by Leroy Beaulieu considered to be the

580

WHITE

SLAVE

lance Association of Great Britain, visited Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Russia, Switzerland, Spain, Austna and the Scandinavian countries, and im the capital of each organized a national committee for the suppression of white slave traffic. An mternational congress was therefore held i London in June 1913, and at that congress the International Bureau for the Suppression of White Slave Traffic was constituted to co-ordinate the work of the national committees The French Government had called an official conference in Paris ın 1904, and an international agreement was drafted, under which the signatory powers undertook to appoint a central authority im each country charged with the coordination of all information relative to the traffic. The signatories undertook to ensure vigilance at ports and railway stations, to notify the arrival in each country of suspected persons, to take declarations from alien prostitutes, to protect and maintain the victims of the traffic pending repatnation (for which they also took the responsibility) and to supervise registry offices or agencies engaged in findmg employment for women and girls abroad. In r910 a second governmental conference was called in Paris. A convention drawn up after this conference provided for the punishment of procurers for immoral purposes of girls and women, either minors or of full age, m whatever country the various acts constituting the offence might be committed. It provided also for the enactment, ın those countries where needed, of the necessary legislation. In addition to the official conferences mentioned, the International Bureau was instrumental in calling together conferences and congresses in various parts of Europe The names of four persons will always be remembered for their active association with the early movement for abohtion of the traffic in women and children Josephine Butler and W. A Coote (England), Senateur Beranger (France), and Alfred de Meuron

(Switzerland) Work of the League of Nations.—Such was the preliminary work done before the League of Nations came mto emstence on Jan 10, 1920. Article 23 (c) of the Covenant states that members “will entrust the League with the general supervision over the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women and children” On the decision of the first assem-

TRAFFIC

consent, previously fixed at 20, is raised to 21

In addition, the

provisions of the convention of 1921 relating to extradition go further than those of the convention of 1910, the parties agreeing that m cases where no extradition convention exists between two countries, they will take all measures 1n their power to extradite or provide for the extradition of persons accused or convicted of

certain offences specified under the convention of 1910

They

also undertake to prescribe such regulations as are required for the protection of women and children seeking employment in an. other country, 1f they have not already done so

The Advisory Committee.—Another outcome of the confer. ence of 1921 was the setting up of an advisory committee to the

Council on all matters relating to the traffic in women and chidren. This committee sat for the first time in June 1922 It was composed of delegates of Governments, and of assessors appomted by international voluntary organizations During its six meetings

ıt had under special consideration the questions of employment of women abroad by theatrical, variety, concert and cinema agents, the moral welfare of women and children on emigrant ships; the consideration of the system of licensed houses; the employment of women police, and the consideration of the laws and regulations in force in various countries for suppressing the traffic Of these questions, one which has been. given much importance is that of the system of the licensed house. Though it may be maintained that the regulation of vice in any country is purely an internal and national question, 1t was the opinion of a large number of members on the advisory commuttee that the licensed house stimulates immorality and encourages an international trade to supply a certain market. The committee gave special attention to the subject, and as a result of its investigations, the Council “recognizing the connection which may exist between a system of licensed houses and the traffic m women and children,” invited

States which had abandoned the system to explaim the motives of their decision ın abandoning it, ın so far as they concern the traffic, and States which still maimtain the system to indicate whether their experience leads them to believe that the system encourages the international traffic or otherwise. The majority of answers received appear to indicate a strong bly of the League, a questionnaire was sent to all Govern- movement for the abolition of the licensed house system, which ments to ascertain the measures taken or proposed in the various some of the new States created by the Treaty of Versailles opted and subsequently abandoned The reasons given by these countries to put an end to the trafic The Council of the League was also invited to convene an international conference. Thirty- States and others for this abolition are various. It is said, for exfour States were represented at this conference, which was held in ample, by some that the system has not justified expectation, and Geneva from June 30 to July 5, 1921 To it were invited, not only has tended to disseminate rather than diminish venereal disease States parties to the previous international engagements, but all It is the opinion given by more than one State that the licensed States willing to take part, and the meetings were open to the pub- brothel has proved itself to be a permanent factor in the traffic in lic The conference examined the replies to the questionnaire, and women and children, in fact that the traffic owes its very life to a Final Act was adopted containing a number of recommendations the existence of the licensed brothel The Dutch Government, in requiring action by Governments This Final Act was approved giving the reasons for the abolition of the system of regulation in by the Council and, in Sept 1921, the Assembly invited all Govern- that country, state that experience has shown that the traffic dements to authorize their delegates to sign forthwith a convention pends on the exstence of the licensed brothel and that its abolition submitted by the British Government m which many provisions has almost killed the traffic On the other hand certain countries, of the Final Act were given conventional form ‘This convention was open for signature on Sept. 30, 1921, 1t has been signed by 34 States, 28 of which (including the British Empire the Dominions of Australa, Canada, New Zca'vid rà Sou h Africa and India) have ratified the convention Twenty-seven British colonies and dependencies and the territory of ‘Iraq (British mandated territory) have adhered The new convention was not intended to replace the earlier instruments, but to supplement them, and ıt ıs for that reason that the first article prescribes that the high contracting parties, if not already parties to the agreement of 1904 and the convention of 1910, shall ratify or adhere to them without delay Other new provisions in the convention are that the punishments prescribed under the convention of r910 for those who traffic in women and girls are made applicable to those who engage in the traffic of children of either sex The punishment is required not only of those guilty of offences committed, but of attempts to commit the offence and, within legal limits, of acts preparatory to the committing of such offence The minimum age under which it is an offence to procure a woman for immoral purposes, even with her

in replying, say that they maimtain the system 1m the interests of

public health. This is sometimes qualified by the statement that there 1s an obvious contradiction existing between the system of tolerance and the higher end of the State, or that the State has de-

cided to give the matter serious attention in, view of the growing

public opinion in favour of abolitron, and in other reports It 1s said that although the system is maintained, a scheme is m course of preparation for its suppression, The Expert Investigation, 1924-1926.—To ascertain the extent of the world’s traffic, the routes which it follows and the individuals or organizations connected with it, a small body of experts was nominated to make a world investigation on the spot with the consent of and in conjunction with the Governments

concerned. This investigation was financed by the American Bureau of Social Hygiene The experts were chosen on the ground of special knowledge and qualifications, irrespective of nationality, the Social Section of the League of Nations supplying the secretarial assistance The principles laid down in conducting the enquiry were as follows:

WHITE

STAR

LINE—WHITGIFT

(a) The enquiries must be carried on only by trained and expenenced persons, (b) Each enquiry should relate to a lumuited area, (c) Each enquiry should be detailed and thorough; (d) The enquiries should be begun, as far as possible, in cites and countries to which women are alleged to have been sent for

purposes of prostitution.

The investigators visited some of the chief cities in 28 countries, mncluding countries in Europe, countries in northern Africa bordermg on the Mediterranean, countries in North America, Central America and countries on the Atlantic coast of South America. In March 1927, the committee of experts presented the report of their investigations into the extent of the traffic in women and

children to the Council

This report shows that a traffic in

women and children exists beyond a doubt They name those countries which appear to them to be the chief countries of demand or supply. The report lays special stress on the necessity for closer international co-operation and a more widespread knowl-

edge of the position with the idea of creating a sound and vigilant public opmion It recommends that increased penalties should be enforced for the person making a profit out of the moral degradation of another and 1t closes with a statement to the effect that “the difficulty of elammating the third party element becomes greater

in countries where the keeping of brothels is legal, where licensed houses exist and where the system of registering prostitutes 1s maintained ” “The existence of licensed houses,”’ say the experts, “s undoubtedly an mcentive to traffic, both national and international” “It behoves all governments,” the report goes on to say, “which place reliance on the older system of preventing the spread of venereal diseases to examine the question thoroughly m the hght of the latest medical knowledge and practice and to consider the possibility of abandoning a system which is fraught with such dangers from the point of view of international traffic ” (See also PROSTITUTION.) BrariacrarHy —Reports of the International Conference on Traffic

m Women and Children (Geneva 1921) ; the Reports of the League of Nations Advisory Committee on Traffic m Women and Children (6 sesslONS, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1926, 1927), g. Butler, Personal Reminiscences of a Great Crusade, Reports of the International Bureau for the Suppression of Traffic in Women; Report of Experts on Traffic m Women and Children (Geneva 1927). (R. E. C.)

WHITE STAR LINE, the name by which the world knows

the ships of the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company (the shares of which are owned by the White Star Line, Limited), founded by T H Ismay m 1869 Ismay’s first steamer, the “Oceanic,” sailed from the Mersey for New York m March, 1871. In 1874-75 the “Britannic” and “Germanic,” each of 5,000 gross tons, were

built. In 1874 the company had extended its operations, by agreement with the Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company of San Francisco Ten years later the jomt service of the White Star Line and Shaw Savill and Albion Company to New Zealand was begun. The last of the company’s single-screw steamers were built in 1888 for the hve-stock trade These were followed by the twinscrew passenger liners “Teutonic” and “Majestic” In 1899 the

“Medic” maugurated a service of twin-screw passenger and cargo steamers between Liverpool, South Africa and Australia, in which she was associated with the “Afric,” “Persic,” “Runic,” and “Suevic,” all of about 12,000 tons, and accommodating one class only of passengers

A new “Oceanic” of 17,274 tons was placed in the New York service in 1899 She was lost in Government service during the World War. The “Celtic” and “Cedric,” each over 21,000 tons, were produced,

soon

after the “Oceanic,”

and in turn were

followed by the “Baltic,” of 24,000 tons, and the “Adriatic,”

of 25,000 tons. The company became a part of the International Mercantile Marine Company in 1902, but this in no way affected its policy In 1907 the White Star Line transferred 1ts New York mail service, previously operated from Liverpool, to Southampton

In rorz the “Olympic,” a triple-screw steamer of over 46,000 tons, entered the service The “Britannic,” a ship of nearly 50,000 tons built for this service, was sunk in the World War In 1909 the White Star Line combined with the Dominion Line

581

in forming a Joint service from Liverpool to Canada, the first

steamers of this White Star Domimon Line being the “Laurentic” (triple-screw), 14,892 tons, and “Megantic” (twin-screw), 14,878 tons During 1926 the name of the service was changed to the White Star Line Canadian Services, and in the spring of 1928 it added the “Albertic,” 19,000 tons, and “Calgaric,” 16,000

tons fad new “Laurentic,” 18,700 tons, entered the trade early m 192 In 1921 the White Star Line acquired the “Majestic,” 56,551 tons, and “Homeric,” 34,356 tons, the former being one of the two largest vessels in the world, for its mail and passenger service from Southampton and Cherbourg to New York. The

“Adriatic,”

“Baltic,”

“Cedric”

and

“Celtic’—the

big four—

operate in the Liverpool-Queenstown-New York trade. In 1926 the shares of the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company, Limited, were purchased from the International Mercantile Manne Company, by the White Star Line, Limited, formed for the purpose, the line thus becoming once more a British concern The aggregate tonnage owned by the company (1928) is 546,000 and 69,000 tons are under construction, including the new ‘“Britannic,” a motor vessel for the Liverpool-New York service, 27,000 tons The capital of the White Star Line, Limited, stood m 1928 at £9,000,000 (L C.M)

WHITETHROAT,

a name given to two httle birds belong-

ing to tbe Sylvudae or warblers (g.v ) The common whitethroat or nettlecreeper, Sylvia cinerea, 1s widely spread over Great Britain, in some places common. It 1s a restless bird, and in spring the male often gives his song on the wing The lesser whitethroat, Sylvza curruca, is less often seen The plumage 1s smoky-grey above and white below. Its song 1s unusual, consisting of a series of repeated notes, the usual “warble” bemg reduced to a short preface maudible at a httle distance The nests of each of these species are built of bents or other plant-stalks, and usually lined with horsehair, the eggs are spotted with olive-brown.

WHITGIFT, JOHN

(1530?-1604), English archbishop, was

the eldest son of Henry Whitgift, merchant of Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire, where he was born He was educated by his uncle, Robert Whitgift, abbot of the neighbouring monastery of Wellow, then at St. Anthony’s school, London, and finally at Cambridge, where he became a fellow of Peterhouse in 1555. Having taken orders in 1560, he became chaplain to the bishop of Ely, who collated him to the rectory of Teversham, Cambridgeshire. In 1563 he was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge, and mn 1564 regius professor of divinity. He became master first of Pembroke Hall and then of Trmity. He had a principal share in compiling the statutes (1570) of the umversity, and in November of the same year was chosen vice-chancellor, Macaulay’s description of Whitgift as “a narrow, mean, tyrannical priest, who gamed power by servility and adulation,” is unjust, but he was intolerant and arbitrary. Whuitgift, with other heads of the university, deprived Thomas Cartwright in 1570 of his professorship, and in Sept 1571, as master of Trinity, deprived him of his fellowship. In June of the same year Whitgift was nom1nated dean of Lincoln. In the following year he published An Answere to a Certain Libel intituled an Admonition to the Parliament, which led to further controversy with Cartwright On March 24, 1577, Whitgift was appointed bishop of Worcester, and during the absence of Sir Henry Sidney in Ireland (1577) he acted as vice-president of Wales In August 1583 he was appointed archbishop of Canterbury Although he wrote a letter to Queen Elizabeth remonstrating against the alienation of church property, Whitgift always retained her special confidence In his policy against the Puritans, and in his vigorous enforcement of the subscription test, he thoroughly carried out the queen’s policy of religious uniformity He drew up articles armed at nonconforming ministers, and obtamed increased powers for the Court of High Commission In 1586 he became a privy councillor His action gave rise to the Marprelate tracts, in which the bishops and clergy were bitterly attacked. Through Whitgift’s vigilance the printers of the tracts were discovered and punished, and in order more effectually to check the publication of such opinions he got a law passed in 1593 making Puritanism an offence against the statute law In the

582

WHITHORN—WHITMAN

controversy between Walter Travers and Richard Hooker he interposed by prohibiting the preaching of the former and he moreover presented Hooker with the rectory of Boscombe, Wilts, in order to afford him more leisure to complete his Ecclessastscal Polity, a work which, however, cannot be said to represent either Whitgift’s theological or his ecclesiastical standpomt. In 1595 he, in conjunction with the bishop of London and other prelates, drew up the Calvimistic instrument known as the Lambeth Artcles, which were not accepted by the church. Whitgift attended Elizabeth on her deathbed, and crowned James I He was present at the Hampton Court Conference in Jan 1604, and died at Lambeth on Feb. 29 of that year He was buried in the church of Croydon. Whitgift was noted for his hospitality, and was ostentatious in his habits, sometimes visiting Canterbury and other towns attended by a retinue of 800 horsemen His name 1s commemorated ın the hospital for poor persons and the schools founded by him at Croydon m 1595 Whitgift left several unpublished works, which are included among the mss. Anghae. Many of his letters, articles, njunctions, etc., are calendared in the published volumes of the “State Paper” series of the reign of Elizabeth His Collected Works, ed for the Parker Society by John Ayre (3 vols., Cambridge, 185z—-53), mclude, besides the controversial tracts already alluded to, two sermons published during his hfetime, a selection from his letters to Cecil and others, and some portions of his unpublished mss A Lafe of Whitgft by Sır G Paule (1612, 2nd ed 1649) was embodied by John Strype ın his Life and Acts of Whitg:ft (1718) There 1s also a hfe n C Wordsworth’s Ecclesiastrcal Brography (1810), W F. Hook’s Archbishops of Canterbury (1875), and vol 1. of Whitgift’s ig Works See also H J. Clayton, Whitgift and his Trmes I9I1).

WHITHORN,

royal burgh and parish of Wigtownshire, Scot-

land, r2} m S of Wigtown by ral. Pop. (1931) 951 St. Ninian or Ringan, the first Christian missionary to Scotland,

in 1921, retiring in 1928 and declining the usual peerage

He was

awarded the Order of Merit. He had an urbane manner in deal.

ing with delinquents which was notably effective

WHITLEY COUNCIL: see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS WHITLOCK, BRAND (1869 ), American diplomat

and writer, was born at Urbana (O ), March 4, 1869 Asa political reporter on the Chicago Herald and as assistant in the office of

the Illinois secretary of state, Mr Whitlock came mm contact With John P Altgeld, governor of Ilhinois who, lke “Golden-Rule” Jones, mayor of Toledo, did much to develop his pohtical ideal. ism. He was admitted to the Illnois bar in 1894, and to the bar of Ohio in 1897 From that year until 1905 he practised law in Toledo and then as an Independent became mayor for four terms

in 1911 refusing nomination a fifth time

The record of hs

labours for the “Free City” of which he dreamed is told m his autobiography Forty Years of It (1914, new edition 1925)

In 1913 he was appointed US minister (later ambassador) to Belgium. Before he had been in Belgium a year the World War

broke out and the German invasion took place Although the other diplomatic bodies followed the Belgian Court to Havre Whitlock insisted on remaming in Brussels

It was largely due to

his urgent advice that Brussels did not resist, and thus escaped devastation. In the early days of the war he gave protection to many German residents who had been unable to leave the country, By his firm attitude toward the German military officials he saved many innocent Belgians from death; but his activities on behalf of Edith Cavell were unavailing as he was misled at the last moment through false promises by the Germans After the formation of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, its operations were placed wholly under his direction His ceaseless work on their behalf won the gratitude of all Belgians and was rewarded by many honours Mr. Whitlock resigned Feb. 1, 1922. An account of his experiences is given in Belgium, a Personal Narrative (1910). Whitlock himself spoke of vacillating “between an interest in letters and an interest in pohtics,” and there is no doubt that his

landed at the Isle of Whithorn, where he built (397) a stone church, which, out of contrast with the dark mud and wattle huts of the natives, was called Candida Casa, the White House Ninian was buried in the church, A hundred years later the Magnum early literary work, at least, reflected this duality of tastes The Monaster1um, or monastery of Rosnat, was founded and in the 13th District (1902) revealed the insidiously corrupting influence 8th century became the seat of the bishopric of Galloway. It was of certain phases of politics, and The Turn of the Balance (1907), succeeded in the rath century by St. Ninian’s Priory, built for a poignant exposure of social injustices, was written “out of the Premonstratensian monks by Fergus “King” of Galloway, of contemplation of the misery, the pathos, the hopelessness of the which, only the chancel (used as the parish church till 1822) and condition” of the victims during his police court expenences A other fragments remain In Roman times Whithorn belonged to fruit of his administrative work 1s the monograph On the Enforcethe Novantae, and Wilham Camden, the antiquary, identified it ment of Law m Cities (1913) His later novels, such as J Hardin with the Leukopibia of Ptolemy. and Son (1923) and Uprooted (1926), are less concerned with WHITING, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U S A., on Lake ethical problems. His technique at all times, however, has revealed Michigan and the Ilhnois State line, 17 m. SE. of the Chicago his admiration for the ideals and methods of William Dean How“Loop” It is on Federal highways 20 and 41, and is served ells, In 1929 he published, La Fayette, a biography. chiefly by the Baltimore and Ohio, the New York Central, the WHITMAN, WALT (1819-1892), American poet, was born Pennsylvania and the Pere Marquette railways, and lake steam- near Huntington, Long Island, on May 31, 1819. His father, of ers. Pop. 10,145 in 1920; in 1930, 10,880 by the Federal census 17th century English freeholding stock long settled in Huntington Whiting is the centre of the industrial region known as the township, was a farmer and later a house-builder, democratic mn Calumet District, and its boundaries touch those of Hammond politics and inclined toward Quaker hberalism im rehgion Of and East Chicago. Its prmcipal industry is the refinery of the robust Dutch and Welsh farming and seafaring descent was his Standard Oil Company of Indiana The city’s assessed valuation “perfect mother,” who, though possessing as little education as for 1927 was $27,013,080. Whiting was founded in 1881, in- her husband, deeply umpressed her son through her sanity, praccorporated as a town in 1895, and chartered as a city m 1903. ticality, encompassing affection and intuitive spiritual nature. The WHITING (Gadus merlangus), a silvery fish that ranges from family moved to the village of Brooklyn about 1824, where Walt Norway to the Mediterranean, and differs from the cod in having attended the public schools until he was twelve His real educano barbel. It is valued as a food fish, and reaches a weight of tion, however, was acquired through wide and ‘kouch’ ful rea¢:7g about three pounds, of a great mass of current, romantic, classical and o1ie717! ii ciaWHITLEY, JOHN HENRY (1866+), Speaker of ture; through intimate contacts with nature and the metropolis the British House of Commons, was born at Halifax on Feb. 8, across the East river, where he had opportunities for constant at1866, and educated at Clifton college and London university He tendance at lectures, exhibitions, theatres, concerts, operas and was elected Liberal M.P. for Halifax in 1900, and represented his political gatherings and for associating with “powerful uneducated native city for 28 years, From 1907 to 1910 he was junior lord persons” like boatmen and omnibus drivers, as well as politicians, of the treasury, and in 1910 became deputy chairman of ways literary and artistic Bohemians, and more prominent persons;

and means, From rọrr to 1921 he was chairman of ways and means and deputy speaker. In 1916 he acted as chairman of the Reconstruction Committee on Relations between Employers and Employed, and his name has become associated with the joint industrial councils established for many industnes as a result of

the reports of that committee. Whitley was appointed Speaker

through several years of country school teaching on Long Island,

“boarding round” among the honest, independent bourgeoisie; through travel, especially in the West and the South, which developed in him an enduring sympathy for all sections; and finally through long association with magazines and newspapers, as journeyman compositor, contributor of conventional prose and verse

583

WHITMAN

fully represented than the hopeful selfor editor, an association which awakened in him literary ambitions | his maturity being less lus youth; nearly all the poems

reliance, the exuberant spirit of and encouraged a national point of view imagination and a lowered vitality, An earnest of lus future authorship was given as early as | after 1873 betray a flagging or faith. 1846-48, when, editing the democratic Brooklyn Daly Eagle, | though losing none of his cheerfulness defenders of the poet took up abroad, and home at Gradually, inhad he c enthusiasm Whitman expressed the religio-patrioti fad. John Burroughs, hterary more than a hented from revolutionary ancestors. He championed the senti- | his cause as something Douglas O’Connor, whose Good mental and idealistic reforms popular in the “transcendental” | his first biographer, William Harlan for dismissing Whitman nod of American thought and voiced the adolescent spirit of | Gray Poet, castigating Secretary of the Interior clerkship because of his nationalism in his demand for native manners, drama, opera and | from a Department authorship of Leaves of Grass, gave the gray-haired, gray-garbed hterature In politics, temperament and philosophy always a | Dr. Richard Maurice Bucke, who staunch individualist, he opposed the extension of slavery into | poet his popular sobriquet; cared for him as a patient, wrote the first considerable biography | his lose to as gly uncompromisin so Union the of States the new superman, and edited several mystical a as Whitman editorial position on the conservative Eagle, though for that same | to present of Whitman letters and notes; Horace Traubel, who in opposition he was shortly afterward put in charge of the Brooklyn | volumes the devoted but by no means played the poet’s last years and later Duly Freeman Grass

This was

a

sycophantic Boswell to him; Wilham

Michael

Rossetti, whose

In 1855 Whitman published Leaves of from Whitman’s poems early (1867) and large, thin volume as odd m format and style as it was ongmal | volume of selections hmm to the general English public; John in mood and thought, yet in 1t Emerson, himself a strong in- | tactfully mtroduced who, like Stevenson, was stimulated and Symonds, fluence in 1ts creation, perceived great promise as beimg “the most | Addington the healthy spirit and universal sympathies of Whitextraordinary piece of wit and wisdom America has yet con- | refreshed by his life

|man, declarmg that the American bard had influenced tributed ? Having absorbed his country until he thought himself Whitman’s at- | more than any book save the Bible, and shortly after fundamentally typical of it, Whitman here began a hfelong and death wrote an acute and sympathetic study of iis work; autopoetic in soul, and body tempt not only to record himself, Whittranslated who France and Denmark others in Germany, biography, but also to create a character-epic of America “Most | |man and interpreted him to the Old World. of the great poets are impersonal,” he said, “I am personal. . . . He had been long m overcoming the prejudice aroused by his from In my poems, all revolves round, concentrates in, radiates conception of art, his “heroic nudity” in the treatment of nature | perhuman general myself I have but one central figure, the human body, and what was taken to be his “egotism”; sonahty typified m myself But my book compels, absolutely |in the a into but when he died in his humble home in Mickle street, now necessitates, every reader to transpose himself or herself artists |museum, it had already become a shrine where actors, the central position, and become the living fountain, actor, experiand he, the pilgrims, frequent were letters free of lovers and every encer himself or herself, of every page, every aspiration, believe | cheerfulest poet of immortality, passed away content to line” Such a purpose naturally led him to discard conventional others. | that his vision of a larger life for man had been caught by poetic methods, of form, atmosphere and allusion, and to rely as the paradoxical as Man.—Whitman and his works were

The upon the direct address of rhythmical declamation. age and land they sought to express A large, healthy, hirsute The book met a varied reception At first there were few to fond of nature and of sense enjoyments was no more charbody | which from standards current rate it except according to the acteristic of him than lis womanly sensitiveness and quiet Whitman appealed, though Thoreau, who visited him in Brooklyn, express | sympathy, his courageous imagination which might either considered him “probably the greatest democrat that ever lived.” itself m terms of adolescent egotism or in haunting songs of those Despite general neglect and frequent abuse, Whitman continued “exdolons” which ever lure on the race of hardy spiritual pioneers and through hfe to complete the record of his inner growth naiveté separately, was no more fundamental than his engaging mystical relachanges, often publishing poems or groups of poems | which so strongly affected those who came into personal Leaves wherever but finally mcorporating them all in the parent volume, life of “caresser the him sublime, tions with him and made of Grass Following the insistent, arrogant, 1f frequently followed, even always beauty ideal of quest his and flowing’; treata egotism of the editions of 1855, 1856 and 1860 came by turning his to Whit- while decrying art for art’s sake, was not pursued ment of democracy en masse, a socializing result due the turbulence capital. |back on the realities of commonplace hfe or even artistic man’s personal contact with the armies in the national developed highly Having a acting as of modern industrialism commensurate For ten years, 1863-73, Whitman lived in Washington any by unmatched times at was which much of instinct, editions) war correspondent and government clerk, but spending early in the ministra- | talent, and was still more often (especially he was, as he said, his time, means and strength during war years in daily in the | thwarted by his impulse toward propaganda, tions to the wounded Northern and Southern soldiers game”—he could criticize as well as the of out and im “both great the of, ions indefiniteness hospitals His reactions to, and interpretat mystical the and record the in a re- | create. The hiatuses struggle which was testing democracy, always to him more | of his expression render a precise statement of his Hegelian lgion than a political creed, are to be found in The Wound- philosophy difficult; it 1s more profitable, however, as he rightly in DrumDresser, a volume of war-time letters to his mother, as fundamentally religious, however i yet compassionate war poems, in- divined, to treat his purpose and aesthetic implications “No Taps, a little volume of virile Door- suggestive its philosophical the in Last Lilacs When admired y cluding the universall insists upon viewing them as aiming who verses my at get will one of Specimen yard Bloom’d on the death of Lincoln, and in parts observations mainly towards art or aestheticism,” he insisted; and if there and it was made, 1t Days, picturesque descriptions of his activities making ıt be less truth in the statement to-day than when our conception Not only did the Civil War disaphne his poetic art, influence in widening to sing of the is largely due to his own him objective as well as subjective, teaching art. and literature of function the ; oe : of mature idealism, no longer as a of

can | If Whitman he to-day themost vital literary forceofAmerica the world’s mere land of opportunity affording “open roads” tohis individual the feet influence | show, it is because he begati by sitting at for foundation the laid also it but philosotion, every from self-realiza

nation as a nation, mm terms

of a world | greatest masters of song, imbibing something as an international force by making him the prophet his form is modern beDemo- phy, every religion. His art, his thought, at last united in peace Whitman’s most important essay, Doubtless Homer, Sophocles, of 1855 and A| cause it is fundamentally eclectic. Shakespeare, Goethe, Cervantes, cratic Vistas, if one except the famous preface a result of | Euripides, Epictetus, Dante, the Hindu Backward Glance O’er Travell'’d Roads, was likewise Rousseau, Carlyle, Shelley, “Qssian,” Scott, Bryant, long and intimately the war. each others, of hospital scriptures, Emerson and many against a nature, and checked > i Stricken with paralysis ın 1873, partly as a nie wild of midst the in often studied, 19 years abours and exposure, Whitman went to spern his last American hfe, gave him that transee work was thus wide experience with modern had courage to respond when the : NJ. His creative of invalidism ain Camden, which t self-respec complete, the sweet reasonableness of cendental

ended before his plan was

WHITMAN— WHITNEY

584

mystical call came to him. And yet such large perception as his, freed him at once from mere imitation and the dread of mconsistency There 1s room for Nature here, as well as, God Underlying his poems is what he called an “mplicıt belief in the wisdom, health, mystery, beauty of every process, every concrete object, every human or other existence, not only considered from the point of view of all, but of each”

Religion.—Viewing the future of America, Whitman came to

formed ın 1875 from parts of Abington and East Bridgewater and

in 1886 ıt changed its name to Whitman WHITNEY, ELI (1765-1825), American inventor, was bom

on a farm in Westboro (Mass ), on Dec 8, 1765

He exhibited

unusual mechanical ability at an early age and earned a consider. able part of his expenses at Yale college, where he graduated in 1792 He soon went to Savannah (Ga.), and accepted the invita. tion of Mrs Nathanael Greene, the widow of the revolutionary general, to spend some time on her plantation on the Savannah

believe that the safety of his country lay in a renaissance of the religious spirit. This was to be brought about, not through in- river, while deciding upon his future course The construction by stitutionalism but by the dissemimation of good will and friendship Whitney of several ingenious household contrivances led Mrs and the creation of realistic and imaginative poetry which would Greene to introduce him to some gentlemen who were discussing reduce the school, church and State to mere instruments of na- the desirability of a machine to separate the short staple upIn a few weeks Whitney protional self-expression ‘That the modern world demanded a new land cotton from ıts seeds image of manly virtue he was persuaded through his welcome duced a model, consisting of a wooden cylinder encircled by acceptance of two ideas already fermenting 19th century thought; rows of slender spikes set half an mch apart, which extended one was the shifting of authority in politics, taste and economics, between the bars of a grid set so closely together that the seeds from the favoured few to the many, from the traditions of the could not pass, but the lint was pulled through by the revolving past to the claims of the future; the other idea was the new con- spikes, a revolving brush cleaned the spikes, and the seed fell into ception of history as an evolutionary growth according to natural another compartment The machine was worked by hand and law, which, while giving prominence to the natural sciences that could clean 50 lb of lint a day. A patent was granted on sought to explain the concrete and the real tried also to relate March 14, 1794 Meanwhile Whitney had formed apartnership with Phineas Miller, and they built at New Haven (Conn) a hfe at any given moment to an infinite scheme of progress In America Whitman saw a symbol of that spiritual pioneering factory for the manufacture of the gins. They were unable which, seeking perpetually a passage to India, links each age to to supply the demand for gms, and country blacksmiths cona larger one His “Prayer of Columbus” 1s a fitting tribute to the structed many machines A patent, later annulled, was granted discoverer of America from its self-appomted poet Yet with his (May 12, 1796) to Hogden Holmes for a gin which substituted idealism he blended a certam pagan epicureanism, while recog- circular saws for the spikes Whitney spent much time and money nizing personal and social umperfections, he saw in them the very prosecuting infringements of his patent, and in 1807 its vahdity necessity out of which aspiration grows In his attempt through was settled The South Carolina legislature voted $50,000 for Leaves of Grass to show forth the spirit of his country made the nghts for that state, while North Carolina levied a licence tax flesh, Whitman did not need to claim the ascetic perfection which for five years, from which about $30,000 was realized Tennessee was the boast of early Puritans and prophets The modern man paid, perhaps, $10,000. Meanwhile Whitney, disgusted with the he conceived to be fit to dwell in a world evolving through struggle, began the manufacture of fire-arms near New Haven democracy, was proud, arrogant, just, tolerant, fmendly, willing (r798) and secured profitable government contracts, he introto treat woman as his equal, glorifying progress yet scorning duced ın this factory division of labour and standardized parts See Denison Olmsted, Memoz (1846); D A. Tompkins, Cotton and material achievement as an end, suspicious of extremists yet indulging an intemperate relish for fe and an unbounded faith Cotton O2l (Charlotte, N. C, 1901), and W P Blake, “Sketch of Eh Whitney,” m New Haven Colony Historical Society Papers, vol. v. in the future (1894). His poetry is to-day read in 25 different translations and claims WHITNEY, WILLIAM COLLINS (1841~1904), Amerimore space in each new anthology and study of American literature Its indirect effect already appears m a younger generation can political leader and financier, born at Conway, Mass., July 5, 1841 He graduated at Yale in 1863, studied law at Harvard, and of writers of verse, fiction and biography, who find the Whitman of Victorian days strangely contemporary with an age of psycho- began to practise in New York city He actively allied himself analysis, realistic fiction, frank treatment of sex, enfranchised with the anti-Tammany organization which successfully opposed womanhood, proudly self-conscious labour, and a growing spirit the “Tweed Ring,” and aided im the election of Samuel J Tilden as governor In 1874 As corporation counsel of New York city ofinternational good-will. (1872-82) he contested some 3,800 suits against the city, inherBrpriocraPHy —Full bibhographies may be'found in O L Triggs, ited from the Tweed régime, and he saved the municipality about Selectzons from Walt Whitman (1906) ; Cambridge History of American Lzterature (1918); Carolyn Wells and Alfred F. Goldsmith, A $12,000,000. He did much in the way of organization to secure Concise Bibhography of Walt Whitman (1922), W S. Kennedy, The Fight of a Book for the World (1926). The Complete Wretings of Walt Whitman (1902), has been supplemented by Emory Holloway, The Uncollected Poetry and Prose of Walt Whitman (1921) , Cleveland Rodgers and John Black, The Gathering of the Forces (1921). Biographical and_critical studies by those who knew Whitman personally include Richard Maurice Bucke, Walt Whitman (1883) , Thomas Donaldson, Walt Whitman: the Man (1896) , John Burroughs

Whitman: A Study (1896) , Edward Carpenter, Days with Walt What-

man (1906) ; Horace Traubel, With Walt Whitman in Camden (1906, 1908, 1914), J. Johnston and J W. Wallace, Visets to Walt Whitman wm t890-189r (1918); Elizabeth Leavitt Keller, Walt Whitman in Mickle Street (1921). The Letters of Anne Gilchrist and Walt Whitman was edited by Thomas B Harned (1918) Other important studies are John Addington Symonds, Walt Whitman A Study (1893) , Henry Bryan Binns, A Life of Walt Whitman (1905), Bhss Perry, Walt W hitman : His Life and Work (1908) ; Léon Bazalgette, Walt Whitman LPH omme et son Qeuvre (1908) , Basil de Selincourt, Walt Whitman A Critecal Study (1914) ; John Bailey, Walt Whitman (1926) , Emory

Holloway, Whitman: An Interpretation ın Narrative (1926). (E Hor)

WHITMAN,

U.SA, 20m

a town of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,

S by E of Boston, adjoining Brockton; served by

the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. Pop. (1920)

7:1473 1930 It was 7,638

The town of South Abington was

the election of Cleveland in 1884, and under him became Secre-

tary of the Navy (1885-89) He played an important réle in creating a more modern navy, especially in the building of armourplated ships After his term of office he reorganized the Manhattan

street railways and established the Metropolitan Street Railway company His work in 1892 overcame the efforts of T, C. Platt and Tammany Hall, through a “snap convention” to prevent the nomunation of Cleveland for a second time. In 1896, disapproving of the “free-silver” agitation, he refused to support his party’s candidate, Wilham J. Bryan (gv). One of his last pieces of work was the organization of the New York Electric Light, Heat and Power company with a capital of $50,000,000 He died in New York city Feb 2, 1904. S WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT (1827-1894), American philologist of New England stock, was born at Northamp| ton, Mass., on Feb 9, 1827 He graduated at Willams college

| with highest honours in 1845 Although he was at first interested

in natural science, after 1848 he devoted bimself with enthusiasm to Sanskrit, at that time a httle-explored field of philological labour, After a brief course at Yale with Prof Edward Elbridge Salisbury, then the only trained Orientalist in the Umited States, Whitney went to Germany (1850) and studied for three years

WHITNEY—WHITTIER

585

at Berlin and at Tubingen. In 1854 he was appointed professor | Pentec) calls it the “day of the Spirit” (7uépa rod Tvetparos), of Sanskrit at Yale, and in 1869 professor of comparative philol- and ın 385 the Peregrinatio Silviae (see Duchesne, Originmes, App.) ogy also. In 1870 he received from the Berlin Academy describes its elaborate celebration at Jerusalem. of Sciences the first Bopp prize for the most mportant contribuIn the middle ages the Whitsun services were marked by many tion to Sanskrit philology during the preceding three years—his curious customs Among those described by Durandus (Rationale edition of the Tdsttriya-Pratigakhya (Journal of the American div off. vi. 107) are the letting down of a dove from the roof Onental Society, vol. ix.). He died at New Haven, Conn., on into the church, the dropping of balls of fire, rose-leaves and the

June 7, 1894.

f

Inté (1855-56); published, with a translation and notes, the Atharva-Veda-Pratigakhya (1862); made important contributions to the great Petersburg lexicon; issued an index verborum to the published text of the Atharva-Veda (Journal of the Ameri-

like Whitsun is one of the Scottish quarter-days, and though the Church festival is movable, the legal date was fixed for the r5th of May by an act of 1693 Whit-Monday, which, with the Sunday itself, was the occasion for the greatest of all the mediaeval church ales, was made an English Bank Holiday by an act passed on the 25th of May 1871.

can Oriental Society, 1881); made a translation of the AtharvaVeda, books i-xix, with a critical commentary, which he did not

See Duchesne, Oregines du culte Chrétien (1889), W. Smith and Cheetham, Dic of Christian Antiquities (1874-1880); Herzog-Hauck,

For a bibliography of Whitney’s writings and for tributes to him see The Whitney Memorial Meeting edit. by C R. Lanman (1897)

ica’s “Quaker poet,” was born in a Merrimack valley farmhouse, Haverhill (Mass.), Dec. 17, 1807. The dwelling was built in the 17th century by his ancestor, the sturdy mmmugrant, Thomas Whittier, notable through his efforts to secure toleration for the disciples of George Fox in New England. The poet was born in

Whitney edited, with Professor Roth, the Atkarva-Veda-San-

Realencyklopadie (1904), xv 254, sv. “Pfingsten.” For the many hve to publish (edit. by Lanman, 1905); and published a large superstitions and observances of the day see P H Ditchfield, Old Engnumber of special articles upon various points of Sanskrit phi- lish Customs (1897), Brand, Antiquities of Great Britain (Hazlitt’s lology. His most notable achievement in this field, however, is edit , 1905); B. Picart, Cérémonies et coutumes religreuses de tous les peuples (1723) his Sanskrit Grammar (1879) Whitney was editor-in-chief of The Century Dictionary (1889-91). WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF (1807-1892), Amer-

and the Journal of the American Onental Soczety (vol, xix May 1897) Ses also the Atlanizc Monthly (March 1895) for an article by C. R anman

WHITNEY, MOUNT, a peak near the southern extremity

of the high Sierra Nevada in Inyo and Tulare counties, Cali-

fornia

It is the highest (14,501 ft above sea-level) summit of

the United States, excluding Alaska

From its granite crest can

be seen innumerable spires but little lower than its own, segregated by canyons of tremendous depth Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the regions is due to the erosive action of many alpme glaciers that once existed on the higher summits. Only small patches of ice and snow now exist on its north side Mt. Whitney was sighted in July 1864 by members of the Califorma State Geological Survey, and was named im honour of their chief, Professor Josiah Dwight Whitney. The first ascent was made on Aug 18, 1873 by John Lucas, Charles D. Begole and A H. Johnson, all of Inyo county, Calif. In the same year, Sept 19, it was climbed by Clarence King, who had failed by only a few hundred feet in 1864, while a member of the State Geological Survey. SeeC King, Mountaineering in the Sterra Nevada (1907) ; and John Mur, The Mountains of Calforna (gth ed, 1912).

WHITSTABLE, a watering-place in the Canterbury parliamentary division of Kent, England, on the north coast at the east end of the Swale, 6 m. NN.W. of Canterbury, on the S. railway Pop of urban district (1931) 11,201 The branch railway connecting Whitstable with Canterbury was one of the earliest in England, opened in 1830. Whitstable has been famous for its oyster beds from time mmmemorial.

WHITSUNDAY

or Pentecost, one of the principal feasts

of the Christian Church, celebrated on the fiftieth (wevrnxoory)

day after Easter to commemorate the descent of the Holy Spirit on the disciples ‘The day became one of the three baptismal seasons, and the name Whitsunday is now generally attributed to the white garments formerly worn by the candidates for baptism

on the vigil, as in the case of the Dominica in albis The festival 1s the third in importance of the great feasts of the Church and the last of the annual cycle commemorating the Lord. It is connected with the Jewish Pentecost (g.v.), not only in the historical date of its origin (see Acts ii), but in idea; the Jewish festival

1s one of thanks for the first-fruits of the earth, the Christian for the first-fruits of the Spirit. In the early Church the name of Pentecost was given to the whole fifty days between Easter and Whitsunday, which were celebrated as a period of rejoicmg (Tertullian, De idolatr. c, 12, De bapt, 19, De cor. milit. 3, Apost. Canons, c, 37, Council of Antioch, AD. 341, can. 20), As

the Quaker faith, and adhered to its hberalized tenets, its garb and

speech, throughout his hfetrme His father, John, was a farmer of lhmited means but independent spirit His mother, Abigail Hussey, whom the poet strongly resembled, was of good colonial stock. In addition to this nonconformist ancestry there was Huguenot blood on both sides of the family; the poet thus fairly ınherited his conscience, religious exaltation, and spirit of protest Whittier’s early education was restricted to what he could gain from the primitive district school of the neighbourhood His call as a poet came when a teacher lent him the poems of Burns He was then about 14, and his taste for writing, bred thus far upon the quaint journals of Friends, the Bible, and The Pilgrim’s Progress, was at once stimulated. There was little art or inspiration in

his boyish verse, but in his r9th year an older sister thought one poem good enough for submission to the Free Press, a weekly paper which William Lloyd Garrison, the future emancipationist, had started in the town of Newburyport. This initiated Whittier’s literary career. The poem was printed with a eulogy and the editor sought out his young contributor; their alhance began and continued until the triumph of the anti-slavery cause 37 years later. Garrison and A. W Thayer of the Haverhill Gazette urged further schooling for the gifted jad, the latter friend offering the hospitality of his own home. To meet expenses at the Haverhill academy Whittier worked variously. Meanwhile he had written creditable student verse and contributed to newspapers, thus gaining friends and obtgining a decided 1f provincial reputation. He soon essayed journalism, editing in Boston the American Manufacturer, an organ of the Clay protectionists, and contrib-

uting to the Philanthropist, devoted to humane reform.

After a

year and a half lis father’s last Illness recalled hım to the homestead, where both farm and family became his charge For six months in 1830 he edited the Haverhsll Gazette, contributing also to the New England Rewew in Hartford (Conn ), the editorship of which George D Prentice transferred to him Called home to aid in the settlement of his father’s estate, he fell ill, conducted his

periodical from home, and then returned for a brief time to Hartford. After his resignation at the end of 1831, he worked on the farm with his brother, doing his writing at night Poverty, bodily exhaustion, disappointed love, and ambition caused this to be one of the most unhappy periods of his life The sale of the farm in 1836 and removal to the pleasant cottage at Amesbury hghtened

the designation of the fiftieth day of this period, the word Pente- his physical burdens, however, and the crusade against slavery cost occurs for the first time in a canon of the council of Elvira provided him with an ennobling object for his passionate and (c. 305), which denounces as an heretical abuse the tendency to selfless devotion. He was a delegate to the Philadelphia convencelebrate the goth day (Ascension) instead of the 5oth. There is tion in 1833 that formed the Anti-Slavery Society, and was applentiful evidence that the festival-was regarded very early as pointed one of the committee that drafted the famous Declaration oné of the great feasts, Gregory Nazianzen (Orat xliv De of Sentiments. Although a Quaker, he had a polemical spirit, men

586

WHITTIER—WHITTINGTON

seeing Whittier only in his saintly age knew little of the fire wherewith, setting aside ambition and even love, he maintained his warfare against the “national crime,” employing action, argument, and lyric scorn In 1833 he issued at his own cost a pamphlet, Justice and Expediency; or, Slavery Considered with a View to sts Rightful and Effectual Remedy, Abolition, that provoked vehement discussion north and south In spite of the fact that illness prevented his serving his second term in the State legislature, of which he had been a member in 1835, his record throughout the 1830’s is one of constant labour for the cause of abolition—at home, in Harrisburg (Pa), m Boston, in New York, and in Philadelphia After 1840 serious heart trouble necessitated his retiring to Amesbury, but the establishment m Washington of the Natsonal Era under Dr. Gamaliel Bailey gave him a new outlet for his labours To this famous abolition paper, of which he was corresponding editor, he contributed for more than a decade the reviews, editorials, and the stirring verse which made him the poet-seer of the emancipation struggle His sister Ehzabeth, who became his life companion, and whose verse ıs preserved with his own, was president of the Woman’s Anti-Slavery Society in Amesbury The first collection of Whittier’s lyrics was the Poems written during the Progress of the Abolition Question m the United States, issued in 1837, though the first authorized edition was the Poems of 1838 As early as 1828 Mr. Thayer had attempted to get the Poems of Adrian published by subscription, and while m Hartford Whittier had issued his first book, Legends of New England (1831), in prose and verse, and edited the Literary Remams (1832) of the poet John G C. Bramard For all his early verse, including Mogg Megone (1836), a crude attempt to apply Scott’s romantic method to a native theme, he apologized in later life and suppressed the pieces entirely or banished them to the oblivion of an appendix Pre-war volumes which reveal the development of his power are Lays of my Home (1843), Voices of Freedom (1846), Songs of Labor (1850), The Chapel of the Hermits (1853), The Panorama (1856), Home Ballads (1860) The titles of In War Tume (1863) and Natsonal Lyrics (1865) designate the patriotic rather than Tyrtaean contents of these books The poet was closely affliated with the Atlantic Monthly from the foundation of that magazine in 1857 The consequent growth of his reputation and the welcome awarded to Snow-Bound in 1866 brought a corresponding material reward Of his later books of verse may be mentioned The Tent on the Beach (1867), The Pennsylvania Pilgrim (1872), The Vision of Echard (1878), The King’s Missive

(1881), At Sundown, his last poems (1890)

As early as 1849 an

illustrated collection of his poems appeared, and his Poetical Works were issued in London in r850 During the ensumg 40 years no fewer than ten collections of his poems appeared Meanwhile, he did much editing and compilmg, and produced, among other works in prose, The Stranger in Lowell (1845); The Supernaturalism of New England (1847); Leaves from M argaret Smith’s Journal (1849), a charming narrative of colonial days, and Old Portrasts and Modern Sketches (1850). When he died on Sept. 7, 1892, in Hampton Falls, New Hampshire he had been an active writer for over 60 years, leaving more than that number of publications which bore his name as author or editor. His body was brought to Amesbury for interment. The Amesbury house has been acquired by the ‘Whittier Home Association ” It would be unjust to consider Whittier’s genius from an academic point of view As a poet he was essentially a balladist,

with the faults of his qualities; and his ballads, in their freedom,

naiveté, even in their undue length, are among the few modern examples of unsophisticated verse. Such pieces as “Barclay of Ury” or “Skipper Treson’s Ride” are perhaps the best American examples of this form Whittier became very sensible of his shortcomings; and when at leisure to devote himself to his art he greatly bettered it It is necessary always to take into consideration his own explanation that many of his poems “were written

with no expectation that they would survive the occasions which

called them forth; they were protests, alarm signals, trumpet-calls to action, words wrung from the writer's heart, forged at white heat, and of course lacking the finish which reflection and patient

brooding over them might have given” The inward voice was his inspiration, and of all American poets he was the one whose son was most like a prayer A knightly celibate, his stamless life, his

ardour, caused him to be termed a Yankee Galahad, apure and

simple heart was laid bare to those who loved him in “My Psalm»

“My Triumph,” and “An Autograph ” The spiritual habit abated

no whit of his inborn sagacity, and 1t 1s said that in his later years political leaders found no shrewder sage with whom to take counsel In spite of his technical defects the fact remains that no Other poet has sounded more native notes or covered so much of the American legendary, and that Whittier’s name among the patriotic, clean and true, was one with which to conjure BIBLIOGRAPHY .—Before his death Whittier revised his works, classfymg them for a definitive edition ın seven volumes (1888-89), which has been used as a basis for all subsequent editions H E. Scudder ed-

ited the one-volume Cambridge edition of Whittier’s verse (1894) The

poet’s Life and Letters, prepared by his kinsman and literary executor Samuel T. Pickard, appeared in 1894 Whittiers Unknown Romance’ Letters to Elsabeth Lloyd was pubhshed with an introduction by

Marie V, Denervaud

ın 1922, John Albree edited Whutteer Corre

spondence from the Oak Knoll Collections (1911); S. T Pickard ysued Whittrer as a Politzctan; illustrated by his Letiers to Professor Ehzur Wright, Jr. (1900) Biographies of Whittier are Richard Burton (1901), G_ R Carpenter (1903), T W Higginson (z902), W S Kennedy (enlarged ed, 1892), W J. Linton (1893), Bhss Perry (1907), and F H. Underwood (1884) Personal reminiscences were given by Mrs Mary B Claflin (2893), Mrs James T Fields (1893), Frances C. Sparhawk (1925), and Ecmiumd Gosse in Portraits and Sketches (1912). S T Pickard’s Ih. w'.er-Lana (1424) presented hitherto unpublished material See aiso essays m A H Seer, American Poets and Thew Theology (1916) ard Bot ar WenethStellgert (1893) and the bibliography in the Ci nbre» Ar oT, 6, American Literature (vol u. pp. 436-451).

WHITTIER, a city of Los Angeles county, California, USA, 13 m. SE of the business centre of Los Angeles, on the slopes of

the Puente hulls, at the entrance to Turnbull Canyon

Pop (1920)

7,997 (92% native white); 1930 Federal census, 14,822 Whitter is primarily a residential city and a shipping point for oranges,

lemons, walnuts, avocados and oil. It is the seat of the State school for boys, and of Whittier college (non-sectarian; established by the Society of Friends in r901). The city was founded by Quakers, in 1887, and was named after John Greenleaf Whittier. It was incorporated as a city in 1898. WHITTINGHAM, CHARLES (1767-1840), English printer, was born on June 16, 1767, at Caludon, Warwickshire, and was apprenticed to a Coventry printer. In 1789 he set up a pmnting press in London, started a paper-pulp factory in Chiswick in 1809, and in I8rr founded the Chiswick press He was a pioneer of cheap reprints of the classics, was the first to use proper overlays in printing woodcuts, and was also the first to print a fine or “Indian paper” edition He died at Chiswick on Jan. 15, 1840. His nephew and partner, Charles Whittingham (1795-1876), removed the whole business to London in 1852 Under him the Chiswick press increased its reputation.

WHITTINGTON, RICHARD (d 1423), mayor of London, described himself as son of Wiliam and Joan (Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, vi. 740) This enables him to be identified as the third son of Sir Willam Whittington of Pauntley in Gloucestershire, who married after 1355 Joan, daughter of William Mansel, and widow of Thomas Berkeley of Cubberley. Richard was a mercer by trade, and entered on his commercial career

under favourable citcumstances. He marnied Alice, daughter of Sir Ivo Fitzwaryn, a Dorset kmght of considerable property, his wife predeceased him. Whittington sat in the common council as a representative of Coleman Street Ward, was elected alderman of Broad Street in March 1393, and served as sheriff in 1393-

1394 When Adam Bamme, the mayor, died in June 1397, Whit-

tington was appointed by the king to succeed him, and in October

was elected mayor for 1398

He had acquired great wealth and

much commercial importance, and was mayor of the staple at London and Calais He made frequent large loans both to Henry IV. and Henry V, and according to the legend, when he gave 4

banquet to the latter king and his queen in 1421, completed the entertainment by burning bonds for £60,000, which he had taken up and discharged Henry V employed him to superintend the expenses for completing Westminster Abbey But Whittington

WHITTINGTON—WHOOPING-COUGH took no great part in public affairs He was mayor again in 1406r407, and in 1419—1420 He died in March 1423 bequeathing his

587

WHITWORTH, SIR JOSEPH, Bart (1803-1887), Eng-

He jomed ın

lish engineer, was born at Stockport, near Manchester, on Dec 21, 1803. On leaving school at fourteen, he was placed with an

procuring Leadenhall for the city, and bore nearly all the cost of budding the Greyfriars Library. In bis last year as mayor

uncle who was a cotton-spinner, with a view to becoming a partner; but this occupation did not swt his mechanical tastes, and

he had been shocked by the foul state of Newgate prison, and one of the first works undertaken by his executors was its rebuilding His executors, chief of whom was John Carpenter, the famous town clerk, also contributed to the cost of glazing and paving the new Guildhall, and paid half the expense of building the hbrary there; they repaired St Bartholomew’s hospital, and

after about four years he gave it up. He then spent some time with various machine manufacturers in the neighbourhood of Manchester, and in 1825 moved to London

vast fortune to charitable and public purposes

provided bosses for water at Billngsgate and Cnpplegate.

But

the chief of Whittmgton’s foundations was his college at St Michael, Paternoster church, and the adjoming hospital The college was dissolved at the Reformation, but the hospital or almshouses are stu maintained by the Mercers’ Company at Highgate. Stow relates that his tomb in St. Michael’s church was spoiled during the reign of Edward VI, but that under Mary

the parishioners were compelled to restore it (Survey, i. 243). There is no proof that he was ever knighted. A writer of the next generation bears witness to his commercial success in A Libell of English Policy by styling him “the sunne of marchaundy, that lodestarre and chief-chosen flower ” Pen and paper may not me suffice Him to describe, so high he was of pnice.

Popular legend makes Dick Whittington a poor orphan employed as a scullion by the rich merchant, Sir Hugh Fitzwarren, who ventures the cat, his only possession, on one of his master’s ships

Distressed by ill-treatment he runs away, but turns back

when he hears from Holloway the prophetic peal of Bow bells. He returns to find that his venture has brought him a fortune, marries his master’s daughter, and succeeds to his business. The legend 1s not referred to by Stow, who would assuredly have

noticed it if it had been well established when he wrote The first reference to the story comes with the licensing in 1605 of a play, now lost, The History of Richard Whittington, of his lowe byrth, his great fortune “The legend of Whittington,” probably meaning the play of 1605, is mentioned by Beaumont and Fletcher m 1611 in The Knight of the Burmng Pestle. When a little later Robert. Elstracke, the engraver, published a supposed portrait of Whittington with his hand restmg on a skull, he had in deference to the public fancy to substitute a cat; copies in the first state are very rare Thomas Keightley traced the cat story in Persian, Danish and Italan folk-lore as far back as the 13th century. BrsriocraPpHyY —The most important early references to Whittington are contained n Dr R R Sharpe’s Calendar of Letter-book H (1907), H. T Ruley’s Memonals of London (1868); and Polstucal Songs, li. 178 (Rolls series) For bis charities see Stow’s Survey of London (ed C. L Kingsford, 1903) For documents relating to Whittington College see Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum (1693; 1846), vl 740, and the Calendar of Patent Rolls, Henry VI (1900) ; u 214-217. Samuel Lysons collected the facts, but accepted the legend m The Model Merchant of the Middle Ages (1860) The Life (new ed. 1894) by W. Besant and J. Rice does not umprove on Lysons ome useful references will be found in J H. Wyhe’s Hzstory of England under Henry IV (4 vols 1884-98). For an exammation of the legend see T. Keightley’s Tales and Popular Fictions, pp. 241-286 (1834), and H. B Wheatley’s preface to his edition of The Hzstory

of Sw Richard Whittington (first published m 1656).

WHITTINGTON,

(C.L.K)

urban district, Derbyshire, England, ro

m S of Sheffield and 2m N of Chesterfield, on the LMS railway Pop. (1921) 7,617 The parish church of St Bartholomew was restored after its destruction by fire, in 1895. Stone bottles and coarse earthenware are manufactured ın the town,

where there are also large ironworks, collieries and brickworks

WHITTLESEY,

a town in Isle of Ely, England, 54 m

E of Peterborough, between that city and March, on the LNER

Pop (1931) 8,299 To the north is the artificial cut carrying the

waters of the nver Nene, the neighbourhood is intersected with

many other navigable “drains” To the south-west is Whittlesey Mere, 6 m, distant from the town, in Huntingdonshire It was a

lake until modern times, when it was included in a scheme of drainage The town manufactures bricks and tiles, and has a considerable agricultural trade.

In 1833 he returned to Manchester and started business as a

tool-maker In 1840 at the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow, he read a paper on the preparation and value of true planes which indicated an accuracy of workmanship far ahead of what was considered possible in mechanical engineering at that time In 1841, mn a paper read before the Institute of Civil Engineers, he urged the necessity for the adoption of a uniform system of screw threads in place of the various heterogeneous pitches then employed His system of standard gauges was also widely adopted, and his principles of exact measurement and workmanship were strictly observed in his own factory, with the result that m the Exhibition of 1851 he had a show of machine tools far ahead of that of any competitor. It was doubtless this superiority in machme construction that caused the government three years later to request him to design, and estimate the cost of making the machinery for producing rifled muskets at the new factory at Enfield. He did not agree to the proposal in this form, but it was ultimately settled that he should construct the machinery for the barrels only Finding that there was no established practice to guide him, he began a series of experiments to determine the best principles for the manufacture of rifle barrels and projectiles He ultimately arrived at a weapon in which the necessary rotation of the projectile was obtained, not by means of grooving, but by making the barrel polygonal in form, with gently rounded angles, the bullets also being polygonal and thus travelling on broad bearing-surfaces along the rotating polygon It 1s reported that at the trial in 1857 weapons made according to these principles excelled the Enfield weapons in accuracy of fire, penetration and range to a degree “which hardly leaves room for comparison” He also constructed heavy guns on the same lines; these were tried in competition with Armstrong’s ordnance in 1864 and 1865, and in their inventor’s opinion gave the better results, but they were not adopted by the government. In constructing them Whitworth found difficulty in getting large steel castings of suitable soundness and ductility, and thus in 1870 was led to devise his compressed steel process, in which the metal was subjected to high pressure while still in the fluid state, and afterwards forged in hydraulic presses, instead of by hammers In 1868 he founded the Whitworth scholarships, setting aside an annual sum of £3,000 to be given for “intelligence and proficiency in the theory and practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences,” and in the following year he was created a baronet. He died at Monte Carlo on Jan 22, 1887 In addition to giving £100,000 for the permanent endowment of 30 Whitworth scholarships, his residuary legatees, in pursuance of what they knew to be his intentions, expended over half a million on charitable and educational objects, mainly in Manchester and the neighbourhood

WHOOPING-COUGH or Hooprnc-Covcx (syn Pertussis, Chin-cough), a specific infective disease starting in the respiratory mucous membrane, depending on a cocco-bacillus descnbed by Bordet and Gengon in 1906 (see Parasitic DIsEASES), and manifesting itself by frequently recurring paroxysms of convulsive coughing accompanied with peculiar sonorous inspirations (or whoops) Although specially a disease of childhood, whoopingcough may occur at any time of life There is a distinct period of incubation variously estimated at from two to ten days. The frst stage is characterized by the ordinary phenomena of a catarrh, but the presence of an ulcer on the fraenum linguae is said to be diagnostic. The catarrhal stage usually lasts from ten to fourteen days The second stage is marked by abatement of the catarrhal symptoms, but increase in the cough, which now occurs in wregular paroxysms both by day and by night This stage of the disease usually continues for from one to two months. Pos-

convulsions When, however, the disease progresses favourably, the cough becomes less frequent and generally loses in great measure its “whooping” character. There is no specific treatment for whooping-cough, sunlight or,

in its absence, ultra-violet light, with plenty of open air, 1s beneficial.

WHYMPER,

FALLS

WHYMPER—WICHITA

588

sible complications are bronchopneumonia (see BRONCHITIS), and

EDWARD

(1840-1911), British artist, ex-

plorer and mountaineer, was born in London on April 27, 1840 The son of an artist, he was at an early age trained to the profession of a wood-engraver In 1860 he was commussioned to make a series of sketches of Alpine scenery, and undertook an extensive journey ın the Central and Western Alps Among the

objects of this tour was the ulustration of an attempt, which proved unsuccessful, made by Professor Bonney’s party, to ascend Mont Pelvoux, at that time beheved to be the highest peak of the Dauphiné Alps. He successfully accomplished the ascent in 1861 —the first of a series of expeditions that threw much light on the topography of a district at that time very ımperfectly mapped From the summit of Mont Pelvoux he discovered that it was overtopped by a neighbouring peak, subsequently named the Pomte des Ecrins, which, before the annexation of Savoy added Mont Blanc to the possessions of France, was the highest point in the French Alps. Its ascent by Whymper’s party m 1864 was perhaps the most remarkable feat of mountaineering up to that date. The years 1861 to 1865 are filled with a number of new expeditions in the Mont Blanc group and the Pennine Alps, among them being the ascent of the Azguille Verte and the crossing of the Moming Pass Professor Tyndall and Mr. Whymper emulated each other in fruitless attempts to reach the summit of the Matterhorn by the south-western or Italan ridge Mr Whymper, six times repulsed, determined to attempt the eastern face, convinced that its precipitous appearance when viewed from Zermatt was

an optical illusion, and that the dip of the strata, which on the Italian side formed a continuous series of overhangs, should make the opposite side a natural staircase Huis attempt (the seventh) by what is now the usual route was crowned with success (July 14, 1865), but on the descent four of the party shpped and were lolied, and only the breaking of the rope saved Whymper and the two remaining guides from the same fate. The account of his attempts on the Matterhorn occupies the greater part of his Scrambles among the Alps (1871), m which the illustrations are engraved by the author himself. He visited Greenland in 1867, with a view to crossing the interior Another expedition in 1872 convinced him that the enterprise was too great for a private expedition. But his visits resulted m valuable collections of fossils, trees and shrubs He next organized an expedition to Ecuador, designed primanly to collect data for the study of mountain-sickness and of the effect. of diminished pressure on the human frame. He took as his chief guide Jean-Antoine Carrel, whose subsequent death from exhaustion on the Matterhorn after bringing lus employers into safety through a snowstorm forms one of the noblest pages in the history of mountaineering During 1880 Whymper on two occasions ascended Chimborazo, whose summit, 20,500 ft above sea-level, had never before been reached; spent a night on the summit of Cotopaxi, and made first ascents of half-a-dozen other

great peaks. In 1892 he published the results of his journey in a volume entitled Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator, in which he made useful observations, among other things, on mountain sickness The collections of rock specimens and volcanic dust brought back from this journey were described by Dr Bonney in the Proc Roy Soc (Nos 229-234). In 1go1tg905 he undertook an expedition in the region of the Great Divide of the Canadian Rockies Whymper died at Chamonix on Sept. 16, 1911. See articlesby T G Bonney

in Alpine Journal

(Feb

D.W Freshfield in the Dict Nat Bier. (Sectan Succ

WHYTE, ALEXANDER

rora ae

(1837-1921), Scottish divine, was

born at Kirriemuir in Forfarshire on Jan 13, 1837, and was educated at the University of Aberdeen and at New college, Edinburgh He entered the ministry of the Free Church of Scotland

and after serving as colleague in Free St John’s, Glasgow (1366. 70), removed to Edinburgh as colleague (1870-73) and successor

(1873-1916) to Dr R S Candhsh at Free St. George’s. In 1898 he was elected moderator of the General Assembly In 1909 he became principal ot New college, Edmburgh, a post which he held until 1918 He received the freedom of the city of Edn. burgh i 1910 He died in London on Jan 6, 1921 Among

his

William Law Rutherford

publications

are

(1893), Bunyan

(1894),

An

Characters

Characters

Appreciation

and

Characteristics

of

(3 vols., 1894), Samuel

of Jacob

Behmen

(189s)

Lancelot Andrewes and his Private Devotions (1895) , Bible Characters (7 vols, 1897), Santa Teresa (1897); Father John of Cronstadj (1898) , An Appreciation of Browne’s Religio Medzcz (1898) ; Cardenal Newman, An Appreciatwon (1901). See G F Barbour, Life of Alexander Whyte (1923)

WHYTE-MELVILLE,

GEORGE

JOHN

English novelist, son of John Whyte-Melville

(1821-1878),

of Strathkinness,

Fifeshire, and grandson on his mother’s side of the sth duke of Leeds, was born on June 19, 1821 Whyte-Melville received his education at Eton, entered the army in 1839, became captain m the Coldstream Guards in 1846 and retired m 1849 After translating Horace (1850) in fluent and graceful verse, he published his first novel, Digby Grand, in 1853.

The unflagging verve and int-

mate technical knowledge with which he described sporting scenes and sporting characters at once drew attention to him as a novelist with a new vein. He was the laureate of fox-hunting, all his most popular and distinctive heroes and heromes, Digby Grand, Tilbury Nogo, the Honourable Crasher, Mr Sawyer, Kate Coventiy, Mrs Lascelles, are or would be mighty hunters Tilbury Nogo was contributed to the Sporting Magazine in 1853 and published separately in 1854 He showed in the adventures of Mr Nogo—and it became more apparent in his later works—that he had a surer hand in humorous narrative than in pathetic description. He lost his life in the hunting-field on Dec 5, 1878 The Gladiators was perhaps the most famous of his numerous historical novels He also wrote Songs and Verses (1869) and a metrical Legend of the True Cross (1873).

WICHITA, a city of Kansas, USA, on the Arkansas river at the mouth of the Little Arkansas, 200 m SW

of Kansas City

and t 2cc f+ above sea-level: the courty seat of Sedgwick county aac Fe second cy of the Sts.c in sve It is on Federal highways 54 and 81 and the airway from Chicago to Mexico and the Gulf, has a municipal airport a mile square; and is served by the Frisco, the Kansas City, Mexico and Omnent, the Midland Valley, the Missour: Pacific, the Rock Island, the Santa Fe, and electric railways Pop (1925) 88,367 (91% native white), in 1930, 111,110 by Federal census It is the commercial, financial, and industrial metropolis of southern Kansas and northern Oklahoma Its banking transactions, whether on the basis of clearings ($425,000,000 in 1927) or of debits to individual accounts ($628,605,000) are greater by far than those of any other city in the State. Its stock yards handle 25,000 carloads and 75,000 truckloads of live stock in a year, its packing plants send out 150,000,000 Ib of meat products, and its flour-mills have a daily capacity of 11,000 barrels, Wichita is a leading centre for the

manufacture of aeroplanes. An aeroplane factory, established m 1919, m 1928 employed about 1,000 persons The total output of its industries in 1927 was $57,789,969 Since 1909 the city has operated under a commussion-manager form of government. A municipal university was established in 1926, to which were transferred the properties of Fairmount college Friends university, in the western part of the city, was founded and is supported by the Kansas Yearly Meeting of Friends The city’s assessed valuation of property for 1928 was $135,169,071.

Wichita was the name of a tribe of Indians ‘The city was founded in 1870 and chartered in 1871. In 1880 ıt had a population of only 4,911

WICHITA FALLS, a city of northern Texas, USA, 100 m. N.W of Fort Worth, on the Wichita mver near the Red niver, at an altitude of 946 ft , the county seat of Wichita county and one of the principal trading centres of the South-west It is on Federal highways 7o and 370, and is served by the Fort Worth and Denver City, the Missouri-Kansas-Texas, the Wichita Falls and

WICK—WIDMANN

589

Of the ancient cromlechs there are three of some interest, one near Enniskerry, another on the summit of Lugnaquilla and a third at Donaghmore. The ruins in the vale of Glendalough, known as “seven churches,” mcluding a round tower, owe their origin ql fields and an agricultural region devoted to stock-raising, the to St. Kevin, who lived in the vale as a hermit, and is reputed to dairying and the cultivation of cotton, wheat, corn and fruit. Its have died in 618. Of the old fortalices or strongholds those of manufactures (including 14 oil refineries) are numerous and varied, with an output in 1927 valued at $14,133,741. There are special interest are Black Castle, near Wicklow, originally founded many oilfield supply houses and large wholesale and jobbing firms. by the Norman invaders, but taken by the Irish m 1301, and The city’s assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $45,100,060. afterwards rebuilt by William Fitzwilliam; the scattered remains of Castle Kevin, the stronghold of the O’Tooles, by whom it was The city was founded m 1874 and mcorporated in 1876 WICK, royal, municipal and police burgh, parish, seaport and probably originally built in the 12th century; and the ruins of the county town of Caithness, Scotland Pop (1931) 7,548 It is castle of the Ormondes at Arklow, founded by Theobald Fitzsituated at the head of Wick bay, on the North sea, 327 m N. Walter (d 1285), and demolished by Cromwell in 1649, and now of Edinburgh, by the LNE and LMS. railways It consists of containing within the intenor of its ruined walls a constabulary the old burgh and Louisburgh, its continuation, on the north barrack. The mansion of Powers-court occupies the site of an bank of the river Wick, and of Pulteneytown, the commercial old fortalice founded by De la Poer, one of the knights who quarter, on the south side Wick 1s the chief Scottish centre of the landed with Strongbow; in the reign of Henry VIII it was taken herrmg fisheries Wick (Vik or “bay”) is mentioned as early as by the O’Tooles and O’Brynes. The lower land is fertile; and the higher districts, covered with 1140 It was constituted a royal burgh by James VI in 1589 WICKHAM, SIR HENRY (1846-1928), Enghsh pioneer heath and turf, afford good pasturage for sheep There is a con~ and explorer, was born on May 29, 1846, and later went to siderable extent of natural timber as well as artificial plantations Brazil as a planter. He was led to experiment with rubber trees, The principal crops of oats and potatoes decrease considerably, but found great difficulty ın obtaining financial support for his but the numbers of sheep, cattle, pigs and poultry are well mainschemes In 1872 he published his book A Journey through the tained A considerable amount of gold has been extracted from the Wilderness, and as a result the India office employed him to collect seeds of the Hevea brazilienss He evaded the vigilance valley-gravels north of Croghan Kinshela on the Wexford border of the Brazilian Government, and brought back a large number Tinstone has also been found in small quantities. Lead-ore is of seeds which were planted in the glass-houses of Kew Gardens, raised west of Laragh, and the mimes in the Avoca valley have and eventually formed the basis of the whole plantation rubber been worked for copper, lead and sulphur, the last-named being industry of the East Wickham held posts as inspector of forests obtamed from pyrite Paving-setts are made from the diorite and commissioner of Crown Lands in India, police inspector and at Arklow, and granite is extensively quarried at Ballyknockan magistrate un British Honduras, and for 50 years explored Cen- on the west side of the mountain-chain. Owing to its proximity to Dublin and its accessibility from tral America, Australia, New Guinea, and the Pacific islands, es tabhshing many pioneer rubber plantations. In rg1z he received England, the portions of the county possessing scenic interest have been opened up to great advantage Bray in the north is a seaside 1,000 guineas and an annuity from the rubber growers and planters associations of London, Ceylon and Malaya, and in 1920 was resort Inland tounst centres are Enniskerry, west of Bray, and near the pass of the Scalp, Laragh, near Glendalough, from which kmghted He died on Sept. 27, 1928. a military road runs south-west across the hills below Lugnaquulla, WICKLOW, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, and, on the railway south of Wicklow, Rathdrum, Woodenbridge bounded east by St George’s Channel, north by the county of Dubin, south by Wexford and west by Carlow and Kildare The m the Vale of Avoca and Aughrim The Great Southern railway skirts the coast by way of Bray area 1s 500,216 ac. or about 782 sq miles Pop (1926) 57,583. and the town of Wicklow, touching it again at Arklow, with a The coast is very dangerous of approach owing to sandbanks. branch hne from Woodenbridge junction to Shillelagh. Another The harbour at Wicklow has a considerable trade; but that of branch from Sallins (Co. Kildare) skirts the west of the county by Arklow 1s suitable only for small vessels The central portion of the county is occupied by a granitic mountain range, running from Baltinglass. The administrative county of Wicklow returns three members north-east to south-west, the highest summits bemg Kuppure Dail Eireann (2,473 ft ), Duff Hill (2,364), Table Mountain (2,416) and Lug- to WICKLOW, a seaport, and county town of co Wicklow, Irenaquilla (3,039) ‘The range rises from the north by a succession land, at the mouth of a lagoon which receives the River Vartry the towards subsides and glens, of ridges intersected by deep and other streams, 284m S of Dublin by the Great Southern borders of Wexford and Carlow To the north its foothills enter railway. ‘Pop (1926), 3,027. The harbour can accommodate co, Dublin, and add attraction to the southern residential outskirts vessels of 1,500 tons and has two piers, with quayage The name of the capital The water-supply of Dublm is obtained from an shows the town to have been a settlement of the Norsemen. artificial lake on the first plateau of the foothills at Roundwood. WIDGEON, an abundant species of duck, Anas penelope, In the valleys there are many mstances of old river terraces, breeding in Europe and northern Asia and reaching northern of especially at the lower end of Glenmalure and the lower end Africa and India in winter Intermediate in size between the Glenare glens the of famous more the Among Glendalough. mallard, the widgeon drake is a handsome bird with the and teal dalough, Dargle, Glencree, Glen of the Downs, Devil’s Glen, Glen- cream forehead, chestnut head and neck, pencilled grey flanks malure and the beautiful vale of Avoca or Ovoca The principal and black speculum (wing-bar) Its whistling cry has green and nvers are the Liffey, on the north-western border; the Vartry, given it the local name of “whew-duck ” The widgeon collects in which passes through Devil’s Glen to the sea north of Wicklow huge flocks on tidal waters in winter and is shot for market in Head; the Avonmore and the Avonbeg, which unite at the “meet- large numbers. When on land it often eats grass Two alhed speing of the waters” to form the Avoca, which 1s afterwards joined cies occur in America, of which A americana, the baldpate, inby the Aughrim and falls into the sea at Arklow, and the Slaney, habits northern America, reaching Central America and Trinidad in the west of the county, passing southwards into Carlow The it differs in that the head is green, with the top of the principal lakes are Loughs Dan, Bray and Tay or Luggelaw, and in winter; head white. The other species, A. sibilatrix, 1s South American the loughs of Glendalough ‘The trout-fishing is generally fair. (1842-1911), poet, JOSEPH VICTOR WIDMANN, Wicklow was not made a county until 1606 It was the last dramatist, novelist and literary critic, was born at Nennowitz Irish ground shired, for in this mountamous district the Irish were long able to preserve independence. Wicklow sided with the royal (Moravia) on Feb 20, 1842, and died at Bern on Nov. 6, rrr. In 1880 he became feuilleton editor of the Berner Bund, and in cause during the Cromwellian wars, but on Cromwell’s advance this capacity he exercised for 30 years an authoritative sway submitted to him without striking a blow During the rebellion of as critic of German and German-Swiss literature Among the 1798 there were skirmishes at Aughrim and at Arklow.

Southern, and the Wichita Valley railways. The population was 40.979 m 1920 (90% native white) and was 43,690 in 1930 by Federal census Wichita Falls is surrounded by extensive gas and

WIDNES—WIELAND

599

most important of his own works are Arnold von Brescia (1867),

a tragedy; Buddha (1869), a philosophic epic, which might be described as a forerunner of Nietzsche’s Also Sprach Zarathustra and Spitteler’s Prometheus und Epimetheus; Mose und Zipora (1874), an idyll, Oenone (1880), a drama, Dze Patriezerm (1888), a novel of hfe ın Bern; Die Maskaferkomodze, “Cockchafer Comedy” (1897), a charming allegorical play, which may possibly have furnished Rostand with the idea of Chantecler; and

Der Heilige und die Tiere (1905), another dramatic poem in which his interest in the animal world and its mght to poetic existence are demonstrated. The last 1s his profoundest poetical utterance Widmann was one of the first to champion the genius of Carl Spitteler (gv), with whom his fnendship dated from childhood days at Liestal See the Life by E, and M Widmann (2 vols.; 1922-24) ; the studies by Mana Waser (1927), Prof Jonas Frankel (1918), W-. Scheitler (1925), and the Briefwechsel Keller-Widmann (1922).

WIDNES, municipal borough, Widnes parlamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 12 m S.E from Liverpool on the L M.S. and Cheshire lines Pop (1931) 40,608. It 1s wholly of modern growth, for in 1851 the population was under 2,000 There are capacious docks on the nver, which is crossed, and the town connected with Runcorn, by a railway bridge and a transporter bridge Widnes 1s one of the principal seats of the alkali and soap manufacture, and has also grease-wo1ks for locomotives and waggons, copper works, iron-foundries, oil and paint works and sail-cloth manufactories The barony of Widnes in 1554-55 was declared to be part of the duchy of Lancaster The town was incorporated in 1892

WIDOWS’

PENSIONS:

see Nationa InsurANcE, Win-

ows’ AND ORPHANS’ PENSIONS WIDUKIND or WITTEKIND (d c. 807), leader of the Saxons, belonged to a noble Westphalan famıly. He probably fought the Franks before and during 776 In 778 he returned from exile in Denmark to lead a fresh nsing, and in 782 the Saxons at his instigation drove out the Frankish priests, and plundered the border territories His movements in 783-84 are uncertain; but in 785 he was reconciled to Charlemagne at Attugny and baptized, the king acting as his sponsor and loading him with gifts The details of his later life are unknown He probably returned to Saxony Many legends have gathered around his memory, He is reported to have been duke of Engria, to have been a devoted Christian, and to have fallen in battle m 807 Royal houses have sought to establish descent from him, but except in the case of Matilda, wife of the German king, Henry I the Fowler, without success See W. Diekamp, Widukind der Sachsenfuhrer nach Geschichte und Sage (Minster, 1877); J Dettmer, Der Sachsenfuhrer Widukind nach Geschichte und Sage (Wurzburg, 1879)

WIDUKIND,

Saxon histonan, was the author of Res gestae

Saxonicae He was a monk at the Benedictine abbey of Corvey, and he died about 1004, His Res gestae Saxomcae, dedicated to Matilda, abbess of Quedlinburg, who was a daughter of Otto the Great, is divided into three books, and the greater part of it was undoubtedly written during the lifetime of the emperor, probably about 968. Starting with the origin of the Saxons, the history comes down to the death of Otto i 997 Many quotations from the Vulgate are found m his writings, and there are traces of a knowledge of Virgil, Ovid and other Roman poets The earlier

part of his work is taken from tradition, but he wrote on contemae events as one familar with court life and the events of e day The best edition of the Res gestae 1s that edited by G, Waitz m the Monumenta Germamae historica Scriptores, Band m, (Hanover and Berlin, 1826). A good edition published at Hanover and Leipzig in T94 EEF 7 een by K A Kehr

ee opke, Widukind von Corvey (Berlm, 1867): Raase, Widukind von Korver (Rostock, 1880); and B. Se igh Kritk

desWidukind” in the Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche

Geschichte, Band xii (Hanover, 1876).

WIELAND,

CHRISTOPH

MARTIN

(1733-1813), Ger-

man poet and man of letters, was born at Oberholzhem, a village near Biberach in Wurttemberg, on Sept 5, 1733. His father, who

was pastor in Oberholzheim, and subsequently in Biberach, took great pains with the child’s education, and sent him to the gymnasum at Klosterberge, near Magdeburg Under the influence of a first love-affair, with Sophie Gutermann, he planned his first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge (1752), a didactic poem in six books In 1750 he went to Tubingen to study law, but hs time was mainly taken up with literary studies. The poems he

wrote at the university—Hermann, an epic (published by F Muncker, 1886), Zwolf moralische Briefe in Versen (1752),

Anti-Ouvid (1752)—are pietistic m tone and dommated by the influence of Klopstock They attracted the attention of J.J

Bodmer, who invited Wieland to visit him in Zurich m the summer of 1752. After a few months, however, Bodmer felt himself as ttle in sympathy with Wieland as, two years earher, he had felt himself with Klopstock, and the friends parted, but Wieland

remained in Switzerland until 1760, residing, in the last year, at Berne where he obtained a position as private tutor Here he stood in intimate relations with Rousseau’s friend Julie de Bondeh, Meanwhile a change had come over Wieland’s tastes, the writings of his early Swiss years—Der geprufte Abraham (1753), Sympathien (1756), Empfindungen eines Christen (1757)—were still m the manner of his earlier writings, but with the tragedies, Lady Johanna Gray (1758), and Clementena von Porretta (1760)—the latter based

on Richardson’s

Sz

Charles

Grandison—the

epic

fragment Cyrus (1759), and the “moral story in dialogues,” Araspes und Panthea (1760), Wieland, as Lessing said, “forsook the ethereal spheres to wander again among the sons of men,” Wieland’s conversion was completed at Biberach, whither he had returned mn 1760, as director of the chancery He had access to the lhbrary at Warthausen

of Count

Stadion

once more Sophie Gutermann, who had meanwhile wife of Hofrat Laroche, then manager of Count tates The former poet of an austere pietism now advocate of a light-hearted philosophy, from which

sensuality were not excluded

Here he met

become Stadion’s became frivolity

the esthe and

In Don Sylvio von Rosalva (1764),

a romance in imitation of Dow Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earher fath and in the Komische Erzahlungem (1765) he gave his extravagant umagination only too free a rem More important is the novel Geschichte des Agathon (1766-1767), in which, under the guise of a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intellectual growth ‘This work, which Lessing recommended as “a novel of classic taste,” is a landmark in the development of the modern psychological novel Of equal importance was Wieland’s translation of twenty-two of Shakespeare’s plays into prose (8 vols, 1762-1766), it was the first attempt to present the English poet to the German people in something approaching entirety With the poems Musarzon oder dte Philosophie der Grazen (1768), Idris (1768), Combabus (1770), Der neue Amadıs (1771), Wieland opened the series of light and graceful romances in verse which acted as an antidote to the sentimental excesses of the subsequent Sturm und Drang movement. Wieland married in 1765, and between 1769 and 1772 was professor of philosophy at Erfurt In the last-mentioned year he published Der goldene Spiegel oder die Konige von Scheschian, a pedagogic work in the form of onental stories; this attracted the attention of duchess Anna Amalie of Saxe-Weimar, who appointed him tutor to her two sons, Karl August and Konstantin, at Weimar, With the exception of some years spent at Ossmannstedt, where in later life he bought an estate, Weimar remained Wieland’s home until his death on Jan 20, 1813 Here, in 1773,

he founded Der Deutsche Merkur, which under his editorship

(1773-1789) became the most influential literary review ım Germany. Of the writings of his later years the most important are the admirable satire on German provinciality—the most attractive of all his prose writings—Dse Abderiten, eme sehr wahrscheinliche Geschichte (1774), and the charming poetic romances, Das Wintermérchen (1776), Das Sommermarchen (1777), Geron der Adelige (1777), Die Wunsche oder Pervonte (1778), @ Series culminating with Wieland’s poetic masterpiece, the romantic epl¢ of Oberon (1780) His later work included novels, translations

of Horace, Lucian and Cicero, and the editing of the Attasches

Museum

(1796-1803),

WIELICZKA—WIG Without creating a school in the strict sense of the term, WieJand mfluenced very considerably the German literature of his

te Modern editions of Wieland’s Samétlhiche Werke are those of H. Duntzer (4 vols , 1879-82), and the critical edition issued by the Prussian Academy (1909, etc ).

591

WIENER-NEUSTADT, a town in Lower Austria, in a moderately fertile basin at the pomt of divergence of routes from Vienna to the Semmering pass and to Hungary via the Sopron

gate The town was founded in r192 and its critical situation is reflected in the various struggles for its control between Austria

ere are numerous editions of selected wor ö and Hungary (1246 and 1486), and Austma and Turkey (1529 ee 1902) Collections of Wieland’s Lae ene and 1683). It is essentially modern in appearance, owing to son Ludwig (1815) and by H. Gessner (1815-16) ; his letters to Sophie rebuilding in 1834, following almost complete destruction by fire. La Roche by F. Horn (1820) See J G Gruber, C. M. Wielands Leben But there remains a rath century castle built by Duke Leopold vols, 1827-28); H Donng, C. M Wieland (1853) , ¢ M. Wieland (1858) , H Prohle, Lessing, Wolo Has Cone).: V , converted by Maria Theresa in 1752 into a military academy L F Ofterdinger, Wzelands Leben und Werken in Schwaben und in and, since 1919, a school for boys; the 13th century Romanesque der Schweiz (1877), R_ Kiel, Wteland und Remhold (188s) , F. Thal- Liebfrauen church, with Gothic choir and transepts added in the meyr, Uber Wielands Klassizitat, Sprache und Stl (1894), M. Doll, Wieland und dze Antzke (1896), C A Behmer, Sterne und Wieland r5th century, and the rsth century Cistercian abbey with its rich Helped by its situation Wiener-Neustadt (1899), W Lenz, Wrelands Verhalims 2u Spenser, Pope und Swift hbrary and museum (1903); L. Hirzel, Weelands Bezzehungen zu den deutschen Roman- has become an industrial town with special interests in locomotikern (1904) See also M. Koch's article in the Allgememe deutsche tives and railway stock, machinery, textiles and leather goods, to Biographie (1897). (J G.R) which may be added sugar-refining, paper-making and the manuWIELICZKA, a mining town in Poland, 220 m. by ral W. facture of pottery A flounshing trade is facilitated by a canal of Lemberg and 9 m SE. of Cracow It is built on the slopes of to the capital, chiefly used for the transport of coal and timber.

a hill which half encircles the place, and over the celebrated salt-

mines of the same name. These mmes are the richest ın Poland, and among the most remarkable in the world They consist of seven different levels, one above the other, and have eleven shafts, two of which are in the town The levels are connected by flights of steps, and are composed of a labyrinth of chambers and passages, whose length aggregates over 65 m The length of the mines from E to W 1s 24 m, the breadth from N to S. is 1,050

yd. and the depth reaches 980 ft Many of the old chambers, some of which are of enormous size, are embellished with portals, candelabra, statues, etc, all hewn in rock-salt ‘There are also two large chapels, containing altars, ornaments, etc , in rock-salt, a room called the dancing saloon, where the objects of interest found in the mines are kept In the interior of the mines are sixteen ponds, of which Praykos is 195 ft long, rro ft. broad, and 10-26 ft deep The mimes employ over 1,000 workers, and yield about 60,000 tons annually The salt of Wieliczka ıs well known for its purity and solidity, but has generally a grey or blackish colour The date of the discovery of the mines is unknown, but they were already worked in the rrth century The mines suffered greatly from inundations in 1868 and 1879, and the soil on which the town 1s built shows signs of subsidence

WIEN, WILHELM

(13864-1928), German physicist, was

born on Jan 13, 1864, at Gaffken (East Prussia) He studied at the universities of Gottingen, Heidelberg and Berlin, and in 1890 entered the Physico-Technical Institute as assistant to Helmholtz In 1896 he was appointed professor at the technical high school, Aix-la-Chapelle; in 1899 he went to Giessen, in 1900 to Wurzburg, and mn 1920 to Munich. Wien’s researches covered almost the whole sphere of physics He wrote on optical problems; on radiation, especially black-body radiation, for which in r91r he was awarded the Nobel prize, on water and air currents, on dis-

Pop. (1923), 36,956

WIESBADEN, a town and watering-place mm the Prussian

province of Hesse-Nassau Pop (1925) 102,476 Whesbaden is one of the oldest watering-places in Germany. The springs mentioned by Pliny as Fontes Matthiact were known to the Romans, who fortified the place c. 11 Bc. The wall known as the Hesdenmauer, Was probably part of the fortifications built under Diocle-

tian. The name Wrsibada (“meadow bath”) appears in 830. Under the Carolingian monarchs ıt was the site of a palace, and Otto I. gave it civic nights. In the rrth century the town and district passed to the counts of Nassau, and in 1355 Wiesbaden became with Idstein capital of the county Nassau-Idstein. It siiffered from the ravages of the Thirty Years’ War and was destroyed in 1644. In 1744 it became the seat of government of the principalty Nassau-Usingen, and was from 1815 to 1866 the capital of the duchy of Nassau, when it passed with that duchy to Prussia It is situated under the south-western spurs of the

Taunus range, 5 m. N. of Mainz, 3 m from the Rhine (at Biebrich), and 25 m. W. of Frankfurt-on-Main by rail. Its prosperity is mainly due to its hot alkaline springs and mild climate, which have rendered it a winter as well as summer resort. There 1s a large trade in wine and small manufactures of surgical instruments, artificial manures, furniture, cement and chocolate.

WIESER,

FRIEDRICH

VON

(1851-1926),

German

political economist, professor of political economy at the Vienna University, was the author of Das Hauptgesetz des Wirtschaft-

lichen Staates (1884), Die Theorie der gesellschaftlichen Wirtschaft (1914), and Das Gesetz der Macht, published posthumously He died at St. Gilgen in the Salzkammergut, on July 24, 1926,

WIG, short form for “penwig”

An artificial head of hair,

worn as a personal adornment, disguise or symbol of office. The wearing of wigs 1s of great antiquity, and Egyptian mummies have been found so adorned. In Greece wigs were used by men and tion are contained in the two laws named after him He developed women A reference in Xenophon to the false hair worn by Cyrus’s a formula for the energy density associated with a definite wave grandfather “‘as is customary among the Medes,” and also a story length at a certain temperature, and from this obtained what is in Aristotle, would suggest that wigs were introduced from Persia, known as Wien’s displacement law, which states that the product and were in use in Asia Minor. The elaborately frizzled hair worn

charge through rarefied gases, cathode rays, X-rays and positive rays Wien’s most mmportant contributions to black-body radia-

of the wave length at which the energy density is a maximum

by some of the figures in the frescoes found at Knossos makes it

and the absolute temperature is a constant. Wien also developed a formula for the energy distribution of black-body radiation; this was found to hold for short wave lengths only but is im-

probable that the wearing of artificial hair was known to the Cretans Lucian, in the 2nd century, mentions wigs of both men and women as a matter of course The theatrical wig was also m use in Greece, the various comic and tragic masks having hair

portant as a link in the chain which led to Planck’s formula His work on positive rays is of great importance; he showed that these rays underwent electrostatic and magnetic deflection as early as

suited to the character represented

A E Haigh (Attic Theatre,

Pp. 221, 239) refers to the black hair and beard of the tyrant, the fair curls of the youthful hero, and the red hair characteristic of lectured at Columbia University in New York on problems of the dishonest slave of comedy These conventions appear to have been handed on to the Roman theatre. modern theoretical physics He died on Aug. 30, 1928 At Rome wigs came into use certainly in the early days of the Wien was the editor of the Annalen der Physik from vol 21 (1906) His chief works are- Lehrbuch der Hydrodynamik empire They were also known to the Carthaginians, Polybius (1900); Neuere Probleme der theoretischen Physik (1913); Die says that Hannibal used wigs as a means of disguise The fashRelativitats-theorie vom Standpunkte der Physik und Erkenntnis- ionable ladies of Rome were much addicted to false hair, and we learn from Ovid and Martial that the golden hair imported from lehre (1921). 1898 and continued his researches on this subject

In 1913 he

594

WIGAN—WIGHT

Germany was most favoured Juvenal shows us Messalna assuming a yellow wig for her visits to places of ill-fame The chief names for wigs were galerus, galericulum, corymbium, capillamentum, cakendrum, etc Galerus meant m the first place a skull-cap, or coif, fastening under the chin, and made of hide or fur, worn by peasants, athletes and flamsnes The first men’s wigs then would have been tight fur caps simulating hair, which would naturally suggest wigs of false hair Women continued to have wigs of different colours as part of their ordinary wardrobe, and Faustina, wife of Marcus Aurelus, is said to have had several hundred An amusing development of this 1s occasionally found in portrait busts, ¢.g. that of Plautilla in the Louvre, Paris, m which the hair is made removable, so that by changing the wig of the statue from time to time it should never be out of fashion The periwig of the 16th century merely simulated real hair, either as an adornment or to supply the defects of nature It was not till the 17th century that the peruke was worn as a distinctive feature of costume. The fashion started in France In 1620 the abbé La Rivière appeared at the court of Lous XIII in a periwig made to simulate long fair hair, and four years later the king himself, prematurely bald, also adopted one and thus set the fashion Louis XIV, who was proud of his abundant hair, did not wear a wig till after 1670. From Versailles the fashion spread through Europe In England, under Charles II , the wearing of the peruke became general. Pepys records that he parted with his own hair and “paid £3 for a periwigg,”’ and on gomg to church in one he says “it did not prove so strange as I was afraid it would” It ‘was under Queen Anne, however, that the wig attamed its maximum development, covering the back and shoulders and floating down over the chest. This differentiation of wigs according to class and profession

explains why, when early in the reign of George III the general fashion of wearmg wigs began to wane and die out, the practice held its own among professional men. It was by slow degrees that doctors, soldiers and clergymen gave up the custom. In the Church ıt survived longest among the bishops At the coronation of Queen Victoria the archbishop of Canterbury, alone of the prelates, still wore a wig Wigs are now worn as part of official costume only in Great Britain, their use bemg confined, except in the case of the speaker of the house of commons and the clerks of parliament, to the lord chancellor, the judges and barristers See F. W. Fairholt, Costume in England, 2 vols, ed Dillon (1885); C F. Nicolai, Uber den Gebrauch der falschen Haare und Perrucken (180r) ;_ the articles “Coma” and “Galerus” m Daremberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des anitsquités. See also Diderot’s Encyclopédie (1765), vol. xii, sv. “Perruque,” and James Stewart, Plocacosmos, or the Whole Art of Hawrdressing (1782).

WIGAN, market town, municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, 194m NW. by N from London by the L M.S railway. It is also served by the LNE railway Pop (1931) 85,357 It is probable that the town covers the site of a Roman post or fort, Cocctum Wigan, otherwise Wygan and Wigham, is not mentioned in Domesday Book, but three townships, Upholland, Dalton and Orrel are named After the Conquest Wigan was part of the barony of Newton, and the church

was endowed with a carucate of land, the origin of the manor Before Henry III’s reign the baron of Newton granted to the rector of Wigan the manomal privileges In 1246 Henry III granted a charter to John Mansel, parson of the church, by which Wigan was constituted a free borough and the burgesses permitted to have a gild merchant In 1680 Ogilby observes that the town was “noted for its iron works” Pottery, pewter and bellfounding were important trades. Manufacture of woollens, especially of blankets, was carried on in the 18th century The cotton trade developed rapidly after the introduction of the cylindncal

carding machine. During the Civil War the town, from its vicinity to Lathom House and the influence of Lord Derby, adhered staunchly to the king. On April 1, 1643 the Parliamentarians captured Wigan (see Lancashire) The following month Lord Derby regained it for the Royalists, but Colonel Ashton soon retook it In 1651 Lord Derby landed from the Isle of Man and marched through Preston to Wigan and at Wigan Lane, on Aug 25, the

Royalist forces were defeated and Lord Derby wounded, During

the rebellion of 1745 Prince Charles Edward spent one night (Dec 10) here In 1295 Wigan returned two members to parhament and again in 1307; the right then remained in abeyance till 1547, but from that time till 1885, except durmg the Commonwealth. the borough returned two members, and since 1885 one member The lst of rectors is complete from 1199, the list of mayors goes back to 1370, town clerks to 1350, and recorders to 1600

Wigan hes on the small river Douglas, which flows into the estuary of the Ribble There ıs connection by canal with Liver. pool, Manchester, etc The town has coal mmes which are famous for cannel coal, and which employ a large proportion of the inhabitants and supply the factory furnaces The chief many. factures are cotton fabrics and linen fabrics; the town also possesses iron forges, iron and brass foundries, oil, grease and chemical works, railway waggon factories, and bolt, screw and nal works The borough includes the important district of Pemberton

WIGGIN, KATE DOUGLAS (1856-1923), American novelist, daughter of Robert N Smuth, a lawyer, was born Philadelphia (Pa.), Sept. 28, 1856, whence her family removed to Hollis (Maine) She was educated at home and at various seminaries including Abbot academy, Andover (Mass ), and when 17 years of age joined her family in Cahfornia Having been a member of Miss Marwedel’s pioneer training class, she was called from her teaching in Santa Barbara to establish in San Francisco the first free kindergarten on the western coast (1878), and organized her own California kindergarten training school in 1880 She married, ın 1881, Samuel B. Wiggin, who died in 1889 In 1895 she married George C Riggs, but continued to wnite under the name of Wiggin. She died mm England, Aug 24, 1923 Her interest m

children’s

education was

shown in numerous

books,

but her literary reputation rests rather on her prose fiction The Birds’ Christmas Carol (1888), the Penelope series (5 vols), Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1903); New Chromcles of Rebecca

(1907); and The Story of Waitstiul Baxter (1913) Several of these were dramatized with the assistance of collaborators An autobiographical volume is My Garden of Memory (1923) A uniform “Quillcote” edition of her books appeared im ten vols. Several of them have been translated into many languages See also Nora Archibald Smith, Kate Douglas Wiggin as Her Sister Knew Her (1925). ,

WIGGLESWORTH,

MICHAEL

(1631-1705), American

clergyman, physician and poet, was born in England (probably in Yorkshire) Oct 18, 1631 Hos father, persecuted for his Puntan faith, emigrated with his family to New England ın 1638 and settled in New Haven In 1651 Michael graduated at Harvard, where he was a tutor (and a Fellow) m 1652-54 and again in 1697~—1705. Having fitted himself for the ministry, he preached at Charlestown in 1653-54, and 1n spite of ill health, was pastor at Malden from 1656 until his death, June 10, 1705 Wigglesworth 1s best known as the author of The Day of Doom, ora Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judgment (1662), a lurid exposition of Calvinistic theology, which children were made to learn lke the catechism

WIGHT, ISLE OF, off the south coast of England, part of

Hempshire separated from the mainland of Hampshire by the Soren, ¿nd S nezd It is 224 m from east to west and 134 m irom nora o ~ouih The area is 147 sqm The south coast 1s chiefly cliff-bound and there 1s beautiful scenery both mland and along the northern shores The climate is mild and healthy. Asa result there are numerous watering places Chalk downs range

from east to west, termmating m the Culver cliffs and the Needles These downs are from 400 to 700 ft. high

North of this ridge the

chalk dips beneath Tertiary rocks with heavy souls, which support extensive areas of trees :

Three rivers, the eastern Yar; Medina and western Yar, drain the island. The Medina bisects the island The structure of the island is that of a simple monocline, the central chalk ridge forming an almost vertical limb To the south of this, the dip of the beds is southward at a very low angle and there is a second range of downs, in the extreme south, between St Catherine’s Point and Dunnose, which exceed 800 ft in St Catherine’s Hill Below these heights on the seaward side occurs the remarkable tract known as the Undercliff, a terrace formed by the shding of the

WIGTOWNSHIRE

593

WIGTOWNSHIRE (sometimes called West GALLOWAY), Chalk and Upper Greensand upon the unctuous surface of the Gault clay. The upper cliffs shelter this terrace and the climate is south-western county, Scotland, bounded north by Ayrshire, east remarkably mild

This part of the island affords a winter resort.

by Karkcudbnightshire and Wigtown bay, south by the Irish sea

Along the south coast the action of small streams on the soft rocks and west and north by the North channel. Including the island has hollowed out steep gullies Many of these are of great beauty ; of St Helena, at the head of Luce bay, 1t covers 311,984 acres the most famous are Shanklin and Blackgang chines The western (excluding water). On the eastern boundary the estuary of the peninsula shows the finest development of sea-chifs. Off the Cree expands into Wigtown bay, between which and Luce bay westernmost promontory rise three detached masses of chalk extends the promontory of the Machers, terminating m Burrow

about 100 ft high known as the Needles, exposed to the full strength of the south-westerly gales During a storm in 1764 a fourth spire was undermined and fell. Newport at the head of the Medina estuary is the chief

head. By the indentation of Luce bay on the south and Loch Ryan on the north the hammerheaded peninsula of the Rinns is formed, of which the Mull of Galloway, the most southerly point of Scotland, is the southern, and Milleur point the northern extremity.

town; Cowes at the mouth, the chief port

The coast has many inlets, but most are exposed and beset with

The principal resorts

are Cowes (headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron) Ryde, Sandown, Shanklin, Ventnor, Freshwater Gate and Yarmouth. Others are Totland Bay, Gurnard (Cowes), Seaview and Bembridge (Ryde). The principal communications with the mainland are between Cowes and Southampton, Ryde and Portsmouth, and Yarmouth and Lymington The island is well supphed with railways and roads The island shares in the defences of the Solent, and the entry to Portsmouth; there are batteries at Puck-

pool, on the eastern foreland, and the west coast

Osborne House,

near Cowes, a residence and scene of the death of Queen Victoria, was presented to the nation by King Edward VII ın 1902. The island 1s divided into two liberties, East and West Medina, excluding the boroughs of Newport and Ryde, and contains the urban districts of Cowes, East Cowes, St. Helens, Sandown, Shanklm and Ventnor The island has for many centuries belonged to

the see of Winchester Pop (1931) 88,400 History.—Relics of the Roman occupation following the conquest by Vespasian in AD. 43, are the villas at Brading and Carisbrook, the cemetery at Newport, and remains of foundations at Combly Farm, Gurnet, and between Brixton and Calbourne. The Jutes probably settled here and in 661 1t was annexed by Wulfhere to Wessex and subsequently bestowed on the king of Sussex. In 998 1t was the headquarters of the Danes From the 14th to the 16th century the island was under fear of

rocks. Loch Ryan ıs a natural harbour of which Stranraer is the port.

A line north-east from the coast about 3 m. south of Portpatrick divides the county so that practically all the rocks on the northern side are of Ordovician age, while those on the south are Silunan. This lne comcides with the general direction of the strike of the beds throughout the county Glacial moraines and drumblns are widespread and are well seen between Glenluce and Newton Stewart and south of Wigtown. On the coasts of Luce bay and Loch Ryan raised beaches are found at levels of 25 ft. and so ft. above the sea Towards the Ayrshire border, hills reach 1,000 ft. in height. The chief rivers are the Cree, forming the boundary with Kirkcudbrightshire, and the Bladenoch, issuing from Loch Maberry and falling into Wigtown Bay at Wigtown after a course of 22 m. Most of the numerous lochs are small

History and Antiquities.—The history of Wigtownshire is hardly distinguishable from that of Galloway (qv) Evidences of the Pictish occupation are prevalent in the form of hill forts, cairns, standing stones, hut circles and crannogs or lake dwellings. There are so few Roman remains that it has been concluded they effected no permanent settlement in West Galloway. Numan, the

first Christian missionary to Scotland, landed at Isle of Whithorn in 396 to convert the natives. His efforts were temporarily successful A monastery was built at Whithorn, and, though the bishopric founded in the 8th century was shortly afterwards removed, it was established again in the rath, when the priory erected by Fergus, “king” of Galloway, became the cathedral

invasion by the French, who in 1377 burnt Yarmouth and Francheville (the latter bemg subsequently rebuilt and known as Newtown), and so devastated Newport that it lay unmbhabited for two years In 1419, a French force landed and demanded tribute in church of the see of Galloway. Malcolm MacHeth, who had married a sister of Somerled, the name of King Richard and Queen Isabella, which was refused, and the French returned home Another raid was attempted lord of the Isles, headed about 1150 a Celtic revolt against the in 154s when a French fleet of 225 ships drew up off Brading Har- intrusion of Anglo-Norman lords, but was routed at Causewayend bour and wrought much destruction, As a result an organised near the estuary of the Cree. In the disorder of the realm dursystem of defence was planned Forts were constructed at Cowes, ing David II’s reign east Galloway had been surrendered to Sandown, Freshwater and Yarmouth Charles I. was imprisoned in Edward IIT. (1333), but Wigtownshire, which had been constiCanisbrook Castle m 1647-48 and, in 1650, ns two children, the tuted a shire im the previous century and afterwards called the princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Gloucester, the former dying Shire to distinguish it from the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, remained Scottish territory In 1372 the then earl of Wigtown there The lordship of the island was granted by William the Con- sold his title and estates to the 3rd earl of Douglas, and under queror to Wiliam Fitz-Osbern, but escheated to the crown It that family in 1426, the region came under the general law. was bestowed by Henry I on Baldwin de Redvers, whose descen- Soon after the fall of the Douglases (1455) the Kennedy family, dant Isabella de Fortibus sold ıt to Edward I in 1293 In the Domesday Survey 29 mulls are mentioned, and saltworks at Boarhunt, Bowcombe, Watchingwell and Whitfield The island quarries have been worked from remote times, that of Quarr supplying material for Wimchester cathedral Alum and sand for glass-making were formerly obtained at Alum Bay One member is returned to parliament for the whole island.

Antiquities include British pit villages (Rowborough), prehistoric

long established in the Ayrshire district of Carrick, obtained a preponderating influence in Wigtownshire, and in 1509 David Kennedy was created earl of Cassillis. Gilbert, the 4th earl held the shire for Mary, queen of Scots, when she broke with the Lords of the Congregation, but could do little for her cause He profited by the Reformation himself, however, to acquire by fraud and murder the estate of Glenluce abbey (about 1570). Among ancient castles are the cliff towers, possibly of Norse

tumul on several of the chalk downs, the so-called Long Stone at origi, of Carghidown and Castle Feather near Burrow Head, Mottiston, a lofty sandstone monolith, well-preserved examples the ruins of Baldoon, south of Wigtown, associated with events of tesselated Roman pavements near Brading, Carisbrooke Cas- which suggested to Sir Walter Scott the romance of The Bride of tle, a beautiful ruin built upon the site of an ancient British strong- Lammermoor; Corsewall near the northern extremity of the hold, and remains of Quarr Abbey near Ryde, The most note- Rinns; the Norse stronghold of Cruggleton, south of Garliesworthy ancient churches are those of Bonchurch (Norman), Brad- town, Dunskey, south of Portpatrick, built in the 16th century, ing (transitional Norman and Early English), Shalfleet (Nor- occupying the site of an older fortress; the fragments of Long castle at Dowalton loch, the ancient seat of the MacDonells; man and Decorated), and Carisbrooke, of various styles BrstiocrapHy —E

C Hargrove, England’s Garden Island (1925);

H J Osborne White, The Geology of the Isle of Wight (Survey Memoir, 1921)

Myrton, the seat of the MacCullochs, in Mochrum parish; and the ruined tower of Sorbie, the ancient keep of the Hannays.

Agriculture and Industries—Much of the shire consists of

594

WIGWAM—WILBERFORCE

stony moors, rendering the work of reclamation difficult. The gravelly soil along the coast requires heavy manuring, and in the higher arable quarters a rocky soil prevails, better adapted for grass and green crops than for grain. Much of the surface 1s black top reclaimed from the moors, and m some districts loam and clay are found Half of the shire is, however, under cultivation, and the standard of farming 1s as high as that of any county in Scotland. Ayrshire cattle are the favourite breed for daying, with black polled Galloways m the eastern districts The

sheep are principally black-faced on the hill farms, and in other parts Leicester and othér long-woolled breeds, wool being an important product. Great numbers of pigs are kept. The shire has acquired some reputation for its horses, chiefly Clydesdale. There 1s regular communication by mail steamer between Stranraer and Larne in Co Antrim, Ireland s

Population and Administration.—The 1932 population was 29,299; 98 persons spoke Gaelic and English, one Gaelic only. The

prmcipal towns are Stranraer (pop 6,490); Newton Stewart (1,914), which, however, extends into Kirkcudbnghtshire, Wigtown (1,261), and Whithorn (951). The county returns one member to parhament Wigtown, the county town, Stranraer and Whithorn are royal burghs. The shire forms a sheriffdom with Dumfries, and a sheriff-substitute sits at Wigtown and Stranraer. WIGWAM, 2 term loosely adopted as a general name for the houses of North American Indians It is, however, strictly applied

to a particular dome-shaped or conical hut made of poles lashed together at the tops and covered with bark The skin tents of many of the Plams Indians are called tepees

The word “wigwam”

represents the Europeanized or Anglicized form of the Algonkian

wékou-om-ut, i.e., “in his (their) house ”

WIHTRED, king of Kent (d. 725), son of Ecgberht, nephew of Hlothhere and brother of Eadric, came to the Kentish throne in 606 after the period of anarchy which followed the death of the latter king. Bede states that Wihtred and Swefheard were both kings in Kent in 692, and this statement would appear to imply a period of East Saxon influence (see Kent), while there is also evidence of an attack by Wessex. Wihtred, however, seems to have become sole king in 604. At his death m 725, he left the kingdom to his sons Aethelberht, Eadberht and Alric There is still extant a code of laws issued by him in a council held at a place called Berghamstyde (Barham?) during the fifth year of his reign (probably 695). Seé Bede, Hust Ecc! ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896) , Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899).

Critic, not deeming it advisable that they should longer %y. operate very closely ” In 1838 Wilberforce published, with his elder brother Robert, the Lafe of his father, and two years later

his father’s Correspondence

In 1839 he also published Euchay.

istica (from the old English divines), to which he wrote an Introduction, Agathos and other Sunday Stories, and a volume of Umversity Sermons, and in the following year Rocky Island and other Parables, In March 1844 he was made dean of Westminster and in October bishop of Oxford. ,

The bishop in 1847 became involved in the Hampden contro. versy, and signed the remonstrance of the thirteen bishops to Lord Jobn Russell agaznst R D Hampden’s appointment to the bishop-

ric of Hereford. He also endeavoured to obtain satisfactory assur. ances

from

Hampden;

but, though

withdrew from the swt against him

unsuccessful

mn this, he

The publication of a papal

bull in 1850 establishing a Roman hierarchy in England brought the High Church party, of whom Wilberforce was the most prom. nent member, into temporary disrepute. Hus diary reveals a

devout private life which has been overlooked by those who

have only considered the versatile facility and persuasive expediency that marked the successful public career of the bishop, and earned him the sobriquet of “‘Soapy Sam ” His attitude towards Essays and Reviews, 1861, agamst which he

wrote an article in the Quarterly, won him the special gratitude of the Low Church party, and latterly he enjoyed the full confidence and esteem of all except the extreme men of either side and party

On the publication of J W Colenso’s Commentary on the Romans in 1861, Wilberforce sought a private conference with the author; but after the publication of the first two parts of the Pentateuch Critically Examined he drew up the address of the bishops which

called on Colenso to resign his bishopric

Though opposed to

the disestablishment of the Irish Church, yet, when the constitu-

encies decided for it, he advised that no opposition should be made to it by the House of Lords. After twenty-four years’ labour m the diocese of Oxford, he was translated by Gladstone to the

bishopric of Winchester. He was killed on July 19, 1873, by the shock of a fall from his horse near Dorking, Surrey. See Life of Samuel Wilberforce, with Selectzons from his Diary and

Correspondence (1879-82), vol i, ed. by Canon A. R well, an vols. ii, and 11, ed. by his son R G Wilberforce, who also wrote a one-volume Life (t903) One of the volumes of the “English Leaders of Religion” 1s devoted to him, and he 1s included nm Dean Burgon’s Lives of Twelve Good Men

WILBERFORCE,

(2888).

WILLIAM

(1759-1833), English phi-

lanthropist whose name is chiefly associated with the abolition of WILAMOWITZ-MOLLENDORFF, ULRICH VON the slave trade, was descended from a Yorkshire family which (1848— ), German scholar, was born on Dec, 22, 1848 at possessed the manor of Wilberfoss in the East Riding from the Markowitz in Posen. He studied at Bonn and Berlin, and after- time of Henry II, till the middle of the 18th century He was wards travelled in Italy and Greece (1872-74). In the latter the only son of Robert Wilberforce, member of a commercial year he took a post as lecturer in Berlin, and afterwards be- house at Hull, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Bird of came a professor in Greifswald and Gottingen. In 1897 he was Barton, Oxon, and was born at Hull on Aug 24, 1759 At the appointed professor of ancient philology in the University of age of 9 he lost his father and was transferred to the care of a Berlin. Wilamowitz proved himself not only an excellent editor paternal uncle at Wimbledon, but in his rath year he returned and witty commentator on the Greek tragedies of Aeschylus, to Hull, and was placed under the care of the master of the enEuripides and Aristotle, but also a brilliant translator of Greek dowed school of Pocklington Here he neglected his studies, but verse Sharply attacked by Friedrich Nietzsche in Ins youth, he entered St. John’s college, Cambridge, in Oct 1766 Left by Wilamowitz became one of the first authorities of modern times the death of his grandfather and uncle the possessor of an indein the field of Greek philology. pendent fortune under his mother’s sole guardianship, he was Among his numerous works are: Aeschyli Tragoedue (Greek and somewhat idle at the university, though he acquitted himself in German 1914) ; Euripide? Herakles, with an introduction to the Greek tragedy and German annotations (1889); Die Textgeschichte der the examinations with credit; but in his serious years he “could

griechischen Lynker (tozc)* Burcliti Grace: (Oxfc'd 1908) , Dre IBas und Homer (1916), Picton, (141|), Weleerictiscke Dichtung (1924); Gnechische Vetskunst (1521), Pindsros (1622), Die Heimkehy des

not look batk without unfeigned remorse” on the opportunities

WILBERFORCE, SAMUEL (1823-18"3) Fazlish bišhon third son of William Wilberforce, was torn at CiapLam Co-nmoa, London, on Sept. 7, 1865. He graduated from Oriel College, Ox-

at Cambridge with Pitt, which ripened into a close friendship.

Odysseus (1927)

ford, in 1826, taking a first class in mathematics and a second in classics. He was ordained in 1828, and in 1830 became rector of Brightsione, Isle of Wight Although a High Churchman Wilberforce held aloof from the Oxford movement, and in 1838 his dıvergence from the “Tract” writers became so marked that J H

Newman declined further contributions from him to the British

he had then neglected. In 1780 he was elected MP. for Hull He soon found his way into the fast political society of London,

and at the club at Goosetrees renewed an acquaintance begun

In the autumn of 1783 he set out with Pitt on a tour in France; and after his return his eloquence proved of great assistance to Pitt in his struggle agamst the majority of the House of Commons. In 1784 Wilberforce was elected for both Hull and Yorkshire, and took his seat for the latter constituency A journey to Nice in the autumn of the same year with Dr

Isaac Milner (1750-1820), who had been one of bis masters at Hull grammar school, and afterwards became president of

WILBUR—WILD

CARROT

595

led to his conQueens’ college, Cambridge, and dean of Carlisle,

in Sept 1638, in his sixty-fifth year. Wilbye’s madrigals are the most famous of the English school. He had in a supreme degree the quality of style and he obtained

himself with the establishment of a society for the reformation of manners. About the same time he met Thomas Clarkson, and began the agitation against the slave trade Pitt recommended Wil-

wonderful effects of contrast by his skill in grouping the voices His First Set of English Madrigals to 3, 4, 5, and 6 vosces was published in 1598, bearing the date April 12, and was dedicated to Sir Charles Cavendish, son-m-law of Sir Thomas Kytson. It contains 30 numbers, including the famous “Flora gave me fairest flowers,” The madrigals of the Second Set, dedicated to Lady Arabella Stuart, which appeared in 1609, are even more finished in.

version to Evangelical Christianity The change had a marked effect on his public conduct. In the beginning of 1787 he busied

perforce to undertake the guidance of the project as a subject

suited to his character and talents While Clarkson conducted the agitation throughout the country, Wilberforce took every opporhorrors tunity in the House of Commons of exposing the evils and of the trade For the history of the various motions introduced by Wilberforce see the article SLAVERY. It was not till 1807, the year

style. Among them are “Draw on, Sweet Night”; “Stay, Corydon”; and “Sweet honey-sucking bees ”

sets have been reprinted by the Musical Antiquarian Society,

Both cal vi, with School Old English ’s biographi the vuEngish in Arkwright for and are (vol, society Latm motets ery Two Madrigal the anti-slav When details) shed i- |and accompli vice-pres was became slavery of ton Clarkson and rce Wilberfo 1823, was formed in following Pitt’s death, that the first great step towards the aboli-|

4)and (ad” "Tam quitetee dents; but before their aum was accomplished Wilberforce had |(184)centers’numbersby Walbye,

eat fe a et 5) A Bill, which was the | “O God the Rock” (a retired from public life, and the Emancipation s of Onana” (1601). Most of the Enghsh collection “Trumph the ism | a 1833, Aug. till passed not , was life-work Rev E H. culmination of his include one or more of Wilbye’s madrigals See alsoarticle month after his death by him the and (1921), Composers Madrigal English Fellowes, a took and Spooner In May 1797 he married Barbara Ann in Grove’s Dictionary, 3rd ed

house at Clapham, where he became. one of the leaders of the

JONATHAN

(c. 1682-1725), English criminal,

]

«

.

ia

WILD, where his father was a Stephen. was born about 1682 at Wolverhampton, he set up as a receiver Charles Grant, E J. Elot, Zachary Macaulay and James wig-maker After a term of imprisonment business posing as a In connection with this group he planned a religious periodical immense an of stolen goods Wild built up ae noe : the thieves receiving a commission on which should oe a eas degree of political and common | recoverer of stolen goods, of parliament was act special A on ah = os ms pincer ea r80r of| the price paid for recovery Ss self in a variety | passed by which receivers of stolen property were made accessocial and religi at for the Pe property office” “lost professed pf echemcs 40r tHe BOCa).any tec Nene of the community | sories to the theft, but Wuld’s In parliament he was a supporter of parliamentary reform and of had httle difficulty :in evading the new law, and became so pros“Clapham Sect”

32

of Evangelicals, includmg Henry Thornton

In 1812, on account of failing

Roman Catholic emancipation

went on to opened two branch perous thet robberies himself, offices and hewere devised and Wild controlled a huge health, he exchanged the representation of Yorkshire for that of arrange Bramber, Sussex In 1825 hesettled retiredat from the House of Complundered London and its approaches wholewhich organization, Mill near Hill, Highwood year following the mons, and sale Such thieves as refused to work with him received short Hill He died at London on July 29, 1833, and was buried in shrift ‘The notorious Jack Sheppard, wearied of Wild’s exactions : whereupon Wild secured his

vee wien published A Practical View of the Prevailing at last refused to deal with him, .

oe Se

Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of this Country Contrasted with Real Chnstiomty, which withm half a year went through five editions and was translated mto

i Trench Tiahar Dutch ond German y Thestci anl aa pr heCET oEW afe

(5

5

Correspondence

d

w

(1840)

?

D ’

3

arpaa

3

a paseo

it4

ne

2?

thieves as return for Wild's services in tracking down such he did not himself control, the authorities for some time tolerated the offences of his numerous agents, If an arrest were evidence at> hand to supply of false e e made, Wild ° had a plentiful : . f establish his =

also published by his sons. A smaller edition

are and he

ere

the

convic tion, by

similar means, of suc thieves as refused to recognize his authorof the Life was published by Samuel Wilberforce m 1868 See also ity Such stolen property as could not be returned to the owners The private papers of Wilham Wuberforce, edited by A. M Wiberprofit was taken abroad in a sloop purchased for this work. with | Biography Eccleswastecal in Essays Stephen, force (1897) , Sir James at the Old Bailey, and after being (1849), J C Colquhoun, Wilberforce, His Friends and Times (1866); | At last he was arrested, tried

T en etch o

Loi

PERES

o

; 4$ £i eae

Tona

0 t 2 . 838) ; erfor ened cas See 1923). (Oxford, eeeand R ead bY (1864) Coupland, Wilberforce Wilberforce

WILBUR, RAY LYMAN

(:875~

.

_), American educa-

lace,° found, guilty of taking5 a acquitted on a charge ae eae of stealing reward for restoring it to the owner without informing the police. He was hanged at Tyburn on

May 24, 1725 WILDBAD,

tionist, was born at Boonesboro, Ia, on April 13, 1875 He graduated at Stanford university m 1896, proceeding thence to

a

watering-

place of Germany, in the repub-

Cooper Medical college, San Francisco, and later continued his

studies at London, Frankfurt and Munich. He began bs teachmg at Stanford m 1goo, becoming professor of medicine in 1909 and dean of the medical school n 197 In 1915 he was appointed

lic of Wurttemberg, situated 1,475 ft, above the sea, im the

Council of Defence 1917. On March 4, 1929, he became secretary

rail, Pop.

gorge of the Enz in the Black

forest, 28 m, W. of Stuttgart and 14 E. of Baden-Baden by

president He was chief of the division of conservation of the U.S Food Commission, and a member of the California State

(1925) 5,307.

Its

thermal alkaline springs have a

of the interior in the cabmet of President Hoover,

temperature of go°—roo°

WILBYE, JOHN (1574-1638), English madrigal composer,

was born at Diss, Norfolk, m 1574, the date of his baptism being | 3, countesr

or vue rowa GroLosicat,

WILD

CARROT

Fahr.

(Daucus

Carota), a bienmal herb of the March 9 Until recently nothing was known of his life but many | suaver CARROT (DAUCUS CAROTA), parsley family (Umbelliferae, facts have now come to light His father was a well-to-do land. |WILD A COMMON WEED BEARING DENSE g.v,), native to Europe, northern nce with acquainta

owner, Matthew Wilbye Through his early Africa and Asia and extensively SLUSTERS.OF MRE e re the Cornwallis family at Brome Hall John became resident musi- naturalized in North America as 4 weed, often exceedingly pernician at Hengrave Hall, the seat of Sir Thomas Kytson, whose wife

was Elizabeth Cornwallis

The inventones . Hee

items of furniture in Wilbye’s rooms and the

a the

Hengrave

cious in pastures, meadows and fields. It is the parent species of

in the size 4 root vegetable from which it differs3 chiefly Letter the common springs from a deep,

Book II contains a letter yfrom Wilbye to a fnend, which has

and quality of the root. The wild carrot

conical root, with an erect stem, 1 to 3 ft. high, bearing been reproduced in volume VI of The English Madrigal School, fleshy, much dissected leaves and an immense number of small white In 1628 Lady Kytson died, and Wilbye retired to Colchester, crowded in a large globose or flat-topped cluster (comflowers where he lived in the house of Lady Rivers, a daughter of the umbel), often 3 to 5 mn across, the central fiower of each Kytsons

This house was still standing in 1927. Wilbye died there

pound

596

WILDE—WILDERNESS

umbel often purple The ripening seed-vessels, which are small and bristly hairy, often form a hollow, somewhat spherical mass, open at the top, somewhat suggestive of a bird’s nest Because of this the plant is popularly called crow’s-nest or bird’s-nest It is also known as Queen Anne’s lace, because of the appearance of the flower clusters. WILDE, OSCAR FINGALL O’FLAHERTIE WILLS (1856-1900), English author, son of Sir Wiliam Wilde, a famous Trish surgeon, was born in Dublin on Oct 15, 1856, his mother, Jane Francisca Elgee, was well known in Dublin as a graceful writer of verse and prose, under the pen-name of “Speranza Having distinguished himself m classics at Trinity college, Dubhn, Oscar Wilde went to Magdalen college, Oxford, in 1874, and won the Newdigate prize in 1878 with his poem “Ravenna,” besides taking a first-class in classical Moderations and in Literae Humaniores At Ozford he adopted what to undergraduates appeared the effeminate pose of casting scorn on manly sports, wearing his hair long, decorating his rooms with peacock’s feathers, lihes, sunflowers, blue china and other obyets d’art, which he declared it his desire to “live up to,” affecting a lackadaisical manner, and professing intense emotions on the subject of “art for art’s sake’—then a new-fangled doctrine which J M Whistler was bringing into prominence. Wilde made himself the apostle of this new cult At Oxford his behaviour procured him a ducking in the Cherwell, and a wrecking of his rooms, but the cult spread. Its affectations were burlesqued in Gilbert and Sullivan’s travesty Patience (1881). As the leading “aesthete,” Oscar Wilde became one of the most prominent personalities of the day, his affected paradoxes and his witty saymgs were quoted on all sides, and in 1882 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States, where he wrote a drama, Vera, which was produced in New York. In 1884 he married Constance Lloyd He had already published in 1881 a selection of his poems, which, however, only attracted admuration in a limited circle. In 1888 appeared The Happy Prince and Other Tales, illustrated by Walter Crane and Jacomb Hood. This charming volume of fairy tales was followed up by Lord Arthur Savile’s Crime, and Other Stories (1891), and later by a second collection of fairy stories The House of Pome-

granates (1892), acknowledged by the author to be “intended neither for the British child nor the British public” The Picture of Dorian Gray (2891) was the mirror of the new aesthete. In 189 his tragedy in blank verse, Tke Duchess of Padua, was produced in New York. But Wilde’s first real success with the larger public as a dramatist was with Lady Windermere's Fan (St. James’s Theatre, 1892), followed by A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Beimg Earnest (1895), The wit and brilliance of these pieces helped them to keep the stage, and they are still occasionally revived In 1893 the licenser of plays refused a licence to Wilde’s Salome, but 1t was printed in French in 1893, and produced in Paris by Sarah Bernhardt in 1894, and was translated into English in the same year by Lord Alfred Douglas

His success as a dramatist had by this time gone some way to disabuse hostile critics of the suspicions as regards his personal character which had been excited by the apparent looseness of

morals which since his Oxford days it had always pleased him to affect; but to the-consternation of his friends, who had ceased to credit the existence of any real moral obliquity, in 1895 came fatal revelations as the result of his bringing a libel action against the marquis of Queensberry; and at the Old Bailey, m May, Wilde was sentenced to two years’ umprisonment with hard labour for

offences under the Criminal Law Amendment Act. He went bankrupt soon after It was a melancholy end to a singularly brillant career After leaving prison in 1897 he hved mainly on

the Continent, at Berneval and later in Pams under the name of

“Sebastian Melmoth” He died in Pans on Nov 30, rg00. In 1898 he published his powerful Ballad of Reading Gaol His Collected Poems, containing some beautiful verse, had been issued in 1892 While in prison he wrote an apology for his hfe which was placed in the hands of his executor and published in 190s. BrsriocraPrHy —Oscar Wilde’s works were edited in 13 vols (1908) by Robert Ross, and two small collections of letters to Ross, After

Reading (1921) and After Berneval (1922), were published

See also

A Gide, Oscar Wilde (1905), A Ransome, Oscar Wilde (1912):

B Fehr, Studen zu Oscar Wildes Gedichten (1918), F Harns, Oscar

Wilde, has life and confessions (2 vols, NY. 1918), E Bendz Oscar

Wilde. a retrospect (Vienna, 1921).

WILDERNESS, a large forest in Spottsylvania county, Vir-

ginia, US A, on the south bank of the Rapidan, extending from

Mine Run on the east to Chancellorsville on the west It is famous in military history for the battles of Chancellorsville

(1863) and Wilderness (1864) during the American Civil War

Chancellorsville.—In May 1863 a three days’ battle was fought at Chancellorsville between the Army of the Potomac under Gen

Hooker, and Gen

Lee’s army of Northern Virgina,

which had stemmed the previous tide of invasion in the east by

holding successfully a position on the heights along the nght or south bank of the Rappahannock Gen Burnside had suffered a severe repulse in front of the Confederate position at Fredericks. burg in Dec. 1862, and his successor resplved to adopt the alter-

native plan of turning Lee’s flank and so gaming the road to Richmond Lee was at the time weakened through having, by direction of the War Department, detached Longstreet’s two divisions and three cavalry brigades to collect provisions from the neighbourhood of Suffolk, 120m. distant Hooker had now at his disposal 12,000 cavalry, 400 guns, and 120,000 infantry and

artillery, organized in seven corps (I Reynolds, II Couch, II Sickles, V. Meade, VI Sedgwick, XI. Howard, XII Slocum) Lee counted only 55,000 men of all arms effective Hooker detached 10,000 cavalry, under Stoneman, to sweep round Lee’s left, destroy the railways in Lee’s rear and cut his hne of retreat, and the I and VI. corps under Sedgwick (40,000) to cross below Fredericks-

burg and pin Zee in his entrenched position, while with the remainder he himself turned Lee’s left by a wide manoeuvre, Hooker moved up the Rappahannock, crossed that river and afterwards the Rapidan, and on April 30 fixed his headquarters at Chancellorsville, a farmhouse ın the Wilderness Lee’s cavalry under Stuart had duly reported the Federal movements and Lee, Judging that Sedgwick’s advance was only a feint, called up “Stonewall” Jackson’s four divisions from below the Massaponax as soon as Sedgwick’s corps crossed the river at Fredericksburg At Chancellorsville, Anderson’s division was in position, and McLaws was sent to support him, while Jackson took three divisions to the same point, leaving Early’s division (10,000) to observe Sedgwick. At rz Am. on May 1, Hooker began his advance towards Fredericksburg, an advance which was intended to be a hammer crushing Lee against Sedgwick’s anvil But when he encountered the columns of the Confederates, also advancing, in the forest tracts of the Wilderness, the absence of all but a fraction of his cavalry meant an absence of information

Believing

that the whole of Lee’s army was upon him, he fell back to Chancellorsville, where he had cleared and entrenched a position in the forest. This was almost impregnable to attack from the east or south—and Hooker decided to mvite such an attack. Lee, however, discovered a route by which the Federals might be attacked from the north and west, and arranged with Jackson to execute the turning movement and fall upon them At 4 a.m on May 2

Jackson marched westward with his corps of 26,000 men and by a détour of 15m passed round the Federal right flank, then moved to take the Federals in reverse, while Anderson and McLaws with 17,000 men demonstrated in front of Hooker’s army and so kept 70,000 men idle behind their earthworks One of Stuart’s cavalry brigades neutralized

Stoneman’s

10,000 horse-

men Sedgwick was bemg contained by Early. Jackson’s attack at 6 PM surprised the Federals, who fled in panic at nightfall, but Jackson was mortally wounded, and with his fall the attack lost impetus and the chance of an annihilating victory Next day the attack was resumed under the immediate direction of Stuart, who was remforced by Anderson, while McLaws now threatened the left flank of the Federals and Fitz Lee’s cavalry brigade oper-

ated agamst their line of retreat. Hooker finally gamed the shelter of an inner line of works covering the ford by which he must

retreat

Meanwhile Early had checked Sedgwick, who had already

abandoned his attack when Lee, on receiving word that Early was

WILDERNESS

597

hard pressed, ceased to press Hooker’s retreat and moved to

Early’s aid

V. and later the VI Corps, delivered piecemeal owing to the diffiThus on May 4 Sedgwick was assailed by Early,' culties of direction and touch in the woods, on Ewell was com-

McLaws and Anderson, and driven over the Rappahannock to' pletely unsatisfactory, and for the rest of were used principally as reservoirs to find sive wing under Hancock, who arrived on Hancock’s divisions, as they came up,

join the remainder of Hooker’s beaten army, which had recrossed the Rapidan on the night of May 5 and marched back to Falmouth That day Lee had once more countermarched to concentrate afresh against Hooker, but his attack, delayed by rain, found that his quarry had slipped away

Phuisterer’s Record puts

the Federal loss at 16,000 and the Confederates at 12,000 men. See A C Hamlm, The Batile of Chancellorsville (1896), G F. R Henderson, Stonewall Jackson (1902), W. B Wood and J E. Edmonds, The Civd War im the Urited States (toc) Battles and Leaders of the Civil War and 0. aa Record o* he Wor of Secession

Grant’s Campaign of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor— On the evening of May 3, 1864, after dark, the Army of the Potomac, commanded by Meade and consistmg of the II, V and

VI , and Cavalry Corps, left its winter quarters about Culpeper to manoeuvre across the Rapidan with a view to fighting a battle at

or near New Hope church and Craig’s church

The army and the

IX Corps (Burnside), which was an independent command, were directed by Lieut -Gen Grant, the newly appomted commander of the armies of the United States, who accompanied Meade’s headquarters The opposing Army of Northern Virginia under Lee lay in quarters around Orange Court house (A. P Hull’s Corps), Verdiersville (Ewell’s Corps) and Gordonsville (Longstreet’s Corps) The respective numbers were Army of the Potomac, 98,000, IX. Corps, 22,000; Army of Northern Virgimia, rather less than 70,000. The crossing of the Rapidan was made at Germanna and Ely’s fords, out of reach of Lee’s interference, and m a few hours the

two leading corps had reached their haltmg-places—V. (Warren), Wilderness tavern, and IT. (Hancock), Chancellorsville The VI (Sedgwick) followed the V and halted south of Germanna ford Two of the three divisions of cavalry preceded the march and scouted to the front and flanks. Controversy has arisen as to whether the early halt of the Umon army in the midst of the Wilderness was not a serlous error of judgment ‘The reason assigned was the necessity of protecting an enormous wagon train, carrying 15 days’ supplies for the whole army, that was crossing after II Corps at Ely’s ford Burnside’s corps was far to the rear when the advance began, but by making forced marches it was able to reach Germanna ford durmg May 5. On that day the manoeuvre towards Craig’s church was resumed at 5 AM., covered by Wilson’s cavalry division, while Gregg’s unit moved towards Fredricksburg Grant’s intention of avoiding a battle until he was clear of the Wilderness was not achieved, for Confederate infantry appeared on the Orange turnpike east of Mine Run, where on his own initiative Warren had posted a division of the V Corps overnight as flank-guard, and some cavalry, judiciously left behind by Wilson

at Parker’s store, became engaged a little later with hostile forces on the Orange Plank road. This led to the suspension of the whole manoeuvre—wherein Grant’s object was to place himself between Lee and Richmond The first idea of the Union headquarters was that Lee was fallmg back to the North Anna, covered by a bold rear guard, which Grant and Meade arranged to cut off and de-

stroy by a convergent attack of Warren and Sedgwick But the appearance of infantry on the Plank road as well as the Pike had

shown that Lee mtended to fight in the Wilderness, and Hancock (II Corps) was called in from Todd’s tavern, while one division (Getty’s) of the VI. was hurried to the intersection of the Brock

and Plank roads to hold that point until Hancock’s arrival. Getty

arrived just in time, for Confederate skirmishers were found dead and wounded only 3oyd ‘from the cross roads The division then formed up to await Hancock’s arrival up the Brock road, practi-

cally unmolested, for Lee had only two of his corps on the ground

along the Brock road

the battle these corps supports for the offenthe Plank road 2 P.M. entrenched themselves

In the afternoon he was ordered to attack

whatever force of the enemy was on the Plank road in front of him, but was unwilling to do so until he had his forces well m hand Finally Getty was ordered to attack “whether Hancock was ready or not ” This may have been an attempt to force Hancock’s hand by an appeal to his soldierly honour, and as a fact he did not leave Getty unsupported

But the disjointed attacks of the II

Corps on Halls entrenchments, while forcing the Confederates to the verge of ruin, were not so successful as the preponderance of force on the Union side ought to have ensured For four hours the two lines of battle were fighting soyd. apart, until at mghtfall the contest was given up through mutual exhaustion. The battle of the 6th was timed to begin at 5 am, and Grant’s attack was wholly directed on Parker’s store, with the object of crushing Hill before Longstreet could assist him If Longstreet, instead of helping Hill, were to attack the extreme Union left, so much the better; but the far more probable course for him to take was to support Hill on or north of the Plank road, and Grant not only ordered Hancock with six of the eleven divisions of Meade’s army to attack towards Parker’s store, but sent his own “mass of manoeuvre” (the IX. Corps) thither in such a way as to strike Hll’s left. The cavalry was drawn back for the protection of the trains, for “every musket” was required in the ranks of the infantry. Wilson’s division, in its movement on Shady Grove church on the 5th, had been cut off by the enemy’s advance on the Plank road and attacked by some Confederate cavalry. But it extricated itself and jomed Gregg, who had been sent to assist him, at Todd’s tavern Warren and Sedgwick were to hold Ewell occupied on the Pike by vigorous attacks At § o’clock Hancock advanced, drove back and broke up Hull’s divisions, and on his right Wadsworth attacked their left rear But after an hours wood fighting the Union attack came to a standstill, and at this moment, the critical moment for the action of the IX Corps, Burnside was still more than a mile away, having scarcely passed through Warren’s lines into the woods. Then Longstreet’s Corps, pushing 1ts way in two columns of fours through Hull’s retreating groups, attacked Hancock with the greatest fury and forced him back some hundreds of yards. But the woods broke the force of this attack too, and by 7 30 the battle had become a stationary fire-fight. After an interval in which both sides rallied their confused masses, Longstreet attacked agan and gained more ground

Persistent rumours came into the Union headquarters of a Confederate advance against the Union left rear, and when Grant realized the situation he broke off one of Burnside’s divisions from the IX. Corps column and sent it to the cross-roads as

direct reserve to Hancock

At this moment the battle took a very

unfavourable turn on the Plank road. Longstreet had sent four brigades of infantry by a détour through the woods south of the Plank road to attack Hancock’s left. This was very effective, and

the Union troops were hustled back to the cross-roads. But Longstreet, like Jackson a year before in these woods, was wounded by his own men, and the battle again came to a standstill (2.30 e m.) Burnside’s Corps, arriving shortly before ro Am

near Chewn-

ing’s house, the position whence it was to have attacked Hull’s left in the early morning, was about to attack, in ignorance of Hancock’s repulse, when fortunately an order reached it to suspend the advance and to make its way through the woods towards Hancock’s right. This dangerous flank march, screened by the woods, was completed by 2 P Įm., and Burnside began an attack

(Hill on the Plank road, Ewell on the Pike), and did not desire to upon the left of Longstreet’s command (R H Anderson’s fresh

force a decision until Longstreet’s distant corps should arrive. Meanwhile Warren had been slowly forming up his attacking line with great difficulty in the woods. Grant appears to have used bitter words to Meade on the subject of Warren’s delays, and Meade passed these on to Warren, who in turn forced his subordinates into premature action

The result of the attack by the

division of Hill’s Corps). But Hancock being im no condition to

support the IX Corps, the whole attack was, at 3 P m., postponed by Grant’s order until 6 r.m Thus there was a long respite for both sides, varied only by a little skirmishmg. But Lee was determined, as always, to have the last word, and about 4 15~4.30 a fierce assault was delivered amidst the burning woods upon Han-

598

WILDERNESS

cock’s entrenchments along the Brock road. For a moment, aided by the dense smoke, the Confederates seized and held the first hne of works, but a counter-stroke dislodged them.

Burnside, though

not expecting to have to attack before 6, put into the fight such of his troops as were ready, and at 5.30 or thereabouts the assaulting line receded into the woods Grant cancelled his order to attack at 6, and at the decisive point the battle was at an end. But on the extreme nght of the Union army a sudden attack was delvered at sunset upon the hitherto unmolested VI Corps, by Gordon, one of Ewells brigadiers This carried off two generals and several hundred prisoners, and caused a panic to ensue which affected all the Union forces on the Pike and lasted until after mghtfall. Lee, therefore, had the last word on both flanks, but m spite of this ard of the very heavy losses', Grant had already resolved to go on, instead of gomg back like his various predecessors To him, indeed, the battle of the Wilderness was a victory, an mdecisive victory mdeed, but one that had given him a moral superiovity which he did not intend to forfeit. His scheme, drafted early on the morning of the 7th, was for the army to march to Spottsylvania on the night of the 7th-8th, to assemble there on the 8th, and thence to undertake a fresh manoeuvre against Lee’s right rear on the oth This movement required the trains with the fighting line to be cleared away at once from the roads needed for the troops and Lee promptly discovered that a movement was in progress He mistook its object, however, and assuming that Grant ‘was falling back on Fredericksburg, he prepared to shift his own forces to the south of that place so as to bar the Richmond toad. This led to a race for Spottsylvania, which was decided more by accidents to either side than by the measures of the two commanding generals On the Union side Warren was to move to the line Spottsylvania Court house—-Todd’s tavern, followed by Han-

Warren, facing east, and opposed by part of Anderson's corps was seeking to fight his way to Spottsylvania Court house by the

Brock road Wilson facmg south, was holding the Court house ang

driving Fritz Lee’s cavalry partly westward on to the backs of the infantry opposing Warren, partly towards Block House bridge

whence the rest of Anderson’s infantry was approaching. All the troops were weary and hungry, and Sheridan ordered Wilson to evacuate the Court house and to fall back over the Ny Warren fruitlessly attacked the Confederate infantry at Spmndler’s, RobinBilingileys

N

a £9

qh

Bii

frye

Ss

Pa.

WILDERNESS \\ FIG.3 g

pines,

;

cock; Sedgwick was to take a roundabout route and to come in between the V and II Corps, Burnside to follow Sedgwick The son being severely wounded and his division disorganized

The other divisions came up by degrees, and another attack was made about 11, It was pressed close up to, and in some places over, the Confederate log-works, but it ended im failure like the first, A 4th But ere long the head of Warren’s column, passing im rear of Hancock’s line of battle, was blocked by the headquarters escort third attempt in the evening dwindled down to a reconnaissance in force. Anderson was no longer isolated LEarly’s division observed of Grant and Meade. Next, the head of the V Corps was again checked at Todd’s tavern by two cavalry divisions which had Hancock’s corps at Todd’s tavern, but the rest of Ewell’s and all Hills corps went to Spottsylvama and prolonged Anderson’s line been sent by Sheridan to regam the ground at Todd’s tavern’, given northward towards the Ny ‘Thus the re-grouping of the Union up on the 6th, and after fighting the action of Todd’s tavern had received no further orders from him Meade, greatly irritated, army for manoeuvre, and even the running fight or strategic purordered Gregg’s division out towards Corbin’s bridge and Merritt’s suit imagined by Grant when he found Anderson at Spottsylvania, to Spottsylvania On the latter road the Union cavalry found were given up, and on the gth both armies rested On this day themselves opposed by Fits Lee’s cavalry, and after some hours Sedgwick was killed by a long-range shot from a Confederate mile of disheartening work in the woods, Merritt asked Warren to send His place was taken by H. G. Wright. On this day also a violent forward infantry to drive the enemy This Warren did, although quarrel between Meade and Sheridan led to the departure of the he was just preparing to rest and to feed his men after their ex- cavalry corps on an independent mission. This was the so-called hausting night-march Robinson’s division at the head of the corps Richmond raid, in which Sheridan defeated Stwart at Yellow tavdeployed and swiftly drove in Fitz Lee A little beyond Alsop’s, ern (where Stuart was killed) and captured the outworks of Richhowever, Robinson found his path barred by entrenched infantry mond, but, having started with empty forage wagons’, had then to This was part of Anderson's (formerly Longstreet's) corps That make his way down the Chickahominy to the nearest supply depots officer had been ordered to draw out of his (Wilderness) works, of the Army of the James, leavıng the Confederate cavalry free and to bivouac, preparatory to marching at 3 am to the Court to rally and rejom Lee Finding the enemy thus gathered in his front, Grant decided to house, but, finding no good resting-place, he had moved on at once by way of the Catharpm road and Corbin’s bridge. At or near fight again on the roth. While Hancock opposed Early, and Warren and Wright faced Hl and Anderson, Burnside was ordered by Block House bridge the corps halted to rest, but Stuart (who was with Fitz Lee) called upon Anderson for assistance and the march Grant to work his way to the Fredericksburg-Spottsylvania road, thence to attack the enemy’s right rear. The first stage of this was resumed at full speed Sheridan’s new orders to Gregg and Merritt did not arrive until Meade had given these officers other movement of the IX, Corps was to be made on the goth, but not the attack itself, and Burnside was consequently ordered not to go instructions, but Wilson’s cavalry division, which was out of the line of march of the infantry, acted in accordance with Sherdan’s beyond a placed called “Gate” on the maps used by the Union staff. This, 1t turned out, was not the farm of a person called plan of occupying the bridges in front of the position that the army intended to occupy at Spottsylvania Court house, and Gate, as headquarters supposed, but a mere gate into a field Conseized that plate, inflicting a smart blow upon a brigade of: sequently it was missed, and the IX. Corps went on to Gale’s or Gayle’s house, where the enemy’s skirmishers were dnven m’. Stuart’s force. The situation about 9 am on the 8th was therefore curious. %Owing to the circumstances of his departure, the angry army cavalry was ordered to watch the approaches towards the right of

the army. The movement began promptly after nightfall on the

?The Union losses in the battle were 18,000, the Confederates at least 12,500

"In consequence of a mistaken order that the trains which he was

protecting were to mdve forwahrd to Piney Branch churth.

staff told him to move out at once with the forage that he had, and Sheridan, though the army reserve supplies were at hand, made no attempt to fill up from them ‘A further source of confusion, for the historian at least, is that

on the survey maps made im 1867 this “Gayle” is called ‘Beverly.

WILDERNESS

599

swept over their works at the first rush and swarmed in the inof prisoners and seizing still supposed to be the position of the IX. Corps, at once radically terior of the Salient, gathering thousands altered the plan of battle Lee was presumed to be moving north the field batteries that Lee had sent back just too late. The thronging and excited Federals were completely disordered towards Fredericksburg, and Grant saw an opportunity of a great and decisive success The IX. Corps was ordered to hold its posi- by success, and the counter-attack of one or two Confederate ton at all costs, and the others were to follow up the enemy as he brigades in good order drove them back to the line of the capconcentrated upon Burnside. Hancock was called in from Todd’s tured works. Then, about 6, there began one of the most remarktavern, sent down to force the fords on the Po at and below Tin- able struggles in history While Eorly, swiftly drawing back from Block house, checked Burnside’s attack from the east, and Anderder’s mull, and directed upon Block House bridge by an officer of son, attacked again and agam by parts of the V Corps, was fully Grant’s own staff, while Warren and Wright were held ready. But occupied m preserving his own front, Lee, with Ewell’s corps and effective the delayed woods the m once more a handful of cavalry deployment of the moving wing, and by the time that the II. Corps the few thousand men whom the other generals could spare, delivered all day a senes of fierce counter-strokes against Hancock. night. already was was collected opposite Block House bridge it Still there was, apparently, no diminution of force opposite Burn- Nearly all Wright’s corps and even part of Warren’s (in the end side, and Hancock was ordered to resume his advance at early 45,000 men) were drawn into the fight at the Salient, for Grant and Meade well knew that Lee was struggling to gain time for the dawn on the roth Meade, however, had little or no cogmzance of Grant’s orders construction of a retrenchment across the base of it. If the would to the independent IX Corps, and his orders, conflicting with counter-attacks failed to gain this respite, the Confederates have to retreat as best they could, pressed in front and flank. But those emanating from the Lieutenant-General’s staff, puzzled Hanwas neutralized by their Federals the of superiority imtial given the was scheme whole the 10 At cock and crippled his advance. alive by successive brigade attacks, up, and the now widely deployed Umion army closed on its centre disorder, and keeping the fight employed were held out of danger not actually as best it could for a direct attack on the Spottsylvania position. while the troops after twenty At 4, before the new concentration was complete, and while Han- till their time came, Lee succeeded so well that and the Confederates ready was lme new the fighting bitter hours’ back cock was still engaged in the difficult operation of drawing prisoners 4,000 prize to Hancock Lee had lost over the Po in the face of the enemy, Warren attacked unsup- gave up the barren killed and wounded, as against 7,000 in the Army ported and was repulsed In the woods on the left Wright was as well as 4,500 of the Potomac and the IX Corps more successful, and at 6 p.m a rush of 12 selected regiments There were other battles in front of Spottsylvania, but that of under Col Emory Upton carried the mght of Lee’s log-works rath was the climax. From the 13th to the 2oth the Federals the Upthough fruitless, was too attack this But for want of support worked round from west to east, delivering a few partial ton held the captured works for an hour and brought off 1,000 gradually in the vain hope of discovering a weak point. Lee’s posiattacks from attack to orders new prisoners. Burnside, receiving Grant’s enabled him to concentrate on interior lines Gayle’s towards Spottsylvania, sent for further orders as to the tion, now semicircular, In the end the Federals were entrenched facing method of attack, and his advance was thus made too late in the on each occasion. Beverly's house (Burnside’s old “Gayle”) and day to be of use. Lee had again averted disaster, this time by his east, between Lee facing west from the new works south of Harmagnificent handling of his only reserve, Hill’s (now Early’s) Quisenberry’s, the Court house to Snell’s bridge on the Po. In corps, which he used first against Hancock and then against Burn- rison’s through Po and the Ny, with woods and marshes to obstruct the fork of the side with the greatest effect. Grant knew that nothing could be done, and he This was the fourth battle since the evening of May 4 On the every movement, to execute a new manoeuvre. But here as in the Wildermorning of the 11th Grant sent his famous message to Washing- prepared to have the last word While the Union army ton, “I purpose to fight it out on this line if 1t takes all summer.” ness, Lee managed was resting in camp for the first time since leaving Culpeper, The rath was to be the fifth and, Grant hoped, the decisive battle attacked its baggage-train near Harris’s suddenly corps Ewells constructed been A maze of useful and useless entrenchments had of house The Confederates were driven off, but Grant had to defer on both sides, especially on the Union side, from mere force two days. When the armies left Spottfor manoeuvre intended his his that habit, Grant, seeing from the experience of the roth sylvania, little more than a fortnight after breaking up from winter corps commanders were manning these entrenchments so strongly reached the totals of 35,000 out of an had casualties the quarters, that they had only feeble forces disposable for the attack, ordered original total of 120,000 for the Union army, 26,000 out of 70,000 all superfluous defences to be given up Three corps were formed for the Confederates. in,a connected line (from right to left, V, VI, IX ) during the The next manoeuvre attempted by Grant to bring Lee’s army to 11th, and that night Hancock’s corps moved silently to a position at action “outside works” was of an unusual character, though it had between Wright and Burnside and formed up in the open field been foreshadowed in the improvised plan of crushing Lee against Brown’s in an attacking mass of Napoleonic density—three lines Burnside’s corps on the 9th Hancock was now (20th) ordered to of divisions, ın line and in battalion and brigade columns Burnmove off under cover of night to Milford, thence he was to towards map) the side was to attack from Gayle’s (Beverly's on march south-west as far as possible along the Richmond and McCool’s Warren and Wright were to have at least one division Fredericksburg railroad and to attack whatever force of the eneach clear of their entrenchments and ready to move. isolated in front emy he met It was hoped that this bold stroke by an Up to the rrth Lee’s line had extended from the woods to corps would draw Lee’s army upon it, and the rest of the Army of of Block House bridge, through Perry’s and Spindler’s fields upon down a loop the Potomac would, if this hope were realized, drive McCool’s house, and its nght was diffused and formed Lee’s rear while Hancock held him up in front Supposing, howround McCool’s, All these works faced north-west. In addition, ever, that Lee did not take the bait, the manoeuvre would resolve SpottsylBurnside’s advance had caused Early’s corps to entrench these itself into a turning movement with the object of compelling Lee vania and the church to the south of it, facing east Between gave to come out of his Spottsylvania lines on pain of being surrounded them between two sections were woods The connection made Hancock’s corps started on the might of the 2oth-21st The the appearance from which it derives its

The news of an enemy opposing Burnside at “Gate,” which Grant

the loop round McCool’s historic name of The Salient

alarm was soon given At Milford, where he forced the passage of the Mattapony, Hancock found himself in the presence of hosinfantry from Richmond and heard that more had arrived at tile ng advance and enOn the rth the abandonment of Burnside’s threateni as to his left Hanover junction, He therefore suspended bis advance on bis rear and other indications had disquieted Lee trenched. The main army began to move off, after giving Lee Ewell’s ly all practical off drawn had he and flank, House or Block time to turn against Hancock, at ro amx on the 21st, and marched artillery from the McCool works to ad in that quarter, The m-l to Catlett’s, a place a few miles south-west ọf Guinea’s bridge, Stonewal fantry that manned the Salient was what remaimed of Warren leading, Burnside and Wright following. But no news and the developJackson's “foot cavalry,” veterans of Antietam, Fredericsksburg mass came in from Hancock until late in the evening, and Chancellorsville But at 4 35, in the mist, Hancock’

Upon the northern face of this

salient Hancock’s attack was delivered,

600

WILDGANS

ment of the manoeuvre was consequently delayed, so that on the night of the 21st-22nd Lee’s army slipped across Warren’s front en route for Hanover junction. The other Confederate forces that had opposed Hancock hkewise fell back Grant’s manoeuvre had failed Its principal aim was to induce Lee to attack the II. Corps at Milford, its secondary and alternative purpose was, by dislodging Lee from Spottsylvania, to force on an encounter battle ın open ground. But he was only offered the bait—not compelled to take it, as he would have been 1f Hancock with two corps had been placed directly athwart the road between Spottsylvama

and Hanover junction—and, having unumpaired freedom of action, he chose to retreat to the junction The four Union corps, therefore, could only pursue him to the North Anna, at which river they arnved on the morning of the 23rd, Warren on the right, Hancock on the left, Wright and Burnside being well to the rear in second line The same afternoon Warren seized Jericho ford, brought over the V Corps to the south side, and repulsed a very sharp counter-stroke made by one of Lee’s corps Hancock at the same time stormed a Confederate redoubt which covered the Telegraph Road bridge over the river Wright and Burnside closed up It seemed as if a battle was at hand, but in the might reports came in that Lee had fallen back to the South Anna; and as these were more or Jess confirmed by the fact that Warren met with no further opposition and by the enemy’s retirement from the nver bank on Hancock’s front, the Union generals gave orders, about midday on the 24th, for what was practically a general pursuit. This led incidentally to an attempt to drive Lee’s rearguard away from the point of passage, between Warren’s and Hancock’s, required for Burnside, and in the course of

this it became apparent that Lee’s army had not fallen back but was posted in a semicircle to which the North Anna formed a tangent On the morning of the 25th this position was reconnoitred and found to be more formidable than that of Spottsylvania. Moreover, it divided the two halves of the Union army that had crossed above and below. Grant gave up the game as drawn and planned a new move. This had as its objects, first, the seizure of a point of passage on the Pamunkey, secondly, the deployment of the Army of the Potomac and of a contingent expected from the Army of the James, and thirdly, the prevention of Lee’s further retirement, which was not desired by the Union commanders, owing to the proximity of the Richmond defences and the consequent want of room to manoeuvre On the 27th Sheridan’s cavalry and a light division of infantry passed the Pamunkey at Hanover town, and the two divided wings of the Army of the Potomac were withdrawn over the North Anna without mishap—thanks to exactitude in arrangement and punctuality in execution. On the 28th the Army of the Potomac had arrived near Hanover town, while at Hawes’s shop, on the road to Richmond, Sheridan had a severe engagement with the enemy’s cavalry. Lee was now approaching from Hanover junction via Ashland, and the Army of the Potomac swung round somewhat to the right so as to face ın the presumed direction of the impending attack The Confederate general, however, instead of attacking, swerved south, and planted himself behind the Totopotomoy Here he was discovered, entrenched as always, on the 29th, and skirmishing all along the Ime, varied at times by more severe fighting, occupied that day and the 3oth On the morning of the 31st the Union army was arranged from right to left in the order VI, II , IX. and V Corps, Sheridan having drawn off to the left rear of the infantry. Now, for the last time in the campaign, the idea of a hammer and dnvil battle was again taken up, the “anvil” bemg Smith’s XVIII. Corps, which had come up from the James river to White house on the 30th; but once more the lure failed because it was not made sufficiently tempting The last episode of the campaign centred in Cold Harbor, a village close to the Chickahominy, which Sheridan’s cavalry seized on the 31st. Here, contrary to the expectation of the Union

staff, a considerable force of Confederate mfantry—new arrivals from the James—was met; and ın the hope of bringing on a battle before either side had time to entrench, Grant and Meade ordered Sheridan to hold the village at all costs and directed Wright’s

(VI ) Corps, from the extreme right wing, and Smith’s (XVIIL)

from Old Church, to march thither with all possible speed, Wright in the night of May 31 and Smith on the morning of June ; Lee had actually ordered his corps commanders to attack, byt was too ill to enforce his wishes, and m the evening Wright and

Smith themselves assaulted the Confederate front opposite Cold Harbor. The assault, though delivered by tıred men, was successful The enemy’s first or skirmish line was everywhere stormed

and parts of the VI Corps even penetrated the main line Grant at once prepared to renew the attack, as at Spottsylvamia, with larger forces, bringing Hancock over from the right of the Ine on the night of the rst and ordering Hancock, Wright and Smith to assault on the next morning But Lee had by now moved more forces down, and his line extended from the Totopotomoy to the Chickahominy. Hancock’s corps, very greatly fatigued by its night march, did not form up until after midday, and meanwhile Smuth, whose corps, originally but 10,000 strong, had been severely tried by its hard marchmg and fighting on the rst, refused to consider the idea of renewing the attack The passive resistance thus encountered domimated Grant’s fighting instinct for a moment But after reconsidering the problem he agam ordered the attack to be made by Wright, Smith and Hancock at 5s py A last modification was made when, during the afternoon, Lee’s far distant left wimg attacked Burnside and Warren Ths, show-

ing that Lee had still a considerable force to the northward, and

being, not very inaccurately, read to mean that the 6m, of Confederate entrenchments were equally—ie, equally thmly— guarded at all points, led to the order being given to all five Union corps to attack at 4 30 AM on June 3 The resolution to make this plam, unvarnished frontal assault on entrenchments has been as severely criticized as any action of any commander in the Civil War, and Grant himself subsequently expressed his regret at having formed 1t But such cniticisms derive all their force from the event, not from the conditions in which, beforehand, the resolution was made The risks of failure were deliberately accepted, and the battle—if it can be called a battle—was fought as ordered. The assault was made at the tyme arranged and was repulsed at all points with a loss to the assailants of about 8,ooo men. Thereafter the two armies lay for ten days less than rooyd. apart. There was more or less severe fighting at times, and an almost ceaseless bickering of skırmıshers Owing to Grant’s refusal to sue for permission to remove his dead and wounded in the terms demanded, Lee turned back the Federal ambulance parties, and many wounded were left to de between the lines. It was only on the 7th that Grant pocketed his feelmgs and the dead were buried This is one of the many incidents of Cold Harbor that must always rouse painful memories—though to blame Lee or Grant supposes that these great generals were infinitely more mhuman here than at any other occasion in their lives and takes no account of the consequences of admitting a defeat at this critical moment, when the causes for which the Union army and people contended were about to be put to the hazard of a presidential election, The Federal army lost, in this month of almost mcessant campaigning, about 50,000 men, the Confederates about 32,000. Though the aggregate of the Union losses awed both contemporaries and historians of a later generation, proportionately the losses of the South were heavier (46% of the original strength as compared with 41% on the Union‘side) ; and whereas within a few weeks Grant was able to replace nearly every man he had lost by a new recruit, the Confederate Government was near the end of its resources See A A

Humphreys,

The Campaign

of Virginia, 1864-65 (New

York, 1882) , Military History Society of Massachusetts,

The Welder-

ness Campaign; Official Records of the Rebellson, scnal numbers 67, 68 and 69; and C F. Atkinson, The Wilderness and Cold Harbor

(London, 1908),

WILDGANS,

ANTON

(1881—

(C F A,X)

_), Austrian poet and

dramatist, was born in Vienna on April 17, 1881, began and com-

pleted a course of legal studies mm Vienna university and was artistic manager of the celebrated Burgtheater there 1921-24 In 1909 he attracted notice by a book of verses Herbsifruhling,

and in a series of lyrical volumes he gave expression to erotic

WILD

GINGER—WILHELMSHAVEN

601

passion, to deep sympathy with nature and with human suffering. He was probably already regarded as the leading exponent of Wildgans appears to be connected with the Hofmannsthalists, al- the Roman discipline in England when his speech at the council though maintaming his independence His plays, Armut (1914), of Whitby determined the overthrow of the Celtic party (664). Liebe (1916) and Dies Irae (1918) begin in an atmosphere of realjsm, culminating in that of symbolism or mysticism As a counter-

part to this burgerliche trilogy another of mythological or religious

character 1s planned, the first part of which, Kain, was acted in

1921

An epic poem, written in hexameters, Kirbisch (1927),

depicts Austrian mentality as influenced by the World War. WILD GINGER (Asarum canadense), called also Canada snake-root and colic-root, a small North American herb of the burthwort family (Aristolochiaceae), native to rich woods from New Brunswick to Manitoba and southward to North Carolina

and Kansas It is a stemless perenmal with a creeping aromatic root-stock having the flavour of gger From this usually nse two large kidney-shaped or heart-shaped leaves, 4 mm. to 7 m. broad, on nearly erect leaf-stalks 6 in. to 12 in long. On a short stalk between the bases of the two leaf-stalks is borne a single somewhat bell-shaped, brownish-purple flower, about an inch

broad, with three small more or less pointed lobes on the rim

About g other species of wild ginger are found in the United States, and 3 species are native to the Pactfic coast Among these

are the halberd-leaved wild ginger (A arifoka), found from Virginia and Tennessee southward, and the western wild ginger (A coudatum), native to the coast redwood belt of Califorma and northward to British Columbia. The European species is asarabacca (gv). WILEY, HARVEY WASHINGTON (1844-1930), American Chemist, was born in Kent, Indiana, Oct 18, 1844. He was educated at Hanover (Ind) college, Indiana Medical college and Harvard. He served as State chemist of Indiana and professor of chemistry at Purdue university (1874-83), and m 1883 became chief of the Bureau of Chemistry in the US. Department of Agriculture This position he held with signal success until his resignation in 1912 He was the chief force behind the passage of the Pure Food and Drugs Act in 1906, and devoted his energies to its enforcement. Pressure was exercised in r91z to obtain his dismissal on the technical charge that an expert in his department had received recompense exceeding the legal rate President Taft wholly exonerated him Dr Wiley resigned in 1912, thereafter devoting himself largely to the cause of pure food by lecturing and wnting From 1899 on he was professor of agricultural chemistry at George Washington university. He died June 30, 1930 Bevo eqree Eo governmert 32™phblets and severe] hundred sciertific pap. -~ he v ore

Purges

Tre Sugar I) dastrs

or the United States

(1855),

ond Practice of Agricultural Analysis (3 vol. 1894-97; rev

e?, 10614)

Fosas and The: Adulterations (1907, 3rd ed, 1917);

The Lire uo the Lard (1915) 3 Not by Bread Alone; The Principles of

Human Nutrition (1915) , roor Tests of Foods, Beverages and Touet Accessories (1916) , and Beverages and The: Adulteration (1919). He also edıted a series of Health Readers for Schools m 1919

WILEY, LOUIS (1869), newspaper manager, born at Hornell, N Y , May 31, 1869. He received a private school education at Mt Stering, Ky In 1887 he joined the staff of the Rochester (NY) Post-Express as a reporter and in 1893 was appointed business manager He was also editor and publisher of The Tidings at Rochester, 1887-95 In 1896 he became associated with The New York Times and has been business manager of that newspaper since 1906 He 1s a member of the executive committee of the League of Nations Non-Partisan Association, president of the Steuben County Society, vice-president of the 42nd Street Property Owners’ and Merchants’ Association, the Broadway Association and the Lafayette Memorial, director of the Federated General Relief Committee, Society of the Genesee Municipal Art Society, Authors’ League Fund, and Kentucky Socicty .

WILFRID

(c 634-709), English archbishop, born in North-

umbria He attracted the notice of the queen, Eanfled who placed him in care of an old noble, Cudda, then a monk at Lindisfarne.

About a year later he was consecrated to the see of York, not, however, in England, where perhaps he could not find the fitting

number of orthodox prelates, but at Compiégne On his return journey he narrowly escaped the pagan wreckers of Sussex, and reached England to find Ceadda (St. Chad) installed in his see. The rest of his hfe is largely a record of wandering and misfortune. For three years (665—668) he ruled his monastery at Rıpon in peace, though actıng as bishop m Mercia and Kent during vacancies in sees there. On Archbishop Theodore’s arrival (668) he was restored to his see, and spent in ıt nine years of ceaseless activity, especially in building churches, only to be driven out through the anger of King Ecgfrith’s queen (677) After Ecgfrith’s death (May 20, 685) Wilfnd was restored to York (much circumscribed), and Ripon (686-687) He was once more driven out in 691-692, and spent seven years in Mercia A great council of the Enghsh Church held m Northumbria excommunicated him in 702 He again appealed to Rome in person, and obtained another decision in his favour (703-704). He died at Oundle in Northamptonshire as he was going on 4 visit to Ceolred, king of Mercia (709) He was buried at Ripon Wilfrid’s is a memorable name in English history, not only because of the large part he played in supplanting the Celtic discipline and in establishing a precedent of appeal to papal authority, but also by reason of his services to architecture and learning. At York he renewed Paulinus’s old church, roofing it with lead and furnishing it with glass windows, at Ripon he built an entirely new basilica with columns and porches; at Hexham in honour of St. Andrew he reared a still nobler church, over which Eddius grows eloquent In the early days of his bishopric he used to travel about his diocese attended bya little troop of skilled masons. He seems to have also reformed the method of conducting the divine services by the aid of his skilled chanters, Aedde and Aeona, and to have established or renewed the rule of St. Benedict in the monasteries. On each visit to Rome it was his delight to collect relics for his native land; and to his favourite basilica at Ripon he gave a bookcase wrought in gold and precious stones, besides a splendid copy of the Gospels. Wilfrid’s life was written shortly after his death by Eddius at the request of Acca, his successor at Hexham, and Tatbert, abbot of

Rupon—both intimate friends of the great bishop. Other hves were written by Frthegode in the roth, by Folcard in the Irth, and by Eadmer early m the 12th century. See also Bede’s Hist. Eccl v. 19, ii 25, 1v. 13, etc. All the lives are printed in J. Raine’s Histonans of the Church of York, vol 1 “Rolls” senes.

WILHELMINA

[WILHELMINA HELENA PAULINE MARIA OF

OraANGE-Nassau} (1880), queen of the Netherlands, was born at The Hague on Aug 31, 1880. Her father, William III. (Willem Paul Alexander Frederik Lodewijk), had by his first wife, Sophia Frederika Mathilde of Wurttemberg, three sons, all of whom predeceased him. Having been left a widower on June 3, 1877, he married on Jan 7, 1879, Adelheid Emma Wilhelmina Theresia, second daughter of Prince George Victor of WaldeckPyrmont, born on Aug. 2, 1858, and Wilhelmina was the only issue of that union She succeeded to the throne on her father’s death, which took place on Nov 23, 1890, but until her eighteenth year, when she was “inaugurated” at Amsterdam on Sept. 6, 1898, the business of the state was carried on under the regency of the queen-mother, in accordance with a law made on Aug 2, 1884. On Feb. 7, r90zr Queen Wilhelmina married Henry Wladimir Albert Ernst, duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (born on April 10, 1876). To the great joy of the Dutch people, Queen Wilhelmina, | on April 30, 1909, gave birth to an heir to the throne, the Princess Juliana (Juliana Louise Emma Maria Wilhelmina). See HoLLAND: History.

WILHELMSHAVEN, 2town in the Prussian province of Later on Eanfied enabled him to visit Rome in the company of Hanover and the chief German naval station on the North sea;

Benedict Biscop

On leaving Rome he spent three years with

as such it played

an

important

part

in the

World

War

Annemund, archbishop of Lyons. After the murder of his patron It is situated on the north-west shore of the Jade Busen. Pop. he returned to England, where he received a monastery at Ripon, (1925) 25,484 The ground on which it stands (4 sq.m.) was and then took priest’s orders.

purchased by Prussia from the grand-duke of Oldenburg in 1853,

602

WILKES

when the Prussian navy was being formed ‘The construction of the harbour and town began in 1855, and the former was opened in 1869. Though reckoned a part of the Prussian province of Hanover it 1s completely surrounded on the landward side by

Oldenburg territory. The harbour consists of three large basins and seven smaller ones as well as a basin for shipbuilding There are six dry-docks The harbour has three entries and locks are 260 metres long and 40 metres wide, with a depth of from 64 to ro metres at the quays The establishment is defended by strong fortifications. The commercial harbour hes at the east end of the Ems-Jade canal. Wilhelmshaven exports agricultural produce and imports coal and timber.

WILKES, CHARLES (1798-1877), American naval officer and explorer, born in New York city April 3, 1798 He entered the U.S Navy as a midshipman in 1818 and became a heutenant in 1826. In 1830 he was placed in charge of the division of instruments and charts, and in 1838 was appointed to command an exploring and surveying expedition to the South Seas, authorized as the first of its kind by Congress in 1836 The expedition, including naturalists, botanists, mineralogists, taxidermists, a philologist, etc, left Hampton Roads Aug, 1838, stopped at various ports in South America and visited the Paumotu group of the Low Archipelago, the Samoan islands, and New South Wales. From Sydney, Wilkes sailed into the Antarctic ocean and along the Antarctic barrier from 150° to 97° E, reporting land at a number of points in the region which has subsequently been known as Wilkes Land He visited the Fiyj. group and the Hawaiian islands in 1840, and 1n 1841 explored the west coast of the United States The findings were timely in view of the dispute with Great Britain over the Oregon territory He visited San Francisco bay, and the Sacramento river, and crossing the Pacific he called at the Philippine islands, Sulu archipelago, Borneo, Singapore, Polynesia and the Cape of Good Hope, reaching New York in June

“The gad of love was not a bidden guest,

Nor present at his own mysterious feast.”

Ther

marriage,

uneventful

for a tıme, and even successful

while they lived at Aylesbury (they had one child, Mary), was broken

up soon

after Wilkes

separated by mutual

entered

consent

Mrs

into politics, and they

Wilkes

had hardly any

affection for either her husband or daughter, and she was scandalized by Wilkes’ loose hfe and companions. He had been Introduced by Thomas

Potter, a finished profligate, to the society of Sy

Francis Dashwood, chief of the “Medmenham Monks,” of whom

he became a member This was a secret fraternity, which met occasionally in the summer in the rums of St Mary’s abbey at Medmenham, for obscene orgies, in which it parodied Roman Catholic ritual Dashwood, Lord Sandwich, Paul Whitehead Potter, Wilkes

and perhaps

Charles

Churchill

the poet were

among the ringleaders, the “order,” whose reputation for in. decency probably exceeded even the reality, was broken up by a practical joke of Wilkes’, who unexpectedly released from a box a baboon disguised as a devil during a prayer addressed to Satan by Lord Orford, who nearly went out of his mind in the behef that his supplication was answered Partly under the encouragement of these friends, Wilkes had entered politics as a follower of Richard, Lord Temple (qv) He unsuccessfully fought Berwick in 1754, having bribed a captain to land a shipload of opposition voters from London in Norway instead of Berwick, but in 1757 by a complicated arrangement with Potter and Pitt, which was made to cost him the absurd

sum of £7,000, he was elected MP

for Aylesbury.

In 1762, with

the aid of Churchill and the countenance of Temple, he began to

publish the North Briton 'The wit and virulence of its attacks on Lord Bute, the Tory favourite of the King, silenced the Auditor and Briton, the ministerial papers, and were chiefly responsible for the wave of indignation which carried Bute from 1842, having sailed around the world He served on the Coast office on Mar 8, 1763 Wilkes then held his hand, but when Pitt Survey 1842-43 and in the latter year was advanced to the rank and Temple read an advance copy of the King’s speech sent to of commander. In 1844-61 he was chiefly engaged ın preparmg them by George Grenville, the new Premier, they decided that the report of the expedition Twenty-eight volumes were planned Grenville’s ministry was no more than a camouflage of the same but only 19 were published. Of these Wilkes wrote the Narratsve autocratic power, and encouraged Wilkes to publish (April 23) (6 vols,1844); and the volumes Hydrography (1851) and Mete- the famous “No 45” of the North Briton, which was a devastatorology (1851). At the outbreak of the Civil War Wilkes was ing attack on the statements in the King’s speech, which he deassigned to the command of the “San Jacinto” to search for the scribed as false Though he had carefully prefaced his attack Confederate commerce destroyer “Sumter” On Nov 8, 1861, he by the remark “the King’s speech has always been considered stopped the British mail packet “Trent,” and took off the Con- by the legislature and by the public at large as the speech of the federate commissioners to Europe, James M Mason and John Minister,” George III chose to consider Wilkes’ article as a Slidell Though he was officially thanked by Congress, his action personal insult, and instigated immediate proceedings, A “general was later disavowed by President Lincoln Wilkes was commuis- warrant” (one that did not name the persons to be arrested) was signed commodore in 1862, and placed in command of a squadron issued over the signatures of Lords Halifax and Egremont, secresent to the West Indies to protect the US commerce in that taries of State, and 48 persons were seized by the authorities region, On July 25, 1866, he was promoted to the rank of rear- before Wilkes was arrested (April 30). He was thrown into the admiral on the retired hst He died at Washmgton Feb 8, 1877. Tower and for a short while kept in the closest confinement To In addition to many shorter articles, reports, etc,, he published West- the public delight, however, Lord Chief Justice Pratt on May 6 erm America, including Californea and Oregon (1849) , Voyage Around the World (1849), and Theory of the Winds (1856) “The Diary of released Wilkes on the ground that his arrest was a breach of Actions against Under-Secretary Woods (who was ilkes in the Northwest* (E S Meany, ed) appeared m the Wask- privilege ington Historical Quarterly, vol. 16-17 (1925~26). fined £1,000), against Halifax (who by repeated evasions adWILKES, JOHN (1727-1797), English agitator and re- journed the case till 1769 when he was fined £4,000), and against former, was born m St John’s Square, Clerkenwell His father, minor agents, established the illegality of general warrants Israel Wilkes, a successful malt distiller, came from a yeoman A second attack was now more carefully prepared by Wilkes’ family of Leighton Buzzard John was the second son, his elder one-time friend Sandwich, now a member of the Government brother, Israel, emigrated to America and became the grandfather By bribery and theft P Carteret Webb, an under-secretary, of (Admiral) Charles Wilkes (g v) secured from Wilkes’ private press the proofsheets of an obscene Jobn Wilkes was schooled at Hertford and afterwards privately parody written by himself and Potter years before on Pope’s by the Rev F Leeson, a dissenting minister of Aylesbury, under Essay on Man, called the Essay on Woman Wilkes had comwhose charge he went to Leyden umversity m 1744 Here he menced, but never completed printing twelve copies of this, learnt little—“Jack has great variety of talk, Jack 1s a scholar, probably for the Medmenham monks ‘This disgusting work, Jack has the manners of a gentleman,” said Dr Johnson He be- together with notes purporting to be by the Bishop of Gloucester, came close friends with Andrew Baxter and D’ Holbach (gq.v.) was read aloud with relish on Nov 15 by Sandwich to the Lords, On his return to England, he married Miss Mary Mead, an who voted it a libel and a breach of privilege The Commons at Aylesbury heiress. “In my nonage,” he says, “to please an in- the same time declared “No 45” a seditious libel To face the dulgent father, I married a woman half as old again as myself, of forthcoming trial before Lord Mansfield after these pronouncea large fortune—my own being that of a gentleman It was a ments would have been extremely hazardous Wilkes, who had sacrifice to Plutus, not to Venus. I stumbled at the threshold of been gravely wounded in a duel with Samuel Martin, MP, one the temple of Hymen: of the vehicles of government bribery, withdrew to Paris, and

WILKES sent to the Speaker (Jan 11, 1764), when a motion for his expul-

sion was brought forward, a certificate of his ill-health.

The

Speaker declared that this certificate was not sufficiently authen-

ticated, and though triple authentication was forthwith provided,

Wilkes was expelled (Jan. 19)

In these circumstances, Wilkes,

who beleved that life sentence would be pronounced against him, decided not to stand his trial and was consequently outlawed (Nov 1). He spent the next four years on the Continent, chiefly in “amorous delights” The fall of Grenville in 1765 and the accession of the Whigs to power under Rockingham and then Grafton Jed him to believe that a pardon would be granted to him and his services rewarded by some honourable place He only slowly realized that none of the Whigs were prepared to risk the King’s displeasure for his sake and that the various offers privately made to him were only intended to keep him amused. When he

discovered the truth he was extremely bitter against Chatham

and Grafton, those chiefly responsible, and puilloried them in a Letter to the Duke of Grafton, one of his ablest performances. In 1768 he decided to risk all by a bold stroke, crossed to London, and announced his candidature, first for London (where he was not elected) and then for Middlesex, where he was chosen MP. by a heavy majority (Mar. 28) He then surrendered to his outlawry and was sentenced to the comparatively light penalty of £500 fine and a year’s imprisonment, each, for the Essay on Woman and “No 45.” His popularity was immense, and crowds regularly assembled outside the prison gates (St George’s Fields). On May ro a notous crowd was dispersed with bloodshed and loss of life by Scottish soldiery, who were congratulated by the Government. Wilkes published the government instructions which had led to this, with some bitter comments, ın the Si James’ Chromcle; he also presented to the Commons a petition raising the whole question of the illegality of the proceedings against him (Subsequent investigations show that in the case of the Essay these included actual forgery) He had ignored private promises that he would be left undisturbed if he remained quiet; he reaped the reward of his temerity (Feb 4, 1769) by being expelled again from the House of Commons, this time with hardly a shred of excuse He now, by his resentment of a patronwing defence by George Grenville, lost his last wealthy patron (Temple) and was nearly £20,000 in debt But the arbitrary proceedings of the mimistry (instigated by the King) brought him power and, through the subscriptions of wealthy admirers to a “Society of the Supporters of the Bull of Rights,” even solvency. He was immediately (Feb 16) re-elected by the Middlesex electors and once more expelled. Again he was elected (Mar 16) and again expelled The Court then secured a bravo named Colonel H L. Luttrell to stand against Wilkes at the next election (April 13); the figures were Wilkes 1,143, Luttrell 296; but the enraged Commons declared that Luttrell ought to have been elected and actually seated him for Middlesex These audacious proceedings had stirred up tremendous excitement in which for the first time for years the artisans and lower middle class felt acutely their disfranchisement “One of your supporters has turned his coat,” Wilkes was told ‘Impossible, not one has a coat to turn,” he answered They avenged themselves by rioting and strikes, by scrawling “45” on every door

and forcing the court followers to cheer for “Wilkes and Liberty ” More effectively, Serjeant Glynn, his colleague for Middlesex,

603

single block of opposition to the Court and Ministry, achieving his most remarkable victory in the Wheble case, when the City’s judicial powers were successfully used to prevent the arrest of printers who reported the House of Commons debates. After the election of 1774, when the Court no longer found it wise to prevent him taking his seat in Parliament, he had a “tail” of about a dozen M P.’s. He presented (1776) a bill for the radical reform of Parliament During the American Revolution Wilkes championed the colonial cause He delivered, in the House of ComMons, ten set speeches in which he advocated the immediate cessation of hostilities with America. Lord Shelburne, in concert with John Horne (see Tooxr, JoHN Horne) was able to shake his influence for a short while in the City, but Wilkes more than recovered his position, and in 1779 he was elected Chamberlain of the City, a lucrative office which he filled with absolute scrupulousness till his death But the violence of his popularity was necessarily waning when in 1780 the Gordon riots broke out (see GORDON, Lorp GEorce) Wilkes, despite his turbulence, had never encouraged mob violence, and religious persecution he had always fought Though all the “lower orders” and even such old allies as Alderman Frederick Bull were deeply implicated in the burning and looting, Wilkes hesitated only a day or two before he practically took matters out of the hands of the complaisant city authorities, secured a draft of troops, and took a prominent part in crushing the disturbance His own supporters he had to jail—in one case

committing his printer Moore for an attack on the house of the judge, Mansfield, who had condemned him From this moment, honourable though his motives were, his political career was made impossible He could no longer drive the rich London merchants and the lower orders in harness together He had broken violently with the latter and with his own principles (for six years before he had rephed to Horne, not necessarily insincerely, that he really believed the voice of the people, when he could ascertain it, to be “the voice of God”) and the former had therefore Jess need for his services Moreover, they and all well-to-do reformers were attracted by the more respectable reform movement started in the previous year by the Yorkshire M.P’s This, based on Rockingham’s “Oeconomical reform,” substituted triennial for annual Parliaments and the addition of 100 M P’s to London and the counties for universal suffrage and redistribution of seats; it was rapidly adopted by a dozen or more counties at general meetings of electors Wilkes’ energies declined as did his popularity After he had secured (May 3, 1782) the expunging from the Commons of all record of his expulsions he took little part in politics. In 1790 he did not seek re-election, but retired into private life, dying in 1797. Characteristically enough, he was found to be insolvent, but quite unaware of the fact. An obelisk in Ludgate Circus commemorates him. Wilkes was above the middle height, exceedingly ugly, with a startling squint that is given all its value in Hogarth’s celebrated cartoon, but with a charm of manner and wit which few could resist. Some of his jests have passed into history—as for example his rejoinder to an elector who answered his canvass by saying he would sooner vote for the Devil than Wilkes. “And if your friend is not standing?” To an offer of snuff he answered, “No thank you, I have no small vices” To Sandwich, who told him he would either die on the gallows or of venereal disease, “That depends, my lord, on whether I embrace your principles or your mistress” His character, largely through his own fault, has been subject to exaggerated attacks which may be generally traced to Lord Brougham (see BRouGHAM AND VAUX, LorD) or to Horace Walpole, whom he was unwise enough to offend His conversation was ‘indecent, he was entirely incapable of continence in regard

and after his release Wilkes himself, organized, by the medium of public meetings, support from the electors as far distant as Truro, for a “Wilkite” programme which till about 1780 was the standard of a political party Its chief points were the radical reform of Parliament (to include enfranchisement of the “lower orders” and the suppression of rotten boroughs) and the protection of individual liberty against Ministerial or Parliamentary to women, though temperate in other ways, and like almost every attack Wilkes also entered into relations, not fully explored other public man of his century, he was extravagant. His cynical

yet, with the American malcontents and seems to have acted as an inspirer of their subsequent action and as Enghsh representative of the Boston “Sons of Liberty” His greatest successes, however, were won in the City of London where he triumphantly fought his way through to the Lord Mayoralty in 1774 As Sheriff and Alderman he had welded the powerful City interests with a

tongue ruined his reputation with the Victorians: he never did a good thing without giving a bad reason But dishonesty, cruelty, cowardice or hypocrisy were unknown to him; public money passed untouched through his hands when he was “in want of a guinea”; his political principles were honestly and to all appearances firmly held up tll the deadlock of the Gordon riots, de-

WILKES-BARRE—WILKINSON

604

scribed above He secured the great reforms of the abolition of general warrants, the freemg of the press and freedom of choice for the electors, his non-success in securing Parhamentary reform or justice for America can hardly be counted against him BrsriocrapHy —Horace Bleackley, John Wilkes (1917, bibl), Wilkes’ papers. Brit Mus Add MSS 30,865-96 and Guildhall MSS 212-4, the Correspondence of J Wilkes, ed by Almon_and Rough (1804-5), R W Postgate, That Devil Wilkes (1929) (R W P)

WILKES-BARRE of

north-eastern

the “Highland Whisky Still,” the “Rabbit on the Wall” and “Reag; Munich) His best portraits are those of “Sır Walter Scott and his family” and “Sir Robert Liston” (cabmet

a Will” (New Pinakothek,

size) and the gallery portrait of Lord Kelle

(town hall, Cupar)

A Lzfe of Sr David Wilkie, by Allan Cunningham, containing the painter’s journals and his ‘Critical Remarks on Works of Art,” was published in 1843

WILKINS, SIR GEORGE HUBERT (1888_),Bnitish explorer, was born at Mt Bryan East, South Austraha, on Oc (pronounced Welkes-Barré), a mining city 31, 1888. He studied engineering at the Adelaide School of

Pennsylvama,

USA,

on

Federal

highway

Mines, learned flying in rgro and became an aeronautical photog. rapher As photographer he joined the Arctic expedition, 191 3-18, of Vilhjalmar Stefansson (g.v), and though he lost his equipment with the sinking of the “Karluk,” he stayed on until 1917 Valley, the Pennsylvania and two electric railways, and by several and became second ın command In 1917 he enlisted in the Ausmotor-bus and truck hnes Pop. (1920) 73,833 (20% foreign-born tralian Flying Corps, was promoted to captain and decorated for white); 1930 Federal census 86,626 Within reach of the city by bravery Later he commanded the photographic section of the one car fare 1s a population of 175,000 The city lies in the Wyommg valley and is in the heart of the anthracite region. It is a Australan forces in France He was second in command of the British Imperial Antarctic Expedition, 1920-21, and naturalist manufacturing and commercial centre of importance. The assessed valuation for 1927 was $112,926,819 Wulkes-Barre is on the last Antarctic expedition, 1921-22, of Sir Ernest Shackleton a compact, substantially built city, with 500 ac in public (qv) He led a scientific expedition of the British Museum in parks, large busmess blocks, wide shaded residential streets, tropical Australia, 1923-25, which he records in Undiscovered Ausmodern school buildings and a large athletic field The output tralia (1928) In 1926 he made his first trip to Point Barrow, ir and the east bank of the Susquehanna river, roo m N NW of Philadelphia and 15 m. SW of Scranton It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the Delaware and Hudson, the Lehigh

of Luzerne county in 1926 was 29,872,800 long tons (35% of all the anthracite mmed) and its value was more than three times as great as the value of all the gold mined in the country that year. The city has a large trade in coal-mine and railroad supplies. Its manufactures (which include iron and steel, silk goods and other textiles, copper wire, locomotives, electrical goods and many kinds of machinery) were valued in 1927 at $35,424,554 Bank debits ın 1927 aggregated $586,586,000 Wilkes-Barre was settled mn 1769 by colonists from New England under the leadership of Maj John Durkee, on a grant from the Susquehanna Land Company of Connecticut Maj Durkee gave the town its name, in honour of John Wilkes and Col. Isaac Barré, stout defenders of the American Colonies in parliament. Ft. Wilkes-Barre was built in 1776 as a defence against Indian invasion On July 4, 1778, the day after the Battle of Wyoming, Wilkes-Barre was burned by the Indians and British Rangers, and again in July 1784, during the “Second PennamiteYankee War,” 23 of its 26 buldings were burned. The conflicting claims of Pennsylvania and Connecticut were finally adjusted (see Wyominc VALLEY) and the titles of the settlers were confirmed by Pennsylvania in a series of statutes passed in 1799, 1802 and 1807. Wilkes-Barre was incorporated as a borough m 1818 and was chartered as a city in 1871

WILKIE, SIR DAVID

(1785-1841) knighted 1836, Scot-

tish painter, was born on Nov 18, 1785, the son of the parish minister of Cults, Fifeshire In 1799 he began to study painting at the Trustees’ Academy, Edinburgh. He was much influenced at that time by the work of Carse and David Allan, who painted scenes from humble hfe, and he haunted fairs and markets with his sketch-book to collect material for similar subjects. In 1805 he went to London, where he entered the Royal Academy schools His “Village Politicians” and “Blind Fiddler” (commissioned by Sir George Beaumont), were exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1806 and 1807 In 1809 Wilkie was elected A.R A. and two years later RA. In 1830 he succeeded Lawrence as painter in ordmary to the king and from this time onward received many commussions to paint the portraits of royal and other distinguished personages These were not flattering to their subjects, however, and the female portraits in particular rarely gave satisfaction. His great popularity was due to his genre pamting the technique of which he had acquired by a careful study of Teniers, Ostade, and the Dutch masters. Most of his pictures in this category belong to his earlier period, and are distmgushed by detailed handling, precision of touch and somewhat subdued colouring, while the pathos of their homely subjects makes a purely sentimental appeal He died and was buried at sea, off Gibraltar, on June 1, 1841. His genre pictures include’ “Card-Players,’ “Rent Day” (1807), “The Penny Wedding,” the “Village Festival” and “Blind Man’ Buff” (National Gallery), “Distraining for Rent,” the “Chelsea Pensioners,”

Alaska, intending to fly across the Arctic regions, but he could not lift his heavy three-motored plane off the ground In 1927 he was again at Point Barrow and made a flight 520 m northwest across a portion of the Arctic ocean previously unexplored, landing and taking off from the ocean ice twice, and making soundings which proved the ocean in this region to be about 3 m deep

In 1928 Wilkins was back at Point Barrow for a third tyme and on April 21, with Lieutenant Carl Ben Enlson as pilot, he flew 2,100 m to Spitsbergen in 20} hours, covering a route just north of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Greenland With good visibility the flight greatly reduced the unexplored area, but no land was found. The experience is told in Flyg the Arctsc (1928). For this feat, an example of remarkable navigation because of difficult magnetic variations and the constantly changing angles at which longitudinal lines were crossed, Wilkins was made a knight by King George. In the autumn Wilkins left for the Antarctic and with Eielson on Dec 19 took off from their base on Deception island and flew 600 m south across Graham Land On this flight he discovered several new islands and also discovered that Graham Land itself consisted of two large islands, the southernmost separated from the Antarctic continent by an ice-filled strait 40 to 50 m, wide

WILKINS,

MARY

ELEANOR WILKINS

WILKINSBURG,

ELEANOR:

see Freeman, Mary

a borough of Allegheny county, Penn-

sylvania, USA, on the Pennsylvania railroad, adjoining Pittsburgh on the east Pop (1920) 24,403 (89% native white), 1930 Federal census 29,639 It is a residential suburb, with little manvfacturing. Wilkinsburg was settled in 1798; was first called McNairville and later Rippeyville, and about 1840 was renamed in honour of William Wilkins, then a representative in Congress It was incorporated as a borough in 1887.

WILKINSON, JAMES

(1757-1825), American soldier and

adventurer, was born in Calvert county (Md), m 1757 At the outbreak of the War of Independence he entered the American

Army He served with General Benedict Arnold in the Quebec campaign and was later under General Horatio Gates.from May 1777 to March 1778 as adjutant general In 1784 Wilkinson settled near the Falls of the Ohio, Louisville, where he became a merchant, farmer and man of influence

He took an active part in the movement for separate statehood

for Kentucky, and in 1787 took an oath of allegiance to Spain and began to intrigue with his fellow Kentuckians to detach the

western settlements from the Union and bring them under the influence of the Louisiana authorities His commercial connections at New Orleans enabled him to hold out the lure of a ready

market there for Kentucky products

He neutralized the in-

trigues of British agents then working in Kentucky, For these various services he received until 1800 a substantial pension from the Spanish authorities, being officially known as “Number Thir-

WILKINSON—WILL teen.” At the same time he worked actively against the Spamish authorities, especially through Philip Nolan.

Wilkinson’s ven-

tures were not so lucrative as he hoped for, and m Oct. 1791 he was given a lieut colonel’s commission in the regular army,

possibly to keep hım out of mischief

In 1803 Wilkinson was

one of the commissioners to receive Louisiana from France, and in 1805 became governor of that portion of the Purchase above the 33rd parallel, with headquarters at St Lows In his double capacity as governor of the territory and commanding officer of the army, reasonably certain of his hold on Jefferson, and favourably sıtuated upon the frontier remote from the centre of government, he attempted to reahze his ambition to conquer the Mexican provinces of Spain. For this purpose in 1805 he entered into an agreement with Aaron Burr, and in 1806 sent Z M. Pike

to explore the most favourable route for the conquest of the

south-west Before his agent returned, however, he had betrayed his colleague’s plans to Jefferson, formed the Neutral Ground Agreement with the Spanish commander of the Texas frontier, placed New Orleans under martial law, and apprehended Burr and some of his alleged accomplices In the ensuing trial at Rich-

mond, the prisoners were released for lack of sufficient evidence, and Wilkinson himself

emerged with a much

damaged reputa-

tion. He was then subjected to a series of courts-martial and

congressional investigations, but succeeded so well in hiding traces of lus duplicity that in 1812 he resumed his military command at New Orleans, and in 1813 was promoted to the rank of major general and took possession of Mobile Later in this year, by making a miserable fiasco of the campaign against Montreal, he finally brought his military career to a dishonourable end He died at Mexico City on Dec 28, 1825 See Wilkinson’s Memoirs of My Own Time (1816), untrustworthy

and to be used with caution, W. R Shepherd, “Wilkimson and the Beginning of the Spanish Conspiracy” in American Historical Review, vol ix. (1904) ; Bemus, Pinckney’s Treaty (1926). aG;

WILKINSON, JOHN (1728-1808), “the great Staffordshire won-master,” was born at Chfton, Cumberland, where his father was overlooker in an iron furnace. A box-iron, patented by his father, but said to have been mvented by the son, which helped laundresses to gratify the frilled taste of the dandies of the day, was the beginning of their fortunes. This they made at Blackbarrow, near Furness When he was about twenty, John moved to Staffordshire, and built, at Bilston, the first furnace there, and, after many expermments, succeeded in utilizing coal instead of wood-charcoal in the puddling and smelting of iron The father, who now had works at Bersham, near Chester, was again joined by his son, who constructed a new boring machine, of an accuracy heretofore unequalled James Watt found that the work of this machine exactly filled his requirements for his “fire-engine” for cyhnders bored with greater precision

Wilkinson, who by

this time owned the Bersham works, now started the manufacture of wrought iron on a large scale at Broseley, and used the first steam-engine made by Boulton and Watt to blow the bellows there His neighbours in the business, who were contemplating installing Newcomen engines, walted to see how the Wilkinson steam-engine would work. Great care was taken in its manufacture, and Watt himself set ıt up early m 1776. Its success made the reputation of Boulton and Watt in the Midland counties Wulkanson now found he had the power alike for the nicest and for the most stupendous operations. The steam cylinder suggested to him the plan of producing blast now in use. He was near coal; he surrounded himself with capable men, whom he fully trusted; he made a good article, and soon obtained large orders. In 1786 he was making 32-pounders, howitzers, swivels,

mortars and shells for the government

The difficulty of getting

barges to carry his war maternal down the Severn led him, in

605

connected Broseley and Madeley, across the Severn He died on July 14, 1808. WILKINSON (WYLEYNSON), ROBERT, English composer of church music of the 15th and early 16th centuries. Great mterest attaches to the four works by him found in an early 16th century ms im Eton College library. These are: two Salve Reginas for 9 and 5 voices respectively, an imperfect O Virgo prudentissima, and a marvellous 13-part canon, which is a setting of the Apostle’s Creed preceded by the words Jesu autem transtens, which serve as a title. Each of the 13 parts is assigned to an apostle (by name) and the key to the canon is supphed by a Latin note This impersonation of individual parts would seem to have been a favourite device with him, for in the g-part Salve the voices represent the various angelic hierarchies See Grove, Dictzonary of Music and Musicians, ed. u1.

WILL, in psychology, is sometimes used as synonymous with conation (gv), but more usually in the restricted sense of delberate decision, as contrasted with mere impulse (qv ) or desire. In an act of will there is a deliberate choice of one of several alternatives, and frequently a conscious reference to the interests of the subject’s self as a whole. People sometimes speak as though the will were a kind of independent entity or faculty which makes the decisions, etc. But that 1s only a loose way of talking As Spimoza and Locke pointed out long ago, there 1s no will apart from particular acts or processes of willing; and it 1s not the will that wills but the whole self that does it Similarly with the related hypostasis of “‘will-power” or “strength of will” There is no strong “will,” but there are strong-willed characters, that is, people who can pursue distant ends (good or bad) with great perseverance; weak-willed people, on the other hand, are easily influenced and carried away by every instinct or impulse or desire that prompts them from time to time, and cannot subordinate them to the pursuit of remote ends For the problem of the freedom of the will see FREE-witLt. See also PsycHo ocy, and the bibliography given there

WILL or TESTAMENT, the legal documentary instrument by which a person regulates the rights of others over his property or family after his death. In strictness “will” 1s a general term whilst “testament” applies only to dispositions of personalty, but this distinction is seldom observed The legal power of disposition of one’s property by will is more nearly absolute in England than in any other country. In all systems of law derived from Roman law the power is hmited so as to preserve the rights of wives and children to fair shares of a deceased father’s estate, and it is not even now quite absolute even in England. This is due partly to custom by which in England property among the wealthier classes is usually settled on the marnage of its owner and ail that is reserved to him or her is a power of appointing by will the shares in which the issue of the marriage shall take But even unsettled property was never absolutely subject to the

owner’s will. Till the Administration of Estates Act 1925 an owner of an estate in fee-tail had no testamentary power over it Another full power of testamentary disposition will probably be lamited very shortly. At this moment (1929) a bill is before parliament proposing to give the courts power to modify a will which deals unfairly with the testator’s family Legislation to that effect has been passed in most of the British colonies. The custom which ultimately developed into the will 1s recognized mm many primitive systems. It ıs closely connected with ancestor worship and the continuance, for that purpose, of the family. When a citizen was without descendants ancient law allowed him to continue his family by adopting another person’s child as his own Later, as ancestor worship became. more or less obsolete, the practice grew up of allowing an owner of property to nommate an heir if he had no descendants. There most legal sys-

the art of bormg cannon from the sohd, and cast all the tubes,

The Roman lawyers developed the idea until it became the modern power of testament, which has become in England as regards the owner’s own property, the power of free dis-

connection with these works, the first steam-engine m France. Wilkinson also designed and cast the first iron bridge, which

The oldest form of will in Roman law was the patrician will. It simply amounted to the nommation by a sonless patrician of a

1787, ta construct the first iron barge—creating a wonderful sensation among owners and builders Wilkmson taught the French

tems stopped

cylinders and iron work required for the Paris water-works, the position by will without regard to the claims of the disposer’s most formidable undertaking of the day. He also erected, in wife and children when he has any.

606

WILL

haeres whose duty it would be on the death of his nominator to

seisin (or in the case of fees tail by fine or recovery) the com.

carry on the family rites. The ceremony was performed before the comstic calata or assembly of the agnatı (male relatives) of the nommator, who would be entitled to succeed to his property if he died without an heir and whose consent to the nomination was in consequence at first necessary This form of will was possible only where the nominator as a member of a gens was also a member of the comitia calata Plebeians had no gens; and when they wished to share the patrician privilege of nominating the successor to their family and property they had to do so by a sale of the family to the nommees At first this sale seems to have been an out and out conveyance inter vivos of the testator’s property, but gradually it became really the appomtment of a trustee to carry out the testamentary dispositions of the nominator It is from this, the plebe1an or mancipatory will, as modified by the praetors and the emperors, that the modern will is descended. In English Law.—Whether among the customs of the Teutonic tribes or the Anglo-Saxons, there was anythıng akin to our law of testamentary disposition of property 1s very doubtful Tacitus says definitely that there was not Maitland says that there was, and that 1t took the form of disposing of the use. of

mon law estate to a friend to hold in trust for (or as the Original

property There appears undoubtedly to have been a proceeding much on the same lines as the patrician will by which a man without lineal descendants might nominate a male child to continue his family; but this 1s rather adoption than testation, and adoption was a very wide-spread custom in ancient times There are reasons to suppose that that proceeding was the only process approaching an act of testation which the AngloSaxons brought to England. But we must remember that England had been a Roman province subject to Roman law for centuries before the Anglo-Saxons arrived It is, therefore, quite

possible that after their arrival the Roman law of wills continued to be observed as a special custom m many highly Romanized dıstricts That, however, there was any general law of wills ın a country which was still m the main a congeries of semi-barbarous tribes each with its own primitive customs is frankly incredible The Norman Conquest altered all that and rapidly turned the Anglo-Saxon tribes into the Enghsh nation. The general law of wills dates from the Plantagenets After the Norman Conquest there were two great forces which shaped English law ‘The first was the barons; the second the priests The first stood for barbaric custom; the second for Roman law The first fiercely insisted that barbaric custom should control the ownership of land, which belonged chiefly to them The second contrived to get Roman law appled to goods and chattels which belonged chiefly to their friends, the farmers and townsmen Hence arose the artificial distinction between real and personal property. The history of later English law is simply a narrative of the struggles between the law of realty and the law of personalty which seems now to have ended in the definite victory of the law of personalty Since 1925 the whole feudal conception of land owning may be said to have disappeared, as many of its incidents had done generations ago. So far as wills are concerned the difference between the law of realty and the law of personalty was this realty could not be disposed of (technically devised) by the will of its owner, while the owner of personalty could dispose of (technically bequeath) it subject to Imitations somewhat similar to the hmitations on the Roman power of testation Thus, 1f he left behind him a

widow and children the testator could dispose freely only of a third part of it The common law estates ın land which were not devisable were fees simple, fees cond:tional (after the Statute de Donis Conditionaltbus, 1225, turned into fees tail) and Ife estates. Later, other interests m land were recognized by the law such as leases for years, but these were not treated as parts of the

common law ownership of land but merely hirings of it and as such personalty and bequeathable by will The chancellor who was a priest could not make these common law estates devisable but he invented a system under which the

beneficial interests m them could be freely disposed of by the owner’s will. All the owner had to do was to convey by livery of

phrase was to the use of) the owner’s will

When this was done

then on the death of the owner the trustee (or feofee to uses as he was called) was compelled by the chancellor to allow the

persons for whom the deceased owner directed the use or benefits

of the land to go to receive the rents and profits. This state of the law continued till Henry VIII in 1533 forced through parliament the Statute of Uses, so called because it abolished uses

At that time England was as Shakespeare de.

scribed it, a “many slotted land.”

In other words, it was the

age of small landowners, which intervened between the fall of the ancient landowning aristocracy through the Wars of the Roses and the rise of the modern landowning aristocracy through the confiscation of the lands of the priests and the commons of the

people These small landowners resented furiously the deprivation

of their mght to provide for their younger children out of the only property they possessed and accordingly Henry found it advisable to have another act passed restoring this privilege The Statute of Wills 1540 allowed owners in fee-simple holding under tenure of common socage to devise all, and those holding under military tenure to devise two-thirds, of their land By the Miitary Tenures Act 1662, military tenures were abolished and s0 fees sumple became fully devisable. But neither act enabled a tenant in fee-tail and a tenant pur autre vie— e., for the life of another person than the tenant himself—to devise his estate The Statute of Frauds made estates pur autre vie devisable. Fees tail did not become devisable till

the year 1926 (Law of Property Act 1925) The restrictions on the right to bequeath personalty gradually had become obsolete except in some places where they survived as local customs The Wills Act 1837 abolished all such customs Form of Wills—From very early times a will of personalty

was valid if it was declared by word of mouth of the testator

before witnesses (this was called a nuncupative will) or, though unwitnessed, 1f 1t was all written by the testator in his own hand (this was called a holograph will). Uses of land could be devised in the same way So far as land was concerned, when the Statute of Wills made the legal fee-simple devisable it enacted that the will devising it must be signed by the testator in the presence of three credible witnesses and the courts held that a witness was not credible if he or his wife took any benefit under the will Later it was enacted that such a witness was credible but the gift was bad The Statute of Frauds also introduced certain conditions as to the forms of wills of beneficial interests ın land and nuncupatory wills of personalty. Finally the Wills Act 1837 decreed that every will of property, whether such property was realty or personalty and whether it was legal or equitable, must be made 1n the same way, że , it must be in writing signed by the testator in the presence of two witnesses, both being present at the same tame, who in the presence of the testator are to sign the will as witnesses Usually the witnesses also sign in the presence of each other but this is not strictly necessary and is only done for greater safety. (See further PROBATE) The acts of 1925 and 1926 have affected the law of wills toa very small extent

The most important alteration made by them

has been the turning of executors into universal successors, For centuries executors as such had nothing to do with their testator’s fees simple When these were expressly left to them for the payment of the deceased’s debts they took not as executors but as

devisees; and when fees simple were made liable for the deceased’s debts even when not so devised, on the death of the testator, they devolved on the devisee, and to make them liable for debts an action for administration was necessary. That was altered by the Land Transfer Act 1897 which vested in his executors the deceased’s legal and equitable estates in freehold, and his equitable

fees simple ın copyholds That act, however, did not affect the devolution of fees tail and legal fees simple in copyhold Now by the Administration of Estates Act 1925 all a testator’s estate, whether realty or personalty and-whether disposed of by his will or not, including property over which he has by his will exercised a general power of appointment and fees tail which he has dis-

WILLARD sed of by his will, vests in his executors for the purposes of administration Accordingly executors may now be taken to occupy the position held by the kaeres in later Roman law. The whole property, realty and personalty, forms a common fund for

the payment of the testator’s debts If the estate 1s inadequate to y the deceased’s debts in full, then the creditors are to be paid

according to the rules prevailmg in bankruptcy, whether the

estate 1s administered by the court or by the executors. This provision 1s accompanied by another which seems inconsistent, namely that the executors have still the right to retain their own debts and prefer the debts of other creditors over debts of equal standmg When the estate is solvent but insufficient to pay all debts and legacies in full, the following is the order in which the assets

are liable to be appointed for the payment of debts. (z) Property undisposed of by the will, (2) property left by a residuary gift,

(3) property left expressly for the payment of debts, (4) prop-

erty charged with the payment of debts, (5) property hable to pay pecuniary legacies, (6) property specifically devised or bequeathed, and (7) property appointed under a general power of ap-

pointment or estates in fee tail disposed of by the will. It may just be noted that neither the Land Transfer Act of 1897 nor the Admunistration of Estates Act of 1925 applies to Ireland i : (J. A Sr) Scotland.—Up to 1868 wills of immovables were not allowed

in Scotland. The usual means of obtaining disposition of heritage after death was a trust disposition and settlement by deed de praesenti, under which the truster disponed the property to trustees according to the trusts of the settlement, reserving a hfe mterest Thus something very simular to a testamentary disposition was Secured by means resembling those employed in England before the Wills Act of Henry VIII The main disadvantage of the trust disposition was that it was liable to be overthrown by the hex, who could reduce ex capite lecti all voluntary deeds made to

hs prejudice withm 6o days of the death of his ancestor

In

607

third, if three or more only one-fourth; if he has no descendants

but ascendants in both limes he may dispose of half, 1f ascendants m one line only he may dispose of three-fourths. The full age of testamentary capacity is 21 years, but minors over the age of 16 may dispose by will of half of the estate of which they could dispose had they been of full age. There is no restriction against married women making wills. A contract to dispose of the succession is invalid, s. 791 The codes of the Latin races in Europe are in general accordance with the French law. (J. Wu) United States.—The American colonists brought with them the Enghsh common law of wills as modified by the Statute of Wulls. Inasmuch as the feudal system was never a part of American institutions many of the feudalistic limitations upon the devolution of real property by will never became part of American law Statutes have quite generally modified the older law of wills and deal systematically with the whole subject of testation In Louisiana the nght of testation is governed by principles of the French law which have been adopted by the Louisiana code. In other Southern and Western States where the original settlers were of French or Spanish origin, marked traces of the civil law are to be found in their law of wills. By far the greater part of American law, however, is of English ongin. The American statutes governing the making of wills were modelled closely either upon the English Statute of Frauds of 1677 or the English Wills Act of 1837. As the legislation of any particular State falls within the compass of one or the other of these statutes, the formal requisites governing the making of the will vary, The provisions of the Statute of Frauds, validating nuncupative wills of soldiers or sailors or those made in the last illness of the testator, are quite generally ın force. In those States where the civil law once obtained, the holographic will or will without witnesses but written in the handwriting of the testator, is recognized. Its validity has also been recognized by statute m

1868 the Titles to Land Consohdation Act made it competent to about one third of the American States, Besides the foregoing the

any owner of lands to settle the succession to the same in the event of death by testamentary or mortis causa deeds or writings. In 1871 reduction ex capite lecti was abolished A will of im-

movables must be executed with the formalities of a deed and registered to give title The disability of a woman as a witness was removed by the Titles to Land Consolidation Act. As to wills of movables, there are several important points in which they

differ from corresponding wills in England, the influence of Roman law being more marked. Males may make a will at 14, females at 12 A nuncupative legacy is good to the amount of £100 Scots (£8 6s. 8d), and a holograph testament ıs good without witnesses, but it must be signed by the testator, differmg in this from the old English holograph By the Conveyancing Act 1874 such a will is presumed to have been executed on the date which it bears Not all movables can be left, as in England The movable

property of the deceased is subject to jus rehctae and legitim, See McLaren, Wills and Succession, for the law, and Judicial Styles for styles France—The law is mainly contained in ss 967-1074 of the Code Civil Wills in France may be of three kinds: (1) olograph, which must be wholly written, dated and signed by the

testator; (2) made as a public instrument, ie, received by two

notaries before two witnesses or by one notary before four witnesses; this form of will must be dictated by the testator and

written by the notary, must be read over to the testator in the

presence of the witnesses and must’ be signed by testator and

witnesses; (3) mystic, which are signed by the testator, then closed and sealed and delivered by him to a notary before six witnesses, the notary then draws up an account of the proceedings on the instrument which is signed by the testator, notary and

witnesses

Legatees and their blood relations to the fourth de-

gree may not be witnesses Nuncupative wills are not recognized Soldiers’ and sailors’ wills are subject to special rules as in most other countries Full liberty of disposition only emsts where the testator has no ascendants or descendants, in other cases his quantité disponible is subject to réserve; if the testator has one

child he may only dispose of half his estate, if two only onet

State of Lousiana recognizes still another form of will, which has been designated as the mystic will, This 1s a documentary will which, when signed by the testator, is enclosed in a sealed envelope and presented to and subscribed by a notary together with seven witnesses,

Full liberty of disposition is generally accorded a testator. In some States limitations are placed by statute upon the testator’s right to dispose of all his property away from his wife and children. Limitations also exist as to the character of the property which may be disposed of by will Dower rights, homestead property, the wife’s distributive share of the personalty, the wife’s interest in the community property where the State has created such an institution, are generally excluded. The rule of the Statute of Wulls limiting devises of realty to real estate owned at the time of the making of the will and excluding after-acquired realty, has been abrogated. Testamentary capacity has been broadened in accordance with modern conceptions, the incapacity of the married woman being removed. The inability of certain classes of persons to take by will, notably aliens and corporations, has also been generally removed. (See Executors anp ADMINISTRATORS; LEGACY.)

See Page, Wills (2d ed 1926); Schouler, Wills (6th ed 1923) ; Rood,

Wills (2d ed. 1926).

WILLARD, EMMA

(J M La.)

(1787-1876), American educator, born

at Berlin, Conn , Feb. 23, 1787 She began teaching at 16 years of age In 1807 she became principal of a girls’ academy at Middlebury, Vt, and in 1824 she opened a boarding school of her own Her Plan for Improving Female Education (1819), first addressed to the New York State Legislature, found favour with Governor Clinton who invited her to move her school to Water-

ford, NY. Two years later (1821) it was moved to Troy as the Troy Female Seminary. In 1830 she travelled abroad for her health and aided m founding a girls’ school in Athens, Greece

The

proceeds from her Journal and Letters from France and Great Britain (1833) were given to this school After 1838 she spent

most of her time lecturing and revising her text-books. In 184547 she travelled 8,000 miles throughout the south and west urg-

WILLARD—WILLIAM

608

ing and counseling in educational matters In 1854, with Henry Barnard, she represented the United States at the World’s Educational Convention in London Her Ancient Geography (2nd ed, 1827); Hestory of the Umted States (1828), Astronomy (1853); and Morals for the Young (1857) passed through many editions and were widely used as text-books up to the time of her death

Mary (Our Lady of Willesden) was in the 15th century an object of pilgrimage, but by the middle of the followmg century the

ceremonies had fallen into abuse, and the shrine was suppressed Remains of Norman building have been discovered im the church of St Mary There are considerable railway works attached to Willesden Junction (L.MS. railway).

WILLET, a conspicuous North American wading bird (Cy. She published also a volume of poems, of which the best known is “Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep” Her death occurred at toptrophorus semtpalmatus), about 15 1n long, and to be recog. Troy, N Y , on April 15, 1876 See A Lutz, Emma Willard (1929). nized by its black primaries with a broad white band and white WILLARD, FRANCES ELIZABETH (1839-1898), upper tail coverts The willet breeds as far north as New Jersey American reformer, was born at Churchville, Monroe county and Manitoba, wintering from southern United States south The (N ¥.), on Sept 28, 1839 In 1859 she graduated at the North- western willet (C s smornatus) is paler and slightly larger WILLETT, WILLIAM (1856-1915), British builder, was western Female college at Evanston (Ill) She then became a teacher, and 1n 1871~74 she was president and professor of aesthet- born at Farnham, Surrey, in Sept 1856 He made a name for ics of the Woman’s college at Evanston, which became part of himself in London as a designer of beautiful houses, but his chief the Northwestern university in 1873 In 1874 she became corre- claim to fame was his conception and promotion of the system sponding secretary and from 1879 until her death was president of of “dayhght saving”? Though scoffed at in his lifetyme, his idea the National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, and from was taken up and put ito practice in 1916. He died at Chisle1883 until her death was president of the World’s Woman's hurst, Kent, on March 4, 1915. (See DAYLIGHT SAVING) WILLETTE, LEON ADOLPHE (1857+), French Christian Temperance Union. In 1890 she was elected president of the Woman’s National Council, which represented nearly all painter, illustrator, caricaturist, and lithographer, was born m Chalons-sur-Marne He studied for four years at the Ecole des of the women’s societies in America She was one of the founders of Our Unison, a New York publication in the interests of the Na- Beaux-Arts under Cabanel—a training which gave him a unique tional Woman’s Christian Temperance Union. She died ın New position among the graphıc humorists of France. Whether comedy or tragedy, dainty triviality or political satire, his work is instinct York city on Feb 18, 1898 With Mary A Livermore she edited A Woman of the Century (Buffalo [N ¥ 1, 1893), which mcludes a sketch of her life, and she pub Nineteen Beautiful Years (1864), a hfe of her sister; How to Win- A Book for Girls (1886) , Gimpses of Fifty Years (1889); and, in collab. with H

M

Winslow, Mrs

§

ite and others, Occupa-

tions for Women (1897) See A. A Gordon, The Beautzful Life of Frances E, Willard (Chicago, 1898), with an intro by Lady Henry Somerset, and W M. Thayer, Women Who Win (1896).

WILLCOCKS, SIR WILLIAM (:852-

His most important undertak-

ing, however, was the mrigation of 3,500,000 ac in Mesopotamia, begun in rgzz at am estimated cost of £26,195,000 His works include: Egyptian Irrigatzon (1889); The Irrigation of Mesopotamia (1905); From the Garden of Eden to the Crossing of Jordan (1918).

WILLEMITE,

lished Mim: Pinson, frail, lovable, and essentially good-hearted, in the affections of the nation Willette is at once the modem Watteau of the pencil, and the exponent of sentiments that move the emotional section of the public There ıs charm even in his thrilling apotheosis of the guillotine, and in the introduction into

_), British engi- his caricatures of the figure of Death

neer, was born in India and educated at Roorkee college, India From 1872 to 1897 he was engaged successively in the Indian and Egyptian public works departments He designed and carried

through the Aswan dam m 1898

with the profound sincerity of the artist He set Pierrot upon a lofty pedestal among the imaginary heroes of France, and estab-

a mineral consisting of zinc orthosilicate,

Zn.Si0,, crystaluzing in the parallel-faced hemihedral class of the rhombohedral system. Crystals have the form of hexagonal prisms terminated by rhombohedral planes: there are distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces and to the base Granular and cleavage masses are of more common occurrence It varies

considerably in colour, being colourless, white, greenish-yellow, apple-green, flesh-red, etc The hardness is 54, and the specific gravity 3-¢-42 A variety contaming much manganese replacing zinc 1s called “‘troostite” Willemite occurs at Sterling Hull, Sussex county, and Franklin Furnace m New Jersey, where it is associated with other zinc ores (franklmite and zincite) in crystalline hmestone. It has been found at only a few other localities, one of which is near Liége, and for this reason the mineral was named after William I. of the Netherlands. Under the influence of radium radiations, willemite fluoresces with a brilliant green colour

The artist was a prolific contributor to the French illustrated press under the pseudonyms “Cémoi,” “Pierrot,” “Louison,” “Bébé,” and “Nox,” but more often under his own name He illustrated Mélandn’s Les Purrots and Les Gzboullés d’avril, and has published his own Pauvre Pierrot and other works, in which he tells his stories ın scenes ın the manner of Busch

WILLIAM (c 1130-c. 1190), archbishop of Tyre and chronicler, belonged to a noble French family and was probably born in Palestine about 1130 This, however, is only an inference, unfortunately the chapter (xix 12) which relates to his early life has been excised or omitted from every extant manuscnpt of his Historza, William was still pursuing his studies in Europe when Amalric I became king of Jerusalem in 1162, but he returned to Palestine towards the close of 1166, or early in 1167, and was appointed archdeacon of Tyre at the request of Amalnc in August 1167. In 1168 he was sent on an embassy, the forerunner of several others, to the emperor Manuel I. at Constantinople, and in 1169, at the time of the disastrous campaign against Damuetta, he was obliged to take refuge in Rome from the “un-

merited anger” of his archbishop

But he was soon in Palestine

again, and about 1170 he was appointed tutor to Amalric’s son, Baldwin, afterwards King Baldwin IV Towards the end of 1174, soon after Baldwin’s accession to the throne, he was made chancellor of the kingdom of Jerusalem, an office which he held until

1183, and less than a year later (May 1175) he was consecrated archbishop of Tyre

He was one of those who went to negotiate

WILLEMS, FLORENT JOSEPH MARIE (1823-1905), Belgian painter, was born at Liége on the 8th of January 1823 He made his debut at the Brussels Salon in 1842 with a “Music Party.” Among his most famous works are “The Wedding Dress,”

with Philp I, count of Flanders, in 1177, and in 1179 he was one of the bishops who represented the Latin Church of the East at the Lateran council m Rome On his return to Palestine he stayed

“La Féte des grands-parents,” “Le Baise-main” (Mme Cardon’s collection, Brussels), “Farewell,” “The Arches of the Peace” and “The Widow.” He died at Neuilly-sur-Seine on the 23rd of October 1905

last appearance in history, but he was writing his history in

WILLESDEN, an urban district of Middlesex, England, and

seven months at Constantinople with Manuel.

This is Wilham’s

1r8r, and this breaks off abruptly at the end of 1183 or early

in 1184

He died probably between 1187 and 1190

Wulbam of Tyre is among the greatest of mediaeval histonans

His Historia rerum in partsbus transmarinis gestarum, or Histor

suburb of London, lying immediately outside the boundary of the

Hzerosolymitana or Belli sacri historia covers the period between

Pop (1931) 184,410. At Domesday the manor of Willesden and Harlesden was held by the canons of St. Paul’s In the reth cen-

Latin kingdom of Jerusalem between 1127, where Fulcher of

county of London (boroughs of Hammersmith and Kensington).

tury it was formed into eight manors.

tog5 and 1184, and is the main authority for the history of the

Chartres leaves off, and 1183 or 1184, where Ernoul takes up the

A shrine or image of St. narrative.

It was translated into French in the 13th century, or

WILLIAM I. possibly before the end of the z2th, and this translation, known as the Chronique d’outremer, or Livre d@Eracles or Livre du conquest,

is quoted by Jean de Joumville, and mcreased by various continuations, in the standard account

watriors in the East

of the exploits of the French

William’s work consists of twenty-two books

609

Wiulliam’s connection. It seems clear that the earl made a promise to support the claims of Wiliam upon the English succession This promise he was invited to fulfil in 1066, after the Confessor’s death and his own coronation William had some difficulty

in securing the help of his barons for his proposed invasion of England; it was necessary to convince them individually by threats and persuasions. Otherwise conditions were favourable. William secured the benevolent neutrality of the emperor Henry IV; and the expedition had the solemn approval of Pope Alexander II With Tostig, the banished brother of Harold, Wiliam tome ccr, and ın the “Recueil des historiens des croisades,” Hust formed a useful alliance; the duke and his Normans were enabled, occid 1 (Paris, 1844). Manuscripts are in the British Museum, London, and m Corpus Christ: College, Cambridge It has been translated into by Tostig’s invasion of northern England, to land unmolested at German by E and R Kausler (Stuttgart, 1848), mto French m Pevensey on Sept. 28, 1066. On the 14th of October a crushing Guizot’s Collectzon des mémoires, tomes xvi, xvui. (Paris, 1824), defeat was inflicted on Harold at the battle of Senlac or Hastings; into Italian and mto Spanish An English translation has been made and on Christmas Day William was crowned at Westminster. for the Early Enghsh Text Society by M. N Colvin (London, 1893) Five years more were to elapse before he became master of See the Hzstowre littéraire de la France, tome xiv (1869); B Kugler, Studien zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzuges (Stuttgart, 1866); the west and north Early in 1067 he made a progress through H, Prutz, Studzen uber Wilhelm von Tyrus (Hanover, 1883); and parts of the south, receiving submissions, disposing of the lands H von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipmg, 1881). of those who had fought against him, and ordering castles to WILLIAM I, (1027 or 10281087), king of England, sur- be built; he then crossed the Channel to celebrate his triumph named the Conquerer, was born in 1027 or 1028 He was the in Normandy Disturbances at once occurred in Northumbria, bastard son of Robert the Devil, duke of Normandy, by Arletta, on the Welsh marches and in Kent, and he was compelled to the daughter of a tanner at Falaise In 1034 Robert resolved return in December. The year 1068 was spent in military exon a pilgrimage to Jerusalem Having no legitimate son he induced peditions against Exeter and York, in both of which the adherents of Harold had found a welcome In 1069 Robert of Comimes, the Norman barons to acknowledge William as his successor They kept their engagement when Robert died on his journey a Norman to whom Wilham had given the earldom. of Northumberland, was murdered by the English at Durham; the north (1035), though the young duke-elect was a mere boy But the next twelve years was a period of the wildest anarchy. Three declared for Edgar Athelng, the last male representative of the West-Saxon dynasty, and Sweyn Estrithson of Denmark sent of William’s guardians were murdered; and for some time he was kept in strict concealment by his relatives, who feared a fleet to aid the rebels Joming forces, the Danes and English captured York, although it was defended by two Norman castles that he might experience the same fate Trained in a hard school, he showed a precocious aptitude for war and government. Marching rapidly on York William drove the Danes to their He was but twenty years old when he stamped out, with the help ships; and the city was then reduced by a blockade. The king of his overlord, Henry I of France, a serious rising in the districts ravaged the country as far north as Durham with such comof the Bessin and Cotentin, the object of which was to put in his pleteness that traces of devastation were still to be seen sixty

and a fragment of another book; it extends from the preaching of the first crusade by Peter the Hermit and Pope Urban II to the end of 1183 or the beginning of 1184. As Belli sacri historia the Historia rerum was first published in 1549 at Basel More recent editions are m J P Migne’s Patrologza Latina,

place his kinsman, Guy of Brionne. Accompanied by King Henry, he met and overthrew the rebels at Val-des-Dunes near Caen (1047) It was by no means his last encounter with Norman traitors, but for the moment the victory gave him an assured position. Next year he joined Henry in attacking their common enemy, Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou Geoffrey occupied the border fortress of Alençon with the good will of the inhabitants. But the duke recovered the place after a severe siege, and inflicted a termble vengeance on the defenders, who had taunted him with his base birth; he also captured the castle of Domfront from the Angevins (1049). In rosr the duke visited England, and probably received from his kinsman, Edward the Confessor, a promise of the English succession Two years later he strengthened the claims which he had thus established by marrying Matilda, a daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders, who traced her descent in the female line from Alfred the Great. This union took place in defiance of a prohibition which had been promulgated, in 1049, by the papal council

years later. But the English leaders were treated with politic

clemency, and the Danish leader, Jarl Osbiorn, was bribed to withdraw his fleet. Early in 1070 the reduction of the north

was completed by a march over the moors to Chester, which was now placed under an earl of William’s choice. From this point we hear no more of general rebellions against the foreign rule Administration.—Of the measures which William took to consolidate his authority we have many details; but the chronological order of his proceedings is obscure The redistribution of land appears to have proceeded pari passu with the reduction

of the country; and at every stage of the conquest each important follower received a new reward ‘Thus were formed the vast but stragghng fiefs which are recorded in Domesday. The great earldoms of the West~-Saxon period were allowed to lapse; the new earls, for the most part closely connected with William by the ties ‘of blood or friendship, were lords of single shires; and only on the marches of the kingdom was the whole of the royal of Reims Pope Nicholas II. at length granted the needful dispen- jurisdiction delegated to such feudatories Willam’s writs show sation (1059) By way of penance Witham and his wife founded that he kept intact the old system of governing through the the abbeys of St. Stephen and the Holy Trinity at Caen The sheriffs and the courts of shire and hundred Those whom he enfeoffed with land held it according to the law of Norman political difficulties caused by the marriage were more serious Alarmed at the close connection of Normandy with Flanders, feudalism, and were thus brought into close personal relations Henry I joined forces with Geoffrey Martel in order to crush with the king. But he forced the most powerful of them to the duke, and Normandy was twice invaded by the allies In acknowledge the jurisdiction of the ancient local courts; and the each case William decided the campaign by a signal victory. old fyrd-system was maintamed in order that the crown might The invasion of 1054 was checked by the battle of Mortemer; not be wholly dependent on feudal levies. Though his forestm 1058 the French rearguard was cut to pieces at Varaville laws and his heavy taxation caused bitter complaints, William on the Dive, in the act of crossmg the stream Between these won the respect of his Enghsh subjects. They appear to have two wars Willam aggrandized his power at the expense of Anjou accepted him as the lawful heir of the Confessor; and they by annexing Mayenne. Soon after the campaign of Varaville regarded him as their natural protector against feudal oppression. both Henry I. and Geoffrey Martel died He at once recovered This is to be explained by his regard for legal forms, by his Maine from the Angevins, nominally in the interest of Count confirmation of the “laws of Edward” and by the support ‘which Herbert II , on whose death (1062) Maine was formally annexed he received from the church. Domesday Book shows that in his confiscations he can have paid little attention to abstract justice. to Normandy. Conquest of England.—About 1064 the accidental visit of Almost every Enghsh landholder of importance was dispossessed,

Harold

(g.v.) to the Norman

court added another lnk to| though only those who had actually borne arms against William

WILLIAM

610

II.

should have been so treated. As far as possible Englishmen were Normandy, Richard (killed whilst hunting), and the future kings excluded from all responsible positions both in church and state William II and Henry I, and five or six daughters, including After 1071 our accounts of Willam’s doings become jejune and Adela, who married Stephen, count of Blois, Of the ongmal authorities the most important are the Gesta disconnected Much of his attention must have been engrossed Willelm, by Wilham of Poitiers (ed A. Duchesne m Risto by the work of administration, carried on without the help of Normannorum scriptores, Paris, 1619) , the Winchester, Worcester and those elaborate institutions, judicial and financial, which were Peterborough texts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed B Thorpe perfected by Henry I and Henry II. Wilham had few munisters “Rolls” series, 2 vols, 1861, and also C Plummer, 2 vols, Oxford. of note. Wilham Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, who had been 1892-99) , Wilham of Malmesbury’s De gestes regum (ed W Stubbs “Rolls” series, 2 vols, 1887-89); Wiliam of Jumuéges’ Aistona bis right-hand man in Normandy, fell mm the civil wars of Flan- Normannorum (ed A. Duchesne, op crt.) , Ordericus Vitahs’ Histong ders (1071). Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William’s half-brother, lost ecclestastica (ed. A le Prévost, Soc de V’histowe de France, 5 vols favour and was finally thrown mto prison on a charge of dis~ Paris, 1838-55). Of modern works the most elaborate is E, A’ loyalty (1082). Another half-brother, Robert of Mortain, earl Freeman’s Hzstory of the Norman Conquest, vols. m-v, (Oxford. of Cornwall, showed little capacity Of the king’s sons Robert, 1870-76), Domesday Book was edited m 1783~1816 by H Farley and Sir H. Elhs in four volumes Of commentaries the followmg are though titular count of Maine, was kept in leading strimgs, and mportant: Domesday Studies (ed, P E Dove, 2 vols, 1888-91); even William Rufus, who was in constant attendance on his J H. Round, Feudal England (1895); F, W Maitland, Domesday father, never held a public office The Conqueror reposed much Book and Beyond (Cambnidge, 1897) ; P Vinogradoff, English Socety confidence in two prelates, Lanfranc of Canterbury and Geoffrey in the Eleventh Century (Oxford, 1908). See also F M., Stenton, of Coutances They took an active part in the civil no less than William the Conqueror (1908); R Francis, Wakam the Conqueror

the ecclesiastical government

But the king himself worked

hard in hearing lawsuits, m holdmg councils and ceremonious

courts, and finally in conducting mulitary operations

(1915) ,M de Ranchi, Apologie pour Guillaume le Conquérant (1919) ; S H Benton, From Coronet to Crown (1926). (ŒH, W.C, D) :

WILLIAM II. (¢. 1056-1100), king of England, surnamed

In 1072 he undertook a campaign against Malcolm, king of Rufus, was the third son of William I by his queen Matulda of Scots, who had married Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling, Flanders He seems to have been his father’s favourite son, and and was inclmed to promote Enghsh rebellions. When William constantly appears in the Conqueror’s company, although like his reached the Forth his adversary submitted, did homage as a brothers he was carefully excluded from any share in the governvassal, and consented to expel Edgar Atheling, who was subse- ment. A squabble with Rufus was the immediate cause of Robert’s quently endowed with an English estate and admitted to Wilham’s first rupture with the Conqueror; in the ensuing civil war we favour. From Scotland the king turned to Maine, which had find Rufus bearing arms on the royal side (1077—80), On his death-bed the Conqueror was mclined to disinherit his eldest son profited by the troubles of 1069 to expel the Norman garrisons William had no difficulty in reducing the country, even though in favour of Rufus, who by the early death of Prince Richard was now left second in the order of succession But Normandy Le Mans was assisted by Fulk of Anjou (1073) A conspiracy of the earls of Hereford and Norfolk, in which the Englishman was bequeathed to Robert, while Rufus was designated as king of England Rufus was crowned at Westminster on Sept 26, 1087, Waltheof, earl of Northampton, was to some extent ımplicated, was defeated by Lanfranc in the king’s absence; but William fifteen days after the death of his father Domestic Administration.—In his domestic admunistration returned to settle the difficult question of their punishment, and to stamp out the last sparks of disaffection. The execution of we can trace a certain continuity of purpose, and in his dealings Waltheof, though strictly in accordance with the English law of with the Welsh and Scots he proceeded, though intermittently, treason, he only sanctioned after long hesitation, and this severity along the broad lines of policy which his father had marked out,

to a man who was generally thought innocent, 1s one of the dark stains on his career, In 1076 he invaded Brittany to get possession of the fugitive earl of Norfolk; but Philip of France came to the aid of the Bretons, and William gave way before his suzerain,

The next few years were troubled by a quarrel between the king and his eldest son, Robert (g.v ), In the years 1083-1085 there ‘was a second rising in Mame In 1085 news arrived that Cnut the Saint, king of Denmark, was preparmg to assert the clams of his house m England. The project fell through, but gave occasion for the famous moot at Salisbury in which Wilham took an oath of direct allegiance from “all the land-sitting men that

were in England” (1086) While the danger was still umpending he took m hand (1085)

the compilation of Domesday Book (gv) In 1087 he invaded the French Vexin to retaliate on the garrison of Mantes for raids committed on his territory. He sacked and burned the town. But as he rode out to view the ruins his horse plunged on the burning cinders and inflicted on bim an internal injury. He was carried in great suffermg to Rouen and there died on

Sept, 9, 1087 He was buried in St, Stephen’s at Caen A plain slab still marks the place of his tomb, before the high altar;

but his bones were scattered by the Huguenots in 1562

Beyond the Channel he busied himself with schemes, first for the reunion of England and Normandy, then for the aggrandisement of Normandy at the expense of France But the violence, the irregularity, the shamelessness of his private life are faithfully reflected in his public career Even in cases where his general purpose could be justified, his methods of execution were crudely conceived, brutal and short-sighted Rufus was not without valour or glimmerings of chivalry, but perfidious to his equals,

oppressive to his subjects, contemptuous of religion; with no sense of his responsibilities, and determined to exact the last

farthing of his mghts The baronage took up arms for Robert mn the name of the hereditary principle, but with the secret design of substituting a weak and indolent for a ruthless and energetic sovereign Local risings in Norfolk, Somerset and the Welsh marches were easily repressed The castles of Kent and Sussex offered a more formidable resistance, smce their lords were in direct communication with Robert of Normandy, and were led by the able Odo of Bayeux (qv), the king’s uncle, who had been

released from prison at the opening of the reign Rufus secured the help of the native Enghsh, by promises (never fulfilled), of good laws, the abolition of unjust taxes and redress for those wha had suffered by the afforestments of the late king

Aided by large

Character.—-In a profligate age Willam was distinguished by contingents of the national militia he subdued the rebels Odo of

the purity of his marned hfe, by temperate habits and by a sincere piety _ His most severe measures were taken in cold blood,

Bayeux left England under a safe-conduct to sow fresh seeds of discord in Normandy. But Rufus resolved to take vengeance on

averse to unnecessary bloodshed or cruelty. His one act of wanton

his brother, and in 1089 he invaded eastern Normandy In 109% a treaty was hastily patched up Rufus retained the eastern

exaggerated, He was avaricious, but his church policy (see article

marches of the duchy, and also received certain seaports, In return he undertook to aid Robert in reducing the rebellious county of Maine, and in recovering the Cotentin from their younger

as part of his general policy; but his natural disposition was

devastation, the clearmg of the New Forest, has been grossly

EnciisH History) shows a disinterestedness as rare as it was honourable. In personal appearance he was tall and corpulent, of a dignified presence and extremely powerful physique, with a bald forehead, close-cropped hair and short moustaches,

brother, Henry Beauclerk, to whom it had been pledged by the impecunious duke ‘The last part of the agreement was duly executed Rufus then recrossed the Channel to chastise the Scots,

By Matilda (d. 1083), Walliam had four sons, Robert, duke of who in his absence had raided the north country. Malcolm Il.

WILLIAM of Scotland prudently purchased his withdrawal, by doing homage (Aug. 1091) on the same terms which Wiliam I had imposed m 1072 Next year Rufus broke the treaty by seizmg the stronghold of Carlisle and the other lands held or claimed by Malcolm

m Cumberland and Westmorland.

Malcolm im vain demanded

satisfaction ,while attempting reprisals on Northumberland he was slain m an obscure skirmish (1093). Rufus immediately put forward @ candidate for the vacant throne; and this policy, though at first unsuccessful, finally resulted in the accession of Edgar (1097), @ son of Malcolm, who had acknowledged the English overlordship Carlisle remained an Enghsh possession; m the next reign Cumberland and Westmorland appear as shires m the accounts of the Exchequer. Norman Policy.—Rufus resumed his designs on Normandy at the first opportunity. Robert reproached his brother with nonfulfilment of the terms arranged in 1091; and Rufus seized the excuse for a second invasion of the duchy (1094) But Robert

resolved to go upon a crusade and, to obtain the necessary funds, gave Normandy in pledge to his brother (1096) The mterests of Normandy at once became the first consideration of Rufus’s policy. In 1098~99 he recovered Mame, and commenced operations for the recovery of the Vexin Early m rroo he accepted a proposal, made by William IX of Aquitaine, that he should take over that duchy on terms simular to those arranged in the case of Normandy Contemporaries were startled at the rapid progress of the king’s ambitions, and saw the direct interposition of heaven in the fate which cut them short. On Aug. 2, 1100, Rufus fell, in the New Forest, the victim of an arrow from an unknown hand The common story names Walter Tirel, who was certainly close at hand and fled the country without venturing to abide the issue

of atrial. But a certain Ralph of Aix was also accused; and Tirel, from a safe distance, solemnly protested his imnocence

It remains to notice the maim features of the domestic administration which made the names of William and his minister, Ralph Flambard, infamous We are told that the “moots” all over England were “driven” in the interests of the king, which perhaps means that aids were extorted from the shire-courts We also learn that the forest-laws were rigorously administered; that the king revived, for certain offences, the death-penalty which his father had abolished, that all men were vexed by unjust gelds and the feudal classes by unscrupulous misinterpretations of the customs relating to the incidents of wardship, marriage and

IIL.

611

Orange, was the only son of Wilham II., prince of Orange, stadtholder of the Dutch republic, and Mary, daughter of Charles I. of England, and was born at The Hague on Nov. 4, 1650, eight days after his father’s death Hus father had attempted a coup d’état, which had failed, with the result that on his death the office of stadtholder was abohshed Power passed into the hands of John de Witt, who represented the oligarchic element and the special interests of one province, Holland, and was taken from the Orange party which represented the more democratic element and the more general interests of the Seven Provinces Wilham grew up among enemies, and learned to conceal his feeling behind the mask of an immobile, almost repulsive, coldness. Like Charles XII. of Sweden and the younger Pitt, he was a wonderful example of premature mental development.

Stadtholdership—In

1672 Louis XIV. suddenly mvaded

Dutch territory. The Dutch people turned for help to the prince of Orange On July 8, 1672 the states general revived the stadtholderate, and declared Wilham stadtholder, captaim-general and admiral for life This revolution was followed by a riot, in which John de Witt and his brother Cornelhuus were murdered by the mob at The Hague. Evidence may be sought in vain to connect William with the outrage, but he lavishly rewarded its leaders and promoters The cold cynicism with which he acted towards de Witt is only matched by the heroic obstinacy with which he confronted Louis. He rejected all thought of surrender and appealed to the last resource of Dutch patriotism by opening the sluices and laying vast tracts under water. The French army could not advance, while the French and English fleets were defeated by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter. Wilham summoned Brandenburg to his aid (1672) and made treaties with Austria and Spain (1673). In August 1674 he fought his first great battle at Seneffe, where the honours lay with Condé. The French evacuated Dutch territory early ın 1674, but continued to hold places on the Rhine

and in Flanders. In Apri 1677 William was badly beaten at St Omer, but he secured a diplomatic victory by his marriage, in November 1677, with Mary, eldest daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II He undertook negotiations with England im the following year which forced Louis to make terms and sign the treaty of Niymwegen in August 1678, which gave Franche Comté and other places in Spanish Flanders to France. William started a new coalition against Louis in October 1681 by making a treaty with Sweden, and subsequently with the em-

reef. On one occasion the militia were summoned in considerable pire, Spain and several German princes. After absorbing Strasnumbers for a Norman expedition, which was no part of their bourg (168x), Louis invaded Spanish Flanders and took Luxemduty, but when they arrived at the sea-coast they were bidden bourg (1684). Even then the new league would not fight and to hand over their journey money and go home The incident 1s allowed Louis to retain his conquests by the truce of Regensburg not uninstructive as a side-light on the king’s finance. As to the (1685), but none the less these humihations gave rise to a more oppression of the church we are more fully informed; after closely-knit and aggressive coalition, which was organized in 1686 allowing for exaggeration there still remains evidence enough to and known as the League of Augsburg The English Crown.—From 1677 onwards William had careprove that the ecclesiastical policy of Rufus was unscrupulously fully watched the politics of England On the accession of James venal. In appearance Wilham II was unattractive; bull-necked, with II m 1685 he forced the duke of Monmouth to leave Holland, and sloping shoulders, extremely corpulent and awkward in his gait sought to dissuade him from his ill-starred expedition to England. His long locks and clean-shaven face marked his predilection for He apparently tried to concilate his father-in-law in the hope of the new-fangled fashions which contemporary ecclesiastics were bringing him into the League of Augsburg By November 1687 he never weary of denouncing. His features were strongly marked saw that James would not join the league against Louis, and he and coarse, his eyes grey and deeply set; he owed his nickname turned for support to the English opposition. He caused his chief to the fiery hue of his complexion He stuttered violently and mn minister Fagel to write a letter expressing his disapprobation of moments of passion was almost inarticulate. His familar con- the religious policy of James, which was published in November versation was witty and blasphemous He was surrounded by a 1687. But he made it clear that he would not interfere unless he circle of vicious parasites, and no semblance of decorum was received a definite invitation On June 30, 1688 Admiral Herbert, maintamed in his household. His character was assailed by the disguised as a blue-jacket, set out from England with a letter from darkest rumours which he never attempted to confute. He died seven influential Englishmen, asking William to “bring over an army and secure the infringed liberties” of England unmarried and without issue. Wilham landed at Torbay (Nov. 5, 1688) After a few days The main authorities for the reign are the Peterborough Chronicle (ed C. Plummer, 2 vols, Oxford, 1892-99); Eadmer’s Vita Anselmi of hesitation, many influential noblemen declared for him in differand Historia Novorum (ed M. Rule, “Rolls” series, 1884); Walliam ent parts of the country. James, who had at first joined his army of Malmesbury’s De gestis regum (ed W Stubbs, “Rolls” senes, 2 vols, 1887-89); Orderic Vitalis? Historia ecclesiastica (ed. A le Prévost, at Salisbury, fell back to London and tried to negotiate. (For hs § vols, Paris, 1838-35) Of modern works the most exhaustive is fight connived at by Wilham, see James II.) Wilham, on the adE A Freeman’s Reign of Wilkam Rufus (2 vols., Oxford, 1882) See vice of an assembly of notables, summoned a convention parliaalso J H Round’s Feudal England (1895) ment on Jan 22,1689 He was proclaimed joint-sovereign of Eng-

WILLIAM IIL. (1650-1702), king of England and prince of land in conjunction with his wife, Mary (Feb 13, 1689)

612

WILLIAM

Internal Administration.—A constitutional settlement was effected by the end of 1689, almost all the disputed points between king and parlament being settled in favour of the latter Though Willam by no means appreciated this confinement of hus prerogative, he was too wise to oppose it. His own initiative is more clearly traceable ın the Toleration Act, extending hberty of private worship to Dissenters He also secured an Act of Grace and Indemnity in 1690, by which he calmed the violence of party passion But m general his domestic policy was not very fortunate, and he can hardly claim any personal credit for the reassessment of the land-tax (1692), the creation of the national debt or the recoin-

age act (1693—1695) Further, he threatened the existence of the Bank of England, by lending his support to a counter-institution, the Land Bank, which ignomimiously collapsed Though he was not blind to the commercial interests of England, he was neglectful

of the admimstration and affairs of her oversea colonies But though he was unable to extract the best results from parlament he was always able to avert its worst excesses. In spite of strong personal opinions to the contrary, he accepted the Tnenmal Act

(1694), the vote reducing the army to 10,000 men (1697), the

vote disbanding his favourite Dutch Guards (1699) and even (November 1699) a bill rescmding the grants of forfeited Irish estates, which he had made to his favourites. The main cause of the humiliations William suffered from parliament lay in his incapacity to understand the party or cabinet system In his view the best way to govern was to have both parties represented in the ministry, so that, as Whig and Tory fell out, the king came by his own This method was unsuccessful, and affairs went most smoothly when the parhamentary majority held the same views as the ministry. William possessed an experience of the workings of representative government in Holland, and his mistakes are by no means so pardonable as were, for example, those of the Georges, who had been absolute monarchs in their own country. William’s unpopularity with his new people was, on the whole, unjustified, but his memory is rightly darkened by the stam of the “Massacre of Glencoe” In 1692 he signed an order for the “extirpation” of the Macdonalds, a small clan in the vale of Glencoe It is improbable that he meant his order to be literally executed, it is not certain that he knew they had taken the oath of allegiance to him. None the less, when the massacre was carried out with circumstances of revoltmg barbanty, Wiliam behaved as he had done after the murder of De Witt Popular pressure forced him to bring the murderers to justice, to punish and dismiss them from his service. But shortly afterwards they were all received into favour; “one became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer.” These and other actions indicate that William could show on occasion a cold and cynical ruthlessness. The master aim of his

hfe was the restoration of the “Balance of Power,” by the over-

throw of the predominance of France This was the real aim of Wilham in going to England in 1688 He had set off to secure an ally against Louis, and he came back from his expedition with a crown on his head and a new nation at his back, united ın its detestation of popery and of France

Foreign Policy.—As king of England he concluded treaties of

alliance with the members of the League of Augsburg and sent a large army to oppose the French in Flanders (For the course of the war on sea and on land, both in Ireland and in Flanders see Granp ALLIANCE, War oF.) William had assumed the duties of commander-in-chief too young to learn the full duties of a professional soldier himself, and his imperious will did not suffer others to direct him Hence though often fertile in resource and ingenious im plan, he was always a brilliant amateur. In diplomacy William was as uniformly successful as in war he was the reverse. His unity of aim and constancy of purpose make him one of the greatest of modern diplomatists. He held together his ul-assorted coalition, and finally concluded peace at Ryswick in September 1697. Louis restored all his acquisitions since 1678, except Strasbourg, and recognized William as king of England. During the subsequent years William tried to arrange a partition treaty with France, by which the domains of the childless Charles II of Spain were to be divided at his death But on the death of Charles in 1700 the whole heritage was left to France William

IV.

endeavoured to oppose this, and used Louis’s recognition of James

Edward the “Old Pretender” as king of England (Sept r7oz) to set the English people in a flame War was already declared 1702, but Wilham, who had long been ailing, died from the com-

bined effects of a fall from his horse and a chill on March 8, r702

In viewing Wilham’s character as a whole one is struck by its entire absence of ostentation, a circumstance which reveals his mind and policy more clearly than would otherwise be the case, He had many faults, both ın his public and private life, and both in England and m Holland his domestic administration was crit). cased His essential greatness lay in his European policy The best proof of his real powers of statesmanship is that the peace of Utrecht was subsequently made on the broad lines which he had laid down as the only security for European peace nearly a dozen

years before its conclusion While he lacked in diplomacy the arts of a Lows XIV or the graces of a Marlborough, he grasped the central problems of his time with more clearness, or advanced solutions with more ultimate success, than any other statesman of his age Often baffled, but never despairing, William fought on to the end, and the ideas and the spirit of his policy contmued to triumph long after the death of their author OricovaL AuTHoriTIes—G Burnet, Hest of my Own Time, ed. O. Airy (1897), W Carstares, Papers, ed J McCormick (1774); Queen Mary, Letters, ed R Doebner (Leipsic, 1886) , Lettres et mémoires ed. Countess Bentinck (1880) , Duke of Portland, Hist MSS Comm Rep xv App pt iv (1897), Shrewsbury Correspondence, ed W Cosce (1821); Shrewsbury MSS —Hist MSS Comm Rep xv. vol u. pts i and un. (1903) ; Letters, ed P Grimblot (2 vols, 1848), Correoon (with Wm Bentinck), ed N Japikse (’S-Gravenhage, 1927 Monai Worxs—H. D Traill, Wm III. (1888); P Haake, Brandenburgische Polittk in 1688-9 (Kassel, 1896), H C Foxcroft, Marquis of Halifax, Life (2 vols, 1898) , Macaulay, Heist. (5 vols, 184861), G. Koch, Die Friedensbestrebungen Wms. III von England, 1604-7 (Leipsic, 1903), G F Preuss, Wm III vom England ù das Haus Wittelsbach (Breslau, 1904), Baroness Nyevelt, Court Life m the Dutch Republic (1906), J Appleyard, Wm of Orange and the Englsh Revolutzon (1908), E Edmundson, Admunistrations of J de Witt and Wm. of Orange, Camb. Mod Haist, vol v (1908); FLA J. Mazure, Hast de la révolutron de 1686 (3 vols, 1848); A N. J. Fabus, Leven van Wm IJ. (Alkmaar, 1912), G. H. Guttridge, Colomal Poltey of Wm IIT. (1922), M E Grew, Wm Bentinck and Wm, Ill. (1924); M. Bowen, Wm, Prince of Orange (1928).

WILLIAM

IV. (1765-1837), king of England, third son of

George IIT, was born at Buckingham Palace on Aug 21, 1765. In 1779 he was sent to sea and became a midshipman under Admiral Digby Next year he sailed under Rodney and took part

in the action off Cape St Vincent (Jan 16, 1780). During the rest of the war the young prince saw plenty of service, for which he had a strong liking, and so laid the foundation of his popularity On the conclusion of the war he travelled in Germany, visiting Hanover and Berlin, where he was entertained by Frederick the Great In 1785 he passed for lieutenant, next year he was made captain and stationed in the West Indies. In 1789 he was made duke of Clarence. When war was declared against the French republic in 1793, he could obtain no

command He amused or revenged himself by joinmg the prince of Wales and the duke of York in their opposition to the king He took his seat m the House of Lords, where he defended the extravagances of the prince of Wales, spoke on the Divorce Bill, and vehemently opposed the emancipation of slaves. Meanwhile he formed a connection with Mrs Jordan, the actress, with whom he lived on terms of mutual affection and fidelity for nearly twenty years

The death of Princess Charlotte in 1817 compelled hm

to break with Mrs Jordan, and to marry (1818) Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, who obtained great influence over her husband. On the death of the duke of York in 1827 the duke of Clarence became heir to the throne, and in the same year he was appointed lord high admiral

He endeavoured to assume independent control

of naval affairs, although his patent precluded him from acting without the advice of two members of his council This involved him in a quarrel with Sir George Cockburn, in which he had to give way As he still ‘continued to act in defiance of rules, the king was at length obliged to call upon him to resign On June 28, 1830 the death of George IV. placed him on the

WILLIAM throne. During the first two years of his reign England under-

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613

William IV , being childless—Prince William, as heir presumptive

went an agitation more violent than any from which it had | to the throne, received the title of prince of Prussia He was also suffered since 1688 William IV. was well-meaning and con- made heutenant-governor of Pomerama and appointed a general scientious, but his tumidity and irresolution drove ministers to of infantry In politics he was decidedly conservative. On the despair, while his anxiety to avoid extremes and his want of outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he saw that some concessions insight into affairs prolonged a dangerous crisis and brought the were necessary, but urged that order should first be restored country to the verge of revolution The July revolution m France Generally held responsible for the bloodshed in Berlin on March gave a great impulse to the reform movement in England Within 18 (and hence micknamed the “Cartridge Prince,” although a fortnight of the opening of parliament the Tory ministry were actually no longer in command of the guards), Wiliam was so beaten on a motion for the reform of the civil list, and resigned hated for his supposed reactionary views that the king entreated Lord Grey undertook to form a ministry, with the avowed inten- him to leave the country for some time He went to London, tion of bringing in a large measure of reform This was not in where he formed mtmmate personal relations with the leading itself displeasing to the king, who had liberal tendencies, and a English statesmen. Returning to Berlin, on June 8 he took his seat few years before had supported Catholic emancipation But when in the Prussian national assembly, and spoke expressing belief in the government were beaten in committee, and offered to resign, constitutional principles. In 1849 he conducted the army which the king declined to accept their resignation, but at the same time crushed the revolutionary movement in Baden. At the beginning was unwilling to dissolve He was only forced to ıt (April 1831) of the campaign an unsuccessful attempt was made on his life. by the action of the opposition. After a protracted political In Oct 1849 he was appomted military governor of the Rhinecrisis (see GREY, CHARLES Grey, 2nd earl) the king was com- land and Westphalia In 1854 he was promoted field-marshal and pelled to consent to create a sufficient number of new peers to made governor of the fortress of Mainz. On Oct. 7, 1858 he carry the Second Reform bill, and the threat was successful in became regent for his brother, succeeding him on Jan. 2, 1861. The political events of William’s regency and reign are told bringing about the passing of the act in 1832. During the rest of his reign William IV had not much oppor- elsewhere (See Germany History.) William was not a ruler of the intellectual type of Frederick the Great; but he believed tunity of active pohtical interference, but on one other occasion intensely in the “God of battles” and in his own divine right as the he made an unjustifiable use of his prerogative This was in Nov 1834 when he suddenly dismissed the Melbourne mimstry on a viceregent of God so conceived He believed also in the ultimate mere pretext, but in reality because he disapproved of their Insh union of Germany and in the destiny of Prussia as 1ts instrument; Church policy, and summoned Sir Robert Peel The formation and held that whoever aspired to rule Germany must seize it of the Peel ministry was immediately followed by a dissolution, for himself But an attitude so alien to the Liberal temper of and, beaten on Lord John Russell’s motion respecting the Irish contemporary Germany was tempered by shrewd common sense, Church (3rd of April, 1835), Peel resigned and Melbourne and wisdom in his choice of advisers Thus as regent he called agam came into power Under him the Whigs retained the lead the Liberals into office on Bismarck’s advice, though later he did during the remainder of the reign This coup d’érat of Nov 1834 not hesitate to override the Constitution when parliament refused was the last occasion on which an English sovereign attempted supplies for the new armaments. From Sept. 1862, when Bismarck to impose an unpopular ministry on the majority in parhament. took office as minister president, William’s personality tends to In May 1837 the king began to show signs of debility, and died be obscured by that of his masterful servant. Yet he was no from an affection of the heart on June 20, leaving behind him cipher. His prejudices, indeed, were apt to run athwart the the memory of a genial, frank, warm-hearted man, but a blunder- minister’s plans; as in the Schleswig-Holstem question, when the ing, though well-intentioned prince He was succeeded by his king’s conscience regarding the claims of the Augustenburg prince threatened to wreck Bismarck’s combinations. But, as Bismarck mece Queen Victoria AUTHORITIES —Correspondence of Earl Grey with William IV. and put it, the annexation of the duchies gave him “a taste for conSw Herbert Taylor (London, 1867); Fitzgerald’s Life and Times of quest,” and in the campaign of 1866 the difficulty was to restrain Wilkam IV (1884), Greville’s Memoirs (6 vols, 1888) , Memoors of the king, who wished to enter Vienna m triumph. Sir Robert Peel (1856-57) , the Creevey Papers (3rd ed, 1905); Czvil In 1870-71 again it was Bismarck and not the king that gave the Correspondence of the Duke of Wellington; Walpole’s History of England (6 vols, 1890), Martineau’s History of the Thirty Years’ determining impulse. King Wulliam’s attitude was strictly correct; and the excitement which it aroused ın France was due to BisPeace, 1816-46 (4 vols , 1877—78) WILLIAM I. (1797—1888), king of Prussia and German em- marck’s editing of the Ems telegram On the French declaration peror, second son of Frederick Wilham III of Prussia and Louise, of war all Germany rallied round the king of Prussia, and when, on a princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, was born at Berlin on March July 31, he quitted Berlin to join ns army, he knew that he had 42, 1797, and received the names of Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig. the support of a united nation. It was during the siege of Paris, After the battle of Jena he spent three years at Konigsberg and at his headquarters in Versailles, that he was proclaimed German emperor (Jan. 18, 1871). On March 21, he opened the first Memel On Jan 1, 1807 he received an officer’s patent, and on Oct 30, 1813 was appointed a captain Wulham accompanied his father imperial parliament of Germany; on June 16, he entered Berlin mn the campaign of 1814, and early m 1815, received the iron cross at the head of his troops After that period the emperor left the destinies of Germany for personal bravery shown at Bar-sur-Aube He took part in the entry into Paris on March 31, 1814, and afterwards visited Lon- almost entirely in the hands of Bismarck In his personal history don He joined the Prussian army m the final campaign of the the most notable events were two attempts upon his life in 1878, Napoleonic wars, and again entered Paris He was made a colonel on the second of which he was seriously wounded Until within and member of the permanent military commission at 20, 4 a few days of his death the emperor’s health was remarkably major-general at 21, and commander of a division in 1820. During robust; he died at Berlin, March 9, 1888

the following nine years he mastered the Prussian military system and studied closely those of the other European States In 1825 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and commander of the corps

of guards On June 11, 1829 he married Augusta (d Jan 1, 1890), daughter of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe-Weimar, a lady of liberal tendencies and Catholic sympathies, whose considerable influence at court was generally exerted against that of

Bismarck By this lady Wilham had two children the crown prince Frederick Wilham (b 1831) who succeeded him as Frederick IIT. (gv) and the Princess Louise (b. 1838) who in 1850 married the grand duke of Baden. . . On the death of his father in 1840--the new king, Frederick

William I’s military writings were published in 2 vols. at Berlin in 1897 Of his letters and speeches several collections have appeared Polttssche Korrespondenz Kaiser Wilhelms I. (1890) ; Kaser Wilhelms des Grossen Briefe, Reden und Schriften (2 vols, 1905), and his correspondence with Bismarck (ed Penzler, Leipzig, 1900). A large number of biographies have appeared in German, of which may be

mentioned L. Schneider's Aus dem Leben Kaiser Wilhelms (3 vols, 1888; Fr trans, 1888) ; Oncken, Das Zestalter Kawser Withelms (2 vols , 1890-92) , F. Delbriick, Die Jugend des Konigs Friedrich Wilhelm IV von Preussen und des Kawers u Konigs Wilhelm I, Tagebuchblatter (1907); E. Marcks, Kaiser Wilhelm I (Leipzig, 1897; 5th ed, 1905). In English have appeared William of Germany, by Archibald Forbes (1888), a translation of Edouard Simon’s The Emperor William and his Reign (2 vols., 1886). See also GERMANY,

614. WILLIAM Il. (1859-

WILLIAM ), German emperor, was born on

Jan 27, 1859, eldest son of Prince Frederick Wilham of Prussia and Princess Victoria of England. Even as a young prince he had to feel the conflict of opinions then swaying Germany His mother always remained at heart a foreigner there, deeply convinced of the excellence of English institutions, she regarded her new home as a backward country, in particular, she always looked on her father-in-law’s minister, Bismarck, as a personal antagonist—a view which he returned with interest. Clever, but imperious and essentially cold, Princess Victoria was never able to win the heart of her son. The Crown Prince Frederick Wilham had grown up in an age when the ideas of ltberalism had become general among the educated classes of Germany, and was himself deeply influenced by them He was often accused of lacking imitiative, and despite occasional revolts, of bemg too much influenced by his wife’s stronger will, As a soldier he did his duty in the great wars of 1866 and 1870, and, with the assistance of expert advisers, won great successes on the battle-field, but he was never primarily a soldier. His diaries show a wide range of interests, but little serious occupation with any one definite subject His whole nature and views seemed un-Prussian to the old Emperor William I. and his circle He was kept wholly outside official business, and thus up to the 6oth year of ns hfe he was obliged to stand beside the throne in the part of a critic without influence Education and Character.—His eldest son grew up m a different spiritual atmosphere. The great victories over Austria and France, the foundation of a new German empire and the winning of the German Crown by the Hohenzollerns were the dominating impressions of his boyhood years. He shared the enthusiasm felt by his generation for Bismarck and for the glorious German army Thus from an early age he was really at variance with the spirit reigning in his parents’ house Huis father and mother wished to train him m other ways by giving him a middle-class education, quite contrary to the traditions of the Hohenzollern dynasty. They sent him to the gymnasium in Kassel. But although nominally a student like all the rest, yet for teachers and comrades alike he still remained always the prince and future emperor None the less, these school years had an important effect on his intellectual development, all the solid knowledge he ever had was acquired in this period He always retained a great devotion and respect for Professor Hinzpeter, the head of the Kassel gymnasium. In Jan. 1877 the young prince passed his final examination in Kassel He was then sent for six months to serve in the first regiment of Guards, and afterwards to the University of Bonn, where he studied constitutional law and political economy He passed two years at Bonn, but here again failed to come into really close contact either with his teachers or with the students After the autumn of 1879 military training definitely took the first place; the prince spent the next years chiefly in Potsdam, and although he was introduced by the chief president of the Province of Brandenburg into the secrets of civil administration, this was only a secondary occupation His years with the corps in Potsdam again brought him into touch almost exclusively with the views predominant among Prussian nobles and corps of officers The veneratior paid him here suited his wilful and imperious nature better than the spirit of the middle class school or of his parents’ house, Sustained work was never demanded of him, and consequently he never learnt to perform it. In Feb 1881 he married Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig Holstein-Augustenburg, daughter of the Prince Frederick who in 1864 had crossed

Bismarck’s plans by aspiring to the throne of Schleswig-Holstein.

The prince had been for long a personal friend of the Crown Prince Frederick Wilham The old emperor and Bismarck approved of this marriage, as tending to bring about a reconciliation with those elements in Schleswig-Holstein which still maintained the rights of the Augustenburgs, The young princess had been brought up very simply and piously; she had no great intellectual

powers. Six sons and a daughter were born of the marriage Prince William had come little before the eyes of the public, when his father’s sudden death on June rs 1888, brought him to the throne The new emperor was certainly a man of intellectual gifts above

the average. He had a quick apprehension which enabled him to

II.

form ın a short tme a general view of matters which interested lum, but which also seduced him into satisfying himself with these quick, superficial impressions and thinking 1t unnecessary to pene-

trate more deeply mto the heart of a problem an extraordmarıly

happy

turn

of speech,

He also possessed equally effective m

intimate conversation and in dealing with large audiences, His oratorical gifts, often, deed, led him, particularly when he was

speaking in public, to saying more than he really meant

He

often found himself carried away, by his own inner excitement

and by the admuring astonishment of his listeners, into ill-con. sidered remarks afterwards turned against him on the battle. ground of politics He was most profoundly persuaded of the importance of his imperial office, and of his duty to maintain his authority as monarch Never doubting that the monarchy was a divine institution, he believed firmly that God, who had set him m this place, would also show him the right way in the exercise of his sovereign duties In a letter to Bismarck written two years before his death Wilham’s father had complained of his eldest son’s mmmatunty and inexperience, which was coupled with an inclination to over. estimate his own powers ‘This was, indeed, a just criticism of very important traits in Wilham’s character He was unready and unripe in mind when he ascended the throne at the age of twenty-nine He never attamed that spiritual matumty which comes only through heartfelt co-operation in great tasks and earnest consideration of the problems of the world and of hfe His personality lacked the solid background of a definite philosophy of hfe; thus he always remained dependent on the impressions of

his immediate surroundings and on the influences of those persons who knew how to win his ear and flatter his vanity Nor had he any definite religious convictions which might have given him this inner firmness; for although he believed in the basic dogmas of Christianity, yet he was as strongly affected by the confusing influence of the modern technical and intellectual culture and really never knew at heart how far he could give way to ıt without

violating the traditional religious beliefs so essential for his monarchic sentiments He has often been compared with Frederick William IV, and there were certainly many points of resemblance between him and his great-uncle, but the deep difference between them lay in the fact that Frederick William’s whole nature was rooted in a definite philosophy of the world which always turned the scalé at the critical moments of his life, despite all wavering in points of detail, while this firm basis was lacking in Wiliam II Consequently he was never free from a feeling of inner uncertainty, which he tried to hide from the outward world under a pompous manner and by big words, As soon as he showed himself ın public he put on the mask of the emperor When he laid it aside there remained a man of fine talents, but of moderate education and weak character, vain and wilful through excess of self-consciousness, who felt himself most at home in amusements of a very common sort, and

liked to surround himself with subservient people who suffered his not always tactful jokes with becoming respect A great and increasing part of his time was taken up with journeys, with official appearances, with parades and shows, while real work receded more and more into the background,

When he became emperor he knew very little of the details of

foreign policy. He had only a few definite principles, to which he always remained true. First among these came the maintenance of his own monarchic status at home and of Germany’s international position This in his opinion required not only a strong army, which Germany already possessed, but also a strong fleet, which he set about forming The big increase of military forces was intended not only to enable Germany to defend herself against possible attack, but also to increase her prestige and to ensure

her her share in the partition of the world’s territories which was proceeding rapidly. He believed that the likelihood of ever having to make serious use of these armaments would decrease in inverse proportion to the strength of them He never had any warlike

intentions or ambitions; he certainly always felt at heart that he

was lacking in the military gifts requisite for command in a great modern war.

On the other hand, he felt that his duty

WILLIAM to himself as monarch forbade him to leave the control to others

William’s Relations with his Ministers—When the new emperor mounted the throne, Bismarck was still in charge. While

sill a prince, William had often assured him of bis admira-

IL.

615

by a member of the diplomatic service who saw to communications between him and the Foreign Office. Very often, and particularly in important questions, he let him-

self be persuaded by his ministers mto decisions altogether contion, although there had, indeed, already been several small dıs- trary to his own views. For example, immediately after Bismarck’s

dismissal, he allowed Caprivi and Holstem to dissuade him from renewing the re-insurance treaty with Russia, although he personally wıshed, and had, ındeed, already consented to renew it Later he always disapproved at heart of Holstein’s and Bulow’s policy in Morocco, but allowed himself time and again to be persuaded into approving of the measures proposed by his advisers On the whole, Willam II. did not so much exercise a real, lasting control, as produce confusion by sudden and impulsive interference. In foreign policy, after Bismarck’s dismissal, as the new chancellor and the new secretary of State had absolutely no experience in this field, the actual control fell into the hands of Baron von emperor’s influence on policy within the narrowest limits possible Holstein, chief of the political department in the Foreign Office, In these circumstances a collision was inevitable, and the occasion a mistrustful and misanthropic eccentric who shrank from any which finally led to the split was of comparatively minor im- sort of public appearance, never reported to the emperor or apportance The repeated great strikes in the Rhenish Westphalian peared in parhament, but provided the ministers with his informacoal fields had inclined the emperor to listen to the counsels of tion from the seclusion of his office. He always regarded the his former teacher, Hinzpeter, who urged that his duty was to emperor’s personality and inclination to personal interference with meet the wishes of the workmen half way and to remove their the greatest mistrust. When the chancellor and secretary of State, discontent by a wide measure of social reform He demanded out of loyalty to their sovereign—a feeling very little developed suddenly an announcement of such measures on the occasion of in Holstein—put up too weak an opposition to the emperor, he tried by every kind of intrigue to egg them on or else to his coming birthday The friction began when Bismarck, in view of the great mpor- turn them out, and had them attacked in the press with which tance of such a proclamatıon, demanded close scrutiny and prep- he was connected. Consequently during the decade after Bisaration in detail. It was creased by differences of opinion with marck’s dismissal there was a continual feeling of crisis which regard to the prolongation of the state of emergency against the might at any moment have led to grave conflicts The events of William II’s reign will be found elsewhere. Social Democrats, and led to personal conflicts of increasing violence. Bismarck had undoubtedly determmed to remain in (See Germany.) Here we can only attempt to indicate the emperor’s personal share in the most important decisions of this office even against the emperor’s will, and attempted to persuade the other ministers to declare themselves one with him. At last, time, beginning with foreign policy Foreign Policy—aAlthough the non-renewal of the re-msuron the strength of a cabinet order of 1850, he forbade the individual ministers to report to the emperor except in his presence, ance treaty was contrary to the emperor’s wish, the rapprochement the emperor saw ın this an attempt to eliminate his influence and with England which began with the conclusion of the Heligoland demanded that this cabinet order be revoked. Bismarck refused to treaty, undoubtedly accorded at the time with his personal wishes. give the order, and the emperor then sent word that he expected He was anxious to create a counterpoise to the pressure of the the chancellor to tender his resignation This Bismarck did on incipient Franco-Russian rapprochement by strengthening relaMarch 18, 1890, and 1t was immediately accepted by the emperor. tions between the Triple Alhance and England But he very soon After Bismarck’s dismissal the emperor announced that the experienced bitter disappointments; the interests of Germany and course of the ship of State was to remain the same, even though England clashed violently ın Africa, and England, after the outthe steersman had been changed He proposed to take over com- break of the Chinese-Japanese War (1894) followed the opposite mand of the ship himself, and called to the leading posts men policy to Germany m the Far East. Germany’s intervention in wholly unacquainted with the duties which they were to assume, this struggle against Japan and on the side of France and Russia m order to secure himself from supervision by experts. General ‘was essentially the work of Baron von Holstein The emperor von Caprivi became imperial chancellor and Freiherr von Mar- had at first shown great personal sympathies for the mulitary schall, a former lawyer, secretary of State for foreign affairs. Such efficiency of Japan, but skilful working on his Christian sentiments men were, meant only to be channels for executing Wilham’s will and his fear of the “yellow peril,” persuaded him to fall in with Indeed, the emperor believed up to the end of his reign that he Holstein’s advice; especially as this coincided with his personal himself was the real guiding force of all German policy. If, how- ambition to seize the occasion to secure for Germany a naval base ever, we consider more closely the system of government which in the Far East. He then promised the tsar of Russia support developed after Bismarck’s dismissal, we find that the emperor’s if the latter’s Far Eastern policy led him imto difficulties, the influence was not nearly so great as most of his contemporaries tsar, in return, consenting on Russia’s behalf to Germany’s assumed The nght which he enjoyed of nominating at his per- occupying a Chinese port. After these events had brought about a coldness between Gersonal discretion the imperial chancellor, the secretaries of State many and England, the emperor devoted his chief attention to and the Prussian ministers naturally gave him great influence. Yet the emperor could not lay down a consistent line of policy, strengthening the German war fleet, mm which he had always felt a if only for the reason that he himself possessed no solid views, strong personal interest He used every opportunity, public and based on definite convictions, in the mam questions, and that he private, to advocate this move, because he was convinced that had neither the will nor the perseverance to help with hard, sus- Germany would only be able to follow a policy independent from tamed work on the big issues This was apparent even in foreign England if she was covered against attack from the sea by a strong affairs, which attracted his chief mterest The emperor read a navy of her own. Throughout his entire reign, the expansion of great part of the despatches from the ministers abroad and added German sea power remained one of the unaltered principles of his notes to them, mostly expressing his views at the moment, but policy; from 1897 on he found in Admiral von Tirpitz, the secreseldom containing real political directions Reports were rendered tary of State for naval affayrs, an enthusiastic assistant in these to him verbally or in writmg on important questions and his deci- plans, who was capable of giving them practical form and of desilos were put away mi the files He also often had political con- fending them against statesmen and parliament. If the emperor’s naval policy already showed a deep mistrust versations with the representatives of foreign powers and made a rule of reporting all these in detail to the Foreign Office When of England, this was intensified by British policy towards the he was travelling, which was often the case, he was accompanied Boers When Jameson made his raid into the Transvaal in 1896, agreements, the story of which Bismarck has told in the third yolume of his Gedanken und Ertmnerungen. But it was in any case hardly hkely that a young man of so lively a temperament and so keen an ambition to bring affairs under his personal control could agree for long with a minister who had conducted the Government according to his own principles for a generation, and who was not inclined to subordinate himself to the wishes of a young and mexperienced monarch Bismarck felt from the first that in the personality of the emperor were inherent grave dangers for Germany’s peaceful development and for the settlement of her international relations, and thought himself bound to confine the

WILLIAM

616

the emperor seriously thought of breaking off diplomatic relations with the British Government

1f it countenanced Jameson’s

con-

duct. He even planned a military intervention m favour of the Boers, his advisers only restrained him from domg so, with difficulty, by proposing instead the despatch of the notorious telegram to President Kruger. The growmg tension of relations with England made the emperor increasingly ready to adopt the idea, originally put forward by Holstem and afterwards also repeatedly

II.

complete error, when the tsar returned to St Petersburg his ministers persuaded him to demand a revision of the treaty, as in its existing form it was irreconcilable with the provisions of the Franco-Russian treaty As the alterations proposed by Russia would have deprived the treaty of 1ts whole value for Germany, it was thought best to drop the whole affair and the Bjorko treaty was buried for good and all Germany’s situation now grew increasingly dangerous,

Russia’s

advocated by Bulow, of seekmg rapprochement with France via St. Petersburg (Leningrad) in order to create a counterpoise to the threatening mcrease of British power through an alliance of all the great European continental States, the so-called Continental Alhance It may, however, be doubted whether all these efforts

adhesion to the Franco-British entente (1907) was followed by growing tension between Germany and England, due Principally

were not only meant to serve to brmg England to change her policy and enter into closer relations with Germany For the emperor always retained a lively sympathy for England, which was

because the emperor, in agreement with Admural von Tirpitz maintained that any engagement of this sort was dishonourable

expressed in particularly vivid fashion in the reports which he sent to the German Foreign Office on his frequent visits to that country. On the other hand, he also felt himself attracted to Russia by old family traditions and by the consciousness of common monarchic interests, and probably never really made up his own mind which of these two countries would prove the more valuable ally for Germany Holstein and Bulow, who thought Germany

would

do best to bind herself to neither

of these two

Powers, but to sell her support to the one or the other, as the case arose, for concrete concessions, took advantage of the emperor’s uncertainty to restrain him from entering into any binding engagements on one side or the other Bulow flattered his vanity by representing to him that he would then become the arbiter of the world Nevertheless, when England began in the spring of 1898, at Chamberlam’s instigation, to sound Germany regarding a German-English alliance, William TE. showed a real inclination to accept this offer, and all his advisers’ cunning and precautions were needed to keep him in the path which they considered desirable After the failure of these negotiations, when England first drew closer to France and Russia and the path was cleared for the Entente, Berlin began to grow apprehensive Holstein and Bulow thought ıt their duty to show the world, in the Morocco question, that France and England were not to be allowed to dictate the partition of the world’s remaming colonial territories without reference to Germany, especially as Russia was at the time completely immobilized by her severe struggle with Japan. The emperor, whose personal view it was that German interests in Morocco were not large enough to justify such an attitude, and who only a short while previously had told the king of Spain that Germany demanded nothing for herself n Morocco, was utterly opposed to such interference. Bulow needed all his art of persuasion to persuade him to land in Tangier on his Mediterranean voyage in March 1905. Up to the last moment he hesitated whether to do this. Here he certainly showed more political wisdom than his advisers, but once again he was too weak to carry his point against them The result of Germany’s action here was not only to make her relations with France more strained, but also to confirm the Franco-British entente It ıs well-known that the agreements between these two Powers for military and naval co-operation in case of war were a result of the Morocco crisis Another reason why the emperor viewed the increasing tension of Franco-German relations with alarm was because, after the

failure of the negotiations for an alliance with England, he had resumed with new zest the idea of a Continental Alliance. Bulow prevented him from intervening during the delicate negotiations with Paris on the preparations for the Algeciras conference, but only by concealing from him altogether the offer made by Rouvier, the French muinister-president, for a general understanding with Germany. He consented, however, that the emperor should take advantage of his meeting with the tsar in Finland to conclude with him a treaty, to which France should afterwards be asked to adhere The emperor in fact succeeded at the meeting in Bjorko (July 23, 1905) m persuading the tsar Nicholas to sign an offensive and defensive alliance He believed that he had won a great success, and wrote to Bulow that the meeting had been a turning point in the history of the world. This, however, soon proved to be a

to the fears aroused in England by the German naval programme, Various early attempts by England to reach an understanding with

Germany on the naval armaments of the two Powers broke down to Germany On this point Bulow disagreed with the emperor, He would willingly have negotiated with England on a hmitation of armaments, but when King Edward visited Fniedrichshof in Aug

1908, the emperor

told the British

official, Hardinge, most

abruptly, that he would not agree to any negotiations of the sort, and Bulow thought it better not to press his own view any further at present, hoping to be able to convert the emperor gradually In the autumn of 1907 the emperor visited England, and made remarks which, in his opimion, were calculated to remove the apprehension aroused in England by the German naval programme Soon after, these remarks were published as an interview with the

Daily Telegraph, but produced exactly the opposite effect to that which had been intended They were looked on in England as an attempt by a foreign monarch to interfere in England’s private affairs In Germany also the publication evoked lively disapproval and led to a question ın the Reichstag and to an excited debate on the emperor’s personal conduct of affairs The emperor was obliged to make a declaration (Oct 31, 1908), that he would in the future undertake no political step of importance without the chancellor’s advice. The frst conflict between the Triple Alhance and the Entente

arose over Austria’s annexation of Bosnia in the autumn of 1908, ım consequence of the Young Turk revolution Serbia protested against the annexation, and as Russia supported her, a severe crisis broke out Here again the emperor and Bulow differed. The

emperor was shocked by Austria’s action, which she had taken without previously mnforming Germany He accused Vienna of duplicity and said that he personally felt himself most deeply wounded in his sentiments as an ally. Bulow, however, fearing that Germany would lose her last reliable ally, thought 1t nght to support Austria at all costs Soon afterwards, Bulow, having been defeated in the Reichstag on the question of financial reform, again offered his resignation, which was this time immediately accepted by the emperor. The chancellor had long enjoyed his particular favour; but ther relations had become increasingly unhappy for some time past This was due partly to differences on pots of policy, but even more to the emperor’s feeling that Bulow had decerved him and left him in the lurch over the Daily Telegraph affair Bethmann-Hollweg was now appointed imperial chancellor, but the emperor never really trusted him Bethmann-Hollweg’s earlier career had been passed in the mternal administrative service and he himself realized his own lack of experience in foreign affairs; he therefore insisted on the appointment of Kiderlen-Wachter, formerly mmister in Bucharest, as secretary of State Kiderlen-Wachter enjoyed

a reputation for unusual skill and energy, but more than ten years previously he had incurred the emperor’s personal dislike in a private matter. He was primarily responsible for the new collision with France which arose in 1911 when the French‘began to bring Morocco under their rule altogether. Here again the

emperor was against letting a fresh quarrel between Germany and France arise over Morocco.

At his instigation, a treaty with

France had been concluded in Feb

1909, while Bulow was still

in office, allowing France an exceptional position in Morocco. Kiderlen, however, beheved that France would be prepared to cede the French Congo wholly or in part to Germany ın return for a

free hand in Morocco; he succeeded m making the emperor ‘be-

WILLIAM lieve that this could be reached at the cost of a httle pressure Here again Wilham yielded agamst his own better Judgment to pressure from his advisers and agreed to the despatch of the “Panther,” a small ship of war, to the Moroccan coast. Kiderlen

did, indeed, obtain some of his demands, but the resentment in France now grew increasingly serious, and Germany’s relations with England, who felt herself particularly pledged to support

France over Morocco, deteriorated correspondingly Nevertheless one more opportunity for a German-English rapprochement seemed to offer itself, when the peace of Europe was

dangerously threatened by the outbreak of the Balkan Wars

Relations seemed to have become really happy when Lord Hal-

dane, the British War Minister, visited Berlin m Feb

1912

on an official mission, and held personal conversations with the emperor, Tirpitz and Bethmann-Hollweg The emperor in his

sanguine fashion believed that his interview with Haldane had

resulted in a complete understanding, but failed to see that the

bmitation of Germany’s naval armament was still the British sine qua non; whereas he himself and Tirpitz were just engaged in drafting a new bill for increasing the rate of naval construction

This attempted rapprochement thus led to renewed coolness. When the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne precipitated a crisis which led to the World War, the emperor was determined from the start to help Austria to get satisfaction from Serbia. Real difficulties could only arise 1f Russia took Serbia’s part. The emperor, however, reckoned firmly on the community of monarchical interests, which be believed would prevent the tsar from coming forward as protector to the murderers of a prince. He failed to see that the final decision in Russia did not really he

II.

617

influence of the Centre Party in the Reichstag and in the Prussian diet Himself a Protestant, he resented the growing power of the Catholic elements He mtervened personally when the Centre allied itself with the Conservatives and attempted to pass a primary education act for Prussia, which would have increased the influence of the Church in the schools to an extraordinary degree Being hostile both to Social Democracy and to the Centre party, the emperor naturally looked with sympathy on the idea of forming a working majority in parlament by a coalition between the Conservative and Liberal parties. Prince Bulow, who had become Imperial Chancellor in 1899, attempted to put this idea into practice, his own feelings agreeing here with the emperor’s. The elections of Jan 1907, which brought the so-called “Bloc Parties” a considerable majority, seemed to the emperor to be a personal victory for himself. Bulow’s inability to form a permanent

coalition

between

the Bloc

Parties,

and

to carry

through the urgent financial reform by their help, seemed to the emperor a proof that the chancellor was incapable of carrying through his principles in domestic pohcy and strengthened him in

his decision to accept his resignation The emperor did not openly rebel agamst the constitutional

form of government which he found on his accession, since he saw the impossibility of altering it, but at heart he always dishked ıt, and his dislike increased in proportion to the numerical growth of Social Democracy and of the Centre in the parhaments He looked on parliament as a necessary evil, and always considered the monarch to be the true vessel of sovereign power, appointed thereto by God The opposition raised by the Reichstag to the emergency legislation which he desired, and the difwith the weak tsar at all. The emperor himself did not at first culties which had to be overcome over every increase of the army imagine that any danger of war could arise He started off on his or the fleet led him on many occasions into bitter remarks about Baltic cruise, without making any preparations, the alleged the people’s representative. The emperor never had any new “Crown council” in Potsdam never took place He did not return and constructive ideas on matters of domestic policy The World War.—On the outbreak of the World War, the till after the Austrian Note to Belgrade had already been delivered; and he personally thought the Serbian answer quite fittmg to emperor himself felt his own inability to take over the supreme form a basis for future negotiations He disapproved when, despite command of the military operations During the first years of this answer, Austria mobilized and declared war on Serbia, and he the war an appearance was kept up of referrmg the last decisions undoubtedly approved of Bethmann-Hollweg’s eleventh-hour at- to the imperial headquarters; but William was increasingly retempt to persuade the Austrians to hold their hand and to nego- duced to the position of a mere onlooker. The choice of leaders tiate directly with Russia He also sent a number of personal lay, indeed, in his hand, and here he did not always show the best telegrams to the tsar Nicholas to try to restrain him from the judgment He only agreed with reluctance, and under the pressure mobilization which finally led to the outbreak of the war, and to of emergency, to make Hindenburg commander-in-chief and to offer him his mediation All these endeavours to maintain peace leave the real decisions to him and Ludendorff The inaction of proved, however, unsuccessful. The idea that the emperor wished the German fleet during the first years of the war 1s also to be for a war in order to found a German world empire, or to make attributed to the emperor’s personal wish, and involved him in a any conquests at all, though widely current during the war, is, sharp difference with Admiral von Tirpitz After Aug 1918 it became ever clearer that the existing in the opinion of the writer, incorrect Interference in Internal Policy.—The emperor’s interven- situation was growing untenable, and now the emperor proved tions in German internal policy were also irregular The first himself once again mcapable of a firm decision. He was driven occasion was when he called on Bismarck to proclaim a far- forward step by step by events and by individual advisers who reaching social and political reform Only a small fraction of managed to win his ear. A Crown Council under his presidency this was carned out during the first years of his reign. As these resolved to initiate peace negotiations; yet he allowed so much measures had not the desired effect of winning the mass of the time to be wasted before this decision was executed, that in the workers from Social Democracy, a feeling of disappointment meantime the military situation took a turn fatal for Germany. overcame the emperor He always looked upon Social Democracy, At the same time the signs of discontent in the population and m which was republican on principle, as the irreconcilable enemy of parliament increased, and he let himself be persuaded to appoint the whole existing order, and particularly of the monarchy, and Prince Max of Baden imperial chancellor in Oct 1918, although held it to be his duty to fight against it with all the means in his the prince was looked on as an advocate of the parliamentary power. The murder of the French president, Carnot, seemed to methods which the emperor hated in his heart After this, when him to be a sign of the increasing effect of international social President Wilson in his proclamations showed clearly that he conpropaganda, and after the autumn of 1894 he pleaded repeatedly sidered the person of the emperor to be a real obstacle to the in his speeches that the revolutionary movement must be fought, conclusion of peace, Prince Max, in agreement with the majonty and called on his ministers to bring in fresh emergency legislation of the Reichstag, called upon the emperor to abdicate, a step penalizing all attempts to overthrow the social order and any agita- which was not at first thought to involve the removal of the

tion in favour of class hatred with penal servitude

It was the

differences which this bill evoked among the emperor’s advisers that led to the dismissal of Caprivi in Oct. 1894 and the appoint-

ment of Prince Hohenlohe as imperial chancellor.

Hohenlohe

brought in a bill, which was rejected by the Reichstag in May 1895 The emperor, however, returned again and again. to the

idea but was never able to carry it through.

Another matter which caused hina anxiety was the increasing

Hohenzollern dynasty. The outbreak of the revolution at the beginning of Nov. 1918 and its rapid growth made an immediate decision urgently necessary. As the emperor hesitated, Prince Max acted on his own authority, and on Nov. 9, proclaimed that the

emperor would renounce the throne and the crown prince the succession, and that a regency was to be formed. The victorious Sociahst party, however, was no longer satisfied with these con-

cessions but proclaimed a republic

WILLIAM

618

I.—WILLIAM

The emperor, who was at that time on the western front, was now confronted with a very difficult decision. He might have ventured an attempt to overthrow the revolution by force by detaching a portion of the army on the western front, whose loyalty to the sovereign was not yet shaken

It was, however, doubtful

whether the remainder of this army would be able, meanwhile, to defend Germany’s western frontiers against the increasingly violent attacks of the enemy Or again, he might have placed himself at the head of his army and sought death on the field of battle. Both these were courses which only a strong and confident personality could have taken William II preferred to abandon the army, steal quietly away from the territory of his former empire, and escape to Holland on Nov. 10 His action dealt a fatal blow to the monarchist cause in Germany The minor princes now saw no issue but to capitulate and to abdicate before the revolution On arrival in neutral Holland, Wilham was interned The castle of Doorn was given him as a residence and he hved henceforth in complete retirement from the world During the peace negotiations the idea arose from time to time among Germany’s enemies of demanding his extradition and punishing him for initiating the war, of which he was unjustly accused Finally, however, this idea was abandoned. The most important change m Wilham’s circumstances during these last years was his second marriage, after the death of the Empress Augusta Victoria, with the widowed Princess Hermine of Schonaich-Carolath He used occasionally to receive German visitors in Doorn, but avoided any public appearance

(E. Bra.)

BrsriocrapHy. Wulham II has himself written, Eresgnisse und Gestalten (1922), Eng. trans My Memows (1922); My Early Life (1926); Aus meinem Leben (1927) See Kaiserreden; Reden und Etlasse, Briefe und Telegramme Kaser Wilhelms II (ed A O Klaussmann, t902)' Eng trans, selection, The

German Emperor's Speeches (ed L Elkind, 1904) ; Briefe Wilhelm II. an den Zaren 1894—r9r4 (ed. W Goetz, 1920, Eng trans I D. Levine,

IL.

After the battle of Waterloo, in which Dutch and Belgian troops fought side by side under his command, the congress of Vienna

further aggrandized him by making him sovereign of the territory of Luxembourg with the title of grand duke

Wilham failed to realise that religious, racial and other dy. ferences made the union of the Netherlands and Belgium difficult

He drew up a constitution, which was accepted unanimously by the Dutch, but was rejected by the Belgians, because it contained provisions for hberty of worship The king, however, by a subter-

fuge declared that the fundamental law had been approved

The

new constitution, therefore, started badly, and ıt was soon ey. dent that Wiliam mtended to make his will prevail, and to carry out his projects for what he conceived the social, industrial and

educational welfare of the kingdom regardless of the opposition of Belgian public opinion For the discontent which culminated in the revolt of 1830 see BeLctum History. The Dutch were almost without striking a blow expelled from the country, the strongly fortified seaport of Antwerp alone remaming in ther

hands Had the king consented at once to the admmistratiye autonomy of Belgium, and appointed the prince of Orange gov. ernor of the southern Netherlands, the revolt might perhaps have been appeased William, however, was too proud and too obst:nate to lend himself to such a course

He appealed to the Powers,

who had, in 1815, created and guaranteed the independence of the kingdom of the Netherlands. By the treaty of the eighteen articles, however, concluded at London on June 29, 1831, the kingdom of Belgium was recognized, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was elected king. Whilham refused his assent, and in August suddenly invaded Belgium ‘The Belgian forces were dispersed, and the Dutch would have entered Brussels in triumph but for the intervention of the French Still, however, Wilham declined to recognize the new throne, and he had behind him the unan: mous support of Dutch public opinion For mne years he main-

1921); F. Rachfahl, Kaiser und Reich, 1888-1923 (1913), W. von tained this attitude, and resolutely refused to append his signature Massow, Die deutsche innere Politik unter Kaiser Wilhelm II (1913) ; to the treaty of 1831. His subjects at length grew weary of the J L. de Lanessan, L’empire germanique sous la direction de Bismarck ét de Guillaum: II {=^z3° TI Oncken, Der Friedenspolitik Kaser heavy expense of maintaining a large military force on the Belgian Withelms IT (z518) Wo Retona., Der Kaser ‘igot Dee Grosse Politik der Europaischen Kabinette, r871~rorg (German Fereign O:~-

fice, 1922, etc.); E Ludwig, Wilhelm II (1926

Letters of the Empress Frederick

Fre

(ed F. Ponsonby,

trar~

142%);

1428)

WILLIAM I, (1772-1844), king of the Netherlands, born at

The Hague on Aug 24, 1772, was the son of William V, prince of Orange and hereditary stadtholder of the United Netherlands by Sophia Wilhelmina, princess of Prussia. In 1791 he married Frederica Wilhelmina, daughter of Frederick Wuliam II, king of Prussia, thus cementing very closely the relations between the houses of Orange-Nassau and Hohenzoller> After the ovthretk of war with the French republic in 1793, he cn ingershed hurself in the struggle against the revolutionary arry unJer Dunouriez

by the capture of Landrecies and the relief of Charleroi By the victories of Pichegru the stadtholder and all his family were, however, compelled to leave Holland and seek refuge in England, where the palace of Hampton Court was set apart for their use. He afterwards made Berlin his residence, and took an active part

frontier and in 1839 the king gave way

He did so, however,

on favourable terms and was able to insist on the Belgians yielding up their possession of portions of Limburg and Luxembourg which they had occupied since 1830. A cry now arose in Holland for a revision of the fundamental law and for more liberal institutions; ministerial responsibility was introduced, and the royal control over finance diminished. William, however, disliked these changes, and finding further that his proposed marriage with the countess d’Oultremont, 4 Belgian and a Roman Catholic, was very unpopular, he suddenly abdicated on Oct 7, 1840. After his abdication he married the countess and spent the rest of his life in quiet retirement upon his private estate in Silesia. He died in 1844 See L

Jottsand,

Gudllaume

d Orange

trône des Pays-Bas, E. C. de Gerlache,

avant

son

avénement

au

Hzstoire du royaume des Pays-

Bas depus 1814 jusquen 1830 (3 vols, Brussels, 1842), W. H de Beaufort, De eerste regeeringsjaren van Konting Willem I (Amsterdam, 1886); H. C Colenbrander, De Belgısche Omwenteling (The Hague, 1905); T Juste, Le Soulévement de la Hollande en 1813 et la fondation du royaume des Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1870) , P. Blok, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Volk, vols vir and vui (Leiden, 1907—08) , H T. Colenbrander, Gedenksbukken d algem gesch. v. Netherland, d8-10, Regeering v. Willsam I. (1915-20).

in the unfortunate campaign under the duke of Vork for the reconquest of the Netherlands After the peace of Amiens he had an interview with Napoleon at Paris, and received some territory adjoining the hereditary domains of the house of Nassau in WILLIAM II, (1792-1849), king of the Netherlands, son of Westphalia as a compensation for the abandonment of the stadtholderate and the domains of his house William refused, how- William I., was born at The Hague on Dec. 6, 1792 When he was ever, in 1806, in which year by the death of his father he became three years old his family was driven out of Holland by the prince of Orange, to separate his interests from those of his French republican armies, and lived in exile until r8r3 He was Prussian relatives, and fought bravely at Jena He was therefore educated at the military school at Berlin and afterwards at the despoiled by Napoleon of all his possessions. In 18¢9 he accented University of Oxford He entered the English army, and in 1811, a command in the Austrian army under the rrekd:ke Cher'ee as aide-de-camp to the duke of Wellington, took part in several and was wounded at the battle of Wagram. When Holland rose campaigns of the Peninsular War In 1815 he commanded the in revolt against French dommation in 1813, after eighteen years Dutch and Belgian contingents, and won high commendations of exile he landed at Scheveningen (on Nov 19) and was on Dec for his courage and conduct at the battles of Quatre Bras and 3, proclaimed prince sovereign of the Netherlands His assump- Waterloo, at the latter of which he was wounded. The prince of tion m 1814 of the title of king of the Netherlands was recognized

by the Powers, and by the Treaty of Paris his sovereignty was extended over the southern as well as the northern Netherlands, Belgium being added to Holland “as an increase of territory ”

Orange

married

in 1816

the grand duchess

Anna

Pavlovna,

sister of the tsar Alexander I In 1830, on the outbreak of the Belgian revolution, he went to Brussels, and tried to bring about

a peaceable settlement on the basis of the administrative auton-

WILLIAM

II. WILLIAM

omy of the southern provinces under the house of Orange. His father had given him powers to treat, but afterwards threw him

over and rejected the terms of accommodation that he had proposed He withdrew on this to England and resided there for several months. In April 1831 Wilbam took the command of a Dutch army for the invasion of Belgium, and im a ten-days’ campaign defeated and dispersed the Belgian forces under LeoId I, after a sharp fight near Louvam. His victonous advance was stayed by the intervention of the French. In 1840, on the abdication of his father, he ascended the throne as William IT The peace of 1839 had settled all differences between Holland and

Belgium, and the new king found himself confronted with the task of the reorganization of the finances, and the necessity of

meeting the popular demand for a revision of the fundamental law, and the establishment of the electoral franchise on a wider basis He acted with good sense and moderation, and, although by no means a believer in democratic ideas, he saw the necessity of satisfying public opinion and frankly gave his support to larger measures of reform ‘The fundamental law was altered m 1848 and the Dutch monarchy, from being autocratic, became henceforth constitutional The king’s attitude secured for him the good will and affection of a people, loyal by tradition to the house of

Orange, and the revolutionary disturbances of 1848 found no echo in Holland

Walliam died suddenly on March 17, 1849.

Sce J J. Abbink, Leven van Koning Willem IT. (Amsterdam, 1849) ; J. Bosscha, Het Leven van Willem den Tweede, Koning der Neder-

londen, 1793-1849

(Amsterdam,

1852), P. Blok, Geschiedenis der

Nederlandsche Volk (Leyden, 1908)

WILLIAM

III. (2817-1890), king of the Netherlands, son

of Wilbam II , was born at Brussels on Feb. 19, 1817 He married m 1839 Sophia, daughter of Wilham I, king of Wurttemberg. The marriage was an unhappy one, and ended in complete estrangement. Wiliam had no sympathy with political lberalism, but throughout his long reign of forty-two years, with a constant interchange of ministries and many mmisterial crises, he never had a serious conflict with the states-general He was economical, and gave up a third of his civil list ın order to help forward the task of establishing an equilibrium m the annual budget, and he used his large private fortune to forward schemes of social and industrial progress William’s two sons by his marriage with Sophia of Wurttemberg, Wilam (1841-1879) and Alexander (1843-1884), died unmarried By his second marriage in 1879, with the princess Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont, he had a daughter, Wilhelmina (gv ), who succeeded him William died at the Loo, on Nov 23, 1890

See J, A Brwujne, Geschiedenis van Nederland in onzen tijd. (5 vols., Schiedam, 1889-1906); P Blok, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Voik (Leiden, 1908), vol vii; and G L Keppers, De regeering van Koning Willem III. (Groningen, 1887)

WILLIAM.

(1227-1256), king of the Romans and count of

Holland, was the son of Count Floris IV and his wife Matilda, daughter of Henry, duke of Brabant. He was about six years of age at his father’s death, but his long minority, under the guardian-

ship of his two paternal uncles, was peaceful In 1247 William allowed Pope Innocent IV to proclaim him king of the Romans in opposition to the excommunicated Frederick II , and having taken Arx-la-Chapelle, was crowned there on All Saints’ Day, 1248. He thus became the recognized head of the Guelph party, but even after Frederick’s death he had gained few adherents, when he was

killed on Jan 28, 1256 He was more successful m asserting the tights of John of Avennes, who had married his sister Aleidis, to

the county of Hainaut against John’s mother, Margaret, whom

he defeated decisively at West Kappel in 1253 See A. Ulnch, Geschichte Holland (Hanover, 1882).

WILLIAM

des romischen

Konigs, Wilhelm

von

(1143-1214), king of Scotland, surnamed “the

I.

619

the first definite treaty of alliance between France and Scotland. and with Lous VII. of France assisted Henry’s sons in their revolt against their father in 1173 In return for this aid the younger Henry granted to Wilham the earldom of Northumber-

land, a possession which the latter had vainly sought from the English king, and which was possibly the cause of their first estrangement. However, when ravaging the country near Alnwick, Wiliam was taken prisoner in July 1174, and after a short captivity at Richmond was carried to Normandy, where he purchased his release by assenting in Dec 1174 to the Treaty of Falaise By this arrangement the king and his nobles, clerical and lay, undertook to do homage to Henry and his son; this and other provisions placmg both the church and state of Scotland thoroughly under the suzerainty of England. William’s next quarrel was with Pope Alexander IIL, and arose out of a double choice for the vacant bishopric of St Andrews. But im 1188 William secured a papal bull which declared that the Church of Scotland was directly subject only to the see of Rome, thus rejecting the claims to supremacy put forward by the English archbishop. This step was followed by the temporal independence of Scotland, which was one result of the continual poverty of Richard I In Dec. 1189, by the Treaty of Canterbury, Richard gave up all claim to suzerainty over Scotland in return for 10,000 marks, the Treaty of Falaise being thus definitely annulled In 1186 at Woodstock William married Ermengarde de Beaumont, a cousin of Henry II., and peace with England being assured three years later, he turned his arms with success against the turbulent chiefs in the north and west Soon after John’s accession m 1199 the Scottish king asked for the earldom of Northumberland, which John, lke his predecessors, refused; but the threatened war did not take place, and ın r200 William did homage to the English king at Lincoln with the ambiguous phrase “saving his own rights.” War again became imminent in

1209; but a peace was made at Norham, and about three years later another amicable arrangement was reached William died at Stirling on Dec 4, 1214, and was buried at Arbroath He left one son, his successor Alexander II , and two daughters, Margaret and Tsabella, who were sent to England after the treaty of 1209, and who both married English nobles, Margaret becoming the wife of Hubert de Burgh He also left some illegitimate children. See E W Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (Edinburgh, 1862); Lord Hailes, Annals of Scotland (Edinburgh, r819); A Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900) ; also SCOTLAND History

WILLIAM I. (d. 1166), king of Sicily, son of King Roger IT.

by Elvira of Castile, succeeded in 1154. His title “the Bad” probably expresses the bias of the historian Falcandus and the baronial class against the king and the official class by whom he was guided William was far inferior in character and energy to his father, however, and the real power in the kingdom was at first exercised by Maio of Bari, whose title ammiratus ammiratorum was the highest m the realm Maio continued Roger’s policy of excluding the nobles from the administration, and sought also to curtail the liberties of the towns The barons were encouraged to revolt by Pope Adnan IV., whose recognition Wiliam had not yet sought, by the emperor Manuel and the emperor Frederick II At the end of 1155 Greek troops recovered Bari and began to besiege Brindisi. William, however, destroyed the Greek fleet and army at Brindisi (May 28, 1156) and recovered Bari. Adrian came to terms at Benevento (June 18, 1256), abandoned the rebels and confirmed William as king, and in 1158 peace was made with the Greeks These diplomatic successes were probably due to Maio; on the other hand, the African dominions were lost to the The policy of the minister led to a Almohads (11s6—1160) general conspiracy, and in November 1160 he was murdered in leader of the Sicilian nobles. For Bonello, Matthew by Palermo a while the king was in the hands of the conspirators, but the

Lion,” was the second son of Henry, earl of Huntingdon (d. 1152), and the army rallied round him; he recovered power, a son of King David I, and became king of Scotland on the death people Sicihan rebels, and in a short campaign reduced the of his brother, Malcolm IV, in Dec 1165, being crowned at crushed the Regno Thus freed from feudal revolts, William conScone during the same month. After his accession to the throne rest of the to men trained in Maio’s school, such as the government the fided king, English Wilham spent some time at the court of the d’Agelio. He was the champion of the II; then, quarrellmg with Henry, he arranged in 1168 grand notary, Matthew

Henry

620

WILLIAM

II.—WILLIAM

true pope against the emperor, and Alexander III. was installed in the Lateran in November 1165 by a guard of Normans. Wil. ham died on May 7, 1166. WILLIAM II. (d. 1189), king of Sicily, was only thirteen placed was he when I William father Ins of years old at the death under the regency of his mother, Marguerite of Navarre Until 1171 the government was controlled first by the chancellor Stephen of Perche (1166-1168), and then by Walter Ophamil, archbishop of Palermo, and Matthew d’Ajello, the vice-chancellor William’s character 1s indistinct; yet his reign is marked by an ambitious foreign policy and a vigorous diplomacy Champion of the papacy and im secret league with the Lombard cities he defied the common enemy, Frederick II In 1174 and 1175 he made treaties with Genoa and Venice and in February 1177 he married Joan, daughter of Henry II. of England To secure peace with the emperor he sanctioned the marrage of his aunt Constance, daughter of Roger II, with Frederick’s son Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry VI , causing a general oath to be taken to her as his successor ın case of his death without heirs This step, fatal to the Norman kingdom, was possibly taken that William might devote himself to foreign conquests He now attacked Egypt, but Saladin’s arrival before Alexandria, forced the Sicilians to re-embark in disorder On the death of Manuel Comnenus (1180), Wilham took up the old design and feud agamst Constantinople Durazzo was captured (June 11, 1185), Thessalonica surrendered in August, and the troops then marched upon the capital, but were overthrown on the banks of the Strymon (Sept 7, 1185). Thessalonica was abandoned and in 1189 William made peace with Isaac, abandoning all the conquests He now planned to induce the crusading armies of the West to pass through his territories, and seemed about to play a leading part in the third Crusade His admiral Margarito kept the eastern Mediterranean open for the Franks, and forced Saladin to retire from before Tripoli in the spring of 1188. In November 1189 William died, childless

WILLIAM I, [Freorcu Kart] (1781-1864), king of Wurt-

temberg, son of Frederick, afterwards King Frederick I temberg, was born at Luben, Silesia, on Sept 27, 1781 years he took no part in public hfe owing to a quarrel father whose deference to Napoleon displeased him; but 15 commanded an army corps in the Wars of Liberation

of WurtIn early with his in 1814with dis-

tinction. On his accession in 1816 he realized the expectations formed of him as a liberal-minded ruler by promulgating a constitution (1819), under which serfdom and obsolete class privileges were swept away, and by issumg ordinances which greatly assisted the financial and industrial development and the educational prog-

ress of his country In 1848 he issued further liberal decrees, but his relations with the legislature having become hopelessly strained over questions of Germanic policy, Wilham repudiated the enactments of 1848-49 and summoned a packed parliament (1851), which re-enforced the code of 1819. William encountered similar difficulties as a champion of Germanic union and of the rights of the Middle Germanic States against encroachments by Austria and Prussia In 1820-23 he protested against Mettermich’s treatment of the minor German States and in 1848-49 opposed the proposals for a Germanic union made by the Frankfort Diet, for fear of granting Prussia excessive preponderance Thus he gradually became the ally of Austria against Prussia. Nevertheless his devotion to the cause of Germanic union is proved by the eagerness with which he helped the formation of the Zollverein (1828-1830), and ın spite

of his conflicts with his chambers he achieved unusual popularity

with his subjects

He died on June 25, 1864

See Nick, Wilhelm I., Konig von Wurttemberg, und seine Regierung

(Stuttgart, 1864).

WILLIAM (1882_), late Crown Prince of Germany, eldest child of Wiliam II. of Germany, was born at the Marble Palace, Potsdam, on May 6, 1882 He began his military career by serving in the 1st Foot Guards, and accompanied the Kaiser

to England (Jan. 19-Feb 5, rg0r) on the occasion of the funeral of Queen Victoria On June 6, 1903 he married the Duchess Cecilia, sister of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin ‘ There

were five children, four sons and one daughter, of the marriage

His political and personal interventions in public affairs gave some trouble in the years preceding the War

On the outbreak of the World War the Crown Prince was appointed to the command of the V Army in the west

In Sept

r915 he received the command of an army group, and he was nomunally in charge of the German operations against Verdun His flight to Holland speedily followed that of the Emperor in Nov. 1918, and he went to Wieringen, an island m the Zinder Zee. He formally renounced on Dec 1, 1918 his nights of succes.

sion to the crowns of Prussia and the German Empire

The ey.

Crown Princess and her children, however, continued to reside at Potsdam On Nov. ro, 1923 he suddenly returned to his

estate at Oels in Silesia

There was strong feeling in France

that the German Government should be compelled to surrender him, but the matter was settled by a German note which stated the act of renunciation of the ex-Crown Prince and declared that the

return of the Kaiser would not be permitted declared

that they, would

hold

Germany

The Alhed Powers responsible for any

consequences which might arise, but the ex-Crown Prince himself declared that he would take no part in politics His memoirs Ich suche die Wahrheit were published in 1922 (English translation by R. Butler, J seek the truth, 1926) WILLIAM. (1533-1584), surnamed the Silent, count of Nassau and prince of Orange, was born at the castle of Dillenburg in Nassau on April 25, 1533, eldest of the five sons of William count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg (see Nassau). The boy's father had decided leanmgs towards Lutheranism, his mother was a convinced adherent of the new faith So it was not without hesitation that the emperor sanctioned an arrangement by which the

great heritage of the Nassau family in his Netherlands dominions and the princedom of Orange would fall to their son, and when he did sanction it, it was on condition that the old count should surrender all claims to the guardianship and that the boy should be educated in the Netherlands, with a household of Netherland-

ers, and as a Catholic To this arrangement the father consented Wilham of Orange thus grew up, at Brussels and at Breda, a great Netherlands nobleman, marked out for a career in the service of the ruler. In 1551 he married Anna van Buren, an heiress of the Egmont family, adding estates in Holland to his already extensive possessions. Charles V. distinguished him with his favour Philip IL, too, began by creating Orange a member of the Brussels Council of State, and before he left the Netherlands for Spain, 1559, he made him his governor (Stadtholder) in the provinces of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht If William of Orange’s career was soon so startlingly to deviate from the lmes of tradition laid down for him by his predecessors, it was due in the first place to the different relationships in which, in his trme, the monarchy had come to stand with respect to the Netherlands. The creation of a united Netherlands state had been the historical task of the Burgundian dynasty By successive marriages of Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, with Maxmilian of Habsburg, and of their son, Philip the Fair, with Johanna of Spam, thet state had become connected with an empire with which ir hec few mtoresis 1m cor mon Under Charles V already this had created many difficulties, while his son Philp II looked upon the Netherlands merely as an outpost of the Spanish imperialist policy The high nobility of the Netherlands were quick to resent the anti-national tendencies of Philip’s government at Brussels. After the king’s departure it was carned on by his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, as his regent, but the real force behind her was the bishop of Arras, later archbishop of Mechlin and cardinal, the Franc-Comtois Granvelle, who was made president of the Counal

of State

Between that zealous and docile minister and the proud,

unruly nobles a bitter struggle was soon in progress, in which Orange, with the counts of Egmont and Horn and others, played

a conspicuous part When Orange and Egmont stayed away from the Council of State as a protest against Granvelle’s presencé there the public realized that grave issues had been raised In

1564 Philip gave way and ordered Granvelle to depart, whereupon the Regent tried to govern with the noblemen of the Council of

WILLIAM State It was a victory for the national cause, but at the same tme 1t was a victory for class interests. One question, which aggravated the difficulties between the ruler and the Netherlands people considerably, had suddenly become of paramount importance when the dismissal of the cardinal

seemed to indicate a slackening of purpose on the part of the distant king All through Charles V’s reign Lutheranism had been severely kept under. To the Lutheran heresy Calvinism, spreading northward from France, was now added Public opinion mm the Netherlands was generally averse from the savage methods of suppression imposed on the government by Philp Wulham of Orange never was a very devout Catholic. He had maintained close relations with his Lutheran kinsmen in Germany His brother Louis, particularly, who spent much of his time at Orange’s court at Brussels or Breda, had great influence over him In 1561, Anna van Buren having died ın 1558, the prince had contracted a matrimonial alliance with German Protestantism m the person of Anna of Saxony, daughter of the late Elector Maurice,

the betrayer and victor of Charles V In order to gam the present elector’s consent, as well as to quiet the objections and suspicions

of Philip IL’s Government, Orange had secretly given to both sides flatly contradictory assurances The episode shows hbis character on its least attractive side But at any rate his position helped him to reahze how impossible it was, in the Netherlands, surrounded by countries where Protestantism had in some form or

621

wed the forces of the Sea Beggars, whose booty went to swell the prince’s war chest New hope was born when after the peace of St Germain (Aug 1570) they seemed to win influence at the court of France. Louis of Nassau and Coligny inspired Charles IX with plans of war and conquest against Spain, and ıt was in the expectation of French help tbat Orange in 1572 repeated the attempt of 1568 and invaded the Netherlands with an army collected in Germany ‘The St. Bartholomew’s massacre, which overthrew Huguenot influence at court dashed his hopes Again he had to disband his army and to leave Alva in possession But this time there had been a response to his mvasion Not the central province of Brabant, kept quiet by the presence of Alva’s army, but a number of towns in the outlying northern provinces had risen agamst the Spaniards The surprise capture of the Brill by a fleet of Sea Beggars had started the movement. Now that his great plans in conjunction with France had come to nothing, the prince decided to join the Holland and Zeeland rebels, who had proclaimed him as their Stadtholder again It seemed a forlorn hope Compared with Flanders and Brabant, Holland and Zeeland at that time seemed poor and distant regions The decision was one of the great moments of his career. For four heroic years he shared the anxieties and distress of the two maritime provinces, stubbornly holding out against the Spanish army sent to subdue them The States assemblies of Holland and Zeeland, which were almost entirely composed of burghers and of Calvimsts, placed complete confidence in the great nobleman who had lost his fortune and his position for the national cause. In 1573 the prince himself joined the Reformed Church Meanwhile he led the desperate resistance against the Spamards The relief of Leyden in 1574 was to a large extent due to his untiring efforts Yet in 1576, with the Spaniards at Haarlem and Amsterdam as well as at Middelburg and Zieriksee, the two provinces were near

other achieved some sort of recognition, and always open to influences from outside, to enforce a rigid Catholic supremacy. He said so boldly ın the Council of State, but ıt was in vain that he and his friends urged the king to concede some degree of toleration When Philp, after long delay, by the famous letters from Legovia, ordered more relentless persecution than ever, Orange, realizing the umpotence of the Council of State, countenanced the action of his brother Lows, and Hendrik van Brederode, who or- succumbing, when the situation underwent a dramatic change The Spanish governor, who had succeeded Alva in 1574, ganized the lower nobility to petition the governess for hberty of conscience. The question was thus brought before the public and Requesens, unexpectedly died The Spanish soldiery, long unpaid, mutinied They evacuated their hard-won posts in Holland and excitement raised to fever pitch. Most of the petitioners were undoubtedly good Catholics, but Zeeland and came south to live on the riches of Brabant The suddenly there now occurred the outbreak by extreme Calvinists, Spanish Government in the Netherlands practically broke down known as the Breaking of the Images, which brought about a The States of Brabant summoned a meeting of the States-General violent reaction While the nobles lately in opposition ranged to Brussels, and negotiations between this nominally loyal body themselves behind Margaret of Parma to restore order, Philip pre- and the two rebel provinces were started at Ghent for the purpose pared to send to the Netherlands an army under the duke of Alva of combining against the Spanish soldiers The conclusion of the to chastise them and to introduce absolutism In the mterval be- Pacification of Ghent (Nov. 8, 1576) seemed to restore the unity fore the arrival of the terrible duke there was much talk of organ- of the Netherlands, threatened since the separate rebellion of izing resistance The prince of Orange was in doubt as to the Holland and Zeeland But an ominous nft threatened that unity. The Pacification, régime to be expected, yet he shrank from co-operating with the only party ready to throw themselves into the fight, the Calvin- while suspending the edicts against heresy, had safeguarded the supremacy of Catholicism in all the provinces save Holland and ists As viscount of Antwerp he prevented the Antwerp Calvinists from going to the assistance ofa little army of their co-religionists Zeeland Calvinist refugees were now flocking back to the towns that was cut to pieces by Margaret of Parma’s troops under the of Flanders and Brabant, and they were not content with toleration, they wanted the same position of supremacy which their cowalls of the town (Match 1547) The first period of Orarge s career ended in failure. After the religionists in the two rebel provinces, in the stress of revolution encouragement he had given to the national opposition movement and under the immediate menace of foreign attack, had managed his conduct at the moment of crisis 15 disconcerting To under- to secure This imitated the nobility, who in the south had greater stand it one has to remember that the Calvinists still were a tiny power and were everywhere slow to embrace Calvinism, while the minority, suspected and hated as a menace to society no less than French-speaking provinces, like Hainaut, or Lille, Orchies and to the Church A movement m which they took the lead had, at Douai, were now almost sohdly Catholic. Orange was fully alive to the danger of these elements gravitating back to the king. that moment, little chance of becommg truly national, and WilBut m many respects his position was a thoroughly false one. ham of Orange, who was not yet personally m sympathy with Calvinism, was then and always concerned before everything else Circumstances had ever since 1567 conspired to dnve him into closer association with Calvinism The Calvinists who had obwith preserving national unity. From Germany, where he had retired, the prince kept in touch tained control in the provinces of Holland and Zeeland did not with adherents in the Netherlands, and with money collected from dream of sacrificmg any of their local supremacy to the national them and raised in ns Nassau lands, he brought together an army compromises elaborated at Brussels. Yet those two provinces contmued to afford to the prince his firmest point dappui in the with which he attempted to deliver the Netherlands from Alva’s

shifting conditions of Netherlands polities Early m 1579, the tyranny (1568) The attempt failed miserably The N etherlands, Walloon provinces, incensed at the aggressiveness of the Flemish cowed, did not rise, and the army had, for lack of money, soon to Help, as Orange realized, could only come from Calvinists, had deserted the national cause and at Arras had made

be disbanded

outside, and nothing was to be expected from German Lutheran-

ism He now entered into close relations with the French Huguenot leaders, for some years taking part in their campaigns agaist

the French Government

At La Rochelle Lows of Nassau organ-

their peace with the king’s new governor, the duke of Parma, who could now from that foothold in the south set about re-conquering the rest of the Netherlands Did not the event, which was followed by the loss of the north-eastern province of Groningen, go

622

WILLIAM

II.—WILLIAM

be to prove that the Calvinists were the only party who could counted on to hold out against all the blandishments of Parma? and France, of help the enlist to more When Orange tried once of the Catholic duke of Anjou was clothed with the sovereignty the Netherlands from which in 1581 the States-General solemnly deposed Philip II., the prince’s particular connection with the two maritime provinces was expressly safeguarded And however earnestly he deplored and tried to restrain the intolerant fanatıcismn of the Calvinists in Flanders and Brabant, all the tıme he saw himself forced underhand to work with them, thereby adding to the grievances of the Catholics, although at the same time Calvinist ministers denounced him as a godless timeserver The last years of William the Silent’s life were a tragic struggle The unity of the Netheragainst overpowering circumstances lands was broken beyond repair, and the area supporting the naStates-General had to The away. tional cause kept crumbling leave Brussels in 1578, they stayed at Antwerp for a short while, then moved behind the waters to Middelburg, and finally to Delft, where William the Silent resided from 1583 onwards His main efforts throughout those years were directed towards preserving the southern provinces, until then the principal provinces of the Netherlands, and of which Brabant had such close associations with him personally, and towards obtaming foreign help. The conclusion of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 met with his disapproval, as 1t seemed to be, on the part of the more easily defensible regions north of the mvers, an abandonment of the wider union of the Pacvfication He had soon, nevertheless, to fall back upon it, and then did his best to make it comprehensive, nor were his efforts without success, for in the course of that year and the next all the towns of Flanders and several of those of Brabant entered it In rg8r Philip II had promulgated a ban against Wiliam of Orange, by which a high reward was promised to anyone who would deliver the world of this traitor. A year later a serious attempt was made on his hfe, but it was only ın 1584 that the ban achieved its purpose On July 9, Balthazar Gérard, a Burgundian, shot the prince at Delft. William was 51 years of age Some years after the prince’s death, owing to the assistance

given by England and to Philp’s mjudicious mterference in the French civil war, the turn came ın the tide of Netherlands affairs, and although of the country south of the rivers little was recovered, at least the country north of them was secured and blossomed out into the republic of the Seven United Provinces Of that state William the Silent is truly called the father. Yet ıt should not be forgotten that this was not the object which he had in view and that the splht of the Netherlands means that his life’s work was not accomphshed. Apart from his success and failure m Netherlands politics, Wilham the Silent will always be honoured as a man who nobly struggled and suffered for the cause of liberty of conscience His personality, genial and humane, was fully worthy

of the great part he played There 1s something exceptionally attractive in his evolution from a frivolous courtier into the frugal and hard-working leader of a seemingly hopeless revolt, harassed but patient, courageous in the face of accumulating disaster, while the steadfastness with which at a time of furious religious fanaticism he preached moderation and forbearance has a heroic quality that is not disposed of by observing that his outlook was secular. His correspondence proves that in his later years religion was a real thing to him, and his attachment to the Reformed Church was sincere See Groen van Prinsterer, Archives ou correspondance inédzte de la Mazson d’Orange-Nassau, Gachard, Correspondance de Guillaume le Tacıturne, Apologie du Prince d'Orange, Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic; Putnam, Welkam the Silent; Frum, Het Voorspel van den tachizgjarigen oorlog, and other essays, Rachfahl, Wilhelm van Oranten (3 vols. to 1572, no more appeared) ; P. J. Blok, Wellem de Eerste (2 vols, Amsterdam, 1919-20) (P Ge)

WILLIAM

II. (1626-1650), prince of Orange, born at The

Hague on May 27, 1626, was the son of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, and his wife Amalia von Solms, and grandson of Wilham the Silent By the act of survivance passed in 1631 the offices and digmties held by Frederick Henry were made hereditary in bis family On May 12, 1641 William married, in the royal chapel at Whitehall, Mary, prmncess royal of England, eldest

daughter of King Charles I At the time of the wedding ip bridegroom was not yet fifteen years old, the bride was five years younger. Wiliam from his early youth accompanied his father in his campaigns, and already in 1643 lighly distinguished himself

m a brilhant cavalry fight at Burgerhout (Sept 5) On the death of Frederick Henry William succeeded him At the moment of bis accession to power the negotiations for a separate treaty of peace with Spain were almost concluded, and peace was actually

signed at Munster on Jan 30, 1648

By this treaty Spain recog.

nized the independence of the United Netherlands and made large concessions to the Dutch Willam did his utmost to prevent the ratification, but failed He opened secret negotiations with France in the hope of securing the armed assistance for a war of ag. grandisement against the Spanish Netherlands and ofa restoration

of his brother-in-law, Charles II, to the throne of England The states of Holland, on the other hand, were determined to thwart

any attempts for a renewal of war, and insisted, in defiance of the authority of the captain-general supported by the states-general in virtue of their clam to be a sovereign province, in disbanding a large part of the regiments in their pay A prolonged controversy arose, which ended im the states-general in June 1650 commissioning the prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland and secure a recognition of their authority,

The mission was unsuccessful

Amsterdam refused any hearng

at all Wullam resolved therefore to use force and crush resistance. On July 30 six leading members of the states of Holland were seized and imprisoned in the castle of Loevestem On the same day an attempt was made to occupy Amsterdam with troops, The citizens were, however, warned in time, and the gates closed Wilham’s tnumph was nevertheless complete ‘The states of Holland submitted The prince entered into fresh negotiations with the French government, and a draft treaty was drawn up. But Wilbam died of small-pox on Nov. 6, 1650. A week after his death his widow gave birth to a son, who was one day to become William III, king of England

WILLIAM

IV., landgrave of Hesse (1532-1592), was the

son and successor of the landgrave Philip the Magnanimous He took a leading part in safeguarding the results of the Reformation endeavouring to unite all sections of Protestantism against the Catholic reaction As ruler he displayed common-sense and toler ance, patronized art and science; placed the finances of his country on a sound basis and secured it against subdivision bya law of primogeniture. He was chiefly famous, however, as a pioneer ir astronomical research See R Wolf, “Astronomische Mittheilungen,” No 45 (Vrerteljahrs schrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft ın Zurich, 1878)

WILLIAM

[Frederick Henry], Prince of Wied (1876-

)

born at Neuwied on March 26, 1876, was 3rd son of Willian Prince of Wied and Mary Princess of Holland, grand-nephew o

the emperor Wilham I and nephew of Queen Elizabeth of Ru

mania An able soldier, he became a captain of the general staff ii 1911, and ın 1913 commanded a squadron of the 3rd Uhlans of th

Guards He married m 1906 Sophie, Princess of Schoenburg Waldenburg, and had two children, Princess Marie Eleonor (1909 and Prince Charles Victor (1913). In Feb 1914, mspited by idealsm rather than ambition, he accepted the Albanian thron against the Kaiser’s advice, and landed on March 7. Ttaly, France Russia, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Turkey and Essad Pashi intrigued against him Essad possessed troops, and the Mbret

(King), who had none, felt obliged to conciliate him with th

Ministries of War and Interior While the Greeks ravage southern Albania ah insurrection confined the Mbreti to Dura Essad was exiled in May; but foreign agents, protected by th

Capitulations, paralysed the royalists

In Aug

1924 Austn

abandoned him because he determined to preserve neutrality Besieged, and without resources, he reluctantly left Albania 01 Sept 3. He didnot abdicate Early in 1915 the insurgents, findin, they had been victims of intrigue, asked him to return, but thi Austria prevented

He was attached as an Albanian and foreigne

to a German divisional staff in Poland during the World War, O

the accession of Ahmed Zogu in 1928 Prince William declared tha he would not return unless unanimously invited (J Sw.)

WILLIAM

OF MALMESBURY—WILLIAM

WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY

(c. ro80~¢. 1143), Eng-

lish lustorian of the 12th century, was born about the year 1080, in the south country He was a monk of Malmesbury, and assisted Abbot Godfrey (1081-1105) im collecting a library for the use of the community.

The education which he received at Malmes-

bury included a smattering of logic and physics, but his principal studies were on moral philosophy and history. He made a collection of the histories of foreign countries, and decided to write

a popular account of English history, modelled on the great work of Bede

Wham

OF WYKEHAM

62 3

Korting, Wilhelms von Poitiers Gesto Guilelmi ducis (Dresden, 1875) ,

and A. Mohnier, Les Sources de Phistowre de France, tome ui, (1903).

WILLIAM OF ST. CALAIS (Cariter) (d 1096), bishop of Durham and chief counsellor of William Rufus, 2 Norman monk and pror of St Calais in Mame, received the see of Durham from the Conqueror (1081), He is remembered as the prelate who designed the existing cathedral, and for his reform of

ecclesiastical discipline

His pohtical career is less creditable. He

died in Jan, 1096

produced about 1120 the first edition of his

See E. A. Freeman, Wilkam Rufus (1882), and Symeon of Durham, vol 1, pp 170-195 (Rolls ed).

cated to Earl Robert of Gloucester; another patron was Bishop

III of England, was a son of John’s widow, Isabelle of Angouléme, by her second marriage. Wilham came to England with his brothers in 1247, and at once became a court favourite He mar-

Gesta regum, followed by the first edition of the Gesta pontificum (1125). A second edition of the Gesta regum (1127) was dedi-

Roger of Salsbury

He was offered the abbacy of Malmesbury

m 1140, but he preferred to remain a simple bebliothecarius His one public appearance was made at the council of Winchester

(1141), in which the clergy declared for the empress Matilda About this date he undertook to write the Historia novella, giving an account of events since 1125 This work breaks off abruptly at the end of 1142 William is the best English historian of his time His con-

tempt for the annahstic form makes him at times careless in his chronology and arbitrary m his method of arranging his material; but he is, however, an authority from 1066 onwards; many telling anecdotes, many shrewd judgments on persons and events, are found in his pages The standard edition of the Gesta regum and the Heston novella s that of W Stubbs in the “Rolls” series (zr vol, m 2, 1887-89), the second part contains a valuable mtroduction on the sources and value of the chronicler The Gesta pontificum was edited for the “Rolls” serres by N G. S. A Hamilton (London, 1870) from a manuscript which he was the first to identify as the archetype. Another work, De antiquitate Glastonzensis ecclesiae (ap, 63-1126), is printed ın Gale’s Scriptores XV (Oxford, 1691). Wharton in the second volume of his Angka sacra (London, 1691) gives considerable portions of a Lfe of Wulfstan which 1s an amplified translation of an Anglo-Saxon biography Finally Stubbs ın his Memorials of St. Dunstan (“Rolls” senes, London, 1874) primts a Vita S Dunstani

which was written about 1126

WILLIAM

OF NEWBURGH

(4d. ¢. 1198), or, as he is

sometimes styled, Guilielmus Parvus, English ecclesiastic and chronicler, was a canon of the Augustinian priory of Newburgh in the North Riding of Yorkshire He was born about 1136, and hved at Newburgh from his boyhood Shortly before 1196 he began his Hestoria rerum Anglicarum. This work, divided into five books, covers the period 1066-1198. A great part of it 1s derived from known sources, especially from Henry of Huntingdon, Jordan Fantosme, the Jitnerartum regis Ricardt, or its French onginal, and a lost account, by Anselm the chaplain, of the captivity of Richard I, The value of Newburgh’s work lies in his estimates of men and situations His political msight and his impartiality entitle him to a high place among the historians of the rath century See the editions of the Historza by H C Hamilton (2 vols, 1856) and by R Howlett m Chronscles of the Rezgns of Stephen, etc. (“Rolls” series, 1884-85), vols 1 and u In the latter edition a continuation, the Annales Furnesienses (1190-1298), composed by a monk of Furness Abbey, Lancashire, 1s also given See also Sr T D. Hardy’s Descriptive Catalogue (“Rolls” series, 1865), 1 p 512, and

H E Salter in the Enghsh Historical Review, vol, xxu. (1907 (H.W C.D)

WILLIAM

OF POITIERS

(c, 1020-¢

1090), Norman

chronicler, was born at Préaux, near Pont Audemer, and became

chaplain to Duke William (William the Conqueror) and arch-

deacon of Lisieux

He wrote an eulogistic life of the duke, the

earlier and concluding parts of which are lost; and Ordericus

Vitals, who gives a short biography of him in his Historia ecclesi-

astica, says that he also wrote verses. William’s Gesta Gudlelma IT

ducis Normannorum, the extant part of which covers the period

between 1047 and 1068, is valuable for details of the Conqueror’s life, although untrustworthy with regard to affairs in England. The Gesta was first published by A Duchesne ın the Hzstoriae Normannorum

scriptores

(1619), and it is also found im the Serzp-

tares rerum gestarum Willelmi Conquestorıis of J A Giles (London,

1845). There 1s a French translation m tome xxx of Guizot’s Collecton des mémoires relatifs @ Phistowe de France

(1826).

See G.

WILLIAM

OF VALENCE

ried Joan de Munchensi,

(d 1296), brother of Henry

the heiress to the Pembroke

estates,

whence he 1s sometimes styled earl of Pembroke In 1258 he was attacked by the baronial opposition and forced to leave England. He returned in 1261, after Henry III had repudiated the Provisions of Oxford, and fought on the royal side at Lewes (1264). Escapmg from the pursuit of the victorious Montfortians, he later appeared at the head of a small army in Pembrokeshire. This gave the signal for the outbreak of a new civil war which ended with the defeat of Montfort at Evesham (1265), Valence accompanied Prince Edward to the Holy Land and, in later years, became a trusted agent of the crown, especially in the Welsh wars. The position of his estates made him the natural leader of all expeditions undertaken against Llewelyn from South Wales He was also employed in Aquitaine He died at Bayonne in 1296. See R. Pauli’s Geschichte von England, vol ui (Hamburg, 1853) , W. H. Blaauw, Barons’ War (1871).

WILLIAM

OF WYKEHAM

(1323?-1404), English lord

chancellor and bishop of Winchester. Wilham Wykeham was born at Wickham, Hants, in 1323 or 1324, son of John, whose name

was probably Wykeham, but nicknamed Long. He was educated at Winchester, probably at the grammar school there, and became undernotary to the constable of Winchester castle, probably Robert of Popham, who was appointed in 1340. He was transferred to the king’s court in 1343. In 1350 he appears to

have been keeper of the manor of Rochford, Hants

His name

appears in various other transactions in the county during the next few years; in 1356 he is first recorded as being directly employed by the king as clerk of the works to the manors of Henley and Easthampstead In October he was appointed to the same office at Windsor, which he held until 1361 Wykeham was already receiving wages as king’s clerk in 1357,

and he was richly rewarded for his various services by a series of benefices. He received the rectory of Pulham, Norfolk, in 1357, a canonry and prebend at Lichfield in 1359, though he did not obtam, actual possession in either case without a struggle In 1359 also, after the French raid on Winchelsea, he was placed in charge of the repair of the castles on the Kent coast and of many manors. Meanwhile he had been appointed a clerk of the exchequer (Oct. 1362) and keeper of the forests south of the Trent. In 1364 he became privy seal On Oct. 13, 1366, Wykeham was named bishop of Winchester. He was consecrated in Oct, 1367, and enthroned in 1368, Meanwhile he had been made (Sept 17, 1367), chancellor of the kingdom Parlament was inclined to lay the blame of the disasters of the French war on the clerical advisers of the Crown, and in 1372 Wykeham resigned the chancellorship, Wykeham must have amassed a large fortune by his various

employments and benefices; his application of that fortune has made him revered by successive generations of “Wykehamists ” He began buying lands for the endowment of his great foundations of Winchester college, Winchester, and of New college, Oxford, in 1367. In 1373 he entered into an agreement with

the master, Richard of Herton, “Grammaticus,” for ten years faithfully to teach and instruct the poor scholars whom the bishop maintained at his own cost, in the art of grammar, and to provide an usher to help hım He was diverted from his foundations by public affairs, being named by the Commons one of the eight peers to discuss with them the state of the realm.

WILLIAMS

624.

Lord Latimer and Alice Perrers, the king’s mistress, were impeached (1376), and Wykeham took a leading part against Latimer.

At the dissolution of parliament a council of nine, of whom

Wykeham was one, was appointed to assist the king But on June 8, the Black Prince died Alice Perrers returned Jobn of Gaunt called a council (Oct. 16) to impeach Wykeham on articles which alleged misapplication of the revenues, oppressive fines on the leaders of the free companies, taking bribes for the release of the royal French prisoners, especially of the duke of Bourbon, who helped to make him bishop, failing to send relief to Ponthieu and making illegal profits by buymg up Crown debts cheap He was condemned on one only, that of halving a fine of £80 paid by

of the lords appellant in 1388

When Richard IT took power o

himself on May 3, 1389, he at once made Wykeham chancello

with Brantingham of Exeter again as treasurer. On Sept. 27, 1391, Wykeham finally resigned the chancel ship

For three years after there are no minutes of the counci

On Nov

24, 1394, Wykeham lent the king the sum of froo

(equivalent to £30,000 now), which same sum or another £00 he promised on Feb 21, 1395, to repay by midsummer, and dj, so (Pat 18, Rich II pt 1n. m 23, 41). Wykeham was clearh against the assumption by Richard of absolute power He excuse himself from convocation in 1397, and from the subservien parlament at Shrewsbury in 1398 Possibly he took part in the Sir John Grey of Rotherfield for licence to ahenate lands, and revolution of Henry IV He appeared in the privy council fow tımes at the begmnıng of Henry’s reign (Proc. PC i. 100) Ther tampering with the rolls of chancery to conceal the transaction Wykeham’s answer was that he had reduced the fine because it are records of loans by him to Henry IV im the first years of hi was too large, and that he had received nothing for doing so. reign Meanwhile, on Sept 29, 1394, he had begun the recasting Skipworth, a judge of the common pleas, cited a statute under of the nave of the cathedral with Wiliam Wynford, the architect which for any erasure ın the rolls to the deceit of the king 100 of the college, as chief mason, and Simon Membury, an old marks fine was imposed for every penny, and so Wykeham owed Wykehamist, as clerk of the works He died on Sept. 27, 1404, g60,000 marks Wykeham was convicted, bis revenues were aged 80

His effigy in the cathedral chantry and a bust on the groinmng of seized and bestowed (1377) on the young prince Richard On June 21, 1377, Edward III. died Wykeham received full the muniment tower at Winchester college are no doubt authentic pardon, and at once took an active part in the financial affairs of portraits. The pictures at Winchester and New college are late the new king, giving security for his debts and himself lending 500 marks, afterwards secured on the customs (Pat 4 Rich II pt. i, m. 4). He then set to work to buy endowments for Winchester and New colleges On Nov 26 he issued his charter of foundation of “Seynt Marie College of Wynchestre in Oxenford” for a warden and 70 scholars to study theology, canon and civil law and arts, who were temporarily housed in various old halls On March 5, 1380, the first stone was laid of the present buildings, which were entered on by the college on April 14, 1386 The foundation of Winchester was begun with a bull of Pope

Urban VI. on June 1, 1378, enabling Wykeham to found “a certain college he proposed to establish for 70 poor scholars, clerks, who should lve college-wise and study in grammaticals near the city of Winchester,”’ and appropriate to it Downton rectory, one of the richest livings belonging to his bishopric. The bull says that the bishop “had, as he asserts, for several years administered the necessaries of hfe to scholars studying grammar in the same city.” On Oct. 20, 1382, “Seinte Marie College of Wynchestre by Wynchestre” was founded for a warden and “70 pore and needy scholars studying and becoming proficient in grammaticals or the art and science of grammar” The first stone of the buildings was laid on March 26, 1388, and they were entered by the scholars on March 28, 1394, not, as supposed at the quincentenary celebration m 1893, in 1393. While the new buildings were being erected, the college remained in the parish of “St John the Baptist on the Hull” of St. Giles, supplying scholars to New college then as since The foundation was on the model of Merton and Queen’s colleges at Oxford, to which grammar schools were attached by their founders, while fellows of Merton were the first

wardens of both of Wykeham’s colleges

The severance of the

school which was to feed the college exclusively, placimg ıt not

at Oxford, but at Winchester, and constituting it a separate college, was a new departure of great importance in the history of English education Ten fellows and 16 choristers were added in 1394 to the 7o scholars, the choristers attending the school like the scholars, and being generally, during the first three centuries of the foundation, promoted to be scholars The original statutes have not come down to us. Those which governed the colleges until 1857 were made in 1400, They state that the colleges were provided to repair the ravages caused by the Black Death in the ranks of the clergy, and for the benefit of those whose parents could not without help maintain them at the universities © The time which elapsed hetweer the foxmeation ard completion of the colleges 7.»

Fe avtrinurec to Wykebo~ & sreocoips.ion

with politics in the disturbed stote of aff-irs

du> to the papal

schism begun in 1379, 1m hich Engl re »chercd to Urban VI and France to Clement VII, :0 .he rung of the Comz ons in 1381, and the wars with France, Scotland and Spain during John of Gaunt’s ascendancy. Then followed the constitutional revolution

r6th-century productions

Three autograph letters of his, all m

French, and of the years 1364-66, British Museum,

are preserved, one at the

one at the Record Office, a third at New col-

lege, Oxford. See Thomas Martin, Wilhelmi Wicam: (1597); R Lowth, Lefe of Wykeham (1736) , Mackenzie E C. Walcott, Willzam of Wykeham and his Colleges (1852), T F Karby, Annals of Winchester College (1892), G H Moberly, Life of Wykeham (1887); A F. Leach, History of Winchester College (1899); and the Calendars of Patent and Close Rolls, Edward III. and Richard II

WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650), Enghsh archbishop and lord keeper, son of Edmund Wilhams of Conway, was born m March 1582 and educated at St John’s College, Cambridge He received rapid promotion in the Church, and, on the fall of Bacon (1621), was appointed lord keeper, and was at the same time made bishop of Lincoln, retaining also the deanery of Westminster Wilhams took the popular side in condemning arbitrary imprisonment by the sovereign. A case was preferred against him in the Star Chamber of revealing state secrets, to which was added in 1635 a charge of subornation of perjury, of which he had wdoubtedly been guilty and for which he was condemned in 1637 to pay a fine of £10,000, to be deprived of the temporalities of all his benefices, and to be imprisoned during the king’s pleasure He was sent to the Tower In 1639 he was again condemned by the Star Chamber for lbelling Laud, a further heavy fine being imposed for this offence In 1641 he recovered his liberty on the demand of the House of Lords, who maintained that as a peer he was entitled to be summoned to parliament. In December 1641 the king, anxious to conciliate public opinion, appointed Williams archbishop of York. In the same month he was one of the twelve bishops 1mpeached by the Commons for high treason and committed to the Tower. Released on an undertaking not to go to Yorkshire, a promise which he did not observe, the archbishop was enthroned in York Minster in June 1642 On the out-

break of the Civil War, after visiting Conway in the Royalist interest, he jomed the king at Oxford, he then returned to Wales, and finding that Sir John Owen, acting on Charles’s orders, had

seizcd certain property in Conway Castle that had been deposited with the archbishop for safe-keeping, he went over to the Parhamentary side and assisted in the recapture of Conway Castle in November 1646 Willams, who was a geherous benefactor of St John’s College, Cambridge, died on March 25, 1650.

WILLIAMS,

JOHN

(1796-1839), English Nonconformist

missionary, was born at Tottenham near London on June 29, 1796. He was sent by the London Missionary Society in 1816 to Eimeo, i in the Society Islands where he rapidly acquired a knowledge of the native language After staying there for a short time, he finally settled at Raiatea, which became his permanent headquarters His success was remarkable The people rapidly became Chris-

tianized and adopted many of the habits of civilization

Wuhams

WILLIAMS—WILLIAMSBURG travelled unceasmgly among the various island groups, planting stations and setthng native missionaries whom he himself had trained. From the Society Islands he visited the Hervey group, where he discovered, and stayed for a considerable time on, the

island of Rarotonga. Besides establishing Chnstianity and civilization among the people, he also, at their own request, helped

them to draw up a code of laws for civil administration upon the basis of the new religion While at Rarotonga he, with the help of the natives, built himself a 60-ft. ship, “The Messenger of Peace,” within about four months; with this he returned to Raiatea, and made voyages among other island groups, including Samoa and the neighbouring islands Wulhams returned to England in 1834 (having previously visited New South Wales in 1821); and during his four years’ stay at home he had the New Testament, which he had translated into Rarotongan, printed Returning in 1838 to the Pacific, he visited the stations already established by him, as well as several fresh groups He went as far west as the New Hebrides, and, while visiting Eromanga, one of the group, was murdered by canmbal natives Nov 20, 18309. Eis Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands was published mn 1837, and formed an important contribution to out

knowledge of the islands with which the author was acquaimted See Memo: of John Wilhams, by Ebenezer Prout (London, 1843); C S Horne, The Story of the LM.S (1908), pp 41-54.

WILLIAMS, ROGER

(c. 1604-1684), founder of the Col-

ony of Rhode Island in America and pioneer of religious liberty,

son of a merchant tailor, was born about 1604 in London. It seems reasonably certain that he was educated, under the patronage of Sir Edward Coke, at the Charter House and at Pembroke college, Cambridge, where he received his degree in 1627 He devoted himself to theology, and m 1629 was chaplain to Sir Wilham Masham of Otes, High Laver, Essex, but from conscientious scruples, in view of the condition of ecclesiastical affairs in England at the time, refused preferment He soon decided to emigrate to New England, and, with his wife Mary, arrived at Boston early in Feb. 1631. In April he became teacher of the church at Salem, Mass Owing to the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities at Boston, with whose views his own were not in accord, he removed to Plymouth in the summer, and there remained for two years as assistant pastor In Aug. 1633, he again became teacher at Salem. Here he incurred the hostility of the authorities of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by asserting, among other things, that the civil power of a State could properly have no jurisdiction over the consciences of men, thet the King’s patent conveyed no just title to the land of the colonists, which should be bought from its rightful owners, the Indians, and that a magistrate should not tender an oath to an unregenerate man, an oath being, in reality, a form of worship For the expression of these opinions he was formally tried in July 1635 by the Massachusetts general court, and at the next meeting of the general court in October, he not having taken advantage of the opportunity given to him to recant, a sentence of banishment was passed upon him, and he was ordered to leave the jurisdiction of Massachusetts within six weeks. The time was subsequently extended, conditionally, but in Jan. 1636, an attempt was made to seize him and transport him to England Forewarned, he escaped and proceeded alone to Manton’s Neck. At the mstance of the authorities at Plymouth, within whose jurisdiction

Manton’s

Neck

was included, Williams,

with four

companions, who had joined him, founded in June 1636 the frst settlement in Rhode Island, to which, in remembrance of “God’s merciful providence to him in his distress,” he gave the name

Providence. He immediately established friendly relations with the Indians in the vicmity, whose language he had learned, and, in accordance with his principles, bought the land upon which he had settled from the sachems Canonicus (¢c. 1565-1647) and Miantonomo His influence with the Indians, and their implicit confidence in him, enabled him in 1636, soon after arnving at Providence, to induce the Narragansetts to ally themselves with the Massachusetts colomsts at the time of the Pequot War, and thus to render a most effective service to those who had driven him from their community Williams and his companions founded their new settlement upon the basis of complete religious tolera-

tion, with a view to its becoming “a shelter for persons dis for conscience.” (See RuopE IsLAND) Many settlers cam Massachusetts and elsewhere, among others some Anabapti one of whom in 1639 Wilhams was baptized, he baptizing ot turn and thus establishing what has been considered th Baptist Church 1 America Wulhams, however, maintair connection with this church for only three or four mont! then became what was known as a “Seeker,” or Indep In 1643 he went to England, and there in 1644 obta charter for Providence, Newport and Portsmouth, under t “The Providence Plantations in the Narragansett Bay.” turned to Providence in the autumn of 1644 and in 1646 re from Providence to a place now known as Wickford, RI. ] president, or governor, in 1654-57, and an assistant in 166 and 1670 In 1651, with John Clarke (1609-66), he went | land to secure the issue of a new and more explicit chart returned in the summer of 1654, having enjoyed the frienc Cromwell, Milton and other prominent Puritans. Williar at Providence in March 1684, the exact date is unknown. Williams was a vigorous controversialist, and published, during his two visits to England, A Key zmto the Language Indians of America, written at sea on his first voyage to (1643) , reprinted in vol. i of the Collections of tke Rhod Historical Socvety (1827), and in series i vol in. of the Massa Historical Socrety Collectzons; Mr Cotton’s Letter Exami Answered (1644); The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for the | Conscience (1644), Christenings make not Christians (1645), of Highest Consideratzon (1644) ; The Bloudy Tenent yet more (1652) ; Experiments of Spiritual Life and Health ond:Ther I tives (1652); The Hireling Ministry none of Christ’s (165 George Fox Digged out of his Burrowes (1676) ; Something u to a Letier ... of John Leverat Governor of Boston... His writings were republished in the Publicatzons of the gansett Club (Providence 1866—74). Letters and Papers c Williams, r629~82 (Cumited to 18 copies, photostatic repro Boston, 1924) contained manuscripts discovered since. 1 biographies are those by Oscar Straus (1899) and E. J. C (1910). See also J D Knowles, Memoir of Roger Williams 1834); Elton, Life of Roger Wilkams (London 1852; Pı 1853) ; A, B. Strickland, Roger Williams, Prophet and Pionee Liberty (1919); New England Hist and Gen. Register, Oct. 1889, and Jan. 1899; M. C Tyler, History of Americ ature, 1607-1765 (1878) “Letters, concerning Colonial H Rhode Island,” written by Benedict Arnold, Roger Wilh others, Newport Hist Soc Bull (1926). For the best apr his expulsion from Massachusetts, see H M Dexter’s, As Williams and his “Banishment” from the Massachusetts F (Boston, 1876).

WILLIAMSBURG, a city of south-eastern Virgin the county seat of James City county, on the pemnsula the James and the York nvers, 45 m S.E. of Richmond Federal highway 60 and the Chesapeake and Ohio railw

3,778 in 1930. It ıs the seat of the College of Wil Mary, founded in 1693 “to the end that the Church of may be furnished with a seminary of ministers of the g that the yọuth may be piously educated in good letters ners, and that the Christian faith may be propagated am Western Indians”, also the Eastern State Hospital for t (1773) and the centre of many historic associations parish church (the second building of a parish organized

completed in 1717, enlarged in 1752 and restored 1905oldest church in America in continuous use. The old pov azine (built in 1714) has been preserved The court-hc from 1769. The colonial residences include the Peyton house and the George Wythe house, Washington’s hea during the siege of Yorktown. Wilhamsburg, origina Middle Plantation, from its position between the two r founded in 1632. A wall connecting the two rivers wa protect Middle Plantation, and for several years it se refuge from Indian attacks Here on Aug 3, 1676, Bacon held Ins “rebel” assembly and in Jan. 1677, t “rebels” were hanged In 1699 Middle Plantation was

capital

of

the

province

and

renamed

at

that

honour of William TTI and in 1722 it was chartered

The Virginia Gazette, the first newspaper published in. was established here in 1736.

In the capitol on May

Patrick Henry presented his historic resolutions and

WILLIAMSON—WILLIBRORD

626

famous speech against the Stamp Act, and on May 15, 1776, the Virginia Convention passed resolutions urging the Continental Congress to declare for independence. In 1780 the seat of the State government was moved to Richmond, and in 1832 fire destroyed the old capitol. The battle of Williamsburg in the Civil War was an attack (May 5, 1862) by a Union division on a part of the Confederate army in retreat from Yorktown toward Richmond, and resulted in heavy losses

on both sides

A project was

under way in

¥928 (on the initiative and under the direction of the Rev W. A. R Goodwin, who restored Old Bruton church) for restoring the entire colonial area of the city to its 18th century aspect The plans contemplate the preservation of 60 or 70 colomial houses and perhaps 50 others not too discordant in character, and the destruction of about too of more modern construction, including a large new brick school and a church By the beginning of 1928 considerable funds had been raised by Dr Goodwin’s committee; the necessary legislative authonty had been secured for including the public squares and streets in the scheme, and about $2,000,000 had been spent ın acquiring title to private property Since then a contribution of $5,000,000 towards the expense bas been made by John D Rockefeller, Jr. When complete, the restored area will constitute a colonial museum a mile square.

WILLIAMSON,

ALEXANDER

WILLIAM

(1824-

1904), English chemist, was born at Wandsworth, London, on May x, 1824 He first studied medicine, but whilst at Heidelberg he became interested in L Gmeln’s work, and decided to take up chemistry; in 1844 he went to Giessen and worked under Liebig and Bischoff In 1849 he was appointed professor of practical chemistry at University college, London, and from 1855, when Graham resigned, until his retirement in 1887, he also occupied the chair of chemistry He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1855 and awarded a Royal medal in 1862 He died on May 6,

point for other miming towns and camps The county mined 6,458,898 tons of coal ın 1926. This region is one of the “non. union” areas of the bituminous coal-fields, where conflict between

the companies and union sympathizers and organizers resulted in serious civic disturbances in 1920~21. The city was founded in 1895 and incorporated in 1896

WILLIAMSPORT, a city of central Pennsylvania, USA

the county seat of Lycoming county; on the north bank of the

west branch of the Susquehanna river, 70m N. by W. of Hams. burg

Itis on Federal highways zrrz and 220, and 1s served by the

New York Central, the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways and motor-bus lmes Pop (1920) 36,198 (91% native white):

1930 Federal census (after annexations of territory, and including part of the contiguous township of Loyalsock) 45,729. The city is

well placed on a high plain, nearly surrounded by hills, and there

is much beautiful scenery in the vicinity It 1s the metropohs of a large area, a centre for tourists, and a manufacturing city with some 85 diversified industries, producing goods valued in 1927

at $60,297,582,

Bank debits m 1927 aggregated $249,492,000

Founded in 1795, the year m. which Lycoming county was erected it became the county seat after a bitter contest with Jaysburg,

a village of half a dozen houses (subsequently abandoned) It was incorporated as a borough in 1806 and as a city in 1866, Until

the surrounding timber was exhausted 1t was a one-ndustry town WILLIAMSTOWN, a town of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, U S.A , on the Hoosic and the Green rivers, in the northwestern corner of the State, served by the Boston and Maine railroad Pop 3,900 Federal census 1930 Williamstown village, on the Green river, surrounded by the Berkshire hills, its

streets shaded with fine old trees, ıs a charming residentual centre, without any factories It 1s the seat of Williams college Ephraim Willams, who was killed in the battle of Lake George on Sept 8, 1755, left a small bequest for a free school, on condition that the town when incorporated should be named Williamstown, It was incorporated under that, name in 1765. The Institute of

1904, at Hindhead, Surrey. Willtamson’s earliest work (1844) was on the decomposition of oxides and salts by chlorine, and in this he threw considerable Politics, a conference for the study of international relationships, light on the action of chlorine on bases; shortly afterwards he has been held at the college each summer since 1921 pubhshed papers on ozone, and on the composition of Prussian WILLIAMSTOWN (VICTORIA) see under MELBOURNE blue. His most famous work was, however, done during his first WILLIBRORD (or Wırerord), ST. (d 738), Enghsh misfew years at University college, and dealt with the problem of sioņary, “the apostle of the Frisians,” was born about 657 His etherification In the course of this work he definitely settled the father, Wilgils, an Angle or, as Alcuin styles him, a Saxon, of vexed problem of the relationship of alcohol, ether and water. Northumbria, withdrew from the world and constructed for himHe suggested that alcohols, ethers, acids and their derivatives self a little oratory dedicated to St Andrew. The king and nobles all belong to the “water type” of compound, and thus attempted te introduce a unifying principle into this aspect of organic chemistry In the course of his work Williamson estabhshed the molecular formulae of alcohol and ether, and in this way he helped in the revival of Avogadro’s hypothesis, which had Iain dormant since 1811, and confirmed the views of Laurent and Gerhardt on atems and molecules Various aspects of Williamson’s work on etherification helped in the development of structural organic ehemistry, and although he made no direct contribution to the modern side of the subject, yet his investigations helped very

materially to bring about a more definite conception of the

constitution of organic compounds. In the course of his researches he prepared the first mixed ether (methyl ethyl ether) and, with Kay, he synthesized ethylene glycol (1854) Wilhamson, in his papers explains the action of sulphure acid în the production of ether from alcohol by saying that an intermediate compound of the acid and alcohol-—ethyl sulphuric acid—is first formed, and this reacts with more alcohol to regenerate the acid and liberate

ether-and water. ‘This is the first recorded instance of the explanation of catalysis by what has become known as the “intermediate compound’ theory

His papers on Etherificatton and the Constitution of Salts were reprinted by the Alembic Club (Edmburgh, 1992) See obituary notice,

Prog Roy Soc (1907); and Sir W Tilden, Famous Chemists (1921).

WILLIAMSON, 2 city of West Virgimia, U S.A, the county seat of Mingo county; on the Big Sandy river (the south-western boundary of the State) and the Norfolk and Western railway

Pop. 6,819 um 1920 (17% negroes), 9,410 in 193a by tha Federal census.

It 1s a coal-miming centre and the trading and supply

of the district endowed hum with estates till he was at last able

to build a church, over which Alcuin afterwards ruled Willibrord, almost as soon as he was weaned, was sent to be brought up at Ripon, where he must doubtless have come under the

influence of Wilfrid

About the age of twenty the desire of in-

creasing his stock of knowledge (c. 679) drew him to Ireland,

which had so long been the headquarters of learning in western

Europe. Here he stayed for twelve years, enjoying the society of

Ecgberht and Wihtberht

Ecgberht commissioned him as a mis-

signary to the North-German tribes. In his thirty-third year (c 690) he started with twelve companions for the mouth of the Rhine These districts were then occupied by the Frisians under their king, Rathbod, who gave allegiance to Pippm of Herstal Pippin befriended Wilhbrord and sent him to Rome, where he was consecrated archbishop (with the name Clemens) by Pope

Sergius on St Cecilia’s Day '696 Bede says that when he returned ta Frisia bis see was fixed mn Ultrayectum (Utrecht) He spent several years in founding churches and evangelizing, till his suecess tempted him to pass into other districts From Denmark he carried away thutty boys to be brought up among the Franks When Pippin died, Willibrord found a supporter in his son Charles Martel. He was assisted for three years in his mussionary work by St. Boniface (719-722). He was still hving when Bede wrote in 731 A passage in one of Boniface’s letters to Stephen III speaks of his preaching to the

Frisians for fifty years, apparently reckoning from the tume of his consecration This would fix the date of his death in 738,

and, as Alcum tells us he was eighty-one years old when he died, it may he inferred that he was born m 657—a theory on which

627

WILLIMANTIC—WILLOW all the dates given above are based, though it must be added that they are substantially confirmed by the incidental notices of Bede The day of his death was Nov 6, and his body was buried ın the monastery of Echternach, near Trier, which he had himself founded Even in Alcum’s tme miracles were reported to be still wrought at his tomb The chief authorities for Wilhbrord’s life are Alcuin’s Vita Willibrord:, both m prose and m verse, and Bede’s Hist Eccl v. ce 9—11. See also Eddius’s Veta Wilfrede (1879, text trans. and notes by Col-

grave, Cambridge, 1927); J Mabuillon, Annales ordinis sancte Benedict, hb xvm , and The Calendar of St. Wilbrord, edited by H

A.

WILLMAR,

a city of Minnesota, USA.

roo m

W. of

Minneapohs, on Foot Lake; the county seat of Kandiyohi county and a gateway to the State’s 10,000 Jakes Itis on Federal highways 12, 212 and 71, and 1s served by the Great Northern railway. The population was 5,892 in 1920 (22% foreign-born white) and was 6,173 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is a division point on the Great Northern, which has repair shops and foundries here,

and the seat of the State Hospital for Inebriates. The city was founded in 1869 and incorporated in 1874

WILLMORE, JAMES TIBBITTS (1800~1863), English

lne engraver, was born at Bristnall’s End, Handsworth, near Birmingham, on Sept. 15, 1800. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to William Radcliffe, a Birmingham engraver, and in USA, 23m ESE. of Hartford, at the confluence of the Wallimantic and the Natchaug rivers to form the Shetucket It is 1823 he went to London and was employed for three years by served by the Central Vermont and the New York, New Haven Charles Heath He was afterwards engaged upon the plates of and Hartford railways. Pop (1920) 12,330 (26% foreign-born Brockedon’s Passes of the Alps and Turner’s England and Wales. white), 1930 Federal census 12,102. There is abundant water- He engraved after Chalon, Leitch, Stanfield, Landseer, Eastlake, power, and the city has extensive manufactures of spool-cotton, Creswick and Ansdell, and especially after Turner, from whose silk twist, silk and cotton fabrics, velvet and other commodities, “Alnwick Castle by Moonlight,” “The Old Téméraire,” “Mercury with an output in 1927 valued at $11,880,719 The town of Wind- and Argus,” and “Ancient Rome” he executed many admirable ham, in which Willimantic 1s situated, was mcorporated in 1692 plates He died on March r2, 1863

Nelson (1918)

WILLIMANTIC, a city of Windham county, Connecticut,

Willimantic was settled in 1822, incorporated as a borough in 1833 and chartered as a city m 18093 The name is of Indian derivation.

WILLIS, THOMAS

(1621-1675), Enghsh anatomist and

physician, was born at Great Bedwin, Wiltshire, on Jan 27, 1621 In 1660 he became Sedleian professor of natural philosophy in place of Dr Joshua Cross, who was ejected at the Restoration.

He was one of the first members of the Royal Society, and was elected an honorary fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1664 He died in St Martin’s Lane, London, on Nov. 11, 1675. Wullis was admired for his piety and chanty, for his deep insight into natural and experimental philosophy, anatomy and chemistry, and for the elegance and purity of lus Latin style. His most important work is Cerebri enatome nervorumgue descriptio ef usus

(1664), in which he descnbed what is still known, m the anatomy of the brain, as the circle of Willis.

See Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, London (and

ed, vol 1, 1878).

WILLISTON, SAMUEL WENDELL (1852-10918), American palaeontologist and entomologist, was born in Boston, Mass, on July to, 1852 In 1857 his parents emigrated to Kansas, settling im Manhattan. Following his graduation at Kansas Agri-

cultural college (BS, 1872), he engaged in railway surveying,

studied medicmme, and became an ardent collector of vertebrate fossils in the chalk beds of western Kansas In 1876 he was

called to New Haven, Conn, by Dr O. C. Marsh, professor of palaeontology at Yale university. Entering the department of palaeontology, Williston collaborated in extensive researches with Marsh until 1885, making also vestigations in entomology and continuing medical and other studies (MD, 1880, PhD, 1885), He was professor of anatomy at Vale, 1836-90, professor of geol-

WILLOBIE

(or Wittovcusy), HENRY

(1575?—1596?),

the supposed author of a poem called IWillobie his Avisa, which derives interest from its possible connection with Shakespedre’s personal history. Henry Willoughby was the second son of a Wiltshire gentleman of the same name, and matriculated from St. John’s college, Oxford, in Dec 1591, at the age of sixteen. He is probably identical with the Henry Willoughby who graduated BA. from Exeter college early in 1595, and he died before June 30, 1596, when to a new edition of the poem Hadrian Dorrell added an “‘Apologie” in defence of his friend the author “now of late gone to God,” and another poem in praise of chastity written by Henry’s brother, Thomas Willoughby Wdloine his Ausa was licensed for the press on Sept 3, 1594, four months after the entry of Shakespeare’s Rape of Lucrece, and printed by John Windet. It is preceded by two commendatory poems, the second of which,

signed “Contraria Contrariis; Vigilantius; Dormitanus,’’ contams the earliest known printed allusion to Shakespeare by name.— Vet Tarquyne pluckt his glistering grape, And Shake-speare paints poore Lucrece rape.

Dorrell alleges that he found the ms. of Wilodie his Avis among his friend’s papers left in his charge when Willoughby departed from Oxford on her majesty’s service Theré is no trace of any Hadrian Dorrell, and the name is probably fictitious; there is, indeed, good reason to think that the pseudonym, if such it 1s,

covers the personality of thé teal author of the work

Wauilobie

his Avisa proved extremely popular See Shakspere Alusion-Books, part 1, ed C. M. Ingleby (New Shakspere Society, 1874), A. B Grosart’s “Introduction” to his reprint of Willobie kis Avisa (1880)

WILL-O*-THE-WISP: see Icwis Faruus. WILLOW (Salix), a well-marked genus of plants constituting, ogy at the University of Kafisas, 1890~1902, and professor of vertebrate palaeontology at the University of Chicago from 10a with the poplar (Populus), the family Salicaceae Willows are until his death at Chicago on Aug 18, 1918. Whule Williston’s contributions to entomology were of a high order, especially his authoritative work on the Diptera, his preeminence in science rests upon his monumental researches in vertebrate palaeontology, notably on Cretaceous and Permian reptiles and amphibians, which take rank with those of Ledy, Cope, Marsh and Osborn among the American palaeontologists

of his time. His pubhshed writings, comprising about 300 titles,

trees or shrubs, varying in height from a few inches, like the small British S. Aerbacea and Arctic species generally, to r20 ft, and occurring most abundantly m cold or temperate climates in both hemispheres, and generally in moist situations. Their leaves are deciduous, alternate, simple, and generally much longet than broad, whence the term willow-leaved has become proverbial, At their base they are provided with stipules, which are also modified to form the scales investing the winter buds. The flowers are

intlude Manual of North American Diptera (3rd ed, 1908); borne in catkins, which are on one tree male (staminate) only, American Permian Vertebrates (1911}; Water Repisles of the on another female (pistillate). Each male flower is borne in the Past and Present (1914); ahd The Osteology of Reptiles (ed by axil of a small scale or bract, and consists usually of two but sometimes of more stamens. In addition there are one or twc W K Gregory, 1925) See the sketch by H. F Osborn, Jour of Geol, vol. xtvi, pp 673- small glandular organs, the nectaries. The female flowers are 689 (xgr8) and the memoir by R. S. Lull, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci, vol. equally simple and also arise in the axl of 4 bract; they show ¢ xvii. (1924). very short stalk, surmounted by two carpels adherent one to thi WILLISTON, a city of North Dakota, U S.A., on the north other for their whole length, except that the upper ends of th bank of the Missouri river and the main line of the Great North- styles are separated mto two stigmas, nettariés are present i) étti railway, 20 m. from the western boundary of the State; the these flowers also When ripe the two carpels separate in the fort of two valves and liberate a large number of seeds, each provide couhty seat of Williams county. Pop (1930) 5,106.

WILLOW-HERB—WILMERDING

628

at the base with a tuft of silky hairs The flowers appear cophylla), found on sand dunes, the furry willow (S Syrticola) generally before the leaves and are thus rendered more con- of lake and river shores, the silky willow (S. sericea), with silky spicuous, while transport of pollen by the wind 1s facilitated. leaves; the hoary willow (S candida), with sage-lke foliage, and Fertilzation is effected by msects, especially by bees; but some the prairie willow (S humslss) and the grey willow (S, tristis) f pollen must also be transported by the wind to the female both low slender shrubs flowers, especially in Arctic species which, in spite of the poverty Among noteworthy willows found in the Pacific States and of insect life, set abundant fruit The tuft of hairs at the base northward are the western black willow (S dasiandra), sometimes facilitates rapid dispersion of the seed. 45 ft high, the red willow (S laevigata), 20 ft to so ft. high, the Although the l:mutations of the genus are well marked, and its California white willow or arroyo willow (S lascolegus), 8 ft to ‘ecognition 1n consequence easy, it is otherwise with regard to 20 ft high, and the Sitka or velvet willaw (S sitchensis), somehe species. The greatest difference of opmion exists among times 30 ft high, which grows from California to Alaska, yotanists as to their number and the bounds to be assigned to Several Old World willows, widely planted for ornament and ach, and the extensive cross-fertilization that takes place between other purposes in eastern North America, have become exten. he species, resultmg in numerous hybnd forms, intensifies the sively naturalized, especially the white willow (S alba), the lificulty. Andersson, a Swede, who spent nearly 25 years in yellow willow (S vitelloma), the weeping willow (S babylomca), heir investigation, published a monograph on the genus. He the brittle or crack willow (S. fragils), and the purple willow (S idmits about 100 species. C S, Sargent (Silva of North America) purpurea) The basket willow (S vumsmalts), the bay willow (S uggested 160 to 170 as the number of distinguishable species

pentandra) and the goat willow or sallow (S Capraea) have

jome botanists have enumerated 80 species from Great Britain lone, while others count only 12 or 15. Buchanan White, who nade a special study of the British willows, grouped them under 7 species with numerous varieties and hybrids A new monoraph on the genus by S. J. Evander, of Sweden, 1s shortly to ppear. As timber trees many of the species are valuable from their apidity of growth and for the production of light durable wood, erviceable for many purposes. Among the best trees of this ind are S fragelis, the crack willow, and S alba, the white or

become sparingly naturalızed

[untingdon willow. These trees are usually found growing by ver banks or in other moist situations, and are generally polirded for the purpose of securing a crop of straight poles. The

rood of S alba var. caerulea is used for cricket bats; there is a teat difference in the value for this purpose of timber from difrent soils; and wood of the female tree is said to be preferable ) that of the male. § Caprea, a hedgerow tree, generally grows in der situations It is a useful timber tree, and its wood, lke that S. alba, is prized in the manufacture of charcoal. Its catkins e collected in England in celebration of Palm Sunday, the ‘ight-coloured flowers being available in early spring. Certain irts of willow are largely used for basket-making and wickerork The species employed for this purpose are known under

e collective name of osiers (See Oster) S. acummata and her species do well by the seaside, and are serviceable as wind-

WILLOW-HERB,

ın botany, the popular name for the

species of Epilobsum, a genus (family Onagraceae) of often tall herbaceous plants, embracing upwards of 160 species, nine of which are natives of Great Bntain The slender stems bear narrow leaves and pink or purple flowers, which in the rose-bay (E. angustifohum), found by moist river-sides and mm copses, are I in, in diameter and form showy spikes The great hairy willowherb, E. Airsutum, found by sides of ditches and rivers, a tall plant with many large rose-purple flowers, is known popularly as codlins-and-cream. In North America some 40 species of willowherb are found, including EZ angustzfoltum, which 1s native across the continent and called usually great willow-herb or fire-weed, and Z. hirsutum, extensively naturalized in the eastern States and Canada.

WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN

(1828-1891), Irish dram-

atist, was born at Kilmurry, Ireland, on Jan 28, 1828, the son of James Wills (1790-1868), author of Lives of Illustrious and Distingushed Irtshmen (1839-47). The son was educated at Waterford grammar school and Trinity college, Dublin. Wills was a Dubhn journalist, then a portrait-painter, and finally “dramatist to the Lyceum.” He had written several plays under this agreement when he made a great success with Charles J (1872) and with Olivia (1873), an adaptation of the Vicar of Wakefield Wills also wrote ballads, the best known of which is “TH sng thee

reens, nurse-trees

and hedges. S. daphno:des, S. repens and songs of Araby” He died on Dec. 13, 1891. See F Wills, Wilkam Gorman Wills (1898). | addition to their use for timber or basket-making, willows WILLUGHBY, FRANCIS (1635-1672), English ornitholntain a large quantity of tannin m their bark, A medicinal ogist and ichthyologist, son of Sir Francis Willughby, born at ucoside named salicin (qv) is also extracted from the bark Middleton, Warwickshire, was the pupil, friend and patron as 1e wood, especially of S alba, is used for paper pulp. As orna- well as the active and original co-worker of John Ray (gv), and ental trees some willows also take a high rank. The white hence to be reckoned as one of the most important precursors of llow is a great favourite, while the drooping habit of the weep- Linnaeus His connection with Ray dated from his studies at x willow renders it very attractive. Though named S. baby- Trinity College, Cambridge (1653-1659) , and he made an extenvica, it is really a native of China, from which 1t has been widely sive Continental tour in his company The specimens, figures and read by man; the willow of the Euphrates (Ps. cxxxvii ) is in all notes thus accumulated were in great part elaborated on his return obability Populus euphratica. S regals has very white, silvery into his Ornithologsa, posthumously published in 1676, and transives. S rosmérinsfolia is remarkable for its very narrow leaves lated by Ray as the Ornithology of Fr. Willughby (London, 1678, purplish above, silvery beneath. fol ); the same friend published his Historia Piscium (1686, fol ). In North America upwards of 70 native species occur, to- In Ray’s preface to the former work he gives Willughby much of ther with numerous varieties and natural hybrid forms Of these the credit usually assigned to himself, both as critic and systemout 25 species attain the stature of trees The black willow atist Waillughby died at Middleton Hall on July 3, 1672. . migra), the largest and most conspicuous willow of eastern WILLY, the pen-name adopted by the French novelist HENRI wth America, reaches a height of 120 ft, with a trunk 3 ft GAUTHIER-VILLARS (18s9), born at Villars-sur-Orge, on diameter Other well-known willow trees found east of the Aug 10,1859 He was educated at the Lycée Condorcet and the cky Mountains are the peach-leaved willow (5. amygdaloides), Collège Stanislas He is best known for his novels, many of which netimes 70 ft high; the pussy willow (S discolor), xo ft to were written in collaboration with the actress and authoress Colft high; the shining wilow (S Jucida), occasionally 20 ft. ette The most famous of these is Claudine à l'Ecole (1900), with h; the beaked willow (S. Bebbiz), rarely 25 ft. high; and the its sequels Claudine à Paris (1901, dramatized 1902), Claudine en

her dwarf kinds are useful for binding heathy or sandy soil.

dbar willow

(S longifolia)

Some of the foregoing range

thward and westward to British Columbia, Alaska and the tic circle. Interesting shrubby species found chiefly east of

Rocky Mountains are the autumn willow (5 serissima), with it maturing in the autumn; the broad-leaved willow (S glau-

Ménage (1902) and Claudine s’en va (1903). Included in this series is La Matson de Claudine

WILMERDING, 2 borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, USA. 14 m S.SE of Pittsburgh, on the Pennsylvania

railroad, between the boroughs of Turtle Creek and Pitcairn, in a

WILMETTE—WILNO alley surrounded by three hills Pop. (1920) 6,441 (289 foreignorn white), 1930 Federal census 6,291

The borough was in-

orporated in 1590

WILMETTE, a beautiful residential village of Cook county, linois, USA, on Lake Michigan, 14 m N. of Chicago It 1s erved by the Chicago and North Western and the Chicago, North shore and Milwaukee railways Pop. 7,814 in 1920 (88% native white), 15,233 ın 1930 by the Federal census The village was ounded in 1869 and incorporated in 1872

WILMINGTON, the chief city of Delaware, US A, a port

of entry and the county seat of New Castle county, 26m. SW of Philadelphia, on the Delaware river, at the mouth of the Christana, which is joined by the Brandywine within the city hmits It 1g on Federal highways 13 and 40, and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Pennsylvania, and the Reading railways, interurban trolley, motor-bus and truck hnes and several steamship companies Pop 110,168 in 1920 (16,279 foreign-born white and 10,746 negroes), 106,597 in 1930 Federal census, with an addi-

tional 40,000 in the immediate suburbs Half the population of the State lives in Wilmington; its plants make nearly # (by value) of the products manufactured in the State, and its banks hold more than 4 of the deposits in the State’s banking institutions The city occupies 11-26 sqm. of gently rolling land, the altitude ranging from tidewater to 260 feet. The

harbour includes 4m

of the Christiana river (a tidal stream, 750

ft wide at its mouth) and the navigable part (about a mile) of the Brandywine, and has a controlling depth m the lower stretches of about 20 ft , which will be increased to 35 ft. by projects now under way. There is a continuous line of piers and wharves along both sides of the Christiana river for two miles. At its mouth is a municipal marine terminal, with ample berthmg accommodations and storage space and modern equipment for handling car-

Wat

States was constructed here In 1802 the French refugee Eleuthére Irénée du Pont de Nemours (1771-1834), who had learned from Lavoisier the modern

methods

of powder-making,

estab-

lished the company which still bears the family name and is carried on by his descendants, and built on the Brandywine the first powder-mill in America

WILMINGTON, the chief seaport of North Carolina, U S.A.,

a port of entry and the county seat of New Hanover county, in the south-eastern part of the State, on the Cape Fear river, 30 m. from the ocean bat at its mouth It is on Federal highways 17 and 17-1; has a municipal airport; and 1s served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line railways and steamship lines. Pop. 33,372 In 1920 (409% negroes), and 32,270 in 1930 by the Federal census The city hes on an elevated sand ridge, extending along the river for 2-5 miles Causeway and trolley connect it with Wrightsville beach (8 m. E ), and 14m S are three other resorts on the mainland (Carolina, Wilmington and Fort Fisher beaches) The ample fresh-water harbour accommodates vessels drawing 27 5 ft , and the channel down the river and over the bar has a depth of 26 ft. at mean low water

The commerce

of the port m

1927

amounted to 1,004,589 tons, valued at $61,449,181, of which $22,329,584 represented foreign trade (imports of molasses and

chemicals for fertilizer and exports of cotton). Wholesale and Jobbing business amounts to $80,000,000 annually It is the headquarters of the Atlantic Coast Line railroad, which employs about 2,000 persons m its offices and shops here. Wilmington operates under a commission form of government.

Its assessed

valuation for 1927 was $45,736,070 A settlement was established here in 1730. It was called New Liverpool at first, New Town after 1732 and in 1739 was mcorporated and renamed in honour of Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington (c 1673-1743) In 1760 it was incorporated as a borough and in 1866 as acity It was the first place to make armed resisgoes (constructed by the city in 1920-23) The public parks cover 703 acres. There are 20 supervised play- tance to the Stamp Act. Cornwallis made it his headquarters grounds, 21 baseball fields and provision for various other sports, through most of the year 1781. Dunng the Civil War, although 28 public and 21 private and parochial schools, 3 daily news- blockaded by the Union fleet, it was the centre of a lively foreign papers, 115 churches, 4 public hospitals (385 beds) and 10 hotels. trade, and was the last port kept open by the Confederacy. It was Wilmington is the headquarters of both a Roman Catholic and defended by Ft Fisher, a heavy earthwork on the peninsula beand the ocean, which was finally taken, after a Protestant Episcopal bishop. The city operates under a mayor- tween the river ` and-council form of government. A zoning ordinance was adopted several termfic bombardments, by a combined naval and land in 1924 Among the interesting old buildings are Holy Trinity attack, on Jan 15, 1865 WILMOT, DAVID (1814-1868), American political leader, (Old Swedes) church (1698), the building occupied by the Historical Society of Delaware, which was the First. Presbyterian bom at Bethany, Penn., Jan 20, 1814 He was admitted to the in 1834 and practised law in Towanda. He entered politics bar meeting house (1740), and the old city hall (1798), now a museum The Wilmington Institute free library (1788) is housed in as a Democrat, served in the National House of Representatives (1845-51), and, although he favoured the Walker Tariff, the a fine new building, completed in 1923. A joint city hall and county building was completed in 1914; and a civic centre (Rod- Mexican War, and other party measures, he opposed the extension of slavery. On Aug 8, 1846, on behalf of advocates of the reney square) i 1915 The University of Delaware is at Newark, striction of slavery he offered an amendment to a bill appropriat12m south-west. ing $2,000,000 to settle the US. boundary with Mexico by purThe total traffic of the port amounted in 1927 to 984,047 tons (valued at $300,184,730), of which 656,204 tons (valued at chase of land if necessary, to the effect that ‘neither slavery nor $40,955,829) represented commercial shipments and receipts (en- involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of the said tertirely domestic) and the rest vehicular ferry traffic. There are ritory” acquired from Mexico. The bill including the Wilmot over 180 diversified manufacturing plants within the city, with an Proviso, as the amendment was called, passed the House, but was output in 1927 valued at $81,705,752, and products ranging alpha- defeated by the Senate’s adjournment. In the next session a betically from acids to zaponite, Its assessed valuation for 1927 similar bill was introduced in the House and again Wilmot moved to attach his proviso A second time it passed the House, but the was $129,751,800 of the session The site of Wilmington was occupied in 1638 by Swedish and Senate refused to consider it and on the last day bill. Although Dutch colonists under the leadersmp of Peter Minuit, and the secured the consent of the House to the unamended settlement was called Christimaham in honour of the queen of the Wilmot Proviso failed in 1847, it was revived in the House a formulation Sweden. In 165s the fort (Christina) was captured without blood- agam and again m the two years following; it was shed by Peter Stuyvesant, but very few of the Swedes left the of the essential issue of tbe Civil War; out of the efforts of the the Republigrew issue, this colony. In 1731 a large part of the present territory of the city Democrats and Whigs to subordinate was owned by Thomas Willing, and was called Willingtown. In can Party that definitely accepted the principle of the proviso. Van Buren in 1848 and entered the Republican 1739 a borough charter was granted by William Penn, and the Wilmot supported of the name with two slight changes was altered to honour the earl of Party at the time of its formation He was president judge in 1853~61, U.S senator in Wilmington The Battle of Brandywine (Sept 11, 1777) was 13th judicial district of Pennsylvania He 1863-638. in claims of court U.S the of 1861-63, and judge fought rom NW of Wilmington In the first half of the roth died at Towanda, Penn , March 16, 1868. century Wilmington was a centre of strong anti-slavery sentiment, Going, B Charles , (1906) Extension See G P. Garnson, Westward and it was a station on the “underground railroad.” It was David Wilmot, Free-Soiler (1924). chartered as a city in 1832 Ship-bwilding was established as early WILNO: see VILNA. as 1739, and in 1836 the first iron steamship built in the United

630 WILSON,

WILSON ALEXANDER

(1766-1813),

American

orni-

thologist and poet, was born in Paisley, Scotland, July 6, 1766.

At 13 he was apprenticed to a weaver that he might follow his father’s trade, but after a few years rebelled and became a pedlar. Tramping up and down Scotland, he composed numerous dialect poems treating his lot or depicting with broad humour and the pathos born of poverty the life of the folk The most famous of these productions, Wetty and Meg, published as a penny chapbook, is said to have sold to the number of 100,000 copies within a few weeks and to have been praised by Burns. In the labour troubles which arose at this time Wilson’s sympathies were naturally with the oppressed weavers. He published a number of lampoons in verse, for which he was convicted of libel and compelled to burn his satires at the town cross, and later, for lack of money for a fine, he was imprisoned. It 1s small wonder then that

with his nephew, Wiliam Duncan, he emigrated to America as a deck passenger, landing with only a gun and the clothes on his back His years of poverty and hardship were nat over, but a turning point came when as a village schoolmaster in Philadel-

phia he met William Bartram, the naturalist, who encouraged him in his drawing and collecting “of all the birds ın this part of North America” In 1806 he obtained the assistant-editorship of the American edition of Ree’s Encyclopaedia, and thus acquired more means and leisure for his great work, American Ornithology, the first volume of which appeared in the autumn of 1808, after which he spent the winter m a journey “in search of birds and subscribers” By the spring of 1813 seven volumes had appeared. He succumbed to dysentery at Philadelphia Aug. 23, 1813 Wilson's Poems and Literary Prose were edited with a memoir by the Rev, A B. Grosart in 1876, a statue bemg erected to Wilson in Pais the same year. The eighth and ninth volumes of the Amerzcan Ornithology were edited after his decease by his friend George Ord, who published an early Sketch of the Life of Alexander Wilson, and the work was contmued by Lucien Bonaparte The complete Ornzthology has been several times republished.

ooo, went to the Royal College of Surgeons

In 1878 he defrayed

the expense of brmging the Egyptian obelisk called Cleopatra’s Needle from Alexandria to London, where it was erected on the

Thames Embankment He was knighted in 188r and died at Westgate-on-Sea on Aug 7, 1884,

WILSON,

HENRY

(1812-1875),

vice-president of the

United States from 1873 to 1875, was born at Farmington, N H, on Feb

16, 1812

At the age of 21, for some unstated reason,

he had his name changed by act of the legislature to Henry Wilson At Natick, Mass, whither he travelled on foot, he learned the trade of shoemaker, and during his leisure hours studied much

After successfully establishing himself as a shoe manufacturer,

he attracted attention as a public speaker in support of Wiliam Henry Harrison during the campaign of 1840. In 1855 he was

elected to the United States Senate and remained

there by

re-elections until 1873 His uncompromising opposition to the institution of slavery furnished the keynote of his earlier senatorial career, and he soon took rank as one of the ablest and most

effective anti-slavery orators ın the United States

Upon the out.

break of the Civil War he was made chairman of the multtary

committee of the Senate, and in this position performed most laborious and important work for the four years of the war. The

Republicans nommated Wilson for the vice-presidency in 1872,

and he was elected

He died on Nov. 22, 1875

He published, besides many orations, a History of the Anti-

Slavery Measures of the Thirty-Seventh and Thirty-Eighth United States Congresses (1865); Miltary Measures of the

United States Congress (1868), History of the Reconstruction Measures of the Thuty-Ninth and Fortseth Congresses (1868) and History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (1872-75), his most important work

The best biography ıs that by Ehas Nason and Thomas Russell, The Life and Pubhe Services of Henry Wilson (Boston, 1876).

WILSON, SIR HENRY HUGHES (1864-1922), British soldier, was born at Edgeworthstown, County Longford, Ireland, on March 5, 1864, and educated at Marlborough and Sandhurst He jomed the Rife Brigade ın 1884 and in 1894 he married a daughter of G C Wray From the outset he was a serious and an ambitious soldier, and while his natural gaiety of disposition made him a welcome companion everywhere, his industry soon attracted the attention of his superiors He was indeed, almost from the great gallantry in single combat with the Arab enemy He became first, one of those men who could not be overlooked His earliest rear-admiral in 1895, third sea lord and controller of the navy in experience of active service was in Burma betwen 1886 and 1888, 1897, and vice-admiral ın 1901, receiving the KCB in 1902 and when the Boer War broke out m 1899 he had passed through From rgo1-o3 he commanded the Channel squadron, and from the Staff College and become a brigade major at Aldershot 1903-07 Was commander-in-chief of the Home and Channel Before that war ended Wilson was brought back to the war fleets On leaving that command in 1907 he was specially prooffice, where in the newly formed staff-duties directorate it was moted to the rank of admiral of the fleet In 1909 he succeeded his especial task to study and to apply the lessons which were Lord Fisher as first sea lord. On retirement from that office he received, in 1912, the Order of Merit. During the World War learned in South Africa—of which the chief perhaps was the necessity of organising the British Army on something approachhe acted in an advisory capacity to the Board of Admiralty and ing continental lines and establishing a general staff for the study on the sudden resignation of Lord Fisher 1 May xo15, he was and application of the principles of war In the work of reform offered by Winston Churchill, and with much diffidence accepted, the appointment of first sea lord for a second time But Churchill Henry Wilson played a great, if still subordinate, part and ıt was no surprise when, ın 1906, he was appointed to succeed Rawlinwas himself superseded and the appointment never materialized son as commandant of the Staff College at Camberley Himself He died at Swaffham on May 25, 1921 an inspiring teacher with the Irishman’s birthright of eloquence, See Admiral Sir Edward Bradford, Admiral of the Fleet Sir he gathered around him a group of young officers upon whom he A. K. Wilson (x923). (E A) impressed his own views and his own system More than all he WILSON, SER ERASMUS (1809-1884), British surgeon became himself impressed with an almost overpowering sense of and philanthropist, was born m London on Nov 25, 1809, studied the imminence of war between France and Germany The Enat St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London, and at Aberdeen, and tente was already in existence, and 1f 1t were to mean anything early in life became known as a skilful operator and dissector at all, must carry with it grave muihtary responsibihties Wulson, He took up skin diseases as a special study In the opinion one of his biographers, we owe to Wilson in great measure of therefore, established close relations with the French Staff Colthe lege, and particularly a close personal friendship with its comhabit of the daily bath, and he helped very much to bring the Turkish bath into use in Great Bnitain. His books, A Healthy mandant, Ferdinand Foch, whose great work Les Principes de la Guerre (The Principles of War) became a text-book in Great Skin and Student's Book of Diseases of the Skin, have long re- Britain Under his influence Wilson became more and more mained text-books of their subject Wilson founded in 1869 fonvinced of the danger which was threatening Europe and made the chair and museum of dermatology in the Royal College of himself acquainted with the Franco-German frontier, Surgeons, of which he was chosen president in 1881. He also In 1910 he left the Staff College to succeed Sir W. Robertson founded a professorship of pathology at Aberdeen university. as director of military operations, while Robertson took After the death of his wife the bulk of his property, Wilsome £200,- son’s place at Camberley In Whitehall, Wilson concentrated WILSON, SIR ARTHUR KNYVET, 320 Baron (18421921), English admiral, was born at Swaffham, Norfolk, on March 3, 1842 He entered the navy in 1855, and served in the Crmean War and the Chinese campaign of 1857~58. In 1876 he was appointed to H M.S. “Vernon,” the torpedo school-ship at Portsmouth With the rank of captain (1880), he took part in the operations against Alexandria, and in 1884 won the VC at El Teb for

WILSON the labours of hbis directorate upon what he believed to be the yital field of operations Incidentally he was one of Lord Roberts’ most ardent supporters in his campaign for national traming. Thus, while British statesmen were striving for peace, the grector of mulitary operations, acting under the chief of the

Imperial General Staff, was step by step perfecting the nation’s

preparations for war. At each step he had the cordial support of the other directors, with the result that in August 1914 the British war office was in a position to bring off the greatest strategical

surprise of the whole war Mobilisation was rapid and the Expeditionary Force was landed in France without the loss of a man or

a horse, complete in every detail

In France Wilson was deputy chef of the general staff Of all those who crossed with the British Expeditionary Force he was without doubt the best known in France, so much so that when the number of British troops increased the British Army Corps came to be referred to in French confidential documents as C. d’A W. or Corps d’Armée Wilson It was therefore natural that he should

be appointed principal laison offcer with the French field headquarters, a post whıch he held until he took command of the IV. Army Corps towards the end of 1915. Although deeply interested ın the hfe and welfare of the private

soldier, he never really made his mark as a commander. To some extent, no doubt, this was due to lack of opportunity, but still more to temperament and to mental development along other hnes

Thus it was that early in 1917 he left the field armies for

good and accompanied Lord Milner’s mission to Russia, In Nov. 1917 he went to Versailles as British military representative on the newly-established Supreme War Council. Three months later,

less than a month before the great German attack of March 1918, he once more succeeded Robertson and this time as chief of the Imperial General Staff ın London He was one of those who supported Lloyd George in his efforts to secure unity of command

on the Western front and strongly pressed the claims of his old fnend Foch to be appomted commander-in-chief of the Allied forces in France and Flanders Wilson had always belonged to what became known as the Eastern school of thought rather than to the Western, and when the German advance had been checked he worked hard to reestablish that Eastern front which had been shaken by the Russian revolution and shattered by “General Hofmann’s jack-boot,” at Brest Litovsk When the Armistice was declared on Nov. 11, 1918, he had attained the rank of general, and in the final honours for the War he was promoted field marshal, was given a baronetcy and a grant of £10,000. As chief of the General Staff he was miltary adviser of the government during the prolonged negotiations at Versailles, and subsequently at numerous conferences His mastery of language and effective manner of expressing ın non-technical terms his views on technical matters no less than his charm of manner made him persona grata tó ministers of state, and his intimacy with all the French superior commanders enabled him to make smooth on times of stress many rough places Parliamentary Career—Unfortunately, when the War was over, the troubles.in Ireland came to a head and Wilson was a great Inshman His position as chief of the Imperial General Staff, under a government with whose policy in Ireland he could not agree, became extremely difficult Cordial relations became

strained and old friendships were broken When, in Feb. 1922, his tenure at the war office came to an end he entered parliament as member for North Down and at the same time he placed his mih-

tary experience at the disposal of the Government of Northern Ireland Seldom has a new member gone to Westminster better equipped

Debate, and especially criticism, came easily to him,-for

he was a ready and effective speaker with sufficent restraint to prevent

him

from

discussing

subjects

of which

631

m the 26 counties. On May 31, 1922, when the situation was critical, he concluded a speech with the words. I wonder when the moment will come when the Government will have the honesty and truthfulness to say, We have miscalculated every single element in the Irsh problem We are exceedingly sorry for all the terrible things that have happened owing to our actions We beg leave to return to private life and never to appear again.”

He never spoke again in the House of Commons, for just three weeks later he was shot on his own doorstep m Eaton Place, London, as he returned from Liverpool Street Station after unveiling a memorial to the men of the Great Eastern Railway who had

fallen in the War He was buried with full military honours in St. Paul’s Cathedral Sir Henry Wilson’s character is difficult to sum up Essentially a critic, he nevertheless did great constructive work for the British Army and was, as much as any man in Great Britain, the builder, though not the architect, of the Entente with France Nevertheless he cannot be ranked with the greatest soldiers for he never held high command, in parliament he achieved distinction, but died before he could prove himself a statesman (N Ma) His Life and Letters were published by Major-General Sir C. E Callwell, with e preface by Marshal Foch (2 vols , 1927)

WILSON,

JAMES

(1742-1798), American statesman and

jurist, born in or near St. Andrews, Scotland, September 14, 1742. He matriculated at the University of St Andrews in 1757 and was subsequently a student at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh In 1765 he emigrated to America Landing at New York in June, he went to Philadelphia in the following year and m 1766-1767 was instructor of Latin in the college of Philadelphia, later the University of Pennsylvamia Meanwhile he studied law in the office of John Dickinson, was admitted to the bar in 1767, removed first to Reading and soon afterward to Carlisle, and rapidly rose to prominence. In August 1774 he published a pamphlet Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament, in which he argued tbat parlament had no constitutional power to legislate for the

colonies; thıs pamphlet strongly influenced members of the Continental Congress which met m September Wilson was a delegate to the Pennsylvania provincial convention in January 1775, and he sustained there the nght of Massachusetts to resist the change in its charter, declaring that as the force which the British Government was exercising to compel obedience was “force unwarranted by any act of parliament, unsupported by any principle of the common law, unauthorized by any commission from the crown,” resistance was justified by “both the letter and the spirit of the British constitution”; he also, by his speech, led the colonies in shifting the burden of responsibility from parlament or the king’s ministers to the king himself. In May 1775 Wilson became a member of the Continental Congress. He was in favour of the Declaration of Independence and a signer of that document. Receiving a commission as colonel in May 1775, Wilson raised a battalion of troops in his county of Cumberland, and for a short time in 1776 he took part in the New Jersey campaign, but his principal labours in 1776 and 1777 were in Congress, In May 1777 he wrote the address To the Inhabitants of the United States, urging their firm support of the cause of Independence, he drafted

the plan of treaty with France together with instructions for

negotiating ıt; he was a member of the Board of War from its establishment in June 1776 until his retirement from Congress in September 1777; from January to September 1777 he was chairman of the Committee on Appeals to hear and determine appeals from the courts of admiralty m the several states, and he was a member of many other important committees In September 1777 the political faction in his state which opposed Independence

came into power, and Wilson was kept out of Congress until the

he did not -close of the war, he was back again, however, in 1783, and, 1785-

1786, and, advocating a sound currency, laboured in co-operation with Robert Morris to direct the financial policy of the Confederation quent intervals by others oh the Irish question Here he quickly In 1779 he was commissioned advocate-general for France, anc established himself as the most outspoken critic of those colleagues with whom in his military capacity he had worked so long, and in in this capacity he represented Lows XVI in all claims arising out so doing he drew upon himself the hatred of his fellow countrymen of the French alliance until the close of the war In 1781-1782 hy

possess special knowledge

Hus maiden speech was delivered on

March 15 on the Army estimates ahd was followed at fairly fre-

632

WILSON

was the principal counsel for Pennsylvamia in the dispute with Connecticut over possession of the Wyoming valley, which was decided in favour of Pennsylvania m December 1782 by an arbitration court appointed by Congress . As a constructive statesman Wilson had no superior in the Federal Convention of 1787. He favoured the independence of the executive, legislative and judicial departments, the supremacy of the Federal Government over the State Governments, and the election of senators as well as representatives by the people, and was opposed to the election of the President or the judges by Congress. His political philosophy was based upon implicit confidence in the people, and he strove for such provisions as he thought would best guarantee a government by the people Together with Gouverneur Morris he wrote the final draft of the Constitution and afterwards pronounced it “the best form of government which has ever been offered to the world” In the Pennsylvania ratification convention (November 21 to December 15, 1787) he was the

constitution’s principal defender Wilson was a delegate to the Pennsylvania state constitutional convention of 1789-1790, and a member of the committee which drafted the new constitution. In 1789 Washimgton appointed him

Museum, the Bodleian, and elsewhere; songs and catches occur in Playford’s “Select Musicall Ayres and Dialogues” (1652, 1653), in his “Catch that catch can” (1667) and other collections See the article by G E P Arkwnight in Grove'’s Dictzonary

WILSON, JOHN

(1785-1854), Scottish writer, the Curus-

TOPHER Nortu of Blackwood’s Magazine, was born at Paisley on May 18, 1785, the son of a wealthy gauze manufacturer who died when John was eleven years old

In 1803 Wilson was entered as

a gentleman commoner at Magdalen College, Oxford He took his degree in 1807, and found himself at twenty-two his own master, with a good mcome, no father or guardian to control him, and an estate on Windermere called Elleray In 1812 he published a considerable volume of poems the Jsle of Palms In 181s he lost his fortune He now read law and was called to the Scottish bar In 1817 Wilson began his connection with Black-

wood’s Magazine

He became the principal writer for the review,

though he was never its nominal editor In 1822 began the senes of Noctes Ambrosianae, after 1825 mostly Wilson’s work Wilson now established himself (1819) in Ann Street, Edin-

burgh, with his wife and family of five children, and in 1820 he was elected to the chair of moral philosophy in the university of

an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, and in Edinburgh His duties left him plenty of time for magazine work, 1793 he wrote the important decision in the case of Chisholm v and for many years his contributions to Blackwood were extraorGeorgia, the purport of which was that the people of the United dinanily voluminous, in one year (1834) amounting to over fifty States constituted a sovereign nation and that the United States separate articles In 1851 he resigned his professorship, and a were not a mere confederacy of sovereign states He continued to Civil List pension of £300 a year was conferred on him He died serve as associate justice until his death, near Edenton, North at Edinburgh on April 3, 1854 See Christopher North, by Mrs. Mary Gordon, his daughter (1862) , Carolina, on August 28, 1798 Wilson’s Works, consisting principally of his law lectures and and Mrs Ohphant, Annals of a Pubhshing House, Wilkam Blacka few speeches, were published under the direction of bis son, wood and hes Sons (1897). WILSON, RICHARD (1714-1782), English landscape Bird Wilson (3 vols., 1803-1804; rev ed, with notes, 1896) See also Documentary History of the Constitutson of the United painter, was born at Penegoes, Montgomeryshire, where his father was a clergyman, on Aug 1, 1714. In 1729 he was sent to London States of America, vols 1 and m (Washington, 1894); J. B McMaster and F D. Stone, Pennsylvania and the Federal Con- to study under Thomas Wnight, a little-known portrait painter

stitution, 1787-1788 (1888) ; L. H Alexander (ed ), James Wilson of the time After six years he started on his own account, and (1908), A C McLaughhn, “James Wilson and the Constitution,” was soon in a good practice In 1749 Wilson visited Italy, where Political Science Quarterly, vol. 12 (1897); Justice J M Harlan, he spent six years “Niobe,” one of his best works, was exhibited “James Wilson and the Formation of the Constitution,” in the at the Society of Artists in 1760 He was an original member of American Law Review, vol, 34; B. A Konkle e¢ al, “The James the Royal Academy and was a regular contributor to its exhibiWilson Memorial,” in the American Law Register, vol 55 (1907); tions till 1780 Durmg his lifetime his landscapes were never R. C Adams, “The Legal Theories of James Wilson,” Univ o f| widely popular, his temper was consequently embittered by neglect, and he was so poor that he had to live in an obscure, Pa. Law Review, vol 68 (1920). WILSON, JOHN (1595-1674), English composer He was half-furnished room in Tottenham Court Road, London In engaged to write the music for a “Maske of Flowers,” written for 1776, however, he obtained the post of librarian to the Academy; the wedding of the earl of Somerset and the daughter of the earl and by the death of a brother he acquired a small property of Suffolk in 1614 Although the printed copy does not conta near Llanferras, Denbighshire, to which he retired to spend Wilson’s name, he afterwards printed the songs in an arrangement his last days, and where he died suddenly in May 1782. After his for three voices in his “Cheerfull Ayres” (1660) Other songs death his fame increased, and in 1814 about seventy of his works from plays, including some from Shakespeare were printed by were exhibited in the British Institution. The National Gallery, him in later collections, and there is reason to suppose that he London, contains nine of his landscapes See Studies and Designs by Richard Wilson, done at Rome in the sang on the stage and is identical with a Jacke Wilson, mentioned in the stage direction of the first folio edition of Shakespeare (1623) Wilson became one of the King’s Musicians m 1635 and was evidently a remarkable lutenist, much appreciated

by Charles I. on that account and also for his singing. In the Civil War he went with the court to Oxford, and m 1645 was made Mus.D. of the university, as being “now the most noted

Musitian of England” After the surrender of Oxford he retired

into the country for some years, most of his compositions being published during this period In 1656 he was appointed professor of music at Oxford, with rooms in Balliol college. His professorship came to an end in 1661. In 1657 he had published what purported to be his last work, the “Psalterium Carolinum” for three voices and organ or theorbo, The “Cheerfull Ayres” which followed contained earlier songs revised He went back to bis post as one of the King’s Musicians at the Restoration and in 1662 became a gentleman of the Chapel Royal m place of Henry Lawes. He died at the Horseferry, Westminster, on Feb 22, 1674. A portrait of him is in the Oxford Music School His early settings of Shakespeare’s songs, including “Take, O take those lips away,” and other of his songs show him to have been a master of melody. His manuscript music is mm the British

year 1752 (Oxford, 1811); T. Wright, Some Account of the Life of Richard Wilson (1824); Thomas Hastings, Eichings from the Works of Richard Wilson, with some Memoirs of his Life (London, 1825). Many of Wilson’s best works were reproduced by Woollett and other engravers of the time His portraits wil be found im Greenwich hospital, the Garrick Club and private collections.

WILSON,

ROBERT

(d 1600), English actor and play-

wright, was a comedian in the earl of Leicester’s company in 1572, 1574 and 1581; and from 1583 until about 1588 in the Queen’s He then probably gave up acting for writing He wrote several morality plays. The Three Ladses of London (1584), Three Lords

of London (1590) and The Cobbler’s Prophecy (1594) are generally ascribed to him Three Ladtes of London (1584) contains the episode of the attempt of the Jew to recover his debt, afterwards adapted by Shakespeare in The Merchant of Venice. Robert Wilson (1579-1610), supposed to be his son, was one of Henslowe’s dramatic hack-writers

WILSON, THOMAS WOODROW

(1856-1924), 28th

President of the United States, was born in Staunton, Va, Dec. 28, 1856 The Scotch strain predominated in his ancestry, for his paternal grandfather came from County Down, in Ulster, and his maternal grandfather, Thomas Woodrow, a graduate of Glasgow,

WILSON from Scotland. The stern Presbyterianism of his father, a minster of small means but marked capacity as a theologian, early influenced him and left an indelible mark upon his character His early years were spent in Georgia and South Carolina, where

he was deeply affected reconstruction period four years later His remarkable, but he was

by the sufferings of the South during the In 1875 he entered Princeton, graduating record for scholarship mm college was not prominent ın debating and hterary circles,

and became student director of athletic sport His most notable achievement was an article written in his senior year, and pub-

lished un the International Review, which analysed unfavourably

the procedure of Congress and formed the basis of his more mature political principles

After studying law in the university

of Virgima and following a brief attempt to practise in Atlanta, he decided to pursue his studies in government and history at Johns Hopkins University, where he received the degree of Ph.D.

in 1886.

Wilson’s thesis, entitled Congressional Government (1885), was

a development of the attack upon Congressional methods, and because of its clear and felicitous expression has been reprinted many times In that year’ he began his teaching career at Bryn Mawr college, where he was associate professor of history and political economy until 1888; after two years as professor of the same at Wesleyan, he entered the Princeton faculty in 1890 as professor of jumsprudence

and political economy

With

slight

changes in title he served in this capacity until 1902, when he became president of Princeton

As professor he rapidly achieved

distinction His lectures were remarkable for clarity of presentation and brilliancy of phrasing, and the same qualities characterised both his addresses and his published writings His gift was for generalisation rather than plodding scholarship, and after the publication of his thesis his happiest literary efforts were in essay form. They display keen critical capacity, but are not remarkable either for erudition or for striking creative power. As president of Princeton, Wilson devoted himself to serious reforms of the educational and social habits of the undergraduates. In the hope of elevating the standards of scholarship and of increasing the efficiency of instruction, he inaugurated in 1905 the “preceptorial system,” designed through small classes to bring teachers and students into the most intimate relationship. In his endeavours to democratise the social hfe of the university he met determined opposition. Further difficulties developed from a disagreement with the dean of the graduate college Wilson’s policies aroused warm controversy among alumni, faculty and undergraduates While at Princeton, both as professor and as president, Wilson displayed great interest in political questions of the day, and through his addresses and articles speedily won a national reputation In Sept. r910 he was tendered the Democratic nommation for governor of New Jersey The offer, coming at the moment when the prospects for success of his policy at Princeton seemed most discouraging, secured his ready acceptance. Resigning his academic position he entered upon an active electoral campaign which won him the support of progressive elements throughout the state, despite the fact that his candidacy had been inaugurated largely under the auspices of the conservative Col George Harvey (afterwards US ambassador to Great Britain) and the Democratic state boss, Senator James Smith. In Nov. he was elected by a plurality of 49,000 votes He at once made it plain that he mtended, regardless of the protests of machine leaders, to fulfil his hberal pledges and would assume the leadership of the party for this purpose. As governor he successfully carried through a series of reform measures Of these the most sigmficant were:

a Direct Primaries Law, which, sup-

plemented by an effective Corrupt Practices Act, did much to purify the political atmosphere of New Jersey; an Employers’ Liability Act; the creation of a Pubhc Utilities Commussion, reform in municipal administration, making possible the adoption of the commission form of government Elections to the state In 188s he married Ellen Louise Axson, of Savannah, Ga , who died in x914, leaving three daughters On Dec. 18, 1915, he married Edith : Bolling Galt, of Washington, D C.

633

Senate and Assembly in 191z gave the Republicans a majority in both Houses and the legislative output was curtailed Nevertheless his final activities as governor were characterised by the impetus which he gave to the passage of a series of bills, known as the Seven Sisters, directed to the protection of the public from exploitation by trusts When in June 1912 the Democratic National Convention met at Baltumore to choose a candidate for President, Wilson’s reputation as an effective reformer had brought his name prominently before the delegates. The convention was apparently controlled by conservative elements and there seemed little chance of the nomination of an anti-machine progressive. But as the struggle to secure the necessary two-thirds vote proceeded, with the conservative forces divided between Champ Clark, Harmon and Underwood, W. J. Bryan, leader of the progressive elements, threw his dominating influence in favour of Wilson. It proved decisive, and on the 46th ballot he was nominated, July 2, 1912 In the campaign that followed he voiced popular discontent with the conservatism of the Republican administration, which he believed to have been too closely allied with the interests of “privileged big business? His campaign speeches, characterised by a striking phraseology, won much applause, hut were remarkable for their high moral tone rather than for originality of thought or policy Like Roosevelt he demanded a national renaissance of ideals In matters of immediate concern, such as the tariff, trust regulation, currency, the interests of labour, he insisted that the “rule of justice and right” must be set up As regarded the future, in matters of conservation and trade, he asserted that great opportunities had been lost through the interlacing of privilege and private advantage with the framework of existing laws: “we must effect a great readjustment and get the forces of the whole people once more into play” His radicalism was of a mild sort, and he insisted that “we need no revolution, we need no excited change; we need only a new point of view and a new method and spirit of counsel” The popular temper was responsive to such a tone, but success in large meas-

ure could hardly have come to him except for the division of Republican forces through the campaign of Theodore Roosevelt as Progressive candidate. In the Nov election Wilson received 435 electoral votes as against 88 for Roosevelt and 8 for Taft; but his popular vote was 1,000,000 less than that of his two chief opponents, and in only 14 states (all in the South) did he receve a clear majority.

Despite the fact that he was the choice of a minority of the

whole people, Wilson’s political position when he assumed office on March 4, 1913 was one of remarkable strength. He was supported by a Democratic majority ın both Houses of Congress, the Republicans were at loggerheads and he might expect support from the Progressives for much of his reforming legislative programme.

His cabinet was not distinguished, but it contained

certain elements of political and administrative strength, which proved advantageous for the moment, although later it was to become the mark for bitter criticism The President soon made ıt plam that he was determined, as in his governorship of New Jersey, to exercise his personal influence and his position as head of the party to mitiate and carry through the legislation he had advocated in his campaign His ascendancy in Congress was soon established. After convoking both Houses in special session on April 7, 1913 he delivered his first message in person, reviving the custom that had lapsed since the administration (1797) of the elder Adams He intervened constantly during this and later sessions, to further the legislation in which he was especially interested The first important piece of legislation that resulted from the special session was the Underwood Tariff Act, which was passed in Sept and signed by the President Oct 3, 1913. It provided for a notable downward revision, and naturally met strong opposition from varied industrial interests Such opposition was overcome

largely through the personal efforts of Wilson, who

appealed constantly to public sentiment, notably in an attack upon the activities of hostile lobbyists The Tanff Act, in addition to lower duties and important administrative changes, intro-

634

WILSON

duced an income tax—long advocated by Democrats—which was destined in later developments to counterbalance the loss of revenue resulting from the lowermg of the tanff, ıt weighed heavily upon the industrial interests of the North and increased the growing unpopularity of the President in that region. The Tariff Act was followed by a broad measure of currency reform, the Federal Reserve Act, signed Dec 23, 1913; it is generally regarded as the administration’s second great legislative trrumph Wilson’s purpose was to supplant the dictatorship of private banking institutions by a reorganisation that should provide funds available to meet extraordinary demands and a currency that would expand and contract automatically. Early in 1914 the President called upon Congress to continue its labours of reform by the regulation of the trusts. After long debate and warm opposition, his appeal was answered by the passing of the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Anti-trust Act. The latter, besides perfectmg anti-trust legislation in several ways, met the demands of labour by declaring that labour was not a commodity, by prohibiting injunctions in labour disputes unless necessary to prevent irreparable injury, and by proclaiming that stnkes and boycotts were not violations of Federal law It further exempted labour associations from the anti-trust laws Wilson’s policy of domestic social reform had thus been developed with surprising legislative success during the first year of lus administration His foreign policy was not so clear-cut and aroused little enthusiasm. It was characterised by an evident desire to concede the rights of other nations to the limit

was tided over by a joint Mexican-American commission Sittin,

at New London, Conn , which brought no definite settlement, by at least postponed hasty action on either side In Jan IQI? th last American troops were withdrawn from Mexican soil. Th President’s policy had not led to stable conditions in Mexico, anc

the sole advantage secured seemed to be the emphasis laid by the

US. Government on the principle that it would not take advan tage of the misfortunes of a weak neighbour for its own Selfist rofit, i Foreign affairs after July 1914 were naturally dominated by the World War. President Wilson insisted upon a policy of strici

neutrality This he emphasised not merely by formal proclama tion on Aug 4, but by an address to the American people or

Aug. 18, m which he adjured them, in view of the mixture ol Nationalities in the United States, to be impartial in thought a; well as action His offer of mediation, made on Aug 5, remainec

without response, and further attempts at mediation in early autumn proved fruitless His determination to remain absolutely aloof from European quarrels was underlined in several addresses in which he insisted that the United States was in no way con cerned, and was further emphasised by his opposition to any change in its military policy. America’s vital interest in the struggle, however, soon became plain and resulted m diplomatic con-

troversies with the bellgerents Great Britains attempt to control indirect umportation of goods mto Germany, by an enlargement of contraband schedules and an extension of the doctrine of “contmuous voyage” to conditional contraband, was and to avoid any stressing of the power of the United States for vigorously opposed by President Wilson, who authorised William the material advantage of its citizens. Definite steps were taken Jennings Bryan, his Secretary of State, to protest in strong terms, to prepare the Filipinos for self-government. Pressure was A lengthy interchange of notes followed, which led to no settlebrought to bear upon the California State Government to mitigate ment. the severity of its anti-Japanese legislation. The “dollar diplomThe diplomatic controversy with Germany proved more serious. acy” of the preceding admıimıstratıon was repudiated and Ameri- The proclamation of a “war zone” about the British Isles, in can bankers effectively discouraged from participating in the which German submarines threatened to destroy enemy merinternational Chinese loans As a result of the President’s per- chant vessels with consequent danger to the lives and property sonal demand, Congress repealed the law exempting American of neutrals, was met by a note of Feb. 10, 1915, which warned coastwise shipping from Panama Canal tolls Wilson, however, Germany that she would be held to “strict accountability” for failed to secure the Senate's ratification of a treaty with Colom- the lawless acts of submarine commanders. Wilson further atbia, which contained a virtual apology on the part of the Umted tempted to find a compromise, based upon a relaxation of the States and an offer to pay $25,000,000 as reparation for the al- British food blockade and an abandonment of the German subleged grievances of Colombia in connection with the establishmarine campaign The effort failed and was followed by a series ment of Panama as an independent country. In the Caribbean, of submarine attacks, which culminated in the sinking of the Wilson’s policy differed in pmnciple rather than practice from “Lusitania,” May 7, 1915, with the loss of over roo American that of his predecessors; in Nicaragua and Haiti the customs ‘were lives The President, while he disappointed opinion in the Eastern taken over by U.S. officials. By a treaty signed Sept. 16, r9z5, States by a speech in which he reaffirmed his pactfic determination, a virtual protectorate of Haiti was assumed ; In Santo Domingo stating that a man might be “too proud to fight,” at once set out the precautionary visits of Ametican cruisers were followed in to win from Germany a disavowal and a promise that merchant the summer of 1916 by the landing of marines, and in Nov of ships should not be torpedoed without warning and the saving of that year by the proclamation of a military government under the lives of passengers.

American auspices.

dent’s failure to arrange a settlement providing for his elimination

A lengthy exchange of notes ensued: the pacific Bryan, Secretary of State, regarding the President’s language as too strong, resigned; on the other hand Wilson’s patience with the evasions of the German Government and the continued sinking by submarines led to bitter attacks upon the President’s policy of conciliation, which was stigmatised as anaemic or even cowardly

Although Huerta fled from Mexico in July, the country continued to be torn by

The President, through his personal influence, secured the defeat of these resolutions in Feb.

Wilson’s Mexican policy aroused heated criticism.

Following

the accession of Gen. Victoriano Huerta to power and the Presi-

as dictator, Wilson resigned himself to what he called a policy of “watchful waiting.” Conditions in Mexico Were anarchical, and intervention was strongly urged by both American and European Wilson succeeded, however, in securing from Germany a promise commercial interests. To formal intervention the President was not to sink liners without warning (Sept. 1, 1915), and contmmued definitely opposed, but in April 194 he was compelled to his efforts to induce Germany to abandon the submarine camauthorise the occupation of Vera Cruz in retaliation fot affronts paign completely. He was hampered by an attempted revolt of to American bluejackets. The proffered mediation of Argentina, Congressional leaders, who blurred the issue with Germany by Brazil and Chile he gladly accepted, but the tesulting protocol of introducing resolutions designed to prevent Americans from Niagara Falls (June 24, 1914) did not provide a basis for peace travelling upon belligerent ships

rival factions American troops were withdrawn 1916, insisting that he would not consent “to any abridgment from Vera Cruz in Nov. 1914, but it was not until Oct tors that of the rights of American citizens in any respect ” Shortly afterthe Government of Carranza was recognised by Wilson, ın com- wards the issue with Germany was brought to a head by the pany with eight South and Central American Governments Fur- sinkıng of the “Sussex,” March 24, 1916. Wilson waited three ther complications ensued. The raid into American territory of weeks before sending a formal note of protest to Germany (April Gen Villa, March 9, 1916, Jed Wilson to authorise a punitive I9, 1916), but couched ıt m the form of an ultimatum, stating expedition, which soon aroused the protests of Carranza and June the President mobilised the National Guard In May that unless Germany should immediately declare and effect an and sent abandonment of its present methods of submarine warfare, the a force of about 100,000 to patrol the Mexican border The crisis United States would be compelled to sever diplomatic relations

WILSON he German answer, while attempting to make acceptance con-

tional upon Great Britain’s relaxation of the blockade, was in fect a promise not to sink merchant ships without warning and ithout saving human lives,

ss critical

.

The submarme issue now seemed

as

and asked for a declaration that a state of warfare exsted with Germany The resolution was passed by the Senate on April 4, by the House on April 6. President Wilson had always abhorred the exercise of force in international relations, and the war which he at last regarded as necessary was, in his mind, a war to ensure peace. Nevertheless

The diplomatic victory thus apparently secured by Wilson was nhsed in bis behalf during the electoral campaign of 1916, in he was determined that it should be waged efficiently and that hich he was inevitably the Democratic candidate It enabled the mistakes of previous wars should not be repeated. Those

is supporters to declare that he had vindicated the rights of the

Jmted States successfully, and at the same time had “kept us out

ff war” The slogan made a strong appeal, especially in the hgtricts of the Middle West The Republicans, on the other nd, who had nominated Charles E Hughes, criticised the whole reign policy of the President They insisted that he had failed io take prompt action for the protection of American lives and

honour, alike in his dealings with Germany and in his handling of the Mexican crisis They characterised his domestic policy as

demagogic, instancing the Clayton Act and the Adamson Act;

the latter had been urged on Congress by Wilson to avert a raiiroad strike in Sept

1916, and many citizens regarded it as an

untimely surrender to labour threats. They also cnticised his attitude on “preparedness,” to which the President had been

opposed until the close of 1915, and ridiculed the cautious expansion of military forces provided for in the National Defence

Act of 1916

In the East and m most industrial centres of the

Middle West Wilson was unpopular, but the election showed his

strength in the farming districts west of the Mississippi and on the Pacific coast; in spite of Roosevelt’s return to the Republican fold the President drew largely from the Progressives, and on election day received a slight electoral majority over Hughes (277 to 254) and a popular plurality of 9,129,606 to 8,538,221. His re-election enabled Wilson to proceed with plans for peace proposals to the European. belligerents. These he had been preparing since the early spring of 1916 He had authonzed Cal House to propose to the British that the President “on hearing from France and Britain that the moment was opportune” should

propose a conference to end the war

“Should the Allies accept

this proposal and should Germany refuse it, the United States would probably enter the war against Germany ” The Allies made no move to take advantage of American help in this plan to enforce peace Wilson decided to act independently and on Dec. 18 sent identical notes to the belligerents, asking them to state the terms upon which they would consider peace. Informed of the undercurrents of German military circles, he evidently feared that if the war continued the United States would necessarily hecome mvolved; he also hoped that a clear definition of war aims would strengthen pacific elements in both belligerent camps. The German reply was evasive, that of the Allies refused to consider peace until Germany should offer “complete restitution, full reparation and effectual guarantees * The replies gave the President opportunity to expound what he had come to believe was the only sure basis of an enduring peace This he did in a speech of Jan 22, 1917, in which he insisted that the peace must be

mistakes, he believed, had resulted chiefly from the inter-mixture

of politics in military affairs, and from the decentralisation of the American miltary machme THe opposed a coalition war cabinet, as leading to divided responsibilty Mulitary policy was handed over to the military experts He approved the immediate development of the general staff as the centralising military organ, and it was upon the recommendation of that body that he urged, against the wish of Congressional leaders, the Selective Service Act. On the advice of the general staff he appomted Gen John J. Pershing commander of the expeditionary force to F rance, and,

also following that advice, he refused to authorise a volunteer force under Roosevelt. Similarly the plans for the development of a large army in France were inaugurated and translated into fact by the mihtary experts. As regards conduct of operations the President gave to Gen Pershing complete authority, and permitted no interference by politicians In the building of the new army the President took no direct part, but he used his authority consistently to favour centralisation under the general staff He followed a simular policy in the mobihsation

of the mdustrial

resources

of the

nation, He encouraged the centralising efforts of the Council of National Defence and its committees, and sought always to secure for them executive rather than the merely advisory powers which they at first possessed He urged the Lever Act, which m Aug 1917 created a Food and a Fuel Administration, and advocated the taking over of the railroads by the Government in December. His policy of economic centralisation was ultimately assisted by the many protests against his war policies which were made in the winter, and which centred round the demand for a non-partisan war cabinet or ministry of munitions; for his supporters were able to insist that the more effective handling of war problems demanded not new machinery but greater efficiency of the existmg mechanism. The President asked for powers to cut through red tape and rearrange bureaux without reference to Congress His demands were embodied in the Overman Act, which was passed in May 1918, and which enabled him to grant executive powers to the various boards that had been created. The War Industries Board, released from its dependence upon the

Council of National Defence, at once became the centralising organ of the economic activities of the country. In his war appointments Wilson disregarded party limes, a notable fact since in political appointments he always showed himself strictly a party man Republicans, such as Hoover, Stettinius, Goethals, Schwab, Vanderlip, were chosen because of their administrative quahties and regardless of political affiliations organised by the major force of mankind, thus emphasising the During the War President Wilson consistently developed his need of a League of Nations; that no nation should extend its ideals of a new ternational system which should perpetuate policy over another nation; that no one Power should dominate peace and assure justice and security to every nation regardless the land or the sea. There must be a limitation of armaments. of its material strength He hoped thus not merely to construct As a guarantee of future peace and justice, the ending of the a basis for just peace when the war should end, but to hasten existing war must not be the violation of the nghts of one side the end of the war by appealing to the peoples of the enemy or the other. it must be “a peace without victory.” states against their Governments ‘The most notable of his Further efforts to secure a peaceful arrangement were frustrated speeches was that of Jan 8, 1918, in which he stated 14 pomts by the determination of the German mulitarist chque to renew necessary to a just and lasting peace This, with his later adthe submarine warfare, regardless of the effect on the United dresses, was ultimately accepted as the basis of the final settleStates. On Jan 31, the German ambassador, Von Bernstorff, who ment. Their effect in Germany and Austria-Hungary was not strongly but vamly opposed the intensive submarine campaign, apparent until the military defeat of those empires, but his words delivered a note to this effect, and four days later the President acted continually as a corroding factor, weakening the enemy’s handed him his papers He still, however, avoided formal war determination to fight When in the autumn of xro18 they faced with Germany, and on Feb. 26 asked for a resolution of armed military defeat, they turned to Wilson, offering to accept his neutrality, which would permit the arming of American merchant Fourteen Points as the basis of peace ships for entrance into the barred sea zone. The resolution was The President’s insistence upon justice as essential to a settleblocked by a filibuster Finally, in view of continued smlang of ment brought him great prestige in Allied countries, but the American ships, the President came to Congress on April 2, 1917 chiefs of the Allied Governments hesitated to accept the Fourteen

636

WILSON

Ponts in the fear that the advantages of the victory might be thrown away. They yielded, however, to the persuasive diplo-

President had surrendered his principles Wilson, on the other hand, acknowledging that certain aspects of the settlement were

macy of Col

for ing the League of Nations, which provided the mechanism eradicating the vices contained in the treaties In this belief he On Smuts Gen protagonist, hberal another by supported was June 29, 1919, the day following the signing of the Versailles international His America for sailed Treaty, the President prestige had suffered from his opposition to national clams, especially that of the Italians to Fiume and of the French to the left bank of the Rhme His prestige as a liberal leader had also suffered from his failure to achieve the peace of conciliation

House, who represented the President on the Su-

preme War Council during the Armistice proceedings, and 1t was on the understanding that the Fourteen Pomts (reservations made of “Freedom of the Seas” and inclusion of Germany’s promise to make full reparation) should be the basis of the peace that the Armistice was granted to Germany.’ The President realised, however, that 1t would be difficult to translate his principles into the actual treaty Aside from the opposition he might expect from selfish nationalistic mterests among the Allies, he lacked unified support at home, where his political opponents called for a “strong peace” that would anmhilate Germany; there was little enthusiasm for a League of Nations, which the Presi-

dent regarded as essential to a just and lasting settlement Furthermore he had weakened his political position at home by a series of tactical mistakes Of these, the most important was an appeal issued immediately before the Congressional election of Nov. 1918, in which Wilson asked the voters to cast their ballots for Democratic candidates, on the ground that a Republican Congress would divide the leadership at the moment of international crisis, Such an appeal would have been comprehensible if it had been made by a prime minister m a parhamentary country, but Wilson had proclaimed himself the leader of the nation and could not logically also play the rdle of party leader The Republicans seemed to have some ground for complaining that although they had submerged partisan quarrels during the war, President Wilson was now attempting to capitalise the war and foreign affairs in order to win a partisan advantage Many voters were antagonised by the appeal, and the elections went in favour of the Republicans. The President, in consequence of the substantial reverses sustained mm the November elections, lost command of the Senate in the next Congress and its Foreign Relations Committee was to be controlled by his political and personal opponents

Beheving that his presence at the Peace Conference was necessary, if it was not to be dominated by old-style diplomatic practices, Wilson decided himself to go to Paris, and on Dec 4, 1918 sailed with the other members of the American Commission on the “George Washmgton ” He arrived at Brest on Dec 13, and was received at Paris, in England and at Rome with tremendous enthusiasm. For the moment he was the popular hero, both in Allied and enemy countries. But his prestige rested on a precarious footing, and must imevitably diminish when he came to oppose the national aspirations of any people. Col House urged him to strike off a quick general peace, leaving details for later settlement, but this proved impossible, and formal conversations at Pans began only in Jan 1919. The President succeeded in winning an early victory when he persuaded the conference to accept the principle of the League of Nations as the basis of the peace, and when the Commission on the League succeeded in completing by Feb 14 the preliminary draft of the covenant On returning to the United States, however, he found Republican opposition to the league strongly manifested ın the Senate, although he had the support of Taft’s mfluence in that party and in the country. Public opinion seemed to be uninstructed and apathetic as to the President’s policies Going back to Paris in March, he was able to secure the insertion in the covenant of certain amendments required by American sentiment On Apr 28 he won unanimous approval by the conference of the final draft of the covenant But he was confronted by the demands of the French, Italians

and Japanese for territorial and economic concessions from the enemy, which he regarded as excessive Long discussions followed, culminating m Wilson’s acceptance of a portion of the Allied demands, notably the granting of Shantung to the Japanese, of much of the frontier hne promised by the Treaty of London to Italy, the separation of the Saar from Germany and the exaction from Germany of what amounted to a blank cheque in the matter of reparations Such concessions aroused the opposition of liberals in England and America, who imsisted that the 1The Fourteen Points are set forth in full m an article on that subject.

not ideal, believed that he had won his main contention ın secur-

which he had promised

This failure was due to the lack of any

spirit of conciliation in Europe which might inspire a new sort of peace settlement As Col House wrote in his diary, the day

after the signing of peace, “I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt whether it could have been made, for the ingredients for such a peace as I would have had were lacking at Paris ”

The single great creative accomplishment of the Peace Conference, the League of Nations, resulted primarily’ from Wilson’s leadership The strain of the conference had told upon Wilson’s physical and nervous strength He was thus not well equipped to wage the struggle with his Republican opponents in the Senate which developed upon his presentation of the treaty Had the President been willing to compromise and accept reservations to the covenant of the league, 1t 1s hkely that the two-thirds necessary to ratification would have been secured This course he refused to follow, and it soon became clear that the Foreign Relations Committee would not recommend ratification without serious reservations or amendments In the hope of winning popular support, the President set forth upon a tour of the country, and

along the Pacific coast aroused enthusiasm in marked contrast to the coldness of the East. The effort, however, overtaxed his strength, and on Sept 26 at Wichita, Kan, the President was compelled to give over his tour and return to Washington, where he suffered a complete nervous collapse. The exact nature of his illness was not made public and few realised how serious 1t would prove to be Many, however, felt that in view of his inevitable abstention from active work 1t would have been wiser for him to retire at least temporarily. As ıt was, us system had provided for no understudy and the admmustration was left without a leader Entirely apart from the confusion thus caused in the conduct of public business, Wilson’s illness led directly to the defeat of the treaty ‘There was no one else available either for leading the fight for ratzfication without reservations, or with sufficient authority to arrange a compromise On Nov 13 the Senate adopted reservations which Wilson declared would “nullify” (etc, etc) the treaty, for this reason he urged the Democrats to refuse to vote for the ratifying resolution, which was accordingly defeated on Nov 19, 1919 Dumng the succeeding weeks efforts were made to arrange a compromise The Republican leaders agreed to soften the language of certain reservations, and the President mtimated that he wouid sccep* a mld reservation on Article X of the covenant, wien Sid + .ousee ube ch ci onnosition Neither side would yield enough, and when on March 19, 1920, the final vote was taken on the ratifying resolution, which contained a strong reservation on Article X , Wilson again urged Democratic senators not to accept

The resolution thus failed of

the necessary two-thirds by a margin of six votes, 57-37 The President appealed to the autumn presidential election im 1920 as the cec=ve nlabisezte Although he ha? lost Ins former control of the pary «ad the Devaouratic preston. | pore ree at San Francisco was not his choice, the Wilsoman policies, including approval of the League of Nations, were mevitably the issue of

the elections

In the electioneerimg

campaign,

however,

the

President himself could take no active part, for lus physical

collapse proved so serious as to confine him to the White House For the overwhelming victory won by the Republicans, see Untrep States: History After his defeat Wilson kept close silence on public matters, and his annual message of Dec. 1920,

WILSON—WILSON

CLOUD

637

CHAMBER

while it sounded the note of national duty, made no reference to | prophet rather than as a statesman that Wilson should be rethat which lay nearest his heart—the League of Nations This garded. No one has preached more impressively and effectively silence, indeed, he preserved until the close of his admunistration, the necessity of introducig a moral standard into international March 4, 1921. In Dec. 1920 he had been awarded the Nobel Peace prize After his retirement from office Wilson hved quietly in Wash-

ington, reframing from all political comment He appeared to greet his admirers on Armistice Day, 1923, with a short speech from the porch of his house For months he had been growing weaker, and on Feb 3, 1924, he died mm his sleep. The failure of President Wilson to win the approval of the United States for his peace policies presents one of the most interesting problems of American history He had led the country through the difficult period of a war unsurpassed in magnitude and culminating in complete victory; in the face of serious obstacles he had forced European statesmen to accept the major item in his programme; he returned home only to be repudiated by his own people Personal and partisan factors unquestionably contributed to his defeat In private mtercourse Wilson displayed a personal magnetism, a breadth of culture and a gemal cordiality that are amply attested by his intimates. But m public hfe he proved unable to capitalise such advantages, possibly because of natural shyness, possibly because physical delicacy restricted his social activities Roosevelt’s capacity for “mixing” with all political and human types he totally lacked In the formation of his policies he isolated himself and was unable to establish close relations with Congressional leaders. This gave rise to the 1mpression that the President dishked advice, was an egocentric autocrat and mmmediately dispensed with anyone who disagreed with him Such criticism, by no means a novelty in the case of strong-willed presidents, was utilised by his pohtical opponents and intensified his unpopularity in the industrial centres, especially of the East, an unpopularity which, except for a brief period during the openmg months of the war, was an outstanding factor in the pohtical situation Broadly speaking, the criticism does not seem to be fully justified In matters of what he regarded as prmciple he was adamant, and he distrusted the judgment of those whose basic pomt of view was different from his own; but

politics The following are the most important writings of President Wilson Congressional Government, a Study in American Polittcs (1885) , The State—Elements of Historical and Practical Politics (1889); Division and Reunion, 1820-89 (1893); An Old Master and Other Poltical Essays (1893), Mere Literature and Other Essays (1893); George Washington (1897) ; A History of the American People (1902) , Constztutional Government in the United States (1908), The New Freedom (1913) , On Being Human (1916); International Ideals (1919). The authorized biography is by Ray S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson, Life and Letters (1927— ) Biographies based upon personal contact with Mr. Wilson have been written by W. E Dodd, Woodrow Wilson and His Work (1921), by his private secretary, Joseph P Tumulty, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him (1922) , by Josephus Damiels, Lzfe of Woodrow Wuson (1924); and by David F Houston, Eight Years with Wilsons Cabinet (2 vols, 1926). Critically appreciative biographies are David Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson (1924), and Wilham Allen White, Woodrow Wilson, the Man, his Times, and his Task (1924) A less friendly interpretation, valuable for Wilson’s Princeton career, is Robert E Anni, Woodrow Wilson; a Character Study (1924) Wilson’s work at the Peace Conference 1s favorably presented by Ray S Baker, Woodrow Wison and World Settlement (1923). A documented exposition of Wilson’s character and policies is found mn The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, arranged as a narrative by Charles Seymour (4 vols, 1926-28) General surveys of Wulson’s foreign policy are to be found im E E Robmson and V. J. West’s The Foreign Policy of President Wilson, r1913~17 (1918), and mn Charles Seymour’s Woodrow Wilson and the World War (1920). In, Beacon Lights of History (1924), P W Wilson gives a close analysis of Wilson’s character and career The authorized edition of President Wilson’s state papers and addresses is The Pubke Papers of Woodrow Wuison, edited by Ray S. Baker and Wiliam E Dodd (1925) (C Ser.)

WILSON, a town of North Carolina, U S A , the county seat of Wilson county; 42m ESE. of Raleigh, on Federal highways 17-1 and 217, and served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Norfolk Southern railways Pop 10,612 in 1920 (49% negroes) , and 12,613 mn 1930 by the Federal census It is one of the largest to-

bacco markets in the world Wilson was incorporated in 1849. Its first sale of leaf tobacco took place in 1890

WILSON AND CO., INC., incorporated under the laws of

the evidence of those who worked with him, including that of the State Republican advisers at Paris, is almost unanimously agreed American that he was anxious to secure advice, was tolerant of opinions, when its and glad to delegate responsibility The contrary belief was gradually doubtless fostered by Wilson’s inability to build up an efficient secretarial orgamisation, and his incapacity, rather than unwillingness, to apportion effectively the details of administrative labour. His handling of war problems shows clearly his desire to delegate responsibility, once an appointment was made he refused to

interfere and consistently protected his appointee from the importunities of politicians Political responsibility in general, he believed, should rest with the President From conviction, rather than from egotism, he

sought to emancipate the presidential office from the control of Congressional committees, a control which he earnestly deplored in his earliest writings The President, he felt, should be the real leader of the nation, and not a mere executive superintendent The cabinet he looked on as an executive and not as a political council, and it was always strictly subordinated to his policies So long as the Democrats held the majority m Congress he was able to translate such ideas mto fact, and effectively disposed of all attempted Congressional revolts This attitude naturally did not allay the political resentments which were inevitably aroused and which were intensified by Wilson’s tendency to regard political opposition as tantamount to personal hostility, when the Democratic majority disappeared he faced uncompromusing hostility. He was intensely impatient of partisan obstruc-

tion of his idealistic plans, and there is much of the Calvinist in his refusal to temporise or deviate from the path which he believed himself appointed to tread While in matters of detail he showed at times some capacity for compromise, in matters

of principle he displayed the unswerving determination characteristic of the prophet, a trait that is not always conducive to success

in the exigencies of modern party warfare.

Indeed it 1s as a

of Delaware, is one of the so-called Big Four of the meat-packimg concerns. Its history goes back to 1853 founders started a local abattoir in New York city, expanding its Jocal activities until by the purchase of a

plant in Kansas City, in 1891 it entered the field of mterstate

and world-wide distribution of meats and meat products In 1902 the building of a plant in Chicago, the centre of the lve stock mdustry of the United States, in 1913 the acquisition of a plant in Argentine and finally the building of a plant in Sao Paulo, Brazil ın 1918 are the most noticeable milestones ın the development of this company In 1928 its annual sales directly to retailers and wholesalers and through branch houses or agencies in the United States, Europe, Central and South America were approximately $300,000,000 Its plants located at various strategic points mm the live stock centres in North and South America, prepare not only meats and

kindred food products for human consumption but also produce from intensive utilization of by-products, the raw materials foy many other industries In addition to the minute mspection of al meat products under the supervision of the U.S Department o Agriculture, research laboratories are attached to each plant carrying on constant bacteriological tests of food products, devel] oping new uses for by-products and enlarging the scope of th

company’s world-wide activities

WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER,

(T. E. Wr)

a method, due to C. T. F

Wilson, for rendering visible the tracks of swift electnfied pa

ticles, which has proved of the greatest importance for recent r searches in atomic physics By a special device minute drops < water are made to condense on the ions produced by a partic in its rapid passage’ the trail of droplets is dense enough to } visible to the eye as a white line, and is usually recorded | photography, for subsequent study. The particles whose b haviour is studied by the method are the e-particles (see Rant ACTIVITY), and swift electrons, which may be either f-partic! a

638

WILSON

CLOUD

(see RADIOACTIVITY) or electrons released by the photoelectric action of X-rays (See PHOTOELECTRICITY, X-Rays ) Many properties of the X-rays themselves are revealed by the tracks of these secondary electrons The Condensation of Supersaturated Vapours.—

“37

netic forces depend on the events taking place at the origin

a reduction in its elongation. For instance, a 5 gauge rod having a tensile strength of 32 tons

|, |, |,

rer aen @i

iw ne iw

“seconds previously, ¢ being the velocity of the electromagnetic

pet sq. in. will, in drawing down to 17 gauge, have its tensile

strength doubled.

~

|’

>b em

A

The softer metals such as copper, and alloys such as brass,

are drawn in a manner similar to

Sn ©

ei

3s 80 26

œ œw

23 zo

ow

dà

ob

18

ae

aa a

disturbance in free space Since, in practical applications, we are mainly concerned with cases in which the electric moment varies periodically, and in which the observational point is at nght angles to the axis of the doublet (e g, N in fig 1) we may write F(/)=Mosinw? and 6=o Thus (r) and (3) become

steel, the difference being in the methods of cleaning and anneal- Fic. 6.—IMPERIAL STANDARD WIRE ing; also, with the softer metals GAUGE a larger use is made of methods of continuous drawing in which wires may be drawn down to very fine gauges by the simulta- and

_ Mosiny | Mow cost E= a To

Moe sin er’

()

Mow cosy =Mowtsiny as

cr?

re

Cy

f

(5)

neous reduction of nine or more passes in one operation Wiredrawers’ plates may be cast iron, plain carbon steel, or alloy steel, and small hard dies are sometimes made of a compound largely composed of carbide of tungsten Diamond-dies are used

for fine copper and soft metals, (See GALvANIZzING.) (E A.A) WIRED WIRELESS: see ELECTRICAL Power TRANSMIS-

SION, ELECTRICITY SUPPLY: Technical Aspects.

where P=w ¢ —

I

c we see that the radiation terms are the outstanding ones in (4) and (5) ‘The numerical value of the electric and magnetic intensities in such a case is therefore given by

na (i-na (i)

sustained oscillations or a spark generator of damped electrical vibrations. To produce maximum current ın the aerial system the natural oscillation frequency of the circuit should be equal to that of the oscillation generator In practice the current throughout the entire vertical portion AB of the aerial (known as the “leadm”) ıs nearly constant, but, in the horizontal portion BC, the

strength of the current and the potential relative to that of the

j

earth vary from point The inductance, capacity and resistance of the horizontal portion are, in fact, distributed throughout its length and the effective mductance, capacity and resistance of the whole will depend on the frequency of the oscillations This case has been examined in some detail by J. M Miller. Let Ri, Li

Smce É is equal to X where \ 1s the wave-length of the electrow 2T magnetic disturbance, we see that when the distance 7 1s large

and Cy be the resistance, inductance and capacity per unit length of the horizontal portion of the aerial The most important prob-

E=H

r c

ET

n

r c

ia

Èr

compared with x the electric wave consists of periodic electric on

and magnetic forces at right angles and in phase The intensities of these forces vary inversely as the distance from the source For points sufficiently distant, the varying electric doublet may be considered as bemg produced by a fixed electric charge e at the origin, about which vibrates an equal and opposite charge along the Z axis In this case Mo is equal to ez where Zo is the amplitude of the vibrating charge Since, also, such a vibrating charge may be considered as equivalent to an alternating current element of current amplitude ñ and length ds, where ez == ids, we have

iama e,

so that, so far as maximum values of the periodic forces are concerned, (6) may be written wiods 27 igds ==>

So

i"

shown

in fig

3, which

consists

*

8

EH er Are (8) In practice the element ds is represented by the vertical portion of an exposed electrical conductor called the aerial through which an

aerial system

(o)

where i, is the amplitude of the aerial current in amperes, hb, is the “effective height” of the aerial in metres and r and À are also expressed in metres. This is the fundamental formula of wireless transmission. For its practical application ıt is usual to recognize the fact that the aerial is erected above the conducting ground so that, as a result of the electrical image of the aerial in the ground, the electric force is doubled at all points, This way (9) becomes

E= srih volts per metre,

(ro)

the practical transmission formula The aerial assembly approximating most closely to the case of a vertical element through which the current is uniform consists of B c a vertical wire aerial with a long flat top in which the capacity of the system may be considered to be concentrated Such a system is represented diagrammatically in figure 2 where an induc-

tance L is included to make the

“EARTH

system oscillatory The introduc-

Fic. 2

3

tion of such an inductance was first proposed by O. Lodge in Patent specification No 11575, 1897 as a method of reducing the decrement of damped electrical vibrations in a system, and also as a convenient method for adjusting the natural frequency of the circuit. For transmission the circuit is energized by an oscillation generator G which may be either a thermionic valve generator of

or loading

(Since the current through the lead-in is uniform,

as the antenna system in fig 2, Re

Le

while further, the quantities R.,

L

~ ||

La and C, must be such that c, the current ın the two circwts,

aerial and its equivalent, should

have the same maximum value for the same applied electromo-

Fic 3

tive force whether the electromo-

tive force is damped or undamped. The expressions for R., L. and Ce, in terms of Ri, Li and Cy, are, in general, complicated, but for frequencies which are low compared with the natural frequency of the antenna without the added inductance, we have

pw Rt Be, 3

alternating current of amplitude # and angular frequency À flows We see from (8) that the higher the aerial and the greater the frequency the greater are the electric and magnetic forces produced at a distant point In practical units (8) may be written as 6bori,h, mr volts per metre,

of the added

its inductance and resistance may be considered included in L and R) The quantities Le and Ce are defined as those which will give the same resonant frequency

(7)

w

=

lem is to determine the constants of a simple circuit, such as is

mnductance L with its resistance R together with lumped resistance R,, inductance L, and capacity C,, and which is equivalent to the

L=”

3

Co=

3 oot

3

ICi =

Co

where / 1s the length of the horizontal portion The natural frequency f of the aerial, when loaded, is therefore given to a fair degree of accuracy by r066

T aiec] and the wavelength X, in metres, by

= x8tq)/[ (z+2) Co| where the inductances are expressed m microhenries and the capacity in microfarads. The wires of an antenna offer resistance to the current passing through it which is greater for high frequency currents than it is for steady currents because of the skin effect. In addition to this,

the radiation of energy in the form of waves may be regarded as causing an increase in the apparent resistance This increase in the resistance is known as the radiation resistance, which may be defined as that resistance which, if inserted in the vertical portion of the antenna, would cause as great a dissipation of energy as the energy radiated in waves Its value may be shown to be 1580k

xo o’hms

(ha and A being in the same units) for such a flat-topped aerial as we are considering and must be added to R, together with the resistance of the coil L and the lead-in to give the total resistance of the aerial circuit

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY

665

Electric waves sent out from a transmitting system such as is fied and caused to control the amplitude of the generator G in shown in figure 2 produce a vertical electromotive force in a fig 2 The result of the periodic variation of the emitted amphvertical wire at any point equal to Eh, volts where b, is the effec- tude at a speech frequency is the simultaneous emission of two fretive height of this vertical wire in metres and E is the electric quencies other than the normal frequency of emission For exfield produced by the sending system as given by the fundamental ample, if the angular frequency of the fundamental radho-fretransmission formula (10) The vertical wire may be made the quency isw, and that of the speech or modulation frequency is p, aerial of the receiving system and tuned by means of an inductance the signal amplitude may be represented by an expression such as to the frequency of the incoming waves At resonance therefore, E(x—bsinp?)sinewt, since Ohm’s law holds, the current z, in the receiving aerial system where E and b are constants and ż is the time. This expression is given by is equal to Esinpt+Ebcos(w-+p)t— Ebcos(w— p)t. The station > _ uE _ 377Krhate

A

RT

AR

(z1)

where R, is the effective resistance of the receiving aerial The received signal current is not detected in practice as a current in the receiving aerial, but as an electromotive force of mammum amplitude 27fL'z, between the ends of the tuning inductance L! mm the receiving circuit. (See fig. 4a) In modern practice the a

points A and B are connected to

X

the input terminals of a thermionic valve amplifier which is a

potential-operated device

B

VSS

After

=

EARTH

amplıfcation the oscillatory po(2) tential ıs applied to some conducA c tors (e g , crystal or valve detector) for which the relation between current and potential is not linear The ultimate effect of the received signal oscillation is, B D therefore, a direct current H ‘ through a crystal or through the , anode circuit of a thermionic (2) valve to which a telephone or gal- Fig 4—-(A) RECEIVING ANTENNA vanometer is arranged to respond. (B) RECEIVING COIL AERIAL The receiving system need not be an open antenna; it may be a closed col as illustrated in fig 4b. In such a case, due to the slight difference in the phases of the electromotive forces introduced in the two vertical hmbs (AB and CD) of the coil by the traveling waves a resultant electromotive force E,, given by

_ 2368A Nigh, Le

Nr

is introduced into the system, which, at resonance, produces an oscillatory current of value 7, where

,

2

2368A Nigh,

MR

?

(z2)

R being the total effective resistance of the oscillatory circuit and N the number of turns of area A in the coil. When a closed coil is so used the tuning 1s usually performed by means of a condenser C and the signal detected as the oscillatory potential, ty which is produced across its terof maximum amplitude anfC minals. Although the frame aerial is not as efficient a collector of electric wave energy as an open antenna of comparable dimensions ıt possesses the valuable property of directivity in reception, in that waves travelling in a direction at right angles to the axis of the coil produce the maximum signal intensity whereas waves travelling in the direction of its axis produce no signal at all. For the conveyance of intelligence by means of electric waves the amplitude of the transmitted wave is caused to vary. In the sending of Morse signals the amphtude is zero during a pause between signals (spacing interval) and a certain definite value during a signal dot or dash (marking interval), though, in certain systems, two different wave-lengths are emitted during the marking and spacing intervals while the receiver ıs tuned so as to receive only the marking wave-length For the transmission of telephony the signal impulses from the microphone are ampli-

; the mean frequency ae w and the two “side-band” : therefore emits

frequencies

vt and geo? ©

The receiving assembly must there-

27 T fore be sufficiently broadly tuned to permit of the reception of

these side-bands as well as the mean frequency. THE PROPAGATION OF WAVES In approaching the somewhat complicated facts of signal transmission, ıt is of great assistance to bear in mind certain broadlydefined distinctions. In the first place transmission over distances small enough for the earth to be considered plane should be distinguished from transmission over longer distances where the curvature of the earth has to be taken into account Secondly it should be recognized that the results obtained with short waves (eg., of wave-length less than 200 metres) are usually quite different from the results obtained with longer waves; and, thirdly, that the results for day and night conditions are often very different, especially in the case of short waves.

SHORT-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION From measurements of the electric field strength due to a wireless sender of known aerial current, effective height and wavelength it has been possible to compare the observed values of field strength with those to be expected from the fundamental transmission formula (10) The first measurements of this type were made by W. Duddell and J. E. Taylor, who, in 1905, examined the relation between signal intensity and distance for overland and oversea conditions, using a wave-length of about 200 metres. Spark transmission was used and the current im the receiving acral was measured by a thermogalvanometer. For oversea transmissıon the product of received signal current and distance was found to be constant, indicating agreement with the simple transmission formula, but for overland transmission the same product was found to fall in value with increase of distance. Since the observations were made at distances sufficiently small for the departure of the earth’s surface from a plane to be mnappreciable this discrepancy for overland transmission has been attributed tc the dissipative influence of the ground. A theoretical discussion of the propagation of plane waves ove! a plane surface of finite conductivity was published by J. Zen neck in 1907. The attenuation coefficient of the waves was show! to be inversely proportional to the square of the wave-length, sı that the dissipative effect of the ground is most marked for shor waves. The resistivity of the ground was also shown to introduc a forward tilting of the wave-front and a difference of phase i the horizontal and vertical electric fields in the air or in the eartk The complete problem of transmission over a plane surface o finite conductivity from an emitting source situated on the surfac was examined by A. Sommerfeld in 1909, while a comparison c experimental results with his theory was made by J. A Rat cliffe and M A. F. Barnett, who, in 1927, measured the variatio of signal strength with distance for the Daventry 1,600 meti wave-length transmitter Satisfactory agreement with Somme feld’s theory was obtained if the average conductivity of tt ground was taken to be about ro® e.s u, a value of the same ord as that previously obtained by R. L Smuth-Rose and R. H Ba field from measurements of the forward tilt of the electric for of waves travelling along the ground. A complete survey of tl signal intensities received at different points round the Lond

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY

666

Variations in the effective height of the layer between night (2LO) transmitter on a wave-length of 365 metres led R H. Barfield to atiribute the variation of signal attenuation with and day were found by Appleton and Barnett, confirming the view direction to the effect of trees, a marked attenuation being found that the ionization in the upper atmosphere 1s due to solar influence During the day the lower boundary of the layer 1s low and when the waves traversed well-wooded areas The above-mentioned observations were made during daylight fairly-well defined. After sunset the withdrawal of the sun’s rays

hours when steady and consistent signal intensities are recorded. At night-time at the longer distances, and particularly with the shorter wave-lengths the signals Skeen EGIO vary in an erratic manner Such 5 signal variation is known as fading For wave-lengths within the broadcasting band (200-500 metres) these nocturnal variations are detectable at distances as short as ro miles from the sender le es As the distance is mcreased the signal variations become more FIG 5 marked, so that at a distance of 100 to 150 miles the intensity may vary from zero to a value twice the day-time value At still greater distances where the day-time signal is very weak the chief effect of the withdrawal of sunlight is a marked increase of signal intensity which, though sufferng considerable variation, does not frequently fall to zero as is the case at slightly shorter distances. Nocturnal signal variations have been shown to be due to waves of variable intensity and phase which arrive at the receiving station after being “reflected” by a layer of free electricity which exists in the upper atmosphere The exstence of this layer, which plays an all-important part in long-distance propagation, was first postulated by O Heaviside and A E Kennelly in 1902 to account for the propagatıon of waves round the protuberance of the earth’s surface Its emstence was proved by direct experiments carried out by E. V. Appleton and M. A F. Barnett m England, and by G Breit and M. Tuve in America in 1925 The principles of both experiments may be illustrated by means of fig 5 in which a transmitter T is communicating to a receiving station at R by sending out continuous waves Two sets of waves reach the receiver R, one set by the direct path TR along the ground and the other via the upper atmosphere by way of TAR For simplicity it is assumed that the atmospheric waves are truly reflected by the Kennelly-Heaviside layer Suppose the difference in path between the paths of the ground and atmospheric waves is D. We then have

D

n = F

(13)

where is the number of wave-lengths the atmospheric ray, because of its longer path, arrives behind the ground ray at the receiver R. In the experiments carried out by Appleton and Barnett the wave-length of the transmitting station was slowly and continuously varied through a small range 5\ and the resulting signal maxima and minima due to the variation ın n recorded. From (13) we have numerically

(14) so that if the number of signal maxima 6m for a given wavelength change 6\ is found D may be calculated

From D the

height of the layer AZ may be deduced by simple triangulation. This height, for a wave-length of 400 metres, 1s normally found to be of the order of too km. In the experiments of Breit and Tuve very short impulses of radio frequency energy were sent out from T, and as each impulse is received twice at R, first via the ground and secondly via the atmosphere, ıt ıs possible, from an oscillographic registration of the signals, to measure the difference in the times taken for the waves to traverse these two paths. Knowing the velocity c of electromagnetic radiation in free space ıt ıs therefore possible to find the difference in length of the two paths and thus find the height at which the atmospheric waves are deviated Using 70 metre waves Breit and Tuve found heights varying from go km. to 230 km.

cause the under-boundary to rise, due to recombination of ions

in the lower regions The slow rise continues until, about an hour before sunrise, the layer falls rapidly and resumes its day-time value

To understand the difference in intensity of the down-coming

rays between day and night ıt is necessary to examine the process by which the atmospheric waves are deviated by the upper atmosphere For very long waves it is most likely that the gradient of

ionization at the lower boundary of the layer 1s sufficiently large to cause a marked change of conductivity or dielectric constant within a wave-length, so that for such wave-length true reflection takes place For the shorter wave-lengths it is usually accepted that the process of deviation 1s brought about by a gradual bending of the waves due to a gradual reduction of refractive index with

height The theory of this process has been examined by W H Eccles and J Larmor According to Larmor, electrons, with long mean free paths, are the effective agencies in the reduction of the

refractive index

For N electrons per cc, of mass m and charge

e, the refractive index is given by

KR=I—

Ne rme N.

(15)

We may thus picture the atmospheric ray trajectory as in figure 6 where the ray impinges on the layer at B at an angle of incidence 6) ‘The reduction in the refractive mdex causes the ray to bend away from the normal so that it follows the track BAC. Such considerations raise the question as to what is ac-

tually measured

mm

the

direct

methods

of

measuring

the

“height” of the layer as developed by Appleton and Barnett and by Breit and Tuve A detailed consideration of the

problem shows that in both cases the height FE in fig 6 is meas-

ured Thus the height is the same as would be deduced from measurement of the angle of incidence of down-coming waves received at the ground such as have been made by Appleton and Barnett and by R L Smith-Rose and R H Barfield In all cases the height measured is greater than the actual maximum height AE of the atmospheric ray path. The bending of the atmospheric waves is accompanied by absorption since the electrons in the layer, vibrating under the influence of the electric forces in the waves, are subjected to collisions by the gas molecules to which they communicate energy The attenuation coefficient is greater the greater the pressure of the air at the point in question, and, other things being equal, is proportional to the square of the wave-length Thus theoretical considerations suggest that a high layer and use of short waves provide the conditions most suitable for communicating over long distances The different types of fading experienced at different distances 5 r| may now be explained Durng uauuuulemnudnppuuauunnuuune| the day-time, for wave-lengths of 400 metres, such as are used in FIG. 6 broadcasting, the down-coming ‘waves are weak at all distances, but are much increased in strength at night At short distances (eg, 50 miles) a strong ground signal is received which 1s the same by day and by night. At greater distances (e g , 100 to 150 miles), although a steady ground signal is recerved during the day the signal at mght is composed of ground waves and atmospheric waves of about equal intensity. As the down-coming waves vary both im intensity and phase, variations of the resultant signal from zero to twice the day-time value take place, corresponding to out-phase and in-phase conditions of the two sets of waves At still greater distances the day-time signal

667

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY due to the ground waves is very weak so that at night the signal is almost wholly due to the down-coming waves. At this distance, therefore, although the signals vary a good deal, it 1s not often that they disappear entirely The critical region at which ground and atmospheric waves are approximately equal in intensity varies with the wave-length used For longer waves of 1,600 metres, for which the ground waves are much less attenuated, this region is about 300 to 400 miles from the transmitter at mght, while for shorter waves of roo metres it may be only ro miles distant Directional Reception.—As mentioned above, the use of a single coil or frame aerial as the receiving aerial permits of directional reception. The same device may therefore be used to find the direction in which waves are arriving at a receiving station, as was first pointed out by R A Fessenden in 1899 It is found in practice that the most convenient way of finding the direction in which waves are arriving is to rotate the loop until signals of minimum intensity are received The axis of the loop then comcides with the direction of arrival of the waves. Other systems of direction finding such as the Bellim-Tosi system and the Robinson system operate on essentially the same principles for, in each case, the observation of apparent direction is carried out by settmg some part of the rotating system, which revolves about a vertical axis, in a position in which the signal electromotive force 1s zero or, at the least, a minimum. Although such systems, for medium and long wave-lengths, are. found to give correct bearings during the day-time, the readings during the night are often hable to errors of as much as 90°. The signal minima are found to be blurred, displaced and variable while at the same time fading often occurs Such nocturnal errors begin to make their appearance at distances of 30 miles from the transmitter for overland transmission and at 100 mules for oversea transmission With increasing distance the magnitude of these effects at first increases but finally decreases, so that at long distances direction-finders give correct bearings. An explanation of these vagaries was put forward by T. L. Eckersley in 1921 who suggested that the effects were due to the arrival at the receiver of down-coming waves from the ionized layer which were polarized so as to possess a component of electric force at right angles to the plane of propagation (ze, to the vertical plane containing the transmitting and receiving stations) As the effects are usually observed at distances at which the ground waves from the sending station are of appreciable intensity the problem is complicated by the fact that an interference system is produced between ground and atmospheric waves. The relevant details are ulustrat- werd irtenga itd ed in fig. 7, which is drawn in the plane of propagation. Let O be the site of the receiv- Fie 7—(THE X AXIS IS AT RIGHT

position is proportional to H., and when in the minimum position to H,. If the down-coming waves were normally polarized Hy, would be zero and there would be no error The order of magnitude of the maximum error which might be experienced in any case may be found by taking the case in which Eo and E’ are m phase, and Eo and E, are out of phase. The angular error @in this case is given by 2H,’ cos 6; (x7) tand =

Ho =

2H

7

As it is probable that Hı and Hy’ are of the same order of magnitude we see that, when the error is small, its magnitude depends on the ratio of the atmospheric and ground ray intensities and on the angle of incidence of the down-coming waves. When a strong ground wave 1s received the error will be small, so that the difference between the attenuation of ground waves overland and oversea is reflected in the different ranges at which errors become appreciable. Also the error 1s small at large distances when 6; approaches 90°. It 1s possible to account for this abnormality in polarization in terms of the magneto-ionic theory proposed by E, V. Appleton m 1924, and independently by H. W. Nichols and J Schelleng in 1925, in which the effect of the earth’s magnetic field on wireless propagation 1s taken into account. According to this theory, if the electrical carners in the upper atmosphere are of electronic

mass, the formula (15) for the refractive index of the ionized layer is only valid for very short waves. A detailed examination of the problem shows that under the action of the earth’s magnetic field, the upper atmosphere acts as a doubly refracting medium in that a linearly polarised wave entering ıt is split up, in general, into two elliptically polarızed components of different absorption and refrangibility Due principally to the difference in the absorption experienced by the two components in the lower region of the iomzed layer the wave which ultimately emerges from the layer is chiefly composed of one of the components, and is thus, in general, elliptically polarized

LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION zr. Long Waves.—In December 1901 G Marcom established communication over a distance greater than 2,000 miles between Poldhu (England) and St John (Newfoundland), while the first quantitative relations between signal mtensity, distance of transmission and wave-length were given by L. W. Austin, whose experiments, begun m rgro, have been continued since As a result of transmissions carried out between Brant-Rock and Arlingtor on the east coast of America and various American cruisers Austin was led to the empirical formula E= 377ishe g~t oatsr//A) rr

(x8

for the electric force at a distance r from the transmitter. I will be seen that this formula, known as the Austin transmissio1 formula, is similar to (10) but that an exponential term, know) ing station at which a ground ANGLES TO THE PAPER) as the “absorption term,” has been included. Austin’s formul wave (electric and magnetic vectors Ep and Ho respectively) and was based on day-time measurements at distances up to 2,00 a down-commng wave, incident at angle @1, are received The down- kilometres Its applicability up to distances of 4,000 km. wa coming wave may be resolved into two components, one (F:,Hi) later verified by J L. Hogan In the “absorption term” both with electric vector in the plane of propagation, and the other and A are measured in kilometres (Er Hr) with electric vector perpendicular to this plane FollowL. F Fuller, as the result of a series of measurements mad mg Eckersley these may be termed the normally and abnormally between Honolulu and San Francisco, a distance of 3,880 kn polarised components respectively. Assuming, as a simplification, with wave-lengths ranging from 3,000 to 11,800 metres, propose that the ground apprommates to a perfect conductor (which is for day-time transmission the formula sufficiently accurate for wave-lengths greater than about 300 metres) the electric and magnetic forces at O may be written g = Tiy 0 g Or 9, (x rr sind E,=o0, H,= Hosinwi+-2Hisin(wi+6), E,=0, Hy= 2Hy cos (:sinwt+6), (16) In this formula the absorption term is seen to be different fro that proposed by Austin, while there is also introduced a ter E, = Eosin wi+2Fsinbisin(wi +0), H:=0 where w is the angular frequency of the waves and @ and 6 -- » where 9 is the geo-centric angle between sending ar si the phase differences between the ground wave and the normal and abnormal components of the down-coming wave respectively. receiving stations ‘This latter term is introduced to allow f The electromotive force induced in the coil when in the maximum the fact that the earth’s surface is spherical and therefore t

668

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY

energy flux at a distance r measured along the surface of the 6 I : ‘ f ; ' and not to n° Its inclusion r’sin® en OOSA amounts to a correction of r% at a distance of 2,000 km. toa correction of 25% at 10,000 km. Numerous field-strength measurements carried out in 1922 by engineers of the American Telegraph and Telephone Company and the Western Electric Company, in connection with tests preparatory to the mauguration of the trans-Atlantic wireless telephone service, suggested for day-time conditions an absorp-

tion term e—® %5r/™) in the transmission formula instead of those

proposed by Austin and Fuller At night signal intensities, though erratic, were often high, sometimes reaching the value given by (10) (¢¢, [18] or [19] without the absorption term). The theoretical problem corresponding to the case of propagation over such large distances as we are considering 1s that of the diffraction of waves round a conducting sphere The ideal case of a perfectly conducting sphere surrounded by an infinite non-conducting dielectric was examined by H M Macdonald, Lord Rayleigh, H Poincaré, J W. Nicholson, H March, W V Rybeynski and G.N Watson The general result of these investigations is that the signal intensities observed in practice are too large to be explained by diffractive bending alone, and ıt was this discrepancy which led, in the first place, to the postulation of a reflecting layer The case in which a reflecting layer influences

Some mean values of the 4 attenuation coefficient for various types of transmission are given below

European Stations received in the Atlantic American Stations received in the Atlantic European Stations received in the Pacific

a=0 0018 Q=0 00142 Q@=0 00095

(2) Medium Waves.—Measurements across the Atlantic Ocean were made in length of 300 was obtained ing with the

1923 by H D Arnold and L Espenschied on a wavemetres Agreement with Austin’s empirical formula during the day, but during the night, values agreesimple formula (10) obtained by neglecting the absorption term in Austin’s formula were obtained.

(3) Short Waves.—The wave-length used by H Hertz in his original experiments was about 3 metres. The engineers who developed Hertz’s discovery, foremost among whom was G Marconi, found that longer wave-lengths gave greater ranges, and from 1895 onwards 1t was considered that the long waves were more suitable for long distance communication than short waves Both durmg and after the World War of 1914-1918, however, more attention was paid to the short wave-lengths The evolution of the thermionic valve had provided the radio-engineer with new tools for both transmission and reception With it the generation of continuous

waves

down

to wave-lengths

of a few

metres was a simple matter while, at the same time, its inclusion in wireless receiving sets as amplifier and detector had increased transmission has been examined quantitatively by G N. Watson, the sensitivity of such recelvers many thousandfold About the whose formula, together with that obtained by the same writer same time wireless amateurs both m England and America and also the engmeers of the Marconi Company began to explore for simple diffraction, are given below the use of short waves for long distance communication Three Diffraction Formula main conclusions were drawn from the amateur and professional E 0° 5368 Îsha e72 30ND experiments The first was that short waves travelled exceedingly (20) long distances with very small attenuation, so that comparatively 7 (sing)? low-power stations were required to produce readable signals at Reflection Formula the Antipodes ‘This characteristic of short waves could not have A hsi, e—a been predicted from the Austin formula and from our previous (21) na A(Rsinb)i knowledge of the behaviour of long waves Secondly it was found that, although the signal strength first fell off rapidly as the diswhere R is the radius of the earth, and tance from a short-wave station was increased, the signals suddenly appeared in greater strength when a certain critical distance I J/N Pa? } was reached, and only died out gradually as the distance was inAR at pa) + 5 creased further The critical distance at which the strong signal where pı=resistivity of reflecting layer, suddenly appeared, the so-called “skipped distance” was found to pa=resistivity of the earth, vary with wave-length, being greater the shorter the wave-length H=height of the layer above the earth, and A is aconstant For example for a wave-length of 30 metres the skipped distance A very complete discussion of the comparison of signal strength was found to be about 600 km but for 20 metre waves it was about 1,400 km The third characteristic of short-wave transmeasurements with both of these formulae has been given by H J. Round, T. L. Eckersley, K. Tremellen and F C Lunnon usmg mission was that there often appeared to be two optimum wavemeasurements made by Marconi Company Engineers during 1922 lengths, one most suitable for day transmission and the other and 1923 on an expedition sent to Australia. At smaller distances for transmission by night, so that, by the use of both, communiusing (20) the agreement is fair, but at distances greater than cation over the whole of the day could be maintained. An explanation of the “skipped distance” observed in short 2,000 km diffraction alone is wholly inadequate to explain the results. The same authors consider that for long waves (e £, wave was first given by A H Taylor and E O Hulbert, who, in 16,000 metres) the effects of reflection begin to be important at 1926, pointed out that according to (15) and for a constant value of the electron concentration in the upper atmosphere the distances of about 700 km and at distances greater than 2,000 km the second formula of Watson (21) becomes applicable. They reduction in the refractive index and thus the maximum angle through which waves may be deviated becomes smaller the therefore put this in a practical form as smaller the wave-length It was therefore suggested that the ray received at the edge of the skipped distance was critical im that 377 ts hs e—ar/r h = A(doRsind)4 (22) it had been deviated at the level in the upper atmosphere where the electron concentration was greatest, and that waves meeting which is easily seen to resemble the empirical formula of Austin the layer with smaller angles of incidence than this critical ray very closely., In (22) da 1s a constant having the dimensions of actually penetrated the layer and escaped This is tantamount to a length and which theoretically is equal to $H saying that there are no atmospheric waves of normal type reThe results of the Australian expedition show that during the ceived within the skipped distance because there 1s insufficient day-time the absorption factor œ is independent of the wave- electricity in the layer to bend them back It has, however, been length, but that it appears to vary with the direction of transmis- found that it is possible to receive a very weak signal within sion, For example in trans-Atlantic measurements the attenuation the skipped distance which, since its intensity is found to vary in a West to East direction is lower than that in the opposite considerably, must be attributed to down-coming waves Such direction Examples of the simultaneous reception of signals both signals appear to come from all directions m that they show no ways round the earth were noted The reception of abnormally directional effects and this has led T L Eckersley to suggest large signal intensities at the Antipodes, found by Lieut. Guerre that the radiation responsible for these signals is scattered from on the S.S Aldebaran m 1920, was also confirmed the waves which are passing overhead and which are bent back

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY

to the ground at greater distances

669

J Larmor, “Why Wireless Electric Rays can Bend Round the Earth,”

The use of methods of concentrating radiation nto a beam | Phil Mag. 48, p. 1,025 (1924); “An Investigation of Wireless Waves

has been developed by the Marconi Company Engineers, and arriving from the Upper Atmosphere,” Proc. Roy. Soc A. 110, p §80 (1926), T L Eckersley, “The Effect of the Heaviside Layer on the particularly by C S Franklin who has, after expermmenting with Apparent Direction of Electromagnetic Waves,” Radio Review, 2, parabolic reflectors after the manner of H Hertz, designed an p 234 (1921); E V_ Appleton, “Geophysical Influences on the Transmission of Wireless Waves,” Proc. Phys. Soc, Lond, vol 37, part 2, aerial consisting of a number of parallel vertical wires equally spaced behind which is a “reflecting screen” formed similarly of (Feb. 15, 1925); H W. Nichols and J. Schelleng, “The Propagation of Electric Waves over the Earth,” Bell System Telephone Journal, 4, vertical wires Such aerials are used in the series of wireless p. 218 (1925), L W Austin, “Quantitative Experiments in RadioteleImks between Great Britain and the Domimons which have been graphic Transmission,” Sczentsfic Papers of the Bureau of Standards, erected by the Marconi Company for the British Post Office The No. 226 (1914); LF. Fuller, “Continuous Waves in Long Distance use of similar aerial systems with reflectors for the receiving Radio Telegraphy,” Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng , 34, pp. 567 and 809 (1915); H D. Arnold and L Espenschied, “Transatlantic Radio Telestations has two advantages In the first place the use of many aerials brings about the collection of electric wave energy from phony,” Bell System Tech. Journ. (1923) ; G. N. Watson, “Diffraction of Electric Waves by the Earth,” Proc Roy. Soc. A 895, p. 83 (1918) over a fairly wide area thus increasing the received signal Sec- and p. 546 (1919), H J Round, T. L. Eckersley, K Tremellen and ondly the reflector acts as a kind of shield and protects the aerial F. C Lunnon, “Signal Strength Measurements A Report on some from undesired signals and atmospherics coming in the opposite Experiments made over Great Distances during 1922 and 1923 by an Expedition sent to Austraha,” Journ Inst Elect Eng, vol 63, p 933 direction. (1925); A.H Taylor and E O. Hulbert, “The Propagation of Radio Since the attenuation of short wave signals is so low there is Waves over the Earth,” Physical Review, 27, p. 189, (1926) , “Neues

not a very great difference in the intensity of signals received both ways round the earth. In the case of 16-metre signals sent

from America to Germany, E Quack has recorded oscillographically double signals with a spacing of 0-096 seconds. The first signal received was that travelling by the shorter journey across the Atlantic Ocean, while the second was that taking the long path via the Pacific Ocean The same author has recorded instances of the fourfold reception of the same short wave signal, the first signal arriving via the direct path and being followed by signals that have travelled once, twice and thrice round the globe WIRELESS

WAVE

PROPAGATION

AND SOLAR ACTIVITY

It has been shown by L W Austin that there exists a direct correlation between solar activity and the strength of long-wave

wireless signals when averaged over long periods On the other hand, G W. Pickard, making signal strength observations on shorter wave-lengths, has found an inverse relationship between signal strength and sun-spot numbers Moreover it is found that isolated magnetic storms yield evidence of a similar character for, on such occasions, although there have been exceptional cases, the general rule is that short-wave signals are weaker and long wave signals stronger in times of enhanced magnetic activity. As shown above, the general evidence suggests that long waves are reflected by the lowest of the ionized regions in the upper atmosphere, while short waves, which require a greater electronic density to bend them back, travel through these lower regions before being appreciably deviated If, therefore, the effect of enhanced solar activity were to increase the ionization in the lower layers of the atmosphere there would result an increase in the intensity of the waves reflected from its surface and an increase in the absorption of waves passing through it. The variation in signal intensity found by Austin during the 11-year sun-spot cycle can be explained by assuming that the specific conductivity of the layer reflecting the long waves used is 1-5 times as great at sun-spot maximum as at sun-spot minimum ‘This figure is in agreement with the evidence of terrestrial magnetism.

uber die Ausbreitung von kurzen Wellen,” Jahrb Drahtl Tel, 28,177 (1926), L W. Austin, “Long-Wave Radio Measurements at the Bureau of Standards in 1926, with some comparisons of Solar Activity and Radio Phenomena,” Proc Inst Radzo Eng 185, p. 825 (1927); G W Pickard, “The correlation of Radio Reception with Solar Activity and Terrestrial Magnetism,” Proc Inst. Radio Eng, 15, p. 83 and

p. 749 (1927)

f

:

See also H Hertz, Electric Waves (trans by D E. Jones, London, 1900); H. M. Macdonald, Electric Waves (Cambridge, 1902); J. A Fleming, The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony (London, 1916); L Bouthillon, La Théorie et la Pratique des Radio communications, (1) Introduction 4 Vétude des Radio communications (Paris, 1919), (2) La Propagation des Ondes Electromagnétrques (Paris, 1921), (3) Oscillations et Haute fréquence (Panis, 1925), G W. Pierce, Electric Oscillations and Electric Waves (New York, 1920); W. H. Eccles, Continuous Wave Telegraphy (London, 1921), J H. Morecroft, Principles of Radio Communication (New York, 1927)5 L. S Palmer, Wereless Principles and Practice (London, 1928); G G. Blake, Hzstory of Radio Telegraphy and Telephony Coney ee

COMMUNICATION

owe

General Considerations,—Communication by Hertzian waves ıs the only practical method of transmitting messages beyond the horizon to recipients whose position is not known or whose position 1s continually changing. Hence wireless telegraphy and telephony have no mvals for the purpose of communicating with distant ships, aeroplanes, surveyors and explorers. Again, it 1s characteristic of wireless or radio communication that its waves tend to spread equally in all directions, and thus the messages can be made available to all who possess the necessary receiving apparatus. Examples of this quality are seen in the modern art of radio broadcasting and in the wireless call for help of a ship in distress. Here again, wireless has no competitor. On the other hand wireless can give many of the services that have hitherto been rendered by lJand lines and submarine cables. Thus, in transatlantic telegraphy, wireless has been competing with the ocean cables for about twenty years with gradually increasing success In some cases, especially in respect of long distances such as England to Australia, New York and Berlin BIBLioGRAPHY.—J. H Dellinger, “Principles of Radio Transmission to South America, the competition of radio with the cable has with Antenna and Coil Aerials,” Scientific Papers of the Bureau of become very acute during the past three years because the erecStandards, No 354 (x919); J M Miller, “Electrical Oscillations in tion of the necessary wireless stations requires only an msignifiAntennas and Inductance Coils,” Scientific Papers of the Bureau of cant capital outlay compared with that necessary for, say, ten Standards, No. 326 (1918); W. Duddell and J. E. Taylor, “Wireless Telegraphy Measurements,” Journ Inst Elect. Eng., vol 35, P 321 thousand miles of submarine cable These same considerations (1905); J Zenneck, “Uber Die Fortpflanzung ebener elekromagnet- of cost often decide whether wireless or cable communication is ischer Wellen usw,” Ann der Phystk, vol. 23, p. 846 (1907); A to be chosen for hnking a small island community with the rest Sommerfeld, “Uber die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der drahtlosen of the world Telegraphie,” Ann. der Phystk, vol 28, p. 665 (1909); J. A, Ratcliffe

Wireless communications can be said to comprise every variety of traffic that can be handled by aid of wires For instance, beside: the transmission of Morse signals and of music or speech, wireles: Determination of the Direction of the Forces in Wireless Waves at stations have been utilized for the transmission of pictures, o the Earth's Surface,” Proc Roy. Soc. A. 107,587 (1925); E. V.Appleton and M A F, Barnett, “On some Direct Evidence for signatures, of facsimiles of printed pages and for television I Downward Atmospheric Reflection of Electric Rays,” Proc. Roy Soc. many cases, the rapidity of wireless transmission to any distanc: A, 109, p, 621 (1923), G. Bret and M A Tuve, “A Test of the is as rapid as that possible over a few hundred miles of land line Existence of the Conducting Layer,” Physical Review, vol 28, No 3, and much faster than that possible through a hundred miles o p £54 (1926); W H Eccles, “On the Diurnal Variations of the Electric submarine cable Hence for work such as telephony, facsimil Waves occurring n Nature, and on the Propagation of Electric Waves Round the Bend of the Earth,” Proc Roy. Soc A. 87, p 79 (1912)3 transmission and television, a wireless circuit accomplishes thing and M. A F. Barnett, “On the Attenuation of Wireless Signals in Short Distance Overland Transmission” Proc. Camb Phil Soc, vol

23, part 3 (1926); R L Smuth-Rose and R. H. Barfield, “On the

670

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY

that are at present impossible on the transoceanic cables Wireless communication has, however, some of the defects of its qualities. Inasmuch as the emissions from a wireless station can be picked up by anyone who provides himself with suitable apparatus, there is httle of that secrecy which belongs to communications which are compelled to pass along a copper wire of

which the ends are in private hands. Consequently there is always a quantity of telegraphic and other traffic which preferably goes by wire For instance, the London correspondents of foreign newspapers often refuse to transmit their news messages abroad by wireless because, 1f they do, the news may be printed in rival newspapers at the same moment as in their own This defect may be overcome to some extent by coding, by very rapid transmission, or, better, by “scrambling” the messages, 7¢, making them unintelligible by aid of automatic mechanical devices at the transmitter, devices which can be used in the reverse sense at the authorized receiving station. This comparison between wireless and wire will be incomplete unless the troubles that afflict both are mentioned. In the case of cables the chief source of interruption of a service is the breaking or leaking of the cable. Such an injury may take two or more weeks to repair; the only mitigation is to provide a duplicate cable or route On all the great traffic paths of the globe such duplicates exist, and therefore it is found that the delays affect only relatively small communities. Another trouble afficting the cable is that arising from magnetic storms; usually this averages only a few hours per annum The principal troubles that afflict wireless communications are the breakdown of aerials in storms, the failure of machmery or power supply, “atmospherics” and “fading” The failures of a mechanical nature are often prepared agaimst by duplicating, at least in part, the machinery But for “atmospherics” and “fading” no real remedy has appeared as yet Fortunately, atmospherics are much less troublesome with short waves than with long, and fading, on the other hand, is much less frequent with long waves than with short; and, therefore, in the case of an important wireless lnk a combination of long and short wave stations, operated from the same telegraph offices, could provide an almost continuous service Such a combination, designed for distances of, say, four thousand miles, would probably not give quite as continuous a telegraphic service as a submarme cable and might not be any better financially. International Regulations.—Since the emission of waves from a wireless station affects recerving apparatus over a wide area if the apparatus 1s attuned to the waves, it follows that every wireless station on the globe monopolies a certain wave-length or frequency inside a certain area. Indeed, as it is impossible to tune transmitting or receiving apparatus with absolute accuracy, each station may be said to monopolize a band of frequencies. Therefore, to make telegraphic services useful, an allocation of a particular wave-length or frequency must be made to each station, due regard being taken of the area served by such station and of the proxmmity and needs of neighbouring stations. From this arose the necessity for international agreement and legislation, and a conference was called at Berlin in 1903, which prepared schemes for discussion at a second international conference meeting at Berlin m 1906 ‘This conference discussed many details that had become of importance to the usefulness of wireless, including rules for handling and charging for telegrams, especially by ship’s operators, and regulations for the prevention. of interference and for the enforcement of penalties At the succeeding conference in London in ror2 a radiotelegraphic convention was drawn up and was signed by nearly all the principal countries, This provided for the establishment of a central office for collecting and distributing information about the wireless services of the world, and arranged for it to take its place as a branch of the Bureau of the International Telegraph Union at Berne This radiotelegraph office had about one thousand wireless stations on its list in 1912 and nearly twenty thousand in 1926 The growth in number is due chiefly to the increased use of

Sea This convention, which was arranged in London in 1913, specifies the minimum of equipment and staff to be carried by ships of the various grades and for the hours of service The most recent international radio conference took place at Washington in the autumn of 1927. The revised arrangements have not yet been ratified by all the Powers concerned, but the allocations of wave-length to different services provisionally adopted will probably be universally accepted ‘They are as follows '— Long Waves

Frequency |^Approximate PP wave-length

;

Service

kılocycles

Pomt-to-pomt . A Mobile and point-to-pomt Mobile, including naval vessels Mobile, merchant vessels Mobile, calling wave Mobile

i

Broadcasting or mobile and point-topoint (as determined by regional agreement) Broadcasting, mobile and point-to-point services for aircraft (subject to certain lumitations) ets Radio beacons .

Aviation

metres

Below 100 | Above 3,000 IOQ-I1O 2,725-3,000 IIO-125 2,400-2,725 125-150 2,000-2,400 143 2,100

j

50-160

1,875-2,000

160-194.

1,550-1,875

194-285 285-315

I,050-1, 540 Q50~1,050

315-350

Mobile and radio compass Broadcasting Small vessels

850-950

350-550 550-1,500 1,365

545-850 200-545 220

It is proposed to allow mobile stations and point-to-point stations to share short wave bands as shown in the following table Certain parts of the bands shown here as “point-to-poimt” are available for amateur stations or for short-wave broadcasting stations or are shared with mobile services Certain parts of the bands shown here as “mobile” are similarly shared with point-topoint services.

Shart Waves Mobile service

oe kilocycles 1,500-2,750

2,850-5,700 6,150-6,675

Approxmate wave-length metres

109-200

52*7—-105 45-48 8

Pount-to-pomt service (including amateurs and short-wave

broadcasting)

Frequency kilocycles I,715—2,250

2,75075,5090 5,700-6,150

Approximate

wave-length metres 1337175

54-199 48-8-52°7

8,200--8,900

33'°7735'6

6,675-8,200

II,000-1 1,400 I2,300-13,350

263—273 23°4-24°4

8,550~11,000 IX,400-12,300

27'3735'I 244-263

16,400-17,750

16°9-18 3

12,825~16,400

18 3-23 4

22,300-23,000

13 I-%3°45

21,550-23,000

13°I-13'9

17,IOO-21,550

366-45

I3°Q-17 5

Variations from this table will probably be allowed to existing important stations; all waves below 131 metres (above 23,000 lulocycles) remain free for allocation nationally. The conference, among other recommendations, laid stress upon one which forbids the mstallation of spark sets above 300 watts ‘Input power on new ships after 1929, and the abolition of all such sets now existing on old ships on December 31, 1939 Spark stations on land will if possible be abolished by 1930, or, at latest, 1935. Moreover, all except small ships are recommended to be fitted as early as possible to receive continuous waves from soo to 3,000 metres In accord with the International Convention, every important country has enacted domestic legislation to enable the international provisions to be enforced. In Great Britain and Northern Ireland the contro] of wireless communications is in the hands of the Postmaster General, in virtue of the Wireless Telegraphy Act of 1904, which is renewed annually The Act provides that no one shall install or work a wireless equipment, either for send-

wireless at sea, which was greatly stimulated by the signing in Ing or receiving messages, without a licence, and that when an 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life, at applicant for a licence proves that his object is for experimental

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY

purposes solely, a licence shall be granted without rent or royalty.

The application of the Act to shipping is regulated under the Merchant Shipping (Wireless Telegraphy) Act, 1919, and the Rules made by the Board of Trade under this Act. (W. E.) In the United States of America commercial wireless communication services are operated by private enterprise Under the Act of 1927 the Federal Government has certain regulating powers to grant licences for radio stations, to license operators, to apportion wave-length assignments and other similar powers necessary to

preserve the “public interest, convenience and necessity” This

law is administered by an appointive group of five men known as the Federal Radio Commission The United States was signatory

to and has ratified the International Radio Convention of 1927

(X.)

Marine Communication—The 1914 convention bound all the contracting nations to pass legislation to compel all ships that sail from one country to another to be fitted with a radiotelegraphic installation 1f they have on board 50 or more persons in all, subject to a few exemptions Moreover such ships carrying more than 25 passengers must maintain a continuous watch Every ship so fitted must carry, besides its main installation, an emergency installation of approved design. Further, the master of any ship fitted with wireless who receives a call for assistance is bound to proceed to help those in distress if requested to do so. Since 1920, the ships of the British mercantile marine have been required to engage three operators for voyages other than coastwise taking more than 48 hours from port to port when carrying 200 or more passengers Two operators must be carried by such vessels taking*between 8 and 48 hours from port to port, and regulations have also been issued relative to the carrying of wireless watchers on board in place of one or more of the certified operators. Until about the year 1922 nearly all ship and shore communication had been conducted by spark stations transmitting on 450 and 600 metres wave-length These signals interfered greatly with the development of the new art of broadcasting especially near great ports, and consequently much consideration was given to the introduction of more modem apparatus on ships. The larger passenger ships and shore stations gradually adopted contmuous wave methods, employmg either the arc or the valve, with a wave-length of about 2,000 metres. This step not only avoided mterference with broadcasting but also enabled communication to be established across great distances and made multiple telegraphy possible when desired. Nowadays one and the same shore station can utilise its antenna for transmitting signals on several wave-lengths simultaneously—say 1,800, 1,900, 2,000 and 2,200 metres—thus enabling that station to work with four ships at a time without interfering appreciably with any other service, such as popular broadcasting The tendency of development in this direction is in favour of the installation of valve transmutters rather than arcs, and with such transmitters it is possible to operate very near to broadcasting wave-lengths without causing interference These marine valve transmitters are now being manufactured by the principal firms in many countries, usually being equipped to transmit on about 600 metres and about 2,000 metres. Inasmuch as there are still many vessels sailing with apparatus mcapable of receiving continuous wave signals, the transmitters just mentioned are provided with a simple form of rapidly vibrating interrupter which chops up the continuous waves so as to yield a musical note in the receiving apparatus of the older or smaller ships. One result of the increasing use of continuous wave transmitters at sea is that telephony is now being tried as an accessory to telegraphy. In order to transmit speech from a continuous wave plant it is necessary to modulate the waves by aid of a microphone. This modification is descnbed in that section of BROADCASTING dealmg with transmitters. The range obtained by telephony is only about a quarter of that obtained when the same plant is used for heterodyne telegraphy In 1929, however, experiments were successfully conducted in the field of ocean telephony which enabled Atlantic liners to maintain touch with both sides of the ocean

throughout almost the entire passage. It ought to be noticed that

671

the apparatus required and installed on ships for the purpose of receiving signals—either spark signals, telephony or interrupted contmuous waves, or continuous wave telegraphic signals—is almost identical with that employed by the public in receiving broadcast matter. It may consist, for example, of a three valve amphfier having one high frequency amplifying valve, one detector valve and one low frequency amplifying valve, with suitable switches for cutting out one of these stages when signals are strong enough. Such receiving apparatus is described under

Broapcastinc ‘The only difference between the receivers there described and those required at sea is mtroduced for the pur-

pose of receiving continuous wave signals by the heterodyne method For this purpose two main alternatives exist. In the one, variously called the self-heterodyne, autodyne or endodyne apparatus, a coil in the anode circuit of the high frequency triode valve is made to act inductively upon a coil in the grid circuit of the same valve in such a way as to generate electrical oscillations within those circuits. The frequency of these oscillations is determined by a closed tunable circuit in either the anode or the grid circuit of the valve, and is adjusted to be shghtly different from the frequency of the incoming signal waves In consequence the incoming waves “beat”? with the locally generated oscillations The frequency of the beat can be adjusted by altering the frequency of the locally generated oscillations, and can im fact be varied so as to constitute, after rectification by the detector valve, an alternating electrical current in the final circwt of the apparatus, usually the head telephones of the listening operator. The other alternative method of heterodyne reception 1s named separate heterodyne for the sake of distinction. In this method an entirely separate piece of apparatus consisting of a triode valve with a tunable arcuit and with the anode circuit back-coupled to the grid circuit for ensuring the generation of electrical oscillations, is adjusted to generate oscillations of frequency slightly different from that of the incommg waves. This piece of apparatus, named the auxiliary oscillator, 1s brought near enough to the receiving apparatus to mduce therein oscillations of its own frequency, which interfere with the incoming waves and finally produce in the telephones of the operator an audible note of desired frequency. The loudness of this heterodyne note can be adjusted up to a certain limit by moving the auxiliary oscillator nearer to or farther from the recerving apparatus In both these alternative methods of heterodyne reception great magnification is obtained by the introduction of the locally generated

energy. Direction Finding.—Wireless apparatus has been developed in recent years for determining the bearing of a distant transmitting station with an accuracy of two degrees of arc at distances

up to roo miles, and with nearly equal accuracy at much greater distances, provided that the electrical conditions of the atmosphere are fairly stable. By means of the information thus obtained a mariner or aviator can navigate his vessel during foggy weather, since fog has no bad effect on wireless signals. This branch of our subject has therefore become of very great im-

portance. Several methods are available and in active use. In one method the direction finder is situated at a land station,

the bearmg of the ship or aircraft from that station is measured on receipt of a wireless message from the vessel, and is transmitted to it. In another method the direction finder is on the ship and the ship’s operator measures the bearing of any charted wireless shore station that happens to be transmitting or whick can be requested to transmit for the purpose of the measurement This method has also been used in aeroplanes but is being dis

carded.

Still another method is seen in the so-called rotating

beacon,” which is really a wireless transmitting station fixed or land and provided with a directional antenna that can be rotatec in azimuth so as to sweep its signals round the compass as i rotates. The beacon automatically emits a characteristic Mors signal continuously and also a special signal when its directiona antenna is in a standard position. An observer at a distance equipped with ordinary receiving apparatus, hears the signe

wax and wane as the directional antenna rotates.

Usually th

672

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY

beacon rotates through six degrees per second, and emits the special signal when an observer on the north-south line would receive minimum signals; therefore an observer off that line need only count the number of seconds that elapse between the special signal and the time when he himself perceives that the continuous signals are least audible, in order to determine his angle from the north-south line by simply multiplying by six. The easier way of performing this operation 1s to use a stop watch with a seconds hand which makes, hke the beacon, a complete revolution in one mmute The observer starts the watch on hearing the special signal and stops it at the instant of mmimum signal; the angle turned through by the seconds hand 1s his bearing from the beacon Two types of apparatus have been much used in practice in carrying out the above-described methods of finding the bearing of a ship or an aeroplane. In one form the antenna ıs a flat coil of several turns of wire, fixed on a vertical axis so that the plane of the coil can be pomted in any desired azimuth Such a coil emits radiation most strongly in 1ts own plane when used as a transmitter, że., when strong high frequency currents are passed through it; it absorbs radiation most strongly in ıts own plane when used as a receiver. On the other hand substantially nothing is radiated or absorbed in the horizontal direction perpendicular to its plane. Such a coil, used as the antenna of a receiving station, can locate the direction of any distant transmitting station either by turning it until signals are strongest, when its plane must point to the station, or until signals are weakest, when 1t must be broadside-on to the station The mumumunm is sharper than the maxmum and 1s therefore usually used ın practice ım order to gain accuracy. But measuring on the minimum implies that the message cannot be read; so if reading is desired the maximum setting must be sought, or, preferably, the method designed by J Robinson may be employed This consists in fixmg to a vertical axle two flat coils with their planes vertical and perpendicular to each other. One coil is always connected to the receiving apparatus and is

search coil Thus a radio goniometer may be used for directional transmitting as well as for directional receiving, in fact the Bellini-Tos: invention has effectively the sarne properties as the single moving coil antenna already described, both for recelving and transmitting, the principal difference in receiving being that more amplification 1s required with the moving coil antenna be-

cause ıt must be small enough to be rotated quickly by hand In the directional apparatus so far described the radiation or absorption is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the apparatus, This fact gives nse to an ambiguity of 180° m azimuth; for in-

stance, after finding the direction of a station the operator may

stull be unable to say whether ıt is in front or behind hım unless

assisted by geographical or other considerations This ambiguity may, however, be removed electrically by adding an ordinary straight antenna and the necessary tuning equipment to the existing direction findmg apparatus It can be shown that, by adyusting the phase and magnitude of the oscillatory current produced in this single wire, the radiation or absorption, as the case may be, in one direction can be annulled and mm the other increased In other words the direction finder is made uni-directional. Long Distance Communication.—Wireless communication across great distances has progressed greatly during the past few years, An important step was taken in 1918 by the United States

army in erecting the Lafayette station at Crois d’Hins near Bordeaux for transatlantic communication This station was more than double the strength of any predecessor and achieved world ranges with a wave-length greater than 20,000 metres; the orginal plant comprised two Federal-Poulsen arcs rated at 1,000 kilowatts and supplied with current at goo volts Somewhat smaller equipments were installed at Nauen near Berlin, at St. Assise near Paris, at Rocky Pomt near New York, and also m many other countries, during the succeeding four years, nearly all of them using high frequency alternators of German, French or American design, In 1922 to 1923 the British Government completed arrangements for the establishment of an Empire wire-

pointed to absorb the maximum signal from the distant station less service under which the Post Office would erect at Rugby under observation The other coil is therefore roughly broadside a station capable of direct communication with all parts of the to that station—roughly, because the setting of the main coil Empire, and the Dominions would erect corresponding stations to the maximum is intrinsically an inaccurate process To im- Under these arrangements the Marconi Company in 1923 planned prove this setting, the aumliary coil is switched into series with to handle extra-Empire communications from'a group of even the main coil, first with its ends connected one way and then larger stations in Wiltshire A little later the Government plans the opposite way. If the setting is perfect, the auxliary coil were modified to permit of Rugby conducting this work neither augments nor diminishes the signal strength, but if it 1s Meanwhile a few American amateurs, using waves shorter than imperfect one position of the switch augments, the other di- 300 metres, succeeded in communicating across the Atlantic with

minishes the signal, and the setting 1s altered by trial to abolish this difference. In the type of apparatus just described the antennae are coils of wire which are small enough to be easily manipulated In the other type, which was invented by Bellini and Tosi in 1907 and developed by H. J Round of recent years, the antennae are also coils but they are not movable and may therefore be large structures. Two coils are necessary and they are fixed in perpendicular vertical planes, as a rule each coil has only one turn and ıs supported on a mast or masts. Each coil is connected to one of a pair of small fixed coils inside the station bulding, these coils also being in perpendicular vertical planes Within these fixed coils a smaller coil can rotate upon a central vertical axis, and this coil is connected to the detecting apparatus. The pmnciple underlying the invention is that waves coming from any definite azimuth excite an antenna in proportion to the cosine of the angle their path makes with the plane of that antenna, the oscillatory current thus produced in an antenna passes through the corresponding small connected coil, the oscillatory field within the crossed coils has its resultant parallel to the direction of the waves, and the rotatable search coil 1s swung about to determme the direc-

tion of this resultant field. The combmation of the two crossed coils and the search coil withm them is known as a goniometer. It has been described in the preceding lines as applied to the reception of waves; but if powerful oscillatory currents be sent from any source into the search coil these induce currents in the crossed coils and the connected antennae which produce external radiation whose resultant direction is parallel to that of the

the expenditure of very small power m December 1921; and by

December 1922, American, British and French amateurs succeeded by hundreds in simular transmissions In the early months of 1923 amateurs telephoned from New York to California by aid of small stations using 100 metre waves, and 1t was becoming clear that waves less than too metres in length were likely to be useful in practice This was unexpected because the very thorough pioneer work of C. S. Franklin m 1920 and 1921, published in 1922, seemed to show that waves of 15 metres length, and even of roo metres, were only suitable for distances less than 200 miles. But the surprising results obtained by the amateurs compelled professional attention, and early in 1923 the Radio Corporation of America erected a short-wave equipment in Mame, and the Marconi Company independently installed a similar plant at Poldhu, for experimental work The first commercial long distance message by short wave was on September 11, 1923, when a ringside account of a prize fight was sent from Maine to Buenos Aires By the end of the year experimenters were at work all over the world to such good effect that in the spring of 1924 the Radio Corporation erected five more short-wave commercial transmitters. In July 1924 the British Government ordered from the Marconi Company a number of short-wave stations for the purpose of completing the Empire scheme of communications. These stations were.to be provided with reflectors of the type developed by C S Franklin in order to direct the radiation mainly towards corresponding stations to be erected in Canada, Australia, South Africa and India. All these Government stations were in operation by 1928 and are considered to be the most efficient short-

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY

wave stations extant. The use of reflectors at both the transmitting and receiving stations ensures that the signals, under favourable conditions, are io to 15 times as strong as they otherwise would be In all cases, with or without reflectors, 1t is necessary to provide that each station shall be capable of operation on one of two or three wave-lengths, for across long distances waves shorter than, say, 30 metres are required for daylight transmission, and longer than 30 metres for nmght transmission. Four years’ experience with short-wave transoceanic telegraphy and telephony has shown that 1t may suffer erratic and lengthy periods of fading which cause loss of signals or distortion of speech and, therefore, for such work as transatlantic telephony the long-wave plant is gen-

erally more trustworthy Best of all is the collaboration of longwave and short-wave telephony now being practised between America and Britain (and through Rugby with large areas of Europe) On the other hand short-waves have two great advantages over long waves—they are capable of much greater telegraphic speeds and the plant they require costs less to erect and operate The relation between short- and long-wave systems is analogous to that between motor car and railway transport, the car is for many purposes better than the railway, but it is more subject to ımterruption and accident, for a long time to come progressive communities will require both forms of service. The best way of giving an idea of the present state of large scale wireless engineering 1s to describe some typical modern stations.

The Rugby

station is designed

for simultaneous

trans-

mission to all parts of the Empire and to ships on any sea, and for telephony to America Its antenna is 820 feet high and carries a current of 700 amperes at a frequency of 16 7 kilocycles

(18,000 metres) It occupies a site about 14 miles long by 1 mile wide 4 mules south-east of Rugby. The antenna is supported on 12 insulated stayed steel masts 820 feet high, a quarter of a mule apart, and has a capacity of 0045 microfarad, but can be divided so that when the portion on 8 masts is used the capacity is 0033 mucrofarad. The primary source of oscillations is a small tuning fork maintamed in vibration by a triode valve by the method of Eccles and Jordan; the nine-fold harmonic of the fork current is selected, filtered and amplified by three stages of low voltage triode valves, until about roo watts of high frequency current is obtained This current 1s amplified by a bank of high voltage valves of 2 kilowatts output, then by a bank of 30 kilowatts output, and finally by a bank of 540 kilowatts output, whence the current passes to a closed circuit which 1s coupled to the antenna All stages are separated by metal screens to prevent retroaction that might lead to the generation ofunwanted oscillations The last three stages are fed with a direct current high-voltage dynamo set capable of delivering up to 1,500 kilowatts at 18,000 volts About 50 kilowatts of direct current power is consumed in heating the filaments All the power for the station is taken from a public electricity supply at 12,000 volts so cycles. The intermediate circut between the final bank of valves and the antenna consists of two condensers in series, values 1-o5 and o-25 microfarad, and an mductance coil vanable from 400 to 6oo microhennes, the last being coupled to an aerial coil of 40 microhenries which has a senies tuning-coil variable from 900 to 4,000 microhenries. The antenna is a continuous conductor strung across the tops of the masts, passing from each mast to the next in a flat festoon; this conductor ıs a cylindrical cage of eight 7/14 S W.G silicon bronze wires stiffened by spiders 12 feet in diameter every 140 feet The tension is such that the pull at the top of any mast never exceeds ro tons, 1f this is exceeded the steel rope holding the insulators and the antenna is paid out automatically by a shpping brake until the tension is ro tons The insulators will withstand a pull of 20 tons and a high frequency voltage of about a quarter million volts. The earth system is a broad band of buried copper

wires running round the site under the masts and the aerial. The transmitting key is operated at the Central Telegraph Office in London For details a paper by E H Shaughnessy should be consulted As an example of a short-wave beam station we take the Post

673

Office station at Bodmin This has one reflecting antenna directed to Canada, the other to South Africa A simular station at Grimsby transmits to India and Australia The receiving station corresponding to Bodmin is at Bridgewater, that corresponding to Grimsby 1s at Skegness. The transmission to Canada is on 16 57 metres by day and 32-4 metres by mght; to South Africa on 1615 and 3401 metres respectively The primary source of oscillations 1s a back coupled master oscillator of the Arco and Meissner (Telefunken) type carefully screened by heavy metal casing The high frequency current from this (about 80 watts) is amphfied by a tnode valve taking 2,000 volts, and this in turn by two more valves taking 6,000 volts, and finally by two ten kilowatt water-cooled valves operated at half their rated voltage of 15,000 The high frequency current is then taken along tubular feeders to the antenna to be supplied Two complete outfits hke the above are needed for Canada and two for South Africa in order to supply the four wave-lengths The Canada antenna is supported on five masts, the wires in two bays being suitable for the day wave-length and those in the other

two bays for the night wave-length. The masts are steel structures 287 feet high with cross arms go feet long The antenna and reflector wires hang vertically from steel rope triatics joining the cross arms In the Canada aerial there are 24 antenna wires 19 feet apart and 48 reflector wires, the distance between the antenna plane and the reflector plane being 40 feet for the shorter wave and 24 feet for the longer The reflector wires are divided in 8 insulated portions and the antenna wires are loaded with two spaced inductances Power for the whole station 1s derived from three 92 kilowatt dynamos, which supply direct current for driving motor-alternators and auxiliary machinery The direct current for the anodes is obtained by rectifyimg the transformed current from the alternators. The receiving station at Bridgewater has an antenna system very like that at Bodmin, namely a line of masts broadside to Canada, a lme broadside to South Africa, each line comprismg two bays for the 16 metre wave and two bays for the 32 metre wave Actually the wave-lengths received are, from Canada 16s0 and 3213 metres, from South Africa 1608 and 33-71 metres It will be seen that the most orignal

feature of the station is the unidirectional antenna due to C S. Franklin who overcame many difficulties in carrying a great enterprise to a successful issue. The Radio Corporation of America has installed numerous short-wave transmitters for supplementing the transoceanic work of their long-wave high power stations Most of those in com

mercial use are operating without reflectors and can therefore communicate in any direction. The first two stations were erectec in 1923, and five others, with wave-lengths ranging from 95 to 4: metres, in the spring of 1924 Several others, using various wave lengths down to 14 metres followed in 1925, The Californiar station may be taken as typical of modem practice. At thi station the primary source of oscillations is a quartz crystal main tained mn vibration by a triode valve by the same principle as i the fork at Rugby, but the frequency of mechanical vibration o the crystal is nearly 800,000 per second while that of the for’ is less than 2,000. From the current in the crystal circuit 1 selected the triple harmonic, and this 1s amplified to 300 watt: The current is now passed in turn through two amplifiers an selectors of increasing size, the triple frequency being selected e each step The total multiplication of frequency is 27 and tk final frequency therefore 21 milhons per second (14 metres wavi length) Finally this current is amplified again by water coole triode valves for delivery to the antenna. The antenna is vertical or sloping wire about 20 feet long excited through a fe

turns at its middle which are placed in inductive relation wi' the tuned circuit of the last amplifier Even so small an a tenna can radiate 10 kilowatts at this frequency BrsriocraPHy.—Ranger, Proc Inst Radio Eng, 14, 161 (1926 Smith-Rose and Barfield, Report (1923), and R.L Smith-Rose, Rep (1927); F. Braun, Jakrbuck d drahtlose Tel 8, 132 (1914), Robmson, Radio Review, 1, 271 (x920); H J. Round, Jour In El. Eng, 58, 224 (1920); Gill & Hecht, p 241, and Smith-Rose Chapman, p 286, Jour Inst El Eng. 66 (1928), C S. Frankl Wweless World, p 219 (1922), and G. Marconi, Jour. Am Inst

Eng, p. 561 (1922); and El Review, pp

155 and 932 (1924);

674

WIRE

MANUFACTURES

Kuebitz, Zeitschr. f. H. F. Tec, p. 141 (1924); Wireless Age, p 55 driven spmdle at the back of the loom, this being rotated at a (1923) ; White Paper 143 (30th July, 1924) , Pession & Pizzuti, L’Etiro- speed which enables the netting to go through the loom at a fecnica, 12, 171 (1925), Hessmg, Schelleng & Southworth, Proc. Inst. constant velocity. Radio Eng, 14, 613 (1926) ; B. van der Pol, De Ingenzeur, 46 (1927)5 Hexagonal netting is made with all sizes of mesh from about T, L. Eckersley, Jour. Inst. El. Eng, 65, 600 (1927), Oswald & Delorame, Electrician, 96, 572 (1926), E H. Shaughnessy, Jour. Inst. % inch up to 8 inches, the most commonly used forms being about El. Eng., 64, 683 (1926); The Angieer, 141, 78 (1928), Hailborg, 14 inches to 2 inches. Briggs & Hansell, Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., 15, 467 (1927). (W E.) The operation of a loom which is manufactunng netting of fine

Aviation and Wireless—The possibilities of radio as an aid to flight are being actively developed along the following lmes: (1) communication, (2) course navigation, (3) field localizing and (4) general. This last includes miscellaneous developments such as radio altemeter deuces. See RaDIOo; AERONAUTICAL ARTICLES. The radio directive beacon system is a special kind of radio station usually situated just off the landing field. Instead of having the single antenna, as in the ordinary station, it has two loop antennae at an angle with each other. Each emits a set of waves which is directive, ¢¢, stronger in one direction than another. When an aeroplane flies along the line exactly equidistant from the two beams of radio waves it receives a signal of equal intensity from the two If the aeroplane gets off this line it receives a stronger signal from one than the other. The indicator

on the instrument board shows when the signals from the two

beams are received with equal intensity by means of two small vibrating reeds The tips of the reeds are white in a dark background, so that when vibrating upon receiving signals they appear

in a vertical straight line. The reed on the pilot’s nght is turned to a frequency of 65 cycles and the one on the left to 85 cycles. This system is to be installed on all American air routes. (X.)

WIRE MANUFACTURES.

In addition to steel ropes,

cables, barbed wire, nails and wire springs (see sections under these headings), wire is woven or shaped into an almost infinite variety of articles; the chief of these being wire-netting which is manufactured in many designs and sizes The commonest form of wire-netting is that which is hexagonal in shape and which is woven by the twisting together of wires, this operation being carried out with a very ingenious land of loom. As will be seen in the illustration the hexagonal meshes are respectively formed by the twisting together of two wires, this being brought about by the passing through the loom of line wires which are unwound from bobbins and wires which are pulled out from the shuttles—these latter wires being in the form of a spiral. The spirals or springs, as they are called, are very rapidly wound on to mandrils, this being carried out by four spindles running in parallel, the wire being guided on quite evenly and automatically until the required thickness of spring has been made. The spindies on to which the wire is wrapped are shghtly tapered, consequently, after the full quantity of wire required has been spun on same they can be removed from the machine and the springs easily detached or slipped off by shght end knocking The shuttle on the loom is in the form of a cylindrical pipe with an opening on the side at the upper end, the ends of the shuttles being fitted to what are known as split pinions The operator charges a shuttle with one of the springs, connecting the free end of wire of the spring to the end of the wire on the netting which has just been drawn from the shuttle The operation of twisting is carried out by a shuttle spinning round its corresponding free wire, which is shown passing up from the bobbin. Whilst the wire is being twisted the netting is at the same time carried forward by the driven rollers on top. In this way the two wires are twisted and so form one of the sides of the hexagon mesh After one set of twists is made the shuttles are then moved to right or left by two reciprocating horizontal beams which carry with them the half-split pinions at the top and bottom of the shuttle to join up with the half-split pinions of an adjoining shuttle As soon as the split-pinions are fixed in their new position a toothed horizontal rack moves forward or

backward as the case may be rotating the pinions and thus making

the following twist on the wire From this motion it will at once be seen that the twists on netting are alternately right-hand and left-hand. The tension in the netting is produced by passing the netting over a series of rollers, when finally it is wound on to a friction

mesh comes next, and 1t will be understood how very fine the springs have to be wound to fit into the small tubular shuttles necessary for the fine mesh. Fine wire is also woven into netting of various designs which is used for the reinforcing of glass. Whilst nearly all netting is manufactured from annealed black wire some is occasionally fabricated from wire which has been specially galvanized to form a coat which will not crack. The galvanizing of black wire netting is a very important

operation as this process not only coats the wire with zinc to protect it from corrosion, but also welds the wire of the respective twists tightly together. Before the netting can be galvamized ıt has to be pickled or cleaned in hydrochloric acid for the removal of scale, after which it is placed on a mandril at the back of the galvanizing pot, and is carefully passed through the molten zinc, being drawn out at the front of the galvanizing bath, and rolled tightly on to a tapered mandril. When a complete 50 yards roll has come through the bath it is then detached from the mandril. When it is to be used for export purposes it is usually rewound much tighter so as to form a smaller diameter roll which takes up less space in shipping. Wire Cloth, Reinforcing Fabric and Fencing.—Fine wire in steel, copper and brass is also woven into cloth, the wires usually bemg at right-angles to each other and thus forming square mesh. In addition steel wire is very largely used for forming fabric of square or rectangular mesh for reinforcing purposes, either for concrete in building or road mending. Usually fabric of this description is welded together at the joints.

The welding of wire for this purpose is carried out by a specially designed machine ito which the line wires are mechanically fed

in parallel at the required distances apart. The cross wires automatically move mto the machine at the desired position relative to the line wires, being instantly pressed on to the latter. As soon as the wires are in contact an electric current passes

through fusing a little of the surface of the wires which being under pressure immediately welds them together, at the same time switching off the current. As the cross wires are welded on to the line wires there is an arrangement on the machine for carrying the fabric forward and wrapping it up into rolls of suitable diameter for transport. Galvanized steel wire is very extensively used in the formation of woven wire fences, many methods of jointing being adopted to fasten the wires together where they cross. One of the simplest forms of fencing material 1s that of the chain-link order in which wires are spun together in the form of flat spirals The manu-

facture of this is carried out by a very ingenious form of machine which takes the galvanized wire right from the coil and not only spins ıt into the form of a flat spiral, but at the same time threads it into the spiral previously formed, and after being cut off to the required length also twists the ends of the wire together. This form of cham link fabric gives not only a strong close mesh fence, but also one which is very flexble Wire Mattresses.—Galvanized and tinned wire is used very extensively in the construction of mattresses, For the ordinary woven mattress fine wire is run through a special forming machine which throws the wire out either singly or doubly in the shape of spirals, these being threaded together at the time of formation Other mattresses are made up with stronger galvanized wire

in the form of links, these being put together and kept taut at the mattress frame with the aid of strong springs. Wire-working.-The making up of wire into articles such as window guards, fire guards, cages, letter boxes, sieves or riddles, and many other forms, is a very extensive business, whilst there is no lmit to the shapes wire is worked into with the many kinds

WIRE

ROPE

675

, such as “The Of these two main systems there are many varietiesmonocable sysof ingenious machines which are in vogue A great number of etc. In the automatically Jig-Back,” ‘‘Single-side to-and-fro,” tion consisting of 6 chains are formed from wire m which the hnks are construc Lay Langs ordinary of rope a whilst tem, made, at the same time being coupled up to a former hnk 1s used In the bim the strands each of 7 wires, around a hemp core, the ends of the wire are twisted up. Also, wire 1s used locked coil rope 1s usually constructed cable system, a locked coil or half so being machines lmks, chain welded rope, 4 6/7 of hauling formation employed for the rail cable, whilst for the as to not only form the lnk but to bring the ends of same flattened strand, is construction Langs Lay, or alternatively a them weld electrically y used in and together 1s most generally used. Aenal ropeways are now generall as for a variety Flat wire and also wire in the form of a half-round section mining, colhery and similar industries, as well all etc cotters, s, spht-pinion of forms all of making used for the a very important of not of other commercial purposes, thus forming Wire is also used very extensively m the manufacture (See RoPEWAYS and forms, only wood screws, but also screws and bolts of many other

special the operation and manufacture being carried out on of the work automatic heading machines, mdeed, a good deal is now done which was formerly done in the way of hot heading of material in the cold state m consequence of the better quahty Also, all used and the much more highly developed machinery formed m being heads the kinds of rivets are made out of wire, the cold state. as free In addition, through the introduction of what 1s known 1s done on cutting steel a great amount of turning and threading machines. wire for all kinds of articles and objects by automatic which when It might be mentioned that free cutting steel is a steel also leaving a cut or threaded cuts very clearly without drag, smooth bright surface to as wire If the actual meltmg down of wire can be referred of wire working it may be said that there is a large quantity welding Its use for used in both oxy-acetylene and electric arc plates, steel of up jomting the these purposes covers not only in connection angles, bars, etc , but also a vast number of repairs work with same, and all forms of cast iron the formation Special kinds of hugh tensile wire are used in also it is used of protective torpedo nets and similar purposes; are spewhich shapes ın airships, and s aeroplane as the stays on

It hkewise forms cially made to offer little resistance to the wnd etc the spokes of wheels for bicycles, motor-cars, d-box trade very Tt 1s used in the shoe, printing and cardboar it is commonly extensively for stitching purposes, and for binding e bindings for cases used as hay bands and as indicator protectiv ies containing apples and many other commodit um wire ıs used In the electrical mdustry copper and alumini purposes, and for m large quantities for conductor and other

adjunct to the steel wire rope industry. CABLES ) depends upon Types of Ropes—The flexbility of a wire rope consequently, the the number of wires of which it is formed, some extent, to , determine use to which a rope is to be put will some cases, nearly the number of wires used in its construction In one rope. of making 400 individual wires are employed in the the construction For the flattened strand type it 1s claımed that rope is the that gives a very greatly increased wearing surface, out of shape; it more solid, and thus less likely to be crushed ordinary the than also gives a greater breaking value for its size largely for hoistround strand rope The locked coil rope 1s used shafts, and as the ing from great depths, as guide rope in colliery this type of rope carrying rope in the bicable aerial ropeway, on rope, sheaves has a smooth exterior, which minimizes wear

for its size. and drum, and has the greatest breaking load possibletypes of wire The following sections represent eleven different variously

in which rope, some cases showing constructions of rope shaped wires are used. This is the class of rope A. Rope made of 6 strands of 7 wires each. size of the barrel frequently used for hauling ropes where the

nickel-chromium resisting corrosion at high temperatures special and other forms fires wires are used as the elements in electric belies the statename the although and s, apparatu of heating on with “wirement great quantities of wire are used in connecti etc. (See alse coils, wires, ng connecti aerials, as s, less” apparatu (E.A A) the articles on COPPER.) of ropes is of ture manufac the h Althoug WIRE ROPE, on a large wire from ancient origin, the practice of making ropes 1874, however, great Since scale 1s of comparatively recent date from ropes ture of developments have taken place in the manufac they can be put which different kinds of wire, and the uses to to the introduction of have enormously increased, largely owing date, the uses to which flexible wire ropes Prior to the above ropes for collieries wire ropes were put were limited to windmg ction of flexibility, introdu The and to certain types of hauling ropes for ships’ hawsers however, made possible the use of wire ropes were formerly and rigging, for cranes, derricks, etc , where superseded hemp entirely almost has rope wire eed, employed—ind for most marine uses. ropeways as aerial of tion introduc e ys.—Th Aerial Ropewa 60 years ago, created a a means of transportation, some 50 OF Such ropes tent non-exis ly previous ropes demand for steel wire ground where it would provide a ready means of transport over for any arrange to le, impossib be difficult, and in many cases a big outlet for steel other means Aerial ropeways now provide tions wire ropes of almost all construc systems:—(1). The They are constructed on two principal rope both supports Monacable System, where one endless moving

most of rope m general use and sheave will permit, it 1s also the make by Lloyds regulafor standing rigging, and 3s such as is required tions. over a triangular shaped each, wires 7 of strands 6 of made B. Rope core of 9 wires covering C Haulng rope made of 6 strands, each consisting 4 smaller wires of rope is Rope made of 6 strands of 19 wires each. This type warps, and gear, trawl largely used for shipping purposes, running 1s desired general engmeering purposes where flexibility each contaming 12 wires . Flexible steel wire rope made of 6 strands, and the 6 strands encircling a hempin arranged around a hemp centre of wire rope, 44 in, steel flexible make heart This is the usual and general shipping circumference and smaller, used for hawsers purposes for hoisting and genA fiexible flattened strand construction used eral mining work 6 strands, each containing Extra flexible steel wire rope made of 24 wires of 6 strands, each con. Special extra, flexible steel wire rope made taining 37 WITES. | made of 6 strands, each conSpecial extra flexible ateel wire ropeusually adopted for large ropes taining 6x wires. This is the type and salvage purCover ro in. in circumference) used for slipway poses. for mine hoisting where a A Lock Coil construction used largely rope with no spin is desired. shaft guides and aerial ropeway _ A Lock Coil construction used for carrying ropes where flexibihty is not desired

by the Breaking Loads.—The table on next page, compiled wire ropes usec British Ropeways Ltd, gives particulars about for general purposes be about thirty The diameter of drums and sheaves should winding at higl times the circumference of the rope. For shaft rope 1s sometimes take speed one-tenth of the breaking load of a proportion of workin; as a fair working load. For inclines, the gradient conditions, an load to breaking load varies according to

friction should be allowed for. manufacture © Manufacturing.—The first requisite in the the different iron ore’ wire ropes is the selection and blending of th

and processes through which the metal passes,

The different The same remark rolling into rods, require great experience. , in which the roc apply to the annealing and hardening processes dies to the required gauge The wire, when processes System, where two are drawn through to be galvanized, is subjected to special and traverses the load. (2) The Bicable required is along tracks as used against atmospheric and other i parallel stretches of the same heavy rope are rope. order that 1t may be proof hauling lighter and y secondar a by pulled which the loads are

WIRE 6X 19 Construction la Particulars

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SPRINGS variably termed cables, and there are many different kinds and sizes The wire must necessarily possess good conducting power, and be comparatively cheap Up to the present copper has proved to be the chief material possessing these two important properties in combination, hence it is the metal par excellence for electrical conduction

Aluminium

and alloys have been used

for the same purpose The conductor itself consists of a strand of soft copper wires, round which the dielectric or non-conducting material 1s placed The methods of forming the strands do not differ essentially from those described above The dielectric 1s usually paper, spun jute fibre, vulcanised india-rubber or vulcanised bitumen If the first two dielectrics are used, a lead sheath is necessary to enclose the insulated strand and so exclude moisture; 1f the cable ıs likely to get damaged, it is further enclosed by steel tapes or steel wires, and finally covered with yarn or braid Vulcanised bitumen is not only a dielectric, but is also absolutely impervious to moisture Hence, ın many ımstances where paper or fibre is employed as the principal dielectric, a sheath of vulcanised bitumen 1s used instead of lead to exclude moisture Cables are also made with a single strand of copper wires in addition to one or more concentric layers of copper wires, the layers being separated by some dielectric material, or there may be two or more strands, separately insulated, and more or less elaborately clothed with the above-mentioned Te T W

WIRE SPRINGS.

Spring making from wire is an important

industry, as springs of this character are used for many purposes where resiliency is reqmred. The functioning of safety-pins, brooches, bracelets and many other simular articles 1s regulated by the little spiral of wire which 1t contains, and the comfort of a modern bed mattress is entirely due to the small army of vertical wire springs which support the human body ın any required posi-

tion. It 1s the wire springs in elaborately upholstered furniture which give ease and comfort Also, whilst the seating in motorcars is made restful with wire, the engine itself depends upon 5%. 3138 86-4 96°5 106 7 116 8 springs to manipulate its valves, accelerator, brakes, etc Indeed, 5% 34°44 93°9 104-9 116 0 127-0 6. 37 56 103 3 115°5 127 7 139 8 the very machine which spins out the wire springs so beautifully, 6t. 40 32 rzrr-6 124-7 137 8 1509 itself depends upon springs for the accurate movement of its parts. ó$ . 43 68 I20 1 134 3 148 4 162 6 Wire springs in the coiled form are sometimes cylindrical in fluences Afterwards it is wound on to bobbins of sutable size, shape as used in the seats of motor-cars, sometimes conical as and then a definite number of these bobbins are mounted on the used in spring mattresses, and sometimes im the form of a double forks or frames of the stranding machine These forks are swung cone as commonly used for general upholstering purposes The wire which is used for upholsterers’ springs 1s drawn from or pivoted between discs, which are keyed on a hollow main shaft, through which the wires or other maternal intended for the core muld steel rods of such a quality as to give the resulting wire an pass This core is of such a sıze that the aggregate number of inherent stiffness without any form of heat treatment. But conical wires mounted in the machine exactly cover it in a spiral direc- springs for mattresses and similar purposes are usually spun out tion. All the wires, including the centre core, are passed through of medium carbon steel wire which has been very carefully temtheir individual hollow spindles, then led to the nose or head pered, which not only gives it the necessary physical properties of the machine, and finally passed through a stationary compres- to produce resilience, but also leaves it sufficiently tough that the sion block to draw-off wheels The speed of these wheels is cut ends of the wire will stand bending around a neighbouring regulated in proportion to the speed of the machine by means of coil to form what is known as the “knuckle ” suitable gearmg. During the revolutions of the machine, each The manufacture of springs in the cold state from wire is a bobbin and fork 1s kept m a vertical position, and floats thus, by very simple operation The wire is fed into a machine through a means of an eccentric ring behind the back disc This ring 1s pair of tight fitting friction rollers, these then push it against a connected to the spindles of the bobbin fork by means of small pair of free rollers fixed m an oblique position, which with the cranks, thus preventing any torsional movement that would other- assistance of a guide “throw out” the coils of the spring. wise be imparted to the individual wires Each bobbin is conWhere a spring is required to be of varying diameter, it 1s trolled by a brake which acts as a tensioning device so that equal arranged for the oblique pulleys to move in and gut whilst the stress can be applied to each, allowing the wires to unwind uni- spring is being formed, this movement causing a variation in formly. The finished strands are wound 1n turn upon large bobbins, diameter of the coils The same machine also carries with it a which are mounted in the flyers or discs of the rope-closing cutting device which automatically operates when the spring has machine. These machines are similar in design to the stranding been spun to its correct length machine, but are naturally much heavier in construction, and The next operation after spinning is the settmg of the spring therefore revolve at a proportionate speed. The speed of the which is carried out by slipping it over a vertical bar, pressing it machine varies according to the weight of the material, the size fiat down and allowing it to spring back When the spring has of the strands and the construction of the finished rope. The once been crushed down flat and allowed to come back to what modern machine, of the type most generally used, makes about may be called its natural height, it usually retains that height roo revolutions per minute, whilst three times this speed is often however many times it may subsequently be squeezed down, obtained. It may be mentioned that in many cases the operation of Cable.—The rapid strides in the use of electricity have led to spring setting is performed by a machine which is specially another large branch of what may be termed wire rope manu- designed for the purpose facture The ropes used for electrical purposes are almost inWire springs which are used in connection with furniture or 5$.

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83 7

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” WIREWORM— WISCONSIN bedding usually have the free ends bent or knuckled over the adjoining coil, this operation being carried out with a somewhat ingenious machine ‘The operator places the ends of the springs on to the machine which automatically grips the end of the wire and twists it tightly over the next coil Springs which are required to be made out of rod or bar for heavy service are coiled in the red-hot condition; after which they are carefully tempered by

dipping in oil or other method of heat treatment.

WIREWORM,

(E A.A)

a popular name for certain slender, hard-

skinned grubs or larvae of the chck-beetles or Elateridae, a family of the Coleoptera (g v ). These larvae pass a long life (up to five years) in the soul, feeding on the roots of plants, and they often cause much damage to farm crops A wireworm may be known by its broad, quadrate head and cylindrical or somewhat flattened body, with firm, chitinous cuticle The subterranean habits of wireworms make it hard to exterminate them when they have once begun to attack a crop, and the most hopeful practice is, by rotation and by proper treatment of the land, to clear it of the insects before seed is sown. (See ENTomMoLoc, Economic Entomology )

WIRKSWORTH,

market

town,

urban

district, western

parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 14 m N.W. of Derby, on the LMS railway. Pop (1931) 3,911. The cruciform Church of St Mary has traces of Norman work, but is in great part Early English, with Perpendicular additions. Leadmining (carried on here by the Romans), stone quarrying and tape making are the chief mmdustries.

WIRTH, KARL JOSEPH (1879), German statesman, was born at Freiburg um Breisgau on Sept 6, 1879, the son of a foreman mechanic. Educated at Freiburg university, he became (1908) professor of natural science at the technical college in Freiburg In 1913 he obtained a seat m the Baden diet, and in 1914 became a member of the Reichstag In 1919 he was minister of finance for Baden and was elected to the Constituent Assembly of the Reich In March 1920 he succeeded Erzberger as Reichsmunister of Finance, a post which he held until Feb 1922. In May 1921 he became chancellor on the occasion of the Allied ultmatum regarding reparations, with an avowed policy of the fulfilment of treaty obligation (Erftllungspolitsk) In August and September of that year he came into conflict with Von Kahr, the Bavarian premier, who refused to apply to Bavaria the state of national emergency which Wirth had proclaimed consequent on the murder of Erzberger Wirth stood his ground, and Von Kahr was

compelled to resign, but two months later the decision of the League of Nations on the partition of Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland led to a widespread revolt against the policy of fulfilment and to the secession of the German democrats, including Rathenau, from the cabinet. Wirth resigned, but resumed office on Oct. 26. He then sought to estabhsh a “Great Coalition” which should include all but the Nationalists and the Communists, but failed to secure the support of the Social Democrats, although he had obtained a measure of agreement, for the People’s Party abandoned their opposition to the forced loan of a milliard gold marks and the majority socialists postponed their demand for a gold levy. But the appointment of Rathenau as foreign minister alienated the People’s Party, for Rathenau, though a great industrial magnate himself, was suspected by “heavy industry” of socialist tendencies. He was unable to carry out the necessary financial measures to stop the depreciation of the mark, and in Nov. 1922, when the mark had fallen to 9,000 to the $, again

resigned, and Dr. Cuno (gv) formed a cabinet to cope with the financial criss (Kabinett der Arbet) Wirth resigned from the German Centre Party in Aug. 1925, but rejoined the party in 1926, after the reaffirmation of the party allegiance to the republic

|

677

8 m lower down the river. The chief imports are coal, timber and iron, and the exports grain and other agricultural products and salt

In the newhbourhood large quantities of fruit are grown,

mcludmg apples, pears, plums, gooseberries and strawberries By the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 a mayor, aldermen and a council replaced the capital burgesses. See W Watson, History of Wisbech (Wisbech, 1827); N Walker and C Thomas, History of Wisbech (Wisbech, 1849); Hestory of too (Wisbech and London, 1833) ; C. Marlowe, The Fen Country

1925).

WISCONSIN, popularly called the “Badger State,” is one of the North-central States of the United States It is bounded north by Lake Superior and the upper penmsula of Michigan, east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois and west by Iowa and Minnesota The greater part of the western boundary is formed by the St Croix and Mississippi rivers fowmg southward. From south to north (42° 30’ N, 47° 3’ N) the greatest length of the State is about 300 m and from east to west (86° 49” W., to 92° 54’ W ) its extreme breadth is about 260 miles. The lake shore boundaries on the north and east are over 500 m. in length In area the State totals 56,066 sqm, of which 810 are water surface

Physical Features.—The surface of Wisconsin is generally of a rolling or undulating character, interrupted only by the sharper ridges of changing geological strata, the bluff lands along the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers, and isolated hills and ridges of older rocks which, especially in the north-central part of the State, have thrust themselves up through the younger sedimentary rocks Rib Hull (1,940 ft), the highest point in the State, near the town of Wausau in north-central Wisconsin, is an elevation of the latter character So also are the Baraboo hills, a range in the south-central part of the State. The lowest part of the State

is along the shore of Lake Michigan (480 ft. above sea-level). The mean elevation is 1,050 feet. The divides which form the water sheds between Lake Superior, Lake Michigan and the

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valley of the Mississippi river and its tributaries—the three main

WISBECH, « municipal borough, market town, and port in drainage areas—are very slight. Of these areas that of Lake

Isle of Ely, England, on the LNER It hes in the flat fen country, on the east bank of the river Nene, 11 m from its outlet

on the Wash Pop (1931) 12,005 The church of St Peter and St. Paul has a double nave, with aisles, the north arcade bemg Norman; but the rest of the buildmg is mainly Decorated and Perpendicular. There are remains of a Norman west tower; the Perpendicular tower stands on the north side The shipping trade is carried on both at the town itself and at Sutton bridge,

Superior is much the smallest. Its short, rapid streams seldom rise more than 30 m. S. of the lake shore Of the streams flowing into Lake Michigan the Fox river (260 m) is the most important “Rising in the south-central part of the State it flows north and east by a circuitous route through Lake Winnebago and thence into Green bay. In its upper course it is joined from the north by Wolf river, an important tributary The Menominee and Oconto are smaller rivers also flowing into Green bay, whik

678

WISCONSIN

further south the Sheboygan and Milwaukee rivers empty directly into the lake. The harbours along Lake Michigan are mainly enlarged mouths of rivers. The largest by far of the dramage areas 1s that whose waters flow into the Mississippi river. The Wisconsin river, the principal tributary, rises on the upper Michigan border and flows south

and west for 6oo m through the heart of the State to join the Mississippi near Prairie du Chien. It is navigable for light craft as far as Portage, 200 m from its mouth At this point the Fox river, flowing into Lake Michigan, is but a mule to the east across low, marshy ground ‘The proximity of the two rivers made this a frequent route for early explorers and fur-traders travelling by canoe from the lake to the Mississippi; a canal now connects them North of the mouth of the Wisconsin the Mississippi receives several rivers of considerable length, the most mmportant of which are the Black, Chippewa and St Croix, the latter forming the Wisconsin-Minnesota boundary line for 135 miles The southern part of the State is draimed by a number of streams which find their way to the Mississippi after passing into Illinois The largest of these are the Rock, Fox (of the Illinois) and Des Plaines rivers Glacial ice sheets covered all but the south-western quarter of Wisconsin and greatly influenced the topography and soils They levelled the hulls, filled in the valleys and ground and mixed the souls In the terminal moraines mvaluable sand and gravel deposits were left. The glacial ice was further responsible for the thousands of lakes which not only add to the beauty of the State and serve increasingly as summer resorts but also serve to control the water flow of the rivers and prevent floods The largest of these is Lake Winnebago with an extreme length of 30 m and breadth of ro m, on the banks of which are several important manufacturing cities In the south and east portions of the State the lakes are beautiful, clear bodies of water with sandy or gravelly shores, and, as a rule, high banks heavily wooded Many of them are famous as summer resorts, notably Lake Geneva, Green lake, the lakes in Waukesha county and the famous “four lakes” near Madison A second group of many hundreds of lakes

is found in the highland district of northern Wisconsin, chiefly

in Vilas, Oneida and Iron counties. Most of these are small, but there are few portions of the world where so large a proportion of the total area is occupied by lakes. A third group, also consisting of hundreds of small lakes lying close together, is to be found in north-western Wisconsin, especially in Washburn, Burnett, Polk, Barron and Sawyer counties In all parts of the State, except the driftless area of the southwest, numerous large and small marshes are also to be found, many of them representing filled in or drained lake beds The driftless area is lakeless, and has in general a much rougher topography In its limits much of the most attractive scenery of the State is to be found Between the Wisconsin and Mississippi valleys is the Western Upland, a plateau, ordinarily about 1,200 ft in elevation, but dissected in every direction by tributaries of the two rivers which bound it into a succession of ridges and coulees, the former from 300 to 500 ft above the valley bottoms The bluffs are wooded and often capped by picturesque limestone

in the south-eastern

corner of the State to 75 days near the

Michigan boundary It 1s much longer near the lakes and along the Mississippi river. The distribution of rainfall 1s remarkably uniform, the mean precipitation being about 31 mches About half the ramfall comes ın May, June, July and August, the

period of greatest crop growth

The average snowfall is 45 in,

though along Lake Michigan and mm the northern part of the State it reaches an average of 53 inches

Population.—Since 1840, when there were but 30,945 people INHABITANTS

GRAPH OF GROWTH OF POPULATION

in

the

State,

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growth of Wisconsin has been remarkably uniform The average increase for each succeeding tenyear period amounted ın 1920 to 325,140 persons, and the actual imcrease each decade was close to this average In 1900 the population numbered ‘2,069,042, m Tgro it was 2,333,860, mm 1920,

2,632,067, and in 1930, 2,939,-

WITH % OF FOREIGN BORN oo6 Compared with the other States Wisconsin ranked 13th m population in 1920 and m 1930 The density had increased from a 423 per square mule

average ın I9t0 to 476 in 1920, and to 53-2 in 1930. One-third of the way across the State west from Lake Michigan the population density 1s above the 1920 average, while in a number of counties it mses above go per square mile. For the

greater part of the remaining portion of the State the density averages between 18 and 45 per sqm, and ina strip of northern counties it falls below 18 per square mile The decade rg10~20 witnessed a rapid increase in the population of the northern

counties, however, amounting in a number of them to between 25 and 50%. In the same period the south-western coupties registered a decrease In rural population alone all the southern counties showed a decrease For the State ın general the percentage of people living in cities of more than 2,500 inhabitants increased from 43 in 1910 to 47 3 in 1920 A high proportion of the population of the State is of foreign orign. Of the 2,632,067 inhabitants in 1920, 1,562,244 were foreign-born or children of foreign-born or mixed parentage The actual number of foreign-born was 460,128, a decrease from 512,56g1n 1910 Of the foreign-born in 1920 over 400,000 had arrived before 1911 Many of these were original pioneer settlers and the fact that the ranks of these are being fast depleted by death accounts for the decrease between 1910 and 1920 The principal mother tongues of the foreign-born in 1920 were’ German, 188,083, Polish, 52,121; Norwegian, 45,443; English and Celtic, 37,476; Swedish, 23,758. Inhabitants born of native parentage increased from 763,225 in 1910 to 1,054,694 in 1920. Negroes increased in the same period from 2,900 to 5,201 There were in addition, in 1920, 9,611 Indians, 251 Chinese and 60 Japanese

The first wave of settlement (1824~40) in the lead regions of south-western Wisconsin was made up principally of Southerners who had ascended by the convenient Mississippi route The next

wave (1835-50) consisted of those coming west from New York, cliffs Originally the greater portion of Wisconsim was covered Pennsylvania, Michigan and other Eastern States who took up a with forests, although in the south and west there were large tracts large proportion of the land in the south-eastern counties of of open prairie land In the south the predominating trees were Wisconsin. After them (1840-60) came the great'tide of German hickory, elm, oak and poplar. Along the shores of Lake Mich- and Norwegian immigration The Germans settled mainly from igan, and extending inland a quarter of the distance across the Milwaukee west and north to the Fox river and Lake Winnebago State and northward through the Fox river valley, there was a The Norwegians settled in Dane and other counties of southheavy belt of oak, maple, birch, ash, hickory, elm and some pine central Wisconsin. Swiss, Swedish, Danish, Irish, Dutch, Belgian, Climate.—The clmate of the State is influenced by the storms Austrian and Polish colonies were also soon founded The Germans which move eastward along the Canadian border and by those came in the greatest numbers and still total about half of the which move northward up the Mississipp: valley; that of the east- foreign stock Of the children of foreign or mixed parentage those ern and northern sections is moderated by the Great Lakes. The of German origin number 531,619 or 482% Those of Norwegian winters, especially in the central and north-western sections, are origin, next in mportance, number 102,385 long and severe, and the summers in the central and south. The populations of the principal cities in 1930 and 1920 (1920 western sections are very warm; but cold and heat are less felt in parenthesis) were as follows Milwaukee, 578,249 (457,147); than they are in more humid climates with less extreme tempera- Racine, 67,542 (§8,593), Madison, 57,899 (38,378), Kenosha, tures. The average length of time between the last killing frost 50,262 (40,472), Oshkosh, 40,108 (33,162); La Crosse, 39,614 of spring to the first killing frost in the fall ranges from 170 days (30,421), Sheboygan, 39,251 (30,955); Green Bay, 37.415 (31,-

WISCONSIN 017); Superior, 36,113 (30,671), West Allis, 34,671 (13,745);

Fond du Lac, 26,449 (23,427); Eau Claire, 26,287 (20,906); Appleton, 25,267 (19,561); Wausau, 23,758 (18,661); Beloit, 23,611 (21,284); Mamitowoc, 22,963 (17,563). There were 10 cities (or villages) with a population between 10,000 and 22,000, Government,—The original Constitution of the State, adopted in 1848, is still in force, though a number of amendments have been made An amendment may he proposed by either house of the legislature, and if passed by a majority of the members of each house in two successive legislatures, it must be submitted for ratification by a majority vote of the people. A constitutional convention may be called if the proposal is adopted by a majority of the senate and assembly and voted upon favourably by the people at the following election The legislature, composed of the senate and assembly, meets biennially in January of oddnumbered years It may also be called into special session by the governor, but only to transact the specific business named in the governor’s call There were in 1927 too assemblymen and 33 senators, the former chosen for two-year terms, the latter for four years.

Executive power is vested in a governor and a lieutenantgovernor, elected for two years The governor has a veto on legislation which may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the members present in each house The leutenant-governor is pres-

ident of the senate with a casting vote only. The administrative officers, a secretary of State, treasurer and attorney-general, are elected for two years and in ex-officzo capacity act also as commissioners of public lands The secretary of State is also ex-officio

auditor.

A State superintendent of public instruction is elected

for a four-year term A number of very important governing commissions have been established, the chief ones being the industrial, tax and railroad commissions. The industrial commission

has control of all administration pertaining to the relations between management and Jabour With the rise of Wisconsin as an industrial State, the commussion has become increasingly important, and its advanced policies have challenged the attention of the economic world. The railroad commussion has jurisdiction over the rates and service of railways and other public utilities. Each of the three commissions consists of three members, appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. Other

079

amount being Jower than in any other State but Nebraska. Banks in Wisconsin numbered 983 June 30, 1926, of which 158 were national banks, Their resources and liabilities totalled $1,067,969,000, their capital, surplus and undivided profits were $114,064,000; deposits amounted to $860,215,000 of which $489,951,000 were in the nature of time or savings accounts

Education.—In the decade 1915-25, while the State population increased by 13%, the school census of children from 4 to 2 years increased by 9-7% and the actual school enrolment by 153% In the same decade the number of high schools increased by 23%, the high school enrolment by 95% and the num-

ber of high school graduates by 1152% The number of high school teachers increased in the same years from 2,369 to 4,110, and the cost of high school instruction from $1,866,769 to $6,659,600, a gain of 256-7% There were in 1926, 83 union free high schools, 7 consolidated high schools, and 399 district high schools, with 99,581 high school students There were m 1925—26: 386,792 pupils enrolled in grade schools, 25,472 in city kindergartens and 1,421 in special city deaf and blind schools Expenditures for the public grade and high schools amounted for the school year 1925-26 to $22,910,869. The mcome for the same year was $29,574,950 of which $13,459,000 was derived from district taxes. The elementary and secondary public school system is under the supervision of the State department of education, headed by the State superintendent elected for four years, The State maintains nine normal schools which, listed in the chronological order of their establishment, are situated at Platteville, Whitewater, Oshkosh, River Falls, Milwaukee, Stevens Pomt, Superior, La Crosse and Eau Claire The attendance is generally for two years, though three-year courses are given. A strong movement to provide for four-year courses had not in 1927 attained success The administration of the normal schools

is vested in a board of normal regents consisting of rx members. By act of the rorz legislature, Stout Institute, located at Me-

nominee, was taken over by the State and is now supported as a training school for vocational teachers. It is administered by the State board of vocational education The University of Wisconsin (qg.v ) is the highest of the State educational institutions It is estimated that there are about 80,000 pupils of grade and high school rank in the private and parochial schools and

academies

Of private institutions of collegiate rank the leading

important commissions and departments are’ the State highway, are Beloit college at Beloit, Campion college at Prairie du Chien, conservation, civil service, prohibition, free library, department Carroll college at Waukesha, Lawrence college at Appleton, Milof insurance, board of control, board of health, State banking waukee-Downer (for women) at Milwaukee, Milton college at department and State department of agriculture The State Milton, Marquette university at Milwaukee, Northland college at geological and natural history survey and the State hustorical Ashland Charities and Corrections.—The State board of control has society are well-known for work dong in their respective fields The judicial power of the State is vested in a supreme court under its control the State charitable, curative, correctional and of seven members, each elected for a term of ten years, which penal institutions It also directs the activities of other agencies has appellate jurisdiction throughout the State. Two terms a year related to the work of these institutions, such as the juvenile and are held at Madison There were in 1927 20 circuit courts, the probation departments, and has supervisory and inspectional powcourt in the second circmt (Milwaukee) having six branches ers with respect to county asylums for the insane, county tubercuFinance—The estimated value of all tangible property in lar sanatoria, county and city care of the poor, private child welWisconsin according to the United States Census Bureau increased fare and child placing agencies, and jails and lock-ups within the from $4,328,000,000 in 1912 to $7,866,000,000 in 1922, an in- State. There are 17 State institutions under the management of crease from $1,828 to $2,899 per caput ‘The assessed valuation this board, namely: State hospital for the insane at Mendota, of property in 1925 for tax purposes amounted to $5,449,000,000 Northern hospital for the insane at Winnebago, Central State hospital for the criminal insane at Waupun, Wisconsin Psychiatric inof which $4,077,000,000 was real estate Exclusive of the licence fees imposed under the police power stitute at Mendota, Northern Wisconsin colony and training school of the State, the Wisconsin tax system consists of: (1) a general for the feeble-minded and epileptics at Chippewa Falls, Southern property tax chiefly for municipal purposes; (2) corporation Wisconsin colony and training school for feeble-minded and taxes on State-wide public service companies, including street epileptics at Union Grove, Wisconsin State sanatorium for the railways yielding about 10% of the taxation revenue; (3) licence treatment of tuberculosis at Wales, State tuberculosis camp at taxes on the gross earnings of telephone and insurance companies; Tomahawk lake, Industrial school for boys at Waukesha, Indus(4) an income tax, including surtaxes; (5) an inheritance tax; trial school for girls at Milwaukee, State reformatory (for males) (6) occupation taxes on the operation of coal docks and ele- at Green Bay, Industrial home for women at Taycheedah, State vators, State revenues in 1925 amounted to $36,502,000 of which prison at Waupun, school for the blind at Janesville, workshor $13,443,000 was derived from general and special property taxes. for the blind at Milwaukee, school for the deaf at Delavan and the State expenditures the same year amounted to $31,999,000, of State public school at Sparta Agriculture and Live Stock.—~Wisconsin is one of the lead which $26,519,000 was for current expenditures and the remaining $5,480,000 for permanent improvements The State debt in ing agricultural States of the United States In 1925, 61.8% 1925 was only $1,864,000, or but $0 67 per caput—the per caput of the total area of the State or 21,851,000 ac. was farm land

680

WISCONSIN

Of this 10,128,coo ac was classified as crop land, 8,672,000 ac. as pasture land and 3.053.coo ac as woodland and miscellaneous. Farm population decreased from 920,037 1n 1920 (35% of the

1914 and 1925 the number of manufacturing establishments decreased from 9,104 to 7,262, revealing a clear trend toward fewer

total population) to 893,352 ın 1925 (31-490 of the total), but the number of farms increased, nevertheless, from 189,295 to 193,135. The average acreage of each farm decreased from 117 ac. in 1920 to 1131 ac in 1925 The value of all farm property amounted in 1910 to $1,618,913,000, in 1920 to $2,677,283,000, and in 1925 to $2,.272.402,000 (an average of $11,765 per farm) Between 1920 and 1925 the value of farm buildmgs increased by $120,000,000, but farm machinery fell $21,000,000 in value and live stock $96,000,000 The greatest decrease, however, was represented in the fall of farm land values from $1,618,913,000 (an average of $73 09 per ac ) to $1,209,878,000 (average $55 37 per ac) The highest farm land values are in the southern and eastern counties where lands average more than $100 per acre The estimated value of all crops in Wisconsin was $291,000,000 for 1924, $336,000,000 for 1925, and $300,800,000 for 1926 In the latter year the chief crops and their acreage were’ tame hay, 3,368,000, oats, 2,577,000; corn 2,119,000; barley, 521,000, rye, 256,000, potatoes, 230,000; wild hay, 228,000; wheat, 128,000, tobacco, 29,000. The total value of each crop (with the value per acre in parenthesis) was as follows: tame hay, $86,130,000

194,310 in 1914 to 247,341 In 1925, and wages paid from $112.193,000 to $314,883,000 Between 1914 and 1925 Wisconsin con-

($25.50); corn, $54,830,000 ($25 88); oats, $38,655,000 ($15 00),

potatoes, $32,568,000 ($141.60); tobacco, $4,269,000 ($147 20), wheat, $3,262,000 ($25.48); rye, $3,226,000 ($12 60), wild hay, $2,709,000 ($12.00) ‘There were in addition 12,000 ac. of sugarbeets raised in 1925 valued at $933,000, and 13,000 ac planted in 1926. Wisconsin’s climate is so favourable that anything lke a failure of any one crop is unknown. A very small proportion of Wisconsin’s crops is marketed direct, but they are fed to the live stock on the farms, and the farmers receive their income chiefly from live stock products Chief of these are dairy products, for Wisconsin is the leading dairy State in the United States. In 1923 it was estimated that 53% of all farm income came from farm milk produce. In 1927 Wisconsin ranked third among the States in the total number of cattle owned, the number being 2,975,000 and their value, $178,092,000. Of this number 2,014,000 were milch cows and heifers, valued at $149,036,000, and in the number of milch cows Wisconsin was far in the front of all other States Doubtless 1t was the large proportion of Swiss, German and Danish settlers in Wisconsin that gave the cheese-making industry its momentum, for very early these people were making and seling the famous cheeses of their native lands. From 1920 to 1926 Wisconsin annually produced nearly two-thirds of all the cheese made in the United States. It also led in condensed milk products with onefourth the entire production of the United States Its butter production was in 1925 and 1926 exceeded only by that of Minnesota The rapid increase in production of creamery butter, however, 1s shown by the fact that the 1925 output of 161,369,000 Ib was almost double the 82,860,000 Ib. produced in 1918 The entire value of butter, cheese and condensery products in 1925 amounted to $209,260,384 as against $72,859,000 in 1914 The dairy industry 1s so dominant in Wisconsin farm life that other live stock is forced into a minor position Nevertheless in the southern part of the State swine are important There were In 1927, 1,594,000 swine valued at $27,098,000, they form an important share of the farm income (12% m 1923). Poultry has a similar essential place in the farm organization and adds about 10% to the farm income of the State Sheep and lambs are much less important, though there is a place for them in the rough, bluff country In 1927 they numbered 461,000, valued at $4,507,000 The 1926 wool chp was 2,508,000 pounds. Horses and mules on farms numbered 586,000 in 1927 and were valued at $55,208,000. Manufactures——Manufacturmg, as the result of a remarkable growth, has become the chief industry of the State. The value of its products in 1900 was $360,818,942, in 1914, $695,172,000, in 1925, $1,859,244,000 Of the 1925 valuation it was estimated that $774,496,000 was added by the manufacturing process. Despite the tremendous increase in value of products between

and larger factories

The number of wage earners increased from

sistently held the rank of tenth among the States in value of its manufactured products Of these ten ıt was the youngest State Wisconsin’s chief branch of manufactures 1s that connected with its great dairying industry MADE IN WISCONSIN In 1925 its butter, cheese, con370,115,000 POUNDS

densed and evaporated mulk products were valued at a total of $209,260,384, an amount giving it

the leadership among the States in dairy products. The rate of growth 1s seen when the 1925 PouNDS amount is compared with $72,859,000 in 1914 ‘This industry is the most widely diffused of all PROPORTION OF TOTAL UNITED manufacturing industries of the STATES OUTPUT OF CHEESE PRO. State, its factories bemg small DUCED IN WISCONSIN, 1925 and close to the supply of raw material. Of the 7,262 manufacturing establishments in the State more than one-third were creameries or cheese factories Motor vehicles to the value of $155,944,640 were manufactured mn 1925 This industry, now second in rank, was not deemed important enough in 1914 by the census bureau to have the value of its products separately reported Other manufacturing industries, listed in order of importance, with the value of their output in 1925 are foundry and machme products, $125,063,220 (in 1914, $60,608,000), paper and wood pulp, $97,779,601 (in 1914, $31,205,000), lumber and timber products, $89,306,150 (in 1914, $55,363,000); slaughtering and meat packing $70,793,049 (in 1914, $34,698,MADE IN THE REST OFTHEU S 184,233,000

000); motor vehicle bodies and motor vehicle parts, $59,403,191 (not listed separately m 1914); knitted goods, $58,086,110 (not

listed separately in 1914); boots and shoes, $53,954,002 (in 1914, $17,832,000) , furniture, $53,925,957

($22,587,000 in 1914), en-

gines and water wheels, $53,174,241 (not listed in 1914); electrical machmery and supplies, £46 23> 321 (Ss 3g7.cce in 1974); rubber tyres and inner tubes, $45 2-7 -7 (o meč m 1914); leather, $44,591,782 ($42,204,0c0 m 1914) In r910 Milwaukee was responsible for more than one-third of the State’s manufacturing output The total value of this city’s products increased from $223,555,000 n 1914 to $541,911,coo in 1925 Inthe same period, Kenosha, by increasing the value of its output from $28,341,000 mm 1914 to $124,748,000 m 1925, passed Racine as the second manufacturing city of the State Racine’s manufactures increased in value from $43,632,000 to $89,165,000 in the same years The fourth city, Janesville, showed an even more striking growth, its products increasing in value from $5,659,000 in 1914 to $48,093,000 in 1925. Both Racine and Janesville are famous producers of farm implements Other manufacturing cities mm the order of their importance are- West Allis, Madison, Oshkosh, Sheboygan, Beloit, Green Bay, Superior, La Crosse, Manitowoc, Fond du Lac, Eau Claire and Appleton, whose products ranged in value from $45,000,000 to $15,000,000. Madison and Beloit are, together with Janesville, in the Rock river valley which has offered a route for two of the leading railroads from Chicago to the north-west A more notable concentration of manufacturing cities is ın the Fox river valley, including the shores of Lake Winnebago Here are Oshkosh, Fond du Lac, Appleton and Green bay Their location makes them the centre for the paper-making and wood-working industries This is also the region of greatest development in water-power It is

noticeable that only one of the important cities, La Crosse, is on the Mississippi river, and one only, Superior, on Lake Superior.

Mines

and Quarries.—Wisconsin’s

varied and though m and factory products almost $20,000,000 $19,630,114 A sharp

mineral

products

are

value they fall far below the farm, forest of the State, they nevertheless amount to annually In 1920 they were valued at depression in 192r caused the total to drop

HISTORY]

WISCONSIN

to $9,990,961, but a rapid recovery was made to $19,086,600 by 1923 In 1925 their value was $19,205,000 The lead mines of south-western Wisconsin were the earliest developed and they reached a peak production in the decade 1840-50 since which they have slowly declined. In 1918 there were produced 4,533 short tons, valued at $643,686 In 1924 the production was but 1,254 short tons, valued at $200,640. Most of the lead 1s now only a by-product of zinc minmg which has become of main importance in the same region. The zinc-bearing ores are chiefly found below the water level and their production was not stimulated greatly until the rise m price of zinc about 1900 The production of this metal amounted to 27,285 tons in 1920, 10,952 in 1922, 14,027 in 1924 and 26,800 in 1926 The value of the 1924 output was $1,823,510 Whereas early lead mining was largely carried on by individuals in shallow mines, the deeper zinc ores are mined almost exclusively by large compamies using modern power machinery for mining and milling Of the great Lake Superior iron-producmg district shared by Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, Wisconsin possesses the smallest part. Two producing ranges extend into north Wisconsin, but the mcher portions of each are in the upper peninsula of Michigan. The Wisconsin portion of the Penokee-Gogebic range is in Iron county and a small portion of the Menominee range extends into Florence county. Most of the ore is mined in the former. Production in 1924 amounted to 786,006 tons and in 1925 to 817,000. The 1924 output was valued at $2,044,762. The chief mineral output of Wisconsin is building and ornamental stone, the value of which was $4,590,528 in 1923 and $4,087,133 in 1924 Granite of many different colours is quarned The lume product of 1924 was valued at $2,129,701. At hundreds of places in the State clay deposits suitable for making brick and tile are to be found, and products of this industry in 1924 were valued at $1,063,164 Another important resource of the State is its mineral waters, especially those from the spnngs near Waukesha which are bottled and sold widely. The value of bottled waters in 1923 was $2,612,452 which placed Wisconsin foremost among the States in this product. Forests and Lumbering.—Originally all of Wisconsin, except a few thousand square miles of prairie region in the south, was

covered with forests, the heavier tumber being in the northern half of the State. Wisconsin’s many rivers, fairly even topography and nearness to the Great Lakes and Mississippi river, favoured the rapid exploitation of these forests, and unrestricted and wasteful cutting went on apace. The most valuable orginal timber, the white pine, is now almost exhausted as a result. The great age of lumbering in Wisconsin was from 1890 to 1905, for the last five years of which Wisconsin was the leadmg lumber

681

Since pioneer days and the building of east-west railways the Mississippi has lost its importance as an actual carrier, but the Great Lakes have not In 1925 the chief lake ports were as follows Receipts

Shipments

Short tons | Short tons

Ashland.

Milwaukee . Green Bay .

749,000

5,611,000 1,166,000

7,466,000 1,297,000 257,000

In addition Wisconsin shared in the business of the great DuluthSuperior port which m 1925 registered receipts of 10,935,000 short tons and shipments of 40,130,000 short tons The first railway in the State was constructed from Milwaukee

westward in 1851 and completed to the Mississippi river at Prairie du Chien in 1857. The first railways were built east and west with the idea of connecting the waterways as quickly as possible, but as the railways grew more independent the main lines were built in a general north-west and south-east direction so as to connect Chicago and Milwaukee with the cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis by hnes as direct as possible Other lines run from Malwaukee north-west to Ashland, Superior and Duluth. The railway muleage in the State amounted to 7,501 m in 1926 as compared with 7,638 m in 1915 ‘The largest systems are the Chicago and North-western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific and the Minneapolis, St Paul and Sault Ste. Marie. For passenger service, railway lmes have been supplemented since 1923 by an increasmg network of motor-bus limes running over the principal highways and connecting the chief cities There were 1n 1926, 78,964 m of rural roads of which 28,318 m were surfaced Of the 10,280 m in the State highway system in 1927, 6,138 m. were gravel-surfaced and 2,070m paved Expenditures for State highways the same year amounted to $7,785,000.

Motor vehicles in the State increased from 79,741 in 1915 to 293,298 in 1920 and 662,282 in 1926. HISTORY The region comprising the present State of Wisconsin was first explored by the French, who in their eagerness to find a “Northwest Passage” rapidly penetrated the Great Lakes waterways French Explorers and Traders.—Jean Nicolet came in 1634, having been sent by Samuel Champlain, then governor-general of New France to investigate rumours of a distant race called the “People of the Sea” who, 1t was hoped, might be Asiatics Nicolet

landed at a point in Green bay and made a treaty of alhance with the “People of the Sea” whom he found were merely the populous tribe of Winnebago Indians then living in the neighbourhood. Champlain died shortly after Nicolet’s return and no 14th in lumber output By 1925 the development of forest re- further explorations in the West were undertaken for 20 years. serves and fire protection was In 1654 Pierre Esprit, Sieur de Radisson and Medard Chouart, helpmg to stabilize the industry, | E ,, Sieur des Groseilliers, two French traders, visited Green bay and and the State in that year roseto | explored the country west and south The vagueness of Radisson’s rth in rank Lumber amount- | = ” 3 journal leaves the interpretation of their itinerary much in doubt ing to 1,069,000,000 ft bm. was | & 7° Some scholars are disposed, from certain phases, to accord them cut, besides an output of 54,|9 15 the honour of having entirely crossed Wisconsin and discovered 440,000 shingles, 142,764,000 | § 10 the Mississippi river, but this, while possible, is doubtful The laths and 599,601 tons of wood | 3 oš same explorers undertook a second voyage into the west in 1658-60 in which they were the first to skirt the Lake Superior pulp. In wood pulp production | ™ ee U R shore of Wisconsin. On Chequamegon bay they built a log hut— Wisconsin ranked below only s $ È z a the first white habitation, so far as is known, in the State—and Maine and New York. ‘The the following winter made a long inland trip to the Ottawa villages State’s timber resources are by LUMBER PRODUCED 1889~1927 no means exhausted. In 1923 the State Conservation Commission in northern Wisconsin In 1660 seven traders, accompanied by the estimated about 15,326,920,000 ft b.m. of saw timber to be still Jesuit, Father René Ménard, the first missionary in Wisconsin, standing, besides 41,619,250 cords of fuel wood and 3,634,718 wintered at Chequamegon bay on Lake Superior, and Ménard, cords of pulp wood Of this about one-third is hemlock, with the next summer, perished while trying to reach the Huron villages near the sources of the Black river In 166s other traders came maple, birch, basswood, pine and elm next in order. Commerce and Transport.—In Lake Superior, Lake Michi- into Lake Superior and with them came Father Claude Allouez gan and the Mississippi river Wisconsin is supplied upon three who, on the shores of Chequamegon bay, established the first sides by unusual facilities for water shipping In addition to their permanent mission in Wisconsin In 1668 Jean Peré began a actual commerce these waterways are of great importance because three-year exploration of Lake Superior and its northward conof the continual check they supply upon land transport rates. nections, and among other things located copper upon its shores

producing State of the United States. The value of rough lumber reached nearly $70,000,000 annually In 1922 Wisconsin ranked

682

WISCONSIN

In 1668 Green bay was again visited, this time by Nicolas Perrot and Toussaint Baudry who made several trips to inland tribes on the Wolf and upper Fox rivers with whom they concluded trading treaties Other traders came In 1669 Allouez

was succeeded at his Chequamegon mission by Father Marquette and went into the Fox river valley where at the first rapids he founded the mission of St. Francois Xavier, one of the most successful of those established by the Jesuits m the west It became the centre for further missionary efforts to all the surrounding tribes. In 1671 Father Marquette was forced by Indian wars to abandon the Chequamegon mission and in 1673, in company with

[HISTORY

Incorporation with Michigan.—Wisconsin ın 1800 had nominally been attached to Indiana Territory, and in 1809, on the admission of Indiana as a State, it was attached to Ilhnois In 1818 Illinois was admitted to the Union and Wisconsin was incorporated in Michigan Territory It was only at the latter date that American civil government mm Wisconsin was established on an orderly and permanent basis Until 1830 the fur-trade, controlled largely by the American Fur company, continued to be the predominating interest in the Wisconsin region, but then the growing lead-mining mdustry in the south-western part of the

State began to overshadow the fur-trade.

The lead-mining ac-

Louis Jolet, he set off down the Fox-Wisconsm water route to tivity which began in 1824 was the first mcentive to genuine settlement in the State since the fur-trade discouraged settlement discover the Mississippi river of which the Indians had told them On July 17 they reached the mouth of the Wisconsin and sailed except around the few trading posts In 1830 there were about 2,500 miners in the region Friction between these settlers and out upon the Mississ:pp1 waters. In 1679 Daniel Greysolon Du Luth explored the upper Missis- the Indians could not be avoided and im 1832 occurred the famous sippi, St. Croix and Black rivers The same year Michel Accault, Black Hawk War, which broke the Indian power withm the State accompanied by Father Hennepm, explored the Mississippi along In addition the war made Wisconsin better known, and with the Wisconsin’s western boundary until they met Du Luth who re- Indian menace removed there was an appreciable impetus to turned with them by the Wisconsin-Fox route to the St. Francois settlement A series of Indian treaties in 1829, 1831, 1832 and Xavier mission. Du Luth contunued his explorations on the Missis- 1833 extinguished the Indian titles and opened up vast areas to sippi and Lake Superior until 1689 when he left the west never settlement. In 1834 two land offices were opened, and by 1836, 878,014 ac. to return. His work was supplemented by the Mississippi expeditions of Perrot, who in 1686 built Fort St. Antoine on Lake had been sold to settlers and speculators In 1836 a special Pepin, an enlargement of the Mississippi river. Perrot was now census showed a population of 11,000, mn 1840 the number was the French commandant in Wisconsin and most influential with about 40,000 From 1835 to 1845 settlers from the eastern States the Indian tribes. In 1672 Saint-Lusson at Sault Ste Marie had poured mto the south-eastern part of the State, founding Miltaken formal possession of the Great Lakes region in the name waukee and other cities along the lake shore Wisconsin Becomes a Separate Territory—When Michigan of the king of France, in 1689 Perrot staged a similar ceremony at his Fort St. Antoine on the Mississippi river The 18 years entered the Union m 1836 Wisconsin was erected into a separate between the two events had marked the period of French dis- Territory which at first included not only its present area, but covery and occupation of Wisconsm. Traders entered the region the present Iowa and Minnesota and a portion of North and in increased numbers, and to protect them from the Indians and South Dakota Henry Dodge was appointed the first territorial governor by President Jackson. The first territorial council met to control the trade properly a military force was necessary. In 1712 the slaughter of a band of Foxes near Detroit was the in 1836 at Old Belmont, now Leslie, Lafayette county, but in signal for hostilities which lasted almost contmuously until 1740, December of that year after a contest in which Fond du Lac, and in which every tribe in the Wisconsin country was sooner Milwaukee, Racine, Green bay, Portage and other places conor later involved either in alliance with the Foxes or with the tended for the honour, Madison was selected as the capital. French. This war seriously interfered with the French plan of Population increased so rapidly that it was not long before a trade and development. The difficulty of mamtaining a chain of movement for the admission of Wisconsin as a State was taken settlements which might have connected Canada and Lowsiana up in earnest and on Aug to, 1846, an enabling act for that was a contributing cause to the overthrow of French dominion. purpose passed Congress and was approved by President Polk _ Wisconsin was little disturbed by the Seven Years’ War. How- The first Constitution drafted was rejected by the people, however, the French and Indians of Wisconsin contributed a force ever, owing to liberal articles relating to the rights of married under the half-breed, Charles Michel de Langlade, which made women, prohibition of banks, the elective judiciary, etc A second the long journey to lower Canada to share in the war With the convention, thought to be more conservative than the first, drafted fall of Montreal (1760), French rule in Wisconsin was over. another Constitution which m 1848 recetved the approval of both British Occupation.—The first period of British occupation the people and Congress so that the State was admitted The was brief for on the outbreak of Pontiac’s conspiracy in 1763, the State governmental officers were sworn into office in June with evacuation of the Green bay fort was forced, When the con- Nelson Dewey in the governor’s chair In the same year the free spixacy was crushed in 1765, Wisconsin was reopened to traders, public school system was established, and the great stream of and not only French and English, but American traders from the German immigration set in Railway construction began in 1851. colonies entered the region British prestige among the Indians and At the time of its admission Wisconsin, still a frontier State, the French Aadwéants was hurt by a policy of confining the Indian was strongly democratic in spirit. The incommg Germans were trade to the forts instead of permitting the traders to go into the likewise of the same sympathies But Wisconsin was also a Indian villages Little as they cared for their Bntish rulers the strong anti-slavery State and as the Democratic Party affiliated French and Indians in the region remained loyal to the British itself more and more completely with the cause of slavery, it during the Revolutionary War De Langlade again led his French lost its hold on Wisconsm In 1854, one of the first steps in and Indian forces against the American frontier communities west the organization of the Republican Party was taken at Ripon, of the Alleghanies. and in 1856 a Republican governor was elected. In 1854 also the The close of the war, although it conveyed the region to the State supreme court rendered a decision which declared the sovereignty of the United States, was not followed by American Fugitive Slave Law to be null and void in Wisconsin. In 1860 occupation. The newly formed North-west company, a Bnitish the State aided in the election of Lincoln and supported his adfur-trading organization, kept control of the posts, built new ones, ministration during the Civil War. To the Northern armies Wisextended their trade and dommated the region, The control of consin furnished 91,379 troops out of a total population of these posts was one of the issues in the War of 1812, for American 775,881. In 1874 a Democratic liberal reform administration came traders were becoming powerful enough to demand that the British into office and in the legislative session which followed the Potter traders should be made to withdraw The end of the war meant Law, one of the first attempts to regulate railway rates, was the termination of British influence in Wisconsin, and actual passed The Republicans regained tontrol in 1876 and modified military occupation of the country by the United States came m the Jaw. In 1889 the passage of the Bennett Law, providing for 1816 with the establishment of garrisons at Green bay (Ft. the enforcement of the teaching of English in all public and paro-

Howard) and Prairie du Chien (Ft. Crawford)

chial schools, roused the Germans, both Catholic and Lutheran,

WISCONSIN—WISDOM usually Repubhcans, so that they voted the Democratic ticket and installed a Democratic admumistration from 1890 to 1895 which repealed the law After 1895 the Republican Party grew

more secure

It placed on the statute books a series of progressive

enactments in regard to railway rate legislation, taxation, pubicity of campaign expenditures, civil service, forest conservation, and finally a direct primary law. In all these reforms a leadmg

part was taken by Governor Robert M

La Follette, who was

elected to the U.S Senate in 1905 when the reform movement was at its crest. Opposition to his programme resulted in a serious split in the Republican ranks, the opposition taking the old name of “Stalwarts” La Follette contmued to draw enough support from the Democrats to maintain control of the State until 1914 when a political reaction resulted in the election of his opponents The governmental policy suffered slight change, however In 1920, the La Follette wing again came into power with the election of John J Blaine as governor, who was re-elected in 1922 and 1924 La Follette remained in the Senate until his death in 1925 and was succeeded by his son BIBLIOGRAPHY —The various State departments and commissions published reports and bulletms Chief among them may be mentioned Lawrence Martin, “Physical Geography of Wisconsin,” Bulletin No 36 (1916) ; W O. Hotchkiss, “A Brief Outline of the Geology, Physical Geography, Geography and Industries of Wisconsin,” Bulletin No 67

(1925), and A. R. Whitson, “Souls of Wisconsm,” Bulletzs No

68

(1927). For archaeology consult The Wisconsin Archaeologist (1901 et seq ) a quarterly magazine published by the Wisconsin Archaeological Society. The Wisconsin State Historical Society publishes a senes of Collectzons (1924) and a series of Proceedings (68th report issued 1921) , also the Wisconsin Magazine of History (1917 et seq). See also H. Campbell, Wisconsin in Three Decades (1906); R G. Thwaites, Wisconsin (1908); F. C Howe, Wisconsin, An Experiment 2 Democracy (1912); Charles McCarthy, The Wisconsin Idea (1912), R La Follette, Autobiography (1913), E. B. Usher, Wisconsin, Its Story and Biography (1914), F Merk, Economic History of Wisconsin during the Czvil War Decade (1916); A. O. Barton, La Folletie’s Winning of Wisconsin (1922); M M. Quaife, Wisconsin, Its Hzstory

and Its People (1924); CC. Platt, What La Follette’s State is Doing (1924); L. P. Kellogg, The French Régime in the TR (roas)

I

WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF, a co-educational institution of ngher learning at Madison, Wis , the capital of the State. It was established in 1848, is under State control, is supported largely by the State and is a part of its educational system The university occupies a picturesque and beautiful site on an irregular tract of 600 ac, including both wooded hills and undulating meadow-lands stretching for a mile along the shores of Lake Mendota. The main building, Bascom Hall, which crowns University hull, is exactly one mile from the State capitol. The university includes a college of letters and science made up of an experimental college, a library school, schools of commerce, education, journalism and music, with general courses in liberal arts and special courses m chemistry and pharmacy; a college of engineering with courses m chemical, civil, electrical, mechanical and mining engineering; a college of agriculture with a Government experimental station, long, middle and short courses in agriculture, a department of home economics, a dairy course, farmers’ institutes and an extension service, a law school; a medical school; a graduate school; and an extension division including departments of correspondence study, debating and public discussion, and group and community service There is a summer session of six weeks for undergrad-

683

extension work consisted of 640 men and 136 women, making a total of 776 Admission to the umiversity is by examination or certificate from accredited high schools or academies Tuition is free for residents of the State Courses im the first two years are largely prescribed, in the last two years, elective under a prescribed system of majors and minors The university is governed by a board of regents of whom two—the president of the university and the State superintendent of public instruction—are ex officio members, and the others are appoimted by the governor for a term of three years, four from the State at large and one from each congressional district (C A 8.)

WISCONSIN RAPIDS, a city near the centre of Wisconsin,

USA, on the Wisconsin rıver; the county seat of Wood county. It is served by the Chicago and North Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St Paul and Pacific, the Green Bay and Western and the Soo Line railways. Pop. (1920) 7,243 (86% native white); 8,726 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is in the heart of a dairy

region which ships great quantities of cheese, and there are huge cranberry bogs near the city Hydro-electric power is generated by local plants. Among the portant manufactures are paper and pulp, camp stoves and equipment, refrigeration machinery, men’s clothing, dairy products and fibre cartons The city is headquarters of the US. Indian agency for the Winnebago and the Pottawattomie tribes There is a fish hatchery on Nepco lake, just south of the city Under the name of Grand Rapids a city on the east bank of the river was chartered in 1869 In 1900 it annexed Centralia, on the west bank, and mn 1920 the present name was adopted

WISDOM, BOOK OF. This book of the Apocrypha was not—as its title rums—composed by King Solomon, but emanates from the more intellectual circles of the Jewish Diaspora in Alexandria. It falls naturally ito three parts which may or may not be the work of a single writer: (a) chs li-vi-8 m which, in opposition to the views of the ungodly, the author argues that so far as the righteous are concerned, death is not the end on the contrary “their hope is full immortality”, (b) vi. 9-xi. 1 which is written more particularly to portray Wisdom; (c) xi, 2-xix an historical retrospect which is introduced in order to explain the origins and calamitous results of idolatry The book belongs to the closing period of the evolution of the Jewish Wisdom Literature (q v.) No part of ıt would appear to have been written earlier than 150 Bc. Though Thackeray favours 130~100 B,c., Gregg 125-100 and Gfrorer 100 B.c , some modern opinion (e.g, Goodrick) tends to favour a date as late as A.D. 40 (as indeed did Farrar). On the hypothesis of diversity of authorship, Holmes assigns the earlier part of the book to 50-30 BC and the last chapters (in his estimation an intentional addition to the first part) to 30 Bc. to AD. xo In this case the author was a younger contemporary of Philo (with whom Jerome identified him), shghtly a senior of Jesus of Nazareth, and he had not long written his book when it fell into the hands of St. Paul, provided the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews with ideas and with terminology in which to express them, and, somewhat later, influenced, though to a much smaller extent, the authors of Epistles of r Peter, St James and of the Fourth Gospel. The whole book, as is now generally mamtained, originally was written in Greek, and almost certainly in Alexandria by an Alexandrian Jew (or Jews) versed in the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament. To what extent was the author really acquainted with Plato’s writings and with Plato’s thought, with Pythagorean speculations, with Stoicism and with the Greek mystery cults? For example, his doctrine of God’s transcendence and unity reaches the high-water mark of Jewish theology and piety He does not abandon the thoroughly Jewish conception of “spirit” as the agent and medium of the transcendent Deity’s self-revelation to the Universe and to His chosen people, he even refers twice to the “Word” in this connection without any indication

uates, and of nme weeks for graduates. Instruction is given in the summer session in all colleges except the experimental college Several scientific institutions are associated with the university, yncluding the US forest products laboratory, the US. weather bureau, Washburn observatory, Wisconsin psychiatric institute, the Wisconsin geological and natural history survey, the State laboratory of hygiene and the State toxicological laboratory. In June, 1927, the University library and the State historical brary, housed ın the State Historical Library building, contained 613,000 bound volumes and 325,000 pamphlets; the special libraries housed in other buildings bring the totals up to 771,000 bound volumes and 378,000 pamphlets. In 1926-27 there were that he has hellenized it as Philo did. But in his description 8,837 students enrolled in the two semesters of the regular year— of his favourite intermediary between earth and Heaven, “Wis5,485 men and 3,352 women. The summer session enrolled 5,165 dom,” it is difficult not to suppose that he was (though not so students The faculty for the regular year for both resident and directly as some scholars have urged) influenced by the Stoic doc-

684

WISDOM

LITERATURE—WISE

trine of the anima mundi In the end, however, he shows that be has not really gone so far in the direction of hypostatizing “Wisdom” as did the author of Proverbs ch ix. (See especially, Goodrick, Tke Book of Wisdom, Additional Notes D and F, pp.

404—410, 416-419 )

Till comparatively recently the view that the author was an exponent of the doctrine of the pre-existence of souls was unchallenged ‘The crucial passage 1s vui 19, 20, which had hitherto

been read in the light of other passages such as1

4, 1x 15, xi. 17,

which might seem to presuppose the evil of matter which was originally “formless” and the body as the prison of the soul in true Platonic fashion But in 1908 F C Porter (Studies in Memory of W.R Harper) put forward the revolutionary thesis that the author’s statement in the passage has as its background neither Platonic nor Pythagorean speculations It is, he urged, a native Hebrew evolution of pmmitive Semitic beliefs as to the union of the Divine breath with the maternal clay which results

in the production of an individual man. The tendency of the author’s eschatology is equally problematical. It would appear that even if he contents himself with believing in the immortality of the soul only, he conceives of this as ensuring the conscious survival of the individual’s personality. It is therefore difficult to believe that he does not refer to these same dead righteous rather than (as some urge) to the hving righteous It would seem that he did not completely abandon contemporary Jewish eschatological speculations of a materialistic or semi-materialistic nature for Greek ideas as to the immortality of individual souls. He accepted both without evolving a real synthesis of them, probably without grasping the necessity for one, as was obviously his tendency in regard to several other doctrines in which he held to his Jewish beliefs though attracted by their Hellenistic counterparts and the terminology of pagan philosophers who had won his admiration. BreriocraPHy.—See especially Gregg in Camb, Bible (1909) ; Holmes in Charles’ Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, i 518-534; Goodrick in Oxford Church Bible Commentary (1913), where copious references will be found. (D.C. S)

WISDOM. LITERATURE.

The extant writings of the

Jewish sages are contained in the books of Job, Proverbs, BenSira, Tobit, Ecclesiastes, Wisdom of Solomon, Fourth Maccabees, to which may be added the first chapter of Pirke Aboth (qv), certain of the Elephantine Papyri and isolated sections (e g, the parable of Jotham) and verses in the historical prophetical Books, as well as Pss. viii.; xix 2-7; xxix. 3-10; xxxvil, xlix,

Ixxhi., xc I-12; xcil. 6-8 (5~7), cvil. 17-32, cxix, cxxxix., cxliv. 3 £., cxlvii 8 f. The climax of the intellectual element in this movement is to be found in Philo. Most of the extant literature doubtless dates only from the post-exilic period But the Book of Proverbs (g v.) contains minor collections of proverbs which are now recognized as preexilic in origin, while individual mamms contamed in this and other books may be part of the heritage of post-exilic days from a comparatively hoary antiquity. The Wisdom Movement among the Hebrews was, in fact, no isolated phenomenon, and at no period in its development did it exist, as ıt were, in a watertight compartment. As the mythology of the Hebrews, their earlier religious ideas in general, many of their deitzes and several elements in their ecclesiastical calendar were shared with and mostly derived by them from neighbouring peoples, so too it was with the aspect of their culture comprised under the general term “Wisdom” From Mesopotamia to Egypt there existed an “‘international” stock of traditional Wisdom which passed and repassed from nation to nation, each adding 1ts quota to the common stock, and each adapting to the needs and the requirements of its own culture what it received from those of others. Edom was

portance in the development of Hebrew Wisdom literature. Certainly by the reign of Hezekiah the “wise men” formed a defintte stratum in Jerusalem society, and lke the priests, prophets and miltary leaders sought to shape, m accordance with their own economic and political ideals, the fortunes of the Jewish state

But, as the post-exilic period advanced, and Jewish history and theology unfolded themselves, new problems arose for which no satisfactory explanation could be given by the old religion of the pre-exilic type, the new priestly development, the new scribism, and the still newer “Chasidaean” piety Prophecy of the preexilic and exilic type was dead, and the principle of inspiration for which it stood found its expression more especially in Apocalyptic (qv). The latter, however, made its greatest appeal to the masses It remained for the exponents of Wisdom to attempt to solve these problems m a form acceptable to men of culture and to specialize in the instruction of the youth of aristocratic families Their intellectual instincts led them to look, not to Persia whence Apocalyptic took so much of its imagery and some of tts central ideas, but to the new world of the Mediterranean With this world they were becoming mcreasingly familar owing to the conquests of Alexander the Great and his successors, the rise of Greek cities in Palestine and the spread of Greek culture in Palestine and elsewhere, particularly in Egypt where the Jewish community mostly prospered and kept in close touch with

their co-religionists in Jerusalem

‘The book of Wisdom

(gv)

emanated from this Alexandrian centre of Wisdom in the first Chnistian century, just as Egyptian Jewry in pre-hellemistic days had produced the book of Tobit (gv). Ecclesiastes and Proverbs (qqu) chs 1—vu1, on the other hand, are examples of the hellenizing Wisdom hterature of Palestine, while Ecclesiasticus belongs to the period before Hellenism had contributed much of moment to the sages of Palestine The new problems which confronted these later sages were numerous, both ın the practical and ın the theoretical sphere In the former, general looseness of life had to be combated In the latter, they had to face questions such as the following: If God is transcendent, how can He still be held to intervene in mundane matters? If God 1s the ruler of the whole universe, is it possible, in the face of facts, still to maintain that His government of it 1s moral? In particular, what is the bearing of the problem of suffering upon this question? If He is the God of the individual soul, does He abandon that individual at death? Each Wisdom writer gave his own answer to these questions. Sometimes there is substantial agreement sometimes they contradict each other. The answers of the authors of Proverbs 1-viu, Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom were constructive. In Ecclesiastes, in its original form, and in Prov. xxx 2-4 instances have been preserved of a sceptical element in the Wisdom Movement Brauiocraruy —T. K Cheyne, Job and Solomon, or The Wisdom of the Old Testament (1887) ; Friedlander, Griechische Philosophie in Alten Testament (1904), Meinhold, Dre Weishe:t Israels in Spruch, Sage und Dichtung (1908); Oesterley, The Books of the Apocrypha, Their Origin, Teaching and Contents (1916) See further the Bibliographies to Proverss, Boox oF (for the earlier aspects) and Wispom,

Boox oF for the later developments

WISE, HENRY

ALEXANDER

(D.C S.)

(1806-1876), American

politician and soldier, was born at Drummondtown (or Accomac), Va,on Dec 3, 1806 He graduated from Washington (now Washington and Jefferson) college, Pa, in 1825, and began to practise law in Nashville, Tenn , in 1828 He returned to Accomac county, Virginia, in 1830 and served in the Nationel House of Representative? in £533-37 as er enu-nulif.cation Democrat, but broke with the party on the withdrawal of the deposits from the United States Bank, and was re-elected to Congress m 1837, 1839 and 1841 as a Whig, and in 1843 as a Tyler Democrat. From 1844 to 1847

a famous centre of such “Wisdom” activity in Palestine, and the he was minister to Brazil In 1855 he was elected governor of the Hebrew Humanists more than once admit their indebtedness to State (1856-60) as a Democrat John Brown’s raid occurred those of Edom But the great creative centres of “Wisdom” during his term, and Wise refused to reprieve Brown after sentence activities were to be found in Babylonia and Egypt had been passed He strongly opposed secession, but finally voted Doubtless the early Hebrew exponents of Wisdom at times did for the Virginia ordinance, was commussioned brigadier-general more than merely borrow, Hebraise, and conserve the proverbs in the Confederate army and served throughout the war. He died of other nations. Hebrew tradition, at any rate, points to the at Richmond, Va, on Sept. 12, 1876. He wrote Seven Decades of reigns of Solomon and Hezekiah as epochs of outstanding im- the Union 1790-1860 (1872).

WISE—WISHART

685

preached (July 4, 1848) at the opening of St. George’s, Southwark, an occasion umque in England since the Reformation, 14 bishops and 240 priests bemg present, and six religious orders of in America (1846) his influence made itself felt. In 1854 he was men being represented. The progress of Catholicism was undeappointed rabbi at Cincimnati Some of his actions, as his com- niable, but yet Wiseman found himself steadily opposed by a piling of a new prayer-book, roused considerable opposition He minority among his own clergy, who dishked his Ultramontane was opposed to political Zionism, and in keeping with this denial ideas, his “Romanizing and innovating zeal” In July 1850 he heard of the pope’s mtention to create him a of a Jewish nationality, he beheved in national varieties of Judaism, and strove to harmonize the synagogue with local circum- cardinal, and expected to be permanently recalled to Rome. But on his arrival there he ascertained that a part of the pope’s plan stances and sympathies. After a campaign lasting 25 years he was instrumental in founding the Union of American-Hebrew for restoring a diocesan hierarchy in England was that he himself should return to England as cardmal and archbıshop of Westcongregations in Cincinnati m 1873, and as a corollary m 1875 the Hebrew Union college, of which he was president and which minster The papal bref establishing the hierarchy was dated Sept. 29, 1850, and on Oct 7 Wiseman wrote a pastoral, dated has trained a large number of the rabbis of America. Wise also organized various general assemblies of rabbis, and in 1889 “from out of the Flammian Gate”—a form diplomatically correct, but of bombastic tone for Protestant ears—in which he spoke established the Central Conference of American rabbis He was the first to introduce family pews m synagogues, and in many enthusiastically, if also a little pompously, of the “restoration of Catholic England to its orbit in the ecclesiastical firmament,” other ways “occidentalized” Jewish worship He was not only a leader im liberal Judaism but also a scholar and the author of Wiseman travelled slowly to England, via Vienna; and when he reached London (Nov 11), the whole country was ablaze with many works He died in Cincinnati on March 26, rgoo Rabbi Wise’s Reminiscences (1901) were translated with an intro. indignation at the “papal aggression,” which was misunderstood by David Phihpson (1901), who with Lous Grossman prepared a to imply a new and unjustifiable clam to territomal rule But biographical sketch for the Selected Writings (1900). A tentative Wiseman wrote an admirable Appeal to the Enghsh People in bibhography was prepared by A S Oko. See also D Phihpson, The which he ezplamed the nature of the pope’s action, and argued Reform Movement m Judasm (1907), M.B May, Isaac Mayer Wise that the admitted principle of toleration included leave to estab(1916); and Henry Berkowitz, Intzmate Ghmpses of the Rabbi's lish a diocesan hierarchy In July 1852 he presided at Oscott Career (1921). over the first provincial synod of Westminster. In 1854 Wiseman WISEMAN, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN (1802was in Rome when the definition of the dogma of the immaculate 1865), English cardinal, was born at Seville on Aug. 2, 1802, the child of Anglo-Insh parents recently settled in Spain for conception of the Blessed Virgin (Dec 8), was promulgated In 1855 he applied for a coadjutor, and George Errington, bishop business purposes On his father’s death in 1805 he was brought of Plymouth, his friend smce boyhood, was appomted, with the to Waterford He was educated at Ushaw college, near Durham, title of archbishop of Trebizond. Two years later Manning was and at the English college ın Rome, of which he became viceappointed provost of Westminster and he established in Baysrector in 1827, and rector in 1828. He held the rectorship for water his community of the “Oblates of St. Charles ” twelve years. From the first a devoted student and antiquary, he In the summer of 1858 Wiseman paid a visit to Ireland, where, studied the oriental mss in the Vatican library, and a first volume, as a cardinal of Irish race, he was received with enthusiasm. In entitled Horae Syrtacae, published in 1827, gave promise of a great 1863, addressing the Catholic Congress at Malines, he stated that scholar. Leo XII appointed him curator of the Arabic mss in since 1830 the number of pnests in England had increased from the Vatican, and professor of oriental languages in the Roman 434 to 1,242, and of convents of women from 16 to 162, while university. At this date he had close relations, personal and by there were 55 religious houses of men mn 1863 and none in 1830 correspondence, with Mai, Bunsen, Burgess (bishop of Salisbury), The last two years of his hfe were troubled by illness and by Tholuck and Kluge Eis student hfe was, however, broken by the controversies in which he found himself, under Manning’s influpope’s command to preach to the English in Rome; and he ence, compelled to adopt a policy less liberal than that which visited England in 1835-1836, and delivered lectures on the prinhad been his mm earlier years Thus he had to condemn the ciples and main doctrines of Roman Catholicism in the Sardinian Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christendom, Chapel, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and m the church at Moorfields, with which he had shown some sympathy 1n its inception in 1857, now pulled down In 1836 he founded the Dublin Review In the and to forbid Catholic parents to send their sons to Oxford or winter of 1838 he was visited in Rome by Macaulay, Manning Cambridge, though at an earlier date he had hoped (with Newand Gladstone man) that at Oxford at least a college or hall might be assigned In 1840 he was consecrated bishop, and sent to England as to them He died on Feb. 16, 1865. On Jan. 30, 1907, his body coadjutor to Bishop Walsh, vicar-apostolic of the Central district, was removed with great ceremony from Kensal Green and reand was also appointed president of Oscott College near Birmingburied in the crypt of the new cathedral at Westminster ham scott, under his presidency, became a centre for English Wiseman was one of the most learned men of his time He was Catholics, where he was also visited by many distinguished men, the frend and correspondent of many foreigners of distinction, mcluding foreigners and non-Catholics. The Oxford converts among whom may be named Dollinger, Lamennais, Montalembert (1845 and later) added considerably to Wiseman’s responsibilities. and Napoleon III. He combined with the principles known as It was by his advice that Newman and his companions spent Ultramontane no little liberality of view in matters ecclesiastical some time in Rome before undertaking clerical work in England. He insisted on a poetical interpretation of the Church’s liturgy; Shortly after the accession of Pius IX. Wiseman was appointed and while strenuously maintaming her Divine commission to temporarily vicar-apostolic of the London district, the appointteach faith and morals, he regarded the Church as in other ment becoming permanent in February 1849 On his arrival from respects a learner; and he advocated a policy of conciliation Rome in 1847 he acted as informal diplomatic envoy from the See the biography by Wilfnd Ward, The Life and Times of Cardinal pope, to ascertain from the government what support England Wiseman (2 vols., 1897, fifth edition, 1900). (A.W Hv, X was likely to give in carrying out the liberal policy with which WISHART, GEORGE (c. 1513-1546), Scottish reformer, Pius inaugurated his reign In response Lord Minto was sent to Rome as “an authentic organ of the British Government,” but was accused of heresy in 1538, and fled to England, where a similar charge was brought against him at Bristol in the following the policy in question proved abortive. Residing in London in Golden Square, Wiseman threw himself year In 1539 or 1540 he started for Germany and Switzerland, into his new duties with many-sided activity, working especially and returnmg to England became a member of Corpus Christi for the reclamation of Catholic criminals and for the restoration college, Cambridge. In 1543 he went to Scotland in the train of of the lapsed poor to the practice of their religon. He was a returning embassy. Wishart began to preach in 1544, at Perth, zealous for the establishment of religious communities, both of Edinburgh, Leith and Haddington At Ormiston, in Dec. 1545, men and women, and for the holding of retreats and missions. He he was seized by the earl of Bothwell, and transferred by order See the Life of H A Wise, by his grandson, B H Wise (1899)

WISE,

ISAAC

MAYER

(1819-1900),

Amencan-Jewish

theologian, was born in Bohemia. From the moment of his arnval

™

686

WISLICENUS—WITCHCRAFT

of the privy council to Edinburgh castle on Jan. 19, 1546 Thence he was handed over to Cardmal Beaton, who had hım burnt at St Andrews on March 1. See Knox’s Hist ; Reg P. C. Scotland; Foxe’s Acts and Monuments, Hay Fleming’s Martyrs and Confessors of St. Andrews; Cramond’s Truth about Wishart (1898) and Dict. of Nat. Bogr. vol. lx.

WISLICENUS, JOHANNES (1835-1902), German chemist, was born on June 24, 1835 at Klem-Eichstedt, in Thuringia, and emigrated to America with his father In 1855 he was appointed lecturer at the Mechanics’ Institute in New York Returning to Europe in 1856, he continued his studies at Zunch university, where he was subsequently professor of chemistry from 1865 to 1872. He then obtained the chair of chemistry at Wirzburg, and in 1885, on the death of A W H Kolbe, was appointed to the same professorship at Leipzig, where he died on Dec. 6, r902 His work on the lactic acids cleared up many

difficulties concerning the combination of acid and alcoholic

properties in hydroxy-acids in general, and resulted in the discovery of two substances differing in physical properties though Possessing a structure of proved chemical identity So far back as 1873, before the publication of the doctrine of J H van't Hoff and J. A Le Bel, Wislicenus expressed the opinion that the ordinary constitutional formulae did not afford an adequate explanation of certain carbon compounds, and suggested that account must be taken of the verschiedene Lagerung ihrer Atome itm Raume Later (see Die rdumliche Anordnung der Atome in organischen Molekülen, 1887) he extended the application of the van't Hoff-Le Bel theory to “geometrical isomers”—substances like fumaric and maleic acids which have identical formulae but are dissimilar chemically. Wıslıcenus and his pupils studied a number of cases of this type of isomerism He is also known for his work on aceto-acetic ester and its application as a synthetical agent and for his syntheses in the penta-methylene series He was awarded the Davy medal by the Royal Society mm 1898 WISMAR, a seaport town of Germany, in the republic of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, situated on the Bay of Wismar, one of

several years in Anzona and New Mexico

He then entered the

Harvard law school, graduating in 1888, was admitted to the bar in 1889 and for two years practised in Philadelphia. Thereafter he devoted his tıme to lhterary work. His novel The Virgintan (1902) has the distinction of domg as much

to shape the romantic conception of the cowboy West as any other single factor. Red Men and White (1896) and Lin McLean (18098) also contnbuted to the legends of the cunning horse thief, the chival-

rous rancher and the vanishing red man Philosophy 4 (1903), a divert. ing college story, and the romance Lady Baltzmore (1906) were very

popular. Wister’s other publications mclude Ulysses S Grant (1900), The Seven Ages of Washengion (1907), The Pentecost of Calamity (z915) and Nezghbours Henceforth (1922)

WITAN

or WITENAGEMOT,

the council of the Anglo-

Saxon kings. It was m no sense a popular assembly, and its composition was determined by the king’s pleasure. He would naturally wish to consult his greater nobles and his bishops, and such

men are normally found in attendance at his councils, The ecclesiastical element was sometimes reinforced by the abbots of im-

portant monasteries,

The king’s household officers were usually

present, and the council generally mcludes a varying number of thegns without specific duties at court The general character of the council underwent little change throughout the Old English period, though 1t mevitably tended to become a larger body as the king of Wessex developed into a king of all England Its essential duty was to advise the king on all matters touching which he chose to ask its opinion It attested his grants of land to churches

or Jaymen, it consented to his issue of new laws or new statements of ancient custom, and it helped him to deal with rebels and per-

sons suspected of disaffection. King Alfred asked its advice about the testamentary disposition of his private mheritance. In late Old English times the witan had ceremonial functions It attended the king when he received ambassadors, and in the 11th century, 1f not earlier, joined him in public feasting at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Christmas, commonly meeting for this purpose at Winchester, Westminster and Gloucester. At other times the king would summon his witan to attend him wherever he might choose Imthe best harbours on the Baltic, 20 m, by rail N of Schwerin portant meetings of king and council were held in royal manors Pop. (1925) 25,397 Wismar is said to have received civic rights such as Wantage in Berkshire, Calne in Wiltshire and Andover in in 1229, and came into the possession of Mecklenburg in 1307. Hampshire, In its composition and duties the witan closely reIn the 13th and r4th centuries it was a flourishing Hanse town, sembled its successor, the Commune Concilum of the Anglowith important woollen factories. A plague carned off 10,000 of Norman kings, the fundamental difference between these bodies the inhabitants in 1376. By the peace of Westphalia ın 1648 it being the feudal tie which connected the baronial councillors of (F. M. S.) passed to Sweden, but in 1803 Sweden pledged it to Mecklen- the Norman time with the king, WITCHCRAFT. The actual meaning of this word appears burg, reserving, however, the right of redemption after roo years. WISSEMBOURG or WEISSENBURG, a town of France, to be the art or craft of the wise, as the word “witch” is alhed capital of an arrondissement in the department of Bas-Rhin, on with “wit,” to know From about the r5th century the word has the Lauter, at the foot of the eastern slope of the Vosges mts, 42 been almost exclusively applied to workers of magic, whether m N.E of Strasbourg by the railway Basle-Strasbourg-Mannheim. male or female. Magicians and sorcerers are known in all parts Pop (1926) 4,203 Wissembourg grew up round a Benedictine of the world; among savage communities they are usually credited abbey which was founded in the 7th century by Dagobert IT and with supernatural powers by their fellow-tribesmen (see Mactc) became the seat of a famous school. Here Otfrid, who was a Divination (q v.) or foretelling the future is one of the commonnative of the district, completed (c. 868) his Old High German est forms of witchcraft; when this 1s done in the name of the Gospel book (See German LITERATURE.) deity of one of the established religions it is called prophecy, The town became a free imperial city in 1305 It has been the when, however, the divination is m the name of a pagan god it scene of two memorable battles In Oct. 1793 the Prussians and 1s mere witchcraft. This distinction 1s very clear in the account Saxons under the Austrian general Wurmser stormed the “Weis- of the contest between Moses and Pharaoh’s magicians as given sembourg Lines” On Aug. 4, 1870, the Germans, under the crown in Exodus; but in the demotic story, which appears to give the prince of Prussia, gained here the first victory of the Franco- Egyptian version of the incident, the wise priest of Egypt defeats German War (gv). the miserable foreign sorcerer whom he had saved from the WISTARIA, a genus of climbmg shrubs of the family Le- water when a child. guminosae, inhabiting China, Japan and eastern North America Mediaeval Witches.—In England the legal definition of a The garden wistarias are mostly W. chinensis, of China, and W. witch is, according to Lord Coke, “a person who hath conference floribunda, of Japan Their violet-blue flowers, borne m long with the Devil to consult with him or to do some act ”? racemes are very effective floral decorations agaist a house-wall The word “devil” (qv) 1s a dimmutive from the root “div,” or on trellis-work The silky wistaria (W. venusta), with vel- from which we also get the word “divine” It merely means “little vety leaves and very large white flowers, is a native of China god” It is a well-known fact that when a new religion is estabThe North American species, W frutescens, found in the Southern lished in any country, the god or gods of the old religion becomes States, has lilac-purple, very fragrant flowers the devil of the new. _ WISTER, OWEN (1860__), American writer, was born When examming the records of the mediaeval witches, we are in Philadelphia, July 14, 1860. On graduating from Harvard in dealing with the remains of a pagan religion which survived, mn 1882 he intended to devote himself to music He went abroad for England at least, till the r8th century, 1,200 years after the introstudy; but family reasons forced him to return, and he spent duction of Christianity. The practices of this ancient faith can

687

WITCHCRAFT be found in France at the present day, though with the name of| the deity changed; and in Italy le vecchia religione still numbers many followers in spite of the efforts of the Christian Church The number of the witches put to death by the mquisitors and other persecutors in the 16th and 17th centuries is a proof of the

similar sacrifices see Frazer’s Golden Bough) The Familiars.—There are two kinds of familiars, the divining familiar and the domestic familiar. The divming familiar is common to the whole of Europe and is found in alt records of the trials In ancient Rome divination by animals, especially by

obstinate paganism of Europe. Whole villages followed the behefs of their ancestors; and in many cases the priests, drawn from the peasant class, were only outwardly Christian and carried

legitimate means of learning the future, but when it was prac-

|

on the ancient rites, even the bishops and other high ecclesiastics took part As civilization mcreased and Chnstianity became more firmly rooted, the old religion retreated to the less frequented parts of the country and was practised by the more ignorant members of the community This is very noticeable in the innumerable trials of the 15th to the 18th centuries The Witch-cult.—The religion consisted of a belief in a god incarnate in a human being or an animal, and thus resembled in many ways the religions of numerous primitive peoples of the present day This god, who was always called the Devil by the Christian recorders of the trials, appeared to his worshippers dis-

guised in various animal forms or dressed inconspicuously in black The earliest form of the animal disguise is the figure of the man clothed in a stag’s skin with antlers on his head, which is among the palaeolithic paintings in a cave in Anége in southern France Another early example 1s carved on a slate palette of the prehistoric period of Egypt; in this case the man 1s disguised as a jackal. The goat disguise is not found in Great Britain though common in France and Germany, where it is probably the survival of the god Cernunnos In the British Isles the usual forms were the bull, the dog and the cat. The rites with which this god was worshipped are known to all students of primitive or savage religions, ancient and modern The sacred dances, the feasts, the chants m honour of the god, the liturgical ritual, and above all the ceremonies to promote

birds, was known as “Augury”

(q.v), and was considered a

tised by “witches” in the 16th and 17th centuries their persecutors claimed that they were inspired by the Devil. As a rule the witches were mstructed by their chtef in the method of divining by animals, and he usually appointed the class of animal which each witch was to use. Thas Agnes Sampson of North Berwick divined by dogs, so also did Elizabeth Style in Somerset; John Walsh of Netherberry in Dorset had “a gray blackish culver,” and Alexander Hamilton in Lothian divined by a “corbie” or a cat

In France the familar was always a toad, which was con-

sulted before going on a journey or undertaking any enterprise Spelis and Charms (qv.}—Forms of words with manual gestures are used mm all countries and in all periods to produce results which cannot be obtained by physical means They may be used for good or evil purposes, for the benefit of the user or for the benefit of someone else A good harvest, a good catch of fish, a favourable wind for a ship, victory over an enemy, could all be obtamed by formulae of words addressed to the appro-

priate power But as the power was always incomprehensible, not to say freakısh, it was necessary that it should be approached by those who knew the right methods. Sacrifice (g wv.) m the temples of the ancient civilization was among the means to propitiate the god and render him favourable to the petitions of his worshippers. When, however, there was more than one god, it 1s obvious that if a prayer were ineffectual ın one temple nothing could be easier than to petition another deity. Among the mtual methods to destroy an enemy one of the fertility, occurred at public assembles as now in the islands of most ancient as well as the most dramatic was the making of an the Pacific or in Africa. The fertility rites attracted the special image, generally in wax, to represent the enemy, and gradually attention of the recorders of the legal trials But to the fol- destroying it The earliest record of this charm is in the trial of lowers of the old god these mtes were as holy as the sacred some women and officers of the harem of Rameses IL. in Egypt, marriage was to the ancient Greeks; to them, as to the Greeks, about 1100 Bc. They made wax mages of the Pharaoh with it was the outward and visible sign of the fertility of crops and magical incantations, but unfortunately the record gives only

the outline of the trial without details. Transformation into Animals (see LycantHrory).—The The assemblies or “Sabbaths” took place four times a year, on Feb 2 (Candlemas), May-eve (known later as Roodmas), belief that certam persons can transform themselves mto animals Aug x (Lammas), and November-eve (All Hallow E’en) To 1s common to all parts of the world The power belongs to the these joyous meetings came all the worshippers, from far and shaman or priest. A wound inflicted on a human being when m near, to the number of many hundreds, old and young, men, animal shape is believed to be visible when the person resumes women and children, till the scene was like a great fair with his human form The method of transformation was by putting dancing and singing and feasting. The celebrations began in the on the skin of the animal, as did Sigmund the Volsung when he evening, lasted all mght, and ended at dawn These were the became a wolf. This bemg the case, it 1s obvious that the wounds great Sabbaths, and the dates show that the year was divided at received by the transformed person must certainly have remained

herds which should bring comfort and wealth and life itself.

May and November

This division shows that the religion dates

back to a primitive period, probably before the introduction of agriculture though after the domestication of animals, for the festivals emphasize the seasons of the breeding of animals There were, however, smaller meetings (known in France as “esbats’”’), which took place weekly or at short irregular intervals To these came the principal members of the cult, who held a position analogous to the priesthood There were in each district a band of such persons, in number 13, ie, a chief or “devil” and 12 members This band was known as a “Coven” They celebrated the religious rites, they practised as healers under the leadership and instruction of their divine master, and were the consultants in all cases where “witchcraft” was required The earliest record of a Coven is in the Handlyng Synne, a work of the early r4th century, in which the (Chnstian) priest’s daughter and 12 “fools” danced in the churchyard as a coueyne. The next record is in the

1sth century in the trial of Gilles de Rais, where it 1s apparent

that he and his associates were 13 in number in the practice of their rites. In the later trials the word Coven is continually used, and the number in a Coven is always 13.

One of the most impressive and mmportant rites was the sacrifice of the god, which took place at intervals of seven or nine years. The accounts suggest that the sacrifice was by fire (for

when he returned to his proper shape.

The Suppression of Witchcraft.—In comparing the witches and witch-cult of the middle ages with the mtes and behefs of pagan rehgions, whether ancient or modern, it becomes abundantly clear that in Europe traces of the ancient heathenism survived the adoption of Christianity It was only when the new religion had gained sufficient strength that ıt ventured to try conclusions with the old. Backed by the civil law, it overcame the old religion, not only by persuasion but by the use of force, just as it destroyed the ancient religion of Egypt and in later times the religion of the Aztecs That the old religion was not an ordinary heresy 1s clearly shown by the fact that in England, Scotland, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands and in New England in the days of Cotton Mather, the clergy as well as the laity hunted down and brought to trial and death persons

suspected of witchcraft delusion, see SALEM

For particulars of the Salem witchcraft

Bretiocraruy—For general works, see N. Remy, Daemonolatrie (Lyons, 1595) , Lecky’s Hist. of Rationalism in Europe, vol i. (new ed., 1910);

H.

Wilhams,

Superstetions

of Witchcraft

Bassac, Les grands Jours de la Sorcellerie (1890); W Gesch, der Hexenprozesse

(1865),

J.

G Soldan,

(new ed, 1910); E. B. Tylor, Primitive

Culture (new ed, 1920), M A Murray, Witchcraft in West Europe

(1921); J} W. Wickwar, Witchcraft and the Black Art (1925); M-

688

WITCHES’

BROOMS— WITHERSPOON

Summers, Hist of Witchcraft and Demonology (1926), Geog of Witchcraft (1927) and (ed), J. Sprenger and H Institoris, Malleus Maleficarum (1928). For ENGLAND, see J. Glanvil, Sadducismus Triumphatus (1681), R. Scot, Discovers of Wickcerajt (1584), W.

Notestem, Hist of Witchcraft in England (1911), Scortanp Pitcairn, Criminal Trials (4 vols , 1830-33) , France Boguet, Discours des SorP. de Lancre, Tableau de VInconstance des mauvais and PIncrédulté et Mescréance du Sortilège (1622), des Démons (1616), J Garmet, Hist f de la Mage en , BELGIUM Cannaert, Procés des Sorciéres en Belgique (1847); Iraty: C G Leland, Aradza (1899) , re Burr (ed), Narrative of the Wiichcraft Cases (1914). MAM)

ciers (1608); Anges (1612) Bodin, Fléau France (1818)

WITCHES’

BROOMS,

ihe name, in botany, by which

and his later work consists of religious poetry, and of controversial

and pohtical tracts Hıs Hymnes and Songs of the Church (1622~ 1623) were issued under a patent (later disallowed) of King James I ordaining that they should be bound up with every copy

of the authorized metrical psalms offered for sale. (See Hymns) Wither was in London during the plague of 1625, and in 1628

published Brztazn’s Remembrancer, a voluminous poem on the subject, which he had to print with his own hand in consequence of his quarrel with the Stationers’ Company In 1635 he was employed by Henry Taunton, a London publisher, to write English verses illustrative of the allegorical plates of Crispin van Passe, originally designed for Gabriel Rollenhagen’s Nucleus emblematum selectsssimorum (1610-1613) The book was published as a Collection of Emblemes, Ancient and Moderne, of which the

peculiar broom-like outgrowths found on the branches of a number of trees are known They consist of a closely set mass of short branching twigs formed at one place on a branch as a result of the irritating action of an insect or a fungus ‘They are very only perfect copy known 1s in the British Museum The best of common on the birch, being conspicuous when the tree is in a Wither’s religious poetry is contained in Helelumah: or Britams Besides leafless condition: the “brooms” have then the appearance of Second Remembrancer, printed in Holland in 1641 birds’ nests They may be caused by the attack of a mite hymns proper, the book contains songs of singular beauty, espe(Eriophyes rudis); in other cases they are due to the species of cially the Cradle-song (“Sleep, baby, sleep, what ails my dear”) Wither had served as captain of horse m 1639 m the expedifungus, Exoascus turgidus, attacking the birch An allied fungus tion of Charles I against the Scottish Covenanters, but three CE. cerasi) causes brooms of the same kind on cherry years after the Scottish expedition, at the outbreak of the Great WITCH-HAZEL, the common name for a North American shrub, Hamamels virginica (family Hamamelidaceae), native Rebellion, he 1s found defimtely siding with the parliament He sold his estate to raise a troop of horse, and was placed by a to low woods from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and south to Flonda and Texas It grows from ro to 25 ft. gh, with smooth, parliamentary committee in command of Farnham Castle After a few days’ occupation he left the place undefended, and marched wavy-toothed leaves, somewhat unequal-sided at the base The showy bright-yellow flowers, borne in profuse axillary clusters, to London His own house near Farnham was plundered, and he himself was captured by a troop of Royalist horse, owing his life appear in autumn as the leaves are falling The fruit, a hard, woody capsule that matures during the ensuing summer, con- to the intervention of Sir John Denham on the ground that so long as Wither lived he himself could not be accounted the worst tains two black shining seeds, which are forcibly ejected when ripe A fluid extract, prepared from the leaves, is used as a tonic poet in England After this episode he was promoted to the and a lotion

The name witch-hazel is derived from the use of

the twigs as divining rods, just as hazel twigs were used in England. The North American witch-hazel is occasionally planted for ornament, as are H japonica, of Japan, and H. mollis, of China.

WITCH OF AGNESI: see Curve, SPECIAL.

WITHER, GEORGE

(1588-1667), Enghsh poet and satir-

ist, son of George Wither, of Hampshire, was born at Bentworth, near Alton, on June 11, 1588 He was sent to Magdalen College, Oxford, at the age of fifteen, and then entered one of the Inns of Chancery, eventually obtaining an introduction at court He wrote an elegy (1612) on the death of Prince Henry, and a volume of gratulatory poems (1613) on the marriage of the princess Elizabeth, but his uncompromising character soon prepared trouble for him In r6rz he published Abuses Stript and Whipt, twenty satires of general application directed against Revenge, Ambition, Lust and other abstractions. In 1613 five editions appeared, and the author was lodged in the Marshalsea prison The influence of the Princess Elizabeth, supported by a loyal “Satyre” to the king, secured his release at the end of a few months. He had figured as one of the mnterlocutors, “Roget,” in his friend Wilham Browne’s Shepherd’s Pipe, with which were bound up eclogues by other poets, among them one by Wither, and during his imprisonment he wrote what may be regarded as a continuation of Browne’s work, The Shepherd’s Hunting (printed 1615), eclogues in which the two poets appear as “Willie” and “Roget” (in later editions “Philarete”) The fourth of these sclogues contains a famous passage in praise of poetry After us release he was admitted (1615) to Lincoln’s Inn, and in the same year he printed privately Fidela, a love elegy, of which here is a unique copy in the Bodleian. Other editions of this 200k, which contained the lyric “Shall I, wasting in despair,” ippeared in 1617 and 1619 In x62r he returned to the satiric rein with Wither’s Motto. Nec habeo, nec careo, nec curo Over }0,000 copies of this poem were sold, according to his own acount, within a few months. Like his earher invective, 1t was said o be libellous, and Wither was again ımprisoned, but shortly fterwards released without formal trial on the plea that the book ad been duly hcensed In 1622 appeared his Faire-Virtue, The Mistress of Phil’ Arete.

Wither began as a moderate in politics and religion, but from this tume his Puritan Jeanings became more and more pronounced,

rank of major. He was present at the siege of Gloucester (1643)

and at Naseby (1645) He had been deprived in 1643 of his nominal command, and of his commission as Justice of the peace, in consequence of an attack upon Sir Richard Onslow, who was, he maintained, responsible for the Farnham disaster In the same year parliament made him a grant of £2,000 for the loss of his property, but he apparently never received the full amount, An order was made to settle a yearly income of £150 on Wither, chargeable on Sir John Denham’s sequestrated estate, but there 1s no evidence that he ever received it A small place given him by the Protector was forfeited “by declaring unto him (Cromwell) those truths which he was not willing to hear of.” At the Restoration he was arrested, and remained in prison for three years. He died in London on May 2, 1667 His extant writings, catalogued in Park’s British Bibliographer, number over a hundred Sır S, E Brydges published The Hunting (1814), Fidela (1815) and Fair Virtue (1818), and Shepherd’s a selection appeared in Stanford’s Works of the British Poets, vol (1819). Most of Wither’s works were edited in twenty volumesv for the Spenser Society (1871-1882), a selection was included by Henry Morley in his Companion Poets (1891), Fideka and Faw Virtue are included ın Edward Arber’s Enghsh Garner (vol 1v, 1882, vol vi 1883), and an excellent edition of The Poetry of George Wither was edited by F Sidgwick in 1902

WITHERITE,

a mineral consistmg of barium carbonate

(BaCOs), crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and named after W. Withermg, who in 1784 recognized it to be chemically

distmct from barytes. The crystals are invariably twinned together in groups of three, giving nse to pseudo-hexagonal forms

somewhat resembling bipyramidal crystals of quartz, the faces are usually rough and striated horizontally. The colour is dull white or sometimes greyish, the hardness is 35 and specific gravity 43 The mineral occurs in veins of lead ore near Hexham in Northumberland, Alston in Cumberland, Anglezark, near Chorley, Lancs , and'a few other localities. It 1s the chief source

of barium salts, and is mmed in considerable amounts in North-

umberland It is used for the preparation of rat poison, in the manufacture of glass and porcelain, and formerly for refining sugar (L.J S) WITHERSPOON, JOHN (1723-1 794), Scottish-American divine and educator, was born at Gifford, Yester Parish, Scotland, probably on.Feb. 5, 1722 or 1723. He was educated at the Haddington grammar school and the University of Edinburgh (M A.,

WITNESS 1739), where he completed his theological studies in 1743 He was called to the parish of Beith in 1745 and m 1757 became pastor at Paisley. His militant tendencies, which made hım a prominent figure during the American Revolution, manifested themselves at the invasion of the Young Pretender and in his ecclesi-

astical controversies These he waged by sermon, debate, pamphlet and essay, revealing himself as a keen dalectician, an effective satirist and a convincing and entertainmg speaker Among his chief publications of this period are Ecclesiastical Characteristics

(1753), Essay on Justification (1756) and a three-volume collec-

tion of his essays and doctrinal sermons (1764). Witherspoon’s populanty as a preacher 1s shown by his refusal of calls to Dundee, Dublin and Rotterdam; but his acceptance of a second call to the presidency of Princeton in 1768 marked a turamg-point in his career. Thereafter, although he was received warmly by the American Presbyterian Church and although he took a prominent part in the meetings of the synod and was first moderator of the general assembly which he had advocated, he was more distinguished as an educator and as a statesman than as

a clergyman He seems to have brought to the struggling little college centred in Nassau Hall a vision of its potentialities as a cultural agency as well as a training-school for mmisters He opened a grammar school, announced graduate courses, encouraged the undergraduate societies, added Hebrew and French to the curriculum, provided scientific equipment and set out immediately on a quest for more money and more students From arrival he was an enthusiast about America. He encouraged Scottish mmigration, and in the dispute with the mother country ranged himself uncompromisingly on the side of the colonists. He presided over the Somerset county committee of correspondence in 1775—76; was a member of two provincial Congresses and of the New Jersey constitutional convention in the spring of 1776, and in 1776-79 and 1780-82 he was a member of the Continental Congress. He was the only clergyman to sign the Declaration of Independence; and in general he played a creditable part in the congressional body both in debate and on committees He was especially distinguished for the soundness of his financial views, some of which were published later m his Essay on Money (1786), He died on his farm, Tusculum, near Princeton, Nov 15, 1794. The first edition of Dr Witherspoon’s Works was four volumes m Philadelphia m 1800 with a biographical

pubbshed in account by Dr John Rodgers. A nine volume edition was published in Edinburgh m 1804-05 See his Lectures on Moral Philosophy (1918), edited by V. L. Collins, and the biography by the latter (2 vols., 1925).

WITNESS, in law, a person who is able from his knowledge

689

law, two witnesses were generally necessary as 2 minimum to prove any fact. Unius responsio testis omnino non audiatur are the words of a constitution of Constantine The evidence of a single witness was simply semi-plena probatto, to be supplemented in default of a second witness, by torture or reference to oath The canon law followed the Roman law as to competence, but extended the disabilities to excommunicated persons and to a layman in a criminal charge against a clerk, unless he were actually the prosecutor The evidence of a notary was generally equivalent to that of two ordmary witnesses. The evidence of the pope and that of a witness who simply proved baptism or heresy (according to some authorities) are perhaps the only other cases in which canon law dispensed with confirmatory evidence. It is probable that the incompetence of Jews as witnesses in Spain in the r4th and rs5th centuries was based on what 1s termed “want of religion,” że., her-

esy or unwillingness to take the Christian oath on the gospels But in England until their expulsion they were on the status of slaves

(capisvt) of the king. A policy similar to that of the Roman law was followed for centuries in England by excluding the testimony of parties or persons interested, of witnesses for a prisoner, and of infamous persons, such as those who had been attainted or had been vanquished in the trial by battle, or had stood in the pillory. All these were said vocem non habere In the days of trial by battle a party could render a witness against him incompetent by challenging and defeating him in the judicial combat, Women were generally regarded as wholly or partially incompetent. English law had also certain rules as to the number of witnesses necessary Thus undera statute of 1383 (6 Rich IL. st 2c, 5) the number of compurgators necessary to free an accused person from complicity in the peasant revolt was fixed at three or four Five was the number necessary under the Liber feudorum for proving ingratitude to the lord. In the course of the gradual development of the law of evidence, which is in a sense peculiar to the English system, the fetters of the Roman rules as to witnesses were gradually shaken off. In

civil cases all disabilities by interest, relationship, sex or crime have been swept away The witness need not be zdoneous in the Roman sense, and objections which in Roman law went to his com-

petence, in English law go to his credibility The only general test of competency is now understanding It excludes lunatics, idiots, dotards and children of tender years, a person convicted of perjury is said to be competent if convicted at common law, but incompetent if convicted under the act of Elizabeth No trial ever takes place now under this act, and on this point the act seems to have been virtually repealed by Lord Denman’s act (1843; 6 and 7 Vict. c. 85). The disqualification is not absolute as to lunatics, as to children it 1s sometimes made to depend on whether

or experience to make statements relevant to matters of fact in dispute in a court of justice. The relevancy and probative effect of the statements which he makes belong to the law of evidence they are able to understand the nature of the witness’s oath (gv). In the present article it is only proposed to deal with mat- And in certam cases within the Criminal Law Amendment Act, ters concerning the position of the witness himself In England, in 1885, and the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, the the earlier stages of the common law, the jurors seem to have been unsworn evidence of children of tender years is admissible but the witnesses, for they were originally chosen for their knowledge needs corroboration. or presumed knowledge of the facts in dispute, and they could Non-judicial witnesses are those who attest an act of unusual (and can) be challenged and excluded from the jury if related to importance, for the due execution of which evidence may afterthe parties or otherwise likely to show bias (see Jury). wards be required. They are either made necessary by law, as Competency.—Modern views as to the persons competent to the witnesses to marriages and wills, or used by general custom, give evidence are very different from those of Roman law and the as the witnesses to deeds. In some cases the attestation has besystems derived from it. In Roman law the testimony of many come a mere form, such as the attestation of the lord chancellor persons was not admissible without the application of torture, and toa writ of summons (See Writ ) a large body of possible witnesses was excluded for reasons which Number.—tThe rule of English law as to the number of withave now ceased to be considered expedient, and witnesses were nesses necessary Is expressed in the phrase testes ponderantur non subject to rules which have long become obsolete. Witnesses must numerantur. But there are certain exceptions, all statutory Two be zdonei or duly qualified. Minors, certain heretics, infamous witnesses are necessary to make a will valid; two are required to persons (such as women convicted of adultery), and those in- be present at a marriage and to attest the entry in the marriage terested in the result of the trial were inadmissible. Parents and register; and in the case of blasphemy, perjury, personation and children could not testify against one another, nor could slaves most forms of treason, two or more witnesses are necessary to against their masters, nor those at enmity with the party against justify conviction. Witnesses to bills of sale under the Bills of whom their evidence was offered. Women and slaves could not Sale Act, 1882, and witnesses on a charge of personation at act as witnesses to a will. There were also some hard and fast elections, are required to be “credible.” And in the case of disrules as to number. Seven witnesses were necessary for a will, honour of a foreign bill of exchange the evidence of a notary five for a mancipatio or manumission, or to determine the ques- public is required, probably a survival from the law merchant or tion whether a person were free or a slave. As under the Mosaic a concession to Continental practice A warrant of attorney must

690

WITNEY—WITOWT

be attested by a solicitor, and certain conveyances of property held on charitable uses must be attested by two solicitors In certain civil cases the evidence of a single witness is not sufficient

unless corroborated in some material particular—not necessarily by another witness—e.g , in actions of breach of promise of marriage, or affiliation proceedings and matrimonial causes, or where unsworn evidence of children is admissible. In practice, but not in strict law, the evidence of an accomplice is required to be corroborated. In criminal cases an accused person could not formerly be sworn as a witness or examined by the court, though he was free to make statements The origin of this rule is by some traced to the maxim nemo tenetur prodere seipsum, by others to the theory that the petty jury were the prisoner’s witnesses Moreover, witnesses for the defence could not be exammed on oath in cases of treason and felony until 1702 m England, 1711 in Ireland and 1735 mn Scotland. The husband or wife of the accused could not be examined on oath as a witness either for the prosecution or the defence except mn prosecutions for treason or for personal 1njuries done by one spouse to the other. This exclusion was in accord with the disqualification of parties to civil causes, but there was a lack of reciprocity, for the prosecutor was a competent witness because the Crown is the nomial prosecutor The rule had to a certain extent a beneficial effect for the defence, in saving the accused from cross-exammation, which in certain peri-

ods and in political trials would have Jed to abuse

On the aboli-

tion of other disqualifications that of the accused was left. This

inconsistency led to much legal discussion and to piecemeal and, ultimately, complete change in the law. Between 1872 and 1897 some 26 acts were passed rendering accused persons atid their wives or husbands competent (but not in general compellable) witnesses in particular criminal cases; and finally, by the Criminal Evidence Act, 1898, which abrogates the common law rule above, and in practice supersedes, but does not repeal, the particular statutes just mentioned, and does not apply to Ireland, every person charged with an offence, whether solely or jointly, and the wife or husband of such person is rendered a competent witness

for the defence, subject to certain specified conditions. For these conditions, and for the rules regulating the attendance, oaths, examination, and privileges of witnesses, see EVIDENCE The attestation of documents out of courts of justice is ordinarily not on oath; but where the documents have to be proved in court the attesting witnesses are sworn like others, and the only judicial exception is that of witnesses ordered to produce documents (called in Scotland “havers”) who are not sworn un-

to prove.

In Scotland, 1n all indictable cases, a list of witnesses

must be served on the actused (the panel) (1887, c. 35), and the same rule is observed in France In the United States the same course 1s adopted where a capital offence 1s charged (W F C;S L. Pa) WITNEY, a market town in the Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, on the river Windrush, a tributary of the Thames, 754.m. WN W of London on a branch of the G.W. railway. Pop of urban district (1931) 3,409. Witney 15

the seat of an old-established industry in blanket-making, and

gloves and other woollen goods are also made. The great church of St. Mary is cruciform with a lofty central tower and spire. The tower 1s Early English, but the church exhibits the other styles, including a remarkable Norman porch The manor of Witney was held by the see of Winchester before the Conquest It was sold mn 16409, but was given back to the bishopric at the Restoration. In the middle of the 18th century it was leased by the bishop of Winchester to the duke of Marlborough. Witney was a borough by prescription at least as early as 1278, and sent representatives to parliament with more or less regularity from 1304 to 1330 There 1s teference to a fulling mill in a charter of King Edgar dated go9. In 1641 the blanketmakers petitioned the crown against vexatious trade regulations: in 1673 the town is described as “driving a good trade for blankets and rugs.” In 1711 the blanket-makers obtained a charter mak-

ing them into a company, consisting of a master, assistants, two wardens and a commonalty See J A, Giles, History of Witney (1852) ; Victoria County History, Oxon, W J. Monk, Hestory of Wtiney (1894).

WITOWT or Wirotp (1350-1430), grand-duke of Lithuania, son of Kieystut, prince of Samogitia, first appears prominently

in 1382, when the Teutonic Order set him up as a candidate for the throne of Lithuania in opposition to bis cousin Jagiello (see WLADISLAUS), who had treacherously murdered Witowt’s father and seized his estates Witowt, however, convinced himself that the German knights were far more dangerous than his Lithuanian rival, he accepted pacific overtures from Jagiello and became his ally. When Jagiello ascended the throne of Poland as Wladislaus II. in 1386, Witowt was at first content with the principality of Grodno; but jealousy of Skirgiello, one of Jagiello’s brothers, to whom Jagiello committed the govern-

ment of Lithuania, duced Witowt to ally himself once more with the Teutonic Order (treaty of Konigsberg, May 24, 1390). He strengthened his position by giving his daughter Sophia in matriage to Vasily, grand-duke of Muscovy; but he never felt less they have to verify the documents produced. Questions as to secure beneath the wing of the Teutonic Order, and when Jagiello competence (including quéstions of the right to affirm instead of removed Skirgiello from the government of Lithuania and swearing or as to the proper form of oath) are settled by examin-

offered 1t to Witowt, the compact of Ostrow (sth of August 1392) settled all differences between them

The evidences of judicial witnesses is taken viva voce at the trial,

Nevertheless, subsequent attempts on the part of Poland to subordmate Lithuama drove Witowt for the third time into the arms of the Order, and by the treaty of Salm in 1398, Witowt, who now styled himself Supremus Dux Lithuaniae, ceded his

ation by the court without oath on what is termed the voir dire

except in interlocutory-proceedings and in certain matters m the chancery division and in bankruptcy courts Where the witness cannot attend the court or is abroad his evidence may be taken in writing by a commussioner delegated by the court, or by a foreign tribunal under letters of request issued by the court in whith the cause 1s pending. The depositions are returned by the dele-

gated authority to the court of trial Under English law evidence must be taken vive voce in a criminal trial, with a few exceptions, e g, Where a witness who has made a deposition before à magis-

trate at an earlier stage in the case is dead or unable to travel, or in certain cases within the Merchant Shipping Acts, or of offences

in India or by Crown officials out of England

In Europe com-

missions vogdtoirées are freely used to obtain written depositions

ancestral province of Samogitia to the knights, and formed an

aliance with them for the conquest and partition of Pskov and Great Novgorod He nourished the grandiose idea of driving out

the hordes of Tamerlane, freeing all Russia from the Tatar yoke, and proclaiming himself emperor of the North and East This dream of empire was dissipated by his termble defeat on the Lower Dnieper by the Tatars on Aug 12, 1399 He was now convinced that the true poley of Lithuania was the closest possible alliance with Poland. A union between the two countries

was effected at Vilna on Jan 28, r401, and was confirmed and for the purpose of criminal trials, and are allowed to be executed extended by subsequent treaties Wutowt was to reign over in England. Lithuania as an independent grand-duke, but the two states were On charges of treason lists of the witnesses to be called by the to be mdissolubly united by a common policy The result was Crown must be supplied to the accused. In oré:moery irdictable a whole series of wars with the Teutonic Order, which now cases there is no such obhgation, but the name. of the vitnesses | acknowledged Swidrygiello, another brother of Jagiello, as grandfor the Crown are written on the back of the indictment; and duke of Lithuania; and though Swidrygiello was defeated and where the witnesses have not been examined at the preliminary driven out by Witowt, the Order retained possession of Samogitia, enquiry it is now established practice to require notice to the and their barbarous methods of “converting” the wretched inaccused of their names, and a précis of what they will be called habitants finally induced Witowt to rescue his fellow-country-

69I

WITTE—WITTENBERG men at any cost from the tender mercies of the kmghts.

grad) on March 12, 1915.

Jagiello at Novogrudok for the purpose, and on July 19, 1410, the

New York, 1921), undispensable to the study of the period; also a study of his career as mmuster of finance by A. A, Lopukhin (z915), and hìs diaries, posthumously publshea ìn Pravda (x918).

In the beginning of 1409 Witowt concluded a treaty with

See Memoirs

of Count

Witte ed

A. Yarmobnsky

(London

and

combined Polish-Lithuanian forces, reinforced by Hussite auziharies, crossed the Prussian border. The rival forces encountered WITTELSBACH, the name of an important German family, at Grunewald, or Tannenberg, and there on July 14 or 15, 1410, from the castle of Wittelsbach, which formerly stood near was fought one of the decisive battles of the world, for the taken on the Paar in Bavaria. In 1124, Otto V, count of Teutonic Knights suffered a crushing blow from which they never Aichach Scheyern (d i1gs), removed the residence of his family to recovered. After this battle Poland-Lithuania began to be reand called himself by this name His descendants Wittelsbach, garded in the west as a great power, and Witowt stood in high simply the title of counts of Scheyern until about 1116, when favour with the Roman cunia In 1429, instigated by the emperor bore Henry V. recognized Count Otto V as count palatine emperor the Sigismund, whom he magnificently entertamed at his court at in Bavaria His son, Count Otto VI., who succeeded his father

Lutsk, Witowt revived his clam to a kingly crown, and Jagiello

reluctantly consented to his cousim’s coronation; but before it could be accomplished Witowt died at Troki, on Oct. 27, 1430. See Jozef Ignacz Kraszewski, Lithuania under Wetowt (Pol) (Wilna, 1850) , Augustin Themer, Vetera Monumenta Polomag (Rome, 1860-1864) , Karol Szajnocha, Jadwega and Jagzello (Pol) (Lemberg, 18s0-1856); Teodor Narbutt, History of the Lithuanian Nation (Pol) (Wilna, 1835-1836); Codex epistolaris Witoldi Magu (ed, Prochaska, Cracow, 1882). (R N. B)

WITTE, SERGE JULIEVICH, Count (1849-1915), Russian statesman, was born at Tiflis, where his father (of Dutch extraction) was a member of the Viceregal Council of the Caucasus After completing his studies at Odessa University and devoting some time to journalism in close relations with the Slavophils and M Katkov, he entered in 1877 the service of the Odessa State railway, and facilitated the transport of troops to Turkey in 1877-8 He now became general traffic manager of the South-Western railway of Russia and member of an Imperial commission which had to study the whole question of railway construction and management throughout the empire. Vish-

negradski, minister of finance, recognized his ability and made

him head of the railway department in the finance ministry In 1892 he was promoted to be mmister of ways of communication, and in 1893 he succeeded Vishnegradski, as minister of finance. Witte was an ardent disciple of Friedrich List and sought to develop home mndustries by means of moderate protection and the introduction of foreign capital for industrial purposes. At the same time he succeeded by drastic measures in puttmg a stop to the great fluctuations in the value of the paper currency and in resuming specie payments, The rapid extension of the railway system was also largely due to his energy and financial ingenuity, and he embarked on a crusade against the evils of drunkenness by organizing a government monopoly for the sale of alcohol. In foreign policy he extended Russian influence in northern China and Persia Witte struggled for what he considered the liberation of his country from the economic bondage of foreign nations During his ten years’ tenure of the finance mistry he nearly doubled the revenues of the empire, but he

in 1255, accompanied the German king, Frederick I, to Italy in 1154, where he distinguished himself by his courage, and later rendered valuable assistance to Fredenck in Germany. When Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, was placed under the imperial ban in 1180, Otto’s services were rewarded by the investiture of the dukedom of Bavana at Altenburg, Bavaria was

ruled by the Wittelsbachs from that time onwards until the revolu-

tion of 1918, and the histary of the house is closely connected with the history of Bavaria (g.v.) The ancestral castle of Wittelsbach was destroyed in 1208, Tn 1329 the most important of various divisions of the Wittelsbach lands took place By the treaty of Pavia in this year, Louis IV., German king, formerly duke of Bavaria, granted the Palatinate of the Rhine and the upper Palatinate of Bavaria to his brother’s sons, Rudolph II (d. 1353) and Rupert I Rupert, who from 1353 to 1390 was sole ruler, gamed the electoral digmty for the Palatmate of the Rhine in 1356 by a grant of some lands in upper Bavaria to the emperor Charles IV. It had been exercised from the division of 1329 by both branches in turn, The descendants of Lows IV, retained the rest of Bavaria, but made several divisions of their territory, the most important of which

was in 1392, when the branches of Ingoldstadt, Munich Landshut were founded.

and

These were reunited under Albert IV,

duke of Bavaria~-Mumch (1447-1508) and the upper Palatinate was added to them in 1628. Albert’s descendants ruled over a united Bavaria, until the death of Duke Maximilian III in 1777, when it passed to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore. The Palatinate of the Rhine, after the death of Rupert I. in 1390, passed to his nephew, Rupert IL., and in 1398 to his son, Rupert TIT, who was German, king from 1400 to 14z0. On his death it

was divided into four branches. Three of these had died out by 1559, and their possessions were inherited by the fourth or Simmern, line, among whom the Palatinate was again divided. (See

PALATINATE.) In 1742, after the extinction of the two senior lines of this family, the Sulzbach branch became the senior line, and its head,

the elector Charles Theodore, inherited Bavaria in 1777 He died He was transferred, there- in 1799, and Maximilian Joseph, the head of the Zweibrucken fore, in 1903 from the mfluential post of finance minister to the branch, inherited Bavaria and the Palatinate. He took the title ornamental position of president of the committee of mimsters of king as Maximilian J The disasters of the war with Japan, and the rising tide of The Wittelsbachs gave three kings to Germany, Louis IV, revolutionary agitation, compelled the government to think of Rupert and Charles VII Members of the family were also

made for himself a host of enemies

appeasing popular discontent by granting administrative reforms,

and the reform projects were revised and amended by the body over which M, Witte presided. But the Witte reforms were obstructed by the other departments, especially by the police

margraves of Brandenburg from 1323 to 1373, and kings of Sweden from 1654 to 1718. See J Dollmger, Das Haus Wittelsbach und seine Bedeutung in der deutschen Geschichte (Munich, 1880); J F Béhmer, Wittelsbachische

Naturally the influence of a strong man made itself felt, and the Regesten bis r340 (Stuttgart, 1854), F M Wittmann, Monumenta Wittelsbacensia. (Urkundenbuch, Munich, 1857-1861); K T, Hegel, president became virtually prime minister; but he did not ads Dre Wittelsbacher (Munich, 188a); F. Lextschuh, Die Wittelsbacher in work, and later he was transvance very far in this legislatave formed into a diplomatist and sent to Portsmouth, NH., USA, in August rgos, to negotiate terms of peace with the Japanese delegates In these negotiations he showed great energy and decision, and contributed largely tọ bringing ahout the peace

Bayern (Bamberg, 1894).

independent of the Duma,

dignity and most of his territory to the Albertine branch of the

WITTENBERG, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated on the Elhe, 59 m, by rall south-west of Berlin, on the

main line to Halle and at the junction of railways to Falkenberg, On his return to St. Petersburg he had ta deal, as president af Torgau and Rosslau Pop. (1925) 23,426, Wittenberg is mentioned as early as 1180 Jt was the capital, the first ministry under the new constitutional régime, with a very difficult political situation (see Russia; History), he was of the little duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, the rulers of which afterwards became electors of Saxony. The Capitulation of Wittenno longer able to obtain support, and early in 1906 he was dismissed, His last service to the emperor had heen to raise berg (1547) is the name given to the treaty by which John Frederick the Magnanimous was compelled ta resign the electoral a large loan in France which made the government practically He died at St, Petersburg (Lenin

692

WITU—WLADISLAUS

Saxon family. It was occupied by the French m 1806, and re-fortified in 1813 by command of Napoleon; but in r8r4 it was stormed by the Prussians Its defences were dismantled in 1873. Wittenberg is interestmg chiefly on account of its close con-

nection with Luther and the dawn of the Reformation, and several of its buildings are associated with the events of that time Part of the Augustinian monastery in which Luther dwelt, at first as a monk and in later life as owner with his wife and family, has

WLapistaus I (1260-1333), king of Poland, called Lokietek, or “Span-long,” from his diminutive stature, was the re-creator of the Polish realm, which at the end of the 13th century had

split up into 14 mdependent principalities, and become an easy

prey to her neighbours, Bohemia, Lithuania and the Teutonic Order In 1296 the gentry of Great Poland elected Wladislaus,

then prince of Cujavia, to reign over them, but later changing their minds, placed themselves under the protection ofWenceslaus, been fitted up as a Luther museum The Augusteum was built in lang of Bohemia, who was crowned at Gnesen in 1300 Wladislaus 1564-83 on the site of the monastery. The Schlosskirche, to the obtained the support of Pope Boniface VIII., and on the death of doors of which Luther nailed his famous 95 theses in 1517, dates Wenceslaus ın 1305 Wladislaus succeeded in uniting beneath his from 1439-99, it was, however, seriously damaged by fire during sway the principalities of Little and Great Poland He had a long the bombardment of 1760, was practically rebuilt, and has since struggle with the towns and the prelates headed by Muskata, been restored The old wooden doors, burnt in 1760, were re- bishop of Cracow. He managed to suppress the magistrates of placed in 1858 by bronze doors, bearing the Latin text of the Cracow, but had to invoke the aid of the Teutonic Order to save theses. In the interior of the church are the tombs of Luther Danzig from the margraves of Brandenburg; whereupon the Order and Melanchthon The parish church, in which Luther often not only proceeded to treat Danzig as a conquered city, but preached, was built in the rqth century, but has been much claimed possession of the whole of Pomerama Wladislaus apaltered. It contains a magnificent painting by Lucas Cranach pealed to Pope John XXII (1317) and ultimately (Feb 9, 1321) the elder, representing the Lord’s Supper, Baptism and Confes- obtained locally a judgment with costs against the Order, which sion, also a font by Herman Vischer (1457). The university however, appealed to Rome and got the judgment reversed The of Wittenberg, founded in 1502, was merged in the university of result was a six years’ war (1327~33) between Poland and the Halle in 1815. Luther was appointed professor of philosophy Order, in which all the princes of Central Europe took part, Hunhere in 1508; and the new university rapidly acquired a con- gary and Lithuania siding with Wladislaus, and Bohemia, Masovia siderable reputation from its connection with the early Reformers. and Silesia with the Order It was early on Sept. 27, 1332, that In opposition to the strict Lutheran orthodoxy of Jena it repreWladislaus, with his Hungaran alles, inflicted upon the knights sented the more moderate doctrines of Melanchthon The ancient their first serious reverse, at Plowce In March 1333 be died He electoral palace is another of the buildings that suffered severely had laid the foundations of a strong Polish monarchy, and with in 1760; it now contams archives Melanchthon’s house and the the consent of the pope revived the royal dignity, being crowned house of Lucas Cranach the elder (1472—1553), who was burgomaster of Wittenberg, are also pointed out The spot, outside king of Poland at Cracow on Jan 20, 1320 See Max Perlbach, Preusstsch-p olnesche Studien zur Geschichte des the Elster gate, where Luther publicly burned the papal bull in Mittelalters 1886), Juhus A. G von Pflugk-Harttung, Der 1520, is marked by an oak tree. Statues of Luther, Melanchthon deutsche Orden(Halle, im Kampfe Ludwigs des Bayern mit der Kurie (1900) and Bugenhagen embellish the town WLADISLAUS II , JAGIELLO (1350-1434), king of Poland, was one Meynert, Geschichte der Stadt Wittenberg (Dessau, 1845) DieSeeSchlosskirche 2u Wattenberg (Wttenb 860); Zatzlaft,; Stier, Di of the r2 sons of Olgierd, grand-duke ofLithuania, whom he sucBegrabnisstatten Wittenbergs ued.aie Deshler Wie 1807) § ceeded in 1377 From the first Jagiello was involved in disputes and Gurlitt, “Die Lutherstadt Wittenberg,” in Muther’s De Kunst | with the Teutonic Order, and with his uncle, Kiejstut, who ruled (Berlin, 1902),

WITU or Vrrv, a sultanate of East Africa included in the | Samogitia independently. By the Treaty of Dawidyszek (June 1, Tanaland province of Kenya Colony. It extends along the coast 1380) he contracted an alhance with the knights, and two years | later, enticed Kiejstut and his consort to Krewo and there treacherfrom the town of Kipini at the mouth of Ozi river (2° 30 S.) | ously murdered them (Aug 15, 1382). This foul deed to the northern limit of Manda bay (2°theS.); naturally area 1,200 sqm | drove Witowt (g.v.), the son of Kiejstut, mto alliance with the The chief town, Witu, is 16 m N, of Kipini. The was | Order But the two soon made com™on c2use eacirt the knights founded by Ahmed-bin-Fumo Luti, the last Nabhan state sultan of | and invaded Prussian territory In seerch of hes Wi-cislaus Patta (an island off the coast), who was defeated by Seyyid | 1384 offered his hand to Jadwiga, the young queen of Poland, in on Majid of Zanzibar. Ahmed, about 1860, took refuge in the | Condition they shared the Pohsh crown Jadwiga renounced district, and made himself an independent chief, acquiringforest her the| Previous fiancé, William of Austria title of Simba or the Lion In 188 5 Ahmed was induced was elected king of to place | Poland as Wladislaus II. ; on Feb. 15, Jagiello 1386, he adopted the Cath-

his country under German protection, but m 1890 as the result of | olic faith, and on Feb 18 he married Jadwiga. He at once the Anglo-German agreement of that year the protectorate prowas | ceeded to convert Lithuania to his new faith At Vilna, on Feb. 17, In 1894 Omar-bin-Hamed of the | 1387, a stately concourse of nobles and prelates, headed by the Nabhan dynasty—an ancient race of Asiatic ongin—was recog- |

transferred to Great Britain

king, proceeded to the grove of secular oaks beneath which nized as sultan, and Witu settled down to a peaceful life, the statue of Perkunos and other idols, and in the presence WIVELISCOMBE (wiv’els-kum), a market town in the | immense multitude hewed down the oaks, destroyed the western parliamentary division of Somerset, England, 94 m W | extinguished the sacred fire and elevated the cross on the of Taunton by the CWR. Pop (1931) 1,262 crated heathen altars, 30,000 Lithuanians receiving Christian Traces

of a large Roman camp may still be seen to the south| tism east of Wiveliscombe (Wellescombe, Wilscombe, Wiviscombe

A Catholic hierarchy was unmediately set up.

stood of an idols, desebap-

Ruthema

), | With its capital Lemberg was persuaded to acknowledg e the which is near the line of a Roman road, and hoards of Romar | minion of P oland, and there on Sept 27, 1387, the hospodars docoins have been discovered in the neighbourhood. The town of prob- | Walachia and Moldavia submitted

voluntarily to Polish suzerainty, ably owed its origin to the suitability of its Position defence, | _ The knights endeavoured to re-establish and it was the site of a Danish fort, later replaced for by a Saxon | dissensions between Poland and Lithuaniatheir position by sowing In this for a time settlement, The overlords were the bishops of Bath and Wells WLADISLAUS (Wranistaw), the name of four kings | they succeeded (see Wrrowr); but m r4or Jagiello recognized of | Witowt as independent grand-duke of Lithuania (union Poland and two Polish kings of Hungary! of Vilna, rip 18, 1401), and their union was cemented in the In Hungarian history battle of the Polish Wladislaus ULE : runewald, which shook the fabric of the Order to its foundations distinguished from the Hungarian Ladislaus (Las . Ce Jagiello was married four times At the dying request ae Pee ar purposa of monbetg, paides of the the Wladislaus | childless Jadwiga he espoused a Styrian lady, Mana Cillei, who I (d xz02), Wladislaus IL (aiGace. a ea)ee ee bore him a daughter, also called J:adwiga His third wife, Elizaduke of Great Poland and Cracow (d_ these are included in the numbering of 1231). i By some historians beth Grabowska, died without issue, and in 1422 Jagiello the Sonia, Polish princess of Vyazma, a Russian lady rechristened married sovereign s, King Wladislaus I. bemg thus IV. and so on. ‘ Sophia, ‘ -|

who bore him two sons, Wladislaus and Casimir, both of whom

693

WLOCLAWEK—WODROW ultimately succeeded him. Jagiello died at Grodko near Lemberg

in 1434 During his reign Poland had risen to the rank of a great power, @ position she was to retain for nearly 200 years

Wrapistaus III (1424-1444), king of Poland and Hungary, the eldest son of Wladislaus II, Jagiello, by lus fourth wife,

Sophia of Vyazma, was born at Cracow, Oct. 31, 1424, succeeding to the throne in his tenth year. He had a turbulent mmonity, but Poland was wisely controlled by Zbigniew Olesmcki, while Wladislaus himself defeated the arch-traitor Spytek of Melztyn

broken-hearted at the death of his son (by his second wife, Mane Ludwika of Angouléme, Wladislaus had no issue), died at Merecz on May 20, 1648. See W Czermak, The Plans of the Turkish Wars of Wladislaus IV (Pol) (Cracow, 1895), V. V Volk-Karachevsky, The Struggle of Poland with the Cossacks (Rus) (Kiev, 1899); Letters and other Writings of Wladislaus IV. (Pol) (Cracow, 1845).

WLOCLAWEK, a town of Poland in the province of War-

render Serbia, Albania and whatever territory the Ottomans had ever conquered from Hungary, including 24 fortresses, besides paying an indemnity of 100,000 florins in gold. After swearmg to observe the treaty, however, Wladislaus broke it two days later in the name of religion, and mvaded the Balkans a second time, losing his life and more than a fourth of his army at Varna on

saw. Pop. (1921) 40,300. Situated on the left bank of the Vistula, about roo m below Warsaw, 25 m. below Plock, and 25 m. above Torun, Wloclawek has always been an important city, being the capital of the district of Kujawia and the seat of one of the ancient Catholic bishoprics The mediaeval cathedral, built in the “Vistula Gothic” style, still exists The region suffered much in the 14th century from the invasions of the Teutonic Knights. The diocese of the bishops included all eastern Pomerania WLODIMIERZ-WOLYNSKI or WLODZIMIERZ, town of Poland, province of Volhynia; population, mamly Jewish. The town is the ancient capital of Volhymia, but it soon declined in importance on the mse of Luck and other towns Near the town are the ruins of a church supposed to have been built by Vladimir, grand prince of Kiev in 973. It became the capital of the independent princes of Volhynia. Its name was Latinized as Lodomeria by the Austrians when they occupied it. The town contains a good archaeological museum.

Nov. 10, 1444. (See also Poranp and Huneary) Waptistaus IV, (1595~1648), king of Poland, son of Sigismund

tinctoria (family Cruciferae), which occurs sporadically in Eng-

at Grotmk on May 4, 1439. On the sudden death of the emperor Albert, who was also king of Boherma and Hungary, the Hunga-

rians elected Wladislaus king, and he was crowned at Buda in July 1440. For three years, however, he had to fight against the partisaps of the widowed Empress Elizabeth, till Pope Eugenius IV mediated between them to enable Wladislaus to lead a crusade against the Turks. At the head of 40,000 men, mostly Magyars, and with Hunyadi commanding under him, Wladislaus made a glorious campaign in the Balkans in 1443, and by the Peace of Szeged (July 1, 1444), the Sultan Murad II, engaged to sur-

TIT , king of Poland, and Anne of Austria, succeeded his father

on the throne in 1632 He had already served with distinction under Zolkiewski in the Muscovite campaigns of 1610-12, and under Chodkiewicz in 1617-18, and his first official act was to march agamst the Muscovites, who had declared war against Poland immediately after Sigismund’s death, forcing the Muscovite general, after bloody engagements (Aug. 7-22, 1632), to raise the siege of Smolensk and surrender (March 1, 1634). Wladislaus then concluded peace (May 28), conceding the title of tsar to Michael Romanov, who renounced all his claims upon Livonia, Estonia and Courland, besides paying a war indemnity of 200,000 rubles. Wladislaus then marched to Lemberg, and under threat of invasion the Porte offered terms, which were accepted in October, whereby each Power engaged to keep its borderers, the Cossacks and Tatars, in order, and divide between them the suzerainty of Moldavia and Walachia, the sultan binding lumself always to place philo-Polish hospodars on those thrones. In the following year the long-pending differences with Sweden were settled, very much to the advantage of Poland, by the truce of Stumdorf (Sept. 12, 1635). Thus externally Poland was everywhere, triumphant. Internally, however, things were in their usual deplorable state owing to the suspicion, jealousy and parsimony of the estates When Danzig rebelled openly against dues lawfully imposed by the king, and a Danish admiral broke the blockade and almost destroyed the flotilla Wladislaus had sent against the rebellious city, the Se7m connived at the destruction of the national navy and the depletion of the treasury, “lest warships should make the crown too powerful.” For some years after this humiliation, Wladislaus sank into a sort of apathy; but the birth of his son Sigismund (by his first wife, Cecilia Renata of Austria, in 1640) gave hım fresh hopes and energy. With the aim of bringing about a royalist reaction, he founded the Order of the Immaculate Conception, consisting of 72 young noblemen who swore a special oath of allegiance to the Crown, and were to form the nucleus of a patriotic movement antagonistic to the constant usurpations of the diet After the Seym had frustrated this attempt, Wladislaus, assisted by the grand hetman of the Crown, Stanislaw Koniecpolski, tried to use the Cossacks, who were deeply attached to him, to chastise the szlachta, at the same time forcing à war with Turkey, which would make his mihtary genius mdispensable to the republic. Simultaneously Wladislaus contracted an offensive and defensive alliance with Venice against the Porte, a treaty directly contrary, indeed, to the pacta conventa he had sworn to observe. The ill-prepared enterprise fell through; and the king, worn out, disillusioned and

WOAD,

a herbaceous plant, known botanically as Zsatis

land in fields, on banks and chalk-pits

The erect branched stem,

r to 3 ft in height, bears sessile leaves and terminal clusters of small yellow flowers; the brown pendulous pods are 4 in long. The ancient Britons stained themselves with this plant. It 1s stzll cultivated in Lincolnshire

WOBURN,

a caty of Middlesex

county,

Massachusetts,

U.S.A., to m. N.N.W. of Boston; served by the Boston and Maine railroad Pop (1920) 16,574 (24% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 19,434. The city has an area of 126 sqm, and embraces several villages. Its manufacturing industries, concentrated in a small territory, had an output m 1927 valued at $15,779,050

Woburn is the principal leather-manufacturing cen-

tre in New England In the burial-ground are the graves of ancestors of four presidents (Cleveland, Harrison, Pierce and Garfield). The public library, on the Common, was designed by H H Richardson Among the colomal houses are the birthplace of Count Rumford (built about 1724, and kept as a museum) and the Baldwin mansion (1661), the home of Loammi Baldwin (1780-1838), “the father of civil engineering in America,” Woburn was settled about 1638-40, and in 1642 was set off from Charlestown and incorporated as a town. The town was chartered as a city in 1888. WOCHUA, a pygmy people of Africa, ving in the forests of the Mabode district, south of the Welle. They were discovered (1880-1883) by Dr. W Junker, who described them as “well proportioned, though the oval-shaped head seemed somewhat toc large for the size of the body.” Some are of light complexion like the Akka and Batwa, but as a general rule they belong to the darker, crisper-haired, more genuine negro stock.

WODEN, a deity of the Anglo-Saxons, the name being the Anglo-Saxon counterpart of the Scandinavian Odin (g.v.). Ir German he was Wodan or Wuotan. Information is lacking as tc how far the character and adventures attributed to Odin were known to other Teutonic peoples. Clearly, however, the god wa: credited with special skill in magic, both in England and Ger many, and was also represented (see LOMBARDS) as the dispense: of victory By the Romans he was early identified with Mer curius; “Wednesday” (Woden’s day) is dies Mercurii.

WODROW, ROBERT (1679~1734), Scottish historian, wa born at Glasgow, being a son of James Wodrow, professor o divinity. He was educated at the university and was librariai from 1697 to r7or. From 1703 till his death, on March 21, 1734 he was parish minister at Eastwood, near Glasgow. He had r children, his son Patrick being the “auld Wodrow” of Burns’ poem “Twa Herds.” His great work is The History of the Suffer

WOFFINGTON—WOLCOTT

694

ings of the Church of Scotland from the Restoration to the Revolution (2 vols., 1721-22; new ed. with a life of Wodrow by Robert Burns, D.D., 1807-08). WOFFINGTON, MARGARET [Pec] (17147-1760), English actress, was born at Dublin, of poor parents on Oct 18, probably in 1714. As a child of ten she played Polly Peachum in a Lilliputian presentation of The Beggar’s Opera, and danced and acted in Dublin theatres until 1740, when her success as Sir Harry Wildair in The Constant Couple secured her a London engagement In this, and as Sylvia in The Recritig Officer, she had a great success, and at Drury Lane and Covent Garden, as

well as in Dublin, she appeared ın all the plays of the day. Among

her best impersonations were the elegant women of fashion, hke Lady Betty Modish and Lady Townley, and in “breeches parts” she was unapproachable She built and endowed almshouses at Teddington, where she lived after her retirement in 1757. She died there in 1760.

retables in carved wood, consisting of crowded subjects in high

relief, richly decorated with gold and colour Wood-engraving was also carried on in the same workshop, the blocks being cut from Wohlgemuth’s designs The Schatzbehalter der wahren Rerchthumer des Heils, printed by Koburger m 1491; and the Historia mundt, by Schedel, 1493-1494, usually known as the Nuremberg Chrontcle, are both illustrated by woodcuts by Wohlgemuth and Pleydenwurff. By Wohlgemuth are the retable dated 1465, now in the Munich gallery, the retable of the high altar ın the church of St. Mary at Zwickau (1479); and the great retable painted for the Austin friars at Nuremberg, now in the museum This last consists of a great many panels He died at Nuremberg in 1519. ( a Burger 191g).

WOKING,

Schmitz

Malerei

der Renassance

a market town in the Farnham

Beth, Dze deutsche

parliamentary

division of Surrey, England, 24 m. S.W of London by the S$ ralway Pop. of urban district (1891) 9,786, (1931) 29,927 The modern town, which 1s growing rapidly, has sprung up near the site of an older town. The river Wey and the Basingstoke canal pass WOHLER, FRIEDRICH (1800-1882), German chemist, through the parish. St Peter’s church dates from the 13th century was born at Eschershemm, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, on July Modern structures include a public hall, and an Ortental institute 31, 1800 In 1814 he began to attend the gymnasium at Frank- including a museum of Eastern antiquities, a mosque built in 1889 fort, where he carried out experiments with his friend Dr J J. and residences for Orientals. In the vicinity are a crematorium C. Buch In 1820 he entered Marburg university, and next year and Brookwood cemetery removed to Heidelberg, where he worked in Gmelin’s laboratory WOLCOT, JOHN (17381819), English satirist and poet, Intending to practise as a physician, he took his degree in med- known under the pseudonym of PETER PINDAR, was baptızed at icine and surgery (1823), but was persuaded by Gmelin to devote Dodbrooke, Devonshire, on May 9, 1738. He was apprenticed to himself to chemistry He studied in Berzelius’s laboratory at his uncle, John Wolcot, a surgeon at Fowey, and he took his degree Stockholm, and there began a lifelong friendship with the Swedish of MD. at Aberdeen in 1767 In 1769 he was ordained, and went chemist He then taught in the techmical schools of Berlin to Jamaica with Sir Wilham Trelawny, the governor. In 1772 he (1825-31) and Cassel (1831-36). In 1836 he was appointed to became incumbent of Vere, Jamaica, but on the death of his the chair of chemistry in the medical faculty at Gottingen, hold- patron (1772) he returned to England, and settled as a physician ing also the office of inspector-general of pharmacies in the at Truro. In 1781 Wolcot went to London, and took with him the kingdom of Hanover. This professorship he held until his death young Cornish artist, John Opie, whose talents in pamting he had on Sept. 23, 1882. been the first to recognize He soon achieved fame by a succession In 1827 Wobler first obtained metalic aluminium by heating of pungent satires on George ITI. Two of Wolcot’s happiest the chloride with potassium, and in the followmg year he isolated satires on the “farmer king” depicted the royal survey of Whitberyllium by the same method. His great contribution to the bread’s brewery, and the king’s naive wonder how the apples got development of chemistry was the synthesis of the natural pro- into the dumplings He had a broad sense of humour, a keen eye duct urea (g.v.) in 1828 He worked with Liebig in a number for the mdiculous, and great felicity of imagery and expression. of important investigations One of the earliest was the investi- Some of his serious preces—his rendering of Thomas Warton’s epigation, published in 1830, which proved the polymerism of cyanic gram on Sleep and his Lord Gregory, for example—reveal an unand cyanuric acid, but the most famous were those on the oil expected fund of genuine tenderness. He died at Latham of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde) and the radicle benzoyl (1832), Place, Somers Town, London, on Jan 14, 1819, and was buried and on uric acid (1837), which are of fundamental importance in near Samuel Butler, the author of Hudibras, in St Paul’s, Covent the history of organic chemistry. Most of Wohler’s work, how- Garden ever, lay in the field of inorganic chemistry Together with Polwhele, the Cornish historian, was well acquainted with Wolcot See Austin Dobson’s introduction to Charles Reade’s novel Peg Woffington (1899), and Augustin Daly’s Woffington: a Tribute to the Actress and the Woman (1888).

Sainte-Claire Deville, he obtamed “Adamantine boron,” and with H. Buff he investigated compounds of silicon and prepared a

hydride of that element

He also obtained pure titanium and

showed the similarity between this element and silicon and carbon The Royal Society’s Catalogue enumerates 276 separate memoirs written. by him, apart from 43 in which he collaborated with others In 183% he pubhshed Grundriss der anorganischen Chemie, and in 1840 Grundriss der organischen Chemie Still more valuable for teaching gurposes was his Mzneralanalyse in Beispielen (1861), whach first appeared in 1853 as Praktische Ubungen in der chemaschen Analyse He

translated three editions of the Lekrbuch of Berzelius and all the

successive volumes of the Jahresbericht into German from the orginal Swedish. He assisted Liebig and Poggendorff m the Handworterbuch

der remen und angewandten Chemie, and was joint-editor with Liebig of the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie.

A memor by Hofmann appeared in the Ber deut chem. Gesellsch

EER

reprinted in Zur

WOHLGEMUTH,

Ernnerung

MICHAEL

an

vorangegungene

Freunde

(1434-1319),

German

painter, was born at Nuremberg m 1434 In ta72 he married the widow of the painter Hans Pleydenwurff, whose son Wilhelm worked as an assistant to his stepfather Wohlgemuth was the head of a large workshop, in which many different branches of the fine arts were carried on by a great number of pupil-assistants, including Albert Durer In this atelier not only large altar-pieces and other sacred paintings were executed, but also elaborate

in his early life, and the best account of his residence m the west 1s found in vol 1 of Polwhele’s Traditions and in Polwhele’s Bzographical Sketches, vol i Cyrus Redding was a frequent visitor at the old man’s house, and has described Wolcot’s later days in his Past Celebritzes, vol 1, and his Fefty Years’ Recollecizons, vols. 1. and u

WOLCOTT, ROGER (1679-1767), American administrator, was born in Windsor (Conn,), Jan. 4, 1679, the son of Simon Wolcott (died 1687). He was a grandson of Henry Wolcott (1578-1655), who emigrated to New England in 1628, assisted John Mason and others to found Windsor (Conn), in 1636; and was a member of the first general assembly of Connecticut in 1637 and of the house of magistrates from 1643 to his death (Henry Wolcott the younger [cied 1680] was one of the patentees of Connecticut under the charter of 1662.) Roger Wolcott was a member of the Connecticut general assembly in 1709, one of the bench of justices in 1710, commissary of the Connecticut forces in the expedition of 1y11 against Canada, a member of the council in 1714, judge of the county court in 1721, and of the superior court in 1732, and deputy governor and chief justice of the superior court m 1741. He was second in command to Sir Wiliam Pepperrell, with rank of major general in

the expedition (1745) against Louisbourg, and was governor of Connecticut in 1751-54. He died in what is now East Windsor,

on May 17, 1767. He wrote Poetical Meditations (1728), an epic on The Agency

WOLF of the Honourable John Winthrop in the Court of King Charles the Second (printed in vol .v., series 1, Collections of Massachusetts Historical Society).

His Journal at the Stege af Lowusbourg

is printed in pp 13:~161 of vol. i (1860) of the Collectzons of the Connecticut Historical Society His son OLiverR Wotcorr (1726-1797) was graduated from Yale in 1747 and studied medicine with his brother Alexander (1712~95) In 1751 he was made sheriff of the newly established Litchfield county and practised law in Litchfield He was a member of the council in 1774-86 and of the Continental Congress in 1775~76, 1778 and 1780~84, and a commissioner of Indian affairs

for the northern department in 1775 During the War of Independence he was active in raismg militia in Connecticut He was

reduction to writing, and plurality of authorship, are si crucial questions. The French invasion swept away the univ and the rest of his life was spent at Berlin, where he had :¿ professorship His most finished work, the Darstellung der tumswissenschaft, though published at Berlin (1807), essentially to the Halle time At length his health gave wi: was advised to try the south of France He got as far as Ma and died there on Aug 8, 1824 Mark Pattison wrote an admirable sketch of Wolf’s hfe and the North British Review of June 1865, reproduced im his

(1889); see also J E. Sandys, Hest. of Class Schol m. (19

51-60 Wolf’s Kleine Schriften were edited by G Bernhardy 1869) Works not included are the Prolegomena, the Letters te (1797), the commentary on the Leptines (Halle, 1789) and a

one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence; commanded Connecticut militia that helped to defend New York city

tion of the Clouds of Aristophanes (x8rz).

in Aug 1776, in 1777 organized more Connecticut volunteers and took part in the campaign against Gen. John Burgoyne; and m

on the 13th of March 1860 at Windischgraz in Styria His who was in the leather trade, was a keen musician. Fre Hugo learned the rudiments of the piano and the violin an unhappy school hfe, in which he showed little aptit anything but music, he went in 1875 to the Conservato. appears to have learned very little there, and was dism. 1877 because of a practical joke in the form of a thre letter to the director, for which he was perhaps unjust responsible In 1884 he became musical critic to the Sal a Viennese society paper, and contrived by his uncompror trenchant and sarcastic style to win notoriety. The publication at the end of 1887 of twelve of hi seems to have definitely decided the course of his gen about this time he retired from the Salonblatt, and resc devote his whole energies to song-composition The nir which followed practically represent his life as a compose

1779 commanded the militia during the British mvasion of Connecticut In 1784, as one of the commissioners of Indian affairs for the northern department, he negotiated the treaty of Fort Stanwix (Oct 22) settlimg the boundaries of the Six Nations In 1786-96 he was heutenant governor of Connecticut, and in Nov 1787 was & member of the Connecticut convention which ratified the Federal Constitution He became governor in 1796 upon the death (Jan 15) of Samuel Huntington, and served until his death on Dec 1, 1797 His son Oliver wrote a sketch of him in Sanderson’s Biography of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia, 1820—27). Olıver’s son, OLrver Worcorr, Jr. (1760-1833), was graduated from Yale in 1778, studied law in Litchfeld, and was admıtted to the bar in 1781 With Ohver Elisworth he was appointed (May 1784) a commissioner to adjust the claims of Connecticut against

the United States

He was controller of public accounts of Con-

necticut and auditor of the Federal Treasury.

In June 1791 he

became controller of the Treasury, and in Feb 1795 succeeded Alexander Hamuiton as secretary of the Treasury At the end of 1800 he resigned after a bitter attack by the press He re-entered politics as a leader of the “Toleration Republicans,” and in 1817 presided over the State convention which adopted a new constitution, and in the same year was elected governor, serving until 1827 He died in New York city Jume 1, 1833.

His grandson George Gibbs (1815-1873) in 1846 edited Mem-

oirs of the Administration of Washington and John Adams from the Papers of Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury Wolcott wrote British Influence on the Affairs of the United States Proved and Explained (1804).

WOLF,

FRIEDRICH

AUGUST

(1759-1824),

German

philologist and critic, was born on Feb 15, 1759, at Haimrode, in the province of Hanover He was educated at Nordhqusen grammar school and Gottingen university. There he chose philology as his faculty, which then had no existence, and succeeded in carrying his point He was dissatisfied with Heyne’s treatment of Homer, and the two fell out Later his edition of the Symposium obtained for him a chair at Halle The moment was a critical one ın the history of education The literary impulse of the Renaissance was almost spent, scholarship had become dry and trivial A new school, that of Locke and Rousseau, sought to make teaching more modern and more human, but at the sacrifice of mental discipline and scientific aim. Wolf was eager to throw himself into

the contest on the side of antiquity

In Halle (1783-1807), by the

‘force of his will and the enlightened aid of the ministers of Frederick the Great, he was able to carry out his long-cherished ideas and found the science of philology Dunning his time at Halle Wolf published his commentary on the Leptines of Demosthenes (1789) and a little later the celebrated Prolegomena to Homer (1795) This book, the work with

which his name is chiefly associated, was thrown off in compara-

tive haste to meet an immediate need It has all the merits of a great piece of oral teaching—command of method, suggestiveness,

breadth of view From it originated the great Homeric controversy

and Wolf’s main points, oral tradition, deliberate revision after

WOLF, HUGO

(1860-1903), German composer, w:

were marked by periods of feverish creative activity, alt with periods of mental and physical exhaustion, during v was sometimes unable even to bear the sound of music

end of 1891 he had composed the bulk of his works, on w fame chiefly rests, 43 Morike Lieder, 20 Eichendorff 51 Goethe Lieder, 44 Lieder from Geibel and Heyse’s Sp Liederspiel, and 22 from Heyse’s [talienisches Lieder

second part consisting of 24 songs being added in 1896 these were

13 settings of lyrics by different authors, ir

music to Ibsen’s Fest auf Solhaug, a few choral and insti

works, an opera in four acts, Der Corregidor, successfullyy at Mannheim in June 1896, and finally settings of three by Michelangelo in March 1897. In September of this malady which had long threatened descended upon was placed in an asylum, released in the following Janu: to be immured again some months later by his own wi an attempt to drown himself in the T