Encyclopaedia Britannica [22, 14 ed.]

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FOURTEENTH

EDITION

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ZEN

ANNALER

SY pray8 A i EE GDI DAW

Rags

Ses

ean ||

rie

eet

THE

FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

1768 1777 1788 1801

FIFTH

EDITION

1815

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH

EDITION EDITION

EDITION

TENTH

EDITION

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

EDITION

1830 1853 1875

1902 1910 1922

1926

1929,1932

§

pei

—

THE ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION ANEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME 22 TEXTILES TO VASCULAR SYSTEM

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA. INC. Z fa= > =f z z

COPYRIGHT IN ALL TO

THE

COUNTRIES BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPZDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE

UNITED

STATES

OF AMERICA,

1929,

BY THE ENCYCLOPA DIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

1930,

1932

INITIALS AND WITH

NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM.

XXII

A. A. A.

A. A. ADNAN. Formerly Professeur-Agrégé in the University of Constantinople. Late Deputy for -Turkey (in part).

A. Be.

AUGUSTIN BERNARD.

Constantinople in the Great National Assembly of Turkey.

Professor of Geography and of Colonization of the Peoples of North Africa, at the Sorbonne, Paris. Author of l'Archipel de la Nouvelle Calédonie; Les Régions Naturelles

de l’Algérie; etc. ALBERT BUSHNELL Hart, LL.D., L.H.D. Professor Emeritus of Government, Harvard University.

the Union; Essentials of American History. Editor of The American Nation. ARAM BovyaJIANn, B.S., E.E. Technical Engineer, General Electric Company, Pittsfield, Mass.

A. Car.

ALEXIS CARREL, M.D., Sc.D.

A.C. D.C.

Member of Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. cine, 1912. ANDREW CLAUDE DE LA CHEROIS CROMMELIN, D.Sc. Greenwich,

,

;

Tunisia (in part). :

: Author of Formation of United States of America

A. Boy.

Assistant at Royal Observatory,

:

ean o fore a

(im part).

Transformer (in part). eed eee

Nobel Prizeman for Medi-

1891-1927.

President

Tissue Culture.

Hy

of the Royal

Astronomical Society, 1929. Author of The Siar World; Catalogue of Comets, a Sequel Trojan Planets. to Galle’s Cometenbahnen. Part-author of Science in Modern Life; Splendour of the Heavens; The Orbit of Halley’s Comet from 1759-1910; etc. a Sy A. C. REILEY. Of the Remington-Rand Business Service, New York. Author of The Story of the Typewriter. Typewriter,

ane loan

A. D. Im{ms, M.A., D.Sc. Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. Formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of Biology, University of Allahabad. Author of a General Textbook of Entomology.

A. D. MitcHett, D.Sc., F.I.C. Assistant

Editor to the Journal of the Chemical Society.

A. E. O.

Chemistry, University of London and Institute of Chemistry. A. E. Overton, M.C., B.A.

A. E. Tw.

A. E. TWENTYMAN.

A. F. K.

Assistant Examiner

—)—

in KH Tin (in part). Trade:

Principal, Board of Trade, London.

Formerly Librarian and Information Officer, Board of Education, London. A. F. KENDRICK, F.R.S.A. aua SER P Keeper in the Victoria an ert Museum, South Kensington, of Textiles, 1897—1927, Ceramics, 1899-1902, and Woodwork, 1904-8. Author of English Embroidery; Oriental Carpets; etc.

A. Go.

ARTHUR GARFIELD Hays, M.A., LL.B. Member of the Law Firm of Hays, St. John, Abramson and Schulman, New York. Contributor to Nation; etc. Rev. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.

A. Gr.

ARTHUR GREENWOOD.

Late Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

Minister of Health, 1929.

Thysanoptera; Trichoptera; Tsetse-Fly.

World Statistics.

Universities (in part); University Colleges (in part).

ymd Veem tmd

. eee

ree ia Embroideries

oe et Theatres, Law Relating to (in part). Valdes, Juan de (in part). |

Secretary, Joint Research and Information Department

of the Trades Union Congress General Council and Labour Party Executive. Some- | Trades Union Congress, The; time Head of the Economics Department, Huddersfield Technical College and { Trade Unions (in part). Lecturer in Economics in the University of Leeds. Party’s Advisory Committee, 1920-1.

ADOLF HARNACK. German Theologian.

General Secretary of the Labour

| ; Theodore of Mopsuestia (in Author of Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte; Das Monchtum, seine > part);

Ideale und serne Geschichte; etc.

Aa

Theodoret

Author of Hydraulics;

Professor of Engineering, Victoria University, Manchester. Hydro-Electric Engineering.

A. H. Q.

Mrs. A. H. QUIGGIN.

A. H. W.

Captain A. H. WALKER, R.N.

l

|

Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge.

.

.

.

Director of Torpedoes and Mining, Admiralty, 1926-9.

i

a

ALEXANDER JOHNSTON.

(in part).

| Tidal Power:

ARNOLD HARTLEY Grsson, D.Sc., M.InstT.C.E., M.Ixnst.MECH.E.

A. J.

|

Turbine: W nas

ze

i

Transport (in part).

Torpedoes.

.,

;

Professor of Jurisprudence and Political Economy, Princeton University, seq, United ia of America part). ` Author of A History of American Politics; A History of the United States for Schools; etc. vV

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

A. J.G.

Rev. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., D.D. Principal of Lancashire Independent College, Manchester.

A. K.C.

ANANDA K. Coomaraswamy, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S.

, Lecturer in Early Church

History at the Victoria University, Manchester.

i

Keeper of Indian, Persian and Mohammedan Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Author of The Indian Crafisman; Essays in National Idealism; Art and Swadeshi.

A. K.K.

ÅLLEN KRAMER KRAUSE, A.M., M.D.

;

o

Associate Professor of Medicine and Director of Kennet

search Laboratories.

Editor, American Review of Tuberculosis.

: -Ursula, St. (in part). Textiles and Embroideries

(in part).

nT ows

Tuberculosis

Re- typ,

Author of Environ-

ere

berculosis (in part).

ment and Reststance in Tuberculosis; etc.

A. L.K.

A. L. KROEBER, PH.D.

A. L. P.

Anthropology, etc. AUSTIN L. Poore, M.A.

A. N. J.W.

pat

Professor of Anthropology,

University of

California.

Author of

acne

Zuni

Kin an

nae)

an;

Fellow and Tutor of St. John’s College, Oxford and University Lecturer in Modern

A. NEVILLE J. ME

P.D., ao

i Philosophy in

N Hosei

Tokyo.

Member

chester Guardian; Forinighily Review; etc.

ALAN R. PRIEST.

A. Sau.

AURELIEN SAUVAGEOT.

Curator of Far Eastern Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

A. S. P.-P.

Lecturer in French Language and Literature, University of Budapest. Str ARTHUR STANLEY Epprncton, D.Sce., F.R.S. Plumian Professor of Astronomy, Cambridge University. Director of the Observatory, Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1904 and Smith’s Prizeman, 1907. President of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, 1921-3. Author of Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe. Editor of the Astronomy section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

.

Paes heat ay oe iterature (im part).

o. pTrotsky, Lev Davidovich.

\Theatre (in part). iUral-Altaic Languages. Time,

pe

Standard taacare:

ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.A. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911-3. Author of Man’s Place in Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; etc.

A. W. Ma.

-Tours (in part).

EEE University,

of Council of Asiatic Society of Japan. Sometime Davis Chinese Scholar, University of Oxford. Member of the Editorial Staff, r4th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of The Oceanic Theory of the Origin of the Japanese Language and People. ARTHUR RANSOME. Author of The Crists in Russia; Six Weeks in Russia; etc. Contributor to the Man-

A. R. Pr.

A. S.E.

ea = ; Uto-Aztecan Family.

History.

Professor of Chinese and Oriental

A. Ra.

pia

ALEXANDER W. Marr, Litt.D. Late Professor of Greek, Edinburgh University.

Lecturer, Aberdeen University,

1898-9; Edinburgh University, 1899-1903. Classical Examiner to London University, 1919-23. Author of Heszod: Introduction, Translation and Appendices; etc.

Theosophy.

Varro, Marcus Terentius 3

s

A. W. Me.

ANDREW WILLIAM MELLON.

A. W. Po.

ALFRED W. Porter, D.Sc., F.R.S. Formerly Emeritus Professor of Physics in the University of London. Editor of |Thermodynamics (in part); Preston's Theory of Eight. Co-author of Foster and Porter’s Elementary Treatise on Units, Diniensions of.

À

2

Secretary of the Treasury, United States, since 1921. Author of Taxation: The People'sUnited States of America Business. (tn part).

Electricity and Magnetism; etc.

SIR ALEXANDER Woop REnTOon, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.A., LL.B.

Puisne Justice Supreme Court, and Procureur and Advocate-General, Mauritius, 1901-5; Ceylon, 1905-15. Chief Justice, 1914. Author of Law and Practice of Lunacy. Editor of Encyclopaedia of English Law; etc.

A. Yo. B. Cha.

B. F.C. A. B., Sm.

ALLYN YOUNG, PH.D.

alue.

\ Tin-Plate and Terne-Plate.

Vice-President, The American Rolling Mill Company, Middletown, Ohio. B. FE. C. Arxinson, Pu.D. Under-Librarian, University Library, Cambridge. BERNARD SMITH, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.

U; V.

Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, and Harkness Scholar (Geology), Cambridge University; University Extension Lecturer. Author of Physical Geography for Schools.

BENJAMIN WISNER Bacon, D.D., Litt.D., LL.D.

C. A. Be.

SIR CHARLES ALFRED BELL, K.C.1.E., C.M.G., F.R.G.S.

. (in part).

}Sr

Late Professor of Political Economy in the University of London. BENNETT CHAPPLE.

B. W. Ba.

Trade Marks

Triassic System.

Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale University. Formerly |Thessalonians, Epistles Director of American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem. Author of The to the. Making of the New Testament; The A postolic Message, etc. Indian Civil Service (retired).

and Sikkim.

Formerly

British Political Agent f

Author of Tibet, Past and Preni

A

ibet

a

j

a

}

C. A. M.

CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY. Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. H.B.M. Acting Vice Consul for Austria, «re 1921-6. Passport Control Officer for Austria, 1922-5. Intelligence Officer, League of (in part); Nations Union, 1926. Author of The Social Revolution in Austria; Survey of Interna- |}ltansylvania Trnovo.

C. A. P.

CHARLES A. PERKINS.

tional Affairs for 1925, part II. (in part).

Of the firm of Perkins, Malone and Washburn, Attorneys-at-Law, New York.

}Third Degree.

INITIALS C.A. R.N.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

CYRIL ALFRED Rankin Nitcu, M.B., M.S., F.R.C.S. Surgeon to St- Thomas’s Hospital.

Member of International Urological Association.

Urology.

Formerly President, Section of Surgery and Section of Urology, Royal Society of Medicine. Examiner in Surgery, Universities of London and Wales.

C. A. Sc.

Rev. CHARLES ANDERSON ScorrT, M.A., D.D. Dunn

Professor of the New Testament,

Church of England, Cambridge.

C. Br.

Theological College of the Presbyterian Ullas (in part).

Author of Christianity According to St, Paul; etc.

CLOUDESLEY BRERETON, M.A., L-Ès-L.

D.-ès-L (Hon.Causa) Lille University.

Member of Legion of Honour.

Inspector to the London County Council. Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

C. E. T. C. F. A. C. F. Gu.

C. F. L.-H.

C. F.T.

Late Divisional | Universities (in part);

Editor of the Education section, rath 4

Theralite;

Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

Tremolite;

Variolite.

CHARLES Francis ATKINSON.

Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford.

of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. C. F. GUMMER, M.A., Pu.D.

Major, Late East-Surrey Regiment.

Thirty Years’ War (in pari);

Author Turenne, Henri de la Tour

D’Auvergne, Vicomte de. i

Professor of Mathematics at Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario. Formerly Editor of Questions and Discussions Department, American Mathematical Monthly.

>Triangle.

C. F. Lesman-Havrr, LL.D., Pa.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Innsbruck. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Reader in Ancient Oriental History in the University of Liverpool. Hon. Fellow of New College, Oxford. Author of Griechische Geschichte; Geschichte des Alien Orients; etc. CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN. | Librarian,

United

States

Weather

Bureau,

Washington,

Author

Urartu.

;

.

ssociation.

Historical

»Truce of God.

CLARENCE HILL KELSEY, A.M., LL.B.

?Title Guarantee Companies.

Chairman of the Board of Title Guarantee and Trust Company.

C. J.

of America

C. HOWARD CRANE. Architect. Designer of Music Box and Guild Theatres, New York, and many other pTheatre (in part). theatres in the United States.

C. Hol.

‘

of Meteorology, be ta

CARLTON HuntTLEY Hayes, A.M., PH.D. woe of History, Columbia University. Member of the American C. H. K.

{University C À. rsity Colleges (in part)

Crcit Epear Titrey, B.Sc.. Pa.D.

The Science of the Atmosphere; etc. C. H. Cr.

vii

ADMIRAL CARL HOLLWEG. Formerly Director of Department in German Admiralty (Reichsmarinamt). of Unser Recht auf dem U-Bootskrieg.

Author pTirpitz, Alfred von (in part).

CHARLES JAMES, Hon.D.Sc.

}Thulium

Professor of Chemistry, New Hampshire University, Durham, New Hampshire.

C. J. B.

CHARLES JASPER BLUNT, C.B.E. Colonel, R.A.O.C. (retired). Served throughout Chitral Campaign, 1895. Served in >Tirah.

C. J. L.

SIR CHARLES JAMES LyArr, K.C.S.I., C.LE., LL.D. Late Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office and Fellow of King’s College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-94.

ü

World War at Gallipoli; etc.

C. J. Sh.

Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-8. Ancient Arabic Poetry.

Author of Translations of

REV. CHARLES JOHN SHEBBEARE, M.A. Rector of Stanhope, Co. Durham. Chaplain to H.M. the King. Member of the Archbishop’s Doctrinal Commission. Select Preacher in the University of Oxford, 1917-9. Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion in the University of Oxford, 1924-7. Author of Religion in an Age of Doubt; The Challenge of the Universe.

C. L.C.

-Tulsi Das (in part).

CHARLES Lyon CHANDLER.

-Trinity.

}

;

C. Mi.

Curator of South American History and Literature in the Harvard College Library. Uruguay (in part). CarL THEODOR Mirst, D.TH. m Council of (én part); Formerly Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Ultramontanism (in part)

C. R. B.

CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S.

Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII.; Quellen zur Geschichte dés Papstthums; etc.

Professor of History, University of Birmingham. Late Fellow of Merton and University Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford. Formerly on Council of Royal Geographical Society and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a Member of the House of Laymen. Member of Advisory Committees qf British Labour Party for International Affairs and for Education. Member of Executive of Birmingham Labour Party. Author of History of Russta; Nineteenth Century Europe; etc.

C. R.G.

CARL R. GRAY.

C. St.

President of Union Pacific Railroad System, Omaha, Neb. CONSTANTINE STANISLAVSKY.

Author of My Life in Art.

C. Z.K.

CHARLES Z. KLAUDER.

D. A.G.

D. A. GRACEY,

See biographical article:

A

System. \

STANISLAVSKy, C.

ae

Consulting Architect, Harkness Memorial Dormitories, Yale University. FLC

Superintendent Chemist, Government Laboratory, London.

Thorfinn Karlsefni; Varthema, Ludovico di.

Union Pacific Railroad

Russian Theatrical Producer. Founded, with V. N. Danchenko, the Moscow Art

Theatre.

|

-Theatre (in part). University Architecture. }Tobacco.

Vill

D.B. M.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Duncan Brack Macponatp, M.A., D.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. Author of Development of Muslim Theology; etc. Editor of Galland and Vatican MSS. of Arabian Nights.

D. C. To.

Rev. DuNcAN CRooKES Tovey, M.A. Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; etc.

D. E.T.

Donatp Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc.

}Thomson, James (in part).

;

Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis comprising The Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations and analyses of many other classical works. Editorial Adviser, Music section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

D. H. Ropertson, M.A.

Lecturer in Economics, and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. in Cambridge Economic Handbook series.

Very Rev. Davip HERBERT S. CranacE, Litt.D., F.S.A., Hon. A.R.[B.A.

D. M. Se.

Dorotay M. SELLS, M.A., Pa.D.

D, S. Mu.

e

Dean of Norwich since 1928. Secretary of the Gilchrist Educational Trust since |University Extension 1923. Secretary of the Cambridge University Local Lectures, 1902-24, and of the part). Board of Extra-Mural Studies, 1924-8.

Prixce MrrsgY.

Lecturer in Russian Literature, King’s College, London University. Author of Modern Russian Literature; Pushkin; Russian Literature, 1875-1925. |

Davip SAVILLE Muzzey,

Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich Ukrainian Literature.

.

Rt. Rev. EDWARD CUTHBERT Butter, O.S.B., M.A., D.Litt.

ın part).

i

of America

-Trollope, Anthony.

tee

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906-22.

E. D.R.

Tolstoy;

A.B., B.D., Pa.D.

E. C. B.

Ed. M.

Trade Board (in part).

Professor of History, Columbia Universıty. Author of The United States of America; Unito z

E. A. Ba.

E. Cr.

of Celano;

Trappists.

Eric C. BURKMAN.

Assistant to the President, United States Rubber Company, New York. ERNST CASSIRER.

l

uous States Rubber Company.

ee

Professor of Philosophy, University of Hamburg. Author of Kan?’s Leben und Ling Substanzbegriff v. Funkitonsbegriff; etc.

EDUARD MEvER, D.LITT. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Str Epwarp Denrson Ross, C.I.E., Pa.D., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S.,

F.S.A.B.

Director, School of Oriental Studies, London, and Professor of Persian in the Uni-

versity of London. EDWARD E. Lone, C.B.E. Formerly Director of Eastern

ements PUUA

Vee ne Tissaphernes. .

Turkish Language and

Literature (in part).

Propaganda. Officer in Charge, Eastern Section, Tidore or Tidor; News Department, Foreign Office, 1918-21. The Tumes (London) Correspondent in{ Timor; =?

Northern India.

E. E.T.

Late Editor of the Indian Daily Telegraph; Rangoon Times.

E. E. Tu, E.M. Associate Editor, The Iron Age, New York.

Author of Elementary Metallurgy.

Vrungsten

E. F. S.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE, C.B.E.

E. F. Wi.

Formerly Keeper of Woodwork, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Author ot Utamaro. Alphabets: A Handbook of Lettering; The Colour-prints of Hiroshige; Chinese Lacquer. E. F. Wise, C.B.

a eel,

Economic Adviser in respect of foreign trade to the All- |Trade Organization (in

Russian Central Union of Consumers’

Co-operative Societies.

Late British Repre-

part).

sentative on Permanent Committee of Inter-Allied Supreme Economic Council.

E. G. Bor.

E. GARCKE, M.Inst.E.E. Managing Director of British Electric Traction Company, Ltd. of Electrical Undertaking; etc. EpwIn G. Borinc, A.M., P.D.

E. J. E.

E. J. ELLIOT.

E. Gar.

F

Timor Laut or Tenimbar. Tool Steel; naarum

M.P. for East Leicester.

(in

,

Formerly Special Agent of the United States Department of Labor, and Assistant Professor of Social Economy, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Author of British Trade Boards System.

The American People; etc. Ernest A. BAKER, M.A., D.Lirr. Director, University of London School of Librarianship and Lecturer in English, University College, London. Author of History of the English Novel; etc.

E. C. Bu.

2 Variations.

Author of Money pTrade Cycle.

D. H.S.C.

D. S. M.

Thousand and One Nights.

Author of M anualTramway (in part).

Professor of Psychology, Harvard University.

iTitchener, Edward Bradfori

?Trade Organization (in part

Principal, Board of Trade, London.

E. L.

P. R. Exvsa LEwxkowr1rscnu, PH.D., B.Sc.Hons., A.R.C.S.

E. Mo.

EDWARD

E. M. Wa.

E. M. WALKER, M.A., D.D., LL.D..

MOoOoRHOUSE.

}Tung Oil (in part). \

English Writer on Horses and Racing. Author of The Racing & Year; The e R Romance of pTotalizator. ator Lo > the Derby; The Derby Chart; etc. Pro-Provost of Queen’s College, Oxford.

Author of Greek History, Its Problems and

Its Meaning; Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, Its Authorship and Authority; etc.

Theopompus.

E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADE, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.INST.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of The Structure of Transmutation. of the Elements: the Atom; The Mechanism of Nature; etc, Editor of the Physics section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Vacuum.

INITIALS E. O.

E.R. J.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Formerly Consulting Surgeon to St. Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children’s Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London.

Varicose Veins.

Emory R. Jonson, PH.D., Sc.D. Dean, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Inland Waterways, Their Relation to Transportation; American Railway

Transport (in part).

EDWARD RosBERtTsOoN, M.A.

Tripoli;

Transportation.

E. Ro.

1X

Tiberias;

Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales.

E. Ste.

ETHELBERT STEWART.

E. V.

ETHAN VIALL. Special Correspondent.

|Tyre (in part); Uz.

|Trade Board (in part).

United States Commissioner of Labor Statistics.

Formerly Editor of The American

Machinist.

Author ober

Broaches and Broaching; Electric Welding, Gas-Torch and Thermit Welding.

E. V. A.

EDWARD VICTOR APPLETON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

F. A. E. C.

F, A. E. Crew, M.D., Pu.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.

}Thermionic Valve.

Wheatstone Professor of Physics, London University.

Professor of Animal Genetics and Director of the Animal Breeding Research Departaoe University of Edinburgh. Co-editor of the British Journal of Experimental tology.

Turkey (in part).

F. C. B.

FRANCIS CRAWFORD BuREITT, F.B.A., D.D., D.THEOL.

F. Del.

FRANCIS DELAISE,

United States of Europe, The.

F. G. M. B.

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BEckK, M.A.

Vandals (in part).

F. G. P.

FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A. Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas’s Hospital and the London >Tongue. School of Medicine for Wemen. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. FRED HORNER. , Torque; Consulting Engineer. Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; Engineersciam- Pim ing; Machinery. =

F. H.

French Sociologist. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

F. H. C.

FrED H. CoLvIN.

F. H. Si.

F. H. Sisson, A.B., LL.D.

F. J.G.

F. J. H. F. J. T. |

F. J. W. W. F. LI. G. F. Po.

Thomas, St.

Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge.

i

PR

Editor, American Machinist.

Author of American Machinist's Handbook; etc.

Vice-President, Guaranty Trust Company, New York. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. Sometime British Commissioner in Persia and Controller of the Daira Sanieh (Egypt). See the biographical article: GotDsmip (family). Francis JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A., F.B.A. Late Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Brasenose College. Author of monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain.

FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER, M.A., LL.D., Liırt.D., PH.D. Professor of History, Harvard University.

Author of Rise of the New West; etc.

F. J. W. WHIPPLE, M.A., Sc.D., F.INst.P.

Superintendent of Kew Observatory and Assistant-Director of the Meteorological

\Valves (Mechanical).!

}Trust Company. a -Timtr.

Trinovantes.

United States of America (in part).

ymt V

>Thunderstorms.

Office.

F. LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A., F.B.A.

Professor of and Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeo- MH Thebes (in part). logical Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. . } Sır FREDERICK Porock, P.C., K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. Judge of Admiralty Court of Cinque Ports. Editor of Law Reports since 1895. Tort. Bencher, Lincoln’s Inn. Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford University, 1883-1903. Author of The Law of Torts; Princtples of Contract; etc.

FRANK RICHARDSON Cana, F.R.G.S.

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5. Staff of The Times, London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement.

F. R. H.-J.

F. R. HURLESTONE-JONES, M.A.

F. R. T.

FREDERICK Rospert TENNANT,

SN

Joint Secretary of the Incorporated Association of Headmasters.

Timbuktu (in part); Tlemcen (in part); Togoland; Transvaal (in part); Tripolitania (in part); Tunisia (in part); Uganda (in part); Unyamwezi. \——

oe

Headmaster of -Training Corps, Officers’.

Holloway School.

D.D., B.Sc.

. Lecturer in Theology and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Author.of Philo-

-Theology.

_sophical Theology; etc. F. War.

F. WaRDELL.

President, Eureka Vacuum Cleaner Company, Detroit, Mich.

}Vacuum Cleaner (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

F. W.P.

FRANK W. PEEK, JR., M.E.E. Chief Engineer, General Electric Company, Pittsfield, Mass. Author of High Voltage pTransformer (in part).

G. An.

G. ANREP, M.A.

Phenomena.

;

Vascular System.

G. A. R. C.

Lecturer in Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Toulon (in pari); GEOFFREY A. R. CALLENDER, M.A., F.S.A. Secretary to the Society for Nautical Research and Professor at the Royal Naval Trafalgar, The Battle of EE (in part). College, Greenwich.

G.C. R.

Guy Corwin Rosson, M.A.

G. C. Rh. G. E. F.

n

Variation (in part).

Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum.

GEORGE

C. RHODES.

Director and General Passage Manager. GEORGE Emory FELLOWS, L.H.D., PH.D., LL.D. CEN Head of Department of History and Political Science, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.

Transatlantique, Compagnie Générale. Utah.

Formerly President of the University of Maine

G. G. Si.

GEORGE GAYLORD SIMPSON, PH.D.

G. H. B.

History, New York. Author of A Catalogue of the Mesozoic Mammalia in the Geos r logical Department of the British Museum. Rev. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A., Hon.D.D. Rector of Sutton, Beds. Hon. Canon of St. Albans. Davidson Professor of Old Urim and Thummim. Testament Studies in the University of London. Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London, 1918-26. ——

G. H. W.

GEORGE H. WARBURTON.

G. McL. Wo.

GEORGE McLANE Woop.

Assistant Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology, the American

A

Tillodontia

i

Editor of the Sixth Edition of Oils, Fats and Waxes by E. Lewkowitsch, and Chief eH Tung Oil (in part). Chemist of the Lewkowitsch Laboratories.

Editor, United States Geological Survey, Washington. Secretary, Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company. Author of Texts for United States Geological Survey and Press Notices.

G. M. McB.

Grorce M. McBripz, B.A., PH.D.

G. Re.

SIR GEORGE REID.

G.T. M.

Museum of Natural

University of California at Los Angeles. of Highland Bolivia.

Scottish Artist.

Author of Agrarian Indian Communities

See the biographical article: REID, SIR GEORGE.

GILBERT T. Morecan, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.LC., F.R.S. Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial

Uruguay (in part).

Uruguay (in part). Turner, Joseph Mallord William (in part). aa T TAL;

ned en

Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Biroluene; mingham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science Triphenylmethane; for Ireland, and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. { Tropine;

Author of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to Thorpe’s | Type Metal; Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. Editor of the Chemistry section, 14th Edition, | Urea; Encyclopedia Britannica. Vanadium.

G. W. K.

G. W. Keeton, M.A., LL.M.

Torture (in part).

Senior Lecturer in Law, University of Manchester.

H. A. B. H. A. Sc.

Trematodes; Turbellaria. HUGH ARTHUR SCOTT. . For 25 years Musical and Dramatic Critic of the Westminster Gazette, London. >Tschaikovsky, Peter Ilich.

H. A. Bays, D.Sc.

Assistant, Department of Zoology, British Museum

(Natural History).

Ngt weg

Editorial staff, rq4th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, H. C. Bo.

H. C. L.

H. C. Boots, F.C.G.1., M.Inst.C.E. Consulting Engineer, Messrs. Booth, Wilson and Pettit, London. H. C. Lone, B.Sc.

}Vacuum Cleaner (in part).

Editor of Journal of Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Author of Common Turnip (in part). Te of the Farm and Garden; Plants Potsonous to Livestock; Potsonous Plants on the arm. . H. C. MAJOR. i a Captain, United States Marine Corps. Chief of Information Section, Bureau of United States of America Aeronautics, Navy Department, Washington. (in pari).

Sir Harry Hamitton Jounston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Sc.D., F.R.G.S.

Commissioner and Consul General in British Central Africa, 1891. Consul-General in the Regency of Tunis, 1897-9. Special Commissioner, Commander-in-Chief and Governor-General for the Uganda Protectorate, 1899-1901. Author of British| Central Africa; The Uganda Protectorate; The Nile Quest; Liberia; etc.

H. H. L. B.

|

Tunisia (in part); Uranda G pari); “ganda (in part).

HucH Hate LeicuH Bettot, M.A., D.C.L. Late Associé de l’Institut de Droit International, Honorary Secretary, International | Ultimatum: Law Association, and Grotius Society. Formerly Acting Professor of Constitutional Uni it C t Law, University of London, and Secretary, Breaches of the Laws of War Committee. MIVOLSNI VOTES: Author of Commerce in War; Permanenti Court of International Justice. HENRI Simon Hymans, Pa.D. : a a Formerly Keeper of the Bibliothéque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Van Dyck, Sir Anthony (i

Rubens; sa vie et son oeuvre. HERBERT JOHN FLEURE, D.Sc.

part).

.

Professor of Geography and Anthropology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. | Tibet (in part);

Hon. Secretary, Geographical Association, and Hon. Editor of Geography. Author of -Toulon (in part); Human Geography in Western Europe; etc. Editor of the Geography section, 14th | Transylvania (in part). Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

AND

INITIALS

}Variation (in part).

H. J.M.

H

H. J. Ma.

SIR HALFORD JONN MACKINDER, P.C. Chairman `of the Imperial Shipping and Imperial Economic Committees.

J. MULLER.

Professor of Zoology in the University of Texas.

and afterwards Professor of Geography in the University of London, Author of Britain and the British Seas; etc.

H. Jn.

H. L. A.-F.

Reader 1900-25.

Trade Routes. —y

Henry Jackson, O.M., Lirt.D.

Thales of Miletus (in part).

Late Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, Fellow of Trinity

Author of Texts to Illustrate the History —,—_

College, and Fellow of the British Academy. of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle.

H. J. R.

X1

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

HERBERT JENNINGS Rose, M.A.

Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter College, Oxford, 1907-11. Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University, 1911-5. Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27. Author o The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primitive Culture in Greece; Primitive Culture in Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology; etc.

Thesmophoria.

Toulouse (in part).

Major H. L. AUBREY-FLETCHER, D.S.O., M.V.O. Late Grenadier Guards.

Author of A History of the Footguards to 1856.

ke gapa

H. L. C.

HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, C.B.E., M.A., LL.D., E.R.S.

Thermodynamics Thermometry; Vaporization.

H. L. O.

HERBERT Levi Oscoop, A.M., Pa.D.

i i United States of America

Professor of Physics, Imperial College of Science, London.

Late Professor of History, Columbia University.

Author of The American Colonies

in the Seventeenih Century; etc.

(in part).

i

}

H. M.

Howarp L. MINGos.

H. MacC.

Henry MacCormac, C.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P.

H. M. C.

Hector Munro CHapwicx, M.A., Hon.D.Lirt., Hon.Lu.D., F.B.A. University.

H. My.

and Traffi K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E. braffic BRIGADIER-GENERAL SIR HENRY Percy Maysury, G.B.E., rafiic and Araile of Transport. President of the Institute of Ministry

H. N. H. R.

H. St. J.B.P.

Special Writer, New York Times.

Transport by Air.

Co-author of The Zeppelins.

:

Physician, Skin Department, and Lecturer on Dermatology, Author of various articles on Dermatology and Pathology.

Middlesex Hospital. +Urticaria.

Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Cambridge of Clare College. Formerly University Lecturer in Scandinavian. in Anglo-Saxon Institutions; The Heroic A ge; etc.

Head of Roads Soe Tpanepore.

Department,

Regulations (in part).

H. Nisset, F.T.I. Design. Textile Technologist and Consultant. Author of Grammar of Textile Be eee ae ose et i cere oekSere M.A., atime SIR Physic, Universityof Camysician-in-Ordinary to the King. Regius Professor of Royal College of Phybridge. Consulting Physician to the Royal Navy. President, sicians, 1922-6.

H. T.T.

H. W.C. D.

H. W. P.

H. W. V.T.

}Tweed

q

. Therapeutics.

Joint-Editor (with Sir Clifford Allbutt) of A System of Medicine.

, I.C.S.(retired). H. St. Joun Bripcer Purrsy, C.I.E., B.A., F.R.G.S. Author and Chief British Representative, Trans-Jordan, 1921-4.

pTrans-Jordan.

Explorer in Arabia

Arabia; etc. of The Heart of Arabia; Arabian Mandates; The Truth about

H. S. W.

Thor

Fellow Author of Studies

SPESE

po

a

(in part);

HENRY SEELY WHITE.

New York, Professor of Mathematics, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie,

F.inst.P.,

PRS.

} :

Trigonometry.

;

}

C.B., A.F.C., F.R.AES., Industrial Research, since 1927. Thermochemistry. Permanent Secretary, Department of Scientific and f Henry Wirram CarLEsSS Davis, C.B.E., M.A. of Balliol (Theobald Tutor and Fellow hy, Biograp l Nationa of ary Late, Director of the Diction ý . Fellow of All Souls, OxCollege, Oxford, and Regius Professor of Modern History i C. W. H. Davis, article: hical ford, 1895-1902. See the biograp Henry Tuomas Tzar,

}Tortoise. , H. W. PARKER, B.A. London. , Museum History Natural , Assistant in the Department of Zoology O.B.E., M.A., Litt.D., E.B.A. Mayor HAROLD WILLIAM VAZEILLE TEMPERLEY, s (in part) Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. Mili- Treatie University Reader in Modern History and of Executive of International tary Adviser at Peace Conference, Paris, 1919. Member ion. Historical Congress and of Historical MSS. Commiss

3

Theotocopuli, Domenico; Titian (in part); Uccello, Paolo. }Tirol (i

I. A. R.

Irma A. RICHTER. Artist.

I. F. D. M.

Ian F. D. Morrow,

I.G. M.

ISADORE GILBERT Mupce, Pu.B., B.L.S. ity. Editor, Kroeger’s Guide to Study ona | Universities (in part). Reference Librarian at Columbia Univers raphy. Bibliog ity Univers ia Columb Use of Reference Books; Statistics (in ae Isapor Lusin, A.B. Pu.D. part). Washington.

I. L.

PH.D.

e, Dublin. Formerly Senior Moderator, Trinity Colleg

J. A. Fa.

tion, Economist, Institute of Economics of The Brookings Institu James A. FARRELL.

J. A. Ho.

JoHN ATKINSON HOBSON, M.A.

President, United States Steel Corporation.

o

in the New State; Work and Wealth; A Author of The New Protectionism; Taxation nt; etc. loyme Unemp of mics Human Valuation; Econo

irol

(in pari)

ee States Steel

Corporation.

Unemployment.

Xi J. A. Th.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OFs CONTRIBUTORS

sir Joun Artaur THomson, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. Gifford Lecturer, St. Andrews, 1915. Terry Lecturer, Yale University, 1924. Author of The Study of Animal Life; Ouilines of Zoology; Heredity; Darwinism and Human Life; What Is

Man?;

Concerning Evolution.

Joint-Author

(with Professor

Patrick

Geddes)

Tropisms

:

of

Evolution; Sex; Biology.

J. B. Mu.

James Bass MuLiincer, M.A.

J.C. E.

J. C. Eopert, Po.D., LL.D.

J. C.H.

Ricut Rev. Joun Curupert Heptrey, O.S.B., D.D.

J. C. Mi.

J. C. MitcHett, J.P., F.C.LS.

J. F.C. F.

COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B.E., D.S.O.

J. F. G. P. J. F.-K.

J. F. G. Price, C.B. Principal Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Labour, London. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Litt.D., F.R.HIstT.S.

J. G. B.

J. G. Buttocks, M.A.

J. G. Be.

J. Goutp Brarn,

J. G. Ho.

J. G. HORNER, A.M.I.M£ECE.E.

J. Gra.

Joux GRAHAM, L.T.S.C.

J. H.

Joun HILTON.

Late Lecturer in History, St. John’s College, Cambridge.

Seay

ge

.

.

ce

Author of History of the pUniversities (in part).

University of Cambridge; The Schools of Charles the Great; etc.

J. Hac.

J. H. B. J. H. Br.

J. H. L.

J- J. M. J. J. P.

Professor of Latin and Director, University Extension, Columbia University. of Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions; etc.

Late R.C. Bishop of Newport.

Secretary and Treasurer of The Underground Railways Company of London Limited.

Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, University of Liverpool. Author of A History of Spanish Literature.

'

:

Underground Electric Railways Company of London Limited.

Pae apioymen Insurance (in part). 4 : Valera y Alcalá Galiano, Juan.

M.Sc., A.I.C.

Chemist, Messrs. Walter Carson & Sons, Battersea, London.

l

Toulon (in part); Tr aa art). :

Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

» The Battle of (in

}Varnish.

Tool

Late Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning. Chairman of the Tonic Sol-Fa Association.

Tonic Sol-Fa.

Trusts;

Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London.

| Unemployment Statistics (im part).

JAN: Conservateur, Musée Guimet, Paris. Josera H. BONNEVILLE, A.M. Department of Banking and Finance, New York University School of Commerce. James HENRY BREASTED, A.M., Pa.D., LL.D., D.LItrv. Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History, University of Chicago. Joun How Lanp LatHrop, D.D. Pastor, First Unitarian Congregational Church, Brooklyn, New York. James Josera Marron, M.A. Warden of Toynbee Hall. Hon. Secretary of Trade Boards Advisory Council. Joun J. PERsHING, G.C.B.

General, United States Army (retired). Chief of Staff, United States Army, 1921-4. Commander-in-Chief, American Expeditionary Forces in Europe, 1917-9.

Jessrz L. WESTON, Litt.D. Author of Arthurian Romances. Joun Murray Atwoop, M.A., D.D.

J. M. La.

J. M. Lanois, A.B., LL.B., S.J.D.

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Librarian of New College, Oxford. General Secretary, British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Dean, Theological Department, St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y. Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School.

Court of the United States. James Morratt, M.A., D.D., D.Litt.

Tibetan Art.

Transfer (in part). Tutenkhamon.

Unitarianism

(in part).

Toynbee Hall. United States of America (in i) Patt) = °

SF ee ee Ee a

ees States of America (in part). | Thessaly; Troy and Troad (in part). }Tristan or Tristram.

.

i

,

}Universalist Church. Treason (in part);

Author of The Business of the Supreme fTrust and Trustees (in part);

Washburn Professor of Church History in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Professor of Church History, United Free College, Glasgow, 1915~27. Yates Pro-

fessor of Greek and New Testament Exegesis, Mansfield College, Oxford, rg11-5.

J. Pr.

.

(in

ing; etc.

J.L. W. J. M. At.

J- P. P.

-

Extension

Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General Staff Thapsus, Battle of: Officer, Tank Corps, 1917~8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley. Author of Tyre Gn art) ? Tanks in the Great War; The Reformation of War; Sir John Moore's System of Trainyt pari).

J. L. My.

J. Mof.

a $

|Transubstantiation (in part).

Author of The Holy Eucharist; etc.

Jurrus Kren, M.Litr., Px.D. 2 Director, United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.A.

J. Kle.

Author

Usury.

T

Timothy or Timotheus; Titus.

Author of Critical Introduction to New Testament Literature; etc.

J. P. Posteate, M.A., Litt.D., F.B.A.

Late Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool, Fellow of Trinity College, |Textual Criticism;

Cambridge, and Editor of the Classical Quarterly. Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus f Tibullus, Albius (in part). Poetarum Latinorum; etc. : ` JosepH PRoupMAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Applied Mathematics and Director of the Tidal Institute, University of >Tides. Liverpool.

INITIALS J. R. B.

AND

NAMES

J. R. Bond, M.B.E., M.Sc., N.D.A.

Agricultural Organiser for Derbyshire.

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

X111

Contributor to the Journal of the Ministry of} Turnip(in part).

Agriculture.

J. Rm.

J. Ramszottom, O.B.E., M.A.

Assistant Keeper of Botany, s any, British Museum (Natural Histo ry). Secretary of the Linnean Society. Co-editor of the Journal and Transactions of the British Mycological Society.

J. S. F.

Sır Jonn Suru Frerr, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

J. T. McG.

Joux TERENCE McGovern, LL.B.

J. U.

JOSEPH URBAN. Architect, Decorator and Scenic Designer.

J. W. E.

JOHN WILLIAM HENRY Evre, M.D., M.S., F.R.S.E.

T

rufa

S:

Tonalite;

Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University.

of Practical Geology. >Trachyte; Tuff.

Lawyer, and Promoter of Public Recreation and Counsellor to Carnegie Foundation (Track and Field Sports. for the Advancement of Teaching.

}Theatre (in part).

Author of A Book of Theatres.

Director of Bacteriological Department, Guy’s Hospital, London and Lecturer in Vaccine Therapy. Bacteriology in the Medical School.

London.

Professor of Bacteriology in the University of

Hunterian Professor of Royal College of Surgeons, 1911-2.

J. Wil.

James Wirrra[ms, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.

K. M.

KENNETH MacGowan, S.B.

K. N. L.

K. N. LLEWELLYN. Professor of Law, Columbia University, New York.

L. C. M.

Sır Leo Cmiozza Money, F.R.STAT.S., E.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. |Union-Castle Mail Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the TonSteamship Co., Ltd.

Torture (in part). Formerly All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow | of Lincoln College. Author of Wills and Succession; etc. Director, Greenwich Village Theatre (1925-27). Author, The Theatre of Tomorrow; etc.

Valuation and Valuers (in part).

nage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, dustries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

L. H. D. B.

Engineering and In-

| rack

L. H. DupLEY BUXTON, M.A.

Reader in Physical Anthropology 1in the University of Oxford.

Turks (in part); Ur.

L.T.G.

Thorite ;

L. J. Spencer, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S. Keeper of Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South

Formerly Scholar of Sydney Sussex College, Editor of The Mineralogical Magazzine.

Cambridge

Kensington. | Topaz;

and Harkness

Scholar. | Torbernite; Tourmaline.

Laura T. Grices, A.B.

Wife of Robert T. Griggs, the discoverer of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes and Author of The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes.

L. V.

LUIGI VILLARI.

L. Wo.

Leo Worman, A.B., PH.D.

M. A. J.

M. A. Jur, M.S., Pu.D

M. C. B.

Mites C. Burkitt, M.A., F.S.A. Lecturer for the Board of Archaeological and Anthropological Studies, Cambridge

On the secretariat of the League of Nations, 1920-3. and Couniry; The Awakening of Italy; etc.

Association.

Senior Poultry Husbandman, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington.

M. E. P.

MARLEN EDWIN PEw. . Editor of The Editor and Publisher, New York.

M.G.

Moses GASTER, Pu.D.

M. Re.

Max REINHARDT. German Theatrical Producer.

N. A.

Nets ANDERSON, M.A.

A.

Trade Unions (in part). Unemployment (in part).

Insurance

}Turkey (in part). Typology.

Representative of }untouchables United Press Associations.

Vice-President, Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Historical Society. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; etc.

Jewish | vacareseu

Producer of The Miracle; Oedipus Rex; etc.

Department of Soci ology, Columbia University, New York.

T.

of Ten Thousand

Smokes.

Author of Prehistory.

James ScorcrE MEsTON, 1sT BARON MEsToN, K.C.S.1., LL.D. Lieut.-Governor, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, 1912-17. India, Imperial War Cabinet and Conference, 1917.

N.

~alley

Author of Italian Life in Town Ņruscany (in part).

Director of Research, Amalgamated Clothing Workers Research Staff, National Bureau of Economic Research. Associate Editor, Journal of the American Statistical

University.

Turkey (in part);

Author of Peoples of pTurkomans;

Asia,

L. J. S.

Theatre (in part).

Author of The Hobo.

Nicoitas A. TRANSEHE. Former Commander in the Russian Navy. Member of the staff of the American Geographical Society. Author of Problems of Polar Research; etc.

Norman BEL GEDDES. Scenic Artist.

Designer of The Miracle; The School for Scandal; etc.

|

|Theatre (in part).

}Vagrancy (in part). Tierra del Fuego.

Theatre (im part).

X1V

N. E. C.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

;

epee

n

NORMAN E. Ta Statistical

OF CONTRIBUTORS London.

Correspondent to The Financial Times,

Member of the

Counci

.

Joint Author of Ciare’s A. B. C. of the Foreign

of the Royal Statistical Society.

Transfer (in pari).

Exchanges.

NicHoLas Murray Butter, Px.D., Lirt.D., LL.D. President, Columbia University, New York. Author of The Meaning of Education;

, E . Universities (in part).

Building the American Nation; Philosophy; etc.

N. M. FENNEMAN, A.B., PH.D.

;

;

i

Professor of Geology, University of Cincinnati. Author of Physiographic Divisions|itedae of America (in

of the Untted States.

NoRMAN Mosley PENZER, M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.

‘`

7

en te

Author of Cotton in British West Africa; The Tin Resources of the British Empire; The PTin (in part). Mineral Resources of Burma; Non-Ferrous Metals and other Minerals; etc.

NoEL TANCRED WuHITEREAD, M.B., B.S. Major, R.A.M.C.

Late Government

l

4

Bacteriologist, Wellcome Tropical Research jee

Fever.

Laboratory, Khartoum.

N. Vincent Srpcwick, O.B.E., M.A., F.R.S. Reader in Chemistry, Oxford University. Fellow and Lecturer in Natural Sciences, Lincoln College, Oxford.

-Valency.

Author of Electronic Theory of Valency; etc.

O. HALECKI, D.PH.

ea

Professor of History in University of Warsaw. Austrian Correspondent International Commission of Intellectual Co-operation, Geneva.

Orro HOLSTEIN.

.

7

Secretary, American Chamber of Commerce of Mexico; Secretary-Treasurer,

Asso-

Trujillo.

ciación de Empresas [Industriales y Comerciales, Mexico.

;

OwEN WILLANSsS RICHARDSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S,

,

Yarrow Research Professor of the Royal Society and Director of Research in Physics at King’s College, London. Formerly Wheatstone Professor of Physics, King’s College. Author of The Emission of Electricity from Hot Bodies; etc.

P. A.

PERCY ALDEN, ee

m

i

COLONEL PETER DARVINGOFF.

P. Gm.

PrErcy Groom, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Late Chief of the Staff of the Occupation Forces in Serbia (1917-8). of the Macedonian Voluntary Corps (1912-3).

P. M. H.

Author of Diary of a Working Farmer. Author of The Gasoline Automobile,

R. A. FISHER, D.Sc.

RALPH ALLEN SAMPSON, M.A., F.R.S. Astronomer-Royal, versity.

R. B. Ha.

Scotland.

Formerly Professor of Mathematics,

Author of Tables of the Four Great Satellites of Jupiter; etc.

Uni-

Ricsard B. HALL.

R.C.G.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL R. C. Grant, O.B.E.

R. C. J.

SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, O.M., LL.D., D.C.L.

Public Orator, Cambridge University, 1869-75, and Professor of Greek, 1889-1905 Author of Translations into Greek and Latin; etc. See the biographical article: JEBB SIR RICHARD C.

RosertT Dowson, M.Inst.C.E.

R. E. J.

Engineer, Messrs. C. A. ROBERT EDMOND JONES.

Parsons

R. Frrts, M.A., Px.D. Member of the Polynesian Society.

Newcastle-on-Tyne

Author of Primitive Economics of the New Chief of Bureau of Navigation, Washington.

Sır ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Author of The Language and Literature of China; The Life of Jenghiz Khan; ete.

R. M.F.

iTitle Insurance or Guarantee of Title.

|

Thucydides (ix part). Turbine: Steam.

Theatre (in part).

RIcHARD HENRY LEIGH.

Rear-Admiral, United States Navy.

R. K. D.

Works,

American Theatrical Designer. Zealand Maori.

R. H. Le.

Co., Ltd., Heaton

>Time Measurement.

Toc H.

General Secretary of Toc H.

R. Do.

>Tractors.

\ Durham

Executive Secretary, The American Title Association, Kansas City.

R.F.

}Thrashing or Threshing.

Twins and Twinning.

Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

R.A.S.

i

Timber.

P. M. Hetopt, B.E.E. Engineering Editor of Automotive Indusiries. Its Design and Construction,

R. A. F.

. Vagrancy (in part).

,

Primrose McConneLL, B.Sc., F.G.S. Member of the Royal Agricultural Society.

ý

Chief of Staff pTurkey (în part).

Professor of Technology of Woods and Fibres, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Author of Trees and Their Life Histories; etc.

P. McC.

Thermionics

3

Warden of Mansfield House Settlement, 1891-1901. Hon. Warden, 1901. Hon. Secretary of the Settlements Association and Chairman of British Institute of Social Service.

P. Da.

he

of the pUniversities (in part).

; e aA E graphical Association, Aberystwyth. from Many Lands; Stories from the Early World; etc.

Author of Ancient Tales

Trade, Primitive. |Uniforms (in part). iTséng Kuo-Fan.

Uralsk Area aaa . e

INITIALS ROBERT : NISBET BAINPs Assistant

Librarian,

AND Ta

British

NAMES

Museum,

OF

1883-1909.

CONTRIBUTORS ,

Author

of Scandinavia:

XV

Toll, Johan Kristoffer, Tolstoy, Petrandreevich; T ordenskjold, i ; Peder (în

The

part);

Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, es Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469-

verse

(

; Canes iin part);

1706; etc. 9

T (in (4 part); ; Valdemar II. Valdemar IV.

R. Ry.

ROBERT RrpGway, A.M., M.S. Chief Engineer, Board of Transport, New York City. Past-President, American So- pTunnel.

R.S. M.

R. S. MorRELL, M.A., PH.D., F.I.C.

R. S. Pn.

RALPH SNEYD PEARSON, C.E.I., F.L.S. Director, Forest Product Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough, Bucks.

ciety of Civil Engineers.

7

Research Chemist at Messrs. Mander Bros., Ltd., Wolverhampton. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Ultramarine;

Formerly

Varnishes, Chemistry of (71 part).

i Timber Preservation.

For-

merly Forest Economist at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, India.

R. U.S.

R. U. Sayce, M.A.

S. Ca.

STANLEY Casson, M.A., F.S.A.

Lecturer in Material Culture and Physical Anthropology in the University of Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in Geology and Geography, University College, Natal.

Fellow of New College and Reader in Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Assistant Director at the British School carried out by the British Academy Thrace and Illyria; Ancient Greece.

S. Che.

SHELDON CHENEY, A.B.

S. C. I.

S. C. Isaacs, B.A., LL.B.

S. H. M.

>Transvaal (in part).

Classical Archaeology in the University of German Archaeological Institute. Sometime at Athens, and Director of the Excavations at Constantinople. Author of Macedonza,

Turkey (in part). ~~ —~

Founder of the Theatre Aris Magazine and Editor until 1921. Author of The Art of Theatre (în part). the Theatre; Stage Decoration; etc.

Of the Inner Temple and Midland Circuit, Barrister-at-Law. Jardine Student of the Inner Temple. Author of The Laws Relating to Theatres, Music Halls and Other Public Entertainments.

SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE, M.A., D.Sc.

Theatres, Law Relating to (in part). U,-—-Y

Lecturer, Manchester College, Oxford. Examiner in Philosophy, Universities of St. | n, Andrews, 1899-1902, London, 1902-6, Edinburgh, 1907-10; in Psychology, Edin- Tithes ;

Unitarianism (in part).

burgh, 1913-6. Lecturer in the University of Manchester, 1911-21. Author of The New Testament and Modern Life; The Price of Progress and Other Essays; The A pocrypha, Its Story and Message; etc.

S. L. C.

r

STEVENSON LYLE CumMINGS, C.B., C.M.G., M.D., LL.D. Colonel, Army Medical Service (retired).

Tuberculosis (in part).

David Davies Professor of Tuberculosis,

University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire.

S. Le.

StuaRT Lewis, A.M., Pu.D.

S. Mo.

STANLEY MORISON.

S. S. R.

Editor of The Fleuron, London. Typographical Adviser to the Lanston Monotype Corporation, London, to the University Press, Cambridge, and formerly to Doubleday Page and Co., New York. Author of Four Centuries of Fine Printing; German Gothic Incunabula; etc.

SAMUEL S. ROBISON. ear-Admiral United States Navy.

Superintendent

T. Ad.

T. E. M.

T. F. H.

Tibur; Trasimenus, Lake;

Tuomas Asusy, D.Lartt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.DB.A.

a

Trebia;

Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of Turner's Visions of| Turin (in part); Rome; The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; Roman Archatecture. Revised and Tuscany (in part) i completed for Press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Prof. Tusculum: 9 : : .

J. B. Plattner).

T. A.A.

Typography.

United States Naval Academy. ~~

of the United States Naval

Academy.

T. A.

Township.

Professor of Law, New Jersey Law School. Author of An Outline of American Federal Government.

Author of numerous archaeological articles.

Tyndaris; Umbria.

THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER.

Ursula, St. (in part).

Author of The Crusade of Richard I.; etc.

tmy

Tuomas ADAMS.

ee toe foe Director of Plans and Surveys of Pana Plan of T= =o viser to Cabinet Canada an Conservation of ning Adviser to the Commission of of Federal Government on Post-War Housing Schemes. First Town Planning Inspector of Local Government Board (now Ministry of Health) of England and Wales, 1909-14.

THOMAS EUGENE MITTEN. President of Mitten Management, Incorporated. systems of Philadelphia and Buffalo.

Tatsot F. Hamrin, B.A., B.ARCH. —

of the transportation

Operator

:

e

Tramway

, (in part).

Tile; Tomb;

_ | Tower; Tracery;

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York.

man, City Plan Committee of the Merchants’ Association, New York. The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

: . Town and City Planning.

Chair-

Author of

Trans e t:

tere: Triumphal ? Arch

Tudor Period.

k

XVI

*

INITIALS

NAMES

AND

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

T.H.

i Tuomas HopcgEIN, B.A. Author of Italy and Her Invaders; Theodoric the Goth; Life of Charles the Great.

T. H. W.

Tomas Hupson Wirrams, M.A., D.Litt. Professor of Greek in the University College of North Wales.

the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS.

3 Vandals (in part).

See

f : Author of The Elegies >Theognis of Megara.

of Theognis; Welsh Handbook to New Testament Greek; etc.

i A Uniforms (in part).

Major T. J. EDWARDS. of The Secretary to the Honours and Distinctions Committee, War Office. inAuthor the Infantry. Perforated Map; The Non-Commisstoned Officer’s Guide to Promotion Srp Tuomas Litrte Heats, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., Sc.D., F.R.S.

. Theodosius.

Trinity College, CamAssistant Secretary to the Treasury, 1907-13. Hon. F ellow ofHistory of Greek MatheA Elements; Euclid’s of Books Thirteen the of Author bridge. matics; etc.

Rev. Taomas Martin Linpsay, LL.D., D.D. Late Principal and Professor of the United Free Church College, Glasgow.

: Author of pThomas A. Kempis.

History of the Reformation; Life of Luther; etc. : THomMAs SECCOMBE, M.A. and Birkbeck Late of Balliol College, Oxford, and Lecturer in History, East London Assistant Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Colleges, University of London. The Age of JohnEditor of Dicttonary of National Biography, 1891—1901. Author of

Tichborne Claimant, The

son; etc.

V. M. Cu.

Victor M. Cutrrer, B.L., M.C.S.

vV. W. B.

Van Wyck Brooks, A.B.

W. A. B.

WYNDHAM A. BEWES.

W. A.G.

United Fruit Company.

ea Sa

President, United Fruit Company, Boston, Mass.

as

Pilgrimage of Twain, Author of America’s Coming of Age; The World of H. G. Wells; The ~ Twain. Mark of Ordeal The Henry James;

i

WILLIAM A. GANOE, M.A.

Major, United States Army.

Trust and Trustees (in part).

Hon. Secretary of the International Law Asso-

Of Lincoln’s Inn, Barrister-at-Law. ciation and of the Grotius Society.

Mark.

+

Executive, Historical Section, American War College,

Washington. Author of The English of Military the United States Army.

Communications;

The History of

,

i

United States of America (in part).

W. A. Or.

?Tropical Agriculture. A. ORTON. WiLram n. Director and General Manager, Tropical Plant Research Foundation, Washingto l

W. A. P.

W. ALISON Puitrres, M.A.

W. B. Pa.

WiraĮm Barcray Parsons, C.E., LL.D., Sc.D. Of the firm of Parsons, Klapp, Brinckerhoff and Douglas, Engineers, New York.

W. C. W. W. D. W. de B. H.

W. D.M.

W. E. A.

Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University. bridge Modern History; etc.

Contributor to The Cam-

Regulations (im part); United States (in part).

UH

W. Camac WILKINSON, M.D., F.R.C.P.

Tuberculin.

Tree Planting.

Keeper of Museums, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. W. DE Bracy HERBERT. Barrister-at-Law. Recorder of Newcastle-under-Lyme. WILLIAM DILLER MATTHEW, A.M., Pu.D., E.R.S.

;

Treason (in part). peed een bomm)

Toxodontia;

Professor of Palaeontology and Director of Museum of Palaeontology, University of Tylopoda. California. Author of various scientific treatises on fossil vertebrates.

W. E. ARMSTRONG. Formerly Lecturer on Social Anthropology, University of Cambridge. Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

Totemism. m~

United States of America

Assistant Editor, Economic Geography.

Special

field of research—agricultural geography and arctic geography.

(in part);

Uxmal.

Chemistry of (in

r

W. E. Wornu{, B.Sc., A.I.C.

part). Technical and Research Chemist, Mander Bros., Ltd., Wolverhampton. . . WILLIAM FEILDEN Crates, M.A. Marks (im part); Late Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple, and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King’s Col- crc

reason (im part).

lege, London. Editor of Archbold’s Criminal Pleading.

W. F. D.

Watter F. Dopp, B.S., PH.D. »

W. Ga.

W. GARSTANG, M.A., D.Sc.

W. H. Cl.

Traffic and Traffic

W. DALLIMORE.

W. ELMER ExBLAW, M.A., Pa.D.

W. F.C.

Treaties (in part).

Professor of Law, Yale University.

Professor of Zoology, University of Leeds. Sır Wurm HENRY CLARK, K.C.S.I., C.M.G., M.A.

High Commissioner in Canada for H.M. Government in Great Britain.

(in part).

}Tunicata.

Comptroller-

General of Department of Overseas Trade, 1917-28. Sometime Private Secretary at Board of Trade.

W. H. P.

Warrace H. PAULL.

W.H.S

W. HOWARD SADGROVE. Managing Director of Messrs. Sadgrove & Co., Ltd., Wholesale Furniture Manu-

Technical Director of the Dunlop Rubber Co., Ltd., Birmingham, England.

facturers and Upholsterers, London.

States of America

m Author of Modern Constitutions; State Government.

Trade

Facilities PNRPRIUES:

}Tyre.

Upholstery.

INITIALS W.K. G.

W

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

K. Grecory, A.M., Pa.D.

urator of the Departments of Comparative Anatomy and Ichthyology, American

Museum of Natural University.

W.L. R.

xvil

History.

Professor of Vertebrate

Author of The Orders of Mammals; etc.

Palaeontology,

Columbia

gul

Ungulata.

WILLIAM L. RODGERS.

W. L. W.

Rear-Admiral, United States Navy (retired). Commander-in-Chief, Asiatic Fleet, Ei n 1918-9. party: Rev. W. L. Warre, M.A., D.D. Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester Uni- +Uzziah. versity. Principal of Hartley College, Manchester.

wW. M.

sae

W. M. B.

W. M. BEARD.

W. McD.

W. M. P.

1

Ot amerea

Mixer. M.A.

on. LL.D. in the National University of Greece. Hon. Student of the British . Archaeological School of Athens. Correspondent of The Morning Post (London) in Thrace (i part). Athens and Rome.

Preece Carbide and Carbon

‘Treasurer, Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation, New York. Witit1amM McDovueatt, M.A., M.B., F.R.S.

Corporation.

Professor of Psychology in Duke University, N. C.; formerly of Harvard University

Trance

and Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow of { ~: f St. John’s College, Cambridge. WARREN M. Persons, B.S., PH.D. Vice-President of the National Investors Corporation. Formerly Professor of Eco- +Trade Forecasts.

W.M. R.

nomics, Harvard University. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

W. M. St.

and Editor of The Germ. Author of Lives of Famous Poets and Memories of D. G.{ m. (in p art), Rossetti. f f Titian (in part). WILLIAM MorTT STEUART, LL.M. jat

W.M. U.

English Author and Critic. One of the Founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood

Director of Census, Washington.

WILBUR M. URBAN, A.B., PH.D. Stone Professor of Philosophy, Valuation:

Urbanization.

Dartmouth

College, Hanover,

Its Nature and Laws; The Intelligible World.

W. P. MacA.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL WILLIAM PORTER MACARTHUR,

W.R. M.

WALTER ROBERT MATTHEWS, M.A., D.D.

N. H.

D.S.O., O.B.E.,

Professor of Tropical Medicine, Royal Army Medical College, London.

Author of pValue, Theory of.

R.A.M.C.

?

W. 5S. Lewis, M.Sc., F.R.GS.

,

>Theism.

See

part).

}Tirol (in part).

Professor of Geography, University College, Exeter.

W. S. L.-B.

es

WILLIAM SHARP. Poet and Man of Letters. Author of volumes of poetical prose under pen name of |Thoreau, Henry David (in “Fiona Macleod.” Author of biographies of Dante Gabriel Rossetti; Heine; etc. the biographical article: SHARP, WILLIAM.

W. S. L.

;

Tropical Medicine.

Dean of King’s College, London. Professor of the Philosophy of Religion, King’s College, since 1918. Author of Studies in Christian Philosophy; etc.

W. S.

Tintoretto, Jacopo Robusti

WALTER SYDNEY LAzARUS-BARLOW, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

:

5

Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Formerly Professor of Ex- |Thrombosis and Embolism;

perimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. |Tongue, Diseases of; Author of A Manual of General Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy and { Tumour; Histology for Students. Editor of the Medicine section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia | Ulcer. Britannica.

W.T. C. W. v. Bud.

Wirrram Tuomas Carman, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Museum,

W. Wa.

Y. K.

Kiel.

W. Warptaw, D.Sc., i F.I.C. ; ee TERN . ; Lecturer in Chemistry, University of Birmingham.

Tungsten;; Uranium.

YOUNGHILL KANG, Ep.M., B.S. Instructor,

Comparative

Literature,

i New

Poetry at Labor Temple School, New York.

X.

EN

Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History). Author of >Trilobita. “Crustacea” in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology. WOLFGANG VON BUDDENBROCK-HETTERSDORF. Professor of Zoology, University of Kiel. Director of the Zoological Institute and >Touch, Sense of.

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

York

University.

Lecturer

on

Chinese [Tonga or Chuntokyo;

°

THE

NCYCLOPAL

BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION

TEXTILES

VOLUME 22 TO VASCULAR

EXTILES, the general name applied to the products of the weaver, the derivation of the word being from L. texere, to weave. For details see the articles under the various fibre headings, such as wool, cotton, silk, flax, jute, artificial silk and cellulose. See also SPINNING, WEAVING, CARDING, COMBING, FINISHING, DyE- ING, etc.

TEXTILES AND EMBROIDERIES.

Inasmuch as “tex-

tile” is a general term for all woven fabrics, and “embroidery” is the ornamentation thereof, it is well, in treating the history and development of the two subjects, to consider the two together. The following sections are made: (1) Europe and the Near East; (2) India; (3) The Far East. EUROPE

AND

THE

NEAR

EAST

Weaving was one of the earliest crafts, if not actually the earliest, practised by primitive mankind. Whether its invention goes back to a time when men were still nomads we cannot say; but at the stage of human development when lake-dwellings were erected threads were already woven into fabrics. Implements for preparing the threads, and fragments of the fabrics themselves, have been found on such sites. There is nothing to show that these stuffs were enriched with a pattern. The first attempts in that direction were probably made by the application of pigments or some sort of simple embroidery. The East is the natural home of patterned fabrics. The Chinese were the first cultivators of the silkworm for the textile threads it provides. Recent excavations have shown that the valley of the Indus is the native home of the variety of the cotton plant still cultivated for weaving purposes. To the valley of the Nile has long been attributed the origin of linen weaving. To one of these regions we should naturally look for the first patterned stuffs.

Egypt and the Crimea.—The earliest known to exist are some linen stuffs from Egypt of the 15th century B.c. (see TAPESTRY). In them pattern-weaving has already reached a highly developed

stage, and far earlier examples may only await the spade of the excavator. For the thousand years which follow we again have nothing in the way of patterned stuffs. The next in chronological sequence come from the graves of Greek colonists in the Crimea, and are now in the Hermitage museum at Leningrad. They are mostly of wool, with woven, painted or embroidered ornamenta-

SYSTEM

tion. The patterns include figures on horse-back, warriors, goddesses, chariots, animals, birds, vines, flowers, anthemion ornament, scrolls, diapers and stripes. A few fragments are of linen; there is one silk stuff of uncertain age, and some of the embroidery is in gold thread. For the most part the graves are of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., but some are earlier and others later. Stuffs of late Graeco-Roman times from the buryinggrounds of Egypt share the common features of Graeco-Roman art then spread around the shores of the Mediterranean. Linen is the principal material, but coloured woollen threads, particularly in purple, are generally used for the ornamentation, and as time passes the whole fabric is sometimes of wool. For early Christian textiles we are still dependent upon Egypt. The Cross, plain or jewelled, and sometimes of the looped form borrowed from an Egyptian hieroglyph, first appears in the 3rd or 4th century, to be followed by Alpha and Omega, the dove and other emblems. A little later, subjects from the Gospels and the Old Testament are found. By this time two significant changes have come about. Embroidery tends to replace woven ornament, and silk becomes a common material. Persia and Syria.— Persia, the land whence came the first silk threads used in the West, now claims attention. From the beginning Persia held the monopoly of the import trade in raw silk from China, and this it long kept, in spite of efforts made to evade it by exploring a northern route round the upper shores of the Caspian and a southern one by sea. The earliest known Persian textiles belong to the time of the Sassanian kings, who ruled from A.D. 211 until the Mohammedan conquest towards the middle of the 7th century. No silk fabrics of that time are now known to exist in Persia, but their nature may be learned from contemporary rock-cut reliefs, representing the royal exploits and amusements. Textile-patterns shown in these are so characteristic, and so faithfully rendered, that with their aid a number of silk stuffs from various sources may be identified. Chief among them is a green silk with a dragon of peculiar design evidently derived from the art of ancient Babylonia and Assyria. It is identical with that on the robe of the Sassanian king Chosroes II. in rockcut reliefs at Tak-i-Bostan near Kirmanshah. The same relief identifies as Sassanian a silk stuff with cocks in roundels, found in the Cappella Sancta Sanctorum in Rome in 1905. Other stuffs of this group are in the cathedral treasury at Sens in France, in

the treasuries of Sion and Saint Maurice d’Agaune in Switzerland, and at Aachen in Germany. Fragments have also been found in the buried sites of the Gobi desert region in Central Asia. ___.,,

2

TEXTILES

AND

A few other silk stuffs of the period are more obviously imbued with the spirit of Greece and Rome, and these may have been woven in Syria. The chief among them, with a pattern of Nereids riding on sea~monsters, is in the church of Notre-Dame de Valére at Sion in Switzerland. Another remarkable example, with a leopard attacking a bowman, is in the treasury of Sens cathedral. One of the finest of all existing early silk stuffs has a pattern of large circles with representations of the Annunciation and the Nativity (Plate V., fig. 3). It was found in the Cappella Sancta Sanctorum in Rome, and it is now in the Vatican museum. Another fragmentary silk of great interest, at Sens, represents the story of the patriarch Joseph. A few silk stuffs with Christian subjects have been found in Egypt, as well as a far larger number of Persian origin. Among the latter, those with bowmen on horseback shooting arrows behind them are typically Persian. Sassanian influence persisted long after Persia had been overrun by the Mohammedans. It is very plainly seen in two remarkable silk stuffs which were carried to Germany in early mediaeval times. One is in the church of St. Ursula at Cologne. It shows a Sassanian king riding on a griffin and slaying a mythical beast. In the other, found in the neighbourhood of Tréves, a Sassanian king holds aloft a lion cub which he has snatched from alioness. This exploit is told of Bahram Gor. The silk is now in the Berlin museum. The most remarkable Persian silk weaving of these times was found in the year 1920 in the church at Saint Josse-

EMBROIDERIES Lower Rhine district, and pieces are now in the Berlin, Diisseldorf and Crefeld museums. The third fabric was placed over the body of the Emperor Charlemagne in his shrine at Aachen. It has a pattern of large circles, each enclosing an elephant, strongly conventionalized and bearing rich jewelled trappings. Along the bottom there is an abbreviated inscription giving the names of certain officials. This stuff is later than the time of Charlemagne; it probably belongs to the end of the roth century. For boldness of design and general splendour these three silk fabrics, woven on the imperial looms of Constantinople in the roth century, are among the chief mediaeval stuffs we now possess. Weavings of this character probably came

to an end with the sack of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204. Sicily and Spain.—It is remarkable that Mohammedan textile art flourished nowhere as it did on European soil, and partly under rulers who were the enemies of Islam. The first Arabic incursions into Sicily took place in the 7th century, and during the course of the 9th century the island fell definitely under Mohammedan rule. Silk and gold stuffs were woven in Sicily in the roth century, but they cannot be distinguished from those woven in other Mohammedan lands. In the year 1to60 the Normans arrived in the island, and the Mohammedans were finally subjugated. Weaving went on very much as before, though with

greater magnificence and luxury, if we may judge from the two imperial robes produced at Palermo in the years 1134 and 1181 sur-Mer near Boulogne, whence it was transferred to the Louvre (described later). The lining of the great mantle is woven in (Plate VIII., fig. 1). It has a large design of elephants, and a silk and gold thread with figures representing the Temptation in string of Bactrian camels for a border. An inscription in Arabic the Garden of Eden, trees, birds, interlacing bands and Arabic letcharacters indicates the province of Khurâsân as the place of tering. A similar stuff, with horsemen, animals, birds and serpents origin, and approximately the year a.D. 960 as the date. is in the tomb of Roger, Norman ruler of Sicily (1072—1111), at Byzantines.—Very little silk weaving (q¢.v.) was done in Palermo. A brocade in pink silk, with a small pattern of gazelles, Europe before the secret of silk-cultivation was learned. Both birds and trees in gold, formed part of the robe in which the Aristotle the Greek in the 4th century z.c., and Pliny the Roman emperor Henry VI. (d. 1197) was buried at Palermo; there is a in the rst century A.D., give an account of the silkworm. Aristotle fragment of this stuff in the British Museum. seems to have gained some knowledge from the soldiers of AlexThe other great centre of Mohammedan weaving in Europe is ander the Great, and apparently he had heard of wild silk, but Spain. There the Arabs landed in the year 711, and within seven neither he nor Pliny knew much about the matter. Heliogabalus years they were masters of the whole peninsula except the north(A.D. 218-222) is said to have been the first emperor to wear a west. By the oth century the weaving of silk fabrics was estabrobe entirely of silk, and Aurelian (270-275) declined to allow lished in Andalusia. A remarkable woven fabric, known as the his wife a silk mantle because of its high cost. “veil of Hisham,” bears the name of Hishâm II., khalif of CórSilk-weaving was already carried on at Constantinople in the doba from 996 to 102r. The material is a thin gauze, and the in4th century, but the industry cannot have been of much impor- scription borders a stripe of ornament woven in silk and gold tance until the eggs of the silkworm were surreptitiously brought thread, similar to the contemporary weavings of Egypt. In the over by Persian monks from China in the reign of Justinian (527— 12th and 13th centuries some remarkable silk and gold fabrics were 565), as Procopius relates, and the long-guarded secret of the woven, with pairs of animals or birds, often in circles. Before the Chinese was exposed. end of the 14th century the peculiar type of arabesque ornament, Constantinople was situated at the junction of two continents, relieved by bold lettering, associated particularly with the decoraand as it was the entrepot of the trade between Europe and Asia, tion of the Alhambra at Granada, began to be seen in silk fabrics. the influence of the East was paramount there. The emperors The colours are bright—red, yellow and blue predominating. Upon maintained their own weaving school in the capital, and some of the final subjugation of the Moors at the end of the rsth century, the stuffs were intended solely for the use of the emperor and and the re-entry of the whole peninsula into Christendom, the skill the court. We learn a little about this from Liutprand, bishop of of the Mohammedan weavers was still employed for producing Cremona, who went to Constantinople in the year 968. He bought stuffs “oeuvrés å la moresque,” but the influence of Italian design some silk stuffs there for Otto I., but five purple stuffs were con- grew as the 16th century advanced. With the rise of the textile fiscated by the officers of the customs, on the plea that they were industry at Lyons French influence began to be felt. Italy and France.—The great textile industry of Italy, though only to be worn by the Byzantines. The bishop protests that he had seen as good stuffs in the Wést, brought by the merchants of much influenced by oriental art, followed a more independent Venice and Amalfi, and he asks why he, a bishop and an emperor’s course than that of Spain. The soil and climate were favourable ambassador, should be treated as no better than a Venetian mer- to the growth of the silkworm, and Italy became the chief centre chant. of that industry in Europe. Looms were set up for weaving the Three very remarkable Byzantine silk weavings are of such his- thread into fabrics. As early as the rath and 13th centuries silk torical importance that a brief description of them must be given. weaving industries were found in the great cities of the north, The first was found in the shrine of St. Anne in the abbey church such as Florence, Venice or Genoa. In the south they grew of Siegburg. Two lions in profile advance towards one another. up as the political upheavals of Sicily led to the migration of Between them is a Greek inscription to the following effect: craftsmen to more peaceful industrial centres. In the 14th cen“Under Romanus and Christophorus, our most Christian rulers.” tury Lucca became famous throughout Europe for its woven stufts. These two emperors ruled jointly at Constantinople from 921 to Silk weaving was also carried on at Venice, Genoa, Vicenza, 931. The two lions with the intervening inscription cover a length Florence, Bologna, Milan, Turin, Siena, Naples, Catanzaro, etc, of about five feet. Perhaps it was a stuff of this kind which formed In the second half of the rsth century Florence had a large numthe subject of Liutprand’s complaint. The second silk is similar, ber of factories, sending stuffs to Rome, Naples, Genoa, Catalonia, but the inscription refers to Constantine and Basil, whose joint Seville, Lyons, Avignon, Antwerp, Turkey and elsewhere. In the rule lasted from 976 to 1025. It was found in a church in the 18th century stuffs were still sent to Holland, Germany, Turkey,

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

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HERBERT

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PONTING

F.R

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(2)

BURTON

HOLMES

FROM

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GALLOWAY,

EMBROIDERERS l. Japanese embroiderers at work in Kyoto, Japan. Theseworkers show great

skill in rendering the pictorial effects favoured by their countrymen

2. Swiss embroiderers working on embroidery-frames outside a shop in Lucerne, Switzerland: Customers are thus enabled to see how the

(3)

AT

PUBLISHERS

PHOTO

SERVICE

WORK work is done

3. Hungarian

needle

woman

displaying

a sample

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of brightly

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TEXTILES Barbary and South America.

AND

The Venetians, too, carried their

operations far afield. It was claimed for them that they studied to suit the colours and quality of their fabrics to the markets for which they were destined, both in Italy, and ‘‘all over the world.” The foundation of the silk-weaving industry in France in the

EMBROIDERIES

3

This important stuff shows some affinities with Byzantine art. In the r6th century velvet brocades recalling the contemporary lobed or “Gothic” patterns of Italy but with a strong oriental bias, were woven in Turkey both for home use and for export. Embroidery.—Like all other crafts, embroidery had its origin

16th century, and its subsequent enormous development, chal-

in the daily needs of humanity. The problem how to join two edges

lenged the Italian monopoly. Italian weavers were attracted to France. At Tours there were numbers of Genoese, and in the early days of the industry at Lyons there were many Genoese and Florentines. Weaving was also carried on in other French towns, but during the 17th century the highly organized industry at Lyons gradually grew until it outstripped the Italians and reached that eminence which it has since maintained throughout Europe. Great Britain.—For many centuries Great Britain was pro-

of a fabric together must have arisen very early, and even a seam, as sO many oriental embroideries show, may be treated decoratively. Once the needle was invented, whether a sharp fish-bone, a thorn, a pointed stick, or a metal wire, the natural instinct to pass the limits of mere utility and to indulge in decoration would make itself felt. A good deal of what has been said above about woven patterns is applicable to embroideries. A few embroideries, mostly in wool, though gold thread occurs as well, were among the stuffs found in Greek graves in the Crimea (see above). One in particular, of the 4th century B.c., shows an Amazon on horseback. In later Roman times embroidery was practised very much in the same way as it is today, as examples from Egypt show. Perhaps the most sumptuous of all mediaeval embroideries is the imperial mantle at Vienna. It is of red silk, with a lion springing upon a camel, worked in gold thread and silk and enriched with pearls and gems. An Arabic inscription round the edge records that it was made at Palermo in Sicily in the year 1134. The design probably has reference to the capture of the island from the Arabs by the Normans, which had then recently taken place. The imperial alb, also at Vienna, has a border of griffins in gold em-

vided with the silks it needed from abroad. Henry VII., when he desired to give some vestments to Westminster Abbey, had

specially woven for him at Florence at great cost some magnificent fabrics of red velvet and cloth of gold with a pattern of

roses and portcullises. One of these vestments is still preserved at Stoneyhurst college (Plate VIII., fig. 3).

In the 16th century much silk was worn in England, but very little was woven, and Italy was still the chief source of supply. In the following century, in a speech from the throne James I. urged mulberry-planting for rearing the silkworm. It was tried,

and foreign weavers were brought in. Silk culture did not prosper, on account of the late spring, but weaving went on, and there were already large numbers employed when the revocation of the

edict of Nantes brought in many thousands more refugees con-

nected with the silk industry. Voltaire, who spent some years in England a generation later, speaks of an entire suburb of London (2.e., Spitalfields) peopled with French manufacturers of silk. Others settled in Soho, Long Acre or Seven Dials. Weaving industries also grew up at Canterbury, Norwich, Sandwich and other provincial towns. It was claimed that the Canterbury stuffs equalled any foreign silk. During the 18th century the brocades of Spitalfields followed pretty closely the work of Lyons, and it is not always possible to distinguish between the two. Although gold and silver thread were made in the parish of St. Giles, Cripplegate, metal threads were not so freely used by the Spitalfields weavers, and patterns tended to be a little simpler. The industry has now left Spitalfields, and subsequent work in East Anglia, though shrunken in output, still

maintains the same high standard of craftsmanship and materials. Persia and Turkey.—When Persia emerged again from alien rule early in the 16th century under the Safidian dynasty, a new era for the arts was inaugurated. The Shahs had their own establishments of craftsmen with a director-general, and overseers for the separate crafts. Some followed the movements of the court, others were settled on the royal estates and in convenient centres. The best materials were supplied, and there was no stint of Jabour or expense. Under such conditions, some of the most remarkable

stuffs ever woven were done in Persia.

The most sumptuous

velvets, with human figures, birds and trees, often on a gold ground, were made (Plate XIV., fig. 2). Brocades represented historical scenes, figures, landscapes, animals, birds and flowers. The floral patterns of Persian stuffs are unsurpassed anywhere in the world. During the 18th century and subsequently, foreign intercourse has led in some degree to the adaptation of European patterns. What is geographically classified as “Turkish” art is not the indigenous art of the once nomad Turkish tribes who ultimately overran Asia Minor and south-eastern Europe and there established a heterogeneous empire. It is the art of the conquered races under Turkish rule. Nevertheless there does gradually emerge, in those lands a unified art, largely under Persian influence, but not altogether unaffected by the relations of the Ottoman Porte with Italy (particularly with Venice) in the 16th and subsequent centuries. A brocade in the Lyons Museum, with a pattern

broidery. An inscription in Latin and Arabic records that it was made at Palermo in 1181.

England was renowned for its embroidery (“opus anglicanum”’) in mediaeval times, and a number of remarkable English vestments are still preserved in England and on the Continent. Embroideries of Elizabethan times show much beauty in design (see Dress). A strong oriental bias, due to trade with the East, is found in the 17th century. The great flowering trees worked in wools are copied from Indian designs. The 18th century maintained the standard of earlier times, and much has been done of late years to encourage this beautiful craft. French mediaeval embroidery has much of the sweetness and grace that we should expect to find. Later work has reflected the various influences which have moulded French art. Early Spanish work has Mohammedan characteristics. In later times, embroidery in the peninsula runs parallel with the Italian, but there is a tendency towards greater elaboration and brighter colours. The influence of Italy became widespread through its pattern-books for embroidery and lace-work, copies of which were carried to other countries and sometimes reproduced. In the Netherlands the work of the great schools of painting which arose in the 15th century is reflected in embroidery. The embroidery of Germany

and Scandinavia is largely domestic in character. In the islands of the Aegean, peasant. embroidery has reached a stage of development, hardly matched on the continent of Europe. The embroideries are mostly in silk upon linen, for dress and domestic use. Different islands have their own distinctive patterns. In Turkey and Persia embroideries have followed a parallel course to woven fabrics, and similar motives are used. A great deal of embroidery in silk and metal threads upon linen scarves, and towels was done in Turkey during the rgth century. Much white-work has been done in Persia. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Victoria and Albert Museum

catalogues; I. Errera,

Catalogue d’Etoffes (1907 etc.); R. Cox, L’art de décorer les tissus

(1900) ; M. Dreger, Kunstlerische Entwicklung der Weberez (1913) ; O. von Falke, Kunstgeschichte der Weberei (x913); J. Lessing, Gewebe-

sammlung

(1900—09);

A Book

of Old Embroidery

(1921);

L. de

Farcy, La Braderie du XẸFe Siècle jusqu'à nos jours (Angers, 1890; sup-

plement 1900) ; Spanish Art, Burlington Magazine Monee PhLu i

INDIA Indian textiles have been famous from remote ages. Cotton was known to the Babylonians as s7mdhu, to the Greeks as sindon, and of pairs of lions within roundels, in gold thread on a red silk the natural inference as to its origin has been lately confirmed by ground, has an Arabic inscription giving the name of Kai Kubad, the discovery at Mohenjo Daro, in the Sindh valley, of true cotton the Seljuk Turk, sultan of Iconium (Konieh) in Asia Minor in the (Gossypium) fabric dating from the 3rd millennium B.c. It was not until the 13th century that the plant was introduced into early years of the 14th century.

4

TEXTILES

AND

southern Europe. Imitations of Indian cotton were first made in Manchester in the 17th century, but the imported material held its ground. Numerous English names of cotton fabrics are of Indian origin: calico from Calicut, cramoisy from the kermes insect, chintz from Hindi chint, cita, meaning spotted or varie-

EMBROIDERIES may even be double-dyed so as to appear of different colours back and front. For the various methods of applying a dye or dyes locally to produce a coloured design on a finished fabric, see below. Block

Printing

and

Painting.—These

processes

range

in

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gated, bandana from bandhnd, the process of tie-dyeing, shawl from Hindi sa/d. From the most ancient times plain and decorated cottons of all sorts have been used in untailored lengths to form the principal elements of wearing apparel—dhozz or lower piece, dupatta or scarf, and pagri or turban, and the saérz (draped robe) or ghagra (skirt) worn by women. Perhaps the most famous weaves are those of Dacca, including both decorated fabrics of some strength, and the filmy undyed muslins (malmal) known rN rh by such poetical names as “running water,” “woven air,” and R NG =: y “evening dew”; the last named may be woven of yarn so fine as ry j to require 250 m. of it to weigh a pound, and as much as Rs. 500

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BY COURTESY OF (2) THE AUSTRIAN TOURIST OFFICE, LTD , WAY, (4) THE LONDON NEWS AGENCY PHOTOS,

EXTERIORS 1. The

Opera

House,

Paris,

period of Louis Napoleon.

erected

GERMAN RAILROADS INFORMATION PHOTOGRAPHIC AGENCY

(3, 12) THE (6) GENERAL

19TH

OF

in the

1861-75,

Architect, Charles Garnier.

court

20TH

AND style

of the

2. The Burgtheater,

Vienna, an elaborate structure of classic 19th century type, housing the Architects, Semper of central Europe. repertory company outstanding

and Hasenauer.

3. View of the State Theatre, Stuttgart, showing the facade

of the larger of the two auditoriums contained

in the single unit building

which fronts the lake in the park. Architect, Max Littmann. 4. Model of the prize-winning design for the Shakespeare Memoria! Theatre, Stratford-onAvon, England. Architect, Elizabeth Scott. 5. A project for a theatre by Frank Lloyd Wright, ptoneer among modern American architects. He con-

ventionalizes very frankly the exterior expression the

house.

6.

erected 1904—05.

Back

view

of the

of the inner divisions of

Schauspielhaus,

Architect, B. Sehring.

Dusseldorf,

Germany,

7. The Carlton Theatre, London,

an exterior designed in a prevailing British mode, and crowded between neighbouring houses, like most American and British commercial theatres. &. The Ziegfield Theatre, New York city, a musical comedy house, frankly

OFFICE,

CENTURY theatrical

(7)

“THE

BUILDER,”

THEATRE in treatment,

(11)

MAX

LITTMANN,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

EWING

GALLO-

the

massive

Urban.

9. The

(1)

BUILDINGS with

the

proscenium

curve of the lower part of the facade.

in

symbolized

Architect, Joseph

Guild Theatre, New York city, housing the offices and club rooms of the Theatre Guild, as well as its stage and auditorium. The stage house con-

tinues the period of the facade.

Architect, C. Howard

Crane.

10. Projected

opera house and studio building for New York city, designed to harmonize

a large theatre with the prevailing skyscraper architecture of New York. 11. Kunstler Theater, Munich, a simple and Architect, Joseph Urban. thoroughly modern fagade designed before the war for a theatre in an exposition park. Architect, Max Littmann. 12. The Kroll Opera House, Ber-

lin, a severe design in keeping with the conventional

yet not too much

Kaufmann.

at variance with

its modernist

architecture of Berlin,

interior.

Architect,

Oskar

13. The Play House, Cleveland, O., one of the “little theatres”

of America, containing along with workshops, Bacon Rowley

two auditoriums, one seating 500, the other 200, offices, etc. Architects, Philip Small and Charles

THEATRE

PLATE III

ihu

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STAN a A ineSie e AD

BY

COURTESY

iT

OF

(1,

2,

3)

THE

GERMAN

RAILROADS

INFORMATION

BUREAU,

(8)

MAX

INTERIORS 1, 3. The Capitol Theatre,

Berlin, a German

motion

picture house,

LITTMAN,

OF

PHOTOGRAPHS,

MODERN

illus-

trative of the simple expression prevalent in contemporary German design. Changing light and colour on broad surfaces contribute most of the decorative effect. Architect, Hans Poelzig. 2. Titania Palace, Berlin, a motion picture house in which the successive elliptic arches of the proscenium and the modern lighting form the chief decorative feature. The seating arrangement, with a centre aisle, is contrary to the usual German manner. Architect, Stegnitz. 4. Roxy Theatre, New York city, a motion picture theatre with a seating capacity of 6,100, at the time of its construction the largest in the world. The Plateresque decoration follows the over-ornate fashion popular in American film houses. Architect, Walter Ahlschlager. 5Proscenium of a projected opera house for New York city. The introduction

(4)

COPR

TEBBS

AND

KNELL,

INC.

THEATRES

of the side

stages

behind

open

colonnades

provides

for the spectacular

pageantry of traditional opera and affords direct control of the choruses and stage music by a single conductor. The psychological effect of close contact between audience and performers of the classic theatre is also achieved by

this means.

Architect, Joseph

Urban.

6. Model

of Oskar Strnad’s projected

theatre, showing the auditorium as seen from one segment of the stage which is a doughnut-shaped, movable ring surrounding the auditorium. 7. The Allen Theatre, Cleveland, O., a motion picture theatre without a stage. Architect, C. Howard Crane. &. The Kunstler Theatre, Munich. The floor slants steeply and the seating arrangement is that commonly used tn Ger-

many, each row forming Architect, Max Littmann

an aisle leading to side walls with

many

doors.

GENERAL PLANNING]

THEATRE

in circus buildings into the finally realized Grosses Schauspielhaus in Berlin (Hans Poelzig, arch.). Here he came close to the true

conditions of the classic stage, with the actors appearing on a semi-circular orchestra floor almost in the midst of the spectators, and then retreating up steps to a completely equipped stage with sky-dome, revolving stage, and all the modern appurtenances. The son of Steele MacKaye, Percy MacKaye, realized many of the values his father had planned in his open air performances of “masques” at St. Louis, New York and Cambridge, Mass., between 1912 and 1927. Copeau’s Theatre.—At the opposite extreme in size, Jacques Copeau created in the Théâtre du Vieux Colombier, Paris, a playhouse which united the ac: tors on a naked architectural . stage with an audience seated i within auditorium walls that continued back unbroken by any proscenium to make the walls of SECTION

AND

PLAN

OF THE Rezy.

the stage itself.

HARDT THEATRE, NEW YorK city, DESIGNED BY JOSEPH URBAN,

plans of Poelzig. Radical Projects.—Radical designs, which are as yet largely projects, include those of the distinguished American pioneer architect, Frank Lloyd Wright. Norman-Bel Geddes has devised a remarkable theatre with the stage in one corner, the whole auditorium and playing floor surrounded by a single dome of light. He has also devised a long rectangular playhouse with the action

The Théâtre du

Marais, Brussels (Louis Jouvet, arch.), and other projects were

ARCHITEGT

29

offshoots from this pattern.

FROM WASMUTH, “MONATSHEFTE FUR BAUKUNST” PROJECT OF A CIRCULATORY STAGE IN A THEATRE, STRNAD, VIENNA

DESIGNED

BY OSKAR

Non-tealistic Theatres.—The stimulus of trying to give Shakespeare’s plays as he wrote them and not garbled and condensed to fit the modern realistic theatre has resulted in a number of attempts to revive the conditions of the Shakespearean stage on the stage of an ordinary theatre. This has brought back can-

passing on a stage stretching down the middle from end to end, and with the audience on both sides, as well as a circular playhouse with the stage in the centre, a scheme suggested by Robert Edmond Jones’s project for Shelley’s The Cenc in a prize ring.

vas make-believe, the portals English theatres rejoiced in a sented as part of the scenery, and the auditorium have now

including a scheme by Friederich Kiesler for two opposing auditoriums sharing the same stage. One of the most remarkable is Oskar Strnad’s circular theatre with the audience seated in the centre and the big ring of the revolving stage coming into view a segment at a time. Out of all these attempts and projects, a really healthful new theatre is slowly but surely developing. It will not reach its full maturity until actors can enter naturally and easily from the auditorium as well as from the stage and step down from their own level to the level of the spectators. When every division between the world of the actors and the world of the spectators is eliminated, and when those who give and those who receive are —in the spirit of the classic theatre—once more surrounded by

of proscenium doors which all century ago. First merely reprethese means of linking the actor been built into the actual pro-

sceniums of many new houses, especially in the “little theatres” built here and there about the United States. Some such theatricalizing of the stage is present in the Werkbund Theater, Cologne (Van de Velde, arch.), with its tripartite division of the

Variants on the usual relations of stage and audience are many,

the walls of the same room, then and only then will it be possible to meet completely all the demands not alone for proper acoustics and proper visibility, but for purely spiritual pleasure achieved without hampering physical effort.

oe E e

TP

i ee gad eeee TT|

eee CREAT ATT

|Ci

Ea

F

iini

FROM WASMUTH, “MONATSHEFTE FUR BAUKUNST” SECTION OF A THEATRE DESIGNED BY OSKAR STRNAD,

BrsuiocrapHy.—P. Zucker, Theater und Lichispielhiuser (1926); R. W. Sexton and B. F. Betts, American Theatres of Today; W Springer, Das Gesicht des Deutschen Theaters; M. Hammitzsch, Der Moderne Theaterbay (Teil I. 1903) ; E. O. Sachs and E. A. Woodward, Modern Opera Houses and Theatres (1896-98) ; M. Semper, “Theater,” Handbuch der Architektur (1904); H. K. Moderwell, The Theatre of Today; E. Moritze, Das Antike Theater; K. Macgowan, The Theatre of Tomorrow; Theatre Aris Magazine, 1916-23 (now Theatre Arts Monthly) ; Theatre Arts Monthly, 1924. (J. U)

GENERAL VIENNA

stage, and in A. and G. Perret’s and A. Granet’s theatre in the

Arts Décoratives exhibition in Paris. But certainly the handsomest playhouse of a formal and ultra-theatrical sort is the Theater in

der Redoutensaal, Vienna (Sebastien Heinrich, arch.), a stage with permanent walls but no proscenium or fiy gallery, set down in a ballroom of Maria Theresa. From productions in this house Reinhardt turned to the rejuvenation of a lovely old Viennese

theatre, the Josephstaedter, and then created in Salzburg in the Reitschule a non-realistic playhouse which he hopes finally to replace by a magnificent, neo-classic festival theatre from the

PLANNING

Real development in modern theatre architecture started in the latter part of the roth century and each year has brought added progress in planning and designing. Theatres ro years old are out of date, while some 20 years old are practically obsolete. From the point of view of construction, new methods due to the advent of modern steel framing, progress made in the science of

lighting (see Stage Design) and the necessary adherence to present day building codes have been a few of the potent factors in this advancement. Changing social and economic conditions continue to affect the theatre and its planning radically. The old style theatre with posts and horse-shoe balconies is gone. The theatres of only a few years ago containing a balcony and gallery

53

THEATRE

[GENERAL

PLANNING

are now “old fashioned.” The modern theatre consists of a lower floor, or orchestra level, and one large sloping balcony. Sometimes a small mezzanine or loggia is placed between the lower floor and balcony. Every seat must be so situated as to have an unobstructed view of the stage. The auditorium floor and balconies must have the proper curve or incline, to ensure proper ‘sight lines.” The acoustic problem must be worked out so that each patron will hear distinctly; to accomplish which methods that eliminate as much as possible all reverberations must be employed. The stairways, foyers, lobbies, box offices, lounges and retiring rooms should be so laid out as to avoid confusion. The architect should strive for perfect circulation of the patrons. The box office should be situated at the

right hand side on entering a theatre. The entrance doors and the main stairs to the balcony should also be placed at the right hand side. The exit doors and a stairway from the balcony to be used when leaving the theatre should be on the left hand side of the main lobby. This arrangement allows the incoming and outgoing audiences to pass without mixing. On account of the high land value, it has often been necessary for the architect to get a maximum building on comparatively small property, with the result that after space has been utilized for an adequate stage and maximum seating capacity, there remains in most cases comparatively small areas for public spaces such as foyers and general lounges. The trafic problem in most of the larger cities makes it impossible for the entire audience to be in their seats at the rise of the curtain. Late arrivals coming into the small vestibule and foyer spaces of the usual dramatic theatre spoil the opening of many performances. A constructive

iris a rh

cmt

|: ae

development to alleviate this condition is represented by the device used in the new Theatre Guild theatre in New York, where the audience enters the theatre by a lower level than the street. On this level are situated the lounges and retiring rooms. A large stairway leads to the promenade and the rear of the auditorium from which the patron enters without confusion. Although in this scheme the main floor is above the street level, the necessary slope of the floor brings the lower part of the main auditorium to street level elevation, where the main exits are situated. The motion picture industry has had more to do with the building and development of theatres than any other agency. The so-called “movie” is usually a theatre with a fairly large seating capacity, spacious provisions for orchestra and organ, but no stage. A small platform usually suffices for the performance given in addition to the pictures. These auditoriums in most cases are treated architecturally and decoratively as one room. As this type of theatre is usually longer than it is wide, the auditorium treatment is as elaborate in the rear as at the front, giving the patron sitting in the rear seat the feeling of closeness to the stage. Problems.—Architecturally, each type of theatre has distinct problems. Dramatic houses and opera houses have to care for audiences during intermissions; these audiences usually leave en masse; therefore, lounges, foyers and promenade spaces must be provided to allow the free movement of the people and to avoid congestion. Most moving picture theatres are run continuously and the patrons for the most part come and go at no specific time; in them perfect circulation is most necessary. The exterior treatment of all types should be somewhat festive and characteristic of their function. More restraint and dignity should be expressed on the exterior of dramatic than vaudeville or picture houses. Since the moving picture theatre depends a great deal on the passer-by for its patrons, its exterior should be designed to attract attention and should have a very inviting and unusual facade; electric illumination is utilized to a great extent to enliven and add glamour to it. Every theatre should have a marquee at the entrance. This marquee or ornamental canopy is used for a double purpose: (1) to protect the public on entering or leaving the theatre during inclement weather; (2) to afford an excellent means of advertising. The marquee. of a modern theatre is in reality a very ornamental electrical sign attached to the three sides. It should be carefully designed so as to add to the appearance of the façade.

COLLIDOR

UL

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GROUND

FLOOR- PLAN

PLAN OF THE THEATRE GUILD THEATRE, NEW YORK CITY, DESIGNED BY C. HOWARD CRANE, FRANZHEIM AND BETTIS, ARCHITECTS Rarely does one of these signs enhance the architecture of the building and in most cases hideous results are obtained because it is designed by inexperienced draughtsmen without regard for the architectural treatment of the exterior. However, much more extensive consideration is now being devoted to the problem of the marquee not only by architects but by sign makers also. In consequence of this changed attitude more harmonious and artistic results are being attained. The old method of treating the interior of theatres was first to design an elaborate proscenium arch or frame, then to treat the proscenium boxes very ornamentally but less elaborately than the proscenium. From these boxes back to a point near the centre of the balcony, a very simple treatment was generally used, and

PLATE IV

TH EATR E

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BY

COURTESY

OF

(1, 7)

MORRIS

GEST,

MODERN

(3)

THE

GERMAN

RAILROADS

INTERIORS

BUREAU,

INFORMATION

oe

nog E 9 C

> i ome and a revolving $ a

FIANS

into a of the

P

Ha

an city, a musical comedy house with Ziegfield Theatre, New York 2. The elliptical shaped auditorium fancifully decorated. Architects, Joseph

Urban and Thomas W. Hamb

,

kn

3. The Kroll Opera House, Berlin, an intimate opera house expressing severe

German modernism.

The second balcony is over the boxes. Architect,

‘ ; Sean ; ; 4. Rendering of a projected theatre designed for Max Reinhardt by Joseph Urban. A large part of the audience is niched in boxes invisible to one another but with a clear view of the stage.

the sides of the stage to the back

Runways

DURYEA

DRIX

5. The Guild Theatre, Howard Crane

AND

OPERA

COMEDY,

New

York

DRAMA interior.

a period

city,

Architect,

C.

a plaster = ¢ The Piccadilly Theatre, London, an interior in the more subdued conven-

eee

Peni tee ty

(2)

FOR MUSICAL

OF THEATRES

l. The Grosses Schauspielhaus, Berlin, a circus building converted theatre for Max Reinhardt. The acting space is in the midst

PHOTOGRAPHS,

lead from

Architect, Edward A. Stone

tion of modern English design.

;

: 7. a

production. hangings

a a

a

o a

Here under the glow of crystal chandeliers, and with wall and

of Gobelin

modern comedy.

tapestries,

Max

Reinhardt

produced

classic

Architect, Sebastian Heinrich

auditorium ranged audi arran excellently rk, an excellent! &.a The John Golden Theatre, ; New York aS period along the prevailing American lines, with a a treatment. Architect. Harrison G Wisman 9, Concert House Vestibule, Stockholm.

Architect, Ivan Jengtorn.

THEATRE

PLATE V

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SETTINGS

DESIGNED

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NORMAN

BEL

GEDDES;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

STAGE

FRANCIS

BRUGUIERE

STRUCTURES

OF

1, 2. Scene in “The Divine Comedy” by Dante, as dramatized and projected for production by Norman Bel Geddes. The stage rises around a pit in its centres changes of scene are made by lighting and the massing of actors. The drawings represent the moment when the earth opens to receive Dante. The actors, who prior to this point have covered the pit of light completely, withdraw in groups, then crumple up and disappear leaving the void for Dante and Virgil to descend into. 3. Model for “Lazarus Laughed,” a play by Eugene O’Neill planned for production in 1927. The nine scenes are made by the rearrangement of two monumental units which can be turned to different positions in a few seconds by a controlling motor. They are set off with properties and decorations carried by the supers, against the

cyclorama, with immense variety of effect. In this photograph of the model the proscenium arch has been removed. 4, 5. Model for the stage structure

THE

MODERN

THEATRE

of “Jeanne D'Arc,” a play by Mercedes de Acosta, produced at the Porte Saint Martin Théâtre, Paris, 1925, under the direction of Norman Bel Geddes. On this single setting ten scenes are played, each of a different nature. Changes are made in full view of the audience by properties carried by actors and by subtle lighting of architectural embryos in the rear of the stage which are concealed in shadow when not intended to be seen. 6, 7. Model for Shakespeare’s “King Lear.” A circular ramped platform, a geometrical mound and huge variformed monoliths, that are easily movable into various positions, are set against a vast space of darkness. The scenes, appearing in pagan colours, fade into one another without pause. The mood achieved by the setting is emphasized by the costumes which are so heavy they seem to hold the body inside fast to the earth, suggesting

figures scarcely

human

THEORY

THEATRE

OF DESIGN]

from this point to the extreme rear a very plain one. In this type the audience was really sitting in so many different rooms, vary-

ing with the distance from the stage. There was no continuity of design. The modern method is to unify the auditorium or to treat the theatre as one room, making no distinction in elaborateness of

detail because of location.

Psychologically, a higher audience

moral is effected as this scheme of decoration, eliminating segrega| tion by sections, establishes a feeling of equality between K> U patrons. :

Increase in Size.—The lat- € est development in the design of |

the theatre is brcught about by | the building of the present-day $ “super cinema palace.” Here the J]

architect has been allowed to f use to the fullest his imagination Ẹ 8 and ability. The acoustics and sight lines must be perfect. Un- f usual lighting effects must be de- § vised and provisions made for the latest modern development This theatre provides for a stage and auditorium both under one domed such as talking pictures, public roof. The triangular stage in the address or amplifying systems, lower right corner sinks into the and mechanically operated stage basement for changes of setting and organ lifts. These theatres operate usually on a 12-hour schedule and are often attended by as many as 30,000 persons in one day. Expert planning is necessary adequately to house and control these large audiences. Some noteworthy examples have been completed recently; they are rich in ornament and gorgeous in colouring and lighting effects, and they are usually extremely elaborate in furnishings. Due to their extreme widths and to the essential absence of posts, these large modern theatres present great structural problems. Fresh, cooled air in summer and pure, warmed air in winter must be constantly and evenly distributed to every part.

Equipment.—Theatres seating between 5,000~-6,000 persons, with large comfortable chairs liberally spaced, are now being built in nearly all the large cities of almost every country. Theatres of this size would ordinarily produce serious problems in acoustics. By means of public address systems or a series of cleverly concealed amplifiers, evenly distributed over the theatre, an operator, by simply turning dials similar to those on a radio set, can increase or diminish the stage performer’s voice at will. Proper precautions must be taken to overcome reverberations. This is usually done by careful and scientific use of absorbent materials, of either specially prepared plaster or felt. Disappearing organ and orchestra lifts, enabling large orchestras to enter and leave the pit without confusion to the audience, are necessary. They also permit the orchestra to be raised in full view for the overtures and special numbers, and to be concealed when playing incidental music accompanying the pictures. These lifts or elevating platforms are controlled by push buttons fixed by the leadet’s desk. The operating rooms or projection booths are becoming the most important part of the entire ensemble. With the introduction of talking pictures, coloured photography and amplifying systems, projection booths have to be very carefully planned. They are strictly fire-proof and contain all the modern fre prevention equipment possible. Automatic shutters cover all openings. Metal furniture is used throughout, and a decorative note is often afforded by fine tiles. Dressing and rest rooms, including showers and toilets, are provided for the operators, and there is usually a separate room for rewinding film. The stage equipment is also of the latest and finest description. The switchboard, controlling the many coloured effects both on the stage and in the main auditorium, is a complicated work. With its many-coloured pilot lights, pre-set switch handles, and

numerous other controls it almost resembles a complete organ manual and is almost as difficult to operate.

The old-fashioned

fly gallery and pin rail, with sand bags for counterweights, is gone. The modern method of handling scenery is by the latest improved counterweight systems. The operation of a small lever

ZI

will bring a drop into position quickly and without effort. The controls are usually placed on the stage level. Wire cables have replaced the old-style ropes, and gas pipes the wooden battens, to which the scenery was formerly attached. All stages are equipped with sprinkler systems, automatic ventilators and fire curtains. Modern safety laws require fire-proof scenery, with the result that the fire hazard, in the present-day theatre, is reduced to a minimum. One of the most important pieces of stage equipment to-day is the cyclorama. This is a large elliptical-shaped piece of scenery reaching from the stage floor nearly to the gridiron. It is abso| lutely plain and usually painted a neutral tone so that all kinds of lighting will be effective on it. It is used as the sky or back piece of the settings. The cyclorama is unequalled as an agency in obtaining beautiful stage effects. The usual cyclorama is constructed of plaster or heavy sheet boarding and in many instances also acts as a sounding board. The following represents a list of some of the rooms required in the operation of a large modern theatre: assembly room or green room; dressing rooms; chorus and ballet rooms, for both men and women, all equipped in a modern manner with bath and toilet facilities; stage manager’s and assistant stage manager’s office; wardrobe rooms; commissary department; carpenter and electrical shops; large and small property rooms; private offices for the conductor, assistant conductor and organist; a music library and a fire-proof vault for sheet music storage; a lounge room with necessary toilets and locker rooms adjoining, for the musicians; an instrument storage room; soundproof motor rooms for the organ blowers and mechanical lifts; rehearsal room with picture screen and operating booth; locker and toilet rooms for the men and women ushers; building superintendent’s office; lockers and wash rooms for the scrub women; numerous small rooms for electric lamp storage and other supplies. One of the greatest developments is in the lounges and retiring rooms provided for patrons. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. H. Birkmire, The Planning and Construction of American Theatres (1896); E. O. Sachs and E. A. Woodward, Modern Opera Houses and Theatres (1896-98); E. O. Sachs, Stage Construction (1898); M. Semper, “Theatre,” Handbuch der Architektur (Teil 4, Halb- Band 6, Heft 5, 1904); K. Mantzius, History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times (1903-09); M. Hammitzsch, Der Moderne Theaterbau (1905); M. Littmann, Das Miinchner Kiinstlertheatre (1908) and Die Koniglichen Hoftheater in Stuttgart (1912); B. Matthews, A Study of the Drama, chapt. iii. (1gr0); H. K. Moderwell, The Theatre of To-day (1914); S. Cheney, The New

Movement in the Theatres (1914); W. P. Gerhard, Theatres; Their

Safety from Fire and Panic, Their Comfort and Healthfulness (1915) ; A.S. Meloy, Theatres and Motion Picture Houses (1916); A E. Krows, Play Production in America (1916); E. B. Kinsila, “Modern Theatre Construction,” The Moving Picture World (1917); J. Bab, Die Volksbühne in Berlin (1919); K. Macgowan and R. E. Jones, Continental Stagecraft (1922), O. M. Saylor, Max Reinhardt, His Theatre (1924). (C. H. Cr.) MODERN THEORY OF DESIGN

To the Greeks, the theatre was their most vital creative expression, and they succeeded in achieving results that for “pure theatre” have never been surpassed. They built them to look like theatres and to dignify what transpired within them. The Greeks lived in an age of imagination. Their knowledge of the material world was much more restricted than ours. It was as uncharted to them as the universe is to us, and life had a greater interest for them because of this mystery. In this mood, they created their drama. Their tragedy penetrated the mysteries of nature beyond the humdrum of ordinary life. Their comedy was carried

to an extreme that, to our gradually neutralizing mind, appears exaggerated and vulgar. Civilization has by degrees impoverished its audiences from an enthusiastic appreciation of extremes toward a glorification of the commonplace mean. We live in an industrial age. We should have theatres that belong to our time, drama that voices this time. Instead, our theatre is a secondary expression We exercise our emotions by reading daily papers, riding in automobiles, listening in on the radio, playing bridge and seeing mediocre motion pictures. The theatre is in a state of sham.

The plays, the actors, the scénery,

all try to make audiences forget they are in a theatre. The buildings themselves are made to look like office buildings, taverns,

32

THEATRE

museums, Renaissance palaces, Spanish missions or casinos. To plan a practical theatre, the designer, architect, or engineer should possess a knowledge of theatres, past and present, and of the latest experiments toward the future, with an experience in the theatre that would class him with such specialists as are called upon to build our sky-scrapers, suspension bridges and subway tubes. In exterior design, the most conspicuous elements, such obviously dominating features as the electric signs, the porte cochére, the huge cubical mass of the flying space above the stage, offer problems of unusual contrast specifically in theatre design. Primarily, the theatre in this modern world, from every standpoint, lacks style. Inside and out, it should be distinguished. It should look and be “theatre,” in its architecture, plays, acting or staging. Theatres naturally vary in size, requirements and class of entertainment. The point of view of the artists engaged in the theatre should likewise vary. The working parts of a theatre must possess the utmost flexibility, must be alterable, in simple practical terms, from one person’s use of it to another’s, hampering experiment as little as possible. Until the theatre, architecturally, becomes more flexible, the dramatist, producer, designer, will continue to have difficulties in exploring new forms. For any radical or improved or experimental idea, in dramatization or staging, beyond what has been developed in the last 15 years, the present stage is inadequate. It suffices for only a few types

of plays, and is completely impractical for any style out of this groove. It is probably the most restricting theatre man has ever conceived. New basic ideas of architecture will materially stir the imagination of everyone connected with it. Instigate a type

of stage of a three dimensional order and see what happens in the actual creative work in the theatre. To any student of the subject, the development of the theatre since the Greeks shows gradual deterioration. The single item that has most influenced these changes is the proscenium arch. There was no arch in the Greek theatre, but by successive stages from that time to the present, the arch idea has developed. Its two dimensional aspect imposes an effect which is deadening, as

compared with the exhilaration of an audience surrounding the actors, such as we get in the circus. There is no more reason or logic in asking an audience to look at a play through a proscenium arch than there would be in asking them to watch a prize fight through one. At a prize fight, although each individual looks into the ring from one point of view, a more intensified atmosphere is gained by the sight of the audience seated on all sides of the ring. In an art gallery, looking at a piece of sculpture, you instinctively walk slowly around the object to view it from different directions, rather than merely standing and looking at it as you would a painting. The exaggerated importance of the picture-frame stage of the past generation is undoubtedly due to lack of imagination of the minds working in the theatre. After all, the proscenium in its present maximum form has only existed over onefifteenth of the time that has lapsed since the theatre of Dionysus. In thinking of the theatre, we naturally begin with the stage. The auditorium is built around the stage and a relationship must be maintained between these two major elements. In nearly all modern examples, the stages are too small in proportion to the auditoriums. Half of the audience is in a poor position to see and hear. The inadequacy of the stage is accepted as a matter of course, since the actors have sufficient space to move in during a performance. Actually, the part of the stage that the actor utilizes during the playing of a scene is only about a tenth of the total cube required for stage purposes. The off stage space (to both sides and rear of the acting area) should equal three times the floor space of the acting area in order to handle adequately the changes of settings. In most modern theatres, it is not even equal to it. The entrances and exits for actors, the facilities for handling scenery, properties and electrical apparatus are neglected correspondingly. The flying space (above the stage) should be four times the height of the maximum scene, but seldom is. The present-day stage does nothing for the dramatist but cause him to worry as to how this or that idea will be visualized in two dimensional terms, and it has gradually reduced the actor to an immobile

[THEORY

OF DESIGN

loud speaker. The last few years have brought out various mechanical features, such as the application of the hydraulic, revolving, sliding and turning-over principles for changing part or all of the stage with its scenery; and a permanent plaster cyclorama to replace the drop cloth painted to represent a sky, upon which light of any colour can be thrown. But although all of these are important, they fail to get at the root of the difficulty, which is the adjustment of the style and proportions of the theatre to its uses and needs while the building is being planned. The auditorium should be designed so that everyone may enter easily, reach his seat without annoying other people, sit comfortably, see and hear everything on the stage. The best angle of vision between the stage and the seats, because we are most accustomed to it in everyday life, is shoulder height, yet in our theatres to-day, the best seats, judging from the scale of prices, place the spectator’s eye on a level with the actors’ feet. Each successive row of seats should be at an angle in relation to the stage, so that the spectator does not have to peer between the heads of those in front of him. The audience is the governing factor of drama. There can be no drama without it. All the dramatist, director, designer and actor do is to project elements which will create a certain effect in the audience’s imagination. A dramatic production has no significance until it is performed in conjunction with its audience. This is why each type of play sifts out its particular audience. The theatre takes its place among the arts when the audience not merely witnesses a reproduction of life as it is outside the theatre, but takes part in an experience that does not exist anywhere outside the theatre. Suffering from the limitation that it is not a single-vision medium as that of painters, sculptors, poets, musicians and architects, the usage of the theatre is contradictory to what is accepted as the ordinary working procedure of an artist. The dramatist works in a composite medium, which is stage, actor and audience. The designer takes the play and develops it for production in all its visual phases, working out its rhythm, movement, manner of staging, setting, costuming, lighting. Finally the director, whose position is synonymous to that of the orchestra conductor but who uses actors instead of musicians, rehearses all of these elements into an unified performance. The dramatist reaches his audience indirectly through the director, designer and actors. His work may be limited by these people, or his stimulation may

inspire them to develop his ideas further than he could have done alone. The result, good or bad, is the very element that gives the theatre its unique qualities, its advantages and disadvantages, over other forms of expression. The end we seem to be going toward has a more plastic three dimensional stage’ structure, formal, dignified and neutral, as a basis, its various acting platforms inviting a variety of movement, and provided with adequate space for lighting instead of the cramped condition of the present. Such a structure is designed for the playing of a sequence of scenes of diverse mood, locale and character, not imitative in geographical terms, but creative in dramatic terms, with emphasis on the intensity of dramatic action and its projection to an audience. It will give the impression of being solid and enduring, and will be composed of a variety of levels, ramps, platforms, aprons projecting into the audience, high stages towering to the rear, the whole achieving pictorial qualities by the composition of actors on various levels and their movements in conjunction with lighting. Portions of these settings may or may not be changed to vary as a play goes on. Any adequate technique for staging plays should permit of a play being run off in any combination or series of rhythms and not destroyed by such crude makeshifts as darkening the stage or lowering of the curtain to make changes in the setting. Theatres for motion pictures are bound to alter and become distinct from theatres for plastic drama, and in the same way that screen drama is of necessity going to emphasize two dimensional vision, the stage drama, as it develops away from the picture medium in a mental sense, will likewise grow away from it in a physical sense and become decidedly more three dimen-

sional.

(N. B. G.)

THEATRE

TENDENCIES]

PRODUCTION AND DIRECTION MODERN

TENDENCIES

At one time or another the theatre has used some part of every

method of production that we so fervently hail—or condemn—as the last word in modernism to-day, for in 25 centuries it has been

all things to all men. It has been religious and blasphemous. It has been as noble as its god-heroes and as petty as its bourgeoisie —whether of Rome or London. It has been fantastic and formal in the temples of the living masks where men meet the gods throughout the East. It has been minutely realistic. Back in Greece, when someone painted wave-lines on the periaktoi, and thus let the audience know that it stood by the shore of the sea, the theatre was expressionistic. A performance of The Tempest on Shakespeare’s open stage, with the sailors swarming up the ropes into the canopy overhead, would have satisfied the constructivism

of Meyerhold. And when Reinhardt puts Oedipus Rex into a circus or gives Calderon’s The Great World Theatre in a cathedral he is merely imitating with conscious art the naive habit that the ancient theatre had of playing cuckoo and laying its eggs of art in amphitheatres, chancels, inn yards, bear-pits, tennis courts, market places, and court ballrooms. Enter the Régisseur or Director.—Yet, in a narrow sense, there are modern tendencies in the theatre—two major tendencies, both founded on a new attitude towards the complex business of getting actors to speak lines in an effective ensemble. The new attitude is seen in the commanding presence of a director. Some one has always insisted that the actors learn their lines, speak them with a certain skill, and walk where they will not trip over one another’s heels or become entangled with the properties. But the commanding director—or régisseur—is the notable contribution of the theatre of the past half century. From Duke George II. of the little German State’ of Meiningen—who fused supers into true mobs, put ceilings on box sets, and created the first modern ensemble acting in the middle ’7os—through Otto Brahm, first master of naturalism at the beginning of the 2oth century, Max Reinhardt, Brahm’s disciple to begin with, then pioneer in every form of theatre from cabaret to cathedral and little theatre to circus, Meyerhold the Russian, who preached and performed the “theatre theatrical”’—from these masters on to, the director of the tiniest of community theatres in some Californian town, the régisseur has taken his place as the centre of the modern theatre. His business has been to dominate, synthesize, and unify each production, and thus to bring forth a single work of theatrical art ininstead of a histrionic accident. Realism Versus the Theatric.—Without the régisseur neither of the two great schools of modern production could have developed. A single mind was needed to shape the performance, set its character, give it its pace, provide its atmosphere in scenery and lights. It did not matter whether the result was to be a realistic production or a production in which the true theatricalism of the stage was to be liberated—one creative spirit had to dominate. In the terms of the past century, realism 1s a much older thing

than the theatric, although the theatric goes far deeper into the historic past. Realism is likely to dominate the stage as long as machine civilization dominates life. It has already come to a fine perfection, and we are more familiar with it than with the theatric. We have seen realism at its height in Stanislavsky of the Moscow Art theatre, and occasionally in David Belasco or Basil Dean. We have not seen much theatric acting outside Russia and Germany. In America and England the theatric and imaginative movement has expressed itself largely in things of the eye—in the scenery of the new stage-craft. The battle of realism and the theatric—first with a common enemy, then with each other—can in many ways be seen best through the activities of the régisseurs of scenery, the stage designers who have given it outward physical form. Nothing but the theatre could harbour artistic tendencies so diverse. But, though one is photographic and one is imaginative, both began in fierce opposition to the theatre of Victorian days. The thing that both hated in this theatre was typified in its scenery, ugly, unillusive, accidental. Thus two very different types of artists were leagued as allies. One was the realist, like Belasco, who wanted solid, plausible rooms

50

on the stage. The other was the man of imagination, like Gordon Craig, who wanted beauty or something full of expressive artifice. There was a little of each in the first great régisseur of the 2oth

century, Max Reinhardt. Together, the realist and the artist of imagination banished the mechanism of the older stage. They banned false perspective and shallow pretence, muddy colour on flapping backdrops. Realism triumphed first. It had the great dramatists of the day behind it, and the mood of 20th century audiences. Maeterlinck and von Hofmannstahl and d’Annunzio put up an anaemic front

|the

to Ibsen, Hauptmann, Sudermann, Brieux, Pinero, Jones, and Shaw. The régisseur developed actors who could convey emotion by the quiver of an eyelash, and he found ways to surround them with the solid world of reality. Mechanical Progress.—But how were the solid columns, weighty staircases, well-braced walls to be moved? How were scenes to be shifted quickly and economically? The problem was not alone a problem for the realistic producer, for when the régisseur put on Shakespeare the new settings were solid, plastic, three-dimensional, and he had dozens of these scenes and no long intermissions in which to change them. The answer—the typical answer—-was modern machinery. America led—for just a moment or two in 1888—-when Steele MacKaye, régisseur, actor, playwright, painter and mechanist, installed his double elevator stage in the Madison Square Theatre, New York, to shift scenery, actors and all. The great bulk of mechanical reform, however, has come from Germany, and dates from 1896 when Lautenschlaeger of Munich borrowed the revolving stage from Japan.

Other

scene-shifting

machines

from

Germany

include

the

sliding stage, which carries whole settings on great wagons, and sinking stages, which bring up the scenery from the basement.

Arthur Hopkins, the first American régisseur of imagination to follow MacKaye, introduced, about 1914, stages that swung on pivots, and Lee Simonson, the American designer, has made most ingenious use of small revolving units in Theatre Guild productions such as Peer Gynt. (See Stace DEsicn.) Progress in Lighting.—Even more energy and resourcefulness has gone into the improvement of lighting equipment since the days of gas, and this has served both the realist and the producer of imagination. The first notable attempt was made in Germany by the Venetian, Fortuny. His aim was to provide diffused and softened light, more like the reflected sunlight of a

shaded spot. He threw all the light rays of an arc upon screens of coloured silk which reflected them upon the stage. His skydome or Kuppelhorizont further diffused the light while producing an illusive sky of almost infinite depth. From the mechanism of Fortuny and the ideas of Gordon Craig’s great rival, Adolphe Appia—who first called for the shadowed, sculpturesque lighting that comes from large sources of illumination, instead of the blank glare of the footlights—electrical invention has gone on to a surprising degree of perfection in Germany and America. Through Max Hasait and Adolph Linnebach, both working at Dresden in hot rivalry, devices were at last perfected for projecting scenery by means of light on to backdrops or cycloramas. Simonson made fine use of the Linnebach process in Back to Methuselah and Peer Gynt. There is, after all, a considerable difference between a decoration thrown on a backdrop by electric light and interiors so solid and heavy that they must be shifted by machinery. And yet both extremes fall easily within the limits of the revolt which realist and theatricalist began in the name of the new stagecraft. Even the old-fashioned backdrops of the opera house, painted in false perspective, have their place in the modern movement of the imagination if only they are painted with the boldness, the dramatic vigour, and the expressive colour of a Russian like Bakst or Roerich or Golovin. If the artist can create an effect upon the stage just as characteristic of the play and its emotion as anything the actors may do, then he has done the work expected of him. The medium and the method do not matter. Pioneers of the New Stage-craft.—This was not quite so clear when Gordon Craig and Adolph Appia began their campaign of scenic enlightenment about the beginning of the zoth century.

34+

THEATRE

All about them the stage was filled with flat and shallow artificiality. There was neither beauty nor truth to life in the jaundiced meadows and mildewed mountains and splayed rooms which the hack scene painters spread over backdrops and wings in very, very false perspective. The realist and the imaginative artist had to hate them equally. Craig and Appia might have accepted the stage conventions of the old theatre—the simple flats and backdrops, and awakened them to new life as the Russians did. In-

stead they fought them, and fought them on the one legitimate issue on which they can be fought. Paintings in two dimensions do not and cannot harmonize with.three dimensional actors. So away with false perspective and its painted shadows. Make room for solid plastics, for rocks and walls against which the actor may Jean. Gordon Craig did a great deal more than argue against back-

drops and wings. In his articles and books he showed that the theatre is a composite art made up of the contributions of playwright and actor and painter and musician. He demanded unity upon the stage and he declared that the ideal artist of the theatre must be the man who can write the play, direct the actors, design the scenery and lights, and provide any other element such as the music or the dance that may be needed. Only in this fashion can the theatre have the creative unity which is at its heart. And in all his writing and through all his brilliant designs, Craig sought to interpret in as dramatic,a fashion as possible the emotion of the play. Appia, a Swiss doctor, who began theorizing and sketching in the early ’gos, stood likewise against false perspective and in favour of the plastic stage. Like Craig, he was truly a régisseur. His great contribution was a sense for the value of light. In his book describing and picturing the production of Wagner’s musicdramas, Appia provided many appropriate and striking sketches, dictating the movements of actors as well as lights. He showed how spotlights, used instead of footlights, produce shadows; how light and shadow give a sculpturesque quality to everything on the stage, and how changes in the light can indicate the passage of time and the development of the drama. To demonstrate this, he drew a series of sketches of scenes from Wagner’s musicdramas following the light changes throughout each act. When the theories of Craig and Appia annihilated the old stage setting, they opened the way for something they were not the least interested in—realism. Fortunately they also provided the corrective for it. When realism is most complete it is at its worst. It then furnishes an absolute photograph of life. A room becomes a junk shop. It is solid, real and wooden, and utterly confused. There are so many knick-knacks about that you can hardly find the actors. The eye is tempted to wander off and count the bowls of flowers and admire the woodwork and discover curios all over the place. Belasco and all the realists have now learned better than this. So far as America is concerned, Arthur Hopkins and the artists of the new Sstage-craft have taught them how to make a room seem real and plausible and yet never distracting, and how to make it express something of the drama that goes on within.

Making Scenery Abstract.—The modern theatre has been

quick to recognize that the mood created by a background is the important thing, and that, generally speaking, the less the material world is involved, the more the actor can summon up an ideal world of the theatrical imagination. Directors and designers tended, therefore, towards experiments with more and more abstract settings. Craig began with curtains, using them for ‘walls. In a scene for a modern play, Robert Edmond Jones painted his curtains brown and green and hung them in folds that, under proper lighting, suggested a forest. Other artists—Norman Wilkinson, for example, working in England under its one modern régisseur, Granville Barker—go a step further and treat curtains frankly as curtains, painting them with a landscape or a formal arrangement of stars, and then—so there cannot be the least possible mistake about it—draping the curtains in folds, and banishing even the quasi-illusion of the old backdrop.

Screens can be used even more abstractly. About 1912, Craig

worked out a scheme for equipping a theatre with a set of fold-

[TENDENCIES

ing screens of all sizes which could be rearranged in an endless variety of ways. When Stanislavsky tried to use this system of screens for Hamlet at the Moscow Art theatre, he found grave difficulties in the way of its practical employment. These difficulties were largely removed in a scheme devised by a pupil of Craig’s, Sam Hume, which he used at the Detroit Arts and Crafts theatre. ; In all this talk of scenery, you must note implication after implication of how the régisseur will direct the company towards an art far, far removed from the realism of the Moscow Art theatre. When the theatre goes still further into the abstract or the fantastic in stage setting, it must

carry

the actor

along

with it, or it is nothing. Already designers have thrust upon the stage the expressionistic methods of modern painters like Picasso —himself a designer for the Russian ballet of Diaghileff. In America, and in most of the Continent outside Russia, the régisseurs have done little to match these backgrounds with acting. The outstanding exceptions—Meyerhold, Yevreynoff, Komisarshefsky, Tairoff and Zemach, all of Russia—have laboured to infuse into the actor and the ensemble a stylized vitality which distinguishes their performances from anything in the Western world. Expressionism and Constructivism.—Expressionism, whether of acting or scenery, postulates that the expression of inner emotion—which ought to be the emotion of the playwright and his play—-comes before any resemblance to the outer aspect of life. Expressionistic productions use distortion to arrest and excite the attention. Doorways assume strange forms, as in that notable attempt in Macbeth which Robert Edmond Jones and Arthur Hopkins made in New York some years ago without acting to back them up. Walls topple. The floor shoots up at weird angles. Lights flare in with no relation to reality, and shift in colour almost word by word. The make-up of the actors is startlingly obvious in its distorted lines, and the clothes of even modern characters are painted with high lights and shadows. One can almost go back to Appia for the beginnings of constructivism, for Appia was the first to stress the necessity of varied levels on the stage. They have become increasingly important in the work of the more radical régisseurs. Leopold Jessner, Germany’s outstanding director since Reinhardt, added these levels to the formal stage of the more conservative expressionists. By using steps and parapets, he was able to move his people in three dimensions, and make their physical relationships more vivid and significant. In each of his Shakespeare productions he stuck to a single arrangement of steps, upon which he arranged a few of Emil Pirchan’s simply sketched indications of Jocale, all within the neutral wall of the often unlighted cyclorama. From Jessner one leaps to Russia to find Meyerhold, a great theatrical pioneer, developing in constructivism an art which seems to steal its settings from the American skyscraper. High platforms, skeletonized structures, inclined planes, all manner of bare, unsentimentalized construction provide the footing as well as the background for the actors, and-three or four locales are shown at one time—a trick of the Renaissance. Tairoff mingles canvas expressionism with this when he mounts Eugene O’Neill’s The Hairy Ape or Desire under the Elms. In the musical studio of the Moscow Art theatre Dantchenko has refined and humanized constructivism in performances of Lysistrata and Carmen. New Theatres for Old.—Certain attempts at formalizing the existing stage carry us clear out of this phase and into new types of playhouses. Robert Edmond Jones’s Hamlet, for instance, turned a Romanesque hall into a permanent setting for the whole drama. Such a scheme makes no pretence at the illusion of turrets, woods or any place except the theatre, tinged with the colour and mood of the drama. This recognition of the playhouse as a place of frank make-believe has carried many modern directors into experiments in theatre architecture that recall the stages of Greece and Elizabethan England. Reinhardt, after producing Greek tragedy in the one-ring circus buildings of Germany, reconstructed one of these houses into the Grosses Schauspielhaus. Here the actors could appear on the orchestra floor in the midst of the audience or retreat to a fully equipped modern stage with

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i. A group of suppliant peasants in Count Alexei Tolstoy’s “Tsar Fyodor Ivanovitch”

2. Scene in the Imperial Palace in the Kremlin, Moscow, in Count Alexei Tolstoy’s “Tsar Fyodor Ivanovitch”

3. Vassily Katchaloff, one of the charter members and second leading actor of the Moscow Art Theatre as the dissolute card-sharper in Maxim Gorky’s “The Lower Depths’

4. Lyeff Bulgakoff of the Moscow Art Theatre as Alyoshka in Gorky’s The Lower Depths”

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“The

Cherry Orchard”

7. Vassily Luzhsky as Fyodor Karamazoff in Dostoievsky’s, “The Brothers Karamazoff”’ &. Leonid M. Leonidoff as Dmitry in “‘The Brothers Karamazoff”?

9. Nikolai Podgorny as the coroner in “The Brothers Karamazoff”’ 10. Ivan Moskvin as Captain Snegiryoff in “The Brothers Karamazoff”’

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THEATRE

sky-dome and revolving floor. Half a dozen artists have designed theatres of even more revolu-

tionary character.

One of these, not yet built, however,

is Nor-

35

| j

Stagecraft (1923); J. Gregor and R. Fulop-Miller, Das Russische Theatey (1927), “Design in the Theatre,” special no. Studio (1927— 1928); A. Nicoll, The Development of the Theatre (1927); H. K. Moderwell, The Theatre of To-day (1927); Gordon Craig, Manual of the Theatre (1929); Sheldon Cheney, Three Thousand Years of Drama, Acting and Stagecraft (1929). Periodicals: The Mask; Theatre

man-Bel Geddes’s project for a stage in the corner of a sky-dome completely arching in the auditorium as well. The stage itself sinks into the basement for changes of scene to be made by means | Arts Magazine; Theatre Aris Monthly.

of rolling platforms already set. MacKaye’s Spectatorium, conceived and partially built for the World’s Fair in Chicago, was to seat 10,000 people. The stage itself was to introduce a number of

DIRECTION AND ACTING

Theatrical art has always been collective, arising only where reforms now adopted abroad—the sky-dome, the adaptable |poetical-dramatic talent was actively combined with the actor's. proscenium opening and fore stage, the cloud machine, and a. The basis of a play is always a dramatic conception; a general sliding stage on wheels. The whole stage could be submerged in artistic sense is imparted to the theatrical action by the unifying, water for the discovery of America by Columbus. creative genius of the actor. Thus the actor’s dramatic activity Europe created two theatres of outstanding novelty in the begins at the foundation of the play. In the first place, each actor, Vieux Colombier of Copeau and the Theater in dem Redoutensaal either independently or through the theatre manager, must probe opened in Vienna by Adolf Vetter, then head of the State theatres. for the fundamental motive in the finished play—the creative The Vieux Colombier was a tiny playhouse without a proscenium idea that is characteristic of the author and that reveals itself opening in which the audience and stage were contained in a single as the germ from which his work grows organically. The motive room. The stage itself was provided with a permanent architec- of the play always holds the character developing before the spectural setting of steps and balcony which could be converted, for tator; each personality in the work takes a part conforming to example, from a classic exterior into a scene for Twelfth Night his own character; the work, then developing in the appointed by altering parts of the decoration. direction, flows on to the final point conceived by the author. The The Theater in der Redoutensaal is again a theatre with no first stage in the work of the actor and theatre manager is to proscenium and, therefore, no fourth wall and no peep-show. At probe for the germ of the play, investigating the fundamental one end of this great and glorious ballroom of Maria Theresa, line of action that traverses all of its episodes and is therefore Vetter and Oberbaurat Sebastien Heinrich placed an acting plat- called by the writer its transparent effect or action. In contrast form without proscenium or “flies.” Upon this platform is a curv- to some theatrical directors, who consider every play only as ing wall perhaps 15 ft. high, carrying out the decorative motifs material for theatrical repetition, the writer believes that in the of the hall and making a permanent background for the stage. In production of every important drama the director and actor must the middle, double stairways curve up to a balcony above. Upon go straight for the most exact and profound conception of the the balcony are great doors leading to other rooms. The shell of mind and ideal of the dramatist, and must not change that ideal cream and gold wall is pierced by openings for doors and windows. for their own. The interpretation of the play and the character Screens or simple set-pieces serve to vary this setting, and to indi- of its artistic incarnation inevitably appear in a certain measure cate mood and place. The Marriage of Figaro was there presented subjective, and bear the mark of the individual peculiarities of by the forces of the State opera, and Max Reinhardt has staged the manager and actors; but only by profound attention to the many classic comedies in the Redoutensaal. artistic individuality of the author and to his ideal and mentality, The bulk of this effort to match the realistic theatre with a which have been disclosed as the creative germ of the play, can theatre of imagination has gone forward unsupported by proper the theatre realize all its artistic depth and transmit, as in a plays. The classics have served best. Some modern dramas have poetical production, completeness and harmony of composition. been badly distorted to fit them to the Procrustean bed of expres- Every part of the future spectacle is then unified in it by its sionism. In Germany a certain number of playwrights, led by own artistic work; each part, in the measure of its own genius, Georg Kaiser and Walter Hasenclever, have made valiant and will flow on to the artistic realization aimed at by the dramatist. none too successful efforts to provide free and vivid plays of The actor’s task, then, begins with the search for the play’s to-day cast in a nervous, fast-moving, subjective form. The suc- artistic seed. All artistic action—organic action, as in every cess of the Russians in matching plays to constructivist produc- constructive operation of nature—starts from this seed at the tion had not been so notable as to pass the frontiers by 1928. moment when it is conveyed to the mind. On reaching the actor’s The only distinctly promising efforts towards new dramatic form mind, the seed must wander around, germinate, put out roots, have come from America and largely from the pen of one writer, drinking in the juices of the soil in which it is planted, grow and Eugene O’Neill. Elmer Rice’s The Adding Machine and George eventually bring forth a lively flowering plant. Artistic process S. Kaufman and Marc Connelly’s Beggar on Horseback, adapted must in all cases flow very rapidly, but usually, in order that it from a German original, have succeeded in enkindling a public re- may preserve the character of the true organic action and may sponse, but the pioneer work of John Howard Lawson, Francis lead to the creation of life, of a clear truly artistic theatrical E. Faragoh, John Dos Passos, and Em Jo Bassche has failed to image, and not of a trade substitute, it demands much more meet the requirements of the audiences of to-day. O’Neill’s ex- time than is allotted to it in the best European theatres. That is pressionistic drama The Hairy Ape, his constructivist experiment why in the writer’s theatre every dramatization passes through Desire Under the Elms, his drama of masks The Great God eight to ten revisions, as is also done in Germany by the famous Brown, his nine-act exposition of spoken thoughts Strange In- theatre manager and theorist, K. Hagemann. Sometimes even terlude, and his printed play Lazarus Laughed, seem the only more than ten revisions are needed, occasionally extending over completely mastered attempts of a playwright to strike out along several months. But even under these conditions, the creative the paths that modern pioneers in direction, scenery and acting genius of the actor does not appear so freely as does, for instance, have marked out. the creative genius of the dramatist. Bound by the strict obliga(See Stace Desicn: Stage Lighting, Theory; Modern Practice; tions of his collectif, the actor must not postpone his work to the CostuME Drsicn; ACTING.) moment when his physical and psychic condition appears pro—À. Appia, Die Musik und die Inscenierung, trans. pitious for creative genius. Meanwhile, his exacting and capricious BIBLIOGRAPHY. Princess E. Cantacuzéni (1899); J. Rouché L’art thédtral moderne artistic nature is prompted by aspirations of his artistic intuition, (1910); E. G. Craig, Towards a New, Theatre (1913), The Theatre and in the absence of creative genius is not reached by any effort Advancing (1921), On the Art of the Theatre (1924); H. Carter, of his will. He is not aided in that respect by outward technique— The Theatre of Max Reinhardt (1914), The New Theatre and Cinema of Soviet Russia (1924); S. Cheney, The New Movement in the his skill in making use of his body, his vocal equipment and his Theatre (1914), The Art Theatre (1917), Stage Decoration (1928)3 powers of speech. p H. Herald and E. Stern, Reinhardt und seine Buehne (1918); O. M. The Artistic Condition.—But is it really impossible? Are Sayler, The Russian Theatre, Max Reinhardt and Hts Theatre (1920), Inside the Moscow Theatre (1924); K. Macgowan, The Theatre of there no means, no processes that sensibly would help us, and Tomorrow (1922); K. Macgowan and R., E. Jones, Continental spontaneously lead to that artistic condition which is born of

36

THEATRE

genius without any effort on its part? If that capacity Is unattainable all at once, by some process or other, it may, perhaps, be acquired in parts, and through progressive stages may perfect those elements out of which the artistic condition is composed, and which are subject to our will. Of course the general run of acting does not come into being from this genius, but cannot such acting, in some measure, be brought by it near to what is evidence of genius? These are the problems which presented themselves to the writer about 20 years ago, when reflecting on the external obstacles that hamper actors’ artistic genius, and partly compel substitution of the crude outward marks of the actor’s profession for its results. They drove him to the rediscovery of processes of external technique, Że., methods proceeding from consciousness to sub-consciousness, in which domain flow ninetenths of all real artistic processes. Observations both upon himself and other actors with whom he happened to rehearse, but chiefly upon growing theatrical skill in Russia and abroad, allowed him to do some generalizing, which thereupon he verified in practice. The first is that, in an artistic condition, full freedom of body plays a principal rôle; i.e., the freedom from that muscular strain which, without our knowing it, fetters us not only on the stage but also in ordinary life, hindering us from being obedient conductors of our psychic action. This muscular strain, reaching its maximum at those times when the actor is called upon to perform something especially difficult in his theatrical work, swallows up the bulk of this external energy, diverting him from activity of the higher centres. This teaches us the possibility of availing ourselves of the muscular energy of our limbs only as necessity demands, and in exact conformity with our creative efforts. The second observation is that the flow of the actor’s artistic force is considerably retarded by the visual auditorium and the public, whose presence may hamper his outward freedom of movement, and powerfully hinder his concentration on his own artistic taste. It is almost unnecessary to remark that the artistic achievement of great actors Is always bound by the concentration of attention to the action of their own performance, and that when in that condition, ż.e., just when the actor’s attention is taken away from the spectator, he gains a particular power over the audience, grips it, and compels it to take an active share in his artistic existence. This does not mean, of course, that the actor must altogether cease to feel the public; but the public is concerned only m so far as it neither exerts pressure on him nor diverts him unnecessarily from the artistic demands of the moment, which last might happen to him even while knowing how to regulate his attention. The actor suitably disciplined must automatically restrict the sphere of his attention, concentrating on what comes within this sphere, and only half consciously seizing on what comes within its aura. If need be, he must restrict that sphere to such an extent that it reaches a condition that may be called public solitude. But as a rule this sphere of attention is elastic, it expands or contracts for the actor, with regard to the course of his theatrical actions. Within the boundary of this sphere, as one of the actual aspects of the play, there is also the actor’s immediate central object of attention, the object on which, somehow or other, his will is concentrated at the moment with which, in the course of the play, he is in inward communication. This theatrical sympathy with the object can only be complete when the actor has trained himself by long practice to surrender himself in his own impressions, and also in his reactions to those impressions, with maximum intensity: only so does theatrical action attain the necessary force, only so is created between the actual aspects of the play, ze., between the actors, that link, that living bond, which is essential for the carrying through of the play to its goal, with the general maintenance of the rhythm and time of each performance. Concentration.—But whatever may be the sphere of the actor’s attention, whether it confines him at some moments to public solitude, or whether it grips the faces of all those before the stage, dramatic artistic genius, as in the preparation of the part so in its repeated performance, requires a full concentration

of all the mental and physical talents of the actor, and the

[DIRECTION

AND ACTING

‘participation of the whole of his physical and psychic capacity.

|It takes hold of his sight and hearing, all his external senses; it draws out not only the periphery but also the essential depth of his existence, and it evokes to activity his memory, imagination, emotions, intelligence and will. The whole mental and physical being of the actor must be directed to that which is derived from his facial expression. At the moment of inspiration, of the involuntary use of all the actor’s qualities, at that moment he actually exists. On the other hand, in the absence of this employment of his qualities, the actor is gradually led astray along the road leading to time-honoured theatrical traditions; he begins to “produce” wherever he sees them, or, glancing at his own image, imitates the inward manifestations of his emotions, or tries to draw from himself the emotions of the perfected part, to “inspire” them within himself. But when forcing such an image by his own psychic equipment, with its unchanging organic laws, he by no means attains that desired result of artistic genius; he must present only the rough counterfeit of emotion, because emotions do not come to order. By no effort of conscious will can one awake them in oneself at a moment, nor can they ever be of use for creative genius striving to bring this about by searching the depths of its mind. A fundamental axiom, therefore, for the actor who wishes to be a real artist on the stage, may be stated thus: he must not play to produce emotions, and he must not involuntarily evoke them in himself. Activity of Imagination.—Considerations

on the nature of

artistically gifted people, however, inevitably open up the road to the possession of the emotion of the part. This road traverses activity of imagination, which in most of its stages is subject to the action of consciousness. One must not suddenly begin to operate on emotion; one must put oneself in motion in the direction of artistic imagination, but imagination—as is also shown by observations of scientific psychology—disturbs our aberrant memory, and, luring from the hidden recesses beyond the boundaries of its sense of harmony whatever elements there may be of proved emotions, organizes them afresh in sympathy with those that have arisen in our imagery. So surrounded within our figures of imagination, without effort on our part, the answer to our aberrant memory is found and the sounds of sympathetic emotion are called out from us. This is why the creative imagination presents itself afresh, the indispensable gift of the actor. Without a well developed, mobile imagination, creative faculty is by no means possible, not by instinct nor intuition nor the aid of external technique. In the acquiring of it, that which has lain dormant in the mind of the artist is, when immersed in his sphere of unconscious imagery and emotion, completely harmonized within him. This practical method for the artistic education of the actor, directed by means of his imagination to the storing up of effective memory, is sufficiently enlarged upon; his individual emotional experience, by its limits, actually leads to the restriction of the sphere of his creative genius, and does not allow him to play parts dissimilar to those of his psychic harmony. This opinion is fundamental for the clearing away of misunderstandings of those elements of reality from which are produced fictitious creations of imagination; these are also derived from organic experience, but a wealth and variety of these creations are only obtained by combinations drawn from a trial of elements. The musical scale has only its basic notes, the solar spectrum its radical colours, but the combination of sounds in music and of colours in painting are infinite. One can in the same way speak of radical emotions preserved in imaginative memory, just as the reception in imagination of outward harmony remains in the intellectual memory; the sum of these radical emotions in the inner experience of each pérson is limited, but the shades and combinations are as infinite as the combinations that create activity of imagination out of the elements of inward experience. Certainly, but the actor’s outward experience—i.e¢., his sphere of vital sensations and reflections—must always be elastic, for only in that condition can the actor enlarge the sphere of his creative faculty. On the other hand, he must judiciously develop his imagination, harnessing it again and again to new propositions.

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THEATRE

But, in order that that imaginary union which is the actor's very foundation,

produced by the creative genius of the dramatist

should take hold of him emotionally and lead him on to theatrica]

action, it is necessary that the actor should “swing toward” that union, as toward something as real as the union of realityj surrounding him.

The Emotion of Truth.—This does not mean that the actor

must surrender himself on the stage to some such hallucination as that when playing he should lose the sense of reality around him, to take scenery for real trees, etc. On the contrary, some part of his senses must

remain

free from the grip of the play to

control everything that he attempts and achieves as the performer of his part. He does not forget that surrounding him on the stage are decorations, scenery, etc., but they have no meaning for him.

He says to himself, as it were: “I know that all around me on the stage Is a rough counterfeit of reality. It is false. But if all should be real, see how I might be carried away to some such scene; then I would act.” And at that instant, when there arises

in his mind that artistic “suppose,” encircling his real life, he loses interest in it, and is transported to another plane, created for him, of imaginary life. Restored to real life again, the actor must perforce modify the truth, as in the actual construction of his invention, so also in the survivals connected to it. His invention can be shown to be illogical, wide of the truth—and then he ceases to believe it. Emotion rises in him with invention; 2.¢., his outward regard for imagined circumstances may be shown as “determined” without relation to the individual nature of a given emotion. Finally, in the expression of the outward life of his part, the actor, as a living complex emotion, never making use of sufficient perfection of all his bodily equipment, may give an untrue intonation, may not keep the artistic mean in gesticulation and may through the temptation of cheap effect drift into mannerism or awkwardness. Only by a strongly developed sense of the truth may he achieve that, in order that every one of his poses, and every gesture may be outwardly realistic; ie., he may express the condition representing the character, and may not serve, like the conventional theatrical gestures and poses of every race, a single inward beauty. Internal Technique.—The combination of all the abovenamed procedure and habits also composes the actor’s external technique. Parallel with its development must go also the development of internal technique—the perfecting of that bodily equipment which serves for the incarnation of the theatrical image created by the actor, and the exact, clear expression of his external

consciousness. With this aim in view the actor must work out within himself not only the ordinary flexibility and mobility of

action, but also the particular consciousness that directs all his groups of muscles, and the ability to feel the energy transfused within him, which, arising from his highest creative centres, forms in a definite manner his mimicry and gestures, and, radiating from him, brings into the circle of its influence his partners on the stage and in the auditorium. The same growth of consciousness and fineness of internal feelings must be worked out by the actor in relation to his vocal equipment. Ordinary speech—as in life, so on the stage—is prosaic and monotonous; in it words sound disjointed, without any harmonious stringing together in a vocal melody as continuous as that of a violin, which by the hand of a master violinist can become fuller, deeper, finer and more transthe parent, and can without difficulty run from the higher to lower notes and vice versa, and can alternate from pianissimo to forte. To counteract the wearisome monotony of reading, actors often elaborate, especially when declaiming poetry, with

those artificial vocal fioritures, cadences and sudden raising and lowering of the voice, which are so characteristic of the conven-

the tional, pompous declamation, and which are not influenced by

corresponding emotion of the part, and therefore impress the more sensitive auditors with a feeling of unreality. of speech, But there exists another natural musical sonorousness of their own which we may see in great actors at the moment the internal true artistic elation, and which is closely knit to within himp develo must sonorousness of their rôle. The actor due self this natural musical speech by practising his voice with

37

regard to his sense of reality, almost as much as a singer. At the

same time he must perfect his elocution.

It is possible to have a

strong, flexible, impressive voice, and still distort speech, on the one hand by incorrect pronunciation, on the other by neglect of those almost imperceptible pauses and emphases through which are attained the exact transmission of the sense of the sentence, and also its particular emotional colouring. In the perfect production of the dramatist, every word, every letter, every punctu-

ation mark has its part in transmitting his inward reality; the actor in his interpretation of the play, according to his intelligence, introduces into each sentence his individual nuances, which must be transmitted not only by the motions of his body, but also by artistically developed speech. He must bear this in mind, that every sound which goes to make a word appears as a separate note, which has its part in the harmonious sound of the word, and which is the expression of one or other particle of the soul drawn out through the word. The perfecting, therefore, of the phonetics of speech cannot be limited to mechanical exercise of the vocal equipment, but must also be directed in such a way that the actor learns to feel each separate sound in a word as an instrument of artistic expression. But in regard to the musical tone of the voice, freedom, elasticity, rhythm of movement and generally all external technique of dramatic art, to say nothing of internal technique, the present day actor is still on a low rung of the ladder of artistic culture, still far behind in this respect, from many causes, the masters of music, poetry and painting, with an almost infinite road of development to travel. Production.—It is evident that under these conditions, the staging of a play, which will satisfy highly artistic demands, cannot be achieved at the speed that economic factors unfortunately make necessary in most theatres. This creative process, which every actor must go through, from his conception of the part to its artistic incarnation, is essentially very complicated, and is hampered by lack of perfection of outward and inward technique. It is also much hindered by the necessity of fitting in the actors one with another—the adjustment of their artistic individualities into an artistic whole. Responsibility for bringing about this accord, and the artistic integrity and expression of the performance rests with the theatre manager. During the period when the manager exercised a despotic rule in the theatre, a period starting with the Meiningen players and still in force even in many of the foremost theatres, the manager worked out in advance all the plans for staging a play, and, while certainly having regard to the existing cast, indicated to the actors the general outlines of the scenic effects, and the mise-en-scène. The writer also adhered to this system, but now he has come to the conclusion that the creative work of the manager must be done in collaboration with the actor’s work, neither ignoring nor confirming it. To encourage the actor’s creative genius, to control and adjust it, ensuring that this creative genius grows out of the unique artistic germ of the drama, as much as the external building up of the performance—that in the opinion of the writer is the problem of the theatre director to-day. The joint work of the director and actor begins with the analysis of the drama and the discovery of its artistic germ, and with the investigation of its transparent effect. The next step is the discovery of the transparent effect of individual parts—of that fundamental will direction of each individual actor, which, organically derived from his character, determines his place in the general action of the play. If the actor cannot at once secure this transparent effect, then it must be traced bit by bit with the manager’s aid—by dividing the part into sections corresponding to the separate stages of the life of the particular actor—from the separate problems developing before him in his struggle for the attainment of his goal. Each such section of a part or each problem, can, if necessary, be subjected to further psychological analysis, and sub-divided into problems even more detailed, corresponding to those separate mind actions of the performer out of which stage life is summed up. The actor must catch the mind axes of the emotions and temperaments, but not the emotions and temperaments that give colour to these sections of the part. In other words, when studying each portion of his part, he must

THEATRE

38

ask himself what he wants, what he requires as a performer of ihe play and which definite partial problem he is putting before himself at a given moment. The answer to this question should not be in the form of a noun, but rather of a verb: “I wish to obtain possession of the heart of this lady’"—“I wish to enter her house’”—“I wish to push aside the servants who are protecting her,” etc. Formulated in this manner, the mind problem, of which the object and setting, thanks to the working of his creative imagination, are forming a brighter and clearer picture for the actor, begins to grip him and to excite him, extracting from the recesses of his working memory the combinations of emotions necessary to the part, of emotions that have an active character and mould themselves into dramatic action. In this way the different sections of the actor's part grow more lively and richer by degrees, owing to the involuntary play of the complicated organic survivals. By joining together and grafting these sections, the score of the part is formed; the scores of the separate parts, after the continual joint work of the actors during rehearsals and by the necessary adjustment of them one with another, are summed up in a single score of the performance. The Score Condensed.—Nevertheless, the work of the actors and manager is still unfinished. The actor is studying and living in the part and the play deeper and deeper still, finding their deeper artistic motives; so he lives in the score of his part still more profoundly. But the score of the part itself and of the play are actually subject by degrees during the work to further alterations. As in a perfect poetical production there are no superfluous words but only those necessary to the poet’s artistic scheme, so in a score of the part there must not be a single superfluous emotion but only emotions necessary for the transparent effect. The score of each part must be condensed, as also the form of its transmitting, and bright, simple and compelling forms of its incarnation must be found. Only then, when in each actor every part not only organically ripens and comes to life but also all emotions are stripped of the superfluous, when they all crystallize and sum up into a live contact, when they harmonize amongst themselves in the general tune, rhythm and time of the performance, then the play may be presented to the public. During repeated presentations the theatrical score of the play

and each part remains in general unaltered.

But that does not

mean that from the moment the performance is shown to the public the actor’s creative process is to be considered ended, and that there remains for him only the mechanical repetition of his achievement at the first presentation. On the contrary, every performance imposes on him creative conditions; all his psychical forces must take part in it, because only in these conditions can they creatively adapt the score of the part to those capricious changes which may develop in them from hour to hour, as in all living nervous creatures influencing one another by their emotions, and only then can they transmit to the spectator that invisible something, inexpressible in words, which forms the spiritual content of the plays. And that is the whole origin of the substance of dramatic art. As regards the outward arrangements of the play—scenery, theatrical properties, etc.—all are of value in so far as they correspond to the expression of dramatic action, ż.e., to the actors’ talents; in no case may they claim to have an independent artistic importance in the theatre, although up to now they have been so considered by many great scene painters. The art of scene painting, as well as the music included in the play, is on the stage only an auxiliary art, and the manager’s duty is to get from each what is necessary for the illumination of the play performed before an audience, while subordinating each to the problems of

the actors. tion.)

(See Actrnc; Motion Pictures: Acting and Direc(C. Srt.)

THE ACTOR It is to the actor and to no one else that the theatre belongs. This does the actor designer, spectator,

not mean, of course, the professional actor alone, but as poet, as director, stage-manager, musician, scenepainter, and, certainly not least of all, the actor as for the contribution of the spectators is almost as im-

portant as that of the cast. The audience must take its part in

[THE ACTOR

the play if we are ever to see arise a true art of the theatre—the |oldest, most powerful, and most immediate of the arts, combining |the many in one. We all bear within us the potentiality for every kind of passion, every fate, every way of life. Nothing human is alien to us. If this were not so, we could not understand other people, either in life or in art. But inheritance and upbringing foster individual

experiences and develop only a few of our thousands of possibilities. The others gradually sicken and die. Bourgeois life to-day is narrowly circumscribed, and poor in feeling. Out of its poverty it has made merely virtues through which it pushes its way, severe and upright. The normal man generally feels once in his life the whole blessedness of love, and once the joy of freedom. Once in his life he hates bitterly. Once with deep grief he buries a loved one, and once, finally, he dies himself. That gives all too little scope for our innate capacity to love, hate, enjoy, and suffer. We exercise daily to strengthen our muscles and sinews that they may not grow feeble, but our spiritual organs, which were made to act for an entire lifetime, remain unused, undeveloped, and so, with the passing years, they lose their vitality. Yet our spiritual like our bodily health depends upon the regular functioning of these organs. Unconsciously we feel how a hearty laugh liberates us, how a good cry or an outbreak of anger relieves us. We have an absolute need of emotion and its expression. Against this our upbringing constantly works. Its first commandment is: “Hide what goes on within you. Never let it be seen that you are stirred up, that you are hungry or thirsty; every grief, every joy, every rage, all that is fundamental and craves utterance, must be repressed.” Hence the well-known sublimations, the hysterical tendencies of the time, and finally that empty play-acting of which modern life is full. Passion, bursts of feeling and fancy, are ruled outside the bounds. In their place we have set up in a row common stereotyped forms of expression that are part of our social armour. This armour is so rigid and constricted that there is hardly any room for natural action. We cultivate a few useful expressions of interest, of pleasure, of dignity, and a set grimace of politeness. We ask people how they feel without waiting for an answer or, in any case, without paying attention to it. With a fixed intonation, which could be written down and reproduced wholesale, we say that we are happy to see them, though the encounter may be a matter of complete indifference to us when it is not actually fatal. At weddings, christenings, burials, festivities we make out of handshaking and bowing, out of frowns and grins, a ghostly play, in which the absence of feeling is shocking. The modern social code has crippled the actor, whose business it is to body forth feeling. When generations have been brought up to repress the emotions, nothing in the end remains either to inhibit or to show. How can the actor, rooted deep in the bourgeois existence of every-day, suddenly in the evening leap into the life of the mad king, whose unrestrained passion sweeps like a storm across the moors? How shall he make it credible that he is killing himself through love, or that he has killed another through jealousy? It is significant that our modern theatre can hardly boast a true lover. When the actor on the stage says “I love you,” it is the custom in many theatres to resort to musical accompaniment of the wood instruments, in order to evoke a poetical atmosphere. The soul is set vibrating by a vibrato of the violins—otherwise one could scarcely distinguish an “I-loveyou” from a “How-do-you-do.” Generally, the women are more impulsive because they still live closer to nature than men. In former times, when actors were excluded from bourgeois society and wandered about like gypsies, they undoubtedly developed stronger, rarer personalities. They were more unbridled in their passions; their outbursts were more powerful, the spirits that possessed them, more masterful. They had no outside interests. They were actors, body and soul. To-day the body is willing, but the spirit is weak, and their interests are divided. Of course, all these observations and all rules fail before the wonder of genius. But there is little genius, and there are many theatres. Now, to every person nature gives a face of his own.

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1, 2, 3. Scenes from “The Miracle,” produced by Max Reinhardt.

(1) The

Piper, as the Tribune of the people, gives the signal for the execution of the Nun. (2) Jubilant worshippers surrounding the Lame One,

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Madonna.

(3)

The Knight and the Nun kneeling for the Virgin’s blessing

THEATRICAL 5. Scene from

PRODUCTIONS “Turandot,”

produced

by Max

Reinhardt

at Salzburg

6. Storm scene from the New York Theatre Guild’s production of “Porgy.” Crown, a negro, is defying God and the elements much to the horror of the other negroes who are shrinking away in terror

of Danton,

7. Act 6 of Eugene O’Neill’s 9-act play “Strange Interlude,” produced by the New York Theatre Guild. The four principal characters have come

who ıs standing on the platform to the right with hands bound. There were also many members of the mob stationed in the balcony, where they shouted and jeered in response to the emotions stirred by the orators

“Make yourselves at home! You are my three men! This is your home with me!” Facial expression and remarks, spoken aside, express the feelings which each seeks to conceal

4. Scene from mob

‘‘Danton’s Tod,” a Max Reinhardt

production, showing the

gathered before the tribunal during the denunciation

together for the first time in four years.

Nina

(centre)

has just said,

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“Hamlet”?

(article

(6)

THE

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VICTORIA

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

FOREL

by

N.

“Gordon Craig and his Roman studio,” Vanity Fair, Feb. 1920) 3. A cemetery designed by Robert Edmond Jones for Pirandello’s “At the Gateway” 4. Design by Adolphe Appia for Wagner’s “Rheingold”

AND

ABSTRACT

5. Plate X. in Gordon

(2)

COPR

SETTINGS

Craig’s ‘‘Scene’’

6. Setting by Robert Edmond Jones for Sidney Howard’s “Swords”

7. Design

by

Adolphe

Fields’) 8. A scene from

“Sumarun,” Jones

Max

Appia

for

Reinhardt’s

Gluck’s

“Orpheus”

production

of

adapted from a design by Ernst Stern

the

(“The

wordless

Elysian

play

by Robert Edmond

THEORY

OF PRODUCTION]

THEATRE

There is as small chance of finding two men who exactly resemble each other as of finding two leaves on a tree which are precisely alike. Yet in the narrow course of bourgeois life, driven hither and thither by the current of every-day, they are in time worn down until they become like round pebbles. One individual looks like another. This grinding process also has its effect upon their psychological make-up. But the highest boon of mankind is personality. In the arts, personality is the decisive factor; it is the living kernel which we seek in every artistic work. Bourgeois standards should not be applied to artists, for what is it that distinguishes the artist? It is that he reacts to whatever he encounters deeply and powerfully; that things hardly visible, hardly audible, stir and move him; that he is driven by an irresistible impulsion to give all that he experiences back again,

realized in some form of expression. It would be a gross injustice to wish to profit by these gifts in the arts, and yet in life outside to condemn them. The art of acting originated in the earliest childhood of the race. Man, allotted a brief existence, in a close-pressing crowd of various kinds of individuals, who were so near him and yet so elusively far, had an irresistible desire to throw himself into a fantastic play of changing one form into another, one fate into another, one effect into another. These were the first attempts to fly above his narrow material existence. The possibilities inherent in him but not brought to full growth by his life thus unfolded their shadowy wings and carried him far over his knowledge and away into the heart of a strange experience. He discovered all the delights of transformation, all the ecstasy of passion, all the illusive life of dreams. Made as we are in God’s image, we have in us something of the godlike creative will. Therefore we create the whole world over again in the arts, with all the elentents, and on the first day of creation, as the crown of our work, we make men in our image. Shakespeare is the greatest, the one truly incomparable boon

that the theatre has had. He was poet, actor, and producer in one. He painted landscapes and fashioned architectural scenes with his words. In his plays everything is bathed in music and flows into the dance. He stands nearest to the Creator. It is a wonderful full-rounded world that he made—the earth with all its flowers, the sea with all its storms, the light of the sun, the moon, the stars; fire with all its terrors and the air with all its spirits—and in between, human beings with all their passions, their humour and tragedy, beings of elemental grandeur and, at the same time, utter truth His omnipotence is infinite. He was Hamlet, King Claudius, Ophelia, and Polonius in one person. Othello and Iago, Brutus and Cassius, Romeo and Juliet, Falstaff and Prince Henry, Shylock and Antonio, Bottom and Titania, and the whole line of merry and sorrowful fools lived within him. He engendered them and brought them to birth; they were part of his inscrutable being. Over them he hovers like a godhead, invisible and intangible. Nothing of him is there but this great world. Yet in it he is ever present and mighty. He lives eternally. Only that art is living, in whose inmost chamber the human heart beats. For the moment the theatre is, we realize, threatened; it is in a decline to-day because in the noise and rush of the great cities, though material means of existence are given it, its peculiar festal beauty, the enchanted sense of play, has been taken from it. It has not yet been organically co-ordinated with the sudden growth of the modern metropolis. The arts, especially the theatre, forsaken by the good spirits, can be the sorriest business, the poorest prostitution—there is its pale first cousin, the film, which was born in the city and has undoubtedly flourished better there. But the passion to act in the theatre, to go to the theatre, is an elemental desire in mankind. It will always draw actors and spectators together to the play, and out of that dionysian union in which they rise above the earth,

it will produce the highest art that alone brings felicity. The theatre is deathless. It is the happiest loophole of escape for those who have secretly put their childhood in their pockets

and have gone off with it to play to the end of their days. The

39

| art of the stage affords also liberation from the conventional | drama of life, for it is not dissimulation that is the business of the play but revelation. Only the actor who cannot lie, who is himself undisguised, and who profoundly unlocks his heart deserves the laurel. The supreme goal of the theatre is truth, not the outward, naturalistic truth of every-day, but the ultimate truth of the soul. We can telegraph and telephone and wire pictures across the ocean; we can fly over it. But the way to the human being next us is still as far as to the stars.

The actor takes us on this way.

With the light of the poet he climbs the unexplored peaks of the human soul, his own soul, in order to transform it secretly there and to return with his hands, eyes, and voice full of wonders. He is at once sculptor and sculpture; he is man at the farthest borderline between reality and dream, and he stands with both feet in both realms. The actor’s power of self-suggestion is so great that he can bring about in his body not only inner and psychological but even outer and physical changes. And when one ponders on the miracle of Konnersreuth, whereby a simple peasant girl experiences every Friday the Passion of Christ, with so strong an imaginative power that her hands and feet show wounds and she actually weeps tears of blood, one may judge to what wonders and to what a mysterious world the art of acting may lead; for it is assuredly by the same process that the player, in Shakespeare’s words, changes utterly his accustomed visage, his aspect and carriage, his whole being, and can weep for Hecuba and make others weep.

Every night the actor bears the stigmata,

which his imagination inflicts upon him, and bleeds from a thousand wounds. (M. Re.) THEORY

OF MODERN

PRODUCTION

The theatre at any period in history has always provided an immediate reflection of the life of that period, and accordingly, we find in the theatre of to-day splendour, speed, luxury and an eager reaching out in every direction for new ways in which to seize and to communicate every phase of modern life. A brief glance at the illustrations, shown herewith, which are chosen from the designs of artists whose work is characteristic of the theatre of our time, will confirm this statement. Life is moving and changing and the theatre is moving and changing very swiftly with it. We are living in a period of high nervous vitality, of discontent, of restless experimentation, of feverish search for new ideals and new standards. In the midst of this incessant activity it is difficult to indicate any one precise direction in which the theatre is moving at the present time or to prophesy the forms it may assume even in the

near future. A decade hence the theatre of 1929 may come to be regarded as incredibly crude, naive and amorphous. But it is suggested that at this moment we have at our disposal a new and hitherto undeveloped medium of dramatic expression which during the next few years may profoundly change modern theatrical production. This medium is the talking picture. Modern psychology has made us all familiar with the idea of the subconscious. We have learned that just beneath the surface of our everyday normal conscious existence there lies a vast region of dreams, a hinterland of energy which has a form of its own and laws of its own, laws that motivate our inmost thoughts and actions. This conception has profoundly influenced the intellectual life of our day. It has already become a commonplace of our thinking, and it is beginning to find expression in our art. Writers like James Joyce, painters like Matisse and Picasso, musicians like Debussy and Stravinsky, have ventured into the realm of the subjective and have recorded the results of their explorations in all sorts of new and arresting forms. Our playwrights, too, have begun to explore this land of dreams. In two dramas recently produced in New York, Eugene O’Neill’s Strange Interlude and Sophie Treadwell’s Machinal, an attempt has been made to express directly to the audience the unspoken thoughts

of the characters, to show us not only their conscious behaviour

but the actual pattern of their subconscious lives. These adventures into the subjective indicate a trend in dramatic writing which is bound to become more general as the laws of the subconscious become more and more clearly understood. It seems strange, strik-

THEATRE

40

ing, that just at this moment in the world’s history there has come into existence the talking picture, a perfect instrument for expressing the subconscious in theatrical productions. Jn the simultaneous use of the living actor and the talking picture in the theatre there lies a wholly new theatrical art, an art whose possibilities are as infinite as those of speech itself. The dramatists of to-day are casting about for ways in which to express the workings of the subconscious, to express thought before it becomes articulate. They have not seen that the moving und talking picture is itself a direct expression of thought before thought becomes articulate. They are trying to give us in the theatre not only the outward actuality of our lives, but the inward reality of our thoughts. They are seeking to go beyond the everyday life we normally know into the never-ending stream of images which has its source in the depths of the self, in the unknown springs of our being. But in their search for ways in which to express their new awareness of life, they have not observed that the moving picture is thought made visible. This statement is in itself a revolutionary one, but it is true. The moving picture runs in a stream of images, just as our thoughts do, and the speed of the moving picture, with its “flashbacks” and abrupt transitions from subject to subject, is very

close to the speed of our thoughts. Here lies the potential dramatic importance of this new invention. The dramatist has it in his power to enhance and elaborate the characters of his drama to an infinite extent by means of these moving and speaking images. Some new playwright will presently set a motion picture screen on the stage above and behind his living actors and will reveal the two worlds that together make up the world we live in— the outer world and the inner world, the world of actuality and the world of dream. Strange Interlude, Machinal and the “‘talkies” have shown us the way toward this new drama. Within the next decade a new dimension may be added to our theatre. (R. E. J) CHINESE THEATRE The Chinese drama, as it had existed from ancient times up to the time of the Revolution in 1911, was a continuous development from simple primitive forms to a very complex and elaborate

one.

(See DRAMA, CHINESE.) Such evidence as can be found in

the Chinese classics makes it certain that the origins were in ancestor worship and religious dancing, and in the acrobats and clowns who entertained the courts, presenting an obvious analogy to the drama of the middle ages. Added to this, we have the evidence of the engraved reliefs of the Wu tombs and of such stelae as that in the Boston museum (dated A.D. 529). Also the numerous grave figurines which present a variety of actors and dancers, giving visual proof of the type of dancing engaged in in the Six Dynasties and the T’ang dynasty. Traditionally, the acting of stories is attributed to the Han dynasty. References are made to stories accompanied by song and dance in the North Chi dynasty. The use of animal and demon masks was probably primitive and early, but "legend ascribes the origin of the terrifying warrior masks to the prince of Lan Ling who had a face so beautiful that he had to invent a “false face” of carved wood in order to frighten the enemy. Whatever the truth of the matter, the Chinese have developed painted faces which are the equivalent

of the Japanese Nō masks. (See Masks.)

In the T’ang dynasty the Emperor Ming Huang was famous as a patron of the arts of drama and dancing. He established the “Pear Garden,” a court institute of music, dancing and acting, and established a similar institute for the training of females, a reference which seems to indicate that the roth century tradition of the segregation of sexes in dramatic companies was an old and persistent one. Development.—The Chinese speak of three epochs in the development of the drama: (1) from the reign of Ming Huang (A.D. 720) to the fall of the T’ang dynasty; (2) from the beginning of the Sung dynasty up to the close of the reign of Hui Tsung, a great patron of all the arts; (3) from and including the reign of the Golden Tatars of North China and the whole Yiian (Mon-

[CHINESE

| the question of the Mongol dramatic literature is lost; the under a barbarian rule turned considered inferior. This they partly for diversion and partly From this period the names

drama. All the proper pre-Yuan theory is that Chinese littérateurs their genius to an art which they did partly as a matter of politics, out of contempt. of plays and dramatists are pre-

served. (Among the dramatists were Wang Shih-fu, EFE Shih Chiin-mei, fig#t3é. Kuan Han-shéng, Baye, Ma Chihyiian, Hg, and Chiao Lifu, Bar FF.) Sure as it seems that

the drama as serious the question of how innovation and how tion is a completely

literature was at its height during this period, much of the theatre of that period was an much was the elaboration of straight tradiopen one. The opinion of the author is that

the tradition, however tricked out, was not changed. Dancers of the 2oth century move from posture to posture which are identical with those of the T’ang dynasty grave figurines and there are many analogies to the No drama of Japan which have never been properly looked into, notably similar conventions, and, in the male characters, a similar use of intoned chanting. (See Nd Drama.) The drama continued to flourish under the Ming dynasty and apparently did not give way to a new form until the middle of the Ch’ing period when an easier and more popular style became the mode. The classical drama, or kun ch’u, pH has persisted to the present day but is largely kept up by scholarly amateur societies. There are a few great professional singers of the classical drama, and the great popular actors usually include a few classical roles in their repertoires, but for the most part dramatic performances are in the popular (êrk kuang) $ mode developed under the Manchus. In the third decade of the zoth century the modernists were attacking the stage tradition with everything else that has been great in China and have fallen into weak imitation of the western dramatie forms, so far with very little effect on the old theatre except that the fashionable actors are deserting the traditional type of stage and are taking to western stages, painted scenery and spotlights. Forms of Entertainment.—The Chinese employ a form of entertainment for which we have no single word. It is a combination of spoken dialogue, operatic singing and ballet dancing. Both the theatre and the performance present immediate analogies to the Elizabethan drama. The theatre, except for refinement of decoration, is almost identical in arrangement, but the Chinese theatre always has a roof except in the case of temple theatres which consist only of the actual stage itself. Like the Elizabethan theatre, the Chinese use only the scantiest stage properties: an embroidered curtain at the rear with entrances left and right, furniture carried in and out during the performance, landscapes indicated by symbolic plaques. The imperial theatres went further and had contraptions which resemble those described in writings of the Italian Renaissance, including balconies, pits in the floors and holes in the ceilings through which actors could be lowered. Further analogies with the Elizabethan theatre appear in the long monologues which the actor addresses to an audience in a fully lighted house, and monologues so presented become logical and exciting confidences and not at all the dull and abstract versions which westerners present in Elizabethan revivals. Furthermore, the actors are all of one sex, usually males, and the perfection of female representation teaches the westerner what such representa-

tion must have been in England. Another analogy is in the comic

interludes of exaggerated clowning, as yet happily unexpurgated. But the Chinese have developed a whole set of conventions which are apparently incomprehensible to Western nations. Not only are the gestures and movements of the different sexes and ages represented bound by conventions, but the very voices themselves must conform to similar conventions. The typical classifica-

tion of parts is as follows.

The zan (H, Mongol colloquialism

for “woman’’), or young female, moves in a set, rhythmical sway and speaks and sings in a high falsetto. The clothes for these parts are designed and built in long flowing lines to increase the impression of flower-like grace; the make-up is elaborated red and

white. The Zao tan ($ H, lao, old; tan, see above), or old lady, gol) dynasty. This classification seems to be purely arbitrary walks in four-four time with a slight palsied shake; she bends a and the real puzzle to the historian of Chinese drama lies in little but does not sway, wears no make-up and usually wears a

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FIGURES

singer of popular female

rôles, appearing as a female warrior 2. Yang Hsiao-Lou, left, and Wang Féng-Ch’ing in “Lien Hua Hu,” (Lotus conFlower Lake). Yang Hsiao-Lou is reputed to be the greatest roles temporary singer and actor of male K’un Ch’u (classical) and actor of female 3, Han Shih Ch’ang, the greatest contemporary singer classical rôles

OF THE

CHINESE

4. Huo Shou-Chên

STAGE

as “Ts'ao Ts'ao,” the traditional

villain

Kingdoms in “Ch’ang Fan P'o” (Long Hillside) 5. Chen Pi-Yen, right, and Chin Chung-Jén in “Hung | Kuan” bow Pass) 6. Mei Lan-Fang

in “Tai Chén Wal Chuan”

of the Three

(The Story of Yang

(The RainKuel-Fel)

THEATREDOM-—THEATRES

41

bright orange bandeau to increase the effect of pallor. She speaks | are often used for a number of different plays, and the tunes have and sings in a falsetto. The hsiao shéng GÆ, young man) moves far less quality than those of the classical drama. The accompaniin a measured and animated stride. His make-up is slight, confined ment includes largely stringed instruments played with a bow, to pink-and-white cheeks and exaggerated eyebrows. He speaks wind instruments (exclusive of the shéng which is not used), and sings in falsetto and may, in speaking, change his range from falsetto to a natural tenor. The cut of his costume is simple and

drums, gongs and cymbals. The action is far less highly developed. A third kind of theatrical entertainment is known as the skansi

sculpturesque, a long loose robe in which he moves easily. The lao shêng (324, old man) uses movements and gestures the same

pang tzů (pgg)

or pang izů chiang ŒB- ES), a rustic

form of drama introduced from the province of Shansi, the outstanding characteristic of which is the persistent use of the

as the young man’s but with less buoyancy. He usually speaks and sings in falsetto but may talk in a sustained tenor. His clothes trumpet and a kind of rattle known as pang tzů (43)are of the same cut as the young man’s but differ in details of Bmrrocrarsy.—Wang Kuo-wei, £ BIXEE, History of the Drama head-dress and are less gay in colour. The hua lien (ffi, painted in the Sung and Yüan Dynasties (Sung Yüan Hsi CPü Shik), Memories of face) represents the warrior. With the exception of very young FeTC RH E (Shanghai) ; Wang Méng-Shéng, EA ERA (Shanghai) ; Cyclopedia warriors, who wear neither painted faces nor beards, all actors the Theatre (Li Yiian Chia Hua), A Edit. by representing warriors are made up with elaborately painted faces of the Art of the Theatre (Hsi Hsüeh Hui K’ao), REA in bright colours and striking designs appropriate to the contours Lin Shan-ch'ing, %7] and others (Shanghai, 1926); A. Jacovleff of the human face. These painted faces are the equivalents of and Chu Chia Ch’ien, The Chinese Theatre (London, 1922); R. F. masks. The warrior moves in an exaggerated strut and speaks in Johnston, The Chinese Drama (Shanghai, 1921) ; B. F. Allen, The Chinese Theatre (Shanghai) ; A. E. Zucker, The Chinese Theatre (Boston). a deep throaty roar. He sings variously, according to part and (A. R. Pr.) actor, ordinarily in a forced bass but occasionally in a piercing THEATREDOM, the domain or sphere of things theatrical; tenor. His clothes are built to give the impression of force and the district in which the theatres are found. strength and include elaborate underpads for the torso and THEATRES, LAW RELATING TO. Playhouses grew up shoulders, heavily embroidered epaulettes and stomachers and in England after the Renaissance, when the religious drama began long scalloped panniers which flare as he moves. He wears enormous head-dresses, often with 6 ft. pheasant feathers and to give place to the secular drama. Apparently, licences for temsometimes four pennants attached to his back. The ch’ou (=ff- porary theatres were first granted in the reign of Henry VIII.; but ch’ou, is the second of the 12 zodiac signs but has come to be as the number of regular playhouses increased, letters patent to applied to the comedian or clown, probably because it is homony- perform stage plays were granted to Burbage, Shakespeare and mous with ch’ou, fi, meaning homely), or comedian, is allowed others by Elizabeth and James I. By an Order in Council passed more liberty of voice and action, the result being close to our in 1600, the number of playhouses in London was limited to two, exaggerated clown parts. He is almost always distinguished by one in Middlesex and one in Surrey; but this restriction was not strictly enforced. The theatres continued to function independwhite circles around the eyes. These are the main distinctions. The conventions are carried ently of legal control until 1647, when an Ordinance of the much further into the special representation of definite characters Roundhead Government closed all playhouses and even inflicted in which not only the exact make-up for that particular character penalties on any spectator at stage plays. With the Restoration, is prescribed but even the colours used carry symbolic meanings. the theatres were re-established, and royal patents granted to The costumes themselves are far more subtle and complicated Killigrew and Davenant, in 1662, for their theatres in Drury lane than those of the Nō drama of Japan, the obvious beauty of which and Covent garden, the one enjoying the official patronage of is apparent to the dullest eye. The Chinese costumes, like the Charles II., the other the patronage of the duke of York. The Theatres Act of 1737 (to Geo. II. ¢. 28) instituted statuJapanese Nō costumes, are in a style which might well be detory control over playhouses, plays and players which continscribed as architectonic. The actor is considered a kind of puppet on which the designer builds up a character of whatever sex and ued for more than a century. The act provided (inter alia) that no of whatever physique he chooses. The outlines of the figures are person should be authorized either by letters patent or by licence always clearly defined but the surface of a given mask is often to perform stage plays anywhere in Great Britain except within the covered with intricate patterns, which makes an ensemble of City of Westminster or the liberties thereof or in places of royal Chinese actors a more complicated picture than an ensemble of residence during the period of such residence. This limitation was the N6 actors. The subject matter of the plays is almost always subsequently modified by an act passed in 1788 (28 Geo. III. c. traditional. It includes stories from famous novels, anecdotes 30). The acting of plays at the universities (which had been and legends about historic personages, stories of the “Three privileged places originally) was forbidden by ro Geo. II. c. 19. Walpole’s act of 1737 consolidated the position of the patent Kingdoms,” in content suggestive of the Morte d’Arthur legend, theatres; and in spite of a long and bitter struggle between the and satiric burlesques of the church and of historic villains. Kinds of Drama in China.—tThe classical drama or k'un patent theatres and the non-patent theatres, the former main-

ckü (gh)

takes its name from the K’un Shan district in the

present province of Kiangsu. It is a highly refined and perfected form in which every gesture is in prescribed concordance with words and music, but the gestures and, to a certain degree, the emphasis of the singing is not written down but is handed down from teacher to teacher. The music itself includes an infinite number of tunes, each composed for a particular drama. The instruments include wind instruments (a kind of flute and oboe, and the shéng, #£, a mouth organ made of 17 small bamboo pipes), trumpets, drums, bells and plucked string instruments. Stringed instruments played with a bow are never used in the Pun chù. The popular drama which has several different names, most of which bear a geographical significance, is best referred to as erh huang (SF) and pi huang (HI), because it originated at Huang Kang and Huang P’i, two districts in the province of Hupei. It is sometimes known as han tiao (734) from the river Han which flows through the region. It is also called ching tiao

(8t 34), a southern name given to it after it had become the

popular form in Peking, the capital. It is a much more flexible and careless form than the classical form. Tunes are less varied and

tained a virtual monopoly down to 1843, when the recommenda-

tions of the parliamentary committee of 1832 were put into effect

by the passing of the Theatres Act, 1843 (6 and 7 Vict. c. 68),

which freed the London stage, and established legal control over

playhouses as it exists to-day. All theatres, music-halls, etc., must now be licensed for the purposes for which they are intended to be used. Theatre Licences.—A theatre licence is not required if the performances are not public (see Harms v. Martans Club, 1926, I Ch. 870); or if the plays presented are not stage plays within the meaning of the act (for meaning of stage plays, see below); or if the premises are not of a permanent character (¢.g., a portable booth); or if the theatre is licensed by letters patent; or if the performance is given in any booth or show at a fair or other

, feast. customary Theatre licences are granted by the lord chamberlain for all theatres within the parliamentary boundaries of the cities of London and Westminster, and of the boroughs of Finsbury and Marylebone, etc. For theatres situate elsewhere, the county councils are the proper licensing authority; but they may delegate

42

THEATRES,

LAWS

their powers to committees or to justices of the peace. Licences can only be granted to the responsible manager for the time being

of the theatre in question, wo must enter into a bond for a sum not exceeding f1co. The fee for a licence is ros. per calendar month in the case of the lord chamberlain’s licence, and 5s. per calendar month for a licence granted by any other authority. All licensing authorities are empowered by the Theatres Act to make rules and recuinticns for maintaining order and decency in theatres licensed by them and for ordering the closing of any theatre and suspending its licence where any riot or misbehaviour takes place (ss. 3 and 9). Music and Dancing Licences.—M{usic-halls and similar places of entertainment were first brought under legal control by the Disorderly Houses Act, 1751, which is still in force. A licence is required for any house, room, garden or other place kept for public dancing, music, or other such public entertainment. The conditions under which music and dancing licences are granted wary according to the area in which the premises to be licensed are situate. The London County Council deals with all licensing within the administrative county of London. Premises

RELATING

TO

of opinion that it is fitting for the preservation of good manners, decorum, or of the public peace to do so (s. 14). The lord chamberlain’s “Regulations for the Submission of Stage Plays” set out the procedure to be observed in applying for a licence to perform a stage play, and the fees to be paid for the licences required. (See also Theatres Act, s. 13.) A licence is only

required if the performance is to be given “for hire” in a theatre; and a performance is only deemed to be given “for hire” if any money or other consideration is taken, directly or indirectly, for admission to the performance, or if it takes place in any house, room, etc., in which distilled or fermented excisable liquor is soiu

(s. 16). The lord chamberlain’s regulations lay down some of the grounds on which the lord chamberlain may intervene to prohibit the performance or refuse a licence. As to penalties, see Theatres Act, s. 15, as amended by the Criminal Justice Act,

1925 (s. 43).

Days and Times of Performances.—The Sunday Observance Act, 1781, prohibits the opening on Sundays of any premises for public entertainment or amusement, to which the public are admitted by the payment of money or by tickets sold for money. The situate within the administrative county of Middlesex are gov- Act does not apply to religious meetings, or to any entertainment erned by the Music and Dancing Licences (Middlesex) Act, 1894; to which persons are admitted without payment. Licences freand certain portions of the home counties (Buckinghamshire, quently contain a condition that performances shall not take place Essex, Hertford, Kent, etc.), are now governed by the Home on certain specified days, and sec. 8 of the Theatres Act, 1843, Counties (Music and Dancing) Licensing Act, 1926. Outside empowers the lord chamberlain to order any patent theatre or these areas, either part IV. of the Public Health Act, 1890, applies, theatres licensed by him to be closed on such public occasions. or the licensing of music and dancing is provided for by local acts. Theatres under the jurisdiction of the lord chamberlain are not In London, Middlesex and the home counties, licences are granted under any restrictions as to the hours for performances; but other by the county councils, and elsewhere by the licensing justices, to licensing authorities may make rules regulating the times during such persons as they think fit, for any specified period up to one which the theatres within their jurisdiction may be opened (s. 9 year. Except in the case of licences granted by the London County of Theatres Act, 1843). Premises licensed for music and dancing, Council, it is made a condition of every licence that an inscription etc., may only be opened for those purposes between noon and must be affixed to licensed premises stating that they are midnight; but the Licensing Statutes provide for these hours being licensed pursuant to the act of parliament, and that such premises extended on special occasions if permission is first obtained from may only be kept open during specified hours. A licence which is the licensing authority. granted only for music does not authorize public dancing and vice There are a number of statutory provisions relating to the versa (Brown v. Nugent, 1872, L.R. 7, Q.B. 588). construction and safety of theatres and other buildings used for Neither a theatre licence nor a music and dancing licence is public entertainments, the chief of which are to be found in the required in the case of an army or navy recreation room which is Metropolis Management Act, 1878, the Public Health Act, 1875, managed or conducted under the authority of a secretary of State sec. 158, the Children Act, 1908, sec. 121, etc. or the Admiralty. A theatre licence does not dispense with the The Common Law Affecting Theatres, etc.—At common necessity of holding a licence for music or dancing, and vice versa. law the admission of the public to theatrical, etc., performances Licensing authorities have a discretion to refuse a theatre or music is in the discretion of the management, but once the right of and dancing licence or to grant it only subject to such conditions admission is granted, it cannot be withdrawn except under certain as they think fit to impose; but they must act reasonably (Reg. circumstances. The legal position of the ordinary ticket-holder is V. West Riding County Council, 1896, 2 Q.B. 386). that he has the irrevocable right to be admitted to see an entertainCensorship and Legal Control of Stage Plays.—An Ordi- ment until its close, provided that he behaves properly (Hurst v. nance was published by James I. forbidding the representation of Picture Theatres Ltd., 1915, 1 K.B. 1), and that he has not obany living Christian king upon the stage. This was occasioned by tained admission by fraud or by the concealment of identity (Said the appearance of players in the character of the king of Spain and v. Butt, 1920, 3 K.B. 497). The purchase of a ticket for a perGondomar; and it foreshadows part of the present policy of the formance carries an implied warranty by the management that the censorship. The control of stage plays was originally vested in premises shall be reasonably safe; but this warranty does not and exercised by the master of the revels, whose office has been extend to any unseen and unknown defects which could not be traced back to the year 1545. The supervision of stage plays was discovered by ordinary inspection (Francis v. Cockrell, 1870, also carried out by the Privy Council, the Star Chamber and the L.R. 5, Q.B. 184, 501; see also NEGLIGENCE). lord chamberlain; but records show that about the year 1624 The management is also responsible for the safety of the perthe lord chamberlain became the principal authority over these formance itself; and they will be liable for injury caused to the matters. The lord chamberlain continued to control stage plays, audience by the negligence of any actor or other performer who deriving his authority from the royal prerogative until Walpole’s is their servant or agent. If, however, the actor is not the servant act in 1737 gave statutory recognition to his censorship by of the managemen enacting (ss. 3 and 4) that all new plays must be submitted to who is presenting t but of another person é.g., a touring manager the play or entertainment under a contract with the lord chamberlain for approval. He, in turn, named an exam- the management of the theatre, the latter will only be liable if the iner of plays to assist him. The stage censorship, thus constituted, performance is intrinsically dangerous, or if they fail to take was continued by the Theatres Act, 1843. reasonable steps to ensure that any dangerous incidents are Stage plays produced anywhere in Great Britain are now under performed without risk to the playgoer (Cox v. Coulson, 1916, the absolute control of the lord chamberlain of His Majesty’s 2 K.B. 177; see also NUISANCE). household. Under the Theatres Act, 1843, the lord chamberlain is Theatrical Performers and the Law.—The legal position of empowered :—(a) to license every new stage play or any new theatrical performers is now governed by (a) the common law of addition to an old stage play or to an old prologue or epilogue contract; (b) theatrical custom; and (c) special legislation. which is intended to be produced and acted for hire in any theatre (a) At common law an actor or other theatrical performer is in Great Britain (s. 12); (b) to control all stage plays, whether regarded as being ina different position from that of the ordinar y new or old, by forbidding them to be acted or presented if he is servant or employee. Thus he is entitled to be given the oppor-

THEATRES,

LAWS

RELATING

TO

43

tunity of performing and of gaining the publicity which is an | ployment for those desirous of obtaining employment as singers, dancers, etc., at theatres or in connection with film production, essential part of the consideration of the contract of performance (Clayton & Waller Ltd. v. Oliver, 1930 A.C. 209). He may must be licensed for the purpose by the London County Council refuse a part which is unsuitable for him (Clayton-Greene V. or by the City Corporation (see the London County Council (GenDe Courville, 1920, 36 T.L.R. 790); and may decline to play a eral Powers) Act, 1921, ss. 11, 14). The Performing Animals part at unreasonably short notice (Graddon v. Price, 1827, 2 C. (Regulation) Act, 1925, provides for the registration of performand P. 610). The tendency of recent years has been to stand- ing animals and for inspection of them by duly authorized officers; ardize theatrical contracts. The standard form of contract for so as to ensure that their training and exhibition is not accomengagements of variety artists is the “Award” contract, evolved panied by cruelty. A whole group of recent enactments protect as the result of the arbitrations held in 1913 and 191g to children who are employed in theatrical, etc., performances. The settle disputes between members of the variety profession and Children’s Dangerous Performances Act, 1879 (as amended by the

their employers. The “Valentine” form of contract is largely (but not universally) used for London (West End) engagements of actors and actresses. A contract to perform on premises which are not licensed, or in a play which has not been approved by the lord chamberlain will be void for illegality (Gallini v. Laborie, 1793, 5 I.R. 242; Gray v. The Oxford [Ltd.], 1906, 22 T.L.R.

684, etc.). Similarly the presence of a “barring” clause (a form of restrictive covenant which prevents a performer from performing elsewhere within a certain area and within a specified time of the particular engagement) may vitiate the contract as being in restraint of trade, if its terms are too wide or unreasonable (Tivolt [Manchester] Lid. v. Colley, 1904, 20 T.L.R. 436). A term in a contract restricting an actor from using his stage name has been held to be void (Hepworth Manufacturing Co. v. Ryott,

1920, t Ch. 1). Outside the law of contract, a theatrical employee is in practically the same position as the ordinary employee. The management is liable for negligent or tortious acts committed by him in the course of his employment (e.g., an infringement of copyright; see Performing Right Society, Ltd. v. Mitchell, etc., 1924, I K.B. 762). The management is also liable for the personal safety of the performers, unless the injury is occasioned by the negligent or wrongful act of a fellow performer or fellow employee, e.g., a scene shifter (see Burr v. Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, Ltd.,

1907, 1 K.B. 544). The Employer’s Liability Act, 1880, does not appear to apply to an actor or similar performer; but might apply to other classes of theatrical employees. The Workmen’s Compensation Acts have been held to apply to various classes of theatrical employees. (b). The customs of the theatrical profession will govern contractual and other legal relations between performers and management, providing they fulfil the usual legal requirements as to custom. The following theatrical customs have been upheld by the courts: That an engagement to perform in a play in the West

End of London is for the run of the piece (George Edwardes [Daly’s Theatre] Ltd. v. Comber, 1926, 42 T.L.R. 247); that an engagement to perform elsewhere for an indefinite period may be

terminated by either side giving two weeks’ notice; that, in an engagement for one or more years, no payment of salary is payable during vacation when the theatre is closed (Grant v. Maddox, 1846, 15 M. and W. 737); that a manager who engages a theatrical company to perform for one week must not allow another company

to perform at that theatre during the same week, either by means of a “flying matinee” or otherwise (Cotton v. Sounes, 1902, 18 T.L.R. 456); that a variety or music-hall artist shall be advertised in a manner suitable to his professional reputation. (c). During recent years a great deal of legislation has been passed, with the object of protecting theatrical performers. The Theatrical Employers Registration Act, 1925 (which was intended to protect theatrical performers against unreliable and unscrupulous managers), requires every person who employs at one time three or more theatrical performers, to be registered in accordance with the procedure laid down by the Act. The Act also makes it an offence for theatrical employers to abandon the performers during the course of an engagement, and imposes penalties on persons who carry on business as theatrical employers without being registered, or who procure registration ‘by supplying misleading information, etc. Furthermore, a theatrical employer may be struck off the register if he is shown to have attempted to evade payment of his employees. Theatrical agents who carry on (within the administrative county of London) the business of teaching or of finding em-

Dangerous Performances Act, 1897), makes it an offence to cause any male person under the age of 16 years, or any female person under the age of 18 years, to take part in any public performance or exhibition which is dangerous to life or limb. The parent or guardian who aids or abets such an offence is liable to a penalty; and if any actual injury is sustained, the employer may be indicted for assault and ordered to pay compensation not exceeding £20. The Children (Employment Abroad) Act, 1913, makes it necessary for a licence to be obtained from a police magistrate to enable any young person under the age of 16 to go out of the United Kingdom for the purpose of singing, playing, performing or being exhibited for profit. This licence will only be granted upon the conditions prescribed by the act, which include supervision by consular officers. The Education Act, 1921 (s. 100), limits the hours in which children may be employed in public theatrical, or other performances. These restrictions may be relaxed but, apparently, no child under 12 years may be employed at any time on any public premises to which the public is admitted on payment. The Dramatic and Musical Performers Protection Act, 1925, prohibits the reproduction of the performances of actors, singers, etc., by mechanical means for the purposes of trade without their written consent. But this Act only provides a criminal remedy and does not confer any rights, either contractual or copyright upon the performers. SEE Musical Performers Association v. British

International Pictures, 1930, 46 T.L.R. 485. (S. C. I.) United States.—In the United States questions of licensing theatres involve statutes in 48 States. Where the licensing power has been delegated to the municipalities, ordinances in the various cities are likewise involved. “Little Theatres,’ springing up in great numbers throughout the United States, ordinarily avoid requirements of a licence (as well as building regulations) by organizing as a club whose members subscribe for tickets. Although a theatre is a private enterprise (Tyson and Brother

v. Banton [1927], 273 U.S. 418), yet it is subject to State control through the licensing power, the taxing power and the police power. The right of governmental authority to require a licence for the privilege of conducting business is not peculiar to the theatre, but exists likewise in many other private enterprises. The taxing power affects theatres in the same manner as it affects other private concerns. The police power goes further in that the State has a right of increased control, since the health or morals of people may be affected. Censorship, in the sense of prior restraint, has been held constitutional as applied to motion pictures (Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio [1915], 236 U.S. 230). There is no such censorship of the theatre but productions are subject to penal statutes prohibiting obscenity. Where the statutes are drastic, as in New York State under the Wales law (Penal Law, Sect. 1140-A), those engaged in a play may be

prosecuted if a line, scene or incident is indecent, and in case of conviction of those charged, the licence to operate the theatre may be revoked for a year. In a sense this is more drastic than any censorship since, because of the rigorous penalty, a mere threat by a prosecuting official may result in stopping a play. ` A theatre ticket may be in the form of a revocable licence or of a contract. If the former it may be revoked at the will of the proprietor; if the latter it may be non-transferable or otherwise conditioned (Tyson and Brother v. Banton [1927], 273 U.S. 418, 440). The producer is entitled to bar any person from the premises (Woollcott v. Shubert [1916], 217 N.Y. 212). If this is done the purchaser of a ticket may merely claim breach of contract and demand the return of his money and the repayment of any ex-

THEATRICAL

44

MAKE-UP

pense incurred (Luxenberg v. Keith and Proctor Amusement Co. v. Flynn [z909], N.Y. 64 Misc. 69; People ex rel. Burnham [1907]. 159 N.Y. 180). The auditor, however, may acquire greater

rights if once he has taken a seat (see Cremore v. Huber [1897], 18 N.Y. A.D. 231). A theatre has the right to refuse to accept tickets rurchize7 from a speculator (Collister v. Hayman [1905], I 183 N.Y izg,

The only limitation upon the right of a theatre to discriminate

is found in “civil rights’ laws which exist in a large number of States (see New York Civil Rights Law, Section 40, for type of statute), which laws provide that no discrimination shall be made in any place of public accommodation, resort or amusement because of race, creed or colour. Violation is ordinarily a misdemeanour and subjects the wrongdoer to penalty payable to the party agerieved (Joyner v. Jfoore-Wiggins Co. Lid. [1912], 152 N.Y. App. Div. 266, affirmed 211 N.Y. 522). Under these laws a dance hall is not regarded as a place of public accommodation

(Johnson v. Auburn and Syracuse Electric R.R. Co. [1915], 169 A.D. 1864). A law providing for the limitation of the amount that speculators or agencies may charge has been held unconstitutional (Tyson and Brother v. Benton [1927], 273 U.S. 418). On the other hand, tax laws assessing agencies to an almost prohibitive amount have been held constitutional by the circuit court of appeals in New York (Alexander Theatre Ticket Office, Inc., v. United States, 23 Fed., 2d series [1927], p. 44). The proprietor is not an insurer of persons only in [1896], [1895],

or property in the theatre. As respects either, he is liable case of negligence (property: Pattison v. Hammerstein N.Y. 17 Misc. Rep. 375. Person: Dunning v. Jacobs N.Y. 15 Misc. 85; Flanagan v. Goldberg [1910], 137 N.Y.

App. Div. 92), although it has been held that he warrants the premises to be reasonably safe (Weiner v. Scherer [1909], N.Y., 64 Misc. 82). Laws providing for Sunday closing have been held constitutional (Lindenmuller v. The People [1861], 33 Barb. [N.Y.]

548).

Questions concerning relations between managers and authors, actors and others connected with the profession depend upon contract. Within recent years in the United States various groups have been organized. The Actors’ Equity Association, which includes practically all actors of note and which is affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, demands a certain type of contract for actors. The Dramatists’ Guild of the Authors’ League of America, which in its membership includes practically all playwrights, insists upon a minimum basic agreement limiting the rights of managers in dealing with its members. The Authors’ and Composers’ League includes- in its membership all musical writers of note, and controls the “small rights” connected with presentation. See Encyclopaedia of Law and cases above cited.

(A. G. H.)

Other Countries.—In Scotland the Theatres Act, 1843, and the Burgh Police Act, 1892, regulate the licensing of theatres and other places of public entertainment. Sections 395 to 402 of the latter act provide for the licensing and control of places of

public resort which are used for the performance of stage plays, as a circus or for any other similar purpose. There is no stage censorship in Ireland. In Continental Europe Sunday performances in theatres and other places of a similar character are lawful. In most continental European countries (but Denmark is an outstanding exception) there is no State censorship of theatres, the regulation and supervision of various stage plays and of other public entertain-

ments of the kind being placed in each country either in the a of the police or in those of the local municipal authorities. 7 See also Motion Picrures; Liquor Laws; ENTERTAINMENTS UTY. BIBLIOGRAPEY.—S. C. Isaacs, The Law Relating to Theatres, Music Halls and other Public Entertainments

(1927); Paterson’s Licensing

Acts; Report of the Joint Select Committee of the House of Lords and

House of Commons on the Stage Plays (Censorship), 1909 (Parliamentary Papers, No. 214) ; W. Nicholson, The Struggle for a Free Stage in

London (1907).

(S. C. I.)

AND

COSMETICS—THEBES

THEATRICAL MAKE-UP AND COSMETICS: MAKE-UP AND CosMETICS; Motion Pictures, Make-up.

see

THEBAINE, an opium alkaloid, CH»NOs, of the phenan: threne group (see ALKALOIDS and MORPHINE). THEBES, an ancient Greek city in Boeotia (anciently Oba

Thebae), is situated on low hilly ground a little north of the Asopus valley, overlooking the Ismenian plain, about 44 m. from Athens, whence it is reached by two carriage-roads and by railway. It has about 4,800 inhabitants, and is the seat of a bishop. The present town occupies the site of the ancient citadel, the Cadmea; two fragments of ancient wall are visible on the N. and another, belonging either to the citadel or the outer wall, on the

S. There are remains of a Minoan “palace,” and chamber-tombs. The church of St. Luke, south-east of the Cadmea, is believed to contain his tomb. Two streams, rising a little south of the town, fiow on the two sides, the ancient Ismenus on the east and Dirce A(ni)kp on the west. The “waters” of Thebes are celebrated by Pindar and the Athenian poets, and the site is still, as described by Dicaearchus (3rd century B.c.), “all springs,” káĝvôpos râsa. From the abundance of water the neighbouring plain is extremely fertile. But the population is scanty, and the town unimportant. History.—The record of the earliest days of Thebes was preserved in a mass of legends. Five main cycles of story may be

distinguished: (1) the foundation of the citadel Cadmeia by Cadmus; (2) the building of a “seven-gated” wall by Amphion, and the cognate stories; (3) the tale of the “house of Laius,” culminating in the adventures of Oedipus and the wars of the “Seven” and the Epigoni; (4) the advent of Dionysus; and (5) the exploits of Heracles. It is difficult to extract any historical fact out of this maze of myths; at most it seems safe to infer that it was one of the first Greek fortified cities. In the period of great invasions from the north Thebes received settlers of that stock which spread over Boeotia. The military security of the city tended to raise it to a commanding position and its inhabitants endeavoured to establish a complete supremacy over the outlying towns. In the late 6th century the Thebans were brought into hostile contact with the Athenians, who helped the small fortress of Plataea to maintain its independence against them. The aversion to Athens explains the attitude of Thebes during the great Persian invasion, though it should be remembered that Herodotus, our chief authority for the period, wrote this part of his history in all probability at a period when feeling between Athens and Thebes was bitter in the extreme. Though a contingent of 400 was sent to Thermopylae (480 B.c.) and remained there with Leonidas to the end, the governing aristocracy soon after joined the enemy and fought zealously

on his behalf at the battle of Plataea (479 B.c.), The victorious Greeks punished Thebes by depriving it of the presidency of the Boeotian League. In 457 B.C. Sparta, needing a counterpoise against Athens in central Greece, reinstated Thebes as the dominant power in Boeotia. The great fortress served this purpose well by holding out when the Athenians overran and occupied the rest of the country (457-447 B.c.). In the Peloponnesian

War (q.v.) the Thebans, embittered by the support which Athens gave to the smaller Boeotian towns, and especially to Plataea, were firm allies of Sparta, which helped them to besiege Plataea and allowed them to destroy the town after capture (427 B.c.). In 424 B.C. at the head of the Boeotian levy, they inflicted a severe defeat upon an invading force of Athenians at Delium. After the downfall of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian war the Thebans, finding that Sparta intended to protect the states which they desired to annex, broke off the alliance. In 404 B.c. they had urged the complete destruction of Athens, in 403 B.c. they secretly supported the restoration of its democracy in order to find in it a counterpoise against Sparta. A few years later, they forced on the so-called Corinthian War and formed the nucleus of the league against Sparta. The result of the war was disastrous to Thebes as the settlement of 387 3.c.’stipulated the autonomy of all Greek towns and so withdrew the other Boeotians from its political control. Its power was further curtailed in 382 B.C., when a Spartan force occupied the citadel by a treacherous coupde-main. Three years later the Spartan garrison was expelled;

THEBES in the consequent wars with Sparta the Theban army, trained and

led by Epameinondas and Pelopidas (gq.v.), proved itself the best in Greece. Some years of desultory fighting culminated in 371 B.C. n a victory over the Spartans at Leuctra (g.v.). The winners carried their arms into Peloponnesus and at the head of a large coalition permanently crippled the power of Sparta.

45

Heracleopolis and eventually triumphed in the XIth Dynasty. The most important monument of the Middle Kingdom now extant at Thebes is the funerary temple of Mentuhotep III. at Deir el Bahri. The name Amenemhet, so common in the XIIth

Dynasty, shows the importance of the Theban god at this time. It was, however, the early rulers of the XVIIIth Dynasty down

But the predominance of Thebes was short-lived. The states | to Tethmosis III. who developed Karnak, and on the west bank which she protected were indisposed to commit themselves per- built the great funerary temple of Deir el Bahri and smaller manently to her tutelage, and the renewed rivalry of Athens pre- temples as far south as Medinet Habu, and began the long series vented the formation of a Theban empire. With the death of of royal tombs in the lonely Valley of the Kings far back in the Epameinondas in 362 B.C. the city sank again to the position of desert. Amenophis III. continuing, transformed western Thebes a secondary power. In a war with Phocis (356-346 B.c.) it could monumentally: built three great temples in addition, that of not even maintain its predominance in central Greece, and by Mont on the north of Karnak, the temple of Mut on the south inviting Philip IT. of Macedon to crush the Phocians it extended and the temple of Ammon at Luxor, and connected the last two that monarch’s power within dangerous proximity to its frontiers. with the state temple of Karnak by avenues of sphinxes. The city In 338 B.C. the orator Demosthenes persuaded Thebes to join and its monuments now covered an area about three miles square. Athens in a final attempt to bar Philip’s advance upon Attica. After this Thebes experienced a serious set-back with the heresy The Theban contingent fought bravely in the decisive battle of of Ikhnaton, the son of Amenophis ITI. He moved his capital Chaeroneia (g.v.). Philip was content to deprive Thebes of her northward to Akhetaton (El Amarna) and strove to suppress the dominion over Boeotia; but a revolt against Alexander was pun- worship of Ammon, doing infinite damage to the monuments of ished by the complete destruction of the city. Thebes never again Thebes by defacing his name and figure. After about twenty played a prominent part in history. It suffered from the estab- years, however, the reaction came, Thebes was again the capital, lishment of Chalcis as the chief fortress of central Greece, and and a little later under Seti (Sethos) I. and Rameses II. of the was severely handled by the Roman conquerors Mummius and XXth Dynasty it was raised to greater architectural magnificence Sulla. In Pausanias’s time (A.D. 170) its citadel alone was in- than ever. These two kings built the great columnar hall of habited. During the Byzantine period it served as a place of Karnak, added a large court with pylons to Luxor, and on the refuge against foreign invaders, and from the roth century became west bank built the funerary temple of Seti at Kurna, and the a centre of the new silk trade. In 1311 it was destroyed by the Ramesseum with its gigantic colossus, besides other edifices of Catalans and passed out of history. which only traces remain. Under the X VIIIth and XIXth DynasThe most famous monument of ancient Thebes was the outer ties Thebes was at the height of its greatness. Conquering Pharaohs wall with its seven gates, which even as late as the 6th century brought home trains of prisoners and spoil, embassies came thither B.C. was probably the largest of artificial Greek fortresses. Two of strange people in every variety of costume and of every hue of the springs have been identifed with some probability—that of skin, from Ethiopia, Puoni (Punt), Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, of St. Theodore with the Oedipodeia, in which Oedipus is said to Libya, and the islands of the Mediterranean, bringing precious have purged himself from the pollution of homicide, and the Para- stones, rare animals, beautiful slaves, costly garments and vessels

porti with the dragon-guarded fountain of Ares (see Capmus). From the interest of the site in history and still more in literature, as the scene of so many dramas, the temptation to fix details has been specially strong. There are two main difficulties to contend with. The description of Pausanias was written at a time when the lower city was deserted, and only the temples and

the gates left; and the references to Thebes in the Attic dramatists are, like those to Mycenae and Argos, of no topographical value. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. v. Stern, Geschichte der spartanischen und thebanischen Hegemonie pp. 44-246 (Dorpat, 1884); B. V. Head, Historia Numorum, pp. 295—299 (1887); E. Fabricius, Theben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1890) ; E. Funk, De Thebanorum actis, 378-362 (1890). See also BOEOTIA. Ancient authorities are Herodotus, v.—ix.; Thucydides and Xenophon (Hellenica), passim; Diodorus, xvii., xix.; Pausanias, ix., 5~17.

THEBES (078a:), the Greek name of the ancient capital of Upper Egypt. It occurs in Homer (il. ix. 381-4) where it has the epithet éxaréumvdos, “hundred-gated,” probably derived in the first place from the gateways of its endless temples, for

of gold and silver. The tombs of the XVIIIth Dynasty on the west bank and the sculptures in the temples reflect the brilliancy of these days, but with Rameses II. came the turning-point of

its glories, and the efforts of all his successors combined could add little to the wonders of Thebes. The temple and tower of Rameses TIT. (XXth Dynasty) at Medinet Habu, his tomb in the Biban el Moluk, the temple of Khons (Rameses III. and later) and the court of Sheshonk I. (XXIInd Dynasty) at Karnak are the only great achievements. The tide of prosperity was now flowing northward and such monumental energy as remained was expended more widely. For several centuries after the fall of the New Empire Thebes was but one of several alternating or contemporaneous capitals. Memphis, Tanis, Bubastis, Sais, Heracleopolis had at one time or another at least equal claims. The Ethiopian conquerors of Egypt

made Thebes their Egyptian capital, but in 668 Assur-bani-pal sacked the city. Psammetichus did not neglect it, but Ptolemy I.

gave a new capital to the upper country in the Greek foundation

Thebes was never a walled city with gates, though its vast temple

of Ptolemais, and thus struck a fresh blow at the prosperity of enclosures in different quarters would form as many fortresses in Thebes. For a short period in the reign of Epiphanes, when case of siege or tumult. Its Egyptian name was Wesi (or Wis?), Upper Egypt was in rebellion against the Ptolemaic rule, Thebes later Ne, “the city” (sometimes Ne-Amun, hence No-Amon in was the capital of independent native dynasts. In a later rebellion, Nahum iii. 8). Ammon, Amen-Ra, or Amenrasonther (“Ammon- Thebes was captured after a three years’ siege and severely punRa king of the gods”) was its deity, with his consort Mut and ished by Lathyrus (Ptolemy X., Soter II.). In the reign of their child Khons. Mont also was a local deity and Hathor pre- Augustus, having joined in the insurrection against the tax-gathsided over the western cliffs of Thebes. In very ancient times the city lay on the east bank, the necropolis on the west. The chief nucleus of the ancient Wési was a town about the temple of

erers, it was destroyed by Cornelius Gallus and became a collection of villages. Though its vast buildings have since served as quarries for mill-stones and for the lime-burner, Thebes still offers the greatest assemblage of monumental ruins in the world. We will now briefly enumerate the principal groups of monu-

Karnak: it probably reaches back to the prehistoric period. At Drah abu’l nagga, opposite to it, are tombs of its princes under the VIth Dynasty. The temple of Karnak is no doubt of im- ments. On the east bank at Karnak stand the great state temple memorial antiquity. In it Senusret I. dedicated statues to his of Amen-Ra with its obelisks of Hatshepsut and Tethmosis I. and predecessors of the Vth Dynasty who had probably showed their the vast columnar hall of Rameses II.; the temple of Mit and the devotion to Ammon in a substantial manner, and Cheops of the

well-preserved temple of Khons; the temple of Luxor and ave-

IVth Dynasty is named in it. After the end of the Old Kingdom nues of rams and sphinxes connecting all these. On the west Thebes grew from an obscure provincial town to be the seat of bank, in front of the necropolis, on the edge of the desert or proa strong line of princes who contended for supremacy with jecting into the cultivation, was a low row of temples: the north-

46

THECLA—THEISM

ernmost, placed far in front of the others, is the well-preserved 'of their birth, and thus thegnhood was partly inherited and partly temple of Seti I. at Kurna: then follow the Ramesseum and` acquired. The thegn was inferior to the aethel, the member of a Medinet Habu; and the foundations of many others can be traced. kingly family, but he was superior to the ceorl. The status of the The temple of Amenophis II., to which the colossi of “Memnon” thegn is shown by his wergild. Over a large part of England the were attached, was again far forward of the line. The Ramesseum amount of this was fixed at 1,200 shillings, or six times that of contains the remains of a stupendous seated colossus, in black the ceorl. He was the twelfhynde man of the laws. granite, of its builder Rameses II., thrown on its face. When The increase in the number of thegns produced in time a subperfect it was probably 57 ft. high and weighed about 1.000 tons, division of the order. There arose a class of king’s thegns, corsurpassing the “Memnon” statues of Amenophis III. in size and responding to the earlier thegns, and a larger class of inferior weight. The temple of Rameses III. at Medinet Habu, sculptured thegns, some of them the thegns of bishops or of other thegns. with very interesting sienes from his Syrian. Libyan and other A king’s thegn was a person of great importance, the contemporary wars and from religious festivals, is remarkable also for the unique idea being shown by the Latin translation of the word as comes. entrance-tower which probably formed part of the royal palace. He had certain special privileges. No one save the king had the Northward and far back in the foot-hills is the Ptolemaic temple right of jurisdiction over him, while by a law of Canute we learn of Deir el Medina, and beyond under the cliffs of Deir el Bahri that he paid a larger heriot than an ordinary thegn. the terrace temple of Queen Hatshepsut, the walls of which are The 12 senior thegns of the hundred play a part, the nature of adorned with scenes from her expedition to Puoni (Somaliland) which is rather doubtful, in the development of the English sysin search of incense trees, and many other subjects. Far behind tem of justice. By a law of Aethelred they “seem to have acted Medinet Habu are the Tombs of the Queens, where royal relatives as the judicial committee of the court for the purposes of accusaof the XXth Dynasty are buried; and immediately behind the tion” (Holdsworth, Hist. Eng. Law, vol. i., 1921), and thus they lofty clifis of Deir el Bahri, but accessible only by a very cir- have some connection with the grand jury of modern times. cuitous route from Kurna, are the Tombs of the Kings (from The word thane was used in Scotland until the 15th century to Tethmosis I. onward to the end of the XXth Dynasty) in the describe an hereditary non-military tenant of the Crown. Biban el Moluk and the Western Valley. Those of Seti I. and THEINNI (now HSENWI): see SHAN States. Rameses II. are the most remarkable. These royal sepulchres are THEISM, in the broadest sense, means belief in God. The Jong galleries excavated in the rock with chambers at intervals: word, however, is used generally with the implication that the in one of the innermost chambers was laid the body in its sarcoph- belief is held in a conscious and rational manner, and hence agus. In the XXIst Dynasty, when tomb robberies were rife Theism is usually applied only to a system of beliefs which has and most of their valuables had been stolen, the royal mummies some claim to be regarded as a philosophy. According to the were removed from place to place and at last deposited for safety Oxford Dictionary the first occurrence of the word is in Cudin the tomb of Amerophis IT. and in the burial-place of the priest- worth’s Intellectual System of the Universe (1678). The etykings at Deir el Bahri. The finding of the two cachettes nearly mology of the word (eds) would suggest that it might cover any intact has been among the greatest marvels of archaeological dis- conception of the universe which admitted the existence of Deity; covery. The systematic exploration of the Valley of the Tombs but in practice Theism has come to mean a belief in one God, of the Kings has been annually rewarded with results of the and the word is not easily distinguished from Monotheism, save highest interest. The greatest as well as the most recent of these that Theism has a more theoretical implication. is the discovery in Oct. 1922 of the tomb of Tutankhamun (reigned Theism as a philosophical and theological position may be dis1360-1350 B.C.) with its magnificent equipment almost intact. tinguished from other theories. It is, of course, the direct antithSee Baedeker’s Egypt; E. Naville, (Temple of) Deir el Bakari, intro- esis to Atheism (g.v.), which, strictly speaking, is the denial duction and parts i-v. (London, 1894-1906) ; Sir W. M. F., Six that God exists. It is to be distinguished, again, from Agnosticism Temples at Thebes (ruined temples on west bank) (London, Petrie, 1897) ; G. (g.v.), the view that there Daressy, Notice explicative des ruines de Médinet Habu (Cairo, is no sufficient ground for either an 1897) ; G. Maspero, “Les Momies royales de Deir el Bahari” in Mémoires de affirmative or negative answer to the question: Does God exist? la mission archéologique francaise au Caire, tome I.; and many other and that the only rational attitude is absolute suspense of judgworks. (F. Lr. G.; X.) ment. It should be observed, however, that there is a sense of the THECLA, ST., one of the most celebrated saints in the word Agnosticis m which is not wholly incompatible with Theistic Greek Church (where she is commemorated on Sept. 24) and in belief. The theory of Herbert Spencer, that we can know that an the Latin Church (where her festival is Sept. 23). She is honoured Ultimate Reality exists but can also know that that Reality is with the title of “protomartyr.” The centre of her cult was unknowable, is sometimes described as agnosticism. Herbert Seleucia, in Isauria. Her basilica, south of Seleucia, on the Spencer’s theory, as it stands, is plainly absurd, because in order mountain, long a popular place of pilgrimage, is mentioned in the to know that the Ultimate Reality is unknowable we must know two books of St. Basil of Seleucia. According to her Acta, Thecla came under the personal teaching of the apostle Paul at Iconium. enough of the nature of the Unknowable to be justified in makIng this assertion about it. All reflective Theists would acknowlIn spite of their highly fabulous character (Thecla escaped from edge, however, that there is an element of truth in the Agnostic burning, from wild beasts, bulls and serpents), which caused position—the human mind is incapable of grasping completely them to be more than once condemned by the Church, the Acta the nature of the Divine, and though there is a genuine knowledge of Paul and Thecla, which date back to the 2nd century, are of God, for finite mind that knowledge must always be incominteresting monuments of ancient Christian literature. plete. It is customary to distinguish Theism from Deism (q.v.). See Acia Sanctorum, September, vi. 546-568; J. A. Lipsius, Acta The Deists were writers on natural religion in the 18th century apostolorum apocrypha (Leipzig, 1891), i. 235-269; C. Schmidt, Acta Pauli (Leipzig, 1905), where an attempt is made to prove that the who shared the desire to set religion on a purely rational basis Acta of Paul and Thecla formed an integral part of the Acta Pauli: and tended, in a greater or less degree, to exclude the ideas of see also APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE; C. Holzey, Die Thekla-A kten, hre revelation and mystery, reducing Christianity to those truths Verbreitung und Beurtheilung in der Kirche (Munich, r908). Which, it was alleged, could be attained by the unaided reason. THEGN or THANE, an Anglo-Saxon word meaning an at- Though some of these authors had pantheistic tendencies, the tendant, servant, retainer or official. From the first, however, it name Deism has been given to that type of theology which conhad a military significance, and its usual Latin translation was siders God and the world to be absolutely distinct from one miles, although minister was often used. The word is used only another, thus conceiving the Deity as an external Creator and once in the laws before the time of Aethelstan (c. 895-940), but Governor. In the language of modern philosophy Deism more frequently in the charters. is the view which emphasises the transcendence of God but denies His The thegn became a member of a territorial nobility, and Immanence. In contrast to Deism, Theism affirms the presence the dignity of thegnhood was attainable by those who fulfilled of God in the world, holding both immanence and transcendence. certain conditions. In like manner a successful thegn might hope Pantheism (qg.v.) presents a contrast to Theism of the opposite to become an earl. There were others who were thegns on account kind to that which we have found in Deism. Pantheistic

systems,

1

THEISM though widely different from one another in spirit and presenta-

tion, agree in making an identification between God and the

Universe. It is sometimes said that Pantheism maintains divine immanence while eliminating from its creed every vestige of divine transcendence. This manner of expression, though open to criticism, has the merit of making clear the main difference be-

tween Pantheism and both Deism and Theism.

Certain philo-

sophical systems may be classified for this purpose under the head

of Pantheism. Spinoza’s philosophy of God as the Infinite Substance and some forms of Absolute Idealism, as for example, that

represented in England by the late F. H. Bradley cannot be described as theistic in the narrow sense of that word and are, theologically considered, pantheistic in tendency. Dualism is to be regarded as another theory which, in some of its forms, has

affinities with Theism but is in essence different. Properly, Dualism means a view of the world which attributes its existence to two diferent or possibly antagonistic principles both equally ultimate, whether those principles be conceived as two deities, as in some forms of Zoroastrianism, or God and matter as in Manichaeism. A modified Dualism enters into most Theistic theories, but no theory could be called fully Theistic which was satisfied with a final Dualism. We may now proceed to state in a positive manner the general tenets of Theism. It must be remembered that pure Theism has never been a widely influential religious belief. In the historical religions Theism is mixed with other elements, or rather perhaps is the basis of them. Thus Christianity is a Theistic religion, but its distinctive characteristic is the doctrine of the Incarnation. In the same way, Mohammedanism is Theism modified by special beliefs about the revelation of Allah through Mohammed. The fundamental conception of Theism in all its developed forms is

that of a Being who is at once the supreme Value and the Source of all finite existence. Theism has usually thought of the Supreme Being as in some sense personal, or at least as One with whom personal relations were possible. This Supreme Being, in Anselm’s phrase, id quo majus cogitari non potest, is, in the Theistic view, neither identical with the Universe nor wholly aloof and separate from it. The relation of God as Cause with the world has been conceived in various ways, the most common being creation, which itself may be capable of more than one interpretation. The idea of emanation, however, has also been employed, as in the NeoPlatonic philosophy (chief exponent Plotinus, A.D. 204—270) which exercised a considerable influence upon Christian theology. The peculiarly Theistic doctrine of the relation of God with the world is often expressed by the phrase, “God is both transcendent and immanent.” ARGUMENTS

FOR

THEISM

acy

as distinguished from matter which can only receive communicated motion. Hence the soul is prior to the body. The motions in the Universe which have no human origin must likewise be referred to a soul. We are thus led to the conception of a Soul of the world. But the motions of the Universe, and in particular of the heavenly bodies, are orderly and thus indicate that the World Soul is rational and good, the “mind which ordered the universe.” In Plato’s argument two of the “rational” proofs are joined— the Cosmological (from the existence of a universe in which motion exists to a Source of motion), and the Teleological (from the existence of order to the Divine Mind as its ground). It will be convenient to consider these arguments in their subsequent formulations separately. The Cosmological Argument.—The philosophy of Aristotle is not, like that of Plato, profoundly religious in spirit, and the concept of God in Aristotle’s thought has little religious significance, being mainly a metaphysical conclusion; but the formulation of the cosmological argument by Aristotle has been of primary importance for Christian philosophy. Like his master Plato, Aristotle rises to the thought of God from the fact of

change and motion (xivyyo.s) which means for him much more than change of place. Motion is conceived by Aristotle as the passage from potentiality to actuality (60vauis and évepyeia). Every change which actually occurs is the realization of a potentiality which was hitherto latent. Associated with this conception is Aristotle’s doctrine of “form” and “matter.” Every concrete and finite existence is composed of matter and form and it is the latter which gives to it a specific nature. In “sublunary” existences the expression of form is always imperfect, the matter never being absorbed in the form completely. The motion and change of the world are therefore explained as the striving of the potential to become actual, of the forms to become fully realised. The universe which is in constant motion is not, however, self-explanatory; the change must have some source beyond itself. This source is God, who must be conceived as at once the First Mover and the Unmoved. There can be nothing higher than God, otherwise He himself would be moved towards that higher being. God must exist or there would be no movement. God is therefore pure form and pure actuality, in Him there is no “matter” and no potentiality. He is the realization of all form and of all potentiality. Thus God moves the world ws ’epmpevov, as an object of desire; but it is an essential part of Aristotle’s view that God does not desire or need the world. The world is not even known to Him as it exists in actuality. He contemplates the pure forms which are the content of His own intellect. The outcome of Aristotle’s reflection is then a Deity who is completely transcendent and pure thought. All personal relations with the world, every trace of emotion and even moral goodness is excluded from

Theism, being a reflective theory and not simply a religious his nature which is described as a thinking of thought (vénars faith, has sought to defend its position by rational arguments. vonoews) (Aristotle, Physics, Bk. VIII., Metaphysics, Bk. XIT.). Historically, three arguments have been supremely important and It is one of the curiosities of history that a theology so “‘intelare sometimes known as the “traditional proofs.” They are the lectualist” should have profoundly influenced the thought of Christianity which is in spirit widely different from that of ArisCosmological, the Teleological, and the Ontological arguments. The first philosopher, at least in the West, to state an argument totle. Yet the Aristotelian logic and metaphysics formed the basis which he held to be demonstrative of the existence of God is of the great constructive systems of the middle ages, the Plato. The proof which he gives (in the Laws X.) is the starting scholastic theology, of which the greatest representative is St. point of the rational theology or “natural” theology which claims Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274). The cosmological argument forms to establish the being of God on the ground of reason. The Laws the basis of St. Thomas’s rational theology. It was a fundamental is universally admitted to be the work of Plato’s old age. In his conviction with him that the preambula fidet, the foundation earlier writings Plato had made use of the idea of God and indeed truths of religion, were demonstrable by the human reason withthe conception was central in his thought. He had constantly pro- out the aid of Revelation. In his greatest, though unfinished work, tested against unworthy ideas of the divine and asserts both in the Summa Theologica (Pt. I., Quaest. ii., art. 3), he gives five the Republic and Theaetetus that God is perfectly good and cannot proofs of the existence of God, of which four are versions of be the cause of evil. The proof in the Laws may be regarded as the cosmological argument. (1) The argument from motion: the fruit of long reflection on the problem and contains the germ “Any thing which is moved is moved by some other thing... of much subsequent development. The proof turns upon the one thing moves another in so far as the former is in actuality, existence of motion and change. Motions and changes may be for to move is nothing else than to draw anything from potendivided into several classes, but there is one fundamental distinc- tiality to actuality. But nothing can be brought from potentiality tion, that between spontaneous and communicated motion. It can into actuality except by means of something which is already be shown that spontaneous motion must be prior to communicated in actuality. . . . It Is impossible that in the same respect and motion, since if there is motion at all it cannot all be com- the same manner anything should be both moving and unmoved, municated. Now the soul is the source, of spontaneous motion, or be self-moved.” We cannot go on to infinity in the series of

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“movers which are themselves moved, for in that case there would be no first source of movement and consequently no movement at all. We must then conclude that there is a first source of movement which is moved by nothing else—i.e., God. (2) The argument trom Eficient Causes: Experience shows that there is an order of efficient causes. Nothing can be the cause of itself, for that would imply that it was prior to itself. We cannot rest content with an indefinite series of causes and effects, because if there is no First Cause there can be no last effect. Hence we conclude that there is a First and Uncaused Cause—z.e., God. (3) Argument from posszh.e and necessary existence: Some existences

we need another argument—the Ontological. With reference to the alleged impossibility of conceiving an infinite series of causes, Kant remarks that the inconceivability attaches also to the idea of an uncaused cause, and there is therefore no reason why the mind should embrace one alternative rather than the other.

In spite of the objections to which the traditional form is open, the cosmological argument in a wider application has kept its power. In modern philosophy all those systems which employ the idea of an Absolute Reality arrive at the Absolute by some kind of cosmological argument. An important example of this is found in the Theistic philosophy of Hermann Lotze. The imposare possible and not necessary. f.e., they may exist or not exist, sibility of rendering intelligible the fact of “transeunt” causation being generated and corrupted. But all existence cannot be of (z.e., that change in one thing is the occasion of change in another this nature, for unless there were necessary existence there would thing), so long as we conceive the ultimate reality to consist of be no ground for possible existence. If there are necessary a collection of independent “reals” leads to the conception of an existences there must be an existence which is necessary in itself all embracing Absolute of which the particular things and their and does not derive the necessity of its existence from some other changes are modifications. Arguments of this type lead rather to necessary existence. An indefinite regress is as impossible here as an immanent Deity than to the transcendent God of Aristotle in the case of eficient causes. There must therefore be Something and Aquinas. which is necessary per se—i ¢., God. (4) Argument from degree of The cosmological argument has permanent value, though it quality or value: We find things more or less “good,” “true” and has not the demonstrative force which was formerly attributed “excellent.” “More” or “less” is predicated according to degree to it. It serves to substantiate the conclusion that “nature,” whatof approach to a “greatest.” There is therefore something which ever we may mean by that term, is not a self-explanatory system, is most true, good and excellent—i.e., God. and therefore to support the Theistic view as preferable on raIt should be observed that the first two forms of Aquinas’ tional grounds to rival hypotheses. The form of the cosmological cosmological argument lead to the conception of a purely Trans- argument which begins with the apprehension of values, such as cendent Deity while the latter two suggest immanence. goodness and truth, has received little attention in the history of The cosmological argument, very much in the form which was thought, but is one which has most positive weight for modern given to it by Aristotle and Aquinas, appears as a fundamental philosophy. Modern Theism would lay great stress on the conelement in many philosophies. Mention must be made of Leibniz tention that the existence of goodness, beauty and truth in finite who supplemented it by laying down a new law of thought—the experience compels us to postulate an absolute Goodness, Beauty law of “sufficient reason’—according to which “for everything and Truth. there must be a sufficient reason why it is so and not otherwise,” The Teleological Argument.—This argument, sometimes thus making it clear that, for him, the basis of the cosmological called “the argument from design,” is rightly described by Kant argument was not empirical observation but a rational and self- as the most impressive, the most easily comprehended of the evident principle—that of universal causation. traditional “proofs.” Like the cosmological argument it is a The objections to the traditional cosmological argument have posteriori in character, since it starts with the observed facts of been formulated by Hume and Kant. The former struck a blow adaptation to ends in the natural world. As we have seen, however, at the simplest and most obvious version of the argument—that when referring to Plato, the teleological argument may be based to a First Cause—by his sceptical analysis of the ideas of cause upon the more general consideration of the order of the universe. and necessary connection, though it should be noticed that he The purposive character of the events of the world was a common himself appears to have retained the conviction that the concep- topic of Stoic philosophers in connection with their doctrine of tion of a First Cause could not wholly be abandoned. In Hume's Providence. Here again we may turn to Thomas Aquinas for a view, however, there is no universal principle of causation. The succinct statement of the argument in its common form. Itis the idea of necessary connection between phenomena is derived from fifth proof of the existence of God given by that philosopher habit breeding expectation, and the so-called “principle of causa- —the proof from the gubernatio of things. “Some things which tion” is due to nothing more than “the mind’s propensity to feign,” have no power of knowing, such as natural bodies, work for ends, 2.¢., it is a convenient fiction. Obviously this view, which was but as is manifest from their constantly, or at least frequently, workthe logical conclusion of the empirical movement in English ing in the same way for the attainment of that which is best. . philosophy, undermines the whole of our knowledge of the natural Now such things as have no power of knowing do not tend order and physical science, but it has also a direct bearing on the towards an end unless they are directed by some being which has cosmological argument, for if causation is a principle on which knowledge and intelligence.” (Summa Theologica, Pt. I. Quaest. we cannot rely when dealing with phenomena, we cannot use it ii. art. 3.) It will be noticed that there are two elements in this to take us beyond phenomena to God. Kant attempted to save argument (a) the observation of “working for ends”; (b) the our knowledge of Nature from Hume’s sceptical objections. He inference from this to a directing Intelligence. did so in a somewhat equivocal fashion. He held that the “cateThe evidence for working for ends or the adaptation to purgories” which the mind employs in synthesizing perception (cause, poses on which stress is laid has varied; at times the main emphasubstance, etc.) are a priori in the sense that the mind does not sis has been on general adaptation of the Universe to the existence derive them from experience but necessarily uses them in order- and well-being of men or, more abstractly, to the production of ing experience—in short that Nature apart from Mind has no values; at other times the argument has turned chiefly upon speexistence, but in some sense “Mind makes Nature.” Kant is cial instances of apparent design as, e.g., the human eye. The emphatic, however, in his limitation of this principle. The cate- latter type of reasoning was prominent among the rationalist gories of the understanding are confined to dealing with phenom- Theologians of the 18th and rgth centuries, Paley’s Natural ena. The use of such a category as causation to carry us beyond Theology, with its famous analogy between the eye and a watch, phenomena to a super-phenomenal Reality is an illegitimate—a is a familiar example of this kind of presentation. “transcendent”—use. This is the real ground of Kant’s objecBefore proceeding to a discussion of the present position of the tion; it is based upon his rigid limitation of the understanding teleologic al argument it will be well to note the objections and to phenomena. Some special criticisms are also of permanent in- limitation s which arise on a consideration of the argument itself. terest. Kant points out that the argument, in the only form which These again have been clearly stated by Kant. It is obvious that he discusses (that of efficient causation), does not, even if sound, the argument by itself is not sufficient to demonstrate the existence lead to the conclusion that God exists, but only that a First Cause of God. Even if it be admitted that there are evidences of deof some kind exists, and in order to attain the conception of God sign, it does not follow that they are due to one Mind. The facts

THEISM

49

might be explained on the hypothesis of several intelligences. It | of the teleological argument have consequently laid stress, not on

is only when we have reached the conclusion on other grounds | particular instances of apparent design, but on the general trend that the Source of Being is one, that the teleological argument |of evolution which, it is maintained, can only be explained by the

may tend to show that Source to be intelligent.

The argument | hypothesis of Divine Providence. A subtle statement of this line thought is to be found in Lord Balfour’s writings, the Foundawho makes the best of his material and thus to lead to the con- | tions of Belief and Humanism and Theism, in which he urges ception of God as the Architect of the Universe working upon |that, unless there is some intelligent guidance of evolution, the alien material. It may be alleged further, that the argument is values of truth and beauty cannot be maintained. based upon purely subjective estimates, and implies an absurdly The philosophical analysis of the idea of evolution in the anthropocentric conception of the universe. It cannot be denied present century has led many thinkers to abandon a purely

again, tends to suggest an analogy with the carpenter or sculptor | of

that the teleological conception has frequently been carried to ridiculous extremes, and attempts have been made to show that

this is the “best of all possible worlds” in the sense that all its features minister to human convenience; but these extremes are no

necessary part of the argument, and it may be observed that Kant himself, in the Critique of Judgement, allowed that the teleological judgment is necessary and inevitable in dealing with living beings and the appreciation of the beautiful. A permanent difficulty for the teleological argument is the

mechanical conception of its method. The problem of newness and the development of values has engaged attention. M. Bergson has completely abandoned the mechanical view and substituted the idea of “creative evolution,” new types of existence being in

his theory the result of the effort of the Elan Vital to achieve free-

dom. Somewhat analogous is the conception of “emergent evolution” which bas been worked out by Professor S. Alexander and Professor C. Lloyd Morgan and adopted by several other English authorities. The “emergent” theory of evolution distinguishes existence of evil, particularly of pain, waste, and the missing of between two types of effect, “resultants” which are the predictable apparent ends. If stress is laid on the “working towards ends” outcome of previously existing conditions, and “emergents” which which are good, stress should equally be laid upon the working are specifically new and not completely predictable. New species, towards ends which to us appear to be bad. Additional weight and in particular new types of being/ such as life, consciousness has been given to this objection by the evolutionary theory of and self-consciousness, would thus belong to the “emergent” type the origin of species through the struggle for existence and the of effect. None of these writers would describe his view of evolusurvival of the fittest. The Darwinian theory of evolution seems tion as definitely teleological, and Bergson is as much opposed to to make death, defeat, and their concomitant pain, a necessary teleology as to mechanism; but it is obvious that such conceptions part of the evolutionary process. On these and other grounds it of evolution are leading in the direction of at least “immanent has been held, by Guyau, Bertrand Russell and many others, that teleology”; and it may be argued that a purely immanent teleology there is neither beneficent nor maleficent purpose in the world, is not by itself an intelligible conception. On the whole then, it but that Nature is indifferent to the hopes, aspirations and needs may be said that the movement of thought is in favour of a of man. Some answer to these objections may be attempted. It restatement of the teleological argument. is argued, for example, that the amount of pain in the lower The inherent tendency of the human mind to think in the orders of creation has been greatly exaggerated by the tendency teleological mode suggests that there is really an a priori element to interpret the experience of the lower animals in terms of our in the argument. The mind is irresistibly impelled to regard the own, and by the neglect of the consideration that the pains of Universe as rational, z.¢., as pervious to its categories and methods anticipation are absent in sub-human creatures. Suffering in of thought. On this irresistible assumption or “fact of faith” the human beings again may be supposed to serve spiritual ends (see whole structure of science is built. It is one further step in the James Martineau, A Study of Religion). The most conclusive same process to regard the Universe as rational in the fullest sense, answer attempted to the problem of evil as an objection to a i.e. as a teleological system which exists for an end which we teleologically ordered universe is that of Leibniz, who maintained can accept as reason for its existence—the production of values that this is the “best of all possible worlds.” Any other world or of good. The Ontological Argument.—This is the only one among would have contained more evil and less good than the actually existing one. This view depends upon Leibniz’s conception of the traditional “proofs” which is explicitly a priori. It is the the nature of possibility which, according to him, is determined, inference from the idea of God to the existence of God, and does not by the arbitrary will of God, but by “eternal verities” which not employ any data derived from observation. The argument, are absolutely valid for the Eternal Mind. Thus out of an infinite though adumbrated by S. Augustine, was first clearly presented number of possible worlds the Creator chose that which included by S. Anselm (1033-1109) in his work the Proslogtum. Even the the greatest sum of good, and the evils in it exist as necessary fool “who says in his heart, there is no God” has the idea of God, conditions for the greater sum of good. This theory has been otherwise he would not be able to deny His existence. The idea somewhat unfairly summed up by F. H. Bradley in the epigram, of God is the idea of “that than which no greater can be con“The world is the best of all possible worlds, and everything in ceived” (id quo nihil majus cogitari potest). Now this idea cannot be in the understanding alone, because if it were, it would it is a necessary evil.” We may remark here that our view of the teleological argu- not be the idea of that than which there can be nothing greater, for ment will be profoundly affected by our view of the meaning of a Being who existed would be greater than a being who did not “good” and “value.” If we are “hedonists,” believing that good exist. (It should be noticed that majus does not mean simply means pledsure and the absence of pain, the teleological argument magnitude but includes value.) In other words, the idea of the will have little weight. The Universe is plainly not designed to greatest conceivable implies the existence of that Greatest. The afford the greatest possible degree of pleasurable feeling. If on obvious objection to this line of reasoning was raised by Gaunilo the other hand, we conceive that value means the development of during Anselm’s lifetime in his Liber pro Insipiente. Gaunilo spiritual and moral persons the argument will appear in a different dissented from the passage from idea to existence, and adduced the famous illustration of the “perfect island,” which he argued, and more favourable light. The rise of the evolutionary concept has had another and even on Anselm’s principle, must exist. The essence of Anselm’s reply more important effect on the teleological argument. The prin- to this objection is to draw a distinction between that which is ciple of the adaptation of species to their environment by survival the greatest conceivable absolutely and that which is the greatest of those best adapted has removed the favourite examples of only relatively as the member of a class. The idea of God is the teleology, such as the eye, from the sphere of directly created idea of “that than which nothing greater can be conceived” absothings and offered a “natural” explanation of their delicate adjust- lutely, and to this idea alone the ontological argument applies. The subsequent history of the ontological argument has been ment. The Darwinian and post-Darwinian theories of biological evolution seemed to destroy the basis of the most popular argu- curious. It has been rejected by many considerable thinkers as ment for Theism. It was evident that if the argument was valid a patent fallacy and by others regarded as the foundation of conat all it needed complete restatement. Post-evolutionary exponents structive thought. Descartes, who is sometimes held to be the _

50

THEISM

to support the Theistic view. Thus in spite of their faiture as demonstrative arguments they have great value as indicating lines of thought, suggested by experience, which tend to substantiate Descartes places in the forefront the consideration of the posses- the Theistic theory. (For a fuller statement of this see W. R. sion by the mind of the idea of an infinite and perfect being, and Sorley, Moral Values and the Idea of God, and W. R. Matthews, the question how this idea can originate. I cannot derive it from Studies in Christian Philosophy.) The change in the method of approach to which we have myself, because I am certainly neither infinite nor perfect. The idea then implies a really existent infinite and perfect Being as referred in the preceding paragraph is reflected in the type of its source. Descartes adds an important element to the argument argument on which modern Theism has laid greatest stress. by distinguishing between the positively infinite and the merely Though not putting on one side the “rational” proofs, the main “indefinite.” The latter is a negative idea implying simply the appeal in the philosophy of Theism has been to considerations absence of limits, the former is concrete, and is the idea of God. drawn more directly from experience, and particularly from moral Unless I were in possession of the positive idea of infinity and and religious experience. The Moral Argument.—Kant is the historical turning-point perfection I should not know myself to be finite and imperfect. Descartes also states the ontological argument very much in the in the philosophy of religion. His criticism of the Theistic proofs form given to it by Anselm. Though in all other instances it is was not made in the interest of Atheism, and he was an agnostic possible to distinguish between essence and existence and to con- only in the technical sense that he denied the possibility of arrivceive of a being as not existing, this is not possible in the single ing at a knowledge of God by the pure or speculative reason. case of the idea of God. “The existence can no more be separated Religion belongs to the sphere of moral faith, of the “practical from the essence of God than the idea of a mountain from that reason.” There are three postulates of the moral reason, God, of a valley. . . . It is not less impossible to conceive a God, that Freedom and Immortality; these cannot indeed be proved in any is, a being supremely perfect to whom existence is wanting, or scientific manner, but the consideration of the limits of theoretical who is devoid of a certain perfection than to conceive a mountain knowledge leads us to see that the pure reason cannot disprove without a valley.” (Meditations III. and V.) The ontological their validity. It remains neutral. We are therefore free to affirm argument was also adopted by Leibniz, who made the addition to the three ideas without which our moral experience of the authorit that we need first to demonstrate that the idea of God is the idea ity of the moral law and the inexhaustible ideal of holiness could not be conceived as rational. This is Kant’s fundamental position. of a possible existence. The great flaw in the argument in its traditional form was The train of reasoning by which he seeks to establish the necesclearly shown by Kant, who pointed out that it implies existence sity of the postulate of God is less important, being complicated to be an attribute of the same nature as other attributes the by his peculiar views of the nature of the moral experience. The absence of which would constitute imperfection, whereas this is argument turns on the alleged moral demand that the highest not the case, since every concept we form is of a being as existing holiness should ultimately coincide with the highest happiness. The moral argument has been presented in various forms by in some sense. Kant’s illustration however, of the “hundred thalers,” which are the same in properties in the imagination as important writers of the roth and 2oth centuries. Theories of in the pocket though not the same in usefulness, seems to miss ethics naturally fall into two classes, (1) those which take the the point even more obviously than Gaunilo’s perfect island. The fundamental concept in morals to be duty and the moral law; permanent value in the ontological argument has been emphasised (2) those which take the idea of the Good to be fundamental. by Hegel. It is the necessary attempt to bridge the gulf between From both of these standpoints Theistic conclusions have been thought and things, between concept and reality. In this sense it defended. James Martineau in his Types of Ethical Theory and is really at the root of all thought. However we may express it, A Study of Religion adopts on the whole the first, T. H. Green’s we are compelled to hold that what the mind necessarily thinks Prolegomena to Ethics and W. R. Sorley’s Moral Values and the gua mind is real, that there is no impassable chasm between the Idea of God are salient representatives of the second, while Dr. “ordo idearum” and the “ordo rerum.” All philosophies which Hastings Rashdall’s Theory of Good and Evil combines to some distinguish between appearance and Reality on the ground that extent both points of view. There are three elements in the moral consciousness on which the irrational cannot be the real, rest upon something akin to the ontological argument. Probably it would be better to say, “upon stress is laid in Theistic arguments. (a) The authority which the an ontological assumption.” ‘The ontological argument is, in conscience attributes to the moral ideal. This unique authority truth, an attempt to put into the form of a train of reasoning a cannot, it is urged, be explained on any view which does not allow postulate without which the mind is helpless. It may be questioned us to find the moral law in some way built into the structure of therefore whether the ontological argument or postulate leads us the world, grounded in Reality. Other possible accounts of the directly to the God of religious experience. It leads rather to the source of the sense of obligation really issue in an explaining conception of an absolute or rationally coherent system of being. away of the moral “ought,” and hence in the consequence that Before leaving the famous “three proofs” a remark must be the fully moral life is irrational. Further, it is urged, the Theistic made on their value for modern Theism. Before Kant’s drastic view is the view which most clearly enables us to hold that the criticism they were taken to be demonstrative proofs of the moral law is not simply imposed externally but is the expression existence of God at least by the rational theologians. It is clear of the deepest self and also that it is no mere individual product, that as demonstrations they are unsatisfactory. This does not but of universal validity. (b) The “objectivity” of* the moral mean, however, that they are devoid of value. The post-Kantian ideal. The conscience cannot be satisfied with the belief that the Theist would, in most cases, adopt a different approach to his moral ideal is dependent upon opinion, whether of the individual problem. The central question of constructive philosophy does or of groups. In spite of the obvious fact that moral ideas change, not present itself to him in the form: given the idea of God asa the moral life depends upon the conviction that the moral ideal belief, to find some rational proof of His existence. Rather the itself is absolute. Though men’s apprehension of it may grow, problem presents itself as analogous to the scientific problem: their apprehension does not create it. It may be argued that given the universe as disclosed in experience, to find the most Theism gives us the most rational account of this aspect’of the reasonable account of it. Several hypotheses present themselves moral consciousness, since it suggests that the moral ideal may for consideration, among them Theism. The question before the exist in the thought of God. (c) The content of the moral ideal, mind of the philosopher, therefore, is to decide which of the pos- particularly when viewed in its social aspect. Though we know sible hypotheses squares most adequately with the whole experi- what we mean by progress, we cannot conceive any temporal conence of the universe which is open to us. The Theist maintains dition which would be the final goal of social progress. Unless that his hypothesis is the most rational in this sense. The tradi- therefore we are prepared to allow that progress is towards an tional arguments, on this view, call attention to various aspects end which is inherently unattainable, we are led to the thought of the universe which, when taken up into reflective thought, go of an End which is beyond the temporal order. Here again the

father of modern philosophy, adopted it in two forms as the corner stone of his system, the bridge by which he passed from universal doubt to confidence in the possibility of knowledge.

THEISM theistic hypothesis appears to offer the most reasonable view, since it would hold that perfect communion with God and herein with all rational beings, is the nature of the highest Good. The

central thought of the moral argument in all its forms is this: given man’s moral experience at its highest we have the choice of regarding it as rational and significant, or of explaining it away as partially founded on a mistake with the probable consequence of weakening its effectiveness. If we choose to regard it as

rational and significant Theism is the view of the world which

l \ { j

| l

{ i

i

3

51

Theism, and there is a tendency among mystics to interpret their experience in terms of the religious imagery in which they have been brought up. The witness of the mystics to the supernatural is impressive, and they may be linked with the general argument from religious experience as salient instances of its power at every level. It is urged by several Christian writers that the definitely Theistic mysticism of the Christian mystics is a higher and more complete type of mysticism than any other. (See, for example, W. R. Inge, Christian Mysticism, E. Underhill, Mys-

will most adequately fulfil our demands.

ticism, and R. Otto, West Östliche Mystik.) In concluding this summary of grounds of Theistic belief we

ing the moral argument is a special case of the line of reasoning

must remark again that few philosophical Theists would rest their case on a direct demonstration or claim that they were in possession of an “apodeictic” argument; they would urge that the full force of the reasons in favour of Theism can only be appreciated when it is compared with other possible views of the Universe, and that several converging lines of thought form a cumulative argument which is difficult to resist

The Argument from Values in General.—Strictly speak-

which sets out from the existence of values. The world manifests the character of having value, or of being the occasion of our apprehension of value. Truth, goodness and beauty are real in our experience. In every case however, we are led to the conception of an absolute value, a complete Truth, a perfect Good and Beauty. The very fact that we recognise degrees of truth, goodness and beauty, implies that we tacitly presuppose an abso-

lute standard towards which the partial values which we enjoy are approximations. Nor again, can we suppose that in the end these values are opposed to one another, though in finite experience they may sometimes seem to conflict. On the contrary, the Ultimate values must form a Unity, or rather perhaps, be aspects or attributes of one Supreme Value, which is what we mean by God. This is the line of thought which carries on the Platonist tradition in Christian philosophy and is impressively stated by Dr. W. R. Inge in his Philosophy of Plotinus and other writings.

Religious Experience.—Among the ancient arguments for

Theism should be enumerated the argument e consensu Gentium, from the agreement of the nations. The evidence to be derived from the fact that all men everywhere believed in the Divine was insisted on by the Stoics and has been held to show that the idea of God is “innate” in the human mind. Precisely in this form the reasoning is open to objection. Locke, in his polemic against “innate ideas” in general, pointed out that the argument collapsed when we asked, what idea of God is innate? for the conceptions of the divine held by savages differ profoundly from those of civilized nations. The study of Comparative Religions since the

time of Locke has served to support in detail his contention; but

on the other hand it has shown that religion is practically a universal phenomenon wherever the human race is found. A new and more profound approach to Theism, which has some affinity with the old argument e consensu Gentium, has been opened by this enlarged knowledge. It is now possible to study the religious experience of mankind as a whole. When this is done we can discern an upward movement of the experience and of the concepts of the Divine in which it finds expression. This upward movement does not take place over the whole field, but certain principles of development may be noticed which are fully exemplified only where the religious impulse has free course. The primitive ideas of animism and polydaemonism, give place to polytheism, which

in turn theism dismiss illusion

is displaced by monotheism either in the form of panor ethical monotheism. It is always open to the critic to the whole religious experience of humanity as based on and mistake; but such a drastic rejection of a universal type of cqnsciousness is hard to justify. If we base our knowledge of the Universe on experience, religious experience has a claim to be included. If further, we find that the religious experience tends to pass from obviously inadequate forms to forms which lend themselves to rational presentation, we shall be justified in regarding the later and higher as the nearest approximations so far to adequate discriminations of the Object with which all religious experience is concerned. Parallel to this consideration of the general development of religious experience runs the evidence to be derived from a study of the great religious personalities, and particularly of the mystics. The mystical type of religious “genius” seems to: enjoy an immediate contact with the Divine, and the statements made by such persons have some general agreement. Too much stress should not be laid on their testimony to the truth of Theism, since

some of the evidence would support Pantheism rather than

SOME PROBLEMS

OF THEISM

The Theistic view of the world is naturally impelled to articulate itself by considering the problems of the nature of God and His relations with the world. Some of the more important of these problems must now be briefly indicated. Divine Personality—Most Theists, if not all, would agree that God is, in some sense, personal, or at least not of a nature inferior to personality. The latter tenet seems to be implied in the Theistic hypothesis, for otherwise God could not be thought of as the Supreme Value. It is important however, to distinguish between the two propositions, “God is personal” and “God is a person.” Though the second of these propositions has been held by many Theists, it is not an essential point. Orthodox Christianity cannot be cited on behalf of the belief that God is a person, for the doctrine of the Trinity would suggest that the Godhead is a Unity of Persons. No one, of course, would maintain that God is a person in precisely the same sense as human beings are persons, and in view of this some would prefer to speak of the Divine Nature as Supra-Personal, others, on the contrary, as for example Lotze, would hold that God alone is the perfect person and that finite selves are “pale shadows” of His personality. No very vital principle is involved in this difference, so long as those who prefer the term “supra-personal” are clear that it is not a polite phrase for “impersonal.” Theistic religion is profoundly concerned to maintain that God is a being with whom personal relations are possible; if that be abandoned we shall be compelled to dismiss that religious experience, which Theists take to be the highest and most significant, as illusion. The main theoretical ground for accepting Divine Personality is the contention that personality is the highest type of existence known to us, the “bearer,” the discerner, and the creator of values, and also that personal life is the most conspicuous instance of multiplicity in unity, it is, as Plotinus called it, a rAnGos év : the category of personality would appear, in its ideal form, to suggest an ultimate solution of the problem of the One and the Many. A difficulty has been raised concerning the attribution of personality to God on account of the alleged necessity of a “not-self” distinguishable from the self in all cases of self-consciousness. The discussion of this problem by Lotze in his Microcosmus (Bk. IX., Chap. IV.), remains the classical authority. It is noteworthy however, that this special difficulty does not press with such force upon the Trinitarian form of Theism. On any Theistic view it would appear that the created order must be in some sense a “not-self” with respect to God, since the identification of the created order with the Being of God would be Pantheism. Divine Attributes.—The Theistic doctrine of God has usually included an account of the Divine Nature under the title of “attributes,” but the error must be carefully guarded against of conceiving the Divine Nature as the sum of the Divine Attributes. They are rather different aspects from which the Divine Being may be viewed by us. The traditional division is into Metaphysical and Moral. The Scholastic Theology considered the Metaphysical Attributes to be those which refer to God as He is in

§2

THEISM

Himself and the Moral Attributes those which refer to Him in of God, so that the fundamental laws of thought and of morality relation with the world. It may be questioned however, whether are fiats of the Divine Will and not limitations upon it. On the the human mind is capable of having knowledge of God of that other hand, it is held that the will of God is determined by the absolute character suggested by this definition of the Metaphysical principles of reason and goodness which are inherent in His Attributes. If the division be retained it is perhaps better to say Nature and that omnipotence means the power to do all that simply that by Metaphysical Attributes we mean those which have is possible. Of these two views the latter is to be preferred, since a primarily intellectual importance, such as Unity and Infinity, the former asks us to conceive of the Divine Will as arbitrary while by Moral we mean those which have a directly practical and not in any intelligible sense either rational or good. Even so, bearing, such as Righteousness and Love. The classification, how- however, it cannot be pretended that all difficulty has been reever, is of doubtful value, since even the attributes which are moved from the conception of omnipotence, and we may perhaps most evidently “metaphysical” have profound religious results, be content to say, with Schleiermacher, that both omnipotence and omniscience are ways of expressing the fundamental convicand those which are “moral” have metaphysical import. Reflection upon the Being of God has followed along two paths tion of Theism that all things ultimately depend upon God. Creation and Self-limitation.—Theism does not identify —the wa negative, and the via eminentiae. The first of these methods turns on the conception of God as the Infinite and God and the world. It maintains indeed that God is immanent works with a negative conception of infinity. God, being infinite, in creation but also transcendent, and it holds therefore that there cannot be described by any predicates which would imply limita- is a real distinction between God and the world. This distinction tion. All positive assertions, however, imply such a limitation. is expressed in the idea of Creation. Theism on the whole has It follows therefore that no positive quality can be affirmed of preferred the idea of creation to that of emanation, which is the God, not even goodness or indeed even being, so that if we say idea adopted by systems which lead to Pantheism. Emanation that God is 7d dy we must also say that He is equally rò uù) ov. implies that the world proceeds from the Divine Being by a kind Clearly this method leads to a position which is hardly distinguish- of necessary process, a common figure being that of the sun and able from Agnosticism. The via eminentiae starts with the con- its rays. Creation, on the other hand, emphasizes the factor of ception of God as the Ground and Source of all existence and will and implies that the world exists as a result of an act of with the postulate that the Ground must be adequate to the con- choice. Creation does not necessarily involve a belief that the sequences. All positive qualities, therefore, which occur in created world began at a definite moment of time or that the creative act existence must be ascribed to God; but plainly not “simpliciter”; of God is single; it is perfectly compatible with the belief in a they are, so to speak, raised to infinity. Knowledge is in God continuous creation which would be in harmony with modern Omniscience, Will Omnipotence, Beauty perfect Loveliness. We theories of evolution. must observe here that the via eminentiae really implies the view Any belief in creation, and indeed any belief in the reality of that evil is not positive being but privation or defect of being, freedom, seems clearly to necessitate some limitation of the a view which was held by Augustine and Aquinas; for if evil were omnipotence and perhaps of the omniscience of God. At the same a positive existence or quality of existence the argument of the time, Theism cannot admit that any portion of existence is absovia eminentiae would lead us to predicate evil of God. lutely independent of God. To meet this dilemma the thought The Divine Attributes have been the subject of much subtle of a divine “‘self-limitation” has been employed. Admittedly this and intricate speculation into which it is impossible to enter here. is a thought which cannot be articulated in any detail. We cannot Brief remarks on two must‘be made, since they are of great know the conditions of stich self-limitation. But the conception importance in Theistic theory. Omniscience is the perfection of itself is required by the facts as they appear in religious and that quality of knowledge which is found imperfectly in some moral experience. We may urge that the idea is not really concreated beings. Evidently the Divine knowledge cannot suffer tradictory of omnipotence, for am omnipotence which could not from the imperfections of human knowing. It is scarcely appro- limit itself would not be omnipotent. And there is no inherent priate to Imagine the Divine Intelligence engaged in “discursive” difficulty in the moral attributes of God, for it may be argued thought and pursuing trains of reasoning. The most adequate that the development of free moral persons who can enter into human knowledge is that described by Spinoza as scientia communion with God is the ultimate purpose of creation, and intuitiva, intuitive knowledge in which grounds and conclusion that this end could not be attained apart from a limitation of the are apprehended in one intellectual act. Of this kind, it would divine power which makés freedom possible and with it both seem, the Divine knowledge must be. We are brought here to the moral good and moral disaster. recognition of one aspect of the Divine Infinity and Eternity. A difference of opinion among Theists exists on the question Human knowing is a part of a temporal experience and therefore whether creation is in any sense necessary to God. On this point itself a temporal process. The Divine experience and knowledge traditional Christian theology and some modern idealistic intercannot be temporal, or at least cannot be “in time.” A recogni- pretations of Christianity (e.g., Hegel’s) are at variance. Christion of this truth has important bearing on some of the puzzles tian theology on the whole has laid down that the world is in no of Christian and other Theologies connected with the Divine way necessary to God and that its creation does not add to His Foreknowledge. If the Divine Experience is not successive but perfection or satisfaction. The opposite view, which emphasises simultaneous, the expression “foreknowledge” is evidently mis- the Divine immanence, holds that the world is as necessary to leading and indicates that in presenting to ourselves the Divine God as God to the world. A distinction should be made between Nature and Experience we are compelled to make use of inade- the active and passive sense of “creation.” Thus it might be conquate concepts derived from our own experience, and hence to ceived that creation is an essential attribute of God and at the encounter problems which are insoluble because we have not the same time that the present universe is not necessary to God, that terms in which to state them accurately. fo create is an eternal activity of God but no product of that The same remarks apply to the attribute of Omnipotence in activity is eternal. A theory of this kind would avoid the diff-

which we attempt to indicate the naturé of the Divine Will.

Clearly a supra-temporal will is beyond our powers of adequate conception. This does not prove, as Spinoza held, that will is

culties which arise when we attempt to conceive a beginning of creation. (On this point see further, Studies in Christian Philos-

ophy by W. R. Matthews.) A problem in Theistic philosophy closely connected with the not transfer ideas derived from our experience of finite acts of foregoing is that of the place of suffering in the Divine Experience. will directly to the Divine Will. The conception of Omnipotence Here again the weight of Christian thought is against the admis-. gives rise to problems which are, in their nature, not completely sion of anything which soluble by human reason. Two possiblé meanings of the word sufficiency and perfectionwould seem to qualify the absolute selfof the Divine Nature. Suffering arises have been suggested. It has been held, on the one hand, that through frustration and limitation, conditions which are hardly to omnipotence implies not only the power to do all that is possible be thought of in connection with the Supreme Being. Against this but also that the determination of the

absent from God’s experience, but it certainly shows that we can-

possible is due to the will

may be set some considerations arising from the problem of evil

THEISS—THEMISTOCLES and the moral perfection which we believe God to possess. It would seem difficult to think of Divine Sympathy with suffering if suffering could not enter into the Divine Experience; and it would seem strange to ascribe moral perfection to God if selfsacrifice, which involves voluntary pain, were excluded. On these

THEMISTOCLES

oe (c. 514-449 3.c.), Athenian soldier and

statesman in some respects probably the ablest and most farsighted whom Greece produced in the first half of the 5th century. He was the son of Neocles, an Athenian of no distinction and moderate means, his mother being a Carian or a Thracian. Hence

grounds many writers on Theism and Christian Theologians in according to the Periclean law ¿£ dudoty do7voty he would not

the present century have argued that suffering must enter into the Divine Consciousness, and some have urged that this is really

an essential element in the Christian view of the world.

(For a

survey of opinion on this subject see J. K. Mozley, The Impassibility of God.) It must be observed, however, that Theism could not admit that suffering is the dominant note of the Divine

Experience.

To do so would be to fall back upon the conception

of a “God” so limited and struggling that He may be ultimately

defeated. Our experience, however, offers us an analogy which throws light upon the problem. At the highest level of spiritual life a condition of “blessedness” has sometimes been attained which is far different from a condition of mere pleasure and absence of pain. Pain enters into it as an essential element, but the condition itself is not one of pain, rather it is one in which the self finds its truest satisfaction and which it would not exchange for any maximum of pleasant feeling. Of this kind, though in an infinitely higher degree, we may imagine the life of God to be. BisLioGRAPHY.—Among other works see Caldecott and Mackintosh, Selections from the Literature of Theism (1904); A. S. PringlePattison, The Idea of God (2nd ed., 1920) ; James Ward, The Realm of Ends (3rd ed., 1920) ; Charles Gore, Belief in God (1921); C. C. J. Webb, Divine Personality and Human Life (1920); Problems in the Relations of God and Man (1911); G. Galloway, The Philosophy of Religion (1914); A. C. Fraser, Philosophy of Theism (1899); F. von Hugel, Mystical Element in Religion (1909), Eternal Life (1912); A. Caldicott, Philosophy of Religion (x901); W. Temple, Mens Creatrix (1917); H. Höffding, Philosophy of Religion (1906); A. E. Taylor, art., “Theism” in Hastings Enc. Rel. Eth. (W. R. M.)

THEISS: see Tisa. THELEPTE, an ancient Roman city in western Tunisia, 35 m. S.W. of Sufetula (Sbeitla), 2,650 ft. above sea-level. The ruins are extensive, but most of the buildings are almost entirely destroyed, and only their ground plan can be recognized. To the south-west are some massive remains of baths. THEMIS. (1) An ancient goddess, often identified with Ge, said to have been the occupier of Delphi in days before Apollo (see ORACLES). She is the mother of Prometheus (g.v.). (2) A goddess of justice (cf. Nemesis). In Homer éus is used both as

have been a free Athenian at all (see Pericres). Thucydides observes that, though he lacked the culture typical of the Periclean age, he displayed a marvellous power of analysing a complex situation together with a genius for rapid action. Plutarch similarly enlarges on his consuming ambition for power both personal and national, and the unscrupulous ability with which he pursued his ends. Of his early years little is known. He may have been strategus of his tribe at Marathon.

At all events the death of Miltiades left the stage to Aristeides and Themistocles. It is sufficiently clear that their rivalry turned largely on the fact that Themistocles was the advocate of a policy of naval expansion. This policy was unquestionably of the highest importance to Athens and indeed to Greece. Athens was faced by the equal if not superior power of Aegina, while the danger of

a renewed

Persian invasion loomed

large.

Themistocles

per-

suaded his countrymen to put in hand the building of 200 triremes, and to fortify the three natural harbours of Peiraeeus (see E, Gardner, Ancient Athens, 562 f.) in place of the open roadstead of Phalerum. For the building of the ships Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to allocate 100 talents obtained from the new silver mines at Laureium (Azh. Pol. 22) which were about to be distributed to the citizens (10 drachmae each). One hundred of the proposed 200 were built. He may or may not have been archon in 483, according to the Ath, Pol., when this programme began. Dionysius of Halicarnassus places his archonship in 493-92, in favour of which are several considerations. In 487 the office lost much of its importance owing to the substitution of the lot for the election; the chance that the lot would at the particular crisis of 483 fall on Themistocles was obviously remote. In any case, the chief men of the other side disappear one by one—culminating in the ostra-

cism of Aristeides in 482, and the year prior to the invasion of Xerxes found Themistocles the chief man in Athens if not in Greece. Though the Greek fleet was nominally under the control of the Spartan Eurybiades, it was Themistocles who forced

the indecisive battle of Artemisium, and by his threat that he would lead the Athenian army to found a new home in the West,

and by his treacherous message to Xerxes, precipitated the engagement at Salamis (see P. W. Dodd in Class. Rev. 27, p. 117). The retirement of the Persians left the Athenians free to restore their ruined city (see ATHENS). Sparta opposed the rebuilding of the walls, but Themistocles by a subterfuge got the walls built high enough to be defensible. He also carried out his original plan of making Peiraeeus a harbour and fortress for Athens. Athens thus became the finest trade centre in Greece, and this fact, coupled with Themistocles’ remission of the alien’s tax ( ueroikior) induced many foreign business men to settle in Athens. After the crisis of the Persian invasion Themistocles and Aristeides appear to have composed their differences. But ThemisSee R. Hirzel, Themis, Dike, und Verwandtes (1907); L. Weniger in tocles soon began to lose the confidence of the people, partly Roscher’s Lexikon, s.v. (bibliography). owing to his boastfulness (it is said that he built near his own THEMISTIUS '(317-?387), named eòppaôhs (“eloquent”), house a sanctuary to Artemis Aristoboulé “of good counsel’’) statesman, rhetorician and philosopher, was born in Paphlagonia and partly to his alleged readiness to take bribes. Diodorus (xi. and taught at Constantinople, where, apart from a short sojourn 54) and Plutarch (Themist. 23) both refer to some accusation in Rome, he resided during the rest of his life. Though a pagan, levelled against him. There is, however, much difficulty regarding he was admitted to the senate by Constantius in 355. He wąs this accusation; it may be simply a misunderstanding of his prefect of Constantinople in 384 on the nomination of Theodosius. estracism. Some time between 476 and 471 he was ostracized. He His paraphrases of Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics, Physics and took refuge eventually in Asia Minor, and was proclaimed a traitor De Anima are valuable; but the orations in which he panegyrizes in Athens. He was well received by the Persians and was allowed successive emperors, comparing them to Plato’s “true philos- te settle in Magnesia on the Maeander. He died at Magnesia at opher,” and even to the “idea” itself, are servile and unworthy. the age of 65, and a splendid memorial was raised by the people Themistius’s paraphrases of the De Coelo and of book A of the of the town, though it is said that his bones were secretly transMetaphysics have reached us only through Hebrew versions. In ferred to Attica. He was worshipped by the Magnesians as a god, as we find from a coin on which he is shown with a patera in philosophy Themistius was an eclectic. See E. Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen (1881). See also H. Schenkl, his hand and a slain bull at his feet (hence perhaps the legend Beitradge zur Textgeschichte der Reden des Themistios (Vienna, 1919). that he died from drinking bull’s blood: cf. Aristoph. eg. 83; a common noun (doom, decree; cf. GREEK Law) and as a proper

name; Themis is the servant or companion of Zeus, her chief function being to summon the assemblies of both gods and men (Odyssey, ii. 68). In the Hesiodic theogony, she is the daughter of Uranus and Ge, and according to Pindar the wife of Zeus, by whose side she sits, assisting him with her advice, which is even better than that of any of the gods. She is the mother of the Horae and of the Fates (qg.v.). Her opposite is Hybris (i8pus), insolent encroachment upon the rights of others. The exact relation between (1) and (2), save that they have in common the idea of stability (Qéus, root Ge, place) is obscure. Orphic poetry makes her a daughter of Helios. h

54

THENARD—THEOCRITUS

Diod. xi. 58; Plut. Tkem. 31). Though his end was discreditable, though his great wealth can hardly have been obtained by loyal public service, there is no

bury, ii. c. vi. (London, 1862); and K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, vol. i. (London, 1887). (H. W. C. D.)

THEOBALD,

LEWIS

(1688-1744),

English man

of let-

ters, playwright and Shakespearian commentator, the son of an attorney, was born at Sittingbourne, Kent. He was baptized on April 2, 1688, and was educated for the law. He translated the Phaedo of Plato in 1713, in 1714—15 the plays of Sophocles and of in the west) that the later imperialist ideal originated in his fertile Aristophanes, and in 1716 the first book of the Odyssey. Meanbrain. while he had got into trouble in 1716 on a charge of plagiarism in Brerrocrapay.—N. Wecklein, Uber Themistokles (Munich, 1892); his play The Perfidious Brother. But Theobald is remembered J. A. R. Munro, Chronology of Themistocles Career (Class. Rev. VI, neither as translator, nor as original author, but for his work on 1892); R. Nordin, Studien in der Thermistoklesfrage (Uppsala, 1893) ; the text of the Shakespeare plays. i A. Rosenberg, Die Parteistellung des Themistokles (Hermes, 53, 1918) ; In 1726 he produced Skakespeare Restored, or a Specimen of E. Cavaignae, Eschyle et Themistocle (Rev. Phil, 14, 1921) ; see also the many Errors as well Committed as Unamended by Mr. Pope Camb. Anc. Hist. vols. 4 and § (1926-27) and chief Greek histories. in his late edition of this Poet; designed not only to correct the THENARD, LOUIS JACQUES (1777-1857), French said Edition, but to restore the true Reading of Shakespeare in chemist, was born on May 4, 1777, at Louptiére (Aube), the son all the Editions ever published (1726). Some of his happiest of a poor peasant, who made great sacrifices for his son’s educaemendations are to be found in this work, which conclusively tion. He worked in a humble capacity in the laboratory of L. N. proved Pope’s incompetence as a Shakespearian editor. Vauquelin, who procured for him various teaching posts. In 1804, In 1731 Theobald undertook to edit Shakespeare for Tonson when Vauquelin retired from the chair of chemistry at the Collége the publisher. The work appeared in seven volumes in 1734, and de France, he used his influence to secure Thénard’s succession to completely superseded Pope’s edition. Subsequent editors reaped, the post. Later, Thénard held the chair of chemistry at the Ecole in many cases without acknowledgment or with actual scorn, the Polytechnique and at the Sorbonne. He was a member of the fruit of Theobald’s painstaking labour, his wide learning and his Academy, a peer of France (1832), deputy for Yonne (1827-30), critical genius. and a member of the council of education. He died in Paris on His correspondence with Matthew Concanen, Styan Thirlby and June 21, 1857, and the name of his native village was changed William Warburton is to be found in Nichols’s Illustrations of Litera(1865) to Louptiére-Thénard in his honour. ture (ii. 204-654), which also gives the fullest account of his life. doubt that his services to Athens and to Greece were created the Athenian fleet and with it the possibility of League (g.v.) which became the Athenian empire, are many indications (e g., his well-attested plan of

great. He the Delian and there expansion

Thénard was a great teacher, and his Traité de chimie élémentaire (4 vols., 1813-16), which was the standard text-book for a quarter of a century, did more, perhaps, than even his many important original discoveries to advance the cause of science. With his lifelong friend, Gay-Lussac (q.v.), he carried out many researches. His researches on esters (1807), sebacic acid (1802) and on bile (1807), his discovery of peroxide of hydrogen (1818) and his work on organic phosphorus compounds (1846) deserve mention. The substance known as “Thénard’s blue,” he prepared in 1799 in response to a peremptory demand by J. A. Chaptal for a cheap colouring matter, as bright as ultramarine and capable of standing the heat of the porcelain furnace. A list of Thénard’s memoirs may be found in the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers.

THEOBALD

(d. 1161), archbishop of Canterbury, was of

Norman parentage, but the date of his birth is unknown. Early in life he entered the abbey of Bec, of which he became prior in

1127 and abbot ten years later. In 1138 he was elected to the see of Canterbury, and as archbishop he behaved with a moderation which is in striking contrast to the conduct of his rival, Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester. During the struggle between stephen and Matilda it was Bishop Henry who fought for the privileges of the Church; Theobald, while showing a preference for Stephen’s title, made it his rule to support the de facto sovereign. But as Stephen’s cause gained ground the archbishop showed greater independence. He refused to consecrate the king’s nephew to the see of York, and in 1148 attended the papal council of Reims in defiance of a royal prohibition. This quarrel was ended by the intercession of the queen, Matilda of Boulogne, but another, of a more serious character, was provoked by Theobald’s refusal to crown Count Eustace, the eldest son of Stephen, the archbishop pleading the pope’s orders as the excuse for this contumacy. In 1153 Theobald succeeded in reconciling Stephen with Henry of Anjou, and in securing for the latter the succession to the throne.

He placed the interests of the Church in the hands of Thomas

Becket, his archdeacon. Theobald died on April 18, 1161. In history Theobald lives chiefly as the patron of three eminent men: Becket, who began life as a clerk in his household ; Master Vacarius, the Italian jurist, who was the first to teach Roman law in England; and John of Salisbury, the learned scholar. T heobald’s household was a university in little; and in it were trained many leading prelates of the next generation. See the Vita Theobaldi printed in J. A. Giles, Lanfranci Opera, vol. i. (Oxford, 1844) ; W. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops af Canter-

See also R. F. Jones, Lewis Scholarship (N.Y. 1919).

Theobald;

his contribution

to English

THEOCRITUS, the creator of pastoral poetry, flourished in the 3rd century B.c. Little is known of him beyond what can be inferred from his writings. We must, however, handle these with some caution, since some of the poems (“Idylls”) commonly attributed to him have little claim to authenticity. It is clear that at a very early date two collections were made, one of which included a number of doubtful poems and formed a còrpus of bucolic poetry, while the other was confined to those works which were considered to be by Theocritus himself. The record of these recensions is preserved by two epigrams, one of which proceeds from Artemidorus, a grammarian, who lived in the time of Sulla and is said to have been the first editor of these poems. He says, “Bucolic muses, once were ye scattered, but now one byre, one herd is yours.” The second epigram is anonymous, and runs as follows:-—“The Chian is another. I, Theocritus, who wrote these songs, am of Syracuse, a man of the people, the son of Praxagoras and famed Philina. I never sought after a strange muse.” The last line may mean that he wrote nothing but bucolic poems, or that he only wrote in Doric. The statement that he was a Syracusan is confirmed by allusions in the “Idylls” (xi. 7, xxviii. 16-18). A larger collection, possibly more extensive than that of Artemidorus, and including poems of doubtful authenticity, was known to Suidas, who says: “Theocritus wrote the so-called bucolic poems in the Dorian dialect. Some persons also attribute to him the following: Daughters of Proetus, Hopes, Hymns, Heroines, Dirges, Lyrics, Elegies, Iambics, Epigrams.” The first of these may have been known to Virgil, who refers to the Proetides in the Eclogues (Ecl. vi., 48). The spurious poem xxl. may have been one of the Hopes (cf. 1. 66, édris rv barvwr), and poem xxvi. may have been one of the Heroines (cf. 1. 36, jpwtvar): elegiacs are found: in viii. 33—60, and the spurious epitaph on Bion may have been one of the Dirges. The other classes are all represented in the larger collection which has come

down to us.

The poems which are generally held to be authentic may be classified thus :— I. Bucolics and Mimes.—The distinction between these is that the scenes of the former are laid in the country and those of the latter in a town. The most famous of the Bucolics are Lis vii., xi. and vi. In i. Thyrsis sings to a goatherd how Daphnis, the mythical herdsman, having defied the power of Aphrodite, dies rather than yield to a passion with which the goddess had

THEOCRITUS inspired him. In xi. Polyphemus is depicted as in love with the sea-nymph Galatea and finding solace in song: in vi. he is cured of his passion and naively relates how he repulses the overtures now made to him by Galatea. The monster of the Odyssey has been “written up to date” after the Alexandrian manner and has become a gentle simpleton. Idyll vii., the “Harvest Feast” (Qahvova), is the most important of the bucolic poems. The scene is laid in the isle of Cos. The poet speaks in the first person and is styled Simichidas by his friends. Other poets are introduced under feigned names. Thus ancient critics identified Sicelidas of Samos (l. 40) with Asclepiades the Samian, and Lycidas, “the goatherd of Cydonia,” may well be the poet Astacides, whom Callimachus calls “the Cretan, the goatherd.” Theocritus speaks of himself as

having already gained fame, and says that his lays have been brought by report even unto the throne of Zeus (possibly Ptolemy: cf. Horace, Ep. i. 19, 43, Iovis auribus ista Servas, where Juppiter=Augustus). He praises Philetas, the veteran poet

of Cos, and criticizes “the fledgelings of the Muse, who cackle against the Chian bard and find their labour lost.” The other bucolic poems need not be further discussed. Several of them consist of a singing-match, conducted according to the rules of amoebean poetry, in which the second singer takes the subject chosen by the first and contributes a variation in the same air. It may be noted that the peasants of Theocritus differ greatly in refinement. Those in v. are low fellows who indulge in coarse abuse. This Idyll and iv. are laid in the neighbourhood of Croton,

and we may infer that Theocritus was personally acquainted with Magna Graecia. Suspicion has been cast upon poems viii. and ix. on various grounds. An extreme view holds that in ix. we have two genuine Theocritean fragments, ll. 7-13 and 15-20, describing the joys of summer and winter respectively, which have been provided with a clumsy preface, Il. 1-6, while an early editor of a bucolic collection has appended an epilogue in which he takes leave of the Bucolic Muses. On the other hand, it is clear that both poems were in Virgil’s Theocritus, and that they passed the

| nauseous.

55 From another point of view, however, these two poems

xvi. and xvii. are supremely interesting, since they are the only

ones which can be dated. In xvii. Theocritus celebrates the incestuous marriage of Ptolemy Philadelphus with his sister Arsinoë. This marriage is held to have taken place in 277 Bc., and Arsinoé died in 270. This poem, therefore, together with poem xv., which Theocritus wrote to please Queen Arsinoë (Schol. xapıtóuevos T Baciti) must fall within this period. The encomium upon Hiero II. would from internal reasons seem prior to that upon Ptolemy, since in it Theocritus is a hungry poet seeking for a patron, while in the other he is well satisfied with the world. Now Hieron first came to the front in 275 B.c. when he was made “General” (orparnyés): Theocritus speaks of his achievements as still to come, |. 73, and the silence of the poet would show that Hieron’s marriage to Philistis, his victory over the Mamer-

times at the Longanus

and his election as “King” (Bac.nets),

events which are ascribed to 270 B.c., had not yet taken place. If so, xvii. and xv. can only have been written within 275 and 270.

HI. Lyrics.—Two of these are certainly by Theocritus, viz., xxviii. and xxix. The frst is a very graceful poem presented together with a distaff to Theugenis, wife of Nicias, a doctor of Miletus, on the occasion of a voyage thither undertaken by the poet. The theme of xxix. is similar to that of xii. A very corrupt poem, only found in one very late ms., was discovered by Ziegler in 1864. As the subject and style very closely resemble that of xxix., it is assigned to Theocritus by recent editors.

IV. The Epigrams.—These

do not call for detailed notice.

They do not possess any special merit, and their authenticity is often doubtful. It remains to notice the poems which are now generally considered to be spurious. They are as follows :—

xix. “Love stealing Honey” (Knpioxdérrys). The poem is anonymous in the mss. and the conception of Love is not Theocritean.

xx. “Herdsman”

(Bovkoħioros),

xxi. “Fishermen”

(‘AXceZs),

xxiii. “Passionate Lover” (Epaorjs). These three poems are scrutiny of the editor who formed the short collection of Theo- remarkable for the corrupt state of their text, which makes it critean Bucolics. likely that they have come from the same source and possibly The mimes are three in number, viz., ii., xiv., xv. In ii. Simae- are by the same author. The “Fishermen” has been much adtha, deserted by Delphis, tells the story of her love to the moon; mired. It is addressed to Diophantus and conveys a moral, that in xiv. Aeschines narrates his quarrel with his sweetheart, and is one should work and not dream, illustrated by the story of an old advised to go to Egypt and enlist in the army of Ptolemy Phila- fisherman who dreams that he has caught a fish of gold and delphus; in xv. Gorgo and Praxinoé go to the festival of Adonis. narrates his vision to his mate. As Leonidas of Tarentum wrote It may be noticed that in the best mss. ii. comes immediately epigrams on fishermen, and one of them is a dedication of his before xiv., an arrangement which is obviously right, since it tackle to Poseidon by Diophantus, the fisher ( Anth. Pal. vi. 4, 7), places the three mimes together. The second place in the mss. is it is likely that the author of this poem was an imitator of Leonoccupied by Idyll vii., the “Harvest Feast.” These three mimes idas. It can hardly be by Leonidas himself, who was a contemare wonderfully natural and lifelike. There is nothing in ancient porary of Theocritus, as it bears marks of lateness. xxv. “Heracles the Lion-slayer” (Aeovroġóvos). This is a long literature so vivid and real as the chatter of Gorgo and Praxinoë, poem consisting of two episodes, viz., the interview of Heracles and the voces populi in xv. It will be convenient to add to the Bucolics and Mimes three with the bailiff of Augeas and his recital to Phyleus, son of Augeas, poems which cannot be brought into any other class, viz., xii of the story of the Nemean lion. The composition is not unCAtrys), a poem to a beautiful youth; xviii., the marriage-song worthy of Theocritus. It is, however, anonymous in the mss. and of Helen (Erbaħáuios); and xxvi., the murder of Pentheus comes next to another anonymous poem called “Megara, the wife (Afivac). The genuineness of the last has been attacked by U. von of Hercules.” It is probable from some metrical and linguistic Wilamowitz-Möllendorff on account of the crudity of the lan- peculiarities that xxv. and the “Megara” are by the same author. xxvii. “The wooing of Daphnis” (Oapioris) is also anonyguage, which sometimes degenerates into doggerel. It is, however, likely that Theocritus intentionally used realistic language for the mous. It contains imitations of Theocritus, but the tone and the sake of dramatic effect, and the mss. evidence is in favour of the language betray a later writer. poem. Eustathius quotes from it as the work of Theocritus. We have no sure facts as to the life of Theocritus beyond those II. Epics.—Three of these are Hymns, viz., xvi., xvii. and xxii. supplied by Idylls xvi. and xvii. It is quite uncertain whether In xvi. the poet praises Hieron IJ. of Syracuse, in xvii. Ptolemy the bucolic poems were written in the pleasant isle of Cos among Philadelphus, and in xxii. the Dioscuri. The other poems are xiii., a circle of poets and students, or in Alexandria and meant for the story of Hylas and the Nymphs, and xxiv. the youthful dwellers in streets. The usual view is that Theocritus went first Heracles. It cannot be said that Theocritus exhibits signal merit from Syracuse to Cos, and then, after suing in vein for the favour in his Epics. In xiii. he shows some skill in word-painting, in xvi. of Hiero, took up his residence permanently in Egypt. Some there is some delicate fancy in the description of his poems as have supposed on very flimsy evidence that he quarrelled with the “Graces” (Xdpires), and a passage at the end, where he foretells Egyptian court and retired to Cos, and would assign various the joys of peace after the enemy have been driven out of Sicily, poems to the “later-Coan” period. Wilamowitz-Moéllendorff, layhas the true bucolic ring. The most that can be said of xxii. and ing stress on the fact that in the best ms. the poem to Ptolemy XXiv. is that they are very dramatic. Otherwise they differ little (xvii.) comes before that to Hieron (xvi.), puts the Egyptian from work done by other poets, such as Callimachus and Apol- period first and supposes it to have been of very short duration lonius Rhodius. The flattery heaped upon Ptolemy is somewhat (i.e., 277 to 275), and then makes the poet, after his unsuccess-

56

THEODOLITE—THEODORA

Theodolites are designed to measure horizontal angles with greater accuracy than vertical, because it is on the former that the most important work of a survey depends; measures of vertical angles are liable to be much impaired by atmospheric the grammarians. The word is a diminutive from eédos, and is refraction, more particularly on long lines, so that when heights supposed to mean “little poems.” The use of efdos in the sense have to be determined with much accuracy the theodolite must of “poem” is somewhat doubtful, and so some have referred be discarded for a levelling instrument. When truly adjusted elta to eiéos in its usual sense of “form” or “type.” Thus the theodolite measures the horizontal angle between any two etdos Bouxodtkdv, éxixdv, Avpixóv might be used to classify objects, however much they may differ in altitude, as the pole various kinds of poetry, and these poems might be called eiia, star and any terrestrial object. The instrument is made in many forms and modern surveying has introduced a great degree of since they include so many types. Language and Metre.—Theocritus wrote in various dialects accuracy. For the uses of the theodolite and other details see according to the subject. The Lyrics xxviii., xxix. (and xxx.) are SURVEYING. The name has been a puzzle to etymologists. Various in Aeolic, that being the traditional dialect for such poems. Two ingenious explanations have been given, all based on the apparent poems, xii. (Aîrņs) and xxii. (“To Castor and Pollux”), were Greek form of the word; thus it has been derived from eolas, written in Ionic, as is stated in titles prefixed to them, though a to see, odds, way, and dirds, smooth, plain; from @e?v, to run, number of Doric forms have been inserted by the scribes. The and doAcx0s, long, and in other ways equally fanciful. Another epics in general show a mixture of Homeric, Ionic and Doric imaginary origin has been suggested in a corruption of “the O forms. The Bucolics, Mimes, and the “Marriage-song of Helen” deleted,” i.e., crossed out, the circle being crossed by diameters (xvili.) are in Doric, with occasional forms from other dialects. to show the degrees; others have found in it a corruption of “the The metre used by Theocritus in the Bucolics and Mimes, as alidade” (g.v.). It would appear, however, to be taken from the well as in the Epics, is the dactylic hexameter. A feature in his O. Fr. theodolet or theodelet, the name of a treatise by one versification which has attracted much attention is the so-called Theodulus, probably a mathematician (see Notes and Queries, bucolic caesura. The rule is that, if there is a pause at the end 3rd series, vil. 337, 428, etc. Skeat, Etym. Dict., 1910). THEODORA, the wife of the emperor Justinian (g.v.), was of the fourth foot, this foot must be a dactyl. This pause is no new invention, being exceedingly common in Homer. Theocritus born probably in Constantinople, though according to some in uses it so frequently in the Bucolics that it has become a manner- Cyprus, in the early years of the 6th century, and died in 547. According to Procopius, our chief but by no means a trustism. In the Epics his practice agrees with that of Homer. We always think of Theocritus as an original poet, and as the worthy authority for her life, she was the daughter of Acacius, a “inventor of bucolic poetry” he deserves this reputation. At the bear-feeder of the amphitheatre at Constantinople, and while same time he had no scruple about borrowing from predecessors still a child appeared on the stage. Becoming a noted courtesan, or contemporaries; in fact he did so in the most open manner. she accompanied a certain Hecebolus to Pentapolis (in North Thus xxix. begins with a line of Alcaeus, and xvii., as the Scho- Africa), of which he had been appointed governor, and, having liast points out, with words used by Aratus at the beginning of quarrelled with him, betook herself first to Alexandria, and then the Phenomena. The love of the Cyclops for Galatea had been back to Constantinople through the cities of Asia Minor. In treated by Philoxenus, and fragments quoted from this show Constantinople she attracted the notice of Justinian. He desired that Theocritus copied some of his phrases closely. In the mimes to marry her, but could not overcome the opposition of his aunt, Theocritus appears to have made great use of Sophron. Idyll ii. the empress Euphemia. After her death (usually assigned to the is modelled upon a mime of this writer which began in a very year 523) the emperor yielded, and as a law forbade the marriage similar way. The Scholiast thought that Theocritus showed want of senators with women who had followed the stage, this law was of taste in making Thestylis a persona muta, instead of giving her repealed. Thereupon Justinian married Theodora. They were a share in the dialogue as Sophron had done. The famous poem some time after (527) admitted by Justin to a share in the sovereignty; and, on his death four months later, Justinian and about Gorgo and Praxinoé at the feast of Adonis was modelled on one by Sophron about women looking on at the Isthmian Theodora became sole rulers of the Roman world. He was then games (Icĝurátovoai), and fragments quoted from this are closely about forty-four years of age, and she some twenty years younger. imitated by Theocritus. It is extremely interesting to find a Procopius relates in his unpublished history (’Avéxéora) many similar poem in the recently discovered mimes of Herondas, the repulsive tales regarding Theodora’s earlier life, but his evident fourth of which is termed “Women making offerings to Aescula- hatred of her, though she had been more than ten years dead pius” CAokdnriw dvarietca: kal Ovordtovea). The relation when the Anecdota were written, and the extravagances which the book contains, oblige us to regard him as a very doubtful of Theocritus to Herondas is a subject of great interest. Heronwitness. James Bryce discovered in Rome what is believed to be das must have been a contemporary, as he refers to Ptolemy Philadelphus (1. 30) and was a native of Cos, so that he and the only ms. of this so-called life of Justinian: he considered it Theocritus must have been acquainted. There are some curious worthless as an authority. (See THEOPHILUS.) parallels in the language and idioms of the two poets, but which Theodora speedily acquired unbounded influence over her husof them copied the other it is impossible to determine. band. She had a right to interfere, for she was not merely his consort, but empress regnant. In the most terrible crisis of BriBLiocRAPHY.—(i.) Editions: (a) Critical, H. L. Ahrens (1855); Ch. Ziegler, (1879); U. von Wıilamowitz-Möllendorff, in Oxford Justinian’s reign, the great Nika insurrection of 532, her courage Classical Texts (1907). (b) Epexegetical, E. Hiller (188r; German and firmness in refusing to fly when the rebels were attacking the notes); R. J. Cholmeley (ed. 2, 1919; English notes). (ii.) Translations: A. Lang (1880; prose); J. H. Hallard (ed. 4, 1924; verse). palace saved her husband’s crown, and no doubt strengthened her (ili.) Subject-matter: Ph. E. Legrand, Etude sur Théocrite (1898) ; command over his mind. Officials took an oath of allegiance to (iv.) Textual Questions: E. Hiller, Beiträge sur Textgeschichte der her as well as to the emperor (Nov., viii.). Procopius describes Griechischen ful appeal to Hieron, retire to Cos for the rest of his life. This view would enable us to see a reference to Ptolemy in vii. 93, and even to Apollonius Rhodius in 47-48 of the same poem. The poems of Theocritus were termed Idylls (eidvhdca), by

Bukoliker (1888): U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, Die Textgeschichte der Griechischen Bukoliker (1906). (v.) Metre: C. o De Theocriti versu heroico (1887). (vi.) Scholia: C. Wendel I914).

THEODOLITE,

a surveying instrument consisting of two

graduated circles placed at right angles to each other, for the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles, a telescope, which turns on axes mounted centrically to the circles, and an alidade for each circle, which carries two or more verniers. The whole is supported by a pedestal resting on footscrews, which are also employed to level the instrument.

her as acting with the greatest cruelties. The city was full of her spies, who reported to her everything said against herself or the administration. She surrounded herself with ceremonious pomp,

and required all who approached to abase themselves in a manner new even to that half-Oriental court. She constituted herself the protectress of faithless wives against outraged husbands, yet professed great zeal for the moral reformation of the city, enforcing severely the laws against vice, and immuring in a “house of repentance” on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus five hundred courtesans whom she had swept out of the streets of the capital. How much of all this is true we have no means of determining,

THEODORE—THEODORE

LASCARIS

s

for it rests on the sole word of Procopius But there are slight father in 1584, but being of weak intellect was governed throughindications in other writers that she had a reputation for severity. | out his reign by the boyar, Boris Godunov, whose sister Irene he In the religious strife which distracted the empire Theodora married in 1580. On his death-bed he is said to have left the took part with the Monophysites. As Justinian was a warm up- throne to his consort, with the Patriarch Job, Boris Godunov, and holder of the decrees of Chalcedon, this difference of the royal Theodore Romanov, afterwards the Patriarch Philaret, as her chief pair excited much remark and indeed much suspicion, and if it counsellors. Irene, however, retired into a monastery and her is true that Theodora disapproved of Justinian’s western con- brother Boris stepped into her place. quests, her judgment must be acknowledged to have been correct. THEODORE II. (1589-1605), tsar of Russia, was the son In other matters also the wife spoke and acted very differently of Tsar Boris Godunov and one of the daughters of Malyutafrom the husband; but their differences do not seem to have dis- Skuratov, the infamous favourite of Ivan the Terrible. Pasturbed either his affection or his confidence. sionately beloved by his father, he received the best available Theodora bore to Justinian no son, but one daughter—at least education for those days, and from childhood was initiated into it would seem that her grandson, who is twice mentioned. was all the minutiae of government, besides sitting regularly in the the offspring of a legitimate daughter, whose name, however, 1S council and receiving the foreign envoys. He seems to have been not given. According to Procopius, she had before her marriage precociously intelligent, and the first map of Russia by a native, become the mother of a son, who when grown up returned from still preserved, is by his hand. On the sudden death of Boris he Arabia, revealed himself to her, and forthwith disappeared for was proclaimed tsar (April 13, 1605). On July to, he was murever; but this is a story to be received with distrust. That her dered in his apartments in the Kreml. behaviour as a wife was irreproachable may be gathered from the THEODORE IIL (1661-1682), tsar of Russia, was the eldest fact that Procopius mentions only one scandal affecting it, and surviving son of Tsar Alexius and Maria Miloslavskaya. In 1676 that with some hesitation, the case of Areobindus. Her health he succeeded his father. He had received an excellent education was delicate, and, though she took all possible care of it, fre- at the hands of Simeon Polotsky, the most learned Slavonic monk quently quitting the capital for the seclusion of her villas on the of the day, knew Polish, and even possessed the unusual accomAsiatic shore, she died comparatively young. Theodora was small plishment of Latin; but, disfigured and half paralyzed by disease, in stature and rather pale, but with a graceful figure, beautiful he had been an invalid from his birth. In 1679 he married his first features, and a piercing glance. There remains in the apse of cousin Agatha and assumed the sceptre. His native energy was the famous church of S. Vitale at Ravenna a contemporaneous not crushed by his disabilities; and he soon proved as thorough mosaic portrait of her, to which the artist, notwithstanding the a reformer as a man incompetent to lead armies and obliged to stiffness of the material, has succeeded in giving some character. issue his orders from his litter, or his bed-chamber, could be. His Nearly all the evidence against Theodora is derived from the consort, Agatha, shared his progressive views. On her death violently-written Anecdota of Procopius, and has therefore been (July 4, 1681) Theodore married Martha Apraksina. He died suspected. (See esp. Débidour’s L’Impératrice Théodora.) Modem on April 27, 1682, without issue. researches, particularly those of Panchenko, the Russian scholar, THEODORE (602-690), seventh archbishop of Canterbury, have vindicated the general credibility of Procopius. Of course, was born at Tarsus in Cilicia in 602. On the death of Wighard, he can frequently be convicted of unfairness; he always attributes who had been sent to Pope Vitalian by Ecgberht of Kent and the worst motives. His description of the profligacy of Theodora Oswio of Northumbria in 667, apparently for consecration as only proves his familiarity with the pornography of Constanti- archbishop, Theodore, who had become prominent in the Eastern nople. But it rests on the solid witness of John of Ephesus that work of the church, was recommended by Hadrian of Niridanum Theodora’s youth was disreputable. We gather too from other to fill the vacant see. Vitalian consecrated Theodore in April writers that she was harsh and tyrannical, as, for instance, from 688 on condition that Hadrian, afterwards abbot of St. Peter’s, the references to her in the lives of the popes in the Liber Pontif- Canterbury, should go with him. Hadrian was detained for some zcalis (which used to pass under the name of Anastasius, the papal time by Ebroin, the Neustrian mayor of the palace, but Theodore librarian). Her threat to the person whom she commanded to reached England in May 669. According to Bede’s account he bring Vigilius to her was “nisi hoc feceris, per Viventem in saecula made a tour of the whole of Anglo-Saxon England, reforming excoriarl te faciam.” Much of what we find in these lives is abuses and giving instruction as to the monastic rule and the legendary, but they are some evidence of Theodora’s reputation. canonical Easter. Bede also declares that he was the first archAgain, (3) the statute (Cod., v. 4, 23) which repeals the older law bishop to whom all the “church of the Angles” submitted. In 673 Theodore presided at the first synod of the clergy in so far as relates to scemcae mulieres is now generally attributed to Justin, and agrees with the statement of Procopius that an England which was held at Hertford. Various disciplinary regualteration of the law was made to legalize her marriage. There is lations were emphasized, and an annual meeting arranged at a therefore reason for holding that she was an actress. About the place called Cloveshoe. After this council Theodore revived the beauty, the intellectual gifts, and the imperious will of Theodora East Saxon bishopric, to which he appointed Earconwald. Soon there can be no doubt. She was evidently an extraordinary person, after the first expulsion of Wilfrid in 678 he divided the Northumbrian diocese, appointing Trumwine bishop to the Picts. This born to shine in any station of life. Her fortunes have employed many pens. Among the later serious led to a quarrel with Wilfrid which was not finally settled until works dealing with them may be mentioned M. Antonin Débidour’s 686-687. In 679 Theodore intervened to make peace between E’Impératrice Théodora: Etude Critique (1885), which endeavours to Ecgfrith of Northumbria and Aethelred of Mercia. He presided vindicate her from the aspersions of Procopius; and among more at other synods held in 680 at Hatfield and in 684 at Twyford, imaginative writings are Sir Henry Pottinger’s interesting romance Blue and Green (1879), M. Rhangabé’s tragedy Qeodwpa (Leipzig, and died in 690. A penitential composed under Theodore’s direc1884), and M. Sardou’s play Théodora, produced in Paris in 1884. tion is still extant.

See also Dr. F. Dahn’s Prokopios von Cäsarea (1865) and B. Panchenko in “Vizant Vremennik” vols. ii., iii. and, in addition, the works cıted under JUSTINIAN.

THEODORE,

the name of two popes.

Theodore I., pope

from November 642 till May 649, succeeded John IV. He was the son of a bishop, and was born in Jerusalem. A zealous opponent of monothelitism, in the course of the protracted controversy he in a Roman synod excommunicated Pyrrhus, patriarch of Constantinople, and signed the document with ink mingled with consecrated wine. Theodore II. had a pontificate of only twenty days (Nov.-Dec. 897).

THEODORE I. (1557-1598), tsar of Russia, the son of Ivan the Terrible and Anastasia Romanova, nominally succeeded his

See Bede, Hist. Eccl., edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896); Eddius, Vita Wilfridii in J. Raine’s Historians of the Church of York,

vol. i. (London, 1879); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899); Haddan and Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents (Oxford, 1869-78), iii. 173-213.

THEODORE

LASCARIS

(d. 1222), emperor of Nicaea,

was born of a noble Byzantine family. He became the son-in-law of the Emperor Alexius III. and distinguished himself during the sieges of Constantinople by the Latins (1203-04). After the capture of the city he gathered a band of fugitives in Bithynia and established himself in the town of Nicaea. Relieved of the danger of invasion, owing to an incursion of Bulgarians into the Latin empire, he set to work to form a new Byzantine state in

58

THEODORE

OF MOPSUESTIA—-THEODORET

Asia Minor, and in 1206 assumed the title of emperor. He defended himself stubbornly against the Latin emperor Henry,

LITERATURE.— Migne, Patrol., ser. Gr., lxvi. The Greek fragments

of Theodore’s New Testament commentaries have been collected by O. Fr. Fritzsche (Theod. Mops. in N.T. Comm., Turin, 1847). The defeated his rival Alexius Comnenus of Trebizond, and carried commentaries on the Pauline epistles (Pitra, Spicilegium Sotesmense, out a successful counter-attack upon Gayath-ed-din, the sultan Paris, 1852, i. 49 seq.) have been edited by H. B. Swete (Theod. of Koniah. His crowning victory was gained in 1210, when ina Mops. in Epp. B. Pauli Comm., i., ii, Cambridge, 1880-82), along battle near Pisidian Antioch he captured the deposed emperor with the Greek fragments and the fragments of the dogmatical writings; on this edition, see E. Schürer, Theol. Lit. Zig., 1880-82. Alexius III. and wrested the town itself from the Turks. The commentary on the Minor Prophets will be found in Mai’s Nov. See A. Melarakes, Ioropia rot BactXécov ris Nexdtas kal rod AeororåTov Patr. Biblioth., vii. 1854 (Berlin, 1834; Mai, Script. Vet. Nov. Coll, tis Hrépov (Athens, 1898). vi., 1832). See also E. Sachau, Theod. Mops. Fragm. Syriaca (Leipzig, Theodore’s grandson, THEopore II. (Lascaris), emperor from | 1869); Fr. Báthgen, “Der Psalmencommentar des Theod. v. Mops. Syr. Bearbeitung,” in Ztschr. f. Alt-Test. Wissensch., V. 53 seq., 1254 to 1258, is chiefly noticeable for two brilliant campaigns| in vi., 261-288, vii. r~60; and H. Lietzmann in Sztzungsberichte der Kgl by which he recovered Thrace from the Bulgarians (1255-56). preuss. Akad. der Wissensch., su Berlin, 1902, pp. 334 seg. Extracts His ill-health and early death prevented his making full use of from the writings of Theodore occur in the Catenae of Marius Mercator, in the Acta of the third and fifth oecumenical councils in his ability as a ruler. Liberatus, and Theodore’s chief adversary Leontius ByzanTHEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA (c. 350-428/9), early Facundus, tinus. E. von Dobschiitz, in Amer. Journ. of Theol., li. 353-387, Christian theologian, the most eminent representative of the so- published the Greek prologue of a commentary on Acts that is probably called school of Antioch, was born at Antioch about the middle of the work of Theodore. The principal monograph on Theodore, apart from the prolegothe 4th century and was a friend of John Chrysostom; in rhetoric the celebrated Libanius was his teacher. Soon, however, he attached mena of Swete, and the same writer’s article in Dict. Christian iv. (1887), is that of H. Kihn (Th. v. Mops. u. Junilius Afric. himself to the school of the great exegete and ascetic, Diodorus, Biog., als Exegeten, Freiburg, 1880). On his importance for the history a presbyter in Antioch, and with only a transitory period of vacil- of dogma see the works of Baur, Dorner, Harnack, Loofs and Seeberg. lation, from which he was won back by Chrysostom, he remained Literary and biographical details will be found in O. Fr. Fritzsche, faithful to the theology and ascetic discipline of this master. De Theod. Mops. Vita et Scriptis (Halle, 1836) ; Fr. A. Specht, Theod. Under Diodorus he became a skiliul exegete, and ultimately out- v. Mops. u. Theodoret (Munich, 1871); H. Kihn in the Tub. Quartalschr., 1879; E. Nestle in Theol. Stud. aus Wiirtemb., ii. 210 stripped his master in biblical learning. About 383 Theodore seqg.; P. Batiffol, “Sur une Traduction Latine de Th. de Mops.,” in became a presbyter in Antioch, and began to write against Ann. de Philos. Chrét., 1885; Th. Zahn, “Das N. T. Theodors von Eunomius the Arian and against the christology of Apollinaris. Mop.,” in Neue Kirchl. Zeitschr., xi. 788-806; W. Wright, Syriac Soon after 392 he became bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia (the Literature (London, 1894); R. Duval, La littérature syriaque (Paris, 1899). (A. Ha.; X.)

modern Missis near Adana). As such he was held in great respect, and took part in several synods, with a reputation for orthodoxy that was never questioned. It was greatly to his advantage that in the Eastern Church the period between the years 390 and 428 was one of comparative repose. He was on friendly terms even with Cyril of Alexandria. He died in 428 or 4209. Theodore wrote commentaries on almost every book of the Old and New Testaments, of which, however, only a small proportion is now extant, as at a later period he lost credit in the church. We still possess in Greek his commentary on the Minor Prophets, in a Syriac version his commentary on St. John!, and, in Latin translations, commentaries on the shorter Pauline epistles, besides very many fragments, especially on the epistle to the Romans. Theodore’s importance as an exegete lies in two characteristics: (1) in opposition to the allegorical method he insists on getting at the literal meaning, and adheres to it when found; (2) in his interpretation of the Scriptures he takes into account the historical circumstances in which they were produced, and substitutes the historical-typological for the pneumatico-christological interpretation of prophecy; in other words, he interprets all Old Testament passages historically in the first instance, and sees the fulfilment of Old Testament prophecy in the history of Christ and His church only in so far as the entire Old Testament is a “‘shadow of things to come.” Theodore also was the author of a special dissertation against the allegorists, 7.¢., against Origen and his followers, which, however, has unfortunately perished. The comparative freedom of Theodore’s view of inspiration is also noteworthy. He discriminates between historical, prophetical and didactic writings, and in accordance with this distinction assumes varying degrees of inspiration. Finally, he entertained very bold opinions about the canon and several of the books included in it. He esteemed very lightly the Solomonic writings and the book of Job; Canticles he explained as a nuptial poem of Solomon’s; the book of Job appeared to him in many places hardly worthy of its subject, and he censures the writer sharply; Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah he entirely rejected; he denied the accuracy of the titles of the Psalms, anticipated the hypothesis that many of them belong to the Maccabean age, and referred the so-called Messianic element almost invariably to the kings of Israel; he even criticized the Catholic epistles and rejected the epistle of James. Characteristics such as these bring Theodore, of all patristic writers, nearest to the modern spirit. IEd. P. B. Chabot (Paris, 1897).

THEODORET,

bishop of Cyrrhus, an important writer in

the domains of exegesis, dogmatic theology, church history and

ascetic theology, was born in Antioch, Syria, about 386. At an early age he entered the cloister; and in 423 he became bishop of Cyrrhus, a small city in a wild district between Antioch and the Euphrates, where, except for a short period of exile, he spent the remainder of his life. The date of’his death is uncertain, but it must have been not earlier than 457. Commentaries.—As an exegete Theodoret belongs to the Antiochene school, of which Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the heads. He was not actually the personal disciple of either, but he adopted their methods, though without the consistency and boldness of the first-named. His extant commentaries (those on Canticles, on the Prophets, on the book of Psalms and on the Pauline epistles) are brief. Dogmatic Works.—Theodoret’s chief importance is as a dogmatic theologian, as the most considerable opponent of the views of Cyril and Dioscurus of Alexandria. For more than twenty years he maintained the struggle against the Alexandrian dogmatic and its formulae (Georéxos, &wors kab’ bréctacu, pia brdéoT acts évwors mvowkn, and the like), and taught that in the person of Christ we must strictly distinguish two natures (hypostases), which are united indeed in one person (frosopon), but are not amalgamated in essence. For these years his history coincides with that of the Eastern Church from 430 to 451, and for this very reason it is impossible to sketch it even briefly here. (See Hefele, Conc.-gesch., vol. ii ) The issue was not unfavourable to Theodoret’s cause, but melancholy enough for Theodoret himself: the council of Chalcedon condemned monophysitism, but he unhappily yielded to pressure so far as also to take part in pronouncing “anathema upon Nestorius, and upon all who call not the Holy Virgin Mother of God, and who divide the one Son into two.” ' Some of Theodoret’s dogmatic works are no longer extant: of

his five books Mepi évavpwrjcews, for example, directed against Cyril after the council of Ephesus, we now possess fragments merely. A good deal of what passes under his name has been wrongly attributed to him. Certainly genuine are the refutation (’-Avarporn) of Cyril’s twelve åvaĝeuarıcuol of Nestorius, and

the ‘Epavicrns, or Ilodtyopdos

(written about 446), consist-

ing of three dialogues, entitled respectively “Arperros, ’Aovyxuros, and ’Aays, in which the monophysitism of Cyril is opposed, and its Apollinarian character insisted on. Among

TPHEODORIC—THEODOSIA

59

the apologetico-dogmatic works of Theodoret must be reckoned. mediation was welcomed by both contending parties. Unfortuhis ten discourses Hep mpovotas. nately, at the very close of his reign (524), the emperor Justin’s s ti

Other Works.—The thirty ascetic biographies of his @:AdGeos | persecution of the Arians led him into a policy of reprisals. He iotopia, which has been widely read, form a pendant to the forced Pope John to undertake a mission to Constantinople to Historia Lausiaca of Palladius and the monkish tales of Sozomen. |plead for toleration, and on his return threw him into prison, For the East it has had the same importance as the similar writ- i where he died. Above all, he sullied his fame by the execution of i ings of Jerome, Sulpicius Severus and Cassian for the West. Í and Symmachus. (See Bortius). Theodoric’s death, i Boetius BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The edition of Sirmond (Paris, 1642) was after- Íi which is said to have been hastened by remorse for the execution wards completed by Garnier (1684), who has also written dissertations i on the author’s works. Schulze and Nosselt published a new edition of Symmachus, occurred on the 30th of August 526. He was (6 vols., Halle, 1769-74) based on that of their predecessors; a glossary buried in the mausoleum which is still one of the marvels of was afterwards added by Bauer. The reprint will be found in vols. Ravenna (g.v.), and his grandson Athalaric, a boy of ten years, Ixxx.~Ixxxiv. of Migne, and considerable portions occur in Mansi. succeeded him, under the regency of his mother Amalasuntha. The t

£

4

church history has been published frequently in connection with the histories of Socrates, Sozomen and others, o.7, 4y Valesius (1693) and Reading (1720). There is an Engish transection of the history by Bloomfield Jackson in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series ji vol. ii.; the translation including also the dialogues and letters. Besides the earlier labours of Tillemont, Ceillier Oudin, Du Pin and Fabricius and Harless, see Schréckh, Kirchengesch., vol. xviii.; Hefele, Conc.-gesch., vol. ti.; Richter, De Theodoreto Epp. Paul. Interprete (Leipzig, 1822); Binder, Etudes sur Théodoret (Geneva, 1844); Staudlin, Gesch. u. Lit. der Kirchengesch. (Hanover, 1827); Kihn, Die Bedeutung der antioch. Schule (1866); Diestel, Das A. T. in der christl. Kirche (Jena, 1869); Specht, Theodor v. Mopsvestia u. Theodoret v. Cyrus (Munich, 1871) ; Roos, De Theodoreto Clementis et Eusebii Compilatore (Halle, 1883); Nolte in the Tiibing. Quartalschr. (1859), p. 302 seg.; Möller, art. “Theodoret,” in HerzogHauck’s Realencykl.; Venables’s article in Smith and Wace’s Dict.

of Christian

Biography;

also Bardenhewer’s

Se
(W. M.) BisriocraPpHy.—British

and

Foreign

State

Papers,

vol. 1047, pp.

656, 658, 720 (1914); vol. x12, p. 781 (1919); vol. 113, pp. 479-485,

657, 751 (1920); A. Antoniadés, Le développement économique de la Thrace (Athens, 1922); N. Moschopoulos, Za question de Thrace (Athens, 1922); Treaty Series, No. 16, Cmd. 1929 (1923); A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1920~23 (1925) ; K. Stefano, Question of Thrace (1919); Stanley Casson, Macedonia, Thrace and Illyria; their relations to Greece from the earliest times down to the time of Philip, son of Amyntas (1926).

THRASEA PAETUS, PUBLIUS CLODIUS, Roman senator and Stoic philosopher, lived during the reign of Nero. He was the husband of Arria the daughter of Arria (q.v.), fatherin-law of Helvidius Priscus, and a friend and kinsman of the poet Persius. At first he was treated with great consideration by Nero, probably owing to the influence of Seneca, and became consul in A.D. 56 and one of the keepers of the Sibylline books. In 59 Thrasea retired from the senate without voting after the emperor’s letter justifying the murder of Agrippina had been read. In 62 he prevented the execution of the praetor Antistius, who had written a libel upon the emperor, and persuaded the senate to pass a milder sentence. From this time (63) till his death in 66 Thrasea retired into private life and did not enter the senate-house again. Various charges were brought against him, and the senate, awed by the presence of large bodies of troops, condemned him to death. When the news was brought to Thrasea at his house, where he was entertaining a number of friends, be retired to his room and had the veins of his arms opened. He wrote a panegyric on Cato of Utica, largely used by Plutarch. See Tacitus, Annals (ed. Furneaux), xiii. 49, xiv. 12, 48, xv. 20—22, XVĖ. 21-35, containing a full account of his trial and condemnation.

THRASHER, a group of birds belonging to the same American family Mimidae as the mocking-bird (g.v.). Perhaps the best of these accomplished songsters is Sennett’s thrasher (Toxostoma longirostre) of south-east Texas and north-east Mexico,

but the brown thrasher (T. rufum) of eastern North America also has a fine song. A third species is the sage thrasher (Oroscoptes montanus) of the South-western States of the United States.

THRASHING

or THRESHING,

the process by which

the grain or seed of cultivated plants is separated from the husk or pod which contains it, The flail was the chief means of threshing grain until about 1860. The flail consisted of two pieces of wood, the handstaff or helve and the beater, fastened together loosely at one end by a thong of rawhide or eelskin, which made a very durable joint. ‘The handstaff is a light rod of ash about s ft. long, slightly increasing in girth at the farther end to allow for the hole for the thong to bind it to the beater; its length enabled the operator to stand upright while working. The beater is a wooden rod about 30 in. long, made of ash, though a more compact wood such as thorn is less likely to split. This also has a hole at one end for the thong to bind it to the handstaff. The shape of the beater was cylindrical, of about 14 in. diam. and constructed so that the edge of the grain of the wood received the force of the blow; 30 to 40 strokes per min. was the average speed. - After the grain had been beaten out by the flail or ground out by other means the straw was carefully raked away and the corn and chaff collected to be separated by winnowing when there was

THRASYBULUS—THRING a wind blowing. This process consisted in tossing the mixture of corn and chaff into the air so that the wind carried away the chaff while the grain fell back on the thrashing floor. The best

grain fell nearest while the lightest was carried some distance before falling, thus a rough-and-ready grading of the grain was obtained. It was also performed when there was no wind by fanning while pouring the mixture from a vessel.

Later on a

fanning or winnowing mill was invented.

The flail is still in use for special purposes such as flower seeds and also where the quantity grown is so small as to render it not worth while to use a thrashing mill. For a day’s work with it a fair average quantity was 8 bushels of wheat, 30 bushels of oats, 16 bushels of barley, 20 bushels of beans, 8 bushels of rye or 20 bushels of buckwheat. Meikie’s Machine.—tThe first really successful thrashing machine—the type which is embodied in modern thrashers—was invented by a Scotsman named Andrew Meikle in 1786. In this the loosened sheaves were fed, ears first, from a feeding board between two fluted revolving rollers to the beating cylinder. This cylinder or “drum” was armed with four iron-shod beaters or

161

Mt. Parnes. A force sent by the Thirty was routed by a surprise attack. Thrasybulus then gained the Peiraeus, 1,000 strong, and held Munychia against the oligarchs. Eventually a Spartan expedition under king Pausanias arrived and effected a settlement by which the democracy was restored. Thrasybulus was now the hero of the people; but a decree by which he secured the franchise for all his followers, including many slaves, was rescinded as illegal. In 395 Thrasybulus induced Athens to join the Theban league against Sparta, and in 389 he led a new fleet of 40 ships against the Spartans at Rhodes. Sailing first to the Bosporus he effected a democratic revolution at Byzantium and renewed the corntoll. After a successful descent on Lesbos and the renewal of the 5% import tax at Thasos and Clazomenae he sailed south in quest

of further contributions, and was killed in a skirmish at Aspendus. See Thucydides, viii. 75-105; Xenophon, Hellenica; Lysias, c. Eratosth. 55-61 and c. Ergocl. 5, 8; and Const. ath. xl. Diodorus xili., xiv., Justin v. 9, 10, and Nepos depend almost wholly on Xenophon.

THREAT, a statement made for the purpose of overcoming the will of the person to whom it is addressed. The employment of threats or other forms of intimidation to induce a person

spars of wood parallel to its axle, and these striking the ears of

to enter into a contract will give the right to sue for its rescission

corn as they protruded from the rollers knocked out the grain. The drum revolved at 200 to 250 revs. per min. and carried the loose grain and straw on to a concave sieve beneath another revolving drum or rake with pegs which rubbed the straw on to the concave and caused the grain and chaff to fall through. Another revolving rake tossed the straw out of the machine. The straw thus passing under one peg drum and over the next was subjected to a thorough rubbing and tossing which separated the grain and chaff from it. These fell on to the floor beneath, ready for winnowing. The present-day thrashing machine embodies the main features of Meikle’s and will thrash up to 16 qrs. of oats per hr., according to its size. For further details see HARVESTING MACHINERY. Thrashing Work.—The minimum number of hands required in Great Britain are: An engine-driver, a feeder, a sackman and ten other men to handle the sheaves, straw, chaff, grain, etc., while half as many more may be needed where the sheaves or grain have to be carted, as when the thrashing is done in the field in harvest time. An 8-h.p. steam engine is the usual motive power, but the development of the oil engine has provided a very satisfactory substitute. The engine is usually of the “traction” type, so that it can move the thrashing machine or “barn work” (as it is sometimes called) and elevator from place to place, but a further advance has been to combine oil engine and thrasher in one so that the combination is self-moving. The usual quantities thrashed with a “double blast finishing machine,” as described, in the United Kingdom are, with a 5 ft. wide drum, from 60 to 80 bushels per hour of wheat and onethird to one-half more of oats and barley. Sometimes the straw is stacked loose, while sometimes it is tied up with twine by a tier exactly like that on a “string binder” and then stacked up. Where all the straw is used at the farm for fodder, etc., the fixed thrashing machine set up in the barn is the most convenient. The sheafed corn has to be carried to it, but, on the other hand, everything is under cover, the work can be done on a wet day, and all the products of thrashing in the shape of grain, straw, cavings, chaff, etc., are kept dry. In the great corn districts, however, the portable thrasher is most convenient; it is set alongside the stack and only the grain and chaff are carried under cover, while the thrashed straw, etc., is re-

or avoidance, or to sue for damages occasioned by entering into

stacked up on the spot as the work goes on. (P. McC.) THRASYBULUS, an Athenian general, whose public career began in 41z B.c., when he frustrated the oligarchic rising in Samos (see PELOPONNESIAN War). Elected general by the troops, he effected the recall of Alcibiades and assisted him in the ensuing naval campaigns, contributing to the victories of Cynossema (411) and Cyzicus (410). He commanded a ship at Arginusae and after the engagement was commissioned with Theramenes (g.v.) to rescue the men on the wrecks. In 404, when exiled by the Thirty Tyrants he retired to Thebes. Late that year, with seventy men, he seized Phyle, a hill fort on

the contract. (See COERCION; CONTRACT.) In criminal law the sending of threatening letters (or causing them to be received), demanding with menaces and without reasonable cause money or other valuable thing, is a felony. It is also a felony to threaten to accuse a person of a crime for the purpose of extorting money, or merely to demand money or other property, without having any claim to it, by means

threat.

of a

(See BLACKMAIL; LARCENY.)

In the United States, threat very largely is covered by statutes in the several States, with variations, but following in the main the English law. THREE BODIES, PROBLEM OF, the problem of determining the motion of three bodies moving under no influence but that of their mutual gravitation. No general solution of this problem is possible. As practically attacked it consists in the problem of determining the perturbations or disturbances in the motion of one of the bodies around the principal or central body, produced by the attraction of the third. Examples are the motion of the moon around the earth as disturbed by the action of the sun, and of one planet around the sun as disturbed by the action of another planet.

THREE-COLOUR PROCESS: see COLOUR PRINTING. THREE RIVERS or Trors Rivières, a city and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St. Maurice county, situated at the confluence of the rivers St. Maurice and St. Lawrence. The St. Maurice flows in from the north, and, being divided at its mouth by two islands, the channels give the town its name. It is on the line of the Canadian Pacific and Canadian National railways, 78 m. S.W. of Quebec and 92 m. N.E. of Montreal. Founded in 1634 by Champlain, Three Rivers is one of the oldest towns in Quebec. It is the centre of a large lumber trade, which is carried on along the St. Maurice and its tributaries, Some miles from the city are the St. Maurice forges, where iron wares were manufactured as early as the 17th century. The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric. A large trade is carried en in lumber, grain, cattle, etc., which are shipped to South America, the West Indies, Great Britain and the United States,

and a great development has been caused by the utilization of the water-power of the St. Maurice at Shawinigan, Grand’Mére and other falls, for the manufacture of wood pulp. As a result, the population, long stationary or slightly declining, increased from 8,334 (1891) to 9,981 (rg0r) and 35,450 (1931).

THRING, EDWARD

(1821-1887), English schoolmaster,

was born at Alford, Somerset, on Nov. 19, 1821. He was educated

at Eton and at King’s college, Cambridge. On leaving the university in 1846 he was ordained, and served for a short time in two curacies. In 1853 he became headmaster of Uppingham school, a post which he retained until his death in 1887. Thring found only 2§ boys in the school, but he raised it, both in numbers and repute, to the rank of the best English public schools.

THROAT—THROMBOSIS

162 Among

the distinctive features of his plans and achievements

were: (1) his strong sense of the need for a closer study of the characteristics of individual boys than is generally found possible in large public schools; (2) his resolute adherence to the discipline of the ancient languages, in connection with English, as the staple of a liberal education; (3) his provision of additional employments and interests, in studies and in games, to suit the aptitudes of different pupils; (4) the value he attached to the aesthetic side of school training, to music and to drawing and to the artistic

AND

EMBOLISM

rebellion in 1554, was brought to trial but was acquitted. Throckmorton was, however, detained in the Tower till the following year. But he made his peace with Queen Mary. After the accession of Elizabeth he rose rapidly into favour. He became

chamberlain of the exchequer, and from May 1559 to April 1564 he was ambassador in France. During this period, in which he was associated with Sir Thomas Smith, Throckmorton became acquainted with Mary Queen of Scots. He conducted the negotiations which accompanied her return to Scotland, and though he decoration of the schoolrooms; and above all (5) his rebellion supported the reformers on political grounds, he became her peragainst mere routine, and his constant insistence on the moral sonal friend. On returning to England he was sent as ambassador purpose of a school as a training-ground for character. to Scotland in May 1565, to prevent Queen Mary’s marriage with See J. H. Skrine, Uppingham by the Sea (1878) and A Memory of Darnley, which however he was unable to do. After the murder of Edward Thring (1889); J. G. Fitch, Educational Aims and Methods Darnley he was again sent to Scotland in June 1567 with the still (1889); G. R. Parkin, Life of Edward Thring (1898) ; H. D. Rawnsley, more hopeless task of persuading the Scottish barons who had Edward Thring, Teacker and Poet (1900); W. F. Rawnsley, Edward just imprisoned the queen to restore her to her authority.

Thring, Maker of Uppingham School (1926).

THROAT, the term applied to the front external part of the neck from below the chin to the collar-bone in human and animal anatomy, and to the internal parts, which include the gullet, viz. the fauces, pharynx and oesophagus and the windpipe, viz., the larynx and trachea (see PHarynx, ALIMENTARY CANAL and RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Anatomy; and for diseases see PHARYNGITIS, LARYNGITIS, DIPHTHERIA, TONSILLITIS and OESOPHAGUS).

THROAT, DISEASES

OF: see Ear, Nose AnD THROAT,

DISEASES OF.

THROCKMORTON

(or

Turocmorton),

FRANCIS

(1554-1584), English conspirator, was the son of Sir John Throckmorton of Feckenham in Warwickshire, and his wife Margery Puttenham. Sir John had been concerned in Wyat’s rebellion against Queen Mary Tudor, but was afterwards known as a sym-

pathizer with the Roman Catholic party in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and in 1580 was removed from his office of chief justice of Chester for irregularities in his office, but probably because he was suspected of disloyalty by the government. Francis entered Hart Hall, Oxford in 1572, and in 1576 he was

enrolled in the Inner Temple. At Oxford he came under the influence of the Roman Catholics, and when Campion (qg.v.) and Parsons came to England in 1580 to conduct the Jesuit propaganda against Queen Elizabeth, Francis Throckmorton was one of a society of members of the Inner Temple who united to hide and help them. In that year he went abroad where he consorted with exiled papists, and engaged in treasonable intrigues. In 1583 he returned to act as the confidential agent of a conspiracy which had for its object the invasion of England by a French force for the purpose of releasing Mary Queen of Scots and restoring the papal authority. Throckmorton occupied a house on Paul’s wharf, London, which served as a meeting-place for the conspirators. The suspicions of the government being aroused, Throckmorton was arrested in October 1583. He was ciphering a letter to Queen Mary when the constables came upon him, but he found time to send a casket of compromising papers to Mendoza, and a card in cipher in which he promised to reveal nothing. On being threatened with a second application of the torture, however, his strength and courage failed and he made a full confession. His trial, took place on May 21, 1584, and he was executed at Tyburn on the roth of July. The arrest and confession of Throckmorton eventually led to the expulsion of the Spanish ambassador and so to war with Spain.

THROCKMORTON (or Txrocmorton), SIR NICHOLAS (1515-1571), English diplomatist and politician, was

the son of Sir George Throckmorton of Congleton in Warwickshire, and uncle of the conspirator Francis Throckmorton. (See above.) Brought up in the household of Catherine Parr, the last wife of Henry VIII., he was favourable to the reformers in religion. He sat in parliament from 1545 to 1567. During the reign of Edward VI. he was in high favour with the regents. In r 547 he was present at the battle of Pinkie during the invasion of Scotland. When on the death of Edward VI. an attempt was made to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne, he contrived to appear as the friend of both parties, and secured the favour of Queen Mary Tudor. He was, however, suspected of complicity in Wyat’s

Throckmorton’s known friendship for Queen Mary and his constant support of her claim to be recognized as Elizabeth’s successor, made him an unwelcome representative of England in that crisis. In Edinburgh Throckmorton could effect little, but he exerted himself to secure the personal safety of the queen. He offended his mistress by showing his instructions to the Scottish barons, and was recalled in August. In 1569 he fell under suspicion during the duke of Norfolk’s conspiracy in favour of Mary, and was imprisoned for a time at Windsor, but was not further proceeded against. He died on Feb. 12, 1571. Sir Nicholas married Anne Carew, and his daughter Elizabeth became the wife of Sir Walter Raleigh.

THROMBOSIS

AND

EMBOLISM.

Under normal cir-

cumstances the blood within a blood-vessel remains fluid so long as the lining endothelium is living, but if from injury, or extension of inflammation from outside or circulatory failure from weakness of heart action the nutrition of the endothelium in any vessel is impaired, coagulation of blood or thrombosis occurs. Since the veins have thinner walls than arteries and the blood flow is slow in them owing to their relative greater diameter spontaneous throm-

bosis is far commoner in veins than in arteries. A thrombus is always most extensive in that direction in which the blood pressure is least; hence with reference to the heart, the greater part of an arterial thrombus is distal, a venous thrombus is proximal. On the proximal and distal sides respectively thrombosis extends at least as far as the nearest lateral branch. The effect of thrombosis depends upon the seat of blockage and its extent as well as on the character of the vessels affected and on the question whether the clot is aseptic or septic. In advanced old age when heart action is feeble thrombosis is apt to occur in the cerebral and meningeal veins leading to local death of brain matter (cerebral softening). When the formation of clot once begins the process is liable to extension partly because the primary cause is central, partly because every portion of clot is foreign material upon which more clot will be deposited. Hence in old age cerebral thrombosis in time—it may be a week or more—ends fatally. In another condition in which the wall of arteries is the seat of advanced calcareous degeneration (atheroma) even a fairly normal degree of heart action is unable to prevent extensive clotting in arteries of distal parts (e.g., leg) and collateral circulation being unattainable gangrene on the part occurs. Where the vessel is larger and particularly where it is the seat of aneurism (g.v.) this same process of thrombus-formation is conservative, for the deposited blood clot strengthens the weakened vessel wall and sometimes even brings about complete filling up of a saccular aneurism.

Where the thrombus is septic the whole series of changes is dominated by the local presence of bacteria; in most cases a local abscess forms and the character of the morbid condition is determined by that fact (see ABSCESS; INFLAMMATION; PATHOLocy). In “white leg,” a condition usually met with in women after childbirth, in which thrombosis extends from the uterine sinuses into the iliac veins and thence into the femoral vein the seriousness of the condition is infinitely greater if the clot be septic. The cohesion of a thrombus varies widely and is much reduced where suppurative changes are involved. Moreover the thrombus is rarely attached to the vessel wall over its whole extent; usually

THRONE— THRUSH

163

the greater portion is non-adherent and simply occupies the lumen | his camp at Boulogne in 1804. The throne which Napoleon had of the vessel. Hence variations in posture, sudden movement, even made for himself was a heavy gilded chair with an abundance of such variations as are occasioned by cardiac action are apt to Egyptian ornament, lions’ heads and imperial eagles. One of the detach portions of thrombus. Such detached portions are then many curiosities of a conclave for the electing of a pope is that carried in the blood stream (embolism) to distant parts. Where every cardinal present occupies a throne, since, during the vacancy they will become lodged and what will happen at the seat of their of the Holy See, each member of the Sacred college is a potential lodgement depends upon their size, the site of their parent throm- sovereign. When the election has taken place the canopy of every bus and above all on their aseptic or septic character. throne is lowered, with the exception of that occupied by the new .If the parent thrombus be formed in the systemic veins or pontiff. The palaces of the great Roman nobles contained—and the right side of the heart (particularly the auricular appendix) still in some cases contain—a throne for use in the event ofa visit the embolus will be carried to the lungs and may be large enough from the pope. The papal throne itself is an antique bronze chair to block a main pulmonary artery and cause sudden death. Many which stands in St. Peter’s. The British coronation chair is not, cases of sudden death after childbirth or surgical operation are properly speaking, a throne, since it is used only during a portion due to such “pulmonary embolism.” If smaller the clot may be of the coronation ceremonies. The actual throne of Great Britain arrested in the substance of the lung itself leading to localized ob- is the oaken Gothic chair in the House of Lords occupied by the literation of the corresponding amount of pulmonary tissue. This sovereign at the opening and prorogation of parliament. will give rise to a variable degree of distress, but recovery is not THROOP, an anthracite-mining borough of Lackawanna impossible particularly if the clot be aseptic. If septic it occasions county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lackawanna river, 3 m. N.E. local abscess or gangrene and empyema (q.v.). If the parent of Scranton; served by the Lackawanna and the New York, Onthrombus be in the left side of the heart (g.v.), left auricular ap- tario and Western railways. Pop. (1920) 6,672 (35% foreign-born pendix or on a diseased mitral or aortic valve (see Heart, Diswhite); in 1930, 8,027 by Federal census. The borough was inEASES OF) the embolus is carried into one of the systemic artercorporated in 1894. ies and the effect depends upon whether the blocked vessel is an THROTTLE is a valve which controls admission of steam “end artery” or has anastomotic branches (see Arteries). If an to an engine or turbine or of an explosive mixture to an internalend artery, e.g., the middle cerebral or the arteries of kidney or combustion engine or of draught to a boiler furnace. The amount spleen, local death of the part normally supplied by the blocked of opening can be variously regulated by hand, by foot or by a artery occurs and an “infarct” results; if the blocked artery has governor in different cases. The butterfly throttle is an estabfree anastomoses, e.g., superior mesenteric artery, practically no lished type for large valves, and is a favoured type in the small ill effects follow unless the embolus be septic. passages which lead from carburettors in automobile and aeroWhen septic emboli are carried from the left ventricle, whether engines (see fig.). The turning of the spindle causes the valve locally formed or carried thither from a focus in the lung, they gradually to close the passage. An altitude cock is employed in cause abscesses wherever lodged and produce the form of blood conjunction with the throttle for aero-engines to provide compoisoning known as pyaemia (see Sepsis). Since venous blood pensation for the different conditions at various heights. Large from the greater part of the alimentary tract is carried to the throttle-valves for steam engines have a liver by the portal system, thrombosis in the alimentary tract is piston-valve construction with packing liable to be followed by hepatic embolism; hepatic abscess in assorings, and the action is such that opening ciation with amoebic dysentery (g.v.) and pylephlebitis following and closing can be performed with great appendicitis (see Liver, DISEASES OF; APPENDICITIS) essentially ease. Governor control acts on a throttle depend upon lodgement in the liver of an infected embolus carried to regulate the engine speed; in winding THE BUTTERFLY THROTin the portal stream from the intestine. TLE PIVOTED IN THE OUT- engines the safety overwinding apparatus Though blood clot is the commonest material of which an emLET TUBE OF A carRBu- Closes the throttle and applies the brakes bolus is composed, fat emboli and air emboli are known, the RETTOR in case of neglect on the part of the driver former occurring when severe fracture of bone has liberated fat to reduce speed or stop at the correct times. Big rolling-mill from the bone marrow, the latter when air has gained entrance to engines are throttled and reversed with great precision by a steam a vein. (W. S. L.-B.) servo-motor mechanism set in motion by the driver’s control lever.

THRONE.

The throne is the ancestor of all chairs, which

were originally symbols of authority and rule. In early days and in Oriental countries thrones were of barbaric magnificence. Solomon`s was of ivory “overlaid with the best gold.” There were two figures of lions at the sides, with two other lions on each of the six steps. The remains of a throne in rock-crystal were found in

the ruins of Sennacherib’s palace. The Persian throne made for Abbas the Great was of white marble. This monarch in 1605 presented a throne to the Russian Tsar Boris, covered with sheets of

gold and decorated with precious stones and pearls. Michael Feodorovitch, grandfather of Peter the Great, had a “golden throne” set with 8,000 turquoises, 1,500 rubies, 4 great amethysts and 2 large topazes. One of the glories of Delhi, until it was sacked by Nadir Shah, was the “peacock throne,” which was ascended by silver steps and stood on golden feet set with jewels. It was adorned with two open peacocks’ tails composed of magnificent diamonds, rubies and other stones. The mediaeval emperors of Byzantium had a throne, which is supposed to have been imitated from, as well as named after, that of Solomon, was guarded by golden lions, which rose to their feet and roared when some artful mechanism was set in motion.

An exceedingly ancient chair of State is the so-called throne of Dagobert, The most recent writers on this remarkable relic sug-

gest that it is a bronze copy of Dagobert’s golden throne. However that may be, there can be no doubt that it possesses at least one illustrious modern association, for Napoleon sat in it when he distributed the first decorations of the Legion of Honour in

THROWING THE DISCUS: see Discus THRrowine. THRUSH, the name of two English species of the genus Turdus, the type of the family Turdidae; and of six American species of the family. The first of these is the song thrush or mavis (T. philomelus), one of the finest songsters in Europe. Common throughout Europe, this bird has a brown back and a speckled breast in both sexes. It feeds very largely on worms 4nd snails, which latter it “shells” by beating on a stone and then rubbing off the fragments of the mollusc’s “house.” It is an early breeder, rearing two broods a year; the nest, a deep cup, is lined with mud, cow-dung and rotten wood, formed into a smooth layer by the pressure of the bird’s breast. The eggs, four or five in number, are a bluish green, spotted with black. The second species is the missel thrush (T. viscivorus) also called mistletoe thrush, from its fondness for the berries of that

plant, and storm-cock, from its habit of singing in squally weather. It is larger than the last species, reaching a length of Ir in. Otherwise it resembles its relative in appearance, but is greyer and has a white edge to the tail. Its song is loud and wild, but less sweet than that of the mavis. The bird boldly attacks marauding crows, jays and even cats, driving them away from its nest. The hermit thrush (Hylocichla guttata) of North America is the finest songster of the continent. The rufous tail and whitish eye ring are distinctive features. The wood-thrush (H. mustelina), is little inferior to the last as a singer and has’

spotted sides as well as breast. The olive-backed thrush (H. ustu-

THRUSH— THUCYDIDES

164 lata) has a similar lovely song.

The genus Tzrdus includes also the blackbird (q.v.), ring-ousel

(see QusEL), fieldfare (q.v.), redwing (g.v), and others.

In-

cluded in the Turdidae are the wheatears. stonechats and whinchats (see WHEATEAR), redstarts (g¢.v.), robins (see REDBREAST), and hedge sparrows (see Sparrow). The “ant-thrushes” belong to a different family (see PITTA).

THRUSH, a contagious disease of nursing infants, known also as sprue or infantile sore mouth. It is caused by a fungus (Oidium albicans or Saccharomyces albicuns) which produces small, roundish, white patches on the lining membrane of the mouth and throat and also on the surface of the tongue. These patches, called aphihae, consist of slight elevations of the outer (epithelial) layer of the mucous membrane, covering a small quantity of watery (serous) fluid. When this outer layer, which contains the fungoid growth, peels off, a raw surface is exposed. During an attack, which is of about ro days’ duration, crops of aphthae usually succeed each other at brief intervals, rendering the mouth very sore, so that sucking becomes extremely painful. The onset

of the disease is accompanied by fever, colic and diarrhoea. Thrush rarely occurs in infants of normal health, and is dangerous only when the epithae develop a gangrenous condition. However, nursing infants whose normal vigor has been depressed by eruptive diseases, pneumonia or intestinal disorders, are liable to attack. Effective preventive measures require not only absolute cleanliness of nipples and nursing bottles but also sterilization of milk and other food. When the characteristic aphikae have appeared a thorough but gently managed washing of the mouth with a solution of boracic acid, potassium permanganate or other mild antiseptic is recommended.

THRUST BLOCK: see BEARINGS, SHIPBUILDING, THUBURBO MATUS (mod. Hencum-Kassar), an ancient city of Roman North Africa, in the province of Africa proper; 2 m. N. of the station of Pont-du-Fahs on the railway from Tunis to Kef. Octavian founded it near a native town, which was fused with it under Commodus. The forum and its surroundings have been corapletely excayated. The Capitolium is well preserved. see A. Merlin, Le Forum de Thuburbo Maius

THUBURSICU NUMIDORUM

(1922).

(mod. KHAMISSA), some

20 m. by road S.W. of Souk Ahras, the junction of the railway to Tebessa from the main line from Algiers to Tunis. It was originally a native town, and became a Roman municipality under Trajan. There are extensive Roman remains, including two temples, a large civil basilica, and a well preserved theatre.

THUCYDIDES

(GQovxvéidns), Athenian historian.

Materials

for his biography are scanty, and the facts are of interest chiefly

as aids to the appreciation of his life’s labour, the History of the

Peloponnesian War. He was anciently believed to have been born

in or about 471 B.c., but modern criticism inclines to a later date,

about 460 (see Busolt, Gr. Gesch. iii., pt. 2, p. 621). Thucydides’ father Olorus, a citizen of Athens, belonged to a family which derived wealth from the possession of gold-mines at Scapté Hylé, on the Thracian coast opposite Thasos. His supposed connection with Miltiades’s family was presumed from a similarity of names (Olorus was the name of Miltiades’s father-in-law), and rests on no surer evidence. It is plain, too, that the statement that his tomb was at Athens, a statement containing one manifestly anachronistic detall, is not to be trusted. No one knew where or how he died. Even in antiquity there were three or four legends on the question, all of them obvious guesses. As to the date of his death, it cannot have been very long after his return to Athens either at, or shortly after the time of the Tyranny of the 30. The development of Athens during the middle of the sth cen-

tury was, in itself, the best education which such a mind as that

of Thucydides could have received. The expansion and consolidation of Athenian power was completed, and the inner resources of the city were being applied to the embellishment and ennoblement of Athenian life (see Crmon; Prrtcies). Yet the History tells us nothing of the literature, the art or the social life under whose

influences its author had grown up. The “Funeral Oration’ contains, indeed, his general testimony to the value and the charm of those influences. But he leaves us to supply all examples and de-

tails for ourselves. Beyond a passing reference to public “festivals,” and to “beautiful surroundings in private life,” he makes no attempt to define those “recreations for the spirit” which the Athenian genius had provided in such abundance. He alludes to the newly-built Parthenon only as containing the treasury; to the statue of Athena Parthenos which it enshrined, only on account of the gold which, at extreme need, could be detached from the

image; to the Propylaea and other buildings with which Athens had been adorned under Pericles, only as works which had reduced the surplus of funds available for the war. He makes no reference to Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes; the architect Ictinus; the sculptor Pheidias; the physician Hippocrates; the philosophers Anaxagoras and Socrates. Herodotus, if he had dealt with this period, would have found countless occasions for invaluable digressions on men and manners, on letters and art. The difference between the methods of the two historians arises from the fact that Thucydides was writing of events which were contemporary with the audience for which he wrote, whereas Herodotus dealt with the story of a war which had taken place 30 years before the time of his writing, and of preliminaries of that war which extended into an unstoried past. The biography which bears the name of Marcellinus states that Thucydides was the disciple of Anaxagoras in philosophy and of Antiphon in rhetoric. There is no evidence to confirm this tradition. But Thucydides and Antiphon at least belong to the same rhetorical school and represent the same early stage of Attic prose. It is probable that both of them were fired with enthusiasm for that Sicilian Greek rhetoric with which Gorgias amazed the Athens of 427. Both writers used words of an antique or decidedly poetical cast; both point verbal contrasts by insisting on the precise difference between terms of similar import; and both use metaphors somewhat bolder than were congenial to Greek prose in its riper age. The differences, on the other hand, between the style of Thucydides and that of Antiphon arise chiefly from two general causes. First, Antiphon wrote for hearers, Thucydides for readers; the latter, consequently, can use a degree of con-

densation and a freedom in the arrangement of words which would have been hardly possible for the former. Again, the thought of Thucydides is often more complex than any which Antiphon undertook to interpret; and the greater intricacy of the historian’s style exhibits the endeavor to express each thought!.

Few things

in the history of literary prose are more interesting than to watch that vigorous mind in its struggle to mould a language of magnificent but immature capabilities. The obscurity with which Thucydides has sometimes been reproached often arises from the very clearness with which a complex idea is present to his mind, and his strenuous effort to present it in its entirety. He never sacrifices thought to language, but he will sometimes sacrifice language to thought. A student may always be consoled by the reflection that he is not engaged in unravelling a mere rhetorical tangle. Every light on the sense will be a light on the words; and when, as is not seldom the case, Thucydides comes victoriously out of this struggle of thought and language, having achieved perfect expression of his meaning in a sufficiently lucid form, then his style rises into an intellectual brilliancy (thoroughly manly, and also penetrated with intense feeling) which nothing in Greek prose literature surpasses. In one sense, a moral sense, Thucydides is unique among Greek authors. To him the “good” is not a term with the peculiar Greek connotation of it, but one which he uses with the same meaning which it possesses to-day. The uncertainty as.to the date of Thucydides’ birth renders futile any discussion of the fact that before 431 he took no

prominent part in Athenian politics. If he was born in 455, the fact needs no explanation; if in 471, it is possible that his opportunities were modified by the necessity of frequent visits to Thrace, where the management of such an important property as the gold-mines must have claimed his presence. The manner in which he refers to his personal influence in that region is such as to suggest that he had sometimes resided there (iv. ros, r). He was at Athens in the spring of 430, when the plague broke out. If his account of the symptoms has not enabled physicians to ISee Jebb’s Attic Orators, i. 35.

THUCYDIDES agree on a diagnosis of the malady, it is at least singularly full

L605

and vivid. He had himself been attacked by the plague; and, as he briefly adds, “he had seen others suffer.”

cates his general conception of his work, and states the principles which governed its composition. His purpose had been formed at the very beginning of the war, in the conviction that it would prove

of 424. He was then 47 (or, according to Busolt, about 36), and

more important than any event of which Greeks had record. The leading belligerents, Athens and Sparta, were both in the highest

The turning point in the life of Thucydides came in the winter

for the first time he is found holding an official position, He was one of two generals entrusted with the command of the regions towards Thrace (ra émt Opaxys), a phrase which denotes the whole Thracian seaboard from Macedonia eastward to the Vicinity of the Thracian Chersonese, though often used with more special

reference to the Chalcidic peninsula. His colleague in the command was Eucles. About the end of Nov. 424 Eucles was in Amphipolis, the stronghold of Athenian power in the north-west. To guard it with all possible vigilance was a matter of peculiar urgency at that moment. The ablest of Spartan leaders, Brasidas (g.v.), was in the Chalcidic peninsula, where he had already gained

rapid success; and part of the population between that peninsula

and Amphipolis was known to be disaffected to Athens. Under such circumstances we might have expected that Thucydides who had seven ships of war with him, would have been ready to cooperate with Eucles. It appears, however, that, with his ships, he

was at the island of Thasos when Brasidas suddenly appeared be-

fore Amphipolis. Eucles sent in all haste for Thucydides, who arrived with his ships from Thasos just in time to beat off the enemy from Eion at the mouth of the Strymon, but not in time to save

Amphipolis.

The profound vexation and dismay felt at Athens

condition of effective equipment. The whole Hellenic world (including Greek settlements outside of Greece proper) was divided

into two parties, either actively helping one of the two combatants

or meditating such action. Nor was the movement confined within even the widest hmits of Hellas; the “barbarian” world also was affected by it—the non-Hellenic populations of Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus, Sicily and, finally, the Persian kingdom itself. The aim of Thucydides was to preserve an accurate record of this war, not only in view of the intrinsic interest and importance of the facts, but also in order that these facts might be permanent sources of political teaching to posterity. His hope was, as he says,

that his History would be found profitable by “those who desire an exact knowledge of the past as a key to the future, which in all probability will repeat or resemble the past. The work is meant to be a possession for ever, not the rhetorical triumph of an hour.” As this context shows, the oft-quoted phrase, “a possession for ever,” had, in its author’s meaning, a more definite import than any mere anticipation of abiding fame for his History. It referred to the permanent value of the lessons which his History contained. such being the spirit in which he approached his task, it is interesting to enquire what were the points which he himself considered to be distinctive in his method of executing it. His Greek predecessors in the recording of events had been, he conceived, of two classes. First, there were the epic poets, with Homer at their head, whose characteristic tendency, in the eyes of Thucydides, is to exaggerate the greatness or splendour of things past. Secondly, there were the Ionian prose writers whom he calls

found expression in the punishment of Thucydides, who was exiled. From 423 to 404 Thucydides lived on his property in Thrace, but much of his time appears to have been spent in travel. He visited the countries of the Peloponnesian allies (cf. his account of the battle of Mantineia in 418, the Spartan version of the story), recommended to them by his quality as an exile from Athens; and he thus enjoyed the rare advantage of contemplating “chroniclers” (see LococRAPHI), whose general object was to the war from various points of view. He speaks of the increased diffuse a knowledge of legends, preserved by oral tradition, and of leisure which his banishment secured to his study of events. He written documents (usually lists of officials or genealogies) prerefers partly, doubtless, to detachment from Athenian politics, served in public archives; and they published their materials as partly also, we may suppose, to the opportunity of visiting places they found them, without criticism. Thucydides describes their signalized by recent events and of examining their topography. work by the word Euvriévar but his own by fvyypadev—the The local knowledge which is often apparent in his Sicilian books difference between the terms answering to that between compilawas acquired at this perlod. He visited Syracuse after the siege tion of a somewhat mechanical kind and historical composition, was over. This is shown by the accuracy of his topography, and in a higher sense. The vice of the “chroniclers,” in his view, is by the fact that his knowledge of affairs at Athens contemporary that they cared only for popularity, and took no pains to make with the siege came to an end at the time of the departure from their narratives trustworthy. Herodotus was presumably reAthens of the last reinforcements sent to Syracuse, showing that garded by him as in the same general category. he drew information from the Athenian prisoners. The mind of In contrast with these predecessors Thucydides has subjected Thucydides was naturally judicial, and his impartiality (which his materials to the most searching scrutiny. The ruling principle seems almost superhuman by contrast with Xenophon’s Hellenica) of his work has been strict adherence to carefully verified facts, was in some degree a result of temperament. But it cannot be “As to the deeds done in the war, I have not thought myself at doubted that the evenness with which he holds the scales was liberty to record them on hearsay from the first informant or on ' greatly assisted by his experience during these years of exile. arbitrary conjecture. My account rests either on personal knowlHis own words make it clear that he returned to Athens, at edge or on the closest possible scrutiny of each statement made least for a time, in 404, though the precise date is uncertain. The by others. The process of research was laborious, because conolder view was that he returned some six months after Athens flicting accounts were given by those who had witnessed the surrendered to Lysander. More probably he was recalled by the several events, as partiality swayed or memory served them.” special resolution carried by Oenobius prior to the acceptance of The Speeches—It might be supposed that the speeches which Lysander’s terms (Busolt, ibid., p. 628). The preponderance of Thucydides has introduced into his History conflict with this testimony certainly goes to show that he died in Thrace, and by standard of scientific accuracy; it is, therefore, well to consider violence. It would seem that, when he wrote chapter 116 of his their nature and purpose rather closely. The speeches constitute third book, he was ignorant of an eruption of Etna which took between a fourth and a fifth part of the History. If they were place in 396. There is indeed, strong reason for thinking that he eliminated, an admirable narrative would indeed remain, with a did not live later than 399. The abruptness with which the History few comments, usually brief, on the more striking characters and breaks off agrees with the story of a sudden death. The historian’s events. But we should lose all the most vivid light on the inner daughter is said to have saved the unfinished work and to have workings of the Greek political mind, on the motives of the actors placed it in the hands of an editor. This editor, according to one and the arguments which they used—in a word, on the whole account, was Xenophon, to whom Diogenes Laërtius (ii. 6, 13) play of contemporary feeling and opinion. To the speeches is due

assigns the credit of having “brought the work into reputation,

when he might have suppressed it.” The tradition is, however, very doubtful; it may have been suggested by a feeling that no one then living could more appropriately have discharged the

office of literary executor than the writer who, in his Hellenica, continued the narrative. The History.—At the outset of the History Thucydides indi-

in no small measure the imperishable intellectual interest of the

History, since it is chiefly by the speeches that the facts of the Peloponnesian War are so lit up with keen thought as to become illustrations of general laws, and to acquire a permanent suggestiveness for the student of politics. When Herodotus made his persons hold conversations or deliver speeches, he was following the precedent of epic poetry; his tone is usually colloquial rather

166

THUCYDIDES

than rhetorical; he is merely making thought and motive vivid in Polybius, Sallust and Tacitus most resemble Thucydides in this the way natural to a simple age. Thucydides is the real founder particular. of the tradition by which historians were so long held to be warDivisions of the Book.—The present division of the History ranted in introducing set speeches of their own composition. His into eight books is one which might well have proceeded from Own account of his practice is given in the following words: “As the author himself, as being a natural and convenient disposition to the speeches made on the eve of the war, or in its course, I of the contents. The first book, after a general introduction, sets have found it difficult to retain a memory of the precise words forth the causes of the Peloponne sian War. The first nine years which I had heard spoken; and so it was with those who brought of the war are contained in the second, third and fourth books me reports. But I have made the persons say what it seemed to —three years in each. The fifth book contains the tenth year, me most opportune for them to say in view of each situation: at followed by the interval of the “insecure peace.” The Sicilian exthe same time I have adhered as closely as possible to the general pedition fills the sixth and seventh books. The eighth book opens sense of what was actually said.” So far as the language of the that last chapter of the struggle which is known as the “Decelean” speeches is concerned, then, Thucydides plainly avows that it is or “Ionian” War, and breaks off abruptly in the year 4II. mainly or wholly his own. As a general rule, there is little atThe principal reason against believing that the division into tempt to mark diferent styles. The case of Pericles, whom T hucyd- eight books was made by Thucydides himself is the fact that a ides must have repeatedly heard, is probably an exception: the different division, into 13 books, was also current in antiquity, as Thucydidean speeches of Pericles offer several examples of that appears from Marcellinus (§ 58). It is very improbable (indeed bold imagery which Aristotle and Plutarch agree in ascribing to hardly conceivable) that this should have been the case if the him, while the “Funeral Oration,” especially, has a certain majesty eight-book division had come down from the hand of the author. of rhythm, a certain union of impetuous movement with lofty We may infer, then, that the division of the work into eight books grandeur, which the historian has given to no other speaker. Such was introduced at Alexandr ia—perhaps in the 3rd or 2nd century strongly marked characteristics as the curt bluntness of the Spar- B.C. That division was already familiar to the grammarians of tan ephor Sthenelaidas, or the insolent vehemence of Alcibiades, the Augustan age. Dionysiu s of Halicarnassus, who recognizes are also indicated. But the dramatic truth of the speeches gen- it, has also another mode of indicating portions of the work, viz., erally resides in the matter, not in the form. In regard to those by stichometria, or the number of lines which they contained. speeches which were delivered at Athens before his banishment in Thus, in the ms. which he used, the first 87 chapters of book i. 424 (and seven such speeches are contained in the History) contained about 2,000 lines (equivalent to about I,700 lines in Thucydides could rely either on his own recollection or on the Bekker’s stereotyped 8vo. text). (On the order of composition, Sources accessible to a resident citizen. In these cases there ‘is see PELOPONNESIAN War, ad init.; and GREECE: Ancient History, good reason to believe that he has reproduced the substance of § Authorities.) what was actually said. In other cases he had to trust to more The division of the war by summer and winter (xara Oépos or less imperfect reports of the “general sense”; and in some in- kat xetudy va)—th stances, no doubt, the speech represents simply his own conception of the year—is e end of the winter being considered as the end perhaps the only one which Thucydides himself of what it would have been “most opportune” to say. The most used, for there is no indication that he made any division of the evident of such instances occur in the addresses of leaders to their History into books. His “summer” includes spring and autumn troops. The historian’s aim in these military harangues (which and extends , generally speaking, from March or the beginning are usually short) is to bring out the points of a strategical situa- of April to the end of October. His “winter” (November to Febtion; a modern writer would have attained the object by com- ruary inclusiv e) means practically the period during which miliments prefixed or subjoined to his account of the battle. The tary operati ons, by land and sea, are wholly or partly suspended. comparative indifference of Thucydides to dramatic verisimilitude When he speaks of “summer” and “winter” as answering respecin these military orations is curiously shown by the fact that the tively to “half” the year (v. 20, 3), the phrase is not to be speech of the general on the one side is sometimes as distinctly pressed ; it means merely that he divides his year into these two a reply to the speech of the general on the other as if they had parts. The mode of reckoning is essentially a rough one, and is been delivered in debate. We may be sure, however, that, wher- not to be viewed as if the commencement of summer or of winter ever Thucydides had any authentic clue to the actual tenor of a could be precisely fixed to constant dates. For chronology, bespeech, he preferred to follow that clue rather than to draw on sides the festivals, he uses the Athenian list of archons, the Sparown invention. Why, however, did he not content himself tan list of ephors and the Argive list of priestesses of Hera. with simply stating in his own person, the arguments and opinions There is no reference to the History of Thucydides in the exwhich he conceived to have been prevalent? The question must be tant Greek writers of the 4th century B.C.; but Lucian has previewed from the standpoint of a Greek in the sth century B.c. served a tradition of the enthusiasm with which it was studied Epic poetry had then for many generations exercised a powerful by Demosthenes. The great orator is said to have copied it out influence over the Greek mind. Homer had accustomed Greeks eight times, or even to have learnt it by heart. The Alexand to look for two elements in any complete expression of human rian critics acknowledged Thucydides as a great master of energy—first, an account of a man’s deeds, then an image of Attic. his Sallust, Cornelius Nepos, Cicero and Quintili an are among the mind in the report of his words. The Homeric heroes are exhibited both in action and in speech. Further, the contemporary Roman writers whose admiration for him can be traced in their work, or has been expressly recorded. The most elaborat readers of Thucydides were men habituated to a civic life in e ancient which criticism on the diction and composition of Thucydides is conpublic speech played an all-important part. Every adult citizen tained in three essays by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. of a Greek democracy was a member of the assembly which deBmwrio .—Among the best mss. of Thucydides, the Codex bated and decided great issues. The law courts, the festivals, the Vaticanus craray 126 (11th century) represents a recension made in the drama, the market-place itself, ministered to the Creek love of Alexandrian or Roman age. In the first six books number of animated description. To a Greek of that age a written history passages in which the Vaticanus alone has preserved the a true reading of political events would have seemed strangely insipid if speech is comparatively small; in book vii. it is somewhat larger; in book viii. it is so large that here the Vaticanus, as compare “in the first person,” had been absent from it, especially if with the other it did mss., acquires the character of a revised text, Otherd importa nt mss. not offer some mirror of those debates which were inseparably as- are the Palatinus 252 (x1th century); the Casselanus (ap. 1252); sociated with the central interests and the decisive moments The Augustanus Monacensis 430 (A.D. 1301). A collatio of i, n, in books ii, of two Cambridge mss. of the r5th century (Nw. political life. In making historical persons say what they might 3, 18; Kx. 5, 19) has been published by Shilleto.

have said, Thucydides confined that oratorical licence to the purpose which is its best justification; with him it is strictly dramatic, an aid to the complete presentment of action, by the vivid expression of ideas and arguments which were really current at the time. Among later historians who continued the practice, A

Seyeral Parisian and a Venetian mss. (V.) collated by Arnold, also mss. (H. C. A. F.) The Aldine ed. was pub. in rzo2. It was formerl deserve mention. y supposed that

there had been two Juntine eds. Shilleto, in the

” prefixed to bk. i. first pointed out that the only Juntine “Notice ed. was that of 1526, and that the belief in an earlier Juntine of 1506, arose merely from the accidental omission of the word vicesim o in the Latin

107

THUGGA— THULE version of the imprint. Some papyrus fragments were published in Grenfell and Hunt’s Oxyrhynchus papyri (1908), vi, which also contains an anonymous commentary (pub. 1st century) on Thuc. ii. A useful ed. is Classen’s, in the Weidmann series (1862-78; new ed. by Steup, 1882-92} ; each book can be obtained separately. Arnold’s ed. (1848-51) contains much that is still valuable. For bks. i. and ii. Shilleto’s ed. (1872-76) furnishes a commentary which, though not full, deals admirably with many difficult points. Among other important complete eds., it is enough to name those of Duker, Bekker, Goeller, Poppo and Kriger.

For eds. of separate books and selections

(up to 1895) see J. B. Mayors Guide to the Choice of Classical Books.

Special mention may be made of those by E. C. Marchant. Later eds. of the text are by H. Stuart Jones (1900-01), in the Oxford Scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca, and C. Hude (“Teubner Series,”

1901;

ed. minor,

well executed.

notes.

1903).

Bétant’s lexicon to Thucydides

Jowett’s trans.

(1883)

is supplemented

(1843)

is

by a vol. of

Dale’s version (Bohn) also deserves mention for its fidelity,

as Crawley’s

(1876)

for its vigour.

His Age by G. B. Grundy,

* i i

operation of a number of native states, succeeded so well in grappling with the evil that, up to Oct. 1835, no fewer than 1,562 Thugs had been committed, of whom 382 were hanged and 986 transported or imprisoned for life. According to the Thuggee and Dacoity Report for 1879, the number of registered Punjabi and Hindustani Thugs then still amounted to 344; but all of these had already been registered as such before 1852, and the whole fraternity may now be considered as extinct. Full particulars concerning the system of Thagi are given by Dr. Sherwood, Ox the Murderers called Phansigars, and J. Shakespear, Observations regarding Bradheks and Thegs (both treatises in vol. xiii. (1820), of the Asiatic Researches) ; W. N. Sleeman, Ramaseeana, or a Vocabulary of the Language used by the Thugs, with an Introduction and Appendix (Calcutta, 1836); Meadows Taylor, Confessions of a Thug (1839; new ed. 1879).

Thucydides and the History of

discusses various general questions con-

nected with the history of the time, and has a long summary of the

controversy on the mode and times in which the historian composed

his work. Hellenica (1880) contains an essay on “The Speeches of Thucydides,” which has been trans. into German (see Eduard Meyer, Forschungen zur alten Geschichte Bd. il. pp. 269-436). The best clue to Thucydidean bibl. is in Engelmann’s Scriptores graeci (1880), supp. by the arts. by G. Meyer, in Bursian’s Jahresbericht (18953) Ixxix., (1897) Ixxxvili. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, iii. 616-693, is invaluable. For the life of Thucydides, U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, “Die Thukydides-Legende,” Hermes (1878) xii, is all important. All

works on ancient Greek history contain discussions of Thucydides,

and see J. B. Bury’s Anc. Greek Historians (1909) and Cambridge Anc. History, vol. iv. and v. (1926-27). (R. C. J.; X.)

THUGGA (mod. Dovcca), an ancient city of North Africa, lying on a commanding site about 1 m. W. of the military road from Carthage to Tebessa (63 m. by road S.W. of Tunis). Its importance dates from Punic times, and it appears to have been taken from Carthage by the Numidian king Masinissa in the 2nd century B.C. Its most important buildings date from c. A.D. 150250 and it only became a municipality under Septimius Severus, and a colony even later. The well preserved Capitolium, or Temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, built by Marcus Aurelius, occupies the finest position in the city; to the west of it lies the forum, and to the east the Temple of Mercury. West of the forum, which is surrounded by fortifications of the Byzantine period, lies the beautiful crescent-shaped Temple of Caelestis, the Phoenician Tanit, built in the time of Alexander Severus. -To the north-east of the forum is a well preserved theatre, built in A.D. 166-169, with a splendid view over the surrounding cowtry. To the north is a large temple of Saturn (a.D. 195), the Romanized form of Baal-Hammon, with six large columns, and close to it is a small Christian church; while to the west le the remains of what may have been the pre-Roman acropolis, with native tombs, dolmenic in form, beyond it; and further on again are the remains of a circus. To the south-east of the forum, built against the hill side, is a group of interesting private houses decorated with mosaics and fountains.

THUGS, a well-organized confederacy of professional assas-

sins, who travelled in gangs through India, wormed themselves into the confidence of wayfarers and, when a favourable opportunity occurred, strangled them by throwing a handkerchief or noose round their necks, and then plundered and buried them (Sanskrit sthag, to conceal, hence sthaga, a cheat, in modern vernaculars thag). All this was done according to certain ancient and rigidly prescribed forms and after the performance of special religious rites, in which the consecration of the pickaxe and the sacrifice of sugar formed a prominent part. From their using the noose they were also frequently called Phansigars, or “nooseoperators.” Though they themselves traced their origin to seven Mohammedan tribes, Hindus appear to have been associated with them at an early period; at any rate, their religious creed and practices as staunch worshippers of Kali (Devi, Durga), theHindu goddess of destruction, had certainly no flavour of Islam. The

fraternity possessed also a jargon of their own (Ramasz), as well as certain signs by which its members recognized each other.

Though sporadic éfforts were made towards the extinction

of the gangs, it was not till Lord W. Bentinck (1828-35) took vigorous steps that the system was seriously attacked. His chief

agent, Captain (afterwards, Sir William) Sleeman, with the co-

THUGUT,

PAULA,

JOHANN

AMADEUS

FRANCIS

DE

Baron (1736-1818), Austrian diplomatist, was born

at Linz on May 24, 1736. In 1769 he was appointed chargé d’affaires at Constantinople, and in that capacity secured a grant of money and a promise of the territory of Little Wallachia from the Turks during the negotiations connected with the first partition of Poland. (See Potanp: History.) In 1771 he was ennobled and appointed internuncio at Constantinople and was actively engaged, under the direction of Prince Kaunitz, in all the diplomacy of Austria in Turkey and Poland until he secured the cession of the Bukovina on May 7, 1775. After 1775 Thugut travelled in France and Italy, partly on diplomatic service. In 1778 he acted as intermediary in Maria Theresa’s negotiations with Frederick the Great. In 1780 he was Austrian envoy in Warsaw, but in 1783 applied for leave and spent four years in Paris, where he invested his savings and became acquainted with many of the leaders in the Revolution. From 1787 to 1789 he was minister at Naples. In x790 he was sent by the emperor Joseph II. to Bucharest, nominally as commissioner with the hospodar of Wallachia, but in reality in order that he might open negotiations for peace with the Turks. In 1792 he was associate diplomatic agent at the headquarters of the allied army which invaded France, and was then appointed

TS RS eaaa iiaa e a. OE eaae E r a ii a r ae M a

“director of the foreign affairs of Austria” (March 25, 1793), becoming chancellor in 1794, on the death of Kaunitz. The selfish policy which Thugut followed (1793-1800) in

Austria was bitterly resented by her allies, and although Thugut

probably thought that he was only doing his duty, he committed many acts which were more than dubious. After the defeats of Austria in Italy in 1796-97 and the Peace of Campo Formio, it became a fixed object with the French, and with a growing party in Austria who held him responsible for the disasters of the war, to secure Thugut’s removal.

The battle of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3, 1800) made his position untenable. He retired from public life, and left Vienna for Pressburg. He afterwards returned to Vienna and lived quietly on a pension of 7,000 florins till his death on May 28, 1818.

THUILLE, LUDWIG

(1861-1907), German composer, was

born at Bozen (Bolzano) on Nov. 30, 1861. After being taught by his father, an amateur, and by Pembour at Innsbruck, he went to Munich in 2879 to finish his studies under Barmen and Rheinberger. In 1883 he was appointed professor at the Munich school of music, and while there became a close friend of Alexander Ritter and Richard Strauss. His first opera, Theuerdank, was produced in Munich in 1897; a second, Lobetanz, at Mannheim in 1898 and a third, Gugeline, at Bremen in 1901. Two interesting choral works are Traumsommernacht, for female voices, and Weihnacht im Walde, for men’s chorus (op. 14). His chamber music includes a sextet, op. 6, for piano and wind instruments

(1887) and a violoncello sonata. See Friedrich Munter, Ludwig Thuille (Munich, 1923).

THULE (tho0’lé), Greek and Roman name for the most northerly known land in the Atlantic. Pytheas (c. 300 B.c.) calls it the most northerly of the British Isles, reached after 6 days’ sail from Britain; it was inhabited, but corn grew there sparingly

and ripened ill; in summer the nights were long and bright.. The few surviving fragments of his works do not determine where

his Thule was, but Müllenhoff is probably right in thinking it

168

THULIUM— THUNDERSTORMS

was the Shetlands, The Faeroes, Iceland and Norway are much less likely. Agricola’s fleet in A.D. 84 sailing up the east coast of Scotlard is said to have espied but not to have reached Thule (dispecta est Thule) but the phrase is merely literary. The actual point meant may be the Orkneys or the Shetlands, or even some fragment of Scotland seen across the water. In some later writers (Procopius, etc.) Thule seems sometimes used to denote Scandinavia. The phrase “ultima Thule” is commonly used to describe the farthest limit possible.

THULIUM, a very rare metallic element (symbol Tm, atomic number 69, atomic weight 169-4) of the rare-earth group, was discovered by Cleve in 1879 while examining crude erbium oxide. It was first obtained in the form of a pure compound by C. James in 1911 by the fractional crystallization of its bromate. Thulium occurs to a very slight extent along with its commoner associates in the minerals gadolinite, euxenite, xenotime, etc. Very large quantities of the minerals must be employed to obtain a little pure salt. The oxide, of a greenish-white colour, gives a beautiful carmine glow when gently heated in the Bunsen burner. Salts of thulium possess a pale green colour and solutions show a very characteristic absorption spectrum. (See Rare Eartus.) (C. J.)

THUN, a picturesque town in the Swiss canton of Bern, built on the banks of the Aar, just as it issues from the Lake of Thun, and by rail r9 m. S.E. of Bern. Its population in 1920 was 14,162, mostly German-speaking and Protestants; in 1928 (Jan. 1st) it was estimated at 18,450. From 1798 to r802 Thun was the capital of the canton Oberland of the Helvetic Republic. It is now the capital of the Bernese Oberland.

THUN, LAKE OF, in the Swiss canton of Bern, the second

lake (the first being that of Brienz) into which the river Aar (q.v.) expands. These two lakes occupy an ancient terminal basin of a glacier and are separated by a lacustrine delta on which Interlaken stands. Lake Thun (with the town of Thun at its northwestern end) is 113 m. long, 2 m. wide, its maximum depth is 712 ft., while its area is 184 sq.m., and its altitude 1,837 ft.

THUNDER, the noise which accompanies or follows a flash

of lightning (q.v.), on account of the air disturbance caused by the sudden heating and expansion of air during the electrical discharge. (See ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY and Mereororocy.)

THUNDERSTORMS.

Since the middle of the 18th cen-

tury it has been realized that lightning is an electric spark, and that thunder is the noise produced by the spark. The natural tendency was to assume that the meteorological phenomena of the thunderstorm, and especially the heavy rainfall, were produced by electricity. The modern view is that the rainstorm is the primary phenomenon and that the electricity is incidental. AS METEOROLOGICAL

PHENOMENA

The common feature of thunderstorms is their great vertical extent.

The base of a cloud may be between 1 and 2 km. above

the ground. The summit may reach the level of the cirrus clouds, at a height of 9 km. or more. To explain the motive power required for the production of such a cloud we must consider the behaviour of dry air and moist air when subject to changes of pressure, Air is heated by compression and cooled by expansion. If, however, the air con-

tains drops of water, the rise of temperature causes evaporation, and some of the energy used in compressing the air is converted into latent heat. The same increase of pressure produces less rise of temperature in wet air than in dry air. Conversely, the ex-

perature falls, and at a certain height condensation begins. The air brought from below may be at the same temperature as the surrounding air at this height, but as condensation proceeds the rising air remains comparatively warm, and it may be lighter than its surroundings. A cloud has begun to form, and, as the top of the cloud rises, air from below takes its place, and the cloud tends to grow. The conditions favourable for the growth of a cumulus cloud are: (1) The upper air into which the cloud grows is cold, preferably with a lapse rate approaching the limiting value 10° C per kilometer. (2) The lower air contains much water vapour, and is not too stable; if vigorous convection is taking place, the lapse rate in this lower air may even exceed 10° C per kilometer. By the time the cloud has grown to a height of some kilometers, the difference between the pressure at the bottom of

the cloud and at other points at the same level will be very great, and the upflow of air through the cloud very violent. In the rising air condensation proceeds rapidly. Some of the drops are catried up by the air. They are frozen to form soft hail, and then covered by more ice to become true hail. The raindrops or hailstones get thrown out of the more vigorous ascending currents and are able to fall through and out of the clouds. Experience shows that these are the circumstances in which the electrical phenomena which characterize thunderstorms occur. According to some observers there is no true thunderstorm without the formation of false cirrus at the top of the cloud. In the early stages of growth the air surrounding the top of a cloud is comparatively dry, and the parts of the cloud carried away by eddies re-evaporate. When the cloud towers up to the cirrus level, where the temperature is so low that very little moisture can be held in the gaseous state, evaporation can no longer take place at the top of the cloud, and when the ascending air mixes with the other air of that height, numerous ice crystals build up the cap of false cirrus, Types of Thunderstorms.—Thunderstorms can be divided into four classes :— (a) Storms Produced in Air Which Is More or Less S tationary. —The condition for the production of these storms is the development of instability by the warming of the ground; water evaporated from the ground and from vegetation is carried up by the convection currents to the level at which condensation takes place. If the air originally above this level is cold enough, the lapse of temperature being greater than in a nascent cloud, these thunder clouds will develop freely. (b) Storms Produced in Air Which Has Travelled from a Colder Region to a Warmer —When air flows over warm ground or warm water, heat may be communicated to the air sufficiently rapidly for the stratification to become unstable. Under these conditions, thunder showers develop. They are usually of small extent. (c) Storms Produced by the Interaction of Converging Air Currents—When a current of cold air meets a current of warm air, the warmer air, being lighter, is forced upwards. As the warm air reaches the condensation level, cloud is formed, and if conditions are favourable the clouds tower upwards so that the passage of the “cold front” is marked by a brief thunderstorm.

(d) Storms Produced by the Interaction of Parallel Currents.—

If the general distribution of pressure is such that a current of

polar air flows alongside a current of warmer air, a travelling area of instability is produced. Thunderstorms of great intensity de-

velop and may extend for a hundred miles or more in the direction of the currents,

pansion of saturated air in which condensation is taking place The Distribution of Thunderstorms.—The storms of class will be accompanied by a smaller fall of temperature than the (a) are most frequent in the Tropics; they occur also in summer expansion of dry air. Further, if two masses of air have the same in the temperate zone. These storms show a well-marked diurnal temperature initially, and both are cooled by the reduction of variation; they develop generally during the afternoon. pressure, the wet air will not only be the warmer at the end of The storms of class (b) are characteristic of the rear of barothe process but will also be lighter, and occupy more space. In metric depressions, and occur over the sea, in winter, when air the atmosphere, where masses of air can move freely, those masses from high latitudes is blowing over comparativel y warm water. which contain cloud tend, on the whole, to be the more buoyant. On the western coasts of the British Isles such storms are not Thus we have a general explanation of the formation of cumulus infrequent. The storms which oçcur at night on certain coasts cloud. The air in the lower part of the atmosphere is warm, and in the Tropics, when the off-shore breezes set in, may also be

contains water in the form of vapour.

If some of this air is included in class (b).

carried upwards to a level where the pressure is lower, the tem-

The “cold-front” storms of class (c) are met with ir the tem-

169

THUNDERSTORMS

perate zone. They are associated with line-squalls. The progress | of investigators favour the view that, in general, the positive charges are at greater heights than the negative. of a cold-front and its attendant thunderstorms can sometimes When a lightning discharge occurs there is an immediate change be followed for hundreds of miles by observers of “atmospherics.” Thunderstorms are most frequent in the Tropics, The average in the electric force. The change is appreciable even at distances number of days in which thunder is reported, annually, is as of 100 m. or more. In the case of nearby disturbances, there is in high as 143 at Leon, in Mexico, and 133 at Batavia, in Java. On the interpretation of the observations some ambiguity. This disapthe other hand, in the desert countries thunderstorms are almost pears. however, when the distance of the electric charges is great unknown. They are rare in high latitudes. For numerous land sta- compared with their height. In a series of observations made at tions in the Northern Hemisphere, Brooks has computed the Khartum on April 23, 1924, and lasting four-and-a-quarter hours, annual average of 25; for the land of the Southern Hemisphere (excluding Antarctica), the average is 44. His estimate for the whole globe, land and sea, is 16. As in all such statistics, the number is intended to refer to the number of days on which thunder is audible at any time. In many parts of the world thunderstorms are not most fre-

quent In summer because that is a dry season. This is the case in Mediterranean countries. At Barcelona and at Rome, thunderstorms are most common in September.

Similar influences are felt

in Switzerland, where thunderstorms are less frequent at the end of June than at its beginning, or in the last part of July. AS ELECTRICAL

PHENOMENA

To the eye, a lightning flash is instantaneous, and it cannot be seen whether it begins at one end or the other. It is clear, however, that the resistance of the air to the electric stress must break down, in the first instance, at one definite point. The air at this point is ionized and becomes a conductor, and the greatest electric stress is transferred to a neighbouring point. The dis-

charge is therefore progressive.

From theoretical considerations

and from laboratory experiments, G. C. Simpson has proved that such a progressive discharge always proceeds from a positively charged body towards a negatively charged body. The spark is frequently branched, and it is the rule for the branches to lead away from the positively charged body. When a branched light-

ning flash is seen, the direction in which electricity is passing can, therefore, be stated. The absence of branches indicates that the flash has passed from a positive charge spread over a wide area to a more concentrated negative charge. Simpson classified numerous photographs of lightning, amongst which were 418 flashes which appeared to be approximately vertical. In 242 of these flashes there were branches pointing downwards; in only three were branches pointing upwards. In the former cases the clouds from which the lightning proceeded must have been positively charged, in the latter cases the cloud must have been negatively charged. Even if negatively charged clouds preponderated in the cases in which the flashes were unbranched, the positively charged clouds were in the majority.

The colour of lightning flashes varies considerably. According to Trabert’s observations at the mountain station on the Sonnblick, where the electric field during a thunderstorm is so strong that brilliant St. Elmo’s fire can be observed, blue lightning is to be seen when negative electricity is being discharged by St. Elmo’s

fire, and red lightning is associated with the positive discharge. It may be noted that the difference between the types of St. Elmo’s fire is striking. The negative fire is concentrated; an object like a flagstaff may be completely enveloped in fire. On the other hand, the positive fire takes the form of streamers, some as much as ro cm. long. The quantity of electricity which is transferred in a lightning flash can be estimated from the change which occurs in the electric field near the ground. The quantity is generally between ro and 50 coulombs. As the discharge takes about one-thousandth of a second to pass, the maximum current is comparable with 50,000 amperes. The difference of potential between the cloud and the earth before the discharge is of the order ro°® volts. The energy

dissipated by the discharge of 20 coulombs through such a voltage is to! joules, or about 3,000 kilowatt hours. This energy would suffice to lift 500 tons through 2 kilometers. The Electrical Structure of a Thundercloud.—As to what should be regarded as the typical distribution of electricity in a thundercloud, agreement has not yet been reached. The majority

the appearance of lightning estimated at between 30 and 300 km. away was noted at the same time as changes in the electric field. There were 37 discharges accompanied by a descent of negative electricity, and 444 accompanied by a descent of positive electricity. With regard to the discharges of the former type, it was observed: (zr) That they appeared to reach the earth, whereas the others appeared to be in the clouds; (2) that they were of greater |brilliance; (3) that the illumination from the lighining lasted longer (as long as three seconds). Some observations seem to imply that, throughout the storm a structure is being built up continuously in which there is a positive charge high in the cloud and a negative charge near the base. According to this view, the majority of flashes pass between the |upper and lower charged regions, the minority between the lower | charged region and the earth. Simpson maintains, however, that the downward discharges of positive electricity do not originate very high in the cloud. He believes that many of these discharges terminate in the free air below the cloud. The most direct evidence in favour of this view is the frequency with which branching ' discharges occur in photographs. The Electric Field Near Thunderstorms. Discharges from the Earth—The interchange of electricity between the ground and the atmosphere is carried on, to a large extent, by the dis-

ee re rA en lr el AIA ne Se

charges from pointed objects. When a pointed object stands up high above its surroundings, the discharge seen after dark is luminous, and is then known as St. Elmo’s fire. Measurements of the strength of the discharges from pointed objects have been undertaken. Wormell, working at Cambridge, used a single point 8-3 metres above the ground. Schonland, in South Africa, used a small tree, the top of which was 4 metres above the ground. The largest discharge recorded by Wormell in a single shower was 30 millicoulombs. Since the electricity displaced in a single lightning flash is of the order 30 coulombs, we may say that the current from a thousand such points would provide enough electricity to make a flash. Schonland gives the following table, showing the relation between the strength of the electric field over level ground and the current passing through his tree: Field (volts per metre) . Current (microamperes)

. 3,500 ©

5,500 -20

II,0o0o I-00

16,000 4:00

It will be seen that the current increases much more rapidly than the field. This is in accordance with other observations of the discharge from points. The Electrification of Rain.—The electric charge carried by rain can be positive or negative. Moreover, either sign can occur with a positive potential gradient, and equally with a negative potential gradient. According to Gschwend, the charge on individual raindrops varies between -oo5 and -r electrostatic units. On the whole, the positive charges predominate. This is especially the case in heavy rain. In Simla, Simpson found the ratio of the total positive charge to the total negative charge brought down by rain was 2-9. For Potsdam, the corresponding ratio is given by Kahler as 1-4. The highest charge measured at Potsdam was 4o electrostatic units per cubic centimetre.

The Net Displacement of Electricity.—Schonland compares

the discharge from points. with the quantity of electricity carried from earth to cloud by lightning and by charged rain. The total current for the whole area affected by a thundercloud is made up as follows: Point discharges 2-1 ampere. Lightning discharges or ampere. Charged rain—.o2 amperes; total about 2-2 amperes. The observations confirm Wilson’s remark that “of the three kinds of electric current which may accompany precipitation, the convection current of lightning discharges and continuous currents

L7O

THURET

due to the intense electric fields, it is quite possibly the last which contributes most to the interchange of electricity between the earth and the atmosphere.” The thunderstorms studied by Schonland produced little rainfall, but the preponderance of positively charged rain in his experiments is consistent with general experience. If the rainfall over the area of his hypothetical storm, 20 km.?, had been at the rate appropriate to heavy thunderstorms, say I mm. per minute, and if the rain had been highly charged so as to carry four electrostatic units per cubic centimetre of water, the average current would have been of the order 0-4 amperes. Other observers have found strong positive gradients as frequent as strong negative ones during storms. Tf the conclusions of Schonland can be accepted as generally

true, it will follow that the net flow of positive electricity from ground to atmosphere in thunderstorms is adequate to supply the electricity needed to maintain the air-earth current over the parts of the globe enjoying fine weather. According to Wilson, positive electricity and negative are separated in the cloud, the positive charge being uppermost. Between this upper charge and the Heaviside layer there Is a conduction current, facilitated by the comparatively high conductivity of the air. The Heaviside layer may be regarded as a perfect conductor. The current between this layer and the ground in the fine-weather regions is downwards. The current from the air to the ground is known to be nearly always positive, and Wilson’s theory provides an acceptable explanation. Simpson’s Theory of Thunderstorm Mechanism.—Of the explanations which have been suggested for the production of electrification in clouds, the only one which appears at all adequate is that proposed by G. C. Simpson. This theory is based on the observation that, when water-drops are broken by an airblast the spray is electrified positively, the air negatively. In a cumulo-nimbus cloud there are regions in which the upward currents are powerful enough to prevent any rain falling through them. Simpson contends that such currents are so persistent that the water accumulates in them for several minutes. As the raindrops are continually breaking up and recombining, they acquire large positive charges. The air currents convey the negative charge to less turbulent regions, and the droplets which form in such regions become negatively charged. Thus negatively charged rain is to be expected in the greater part of the cloud. Simpson has applied numerical tests to prove that the causes are adequate to produce the observed effects. In his typical

thunderstorm, the region in which water accumulates is equivalent to a sphere 2 km. in diameter, and is about one-hundredth part of the whole cloud. It is supposed that, after a quarter-of-anhour, there is enough water to make ro cm. of rain on the ground immediately below. This estimate is arrived at by consideration of the volume of air carried up by a current of 8 metres per second, and of the amount of water vapour contained in the air at the temperatures prevailing at 2 km. and 4 km. above the ground. The accumulated water is equivalent to 4-410 drops s millimetres in diameter. If all these drops were broken into spray, about 7 coulombs of positive electricity would remain on the spray, and an equal quantity of negative electricity would be carried away by the air currents. To explain the great strength of the electric field necessary to start a lightning flash, Simpson supposes that the density of the electric charge in one part of the region of separation is very great. A sphere 500 metres in diameter would occupy one sixty-fourth of the whole region in which electrification, was taking place. If the water drops in the sphere were broken up 256 times a charge of 28 coulombs would be developed, and if the process took 4 minutes, the strong air-currents of 8 metres per second would remove the complementary negative charge to a distance averaging about a kilometre. Now, 28 coulombs are rather less than the average quantity of electricity in a lightning discharge. Further, it is easily proved that the force due to the 28 coulombs in a sphere with diameter

soo metres is, at the surface of the sphere, equivalent to 410° volts per metre, and therefore sufficient to break down the re-

sistance of the air and initiate a lightning flash. It is supposed that the lightning does not discharge the whole cloud. The theory accounts for the flashes which convey positive electricity downwards from the lower part of the cloud towards the earth or upwards inside the cloud. The lightning flashes by which positive electricity is conveyed upwards to the cloud, are thought by Simpson to be rather rare. Criticisms of Simpson’s Theory.—The theory is based on the observed facts that water drops which are uncharged or slightly charged, acquire positive charges when broken up, and that charged drops, when they collide, will combine. There is, however, no experimental evidence that the processes of breakage and combination can be so active simultaneously that all the water passes through the two processes each second. Such a rate seems to be necessary to account for the frequency of lightning flashes. Moreover, it is difficult to believe that the persistence for a quarter-of-an-hour of a vertical current localized in one small part of the cloud is an essential feature of a thunderstorm. The theory has been attacked more generally on the ground that the natural interpretation of observations of the changes in the electric field in a storm is that the upper part of a thundercloud is usually the seat of a positive charge. Simpson’s reply to this criticism is that the observations in question can be explained on the assumption that the most frequent discharges are those in which positive electricity is displaced from the region of separation inside the cloud to the air between the cloud and the ground. To the criticism that observations such as those of Wormell and Schonland imply a great transfer of positive electricity from the ground upwards during a thunderstorm, Simpson’s reply is that the observations are not representative, being taken under such circumstances that positive fields were exceptionally infrequent. More observations are needed, especially in parts of the world where tropical storms occur, The literature of thunderstorms is extensive. The following list is almost confined to works quoted in the foregoing article. BIBLIOCRAPHY.—A. Gockel, Das Gewitter, 3rd ed. Berlin (1925); W. J. Humphreys, Physics of the Air, Philadelphia (1920); K. Kahler, Die Elektrizität der Gewitter, Berlin (1924) ; C. T. R. Wilson, Dict. of Applied Physics, Vol. iii. London (r923); E. V. Appleton, R. A. W. Watt, J. F. Herd, “On the Nature of Atmospherics,” R. Soc. Proc. A. rrr (1926) 613; C. E. P. Brooks, “The Distribution of Thunderstorms over the Globe,” London Meteorological Office Geophysical Memoirs 24 (1925); B. F. J. Schonland, “The Polarity of Thunderclouds,” R. Soc. Proc. A. 118 (1928) 233; “The Interchange of Electricity between Thunderclouds and the Earth,” R. Soc. Proc. A. rr8 (1928) 252; G.C. Simpson, “On the Electricity of Rain etc.,” R. Soc. Phil. Trans. A. 209 (1909) 379; “On Lightning,” R. Soc. Proc. A. rrr (1926) 57; “The Mechanism of a Thunderstorm,” R. Soc. Proc. A. rrg (1927) 376; C. T. R. Wilson, “Investigations on Lightning Discharges etc.,” R. Soc. Phil. Trans. A. 221 (1920) 73; T. W. Wormell, “Currents carried by Point Discharges etc.,” R. Soc. Proc. A. 175 (1927) 443.

(F. J. W. W) THURET, GUSTAVE ADOLPHE (1817-1875), French botanist, was born in Paris on May 23, 1817. He spent a great part of his time, up to 1857, on the Atlantic coast of France, assiduously observing the marine Algae in their natural habitat

and at all seasons. He and his friend Edouard Bornet, became the recognized authorities on this group of plants. Their work, while remarkable for taxonomic accuracy, was more especially concentrated on the natural history, development and modes of reproduction of the plants investigated. The discovery of sexual reproduction in seaweeds is almost wholly the work of these two men. The researches on the fecundation of the Fucaceae were published by Thuret in 1853 and 1855; the complicated and difficult question of the sexual reproduction in Floridae was solved by the joint work of Thuret and Bornet (1867). These great discoveries—of far-reaching biological significance—stand out as the chief, but every group of marine Algae was elucidated by the researches of Thuret and his colleague.

The Notes algologiques

(1876-1880),

and the Etudes phyco-

logiques (1878) were posthumously published. In 1857 Thuret removed to Antibes, where he established a botanic garden which became famous. He died at Nice, on May 10, 1875. See notices by Bornet in Ann. des Sct. Nat. (1876) and Farlow in Journ. of Bot. (1876).

THURGAU—THURINGIA

IJI

THURGAU, a canton of north-east Switzerland, bordered by |former Thuringian States of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Saxe-Mein-

the Lake of Constance below the lake. It is in the west and St. Gall three well-wooded hill

and, for a short distance, by the Rhine 'ingen, Reuss, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Gotha (Coburg having been contact with Schaffhausen and Zürich to /merged with Bavaria), Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, and Schwarzto the south. Thurgau is divided into burg-Sondershausen, which decided in 1919 to combine into one masses running north-west to south- State. They maintained their identity as administrative districts east by the middle course of the river Thur (rising in the Toggen- |until April 1, 1923, but were then completely merged into Thurburg, g.v.) and by its affluent, the Murg. ' ingia. The country falls into two main divisions: the southern The canton is traversed by the main railway line from Winter- | division is bounded on the north and west by Prussia, on the east thur to Romanshorn (with branches to Constance, to the Toggen- ; by Saxony and on the south by Bavaria, while the smaller northburg and to St. Gall); another important line extends from Ror- ern division is surrounded by Prussia. Its total area is 4,540-5 sq.m. schach along the lake shore via Constance, thence to Schaffhausen. | A considerable part of the country is occupied by the pictur-

The canton is a highly prosperous agricultural area, and though | esque, rounded hills of the Thuringian forest. Among the chief termed the “garden and granary of Helvetia” it also possesses an | elevations are the Beerberg (3,225 ft.), the Schneekopf (3,179 ft.)

important cotton-spinning, dyeing and printing industry. Its and the Inselberg (2,957 ft.), on the northern slopes of the Thurestimated pop. in 1926 was 13ọ0,r00. Of its pop. in 1920, ingian forest. The Altenburg district in East Thuringia is tra131,815 were German-speaking, 3,187 Italian-speaking and 537 versed by the westerly offshoots of the Erzgebirge, while the Rhön French-speaking, while there were 90,665 Protestants, 44,467 mountains extend into West Thuringia. The south-eastern portion Catholics and 157 Jews. Its capital is Frauenfeld (pop. 8,711) of Thuringia belongs to the bleak, mountainous region of the on the Murg; other towns are Arbon (9,393), Kreuzlingen and Frankenwald and the Vogtland. The principal river is the Saale, Romanshorn (6,474), which is the chief lake port of the canton. which runs in a north-westerly direction as far as Saalfeld, and History.—The Thurgau originally took in all the country, then flows north-east by Rudolstadt and Jena. Among the other roughly speaking, between the Reuss, the Lake of Lucerne, the rivers are the Werra, Ilm, Gera, Unstrut, Elster, Weisse, Wipper, Rhine and the Lake of Constance; but many smaller districts !Helbe and Pleisse. The district watered by the Pleisse contains (Zürichgau, Toggenburg, Appenzell, St. Gall) were gradually some of the richest agricultural soil in Germany. carved out of it, and the county was reduced to about the size Of the total area of Thuringia, about 44% is occupied by arable of the present canton when in 1264 it passed by the gift of the land, 33% by forest, and 10% by pasture land. The chief last count of Kyburg to his nephew Rudolph of Habsburg, chosen mineral resources of Thuringia are lignite (found mainly in the emperor in 1273. In 1460-61 it was seized by the Confederates Altenburg district), and potash in the valley of the Werra and in and henceforth it was ruled as a “subject district” by seven the Sondershausen district. Iron ore, marble, cobalt, copper, slates, members of the League—Bern occupied in the west, not being chalk and basalt are also found; and there are salt works at admitted to a share in the government till 1712, after one of the Salzungen and Neusalza, and brine springs at Heinrichshall and wars of religion. In 1499 the Confederation obtained from the elsewhere. Among the principal industrial products of Thuringia emperor the supreme jurisdiction. are textiles, glass and porcelain, iron goods and machinery, paper In 1798 it became free, and was one of the 19 cantons of and leather goods, musical instruments, beer, chemicals, wooden the Helvetic republic, being formally received (like the other toys, etc. The manufacture of toys and textile goods is largely “subject lands”) as a full member of the Swiss Confederation in carried on under the domestic system. The optical instruments of 1803 by the Act of Mediation. The very advanced Cantonal Jena and the scientific instruments of Ilmenau are well known. Constitution dates to 1869. (See SwITZERLAND, Administration.) In 1925 Thuringia had 1,624,675 inhabitants, or 357-8 to the BrpriocrapHy.—J. A. Pupikofer, Der Kanton Thurgau (St. Gall sq.m. The population is mainly Teutonic, but there is a Wendish and Bern, 1835), and Geschichte des Thurgaus (to 1830; and ed., or Slavonic element. The population is 90% Protestant. The 1884-89); Beitrage (Thurg.) sur vaterlind. Geschichte (published University of Jena is the chief centre for higher education. by the Cantonal Hist. Soc.; from 1861). The constitution of Thuringia dates from March 1x1, 1921. The THURIBLE, the ecclesiastical term for a censer, a portable Landtag consists of 72 members. For administrative purposes vessel in which burning incense (g.v.) can be carried. The censer, the country is divided into xro town and 15 country districts to use the more general term, is a vessel which contains burning (Kreise), and one sub-district (Kreisabteilung). The capital is charcoal on which the aromatic substances to be burned are Weimar, but Gera and Jena are larger towns and Gotha, Eisenach, sprinkled. The early Jewish portable censer would seem to have Altenburg and Greiz are also noteworthy. been a bowl with a handle, resembling a ladle. A similar form History.—In the 5th century the Thuringians lived bewas used by the ancient Egyptians long prior to the Jewish use. tween the Harz mountains and the Thuringian Forest. They The Greek and Roman censers (Ovurarnpiov and turibulum or were tributary to Attila the Hun, under whom they served at the thuribulum) are of quite different shape. They are small portable battle of Chalons in 451. In the 6th century they were conquered braziers (focul) of bronze or sometimes of silver and of highly by the Franks and remained under the direct rule of the Frankish kings until 634, when King Dagobert I. appointed ornate design. The censers or thuribles in Christian usage have been specially Radulf duke of the Thuringians, under whom they became virtuadapted to be swung, though many early specimens of heavy ally independent. They were again brought under Frankish rule weight were obviously not meant to be used in this way. by Charles Martel, who abolished the office of duke and divided THURII or Taurum, a city of Magna Graecia on the Gulf the country among Frankish counts. About 804 Charlemagne, in of Tarentum, near the site of the older Sybaris (g.v.). It owed order to defend the line of the Saale against the Slavs, founded its origin to an attempt made in 452 B.c. by Sybarite exiles and the Thuringian mark. In 849 King Louis the German recogtheir descendants to repeople their old home. The new settle- nized Tlakulf as duke and some of his successors bore the title ment was crushed by Crotona, but the Athenians lent aid to of margrave until the death of Burkhard in 908, when the country the fugitives, and in 443 Pericles sent out to Thurii a mixed body was seized by Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony. Thuringia of colonists from various parts of Greece, among whom were was retained by Otto’s son and successor, Henry I. the Fowler. Herodotus and the orator Lysias. In 390 it was severely defeated In the rith century a new dominion was founded by Louis the by the Lucanians, and at length called in the help of the Romans Bearded, who by purchase, gift or marriage obtained several counagainst the Lucanians, and then in 282 against Tarentum. ties in Thuringia. These passed on his death in 1056 to his son Thenceforward it was dependent, and in the Second Punic War Louis the Springer (d. 1123), who took part in the Saxon risings it was depopulated and plundered by Hannibal (204). In 194 a against the emperors Henry IV. and Henry V. His son Louis was Roman colony was founded, known for a time as Copiae, but appointed landgrave of Thuringia in 1130 by the emperor Lothair II.; by his marriage with Hedwig of Gudensberg in 1137 afterwards as Thurii. THURINGIA (Ger. Land Thiiringen), a Republic and a he obtained a large part of Hesse. Louis was succeeded, in component state of the German Republic. It consists of the 1140 by his son Louis IT. the Hard, who married Judith, a sister

172

THURLES—THURMAN

of the emperor Frederick I., and on his behalf took a leading part in the opposition to his powerful neighbour Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. In 1172 he was succeeded by his son Louis III. the Pious. He acquired the Saxon palatinate in 1179, on the death of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg, went to Italy to assist Frederick 1. in 1157, joined in the war against Henry the Lion in 1180, and distinguished himself at the siege of Acre in the Third Crusade, on the return from which he died at Cyprus in rroo. He was succeeded by his brother Hermann I., during whose reign Thuringia suffered greatly from the war between Philip duke of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick. The next landgrave (1217-27) was his son Louis IV., a celebrated figure in mediaeval German literature, who married St. Elizabeth, daughter of Andrew II., king of Hungary, and died at Otranto while accompanying the emperor Frederick II. on crusade, The next ruler was Henry Raspe, who made himself regent on behalf of his nephew Hermann II, from 1227 to 4238 and in 1241 succeeded his former ward as landgrave. After a disputed succession to the landgraviate it fell in 1263, together with the Saxon palatinate, to Henry III. margrave of Meissen. Two years later Henry apportioned Thuringia to his son Albert the Degenerate, who sold it in 1293 to the German king Adolph of Nassau for 12,000 marks of silver. Albert’s sons Frederick the Undaunted and Dietrich contested this transaction, and the attempts of Adolph and his successor Albert I. to enforce it led to the infliction of great hardships upon the Thuringians. Frederick defeated Albert decisively and in 1314 was formally invested with Thuringia by the emperor Henry VII. His son Frederick II. the Grave (1323-49) consolidated the power of his dynasty against rebellious vassals and the neighbouring counts of Weimar and Schwarzburg. His son Frederick III. the Strong (1349—81) and his grandson Balthasar (1381-1406) further extended their dominion by marriage and conquest, and the latter of these founded the university at Erfurt (1392).

contemporaries. In the parliaments of 1654 and of 1656 he represented Ely; he was appointed a member of Cromwell’s second council in 1657. After Oliver’s death Thurloe supported Richard Cromwell’s succession, and took part in the administration, sitting in the parliament of January 1659 as member for Cambridge University. Appointed secretary of state on Feb. 27, 1660, he appears to have steadily resisted the Restoration, and his promises of support to Hyde in April inspired little confidence. On May 15, 1660, he was arrested on the charge of high treason, but was freed on June 20, subject to the obligation of attending the secretaries of state “for the service of the state whenever they should require,” He subsequently wrote several papers on the subject of foreign affairs for Clarendon’s information. He died on Feb. 21, 1668. His extensive correspondence, the originals of which are in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and the British Museum (Add. MSS. 41§6, 4157, 4158), is one of the chief sources of information for the period. A portion was published with a memoir by T. Birch in 1742, and other correspondence is printed in R. Vaughan’s Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell (1836).

THURLOW, EDWARD

THURLOW,

1st Baron (1731-

1806), English lord chancellor, was born at Bracon Ash, in the county of Norfolk, on Dec. 9, 1731, the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Thurlow. He was educated at Canterbury Grammar school and Caius college, Cambridge, but went down without a degree. In 1754 he went on the western circuit and after a successful brush with Fletcher Norton his reputation rose. He took silk in 1761, and in 1768 became M.P. for Tavistock in the Tory interest. The next year he led for the plaintiff in the Douglas peerage case. In 1770 he was made solicitor-general, and supported the Government views against the rights of juries in libel

cases (R. v. Miller, 20 St. Tr. 870) and the liberty of the press (16 Parl. Hist. 1144), in 1770, he became attorney-general.

Politically he was factious and violent; he was a venomous oppoBalthasar’s son, Frederick the Peaceful, became landgrave in nent of the American colonies, he made a savage speech in aggra1406 but left the government largely to his father-in-law Günther, vation of punishment in the Horne Tooke case (20 St. Tr. 777), count of Schwarzburg. He died childless in 1440, and Thuringia and was opposed to all interference with the slave trade. In then passed to the electoral dynasty of Saxony. After a joint rule 1778 he became lord chancellor with a peerage. His position in by Frederick II. and his brother William, the latter in 1445 be- the Lords was almost autocratic, and he continued to oppose the came sole landgrave as William IIT. and died without sons in 1482. reforming schemes of Burke. Under Rockingham and Shelburne In 1485 his nephews and heirs Albert and Ernest made a division he remained chancellor; under the coalition he worked in oppoof their lands, and Thuringia was given to the Emestine branch sition for the king; got the India bill rejected; and returned to of the family of Wettin, with which its history down to 1918 is the woolsack under Pitt (1783). Finally he came out openly in identified (see Saxony). opposition to the National Debt Redemption scheme. Pitt then BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. Wachter, Thiiringische und oberstchsische Ge- insisted on his dismissal (1792), and he retired with the title of schichte bis zum Anfalle Thiringens an die Markgrafen von Meissen (Leipzig, 1826); T. Kmochenhauer, Geschichte Thuringens in der karolingischen und sächsischen Zeit (Gotha, 1863), and Geschichte Thüringens sur Zeit des ersten Landgrafenhauses (Gotha, 1871); H. Gebhardt, Thiiringische Kirchengeschichte (Gotha, 1879-82) ; Uhirengische Geschichtsquelien, edit. by F. X. Wegele and R. von Liliencron (Jena, 1854-59); and Regesta diplomatica necnon epistolaria historiae Thuringiae, published by O. Dobenecker, vols. i. and ii, (Jena, 1896-1900).

THURLES,

a town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, on the Suir

and on the main line of the Great Southern and Western railway, 87m. S.W. of Dublin. Pop. (1926) 4,796. Originally the town was called Durlas O’Fogarty. In the roth century it was the scene of a

defeat of the Irish by the Danes.

A preceptory was founded here

by the Knights Templars, who held a 13th century castle, of which there are remains. A castle was subsequently erected by James Butler, first lord palatine of Tipperary, of which the keep col-

lapsed in 1868. The Cistercian abbey of Holy Cross stands 34 m. S.W. of the town. It was founded by Donnell O’Brien (1168-94).

Baron Thurlow of Thurlow. He continued to speak in the Lords till 1802 and died at Brighton on Sept. 12, 1806, Thurlow was a master of caustic wit, habitually displayed in profanity. His judicial and his ecclesiastical patronage were

wisely

exercised;

he was

the patron

of Dr.

Johnson

and

of

Crabbe; and was the first to detect the great legal merits of Eldon. Thurlow’s personal appearance was striking. His dark complexion, harsh but regular features, severe and dignified démeanour, piercing black eyes, and bushy eyebrows, doubtless contributed to his political eminence, and provoked the sarcasm of Fox that he looked wiser than any man ever was. See Lord Campbell’s Lives of the Chancellors, vii. 133-333; Foss’s Judges of England, viii, 374-385; Public Characters (1798); Notes and Queries, 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 283; 3rd series, vol. iii. p. 122; Reports of his decisions by Brown, Dickens and Vesey (jun.); Brougham’s Statesmen of the Time of George III,

THURMAN, ALLEN GRANBERY (1813-1 805), American jurist and statesman, was born at Lynchburg (Va.), on Nov. Thurles is the seat of the Roman Catholic archdiocese of Cashel. 13, 1813. In 1819 he removed with his parents to Chillicothe THURLOE, JOHN (1616-1668), English politician, son of (O.), where he attended the local academy for two years, studied Thomas Thurloe, rector of Abbot’s Roding in Essex, was bap- Jaw in the office of his uncle, William Allen, and in 1835 was adtized on June 12, 1616. He studied law, entered the service of mitted to the bar, becoming his uncle’s law partner. He began Oliver St. John, through whose interest he was appointed a secre- to take an active part in politics in 1844, and in 1845-47 was a tary to the parliamentary commissioners at Uxbridge in 1645; Democratic representative in Congress, where he advocated the other employments followed. On March 29, 1652, he was ap- Wilmot Proviso. pointed secretary to the council of state. His duties included the He was Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio in 1867, control of the intelligence department and of the posts, and his and was defeated by Rutherford B. Hayes by a majority of less perfect system of collecting information and success in discover- than 3,000 votes; but the Democrats gained a majority in both Ing the plans of the enemies of the administration astonished his branches of the State legislature, and Thurman was elected to

THURSDAY

ISLAND—THYROID

173

the United States Senate, where he served from 1869 until r881—~ | THYLACINE or TASMANIAN WOLF (Thytacinus during the 46th Congress (1879-81) as president pro tempore. cynocephalus). The only living species of this genus, though Here he became the recognized Democratic leader and in 1879-81 smaller than a wolf, is the largest predaceous marsupial existing. was chairman of the judiciary committee. He introduced the Its remarkable resemblance to a dog or wolf is entirely due to Thurman bill, for which he was chiefly responsible, which became | convergent evolution. It is confined to the island of Tasmania,

law in May, 1878, and readjusted the Government's relations with | although a closely allied species once inhabited the Australian the bond-aided Pacific railways. mainland. (See MARSUPIALIA.) Thurman was a member of the electoral commission of 1877, THYMBRA, BATTLE OF. This battle of 546 3.c. was the and was one of the American delegates to the international decisive act in Cyrus the Great’s overthrow of Croesus, king of monetary conference at Paris in 1881. In 1876, 1880 and 1884 Cydia, which in turn led to his subjugation of Asia Minor, and he was a candidate for the presidential nomination, and in 1888 thus brought the Persians in contact with the Greeks—with mowas nominated for vice-president on the ticket with Grover mentous consequences to both. (See GRAECO-PERSIAN Wars.) As Cleveland, but was defeated in the election. He died at Columbus described in Xenophon’s Cyropaedia the battle is rather instruc(O.), on Dec. 12, 1895. tional than historical, yet even so of far-reaching historical imporTHURSDAY ISLAND, a small island belonging to Queens- tance. For this projection on to an historical screen of Xenophon’s jand, Australia, situated 30 miles to the north-west of Cape York conception of the ‘model’? commander and the “model’’ battle, in Torres Straits. It has an excellent harbour (Port Kennedy) affected the course of many wars yet undreamt of. It served as which is the centre for the pearl, etc., fleets of the north-east. (See the foundation of the study and reflection of the great captains AUSTRALIA: Fisheries.) Pop. (1926) 1,700. of antiquity—Scipio, for example, is said to have carried the THURSO, burgh of barony, police burgh, parish and seaport Cyropaedia with him throughout his campaigns. And with the of Caithness, Scotland. Pop. (1931), 2,946. It is situated at the Renaissance, and the revival of Greek studies, it lightened afresh mouth of the Thurso, on Thurso bay, 21 m. N.W. of Wick, and the path of the great captains of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. 319 m. N. of Edinburgh, by rail, on a branch line of the L.M.S. As pictured by Xenophon, Croesus draws up his army in the cusrailway from Georgemas junction, the most northerly town on the tomary single line many ranks deep, while Cyrus forms his in a mainland of Scotland. deep series of lines, each only a few deep, capable of mutual supIn Macdonald square there is a statue of Sir John Sinclair. The port and manoeuvre. When Croesus uses his superiority of numtown-hall contains a public library and museum, which possesses bers to wheel inwards his far-stretching wings in order to crush the geological and botanical specimens of Robert Dick (1811~ Cyrus’s wedge-like formation between them, Cyrus fends them off 1866), the “Thurso baker,” and a collection of northern birds. To by lines of scythed chariots charging outwards, while his cavalry the east is Thurso castle, home of the Ulbster branch of the and camelry reserve attacks the flanks of the inwheeling Lydian Sinclairs, and near it is Harold’s tower, built over the grave of wings. Then under cover of a frontal chariot attack on Croesus’s Earl Harold, once owner of half of Caithness, and half of the centre, a small picked reserve of horse and foot is hurled at the Orkneys and Shetlands, who fell in battle with Earl Harold the point where one of the enemy wings joins on to the centre. This Wicked in 1190. About three-quarters of a mile west stand the pierced, the cut off centre is “played on” by arrows and javelins ruins of the bishop’s palace, which was destroyed by fire in 1222. until it surrenders. Thurso was the centre of the Norse power on the mainland when There is an extraordinary parallel between this sequence of at its height under Thorfinn (1014), and afterwards till the battle action—distention of the enemy’s line, dislocation of a joint, folof Largs (1263). Count Modach, nephew of King Duncan, quar- lowed by a disruption which decides the issue—and the fundatered his army for a time at Thurso and despoiled it till he was mentals of Napoleon’s tactic more than 2,000 years later. surprised and slain by Thorfinn in ro4o.

THURSTAN or Turstin (d. 1140), archbishop of York, was the son of a certain Anger, or Auger, prebendary of St. Paul’s, London, and a brother of Audoen (d. 1139), bishop of Evreux. He himself was a prebendary of St. Paul’s, and was also a clerk in the service of William II. and then of Henry I., who secured his election as archbishop of York in Aug. 1114. He now entered upon the great controversy which occupied him during a large part of his subsequent life and made him for several years an exile from England. Archbishop Ralph of Canterbury refused to consecrate him unless he made a profession of obedience to the southern see; this Thurstan refused and asked the king for permission to go to Rome to consult Pope Paschal II. Henry I. declined to allow him to make the journey, while Paschal declared

against Archbishop Ralph. At the Council of Salisbury in 1116 the English king ordered Thurstan to submit, but instead he resigned his archbishopric, although this did not take effect. The new pope, Gelasius II., and also his successor, Calixtus II., espoused the cause of the stubborn archbishop, and in Oct. r11ọ, he was consecrated by Calixtus at Reims. Enraged at this the king refused to allow Thurstan to enter England, and he remained for some time in the company of the pope. At length, however, his friends succeeded in reconciling him with Henry, and, after serving the king in Normandy, he was recalled to England. In 1138 he made a truce at Roxburgh between England and Scotland, and took active part in gathering together the army which defeated the Scots at the Battle of the Standard in Aug. 1138. Early in 1140 he entered the order of the Cluniacs at Pontefract and here he died on Feb. 6, r140. Thurstan displayed marked generosity toward the churches of his diocese dur-

ing his bishopric and was also the founder of a number of religious houses. See his life in the Fasti eboracenses, ed. J. Raine (1863).

See Herodotus, i. 79-80; Xenophon, Cyropaedia.

THYME.

The genus Thymus (family Labiatae) comprises a

number of fragrant aromatic undershrubs, with very small leaves and whorls of small, purple, honey-bearing flowers in the axils of the leaves or at the ends of the branches. The common garden thyme, a native of the Mediterranean region, is T. vulgaris; the wild thyme of English banks is T. serpyllum, now naturalized in eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Pennsylvania, Marjoram (Origanum) is also closely allied. All these plants are re-

markable for their essential oil, from which thymol is produced.

THYMOL: THYMUS:

see Campnors. see Ducrtess

GLAND;

LYMPHATIC

SYSTEM,

DISEASES OF.

THYROID, in anatomy, a term applied (1) to the largest of the cartilages of the larynx (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM), (2) to one of two arteries which lie near the thyroid cartilage and gland (see ARTERIES), and (3) to a vascular ductless gland, which rests on the larynx and upper part of the trachea. In human beings two conditions may occur both the result of a lack of thyroid secretion, but differing according as the condition is congenital or has started in early life, z.e., cretinism (qg.v.), or occurs later in life, z.e., myxoedema (g.v.). (See also DUCTLESS GLAND.) The thyroid gland is used in medicine in two forms. Thyroideum siccum is a light, dull brown powder, prepared by drying the thyroid gland of a sheep. Its chief constituent is a proteid known as thyreoglobulin, the active principle of which contains 9-3% of iodine and o-5% of phosphorus, and is known as iodothyrin or thyroiodin. The dried gland easily becomes damp and deteriorates. Liquor thyroidei is a pink turbid liquid made by macerating the fresh gland of a sheep with glycerin and phenol. The active principle in pure form—thyroxin—was isolated in 1914 by E. C. Kendall at the Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.

THYRSUS—TIARA

174

Thyroid gland administered to man increases the pulse rate, !young forms closely resemble the adults in their general form and causes increased and enfeebled cardiac beat and leads to increased they ultimately pass into a resting stage or incipient pupa prior metabolism, consequently excess of urea, uric acid and phosphates |to becoming adults. Numerous thrips are wingless and some are excreted in the urine; it therefore reduces the body weight. species consist of both winged and wingless individuals. ParthenoGlycosuria develops from the inability of the body to ingest genesis is frequent in the order and males are either unknown, or glucose. Overdoses of thyroid cause rapid pulse, headache and very rare, in several species: in others the eggs are capable of vomiting, together with diarrhoea and pruritus, emaciation and developing parthenogenetically, although males are common. Thysanoptera are divided into two sub-orders (1) Terebrantia weakness. These symptoms are known as thyroidismt. Thyroid gland was introduced for the treatment of goitre, in which the last segment of the abdomen is conical, that of the myxoedema and cretinism (g.v.). It has also been used in dwarf- male being rounded, and the female has a saw-like ovipositor: most of the species feed on living plants. (2) Tubulifera in which ism, excessive obesity, psoriasis and scleroderma. Rodagen is a white powder consisting of the dried milk of thy- the last segment of the abdomen is tubular in both sexes and the roidectomized goats, mixed with 50% of milk sugar. In exoph- female is without a saw-like ovipositor: the species chiefly feed thalmic goitre this preparation causes a reduction of the swelling upon dead organic matter, fungi, etc., or form galls in a few cases. Only a few hundred members of the order have been described, and of the pulse rate, and an increase of body weight. THYRSUS, a kind of staff carried by Dionysus (g.v.) and and in most tropical lands thrips, as yet, have been very little his votaries (Gr. Gipaos). It was a reed, sometimes having a studied, but the order is probably world-wide in its range. Australia contains numerous species including some of the largest spear-point at one end, topped with a pine-cone. forms, but no indigenous species have been found in New Zealand. See F. J. M. de Waele, The Magic Staf or Rod (1927).

THYSANOPTERA,

the name used in zoological classifica-

tion for a small order of the class Hexapoda commonly known as thrips. The majority of these creatures are very small, varying in length from =, to $ of an inch, and they are mostly yellow, yellowbrown or black in colour. They are found among all kinds of growing vegetation—on the buds, flowers or foliage: others frequent de-

Brsriocrapuy.—For the British species, see the papers by R. Bagnall in Journ. Econ. Biology (1911-13) and other journals; C. B. Williams’ account of the pea thrips in Annals Applied Biology (1915) is also valuable. For the North American species, see W. E. Hinds, Proc., U.S. Nat. Museum (vol. xxvi., 1902) and for the structure of the mouth-parts, see A. Peterson, Annals Entom. Soc. America (vol. viii. 1915) ; see also H. Preisner, Thysanopteren Europas (1926-28). (A. D. L.)

THYSANURA, ADULT ”

y

W ohms ce

J

~ at ‘

=

om

i Me Pith

(q.v.) Machilis and Lepisma—to which belongs the “silver-fish” (g.v.)—are the best known genera.

fet”

if

|

nyd, CAE Cp Ie yy Ha r A r 2 Mies

Say

teem Ah aati

the name of an order of primitive wingless

insects known as springtails and bristletails. They are recognizable by their elongate feelers and tail-processes (cerci). Campodea

THYSDRUS,

z”

llis Likh in balls i ' \j

(See also APTERYGOTA.)

an ancient city of North Africa (the site is

occupied by the modern village of Er DJEM, 43 m. S. of Sousse

by rail).

It acquired importance owing to the fertility of its

environs, and also as the meeting place of six ancient roads. The amphitheatre, 163 by 133 yd., is the finest Roman monument in North Africa, and is second in size only to the Flavian amphi-

theatre (the Colosseum) in Rome.

THYSSAGETAE,

an ancient tribe described by Herodotus

(iv. 22, 123) as occupying a district to the north-east of Scythia separated from the Budini by a desert seven days’ journey broad.

THYSSEN, FULL-GROWN

LARVA

PUPA, FIRST STAGE

PUPA, LAST STAGE

SIDE VIEW OF HEAD SHOWING MOUTH PARTS

BY COURTESY OF THE U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ` LIFE HISTORY OF THE PEAR THRIPS (TAENIOTHRIPS

PYRI)

caying plant-remains especially wood and fungi. A small number are predators and suck the body fluids of aphides and Acari. They are elongate, slender-bodied insects, with short six- to nine-jointed antennae, and asymmetrical piercing mouth-parts. The wings are very narrow and strap-like with greatly reduced venation and long fringes of marginal hairs. The tarsi are one- or two-jointed and the

apex of each tarsus is terminated by a minute protrusible bladder or vesicle which enables them to climb almost any surface. The

AUGUST

(1842-1926), German industrialist,

was born at Eschweiler on May 17, 1842, and, with his brother Josef, founded a frm in Duisburg for the manufacture of hoop iron, which became exceedingly prosperous during the FrancoPrussian war. After the war Thyssen established a factory at Mülheim, and then began the policy of grouping interdependent industries. In 1903 he began the formation of a metal “vertical” trust, which had interests in the iron-fields of Lorraine, in other raw materials of heavy industry, in shipping and in electrical power. The power of the group was consolidated in the World War of ror4-18. August Thyssen himself conducted the business personally until r922. He died on April 15, 1926.

TIARA, the papal crown, a bee-hive shaped, somewhat bulging head-covering, ornamented with three crowns (whence ¢riregnum or “triple crown’). It has no sacral character, being solely the ensign of sovereign power (cf. Innocent III. Serm. vii. in S. Silvest.), and is therefore never worn at liturgical functions, when the pope always wears the mitre. The tiara is first mentioned, under the name of camelaucum, in the Vita of Pope Constantine (d. 715), and next under the name of pileus phrygius or phrygium, or the Constitutum Constantini, the so-called “Donation of Constantine.” In the gth century it appears in the gth Ordo of

Mabillon in connection with the description of the consecration of the pope.

On papal coins it first appears on those of Sergius ITI.

(d. gtr) and then on those of Benedict VII. (d. 983). At this period it was, according to the Ordo above mentioned, a sort of cap of white stuff, and helmet-shaped. Before the gth century the tiara was certainly without any crown; any such ornament would not have been in keeping with the circumstances of the time, and seems also to be excluded by the terms of the Constitutum Constantini.

TIARET—TIBERIUS

175

At the beginning of the rath century, however, the papal tiara | at the mouth is 230 cubic metres per second, but it can fall as

was already decorated with a circlet, as the 12th Ordo and statements made by Bruno of Segni (d. 1123) and Suger, abbot of St. Denys (1121—51), prove; but it is only in representations of the

| low

as go, and in floods rise to 3,400. It has advanced at each about 2 m. since Roman times, while the effect of the sedi-

|mouth

ment it brings down is seen on the north-west almost as far as tiara dating from the late 13th century that the circlet appears as a |Palo (anc. Alsium), and on the south-east beyond Tor Paterno regular spiked crown. The two pendants at the back of the tiara | (see LAURENTINA V1A) in the gradual advance of the coast. The (caudae, infulae) are likewise only traceable to this period. The rate of advance at Fiumicino is estimated at 13 ft. per annum,

second circlet was added by Boniface VIIL, as is proved by three statues executed during his lifetime (one in the Lateran church and two in the crypt of St. Peter’s). The earliest effigy of a pope

with

edict XII.

a triple-crowned

tiara is, therefore,

that of Ben-

(d. 1342), of which the head is preserved in the

museum at Avignon, while an effigy of the same pope in the crypt of St. Peter’s at Rome has a tiara with only two crowns.

TIARET (Tahert), a town of Algeria, in the Tell Atlas, department of Oran, 122 m. S.E. of Mostaganem by rail. It occupies an important strategic position on a pass through the moun-

From Rome to the sea the fall is only 6: 1,000. The arm which reaches the sea at Fiumicino is a canal, dug by Claudius and improved by Trajan (see Portus). In the prehistoric period the mouth of the Tiber must have been situated at the point where the hills which follow it on each side cease, about 12 m. below Rome. On the right bank they are of Pliocene gravel, on the left of tufa; and on the latter, ona cliff above the river (the ancient Puwilia saxa) stood Ficana (marked by the farmhouse of Dragoncello), which is said to have owed its origin to Ancus Martius. Beyond these hills the low coast belt formed by the solid matter brought down by the river begins; and on each side of the mouth in the flat ground were

tains at an elevation of 3,552 ft. The Wadi Tiaret flows through the town in a series of cascades. The upper town, the residential quarter, is on the right bank of this stream. The citadel occupies salt marshes. (See Ostia, Portvs.) a separate hill on the other side of the wadi. The chief business TIBERIAS, a town on the western shore of the Sea of Galicentre is the lower town where are also the principal public lee, attractively situated on a narrow strip of land between the buildings. On another hill opposite the citadel is the native town. high ground and the water, 68o ft. below sea-level (mod. TabaThe railway, which ended there and which has been extended to riyeh); pop. c. 7,000. The old city lay to the south of the Trumelet, forms the outlet of the fertile Sersou plateau, the modern. Not much of archaeological interest remains visible, but 400,000 hectares of which have been completely transformed by excavations on the site of the old town are being conducted by colonization since rgoo. the Jewish Exploration Fund. The citadel occupies the site of a Roman station. Tiaret History.—tTiberias was built about A.D. 21 by Herod Antipas, (Berber for “station”) was a town of note at the time of the and was so called after the emperor Tiberius. Herod made it Arab invasion of North Africa in the 7th century. In 761 it was his capital and developed its life on Greek lines. The town was taken by Abdurrahman ibn Rostem, the founder of the dynasty built on an ancient site, probably Rakkath (Josh. xix. 35), and of the Beni Rustam (Rostem). Their empire, which during the in the course of construction a graveyard was disturbed. In conreign of Abdurrahman (761-784) and his son Abdul Wahab sequence the Jews, fearful of uncleanness, refused to live there, (784—823) extended over the greater part of the modern Algeria, and Herod had to resort to compulsion to people his town (Jowas known as the Ibadite Empire from Abdallah ibn Ibad, the seph. Antiq. xvii. 2, 3). No mention is made of Tiberias in the founder of the heretical sect to which Abdurrahman belonged. gospels, except the casual reference in John vi. 23. The city was The Ibadites represented the moderate section of the Kharijites. of too recent date and too Hellenistic in outlook to invite atten(See Istam.) Seven princes of the Rustamite house succeeded tion; and it is unlikely that Christ ever visited it. It flung open Abdul Wahab at Tiaret, but in 909 the dynasty was overthrown its gates to Vespasian and his legions to earn consideration and by the Fatimites. The Ibadites, after being expelled from the favour. Hadrian sought to implant paganism by erecting a temTell, took refuge in Wargla. They were driven thence in the ryth ple, but with no marked success. Towards the close of the 2nd century and migrated to Mzab, where their descendants still pro- century, the Sanhedrin transferred itself thither from its first Galifess the Ibadite doctrines and traditions. After its second cap- lean home at Sepphoris. From the rabbinic school at Tiberias ture by the Fatimites, Tiaret ceased to be the capital of a separate came Judah hak-Kadhosh, the collector and editor of the Mishnah state. For a long period it was included in the sultanate of (c. 220). The Talmud was there edited 200 years later. The JewTlemcen, and in the 16th century fell to the Turks. It was one ish philosopher, Maimonides, and Rabbi ‘Akiba are buried there. of the chief towns of Abd el Kader, but was occupied by the Christianity found in Tiberias no congenial soil, and not until French in 1843. (See ALGERIA: Archaeology.) the 4th century could it make headway. In the sth century there TIBER, a river of central Italy (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere). was a bishop of Tiberias, who subscribed to the acts of the It traverses the Tuscan Apennines—in which it rises at a point Council of Chalcedon. In 637 came the Arabs. When the crusaders some 12 m. N. of Pieve San Stefano, 4,160 ft. above sea-level, established their kingdom of Jerusalem, Tancred was appointed nearly 20 m. east from the headwaters of the Arno—in a series ruler in Galilee; Tiberias became his capital and was in part of picturesque ravines, flows nearly south by Borgo S. Sepolcro rebuilt on a new site farther north. In 1187, before the battle and Citta di Castello, then runs between Perugia and Todi to of Hattin, it fell into the hands of Saladin. In the 18th century, Orte, where it receives the Nera (which brings with it the waters Dhahir el-Amir fortified the town; and in their advance on Damasof the Velino; see Trrnr), skirts the west foot of the Sabine cus, British troops seized it in Oct. 1918. (E. Ro.) Mountains in a broad shallow valley, then crosses the Roman TIBERIUS [Trsertus Crauprus Nero] (42 B.C.—A.D. 37), Campagna, cutting its way through Rome, and finally enters the Roman emperor, was born on Nov.'16, 42 B.c, His father, who Tytrhenian (Mediterranean) Sea by two arms at Ostia and bore the same name, was an officer of Julius Caesar, who, after Fiumicino, the latter artificial. Its principal tributaries are the a stormy career, returned to Rome when the general amnesty Paglia, the Nera and the Anio or Teverone, and it is generally was proclaimed in 39 B.c. Livia, the mother of Tiberius, was navigable by boats up to the confluence of the Nera, a distance also of the Claudian family; her husband ceded her to Octavian in of ro4 m., though, owing to the rapidity of the current, there is 38 shortly before Drusus, Tiberius’s brother, was born. Livia very little navigation above Rome. The total length of the river had no children by Augustus, and therefore devoted all her reis 253 m., of which 21 m. lie between Rome and the sea. This markable gifts to the advancement of her sons. Tiberius passed latter portion of the river’s course is tortuous, but in spite of this, through the list of state offices in the usual princely fashion, beginand although the depth varies from only 7 to 20 ft., and in places ning with the quaestorship at the age of eighteen, and attaining at low water does not exceed 4 ft., it is nevertheless navigated the consulate for the first time at twenty-nine. by vessels up to 180 tons burden. The area of the Tiber basin is But from 22 to 6 B.c. and again from a,D. 4 to ro by far the 6,719 sq.m., and it is the largest in Italy except the Po. The greater part of Tiberius’s time was spent in the camp. His first stream is heavily charged with sediment, and from that circum- service was as legionary tribune in one of the desperate wars stance got its ancient epithet of flavus (tawny). The discharge in the Spanish peninsula. In 20 B.c. Augustus sent Tiberius with

176

TIBESTI

Tiberius ascended the throne at the age of fifty-six. Wha» an army to seat Tigranes of Armenia on the throne as a Roman vassal. This he did without opposition. He spent the following struck every one of his contemporaries most was his absolute year as governor of Transalpine Gaul. In the next year (15) he impenetrability. Tiberius proved himself capable in every dewas despatched to aid his brother Drusus in subjugating the ‘partment of the state more by virtue of industry and applicaRaeti and Vindelici in the mountains at the source of the Rhine tion than by genius. His mind moved so slowly and he was and Danube. Drusus attacked from the eastern side, while accustomed to deliberate so long that men sometimes made the Tiberius operated from the upper waters of the Rhine, and the mistake of deeming him a waverer. The change of masters had been anticipated by the Roman mountaineers were subdued, which ensured the safety of communications between northern Italy and Gaul. In r2 B.C. Agrippa, world with apprehension, but it was smoothly accomplished. the great general of the emperor Augustus, died at the age of Livia expected to share the imperial authority with her son. At fsfty-one, leaving Julia, the emperor's only child, a widow. Agrip- first Tiberius allowed some recognition to the claim; but he soon shook himself free, and later became estranged from his mother pina, who was the daughter of Agrippa by an earlier marriage, was wife of Tiberius, and had borne him a son, Drusus. Livia, with and held no communication with her for years before her death. great difficulty, prevailed upon Augustus to replace Agrippa by The history of Tiberius’s relations with other members of his Tiberius, who was compelled to exchange Agrippina for Julia, with family is hardly less miserable. Perhaps with any other commander than Germanicus the dangerous mutiny of the troops on bitter grief on his part. During the year of mourning for Agrippa, which delayed his new marriage, Tiberius was occupied with a the Rhine which broke out soon after Tiberius’s accession would victorious campaign against the Pannonians, followed by success- have ended in a march of the discontented legions upon the ful expeditions in the three succeeding summers. For this he capital. The perilous episode of Arminius caused the recall of received the triumphal insignia, now first separated from the Germanicus and his despatch to the East on an honourable but triumph itself. Drusus died in 9 B.c., and Tiberius became the comparatively inactive mission. Tiberius seems to have set Piso to watch and thwart him, but there is no authority for the susfirst soldier of the empire. In the campaign of the year after Drusus’s death Tiberius picion that he had him poisoned. The death of Germanicus was ‘traversed all Germany between the Rhine and the Elbe, and met followed four years later by that of the emperor’s son Drusus. with slight opposition. He was rewarded with the full triumph, When Drusus died, Tiberius nominated two of the sons of the military title of “imperator,” and his second consulship. In Agrippina, Germanicus’? widow, as his heirs. But Seianus, 7 B.C. there was another but insignificant campaign in Germany. Tiberius’s minister, had grown strong by nursing the emperor’s Next year Augustus bestowed on his stepson the tribunician suspicions and dislike for the household of Germanicus, and the mother and the princes were imprisoned on a charge of crime. In authority for five years. Tiberius at this time suddenly begged permission to retire his memoirs of his own life Tiberius declared that he killed to Rhodes and devote himself to study. He seems to have declined Seianus because he had discovered that he entertained a mad absolutely at the time to state his reasons for this course, but he rage against the sons of Germanicus. But the destruction of obstinately adhered to it. The departure from Italy was as secret Seianus did not save Agrippina and her two children. The third as it could be made. Years afterwards, when Tiberius broke son, Gaius Caesar (Caligula), lived to become emperor when silence about his motives, he declared that he had retired in order Tiberius died in 37. The care expended by Tiberius on the provinces was unremitto allow the young princes, Gaius and Lucius, sons of Agrippa ting. Soldiers, governors and officials of all kinds were kept in and Julia, a free course. At Rhodes Tiberius lived simply, passing his time mainly in wholesome dread of vengeance if they oppressed their inferiors the company of Greek professors, with whom he associated on or encouraged irregularity of any kind. Strict economy permitted pretty equal terms. After five years’ absence from Rome, he light taxation and enabled the emperor to show generosity in begged for leave to return; but the boon was angrily refused, and periods of exceptional distress. Public security both in Italy and Livia with difficulty got her son made nominally a legate of abroad was maintained by a strong hand, and commerce was Augustus, so as in some degree to veil his disgrace. The next stimulated by the improvement of communications. Jurisdiction two years were spent In solitude and gloom. Then, on the inter- both within and without the capital was on the whole exercised cession of Gaius, Augustus allowed Tiberius to come back to with steadiness and equity, and the laws of the empire were Rome, but on the express understanding that he was to hold at many points improved. Our ancient authorities are Tacitus, to some extent biased by senaaloof from public functions. He had scarcely returned before torial traditions; Suetonius, a rather scandalous biographer; and death removed (a.p. 2) Lucius, the younger of the two princes, Velleius Paterculus, the nearest in point of time, an officer who had and a year and a half later Gaius also died. The emperor was served under him. Dio is probably dependent on Tacitus. The chief thus left with only one male descendant, Agrippa Postumus, account of Tiberius in English is that contained in Dean Merivale’s of the Romans under the Empire. Professor E. S. Beesly has youngest son of Julia, and still a boy. Four months after Gaius’s History written an interesting defence of him in his Catiline, Clodius and death Augustus adopted Agrippa and at the same time Tiberius. Tiberius (1878). The best recent history of this period is Hermann The emperor now indicated clearly his expectation that Tiberius Schiller’s Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883). Much historical information is given in the editions of the Annals of Tacitus, would be his principal successor. of which the best in English is that of Furneaux (Oxford, 1884); In av. 5 it became necessary to attack the formidable con- Freytag, Tiberius and Tacitus (Berlin, 1870) (following Stahr, Tiberius, federacy built up by Maroboduus, with its centre in Bohemia. Berlin, 1863), exposes the inconsistencies of Tacitus’ account. See also At the most critical moment, when Pannonia and Dalmatia broke Ihne, Zur Ehrenrettung des Kaisers Tiberius (Strassburg, 1892); out into insurrection, Maroboduus accepted an honourable peace. Gentile, L'Imperatore Tiberio secondo la moderna critica storica The four serious campaigns which the war cost displayed Tiberius (1887); J. C. Tarver, Tiberius the Tyrant (1902); E. S. Beesly, Cataline, Clodius and Tiberius (1907) ; A. Lang, Kaiser Tiberius (Jena, at his best as a general. When he was about to celebrate his rg11) ; O. Kuntz, Tiberius Caesar and the Roman Constitution (Seattle, well-won triumphs, the terrible catastrophe to Varus and his 1924). For the imperial administration of the provinces by Tiberius legions (A.D. 9) produced a profound change in the Roman policy see Mommsen, History of Rome, vol. v. towards Germany. Although Tiberius with his nephew and TIBESTI, a mountainous region of the central Sahara, inadopted son Germanicus made in A.D. 9 and 10 two more marches habited by the Tibbu (g.v.). Tibesti includes the highest summit into the interior of Germany, the Rhine was permanently accepted of the Sahara, the volcanic massif of Kussi, which reaches 3,400 as the frontier, Tiberius was thus robbed in great part of the metres. The eruptive rocks have forced their way through a subfruit of his campaigns; but nothing can deprive him of the credit stratum of crystalline rocks covered by enormous thicknesses of of being a chief founder of the imperial system in the lands of horizontal Silurian grits, the scarp of which is quite brusque Europe. From the beginning of rr, when he celebrated a magnif- above the surrounding plains, which are some hundreds of metres icent triumph, to the time of. the emperor’s death in 14 Tiberius above sea-level. Great dry water-courses, deeply cut in all the remained almost entirely in Italy, and held rather the position faces of the massif, indicate a climate formerly more humid. The of joint emperor than that of expectant heir. daily variations of temperature reach 30° at times. The inhab-

PHYSICAL

TIBET

GEOGRAPHY]

L77

itants, at Most 10,000, are very poor. Tibesti had been partly ex- | of which may exceed that of the Himalaya, though the highest plored by Nachtigall in 1870, since when no European went there peaks (nearly 24.cooft.} are not so great as those of either the till 1915, when Col. Tilho wrote a very complete description of Himalaya or the Karakorum. This great series of mountains was it, and mapped it. The frontier was fixed by the Franco-English very little known until Sven Hedin explored there. convention of Sept. 8, r919. See S, Tilho, Exploration en Afrique centrale

(La Géographie,

C. Löfler,

francaise,

xxi. 1916-17); id. Carte de Tibesti (La Géographie, xxxvi., 1921); La paci cation

D. A. A. Rottier,

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Tibesti

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1916);

Etude sur le Tibesti (Bulletin du Comité études

historiques et scientifiques de l'Afrique occidentale

South of the trans-Himalaya lie the deep valley lines of the Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra, so this range forms the watershed between an area of internal drainage to the north and a

region of the sources of great rivers to the south; it is note-

française, 1922),

TIBET or THIBET, a country of Central Asia. It is the

highest country in the world, comprising table-lands, averaging about 16,oooft. above the sea, the valleys being at 12.000 to 17,400ft., the peaks at 20,000 to 24.600ft., and the passes at 16,000 to 19,000 feet. It is bounded on the north by Sinkiang, on the north-east by Kuku-nor (Koko-nor, g.v.}, on the east by Chwanben (or Chamben or Chwampien or Kham), on the west by Kashmir and Ladakh, and on the south by India, Nepal and Bhutan. The indefinite position of Chwanben (Chwampien) and Kuku-nor, and the doubtful limits between Tibet and Sinkiang prevent any calculation of the area of Tibet; its population is probably less than 3,000,000. Origin of Name.—The Tibetans call their country Bod, which

word in colloquial pronunciation is aspirated into Bhéd or Bhét,

and in the modern Lhasa dialect is curtailed into Bhé. Hence the country is known to Indians as Bhdt, and the inhabitants as Bhot-ias, This territory came to be known to Europeans as “Tibet,” evidently because the great plateau, with its uplands bordering the frontiers of China, Mongolia and Kashmir, through which travellers communicated with this country, is called by the natives T0-bhot (written stod-bod) or “High Bod” or “Tibet.”

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worthy that the three great rivers mentioned make their way through the Himalaya to the south, and many feeders of the Physical Geography.—Almost all the country from the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Indus have also penetrated into the south of the Takla-makan desert to the Himalaya was formerly Himalaya. Between Bunji, in Gilgit, and the Darel district the included under the name of Tibet in general usage. The Kuenlun bed of the Indus is about 915 metres above sea-level, while the mts. were, under this scheme, the northern mountains of Tibet; crests on either side of the gorge rise to 6,000 metres, or 20,000 they are in any case the oldest of the great mountain-systems of feet. The Brahmaputra way through is as striking, for the river the Tibetan highland. Their rocks are mostly Lower Palaeozoic reaches down to the ro,cooft. contour only as it begins to work and highly metamorphosed, while Mesozoic deposits occur only as around the base of Nameha Batwa, 25,445ft. high. land sediments in the valleys of the chain; this part and the region The long line of the Upper Indus and Upper Brahmaputra is to the north and north-east have thus apparently been Jand since the most marked feature of southern Tibet, and the Upper Sutlej Triassic times. To the south of the Kuenlun, Mesozoic deposits follows a closely related line between them. Some tributaries of become more important, and suggest that the broad zone be- the Brahmaputra join the main river in such a way as to tween that chain and the Deccan (part of the ancient Gondwana- suggest that it once flowed westwards, and that its present course land) was then largely under water at times, though during the is a result of capture. Near the source of the Sutlej are the two Upper Jurassic phase land conditions prevailed over wide areas. sacred lakes, Manasarowar and Rakas-tal, which communicate In the Cretaceous epoch began the great upfolding of the by a channel of water after heavy rain. Himalayan region, which probably reached its maximum activity The snow line is usually, but not quite always, higher on the in the Eocene age. Parts of this folding seem to have been north than in the south, because of the much heavier precipitadirected southward, as is indicated in the Garwhal thrust-plane, tion on the south; on this latter side it is said to run near the 5,000 but the story is highly complex and there is much penetration of metre (16,40o0ft.) contour. Near Leh it is at 5,300-5,800 metres, young volcanic rocks, while geysers and hot springs tell the same and in the Karakorum at 5,600-5,900 metres. The glaciers tale. In the uprise of the younger mountains not only did great formerly reached down to 3,300-3,600 metres in the Spiti region, fault-lines appear in the south and east of the Tibetan highland, and to 2,100 metres in the Upper Indus region. It is thus highly but also the Kuenlun was much broken, and the old Tarim block probable that during the maximal ice phases the whole of the to the north of it sank. Jn several parts of its area the Kuenlun great highland was glaciated, with no doubt some lines of crest attains a height of 7,coo metres, while, in the west, the peak projecting above the ice-sheets. The Pleistocene deposits are Mustagh (Muztagh or Ks) attains 7,282 metres (23,890 ft.), enormously thick in many places, an estimate of 3,cooft. having and is, perhaps, the highest point in the chain, though it has been been made for this in the upper Sutlej valley. claimed that there are within it heights of nearly 8,000 metres. A remarkable economic feature is the almost universal disBetween the western Kuenlun and the Himalaya is the great tribution of gold through Tibet. The gold-digging is referred to dissected highland of the Karakorum. The heights attained in the in somewhat mythical terms by Herodotus. Every river which Karakorum are very great, several summits attaining about 8,000 rises in Tibet washes down sands impregnated with gold, and it metres, while K2 is 8,610 metres or 28,248 ft. high. has been proved that this gold is not the product of intervening On the general Tibetan highland the oldest formation exposed strata, but must have existed primarily in crystalline rocks of is the Upper Jurassic, betraying land conditions followed in the the main axes of upheaval. In western Tibet the gold mines of next phase by submersion. The highland seems to pass into the Jalung have been worked since 1875. mountain-systems of its periphery and to have a general height Iron is found in eastern Tibet in the form of pyrites, and is of 15,000—16,000ft,; the highest point known in this region Js rudely smelted locally. Salt, soda, potash and borax exist in about 23,600 feet. There are many fault-lines, thrust lines and abundance in the western lake regions (Chang-t’ang). hot springs. This plateau of inland drainage, characterized by Climate.—Tibet lies so high that its climatic relatiens are lakes, mostly salt, and hot springs, is called Chang-t’ang. very peculiar. The Himalaya captures most of the rainfall of The southern rim of the general highland just described is the the summer monsoon, but a little gets through the passes and is trans-Himalaya or Hedin range of mountains, the average height captured by the trans-Himalaya, beyond which the climate is

178

TIBET

extremely dry and we are in the region of internal drainage. In July the Tarim

basin

has average

temperatures

varying

from 68° to as high as go° F. in different places. On the Tibetan highland figures are lower and are correlated with elevation; thus, at an elevation of 3,000 metres the temperature in July in north Tibet is known for one or two stations and is about 59°, for a station at 4,000 metres it is less than 50°, and for the general area of Chang-t’ang, with a height of 5,000 metres, it is probably about 40°, or even less. But the daily variations are extreme. There is more snow in the winter, towards the west, and more rain, in the summer, towards the south-east. The total fall of rain and snow over most of Tibet, except the south-east and patches of the trans-Himalaya, is about 8in. per annum. Vegetation.—The severe conditions of Chang-t’ang limit its plants to some high-steppe grasses in the valleys, with a few bushes here and there up to the 15,o0oft. contour. Towards

the western Kuenlun, on the one hand, and towards the Chinese border on the other, there is more woodland. Prjevalsky, the pioneer collector, and Thistleton-Dyer class the flora as ArcticAlpine and ancient, with many endemic species. It is chiefly composed of immigrants from the Himalaya and Mongolia. The river valleys between the Himalaya and trans-Himalaya, are warmer, and peaches, apricots, apples, plums, grapes, watermelons, and even pomegranates are raised, while trees include plane, poplar, maple, walnut, oak, cypress and a variety of conifers, Barley and buckwheat are the chief cereals. Animals.—Herds of yak, wild ass (kiang) musk deer, Tibetan antelope (Pantholops), wild sheep (bkaral of the Himalayas) and wild goats roam the high wastes, while bears, leopards, wolves, foxes, marmots,

squirrels, monkeys,

cats and dogs also

occur. The sloth-bear (Aeluropus) and the so-called unicornantelope (Budorcas) are Indo-Malayan forms that reach up into Tibet. Several water-fowl breed in Tibet, notably the bar-headed goose (Anser indicus) and towards the eastern borders there occur several rare and handsome varieties of pheasant. Population and Economic Life.—The people of Tibet, like its plants, must be considered as post-glacial immigrants, Tibet having apparently been an ice desert during the phases of great extension of the ice-sheets. Indeed, it is doubtful whether mankind could spread up into these wastes until long after the last ice-maximum had passed away. This helps to interpret the further fact that the majority of the inhabitants is related in physical type to the peoples of the steppes and deserts farther to the north. The Tibetans have high power of resistance to cold and hunger if they can obtain buttered tea, which they drink at frequent intervals. The country can support only a small population, and estimates are mostly below 3,000,000, a large number of these being celibates in monasteries. (See LAMAISM.) Polyandry is practised to a certain extent, the brothers in a family, in such a case, having a wife in common. The herdsmen, tent-dwellers, among them are usually called Drok-pa, and their tents are of yak’s hair, with a low wall of dung or stones around the tentbase. The tents are moved at intervals, and once a year the herdsmen make their way down- S hill to market, mostly at Lhasa. F Their food is mainly composed of p products of yak’s milk. The peas- f ant-cultivator inhabits chiefly the valleys of the south and south- OF THE THREE BROTHERS, 14,700 east, and is mostly tied to the FT. ABOVE SEA-LEVEL soil, partly, no doubt, because men are so scarce. The crop rotation may give the sequence: barley, fallow, barley, peas, wheat, and the plough is drawn by oxen or yaks. In addition to herding and agriculture a certain amount of wool-spinning, weaving and knitting is fairly widely-distributed in Tibet, but the immense importance of religious matters in this country makes the production of images and cult-objects a more important matter. Tibet is so difficult a country that the steppe-conquerors of various periods have usually avoided it completely, and it has

[GOVERNMENT

practical autonomy, in spite of varying relations, chiefly diplomatic, with China, and to some extent with Britain, through India, and even at times with Russia. Its central position and the longitudinal valleys of the Brahmaputra (Sanpo), the Sutlej and the Indus—the passes from the last across into the Tarim basin—-and the communications via the valleys of the two last and other Himalayan streams with Kashmir and India, have made Tibet of importance in the caravan trade across Asia. Batung (Ba’an-fu) and Chamdo in Kham (Chwanben) are among the stations on the ways up from China, the former connecting more especially with Szechuan and Yunnan, the latter with Szechuan, Kansu and Mongolia. To the west, in Tibet proper, the valley between the Himalaya and the trans-Himalaya provides the main line of communication, and portions of the Brahmaputra are navigable. Lhasa is the chief station. From Lhasa it is possible to go south, via Gyantse, to the passes between high peaks that lead to Sikkim and India. Ya-tung in the Chumbi valley, was created a mart for Indo-Tibetan trade by the regulations appended (1893) to the Sikkim-Tibet convention of r8go, but it was not successful, and in 1904 an additional mart was fixed at Gyantse. Westward from Lhasa the trade route goes to Shigatse and on past the sacred lakes, Manasarowar and Rakas-tal, reaching the Indus system near Gartok, another mart

for Indo-Tibetan trade fixed by the 1904 convention.

Gartok

has ways leading through the Himalaya south to Almora, and a less important one west to Simla; it stands more than 14,000ft. above sea-level. From Gartok the trade route goes on down the Indus to the mart at Leh, the capital of Ladakh, whence there are routes to Kashmir and to the Tarim basin. The main route

through Tibet here described is known as the Janglam. The high wilderness of the Chang-t’ang is of less importance for transit purposes, but a route from Lhasa goes north via Nag-chu-ka, farther east, to Urga, in Mongolia. Camels are left at Nag-chu-ka on the way to Lhasa, and the caravans assemble twice a year at Kuku-nor (Jake), reaching Lhasa in August and in January. Mules are much used, as also are yaks. Musk, wool and woollen materials, furs, rhubarb, yak’s tails, cult-objects, medicinal herbs,

etc., are carried especially to China, and tea, rice, porcelain, horses, cereals, silks are imported thence. The trade with India is mainly an exchange of Tibetan wool for manufactured goods. Postal transport may, with good fortune, cover as much as 75m. a day, and there is a telegraph line from Lhasa to Gyantse. Government.—The

ruler is the Dalai Lama, who lives in a

palace near Lhasa and is nominally supreme both in civil and in religious affairs. He is supposed to be chosen by the heads of the three chief Buddhist monasteries of Lhasa (Ganden, Sera and Drepung) with the help of the State oracle at Lhasa and the oracle at Sam-ye. The second lama of the Tibetan Church is the head of the monastery of Tashi-Lhiinpo, near Shigatse, and this Tashi Lama is held by some Tibetans to have a spiritual authority

higher than that of the Dalai Lama. The renown of Tashi-lhiinpo is chiefly a matter of the last three centuries, and at various times it has sought to undermine

the power of the Dalai Lama,

who keeps agents to watch matters at Shigatse. Until roz2, the amban, or representative of China, had a share in government and in the selection of a Dalai Lama, but in that year the amban, whose power had long been waning, was expelled. The Dalai Lama has a chief secretary who may have great power; he is supposed to act with a greater and a lesser council and a national assembly,

and these bodies have an official who may. be called a prime minister, but the Dalai Lama and his secretary have been known to set aside the authority of prime minister and council. A. lord chamberlain is the head of the country’s ecclesiastical officials, under the Dalai Lama. There is naturally a good deal of local autonomy in outlying areas of a region with such difficulties of communication, but the personal authority and prestige of the Dalai Lama have often been very marked. It arises partly from the fact that the occupiers of this great position have on several occasions proved themselves to be strong-minded men, and partly from the fact that the supreme head is held to be one who has won the right to Nirvana but has consented to rebirth for the sake of his fellow men. As such he is venerated, not only in

ETHNOLOGY]

TIBET

Tibet, but, in varying degrees wherever, in Asia, Buddhist ideas have penetrated and maintained themselves. BiptiocrapHy.—H. G. W. Woodhead and H. T. M. Bell, China

179

is somewhat small but broad, the hand coarse. The waist is much less pronounced than among many nations, as is quickly recognized by Europeans and Americans who don Tibetan atFear Book (TVientsin, 1925); British Government Papers on Tibet, cd. tire. The colour of the skin is a light brown, sometimes so light 1,920 (1904), cd. 20 (1904), cd. 2,370 (1905); Handbooks prepared by the Historical Section of the Foreign Office (1918-20), No. 70; as to show ruddy cheeks in children, though where exposed to E. R. Huc, Travels in Tartary Tibet and China (1857) trans. into the weather it becomes dark brown. English; Geographical Journal (London)—many articles, notably by Dwellings.—The landed proprietors live in houses, solidly F. K. Ward, Sir F. Younghusband, W. H. Workman, M. A. Stein, built around a rectangular courtyard. On three sides of this T. G. Longstaff; Sven Hedin, Central Asia and Tibet, 2 vols. (1903) ; courtyard are stables and storehouses; on the fourth, opposite G. Sandberg, The Exploration of Tibet (1904); Sven Hedin, Transthe gate, is the mansion itself, one or two storeys higher than the Himalaya, 3 vols. (1913) and Southern Tibet, 4 vols. (Stockholm, 1918); L. A. Waddell, Lhasa and its Mysteries (1906) ; Sir F. Youngother three sides, and sometimes as much as five storeys in husband, India and Tibet (1910); Sir Aurel Stein, Innermost Asia height. The walls are constructed of flat stones bound together (4 vols., 1928); A. Legendre, Le Massif Sino-Tibetain (1916); R. with mud. In the smaller buildings, and especially in the upper Farrer, On the Eaves of the World, 2 vols. (1917); E. Teichman, layers, the stones are replaced by sun-dried bricks. The roof is Travels in Eastern Tibet (1922); E. Trinkler, Tibet, Mitt. Geogr. flat, and is formed like the earth floor, but is not polished. WinGesellsch. in München, bd. 1§ (Miinchen, 1922) gives a good and comprehensive bibliography; J. W. and C. J. Gregory, To the Alps of dows are plentiful, but glass is rare. Its place is taken by waxChinese Tibet (1923); Spedizione Italiana di Filippi nell’ Himalaia, cloth or other similar material, strong wooden shutters protecting Caracorum e Turchestan cinese (1913-14); serie 2 Resultati Geologici e Geografici (Dainelli, G.) (1925, et seg.); Sir Charles Bell, Tibet, this from rough usage. The houses of the peasants are, as a rule, solid and substantial. Here, too, the walls are of stone or Past and Present (1928) and The People of Tibet (1928). sun-dried bricks, though occasionally of clods of earth. Flat (H. J. F.) roofs of beaten earth are the rule throughout the interior of the ETHNOLOGY country, but in the Chumbi valley and other rainy districts they I. GENERAL are laid on a gentle slope. Where pine trees grow, the roofs are The Mongolian plateau is the origin of a considerable part of constructed of pine shingles, kept in position by heavy stones. the population, in which other elements have been discovered, The shepherds and herdsmen dwell in tents of yak-hair. These including a type with fairly long heads, wavy, even curly hair, as tents are rectangular in shape, often some r2ft. in length, but well as lightish hair. sometimes up to 50 feet. An aperture, about two feet in width The people may be roughly divided into four main classes, along the middle of the roof, lets out the smoke. namely, the nobility, the traders, the peasants, and the herdsmen. Food and Drink.—The staple diet of the ordinary Tibetan is Many of the nobility reside in Lhasa. They have also their coun- yak’s meat, mutton, barley flour, cheese and tea. The rich, and try residences scattered over the country. Next in the social those who dwell in the lower altitudes, also eat fruit and vegescale come the traders. These are usually laymen, though many tables in small quantities. The climate is so cold that Tibetans also among the monks trade on behalf of their monasteries. The are compelled to eat meat, although as Buddhists they should traders move about into all parts of the country, spending per- abstain from doing so, and the production of grain, vegetables or haps a portion of the year in the north to obtain salt from the fruit at great altitudes is very difficult. Rice cannot be grown lakes, in the east, trading in tea with China, and in the south in the cold uplands, and is thus a luxury for the wealthy only. selling wool, yak-tails, hides, etc., in India, and bringing thence The chief Tibetan grain food is barley. cotton goods and the varied utilities of western civilization. The main beverage is tea. Brick tea from China is used, and There is no strong middle-class in Tibet. The peasant farms is boiled up in water flavoured with soda. When thoroughly generally on a small scale. He works in the fields of the local boiled, the mixture is taken out with a ladle and poured through nobleman, monastery or other landlord, as a strainer into a churn. Butter and salt are added and the whole well as tending his own small plot of land. churned until it is well mixed. It looks then like café au lait. The The herdsmen seek pastures for their consumption of this beverage among Tibetans is enormous, for flocks mainly in the uplands, at altitudes pr they drink on an average from 30 to 50 cups of tea a day. They eschew tea as known in Europe and America, finding it indigestible of over 14,o0ooft., and frequently move their camps to new ground. Among other F and lacking in nutriment. The other chief beverage is beer. It is brewed from barley, and being but mildly intoxicating, a good members of the social organization are the deal can be drunk with impunity. beggars and the brigands. Religion.—Religion occupies a predominant position in the Bodily Traits.—The males are short, } life of the Tibetan people. Their religion is the form of Budoften not more than sft. 5in. in height, ex- |. & dhism (see MaHayana and Lamatsm), which was introduced into cept in eastern Tibet, where sft. gin. is a p Tibet in the 7th century A.D. under King Song-tsen Gam-po. It general height; the females are appreci- » includes a widespread belief in reincarnation. An incarnation ably shorter. The head is mesaticephalic, | may be born into any family, however humble; for example, the verging on brachycephalic in the case of Dalai Lama, the religious and secular ruler of the whole country, many of the hereditary herdsmen; the hair has often reincarnated in the family of a peasant. Hermits are is black and somewhat wavy; the eyes found here and there throughout the land, in houses, in caves, in are usually of a clear brown, in some cases cliff-side dwellings. Oracles are in daily use, furnishing prophecies even hazel; the cheek-bones are high, the for the State and for the village, as well as for individuals. Pilgrims are ubiquitous. A traveller in Tibet or on the borderroot, in other cases prominent, even aqui- A TIBETAN NOMAD CHIEF line, though the nostrils are broad. The CARRYING A CHARM BOX land is sure to meet them on their way to holy temples, to snow mountains inhabited by spirits, to the foot-prints of departed teeth are strong but irregular; the ears, UNDFR HIS LEFT ARM with tolerably large lobes, stand out from the head. The mouth saints stamped on the rocks, and other sacred objects. Some will is broad, the lips not full, and, among the people of the lower cover every yard of the way with their prostrate bodies. Lying altitudes, decidedly thin. The beard is sparse, and is often on his face, the pilgrim makes a mark with his fingers a little plucked out with tweezers. Moustaches are worn occasionally. beyond his head. Rising, he brings his feet to this point, and The shoulders are broad, the arms round. The legs are moder- again, muttering a prayer, prostrates himself. Such a pilgrimage ately developed in the people of the central and more settled parts may well take two or three years. It would, perhaps, be safe to of the country. But the eastern Tibetans and the Bhutanese say that, judging by the amount of their time and their money branch of the Tibetan race, being all hardy denizens of steep and which they devote to religion, the Tibetans are one of the most lofty mountains, have not only well-developed legs but are in —if not the most—religious people in the world. A huge numgeneral physical build fine specimens of the human race. The foot ber, estimated by some at a seventh, by others as high as a

TIBET

180

fourth, of the entire male population, enters the priesthood. Great monasteries, often housing more than a thousand monks, are scattered over the countryside, as well as hermitages and smaller collections of priests. The priesthood is divided into two main divisions. There is the original establishment known as Nying-ma, dating from the sth century of the Christian era, when Buddhism first made real headway in Tibet. And there is the re-

formed sect, known as Ge-luk, which dates Į from the r4th century of the same era. The Nying-ma is divided into a number of sects, among whom the Ka-gyit have numerous adherents, especially in Bhutan. The different sects abstain from open dispute with each other, so that the religion is not torn by sectarian disputes, but presents a united front to the outside world. National Characteristics.—The Tibetans are a cheerful, pleasure-loving people. Their chief forms of recreation include gambling, horse-racing, picnics (held especially in the parks which surround such few large towns as there are) and theatrical entertainments. They are particularly fond of the last, which

[SOCIAL

ORGANIZATION

adoption among the high families of Lhasa. As a general rule the daughter succeeds in preference to a nephew. Throughout the greater part of Tibet there are families of noble stock. In the Tsang provinces are eight or nine who stand above the others. Eastern Tibet has its chiefs, styled Gyal-po, De-ba, etc. Ladakh has a remnant of the royal line, and Sikkim, till recently part of Tibet, has its ruler descended from an eastern Tibetan chief. The names of the leading Lhasa families are as follows:— Chang-lo-chen, Do-ring, Hor-kang, Lha-ding, Lha-lu, Nam-se-ling,

|

Pa-lha, Ptin-kang, Ra-ka-shar, Ram-pa, Sam-trup Po-trang, Sechung, Sha-ira, Sur-kang, Tom-pa, Trum-pa, Yap-shi Sar-pa, (i.e.,

|

“The New Patrimony”), the name by which the family of an existing Dalai Lama is known. When the latter dies, his family take another name. The family of Lka-gyal-ri does not belong to Lhasa. The Traders.—Tibetan society falls almost entirely into two classes, the landed gentry on the one side, and the peasantry and shepherds on the other. Such middle-class as there is, however, is provided by the traders. The chief articles of export are wool, yak-tails, hides, the soft underwool of the shawl-wool goat, borax, salt, musk and medicinal herbs. The chief imports are tea and cotton goods; and, in a smaller degree, woollen goods, hardware, corals, precious stones, tobacco, dried fruits, sugar, molasses and

|i į |

f A TIBETAN WOMAN WEARING NATIVE HEAD-DRESS

often form part of AND CHARM

BOX ON THE

their religious festivals. Another very THROAT marked characteristic is their insistence on ceremonial and etiquette. The form of address used towards a social superior, equal or inferior, the presentation of ceremonial scarves, and many other details of daily intercourse rest on rules which are observed by high and low. II. DETAILS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION The Nobles.—The nobility are a class apart. The Tibetan nobleman traces his descent to one of three sources. It may be that an ancestor was ennobled for good work done for the country. The founder of the Pa-lha family, for example, was a Bhutanese ex-priest of the 17th century, whose work in the service of the Lhasa Government was rewarded by a place on the supreme coun-

matches, needles, soap, etc. (See also Inpustry.) The trading instinct is deeply embedded in the Tibetan character. Nobles and monks alike engage in trade, as well as the ordinary class of professional traders. The large monasteries trade widely, and are able to do so because each has its administrative department. Even the robber tribes issue from their haunts and go to other districts to trade. Women often manage the shops and the general retail trade. Especially is this the case in Lhasa; men take charge of the commercial dealings which necessitate long journeys, and in any case in which the issue is a large one the decision as a rule rests with them, The wealthiest traders may be seen together with the poorest, exposing their goods for sale in the market-places.

The Peasants.—On plains and in valleys that lie below an

elevation of 14,c0o0ft. above sea-level there is much land that is fit for the plough. But, owing to the steadily decreasing popu-

cil and the gift of an estate near Gyantse containing 130 farms. Secondly, the family in which a Dalai Lama or a Tashi Lama takes

lation, largely a result of the overwhelming proportion of celibate monks, the problem of obtaining sufficient man-power to carry on the every-day duties of life is a very real one; and in no department Is it more acute than in that of the cultivation of the soil. Tibet does not lack land for cultivation, but she lacks the men to till it. This is emphasized by the fact that a peasant is not allowed to quit his home

re-birth, however lowly it may be, is ¿so facto ennobled and receives large estates from the Government. Some of the leading Lhasa nobles are descended from the brothers of previous Dalai Lamas. The third section of the aristocracy is the oldest and smallest of all. They trace their ancestry right back to the early monarchs who ruled Tibet before the roth century of the Christian era. The houses of Lha-gyal-ri and Ra-ka-shar both claim unbroken descent from these early rulers, who are known as the “Religious Kings.” Thus the heads of these two families are even

without first obtaining the landlord’s per-

now greeted by their tenants with the forms of obeisance that are accorded only to Lamas. The nobility of Tibet are wealthy by comparison with their fellow-subjects. For instance, on the Pa-lha estates there are at least 1,400 farms, as well as 13 grazing grounds, each of the latter supporting 15 to 20 families of graziers. The tenantry pay rent in service, grain and cash. Out of this the nobleman pays a considerable proportion to the Government, both in cash and in grain.

He also passes on to the- Government some of the service of his peasants, to provide transport animals, etc., for travellers armed with a governmental authorization for the same. In addition to taxes, the nobleman’s family is bound to supply one or two members to work as Government officials at nominal salaries. The laws of inheritance vary in different parts of the country. In central Tibet, when the father dies the sons usually remain in joint possession. When there are sons, daughters receive no portion of the land, but are given a small share when they marry. If, however, a nobleman dies leaving a daughter but no son, this daughter inherits the property: When she marries she adopts her

husband into her family. She does not take his name; he takes hers. She is entitled to the deciding voice m the management of the property. There have been innumerable instances of such

A TIBETAN Showing

NOBLEMAN

characteristic

cos-

tume and official ear-ring

mission, If he wishes to go away, he must ask for leave, or, as the Tibetan phrase runs, “petition for man-separation.” He must also pay a large sum if the request is allowed, but such permission is usually refused. There is a great gulf fixed between the peasant and his landlord. The former must use a different vocabulary when addressing the latter and bow low before him. But there is mutual fellowship between the two, and the tenantry usually

take a pride in the standing and traditions of the master, whom they surround and serve. The larger landed proprietors have, after feudal fashion, large staffs of servants, of whom many are employed during the winter, when the land is icebound, in spinning wool and weaving it into cloth. This is utilized in part for the servants’ clothes; the balance is sold to traders or to neighbours. Slavery is not common in Tibet, and where it occurs the slaves are often treated better than the paid servants or tenants. They are allowed to move about freely, and, when not at work, they

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TIBETAN l. A Tibetan sheep herder’s camp in the high hills of western Tibet. Tents are made of heavy woven rugs on account of the cold nights. 2. Pack caravan resting on one of the perilous trails crossing the Himalayan mountains. Sheep are largely used for pack animals on account of their sure-footedness. 3. A Yellow-Hat Lama reading scriptures to a group of followers. The Yellow Hat order was founded by Tsong Ka-pa in the 14th century. Members are forbidden to marry or drink wine. They have a very strict code of morals. 4. The Dalai Lama, religious and secular ruler of Tibet; religious

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VIEWS head of Mongols and of many Buddhists in China and Russia. 5. Tashi Lama, head of the monastery of Tashi-Lhunpo near Shigatse, equal to the Dalai Lama in spiritua! authority. 6. Lama dance. The performance Is built around Buddhist symbolism and enacted for the purpose of glorifying Tibetan Buddhism. Dancers are elaborately costumed. 7. Meal time in Tibet. Tea is made in an iron pot, then put in churn-like container, where butter and spices are added. Some of the Tibetans mix barley flour with it, making both food and drink

TIBET

HISTORY]

have only to attend aroll-call in the morning and in the evening. The theatrical troupes that tour Tibet are mainly recruited from

the peasants. When their tour is finished the actors return to their crops and their cattle. Dress.—The dress of both sexes and of all classes in Tibet may conveniently be described here. It consists of a very full gown

with a high collar and long sleeves. In the summer this is usually of the ordinary Tibetan cloth among the peasantry, and of silk among the wealthier classes. The winter| gown is sometimes of sheepskin, sometimes of cloth lined with lambskin or wadded cotton. Tied tightly round the waist with a woollen or cotton band, it is puffed out above, and in the capacious pocket thus formed are carried drinking cups and other odds and ends. For laymen

with a slit behind the knee, and is tied with Cirsviun wissionanr sontery gay-coloured woollen garters 3ft. or 4ft. A TIBETAN

WOMAN

IN

EVERYDAY COSTUME

Men’s hats are of various kinds, but are usually fur-trimmed in winter. The women of Tibet, especially those who rank among the upper classes, make no small display of dress and ornaments. The chief ornament is the head-dress; those of the upper classes are bedecked with pearls, turquoises and corals on a wooden frame. Men, and particularly shepherds and herdsmen, adorn their hair with rings of silver and ivory. It is only in a few districts that men wear necklaces. Ear-rings are very common, and among the official classes universal. The official ear-ring is of a standard pattern. Long and narrow, it hangs from a gold ring with a pearl in the middle attached to the left ear. For the rest it is a string of turquoises, except that an inflexible rule requires the elongated lower end to be not a true turquoise, but an imitation. In the right ear a rough turquoise is worn, and this by all classes, official and unofficial, rich and poor.

Shepherds and Herdsmen.—tThe shepherd and grazier class are hardy and independent. Those in the uplands (and many shepherds live at high altitudes) descend to lower levels once a year to sell their products and buy barley, wheat, tea, turnips and woollen cloth, such necessities as cannot be obtained away from cultivated regions. The shepherd, like the cultivator, is frequently in the employ of, or under contract to, one of the nobility or landed gentry. The Pa-lha household, for instance, owns some 20,000 sheep altogether, which are grazed in scattered grazing grounds within 50m. of Gyantse. The butter of sheep and goats is consumed by poor people only. The gentry and the richer people generally eat only the butter from the dri, or female yak, and the cross-breeds between the yak and the ordinary cattle. The women take their share of the work. In addition to the milking and buttermaking, they grind the barley and perform the varied duties round the tents. The children help them in this, some going out with the sheep and goats, but not much with the yaks till they are 12 or 13 years old.

The Women.—The position of women in Tibet deserves special mention. Compared with those of other eastern races, they hold, and have always held, a remarkably high status. In olden days when the country was split up into a number of principalities, each ruled by its own chief, the ruler was occasionally a woman.

Even

in modern

days, chiefs, ministers

hand, and merely with a tassel) the last and lowest form is the one used for all women, excepting only one. This solitary exception is Dor-je Pa-mo, the sole female incarnation in Tibet. She is one of the highest of all the incarnations, and is the head of a monastary (not a nunnery) at Sam-ding on the Yam-dro lake. Tibetan women are physically strong. They perform heavy manual tasks. When not tanned by exposure to the elements, they are often fair, and those of the upper classes take great care of their complexions. Throughout Tibet it is a general custom for women to smear caoutchouc on their faces. Rough pads of felt which have been soaked in a red colouring matter are used. In addition to the head-dress, which has been described above, numerous ornaments are worn, rings, ear-rings, necklaces and girdles. The women lay charm boxes on the chest immediately below the throat. These usually contain a small image of a deity and a talisman specially written for the wearer by a Lama. Marriage.—Although the Tibetan woman enjoys a great measure of independence, she usually has little or no share in the choice of her husband. A son is consulted by his father as to the bride proposed for him, but the parents consult a daughter hardly at all. The preliminaries attaching to a wedding, and the wedding ceremony, vary somewhat according to the district and the rank of the bride and bridegroom. The horoscopes of the pair must agree, and an auspicious day be fixed for the exchange of presents to take place as well as for the actual ceremony. The

the robe reaches to the knee, for priests and women to the ankle. In central Tibet, and in parts of eastern Tibet, the women wear aprons, woven in varied colours, and often so broad that they nearly meet at the back. Shirts are of cotton or silk; trousers differ greatly in shape from the European pattern, and are of silk or cloth. The boot is of cloth, felt or leather, and of various colours. It rises to the knee, long.

181

and

officials

of all

grades consult their wives in their official work. In religious doings, however, the position of women is lower. For instance, of the three forms of blessing accorded by the Dalai Lama to different suppliants (touching the head with both his hands, with one

ceremony itself is attended by prayers, blessings, the exchange of ceremonial scarves, and feasting. The priests of the unreformed, i.€¢., Red Hat, sect are permitted to marry. A Lama’s wife, however, is not known by the same designation as the wife of a layman, but as “proprietress.” Thus is the idea conveyed that the Lama and his belongings are in her charge, so that he is free to devote himself to religion. Monogamy, polygamy and polyandry are all common in Tibet, especially the first. Polygamy is practised among those whose wealth suffices to support more than one wife. Polyandry is found among the herdsmen and the farmers. Where it holds, the husbands are brothers. Having married one of the brothers in a family the wife marries also all the other brothers who are younger, but not any that are older than he. BrBstioGRAPHy.—W. W. Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas (1891) ; Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet (1895); L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism (1895) ; Ekai Kawaguchi, Three Years in Tibet (1909) ; G. A. Combe, A Tibetan on Tibet (1925) ; Sir Charles Bell, The People of Tibet (1928, bibl.).

HISTORY Legendary.—Prior to the seventh century of the Christian era, Tibetan history is wrapt in myth and legend, helped out from time to time by sidelights from contemporary Chinese history. According to native tradition the Tibetan race was descended from a monkey into whose body had entered the Compassionate Spirit, known as Chen-re-si in Tibet and Avalokitesvara in India. This spirit, with a she-devil, produced the first Tibetan offspring. The early legendary kings of this country commence with Nya-tri Tsen-po, said to have been the fifth son of the indian King Prasenajit of Kosala. He fled north of the Himalaya into Tibet, where he was elected king by the twelve chiefs of the tribes of southern and central Tibet. He took up his residence in the Yar-lung country south of Lhasa. The first king and his six

successors are known as the seven celestial tz; the next series consists of six kings known as the earthly řek; and they are followed by eight terrestrial dé. This threefold succession is apparently an imitation of the ancient legend of heavenly, earthly and human rulers, which was carried into Persia and China, and from the latter country into Japan and Tibet. The kings were followed by four rulers simply called tsen, łe., “mighty.” The king next in order was Lha-to To-ri Nyan-tsen. It was during his reign that the first Buddhist objects are reputed to have reached Tibet, probably from Nepal. They are said to have fallen from heaven into his palace during his eightieth year. The fourth of his successors was Nam-ri Song-tsen, who died in 630. During

his reign the Tibetans obtained their first knowledge of arithmetic and medicine from China; the prosperity and pastoral wealth of

182

TIBET

[HISTORY

the country were so great that “the king built his palace with cement moistened with the milk of the cow and the yak.” The Early Kings.—With his illustrious son Song-tsen Gam-po the real Tibetan history commences. He came to the throne when but thirteen years old, and reigned for many years. He pushed

with their descendants, made themselves masters of different districts. Thus the process of decentralization spread. The kingdom was split up among a number of chieftains (some of them women), who built forts on hills and ridges overlooking their subjects on the plains below. And thus came into use the Tibetan saying :—

forward the Buddhist influence in Tibet, and introduced an alphabet, basing it mainly on the Indian alphabet then used in Kashmir. As a conqueror he extended his sway from the still unsubdued Kiang tribes of the north to Ladak in the west, and in the south he carried his power through Nepal to the Indian side of the Himalaya. How far southward this dominion at first extended is not known; but in 703 Nepal and the country of the Brahmans rebelled, and the Tibetan king, the third successor of Song-tsen Gam-po, was killed while attempting to restore his power. It is noteworthy that nothing is said of this Tibetan rule in India, except in the Chinese annals, where it is mentioned until the end of the monarchy in the roth century, as extending over Bengal to the sea—the Bay of Bengal being called the Tibetan Sea. Mang-song Mang-tsen, the second son and successor of Songtsen Gam-po, continuing the conquests of his father, subdued the Tatars around the Koko Nor (Nor is Mongol for Lake) in 663, and attacked the Chinese. After some adverse fortune the latter took their revenge and penetrated as far as Lhasa, where they burnt the royal palace. Tsuk-tsen, the grandson of Mang-song and second in succession from him, promoted the spread of Buddhism. Tsuk-tsen married a Chinese princess who gave birth

The fort on the hill, The fields on the plain.

in 730 to Ti-song De-tsen, one of the three most illustrious monarchs of his country, partly on account of his conquests and partly because of the strenuous efforts he made in favour of

Buddhism during his reign of forty-six years (743-789). His son and successor Mu-ni Tsen-po enacted that there should be no distinction between humble and great. After the third experiment the king’s mother poisoned her son. Nothing of importance occurred during the following reigns, until that of Rai-pa-chen, who won glory by his care for the translations of the Buddhist scriptures which he caused to be completed, and rewritten more accurately. In this reign a severe struggle took place with China, peace being concluded in 821. The line of kings ending with Ral-pa-chen is known as the “‘Religious Kings’? (Choé-gyal), because they promoted Buddhism and were believed to be Incarnations of Chen-re-si, the patron deity of Tibet. And the greatest of them were Song-tsen Gam-po, Tisong De-tsen, and Ral-pa-chen. The proselytizing zeal of King Ral-pa-chen was too vigorous for many of his people. When forty-eight years of age (A.D. 838) he was assassinated at the instigation of his own brother Langdar-ma, who was at the head of the anti-Buddhist party. And now, aS the chroniclers tell us, “The religious law broke like a rotten rope. The peace of Tibet became as a lamp without oil. Evil arose like a storm; the good intentions were forgotten as a dream.” Lang-dar-ma was himself assassinated after a reign of only three years by a priest of the persecuted religion, who gained admittance to the King’s presence under the pretext of showing him a new dance. The dance is represented in Tibetan religious plays to this day, in memory of this priestly retribution. The Kingdom Divided.— Meanwhile, the kingdom was divided into eastern and western between Lang-dar-ma’s two sons, thé nation was disunited, and its glory among foreign nations waned. In 928 no one could be found at the Court of China who could read a Tibetan letter, which had been brought there by four priests. The second western king, Pal Kor Tsen, left two sons, the

latter of whom, Kyi-dé Nyi-ma-gén, went to Nga-ri, of which he made himself master and founded the capital, Pu-rang. He left three sons, of whom the eldest declared himself king of Mangyul, the second seized Pu-rang, and the youngest Dé-tsuk-gén, became king of the province of Shang-shung. The revival of Buddhism began with the two sons of the lastnamed, the elder of whom became a monk. The younger, Kor-ré, inherited his father’s throne, and was followed in his authority by twenty successors. Ta-shi Tsek-pa, the elder of Pal Kor Tsen’s sons, had three sons, Pal-dé, O-dé and Kyi-dé, each of whom

The fort protected the villagers and the villagers fed the fort. Indian Religious Teachers.—Meanwhile, Buddhism was slowly reviving. In A.D. 1013, the Indian pundit Dharmapala came to Tibet with several of his disciples. In 1042, a still greater came, Atisha, who left his monastery, Vikrama Sila, when 59 years of age, and came to Tibet, where he died fourteen years later. He founded the Kar-ma-pa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, and wrote a number of works. He translated many other works, relating principally to Tantrik theories and practices. Atisha is known in Tibet as “the Precious Lord” (Cho-wo Rim-po-ché), Mongol and Chinese Influence.—The priests steadily increased their power during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. One of the chief among them was the high priest of the large monastery of Sa-kya, south-west of Shi-ga-tse in central Tibet. The grandson of the great Mongol conqueror, Jenghiz, invited the prelate of Sa-kya, known as the Sa-kya Pandita, to his court (1247). Five years later Kublai Khan, who had conquered the east of Tibet, and ascended the throne of China, invited to his court the Pandita’s nephew, Pak-pa Gyal-tsen. He remained twelve years with the emperor, and at his request framed for the Mongol language an alphabet imitated from the Tibetan, which, however, did not prove satisfactory, and disappeared after eightyfive years without having been very largely used. In return for his services, Kublai invested Pak-pa with sovereign powers over (1) Tibet proper, comprising the thirteen districts of Ü and Tsang, (2) south-eastern Tibet (Kam) and (3) Am-do, a province in north-eastern Tibet. From this time the Sa-kya-pa Lamas became the rulers of Tibet, and remained so, at least nominally, under 21 successive Lamas during seventy years (1270-1340). When the power of Sa-kya began to wane, that of the rival monasteries of Dri-kung, Pak-dup and Tsal increased largely. It was at this troubled epoch that Chang-chup Gyal-tsen, better known as Pak-mo-du from the name of his native town, appeared

on the scene. He subdued Tibet proper and eastern Tibet, and established a dynasty which furnished twelve rulers in succession, lasting till 1635, when the king of the Tsang province brought it to an end. The latter was subdued a few years later by Gushi Khan, the chief of the Eleut Mongols. This dynasty of Pak-modu, known also as the Si-tya dynasty, brought prosperity. Rise of the Yellow Hats.—An admixture of Buddhism and Animism, and the lax priestly discipline that resulted, failed to satisfy the minds of its more ardent followers. Reform came from within. In A.p. 1358 there was born in Am-do one who was destined to play a large part in the national life of Tibet. He was known as Tsong Ka-pa, “The Man from the Land of Onions.” His disciples, known as the Yellow Hats and thus distinguished from the Red Hats of the existing priesthood, were forbidden to marry or drink wine, and a stricter code of morals was instituted. He founded the large monasteries at Gan-den and Se-ra, which with Dre-pung are the three strongest religious bodies in Tibet. Tsong Ka-pa’s successor was Gan-den Trup-pa, who founded the great monastery of Tashi-Lhiinpo, which in the seventeenth century became the residence of a Grand Lama—known to Europeans and Americans as the Tashi Lama—the second Grand Lama of the Yellow Church. Gan-den Trup-pa died in 1474, but his spirit was believed to have entered the body of a baby boy born two years later. This child became his successor, and thus there came into force the system of priestly incarnation. There are nowadays some seven or eight hundred incarnate Lamas. The second incarnation, and thus the third in the list, was Sönam Gya-tso, who spread the faith through Mongolia, From a

Mongol chieftain he received the title of Dalai Lama Vajradhara, “The All-embracing Lama, the Holder of the Thunderbolt.” And thus the title, Dalai Lama, came into use, and continues to-day.

183

TIBET

HISTORY] THE

RULE

OF THE

DALAI

LAMAS

The fifth was Lob-sang Gya-tso, who in his contest with the older Church, received help from the Eleut Mongols to such good effect that he was established in 1641 as the Ruler over the whole of Tibet. The Potala Palace, emblem of sovereignty, had been built by the great king, Song-tsen Gam-po, but destroyed during subse- | quent wars. The fifth Dalai Lama’s chief Minister built the great stone palace on a larger scale, which with but few additions, stands to this day. It is nine hundred feet in length, and higher than St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, but harmonious in line and colour. The fifth Dalai Lama visited the Emperor of China at Peking. He was received as an independent sovereign, for the Lama’s position, backed by Mongol support, and his religious authority

among both Mongols and Manchus ensured for him the highest treatment at the hands of the Manchu Emperor and Court. It was during the early life of this Priest King that the first European entered Tibet. His name was Antonio de Andrada, a native of Portugal. He did not reach Lhasa or Shigatse. The first Europeans to enter Lhasa were two Jesuit fathers, Grueber, an Austrian and D’Orville, a Belgian, who left Peking in 1661, travelled by the Koko Nor to Lhasa, stayed there a month, and then came to Nepal. In Lhasa they witnessed the rule of the fifth Dalai Lama, whom Grueber styles “the devilish God-the-Father who puts to death such as refuse to adore him.” But among Tibetans the fifth is accounted as the greatest of all their Dalai Lamas. The present day administration of Tibet dates in large measure from his reign, and stories are told not only of his ability but also of his benevolence. The Great Fifth, as he is generally known, died in 1680, but Sang-gye Gya-tso was unwilling to desist from his task. He concealed the death and ruled in his master’s name. In due course, however, a successor, who had received the name of Tsang-yang Gya-tso, succeeded to the headship of Tibet. The new Dalai was entirely unorthodox. He wrote light verse too which remains popular to this day among Tibetans. But his own contemporaries did not view Tsang-yang Gya-tso in that light. Many Tibetans, Mongols and Chinese doubted whether he could be a real incarnation of the divine spirit of Chen-re-si which dwelt in all true Dalai Lamas. The Chinese and Mongols removed him from Lhasa on the understanding that he was to visit Peking and put him to death at Nag-chu-ka, ten days’ journey north of Lhasa. Dissensions among the people followed, and the Chinese were able to increase their hold over Tibet, always to China a matter of prime Importance by reason of the religious authority exercised by the Dalai Lama in Tibet, Mongolia and Manchuria. During the early years of the eighteenth century the Chinese established a representative known as Amban, and later on two such representatives, in Lhasa. These intervened in Tibetan administration. In 1750, the Ambans killed the Tibetan Regent. The people in their turn massacred the Chinese in Lhasa. The Emperor Chien-lung dispatched an army, restored Chinese authority, and strengthened the power of the Ambans. But Lhasa is so far from the Chinese frontier that it was an uphill fight. Gurkha Invasion.—TIn 1788 the Gurkhas, who had recently gained the ascendancy throughout Nepal, occupied some Tibetan districts near the Nepal frontier. Three years later they captured Shi-ga-tse. The Chinese Government, now thoroughly aroused, dispatched an army, composed partly of Chinese and partly of Tibetans, under Chinese leadership. This army marched through Tibet in the arctic cold of winter, defeated the Gurkhas decisively during the spring of 1792, and dictated terms of peace within a short distance of Katmandu, the Gurkha capital. Suspecting also

that the British, who were by then established in India, had helped the Gurkhas, the Chinese closed Tibet as far as possible to

foreign influence. It was decreed that all foreign questions should be dealt with by the Ambans, not by the Tibetan Government. In 1841, a force of 5,000 Dogras, mountaineers from Kashmir,

invaded western Tibet, but were defeated by the Tibetans and almost exterminated.

A battle was fought at 15,000 feet above

sea level in the depths of winter, and the great cold contributed

largely to the defeat of the Dogras.

Another Gurkha invasion occurred in 1855, and this was more successful. The resulting treaty empowered the Gurkhas to estab-

lish an Agency in Lhasa and other centres, gave them an annual

subsidy of ten thousand rupees, the right of free trade in Tibet, and the right of extra-territoriality. In return the Gurkha Government undertook to aid Tibet if the latter were attacked by another nation. EXPLORATION

There is no gradual blending of the climates and physical conditions of India and Tibet, such as would tend to promote intercourse between the inhabitants of these neighbouring regions. On the contrary, there are sharp lines of demarcation, both in the mountain barrier which is scalable at comparatively few points, and also in the social aspects and conditions of life on either side. No great armies have ever crossed Tibet to invade India. Jesuit and Capuchin Visitors—It was no easy matter for

the early European travellers to explore Tibet. Friar Odoric of Pordenone is supposed to have reached Lhasa c. 1328, but this visit is doubtful. The Jesuit Antonio de Andrada, a native of Portugal (1580-1634), travelling from India, appears to have entered Tibet on the west, in the Manasarowar Lake region. In 1661 Grueber and D’Orville, as mentioned before, reached Lhasa. The extracts from Grueber’s narrative, given by Athanasius Kircher in his China illustrate (Amsterdam, 1667), are accompanied by a good drawing of the Potala. During the first half of the r8th century various Capuchin friars appear to have passed freely between Calcutta and Lhasa (1708), by way of Nepal. They even founded a mission in Lhasa, which, after failing at first, was more firmly established in 1715. In 1716 two Jesuits, P. Ipolito Desideri, of Pistoia, and P. Freyre, a Portuguese, reached Lhasa by way of Kashmir. The long journey from Kashmir was taken by Lake Manasarowar and the valley of the Tsango-po. Desideri remained at Lhasa till April 1721, witnessing the capture of Lhasa successively by Dzungar and Chinese. Of the moderation of the latter, and their abstinence from all outrage or plunder, he speaks highly. He left a large MS.

volume of his observations. The next European visitor was Samuel Van de Putte, of Flushing, an LL.D. of Leiden, whose thirst for travel carried him through India to Lhasa (1730), where he is said to have resided a long time. In 1745 the Capuchin mission finally collapsed after a revival had been attempted in 1741 by a party under Orazio della Penna. The collapse appears to have been due to lack of funds rather than Tibetan opposition. We possess some of the results collected by this mission in an excellent short treatise on Tibet by P. Orazio himself, as well as in the Alphabetum Tibetanum of the Augustine monk A. Georgi (Rome, 1762). Some fifty volumes, the relics of the mission library, were in 1847 recovered from Lhasa by Brian Hodgson, through the courtesy of the Dalai Lama himself, and were transmitted as an offering to Pope Pius IX.

First English Visitation.—The

first Englishman

to enter

Tibet was George Bogle, a writer of the East India Company, in 1774, on an embassy from Warren Hastings to the Tashi Lama. In 1783 Lieut. Samuel Turner was despatched on a ‚mission

similar to that of Bogle, and reached Shigatse. In 1811-1812, an English traveller, Thomas Manning, reached Lhasa. Having resided some years at Canton, Manning went to Calcutta, bent on reaching the interior of China through Tibet, since from the seaboard it was sealed. After reaching Lhasa he stayed there about five months, and had several interviews with the Dalai Lama, but was compelled to return to India. He never published anything regarding this journey, but some years after his death extracts from his scanty and eccentric private diary were published. These, however, do not yield much information. The Abbé Huc states that William Moorcroft, an Englishman who made a journey into Tibet in the neighbourhood of Lake Manasarowar in 1812, and another into Kashgar in 1824, lived in Lhasa for twelve years disguised as a Muslim.

Exclusion of Europeans.—During the 19th century Euro-

peans were systematically prevented from entering the country, or speedily expelled if found in it. In 1844-1846, however, the

184

TIBET

French missionaries, Evariste Régis Huc and Joseph Gabet, made their way to Lhasa from China. They travelled via Siningfu, and arrived in Lhasa on the 29th of January 1846. On the rsth

of March they were sent off under escort by the rugged road to

Szechuen. Huc’s book, Souvenirs d'un voyage, etc., is a most delightful book of travel. The brothers Henry and Richard Strachey visited Manasarowar Lake in 1846 and 1848 respectively, In 1866 the Abbé Desgodins travelled through portions of eastern Tibet and reached Cham-do (in Kam).

Indian Explorers—From 1863 onwards a number of Indian

explorers were sent by the Government of India into Tibet, for the purpose of surveying the country and collecting information about its inhabitants. They carried prayer wheels, but instead of prayers these contained rolls of blank paper on which observations were noted. They carried also Tibetan rosaries by the beads of which each hundred paces were counted. The work was dangerous and difficult, but the results were on the whole remarkably accurate. The best known of these men were Pandit Nain Singh, Pandit Krishna, originally known as A.-K. (from the first and last letters of his name transposed) and U-gyen Gya-tso, or U.-G. Nain Singh reached Lhasa in the course of two remarkable journeys. In the first, after an ineffectual attempt by Nepal, he travelled by the Manasarowar Lake, and the road thence eastward, parallel to the course of the Tsangpo, reaching Lhasa on the roth of January 1866, and leaving it on the 21st of April 1867. On the second journey (1874) he started from Ladak, crossing

the vast and elevated plateau by the Tengri Nor and other great

lakes, and again reaching Lhasa on the 18th of November.

In 1878 A.~K. also visited Lhasa, stayed a year, and afterwards continued into Tsaidam, not returning to India till 1882. U-gyen Gya-tso, a Tibetan of Sikkim, who was originally a teacher of Tibetan in a Darjeeling School, secured permission in

1879 from the Tashi-lhiinpo authorities for Sarat Chandra Das,

Bengali schoolmaster at Darjeeling, to visit that monastery, where his name was entered as a student. This was the opportunity for a series of valuable exploratory journeys through the Tibetan provinces adjoining the Indian and Nepalese frontiers. Sarat also brought back from his journeys a large number of interesting books in Tibetan and Sanskrit, some of which were edited and published by him, with the assistance of U-gyen Gya-tso and other Tibetans. But these explorations, and particularly those of Sarat, when discovered by the Tibetans, incensed them still further, and deepened their distrust of the strong Power that came nearer and nearer and now explored their country in secret. The Russian explorer Prjevalsky, although he did not penetrate far into Tibet, did much towards determining the conformation of its north-eastern and eastern mountain systems. His fourth journey, between November 1883 and October 188 5, covered part of northern Tibet, and established the true character of Tsaidam. Recent Exploration.—Between 1889 and 1892, W. W. Rock-

hill, an American possessing great qualifications for Tibetan exploration by reason of a fair knowledge of the language and history of the country, coupled with the instincts and training of a scientific explorer, made two journeys through the north-eastern and eastern districts of Tibet. His record of these has added to the world’s knowledge both of the country and its people. In 1889 Prince Henri d’Orleans and M. Bonvalot; in 1891 two Englishmen, Capt. Bower and Dr. Thorold; the following year Miss Taylor, a solitary Englishwoman who came to within I50 miles of Lhasa, and in 1893, two other Frenchmen, MM. Dutreuil de Rhins and Fernand Granard, all entered Tibet. They were followed by Mr. and Mrs. Littledale, accompanied by Mr. Fletcher, in 1895; by Capt. Deasy a year later, by Capt. Welby and Lieut. Malcolm in the same year, and by Rijnhart, a Dutch missionary, in 1898 and by Sir Aurel Stein. These: all explored different tracts in the great unexplored regions, and many brought back knowledge of the flora and fauna. All, or nearly all, endeavoured to reach Lhasa, but none succeeded, so thorough were the precautions taken by the Tibetans to guard against such an event. The Littledales came the nearest, being stopped 80 miles north of the Forbidden City. De Rhins and Rijnhart lost their lives, being murdered, as is believed, by the people of the country.

[HISTORY

Dr. Sven Hedin, a Swede, has made three important journeys in Tibet and has traversed the country, north, south and west, surveying a great deal of unexplored country. His attempt to reach Lhasa, as that of all Europeans during these days of Tibetan hostility, was frustrated by Tibetan watchfulness. But his careful and detailed maps and lake soundings, and his scientific observations, hydrographic, geological and meteorological, have placed him in the forefront of modern explorers. (X.)

MODERN HISTORY In 1774 and 1783 Warren Hastings, the far-sighted GovernorGeneral of India, had established transient connection with the Tashi Lama. From 1872 onwards the Government of India made attempts to open up relations with the central Tibetan Government. But the latter declined, for they feared and distrusted the Power whose strength and influence were steadily extending in the territories on their southern frontier. A treaty made in 1890 between India and China was repudiated by the Tibetans. In 1903, as a result of continued disputes, and in particular from the fear of Russian penetration, the Indian Government despatched a mission with an armed escort to Tibet. The Tibetans, however, refused to negotiate, and the Chinese were powerless. In 1904 the mission advanced further into the country. It was opposed, and fresh troops were sent, so that it became a military expedition. It withstood the rigours of the climate, dispersed without much difficulty the Tibetan levies, who were untrained and poorly armed, and succeeded in reaching Lhasa. Lt.-Col. (now Sir Francis) Younghusband, the political representative with this force, effected a treaty there in September 1904 with the Tibetan delegates, the Dalai Lama and his entourage having fled to Mongolia. After modification by a Convention with China in 1906, the main terms of the Lhasa treaty were:—

(a) The opening of two fresh marts to foreign trade, one at

Gyantse between India and Lhasa, and one at Gartok in western Tibet. (b) The abolition of trade dues between Tibet and India. (c) Tibetan territory not to be ceded, leased, etc., to any Foreign Power. (d) An indemnity of two-and-a-half million rupees (£166,000). Chinese Suzerainty.—The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 recognized Chinese suzerainty over Tibet, and stipulated that neither Russia nor Britain should interfere in the internal administration of Tibet, seek concessions there, take any part of the revenue, or depute representatives to Lhasa. But, as a result of the Russian Revolution, this Convention is believed to be no longer in force. The Chinese Government were alarmed by the British Expedition to Lhasa in 1904, fearing a repetition and the establishment of British power there. The Peking Convention of 1906 and the Anglo-Russian of 1907 placed them in a strong position. Tibet was enfeebled by the British attack, and perhaps somewhat mazed by the crowd of events. So China organized a military Expedition of her own, which eventually, in February Igro, reached Lhasa. The Dalai Lama and his Government fled again, this time to Darjeeling in India. Here the British Government treated them hospitably, and being on Indian soil, they were safe from personal attacks by the Chinese, who contented themselves with consolida ting their position in Tibet. While observing strict neutrali ty as regards Tibet, Britain took occasion to inform China that she would tolerate no interference with the Himalayan States, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. Recent Developments.—Tibet’s deliverance, howeve r, was near at hand. In rorz the Chinese Revolution broke out, disorder among the Chinese troops ensued, and the Tibetans were able to drive them out of Lhasa, and to recapture most of their country. The Dalai Lama and his Ministers returned to Lhasa. They were now hostile to China, and friendly to Britain. In IQ17 the Chinese attacked again, but were defeated, and the Tibetan s pushed them back more or less to the positions which had been held since 1720. During 1912 Russia, by a treaty with Mongolia, gained further influence in that country. The following year a conference was

TIBETAN

ART

185

held in India by Britain, China and Tibet to discuss the political | that treated by the somewhat rare paintings which represent the Bodhisat Siddharta, the future Buddha Sakya-muni, in the form of a young man. This is probably a pictorial representation of the a thousand soldiers to fight on the British side, a striking change celebrated statue which Sarat Chandra Das saw in the principal from their former attitude of hostility. temple of Lhasa; this statue will be dealt with later in the secTowards the end of 1920 Mr. (afterwards Sir Charles) Bell, tion dealing with sculpture. There are certain pictures representthe British representative in Tibet, was deputed to Lhasa at the ing the life of the Buddha Sakya-muni, some of the many reprostatus of Tibet, but achieved no decisive result. Then followed the World War. The Tibetan Government offered

request of the Tibetan Government, the first white man to be

invited to Lhasa by the Tibetans themselves.

As a result of his

ductions of which are to be seen in various European museums,

which are derived from Indian originals of the gth and roth cenvisit, which lasted for about a year, the growing friendliness be- turies. Some of the pictures representing the birth of the Bodhisat tween the two nations was still further strengthened, and a line are strongly reminiscent of Indian models. The compositions of policy consonant with that attitude was marked out. In 1922, based on ancient originals deal only with the principal episodes in following the repeated requests of the Tibetan authorities, the the life of the Buddha. Taking their inspiration from these Forbidden City of Lhasa was linked with India by telegraph. models, Tibetan artists of about the middle of the r8th century Mount Everest.—Permission was obtained for the Royal Geo- composed an abundantly illustrated life based on a biography datgraphical Society of England to despatch a climbing expedition to ing from 1734. In these more modern pictures, however, the Mount Everest through Tibetan territory. Three such expeditions scenes, of which there is an infinite variety, are all represented followed, in 1921, 1922 and 1924 respectively. The last attained round a central figure of the Buddha. In short, Tibetan illustrato within 800 feet of the summit. Mallory and Irvine, two of the tions of the life of the Buddha may be traced to two sources, the climbers, lost their lives in the last attempt. Since 1912, Tibet has first very ancient (gth to roth centuries), the second composed been politically independent of China. entirely by a Tibetan lama of the 18th century. The paintings of BiptiocRAPHyY.—Markham, Tibet (1879) ; Sarat Chandra Das, Early the second series show elements derived from Chinese landscape History of Tibet (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal No. IIL, painters in the representations of scenery; rocks are rendered by 1881, pp. 211-245); Rockhill, The Dalai Lamas of Lhasa (Leyden, the superposition of uniform coats of blue and green, separated by 1910) ; Francke, History of Western Tibet (1907) ; Sven Hedin, Southgold lines. Other compositions unmistakably go back to Indian ern Tibet (1916-22) ; Sandberg, Exploration of Tibet (Calcutta, 1904) ; originals. Among these are the representations of the 84 great Waddell, Lhasa and its Mysteries (1903); British Government’s Blue sorcerers, whose cult had been spread by means of Lamaism beBook (ed. 5240 on Anglo-Tibetan relations, Sept. 1904-May, 1910); Teichman, Travels of a Consular Officer in Eastern Tibet (Cambridge, 1922); Bel, Tibet Past and Present (1924); The People of Tibet (1928, bibl.). (C. A. Be.)

TIBETAN ART.

Tibetan art is to a large extent a continua-

tion of the mediaeval Buddhist art of Behar and Orissa, the dominions of the Pala kings, which were the strongholds of Indian Buddhism during the 11th and rath centuries. The conservatism which is so marked a feature of Tibetan art is due to the peculiar character of that rude and uncultivated country, which Buddhism reached, late and in a very decadent form, in the 7th century A.D. The barbarians beyond the mountains were all the more willing to receive the pious images, so accurately representative of the religious spirit, which the missionaries brought from India, because they had no local artistic tradition to set up against them. All that they could do was to have copies made of the original models, which were deeply venerated, and then in turn to copy them for themselves. Of all the copies thus made, the most servile were the reproductions of paintings. This was due to purely technical reasons; the copies were executed by anonymous artisans by means of transfers.

It is thus extremely difficult for the historian

of art to decide the date of paintings of this kind. The bronzes are less puzzling, since many of them are cast by the method à cire perdue, and consequently have more originality and indeed individuality. Architecture, although to a large extent determined by the climate and the nature of the soil, shows Indian and Chinese influences. Though situated between these two countries of ancient and highly developed civilisation, and subjected to their influence, Tibet, as the great refuge of Indian Buddhism, enjoyed so great a religious prestige that it exported certain aspects of its religious art to the China of the Ming and Tsing emperors. Temple Banners (thang-Ka).—These paintings are for the most part reproduced by means of transfers, a method used in embroidery. The transfers are applied on a piece of cotton, canvas, or more rarely silk, which has first been treated with a coating made of a mixture of glue and chalk-dust, completely smoothed by rub-

bing with the polished part of a sea shell. Thin silks which will not take a coating of this kind are given to experienced craftsmen who copy direct from the model without using a transfer. Attempt at Chronological Classification.—It will be seen

from the description of technical processes given above that it is

yond the borders

of Tibet itself.

The method

of representing

the eighty-four sorcerers was already fixed in the 13th century, for M. P. Pelliot has discovered pictures representing them in a cave of Tuen-Huang (province of Kan-su in Western China) which was decorated during the Mongol period. The Tibetan representations of these great magicians (Musée Guimet) are clearly derived from the great Indian tradition. The representations of the Bodhisats are directly reminiscent of the artistic traditions which were prevalent in Orissa in the time of the Pala kings, who were the last champions and patrons of Indian Buddhism. A Tibetan painting discovered at TuenHuang by Sir Aurel Stein, which is probably the most ancient extant Tibetan picture (c. roth century) represents Avalokitesvara, whose mission it is to liberate humanity from the Eight Great Perils. This painting, which is now in the British Museum, shows a definite affinity with an AvalokiteSvara in the Fine Arts Museum of Boston which A. K. Coomaraswamy believes to be an Indian work of the Pala or Sena period (12th century). So great is the conservatism of Tibetan artists that very little difference can be observed between the roth century painting discovered

by Sir Aurel Stein and a similar composition of modern date which was brought from Tibet by Jacques Bacot and is now in the Musée Guimet. (See INDIAN AND SINHALESE ArT AND ARCHAEOL~ OGY.) The influence of the Indian tradition—it is possible to go further and say of the Ajanta tradition—is particularly marked in a painting in the Musée Guimet representing the Bodhisats AvalokiteSvara and Kshitigarbha seated in an attitude of royal ease. Tibetan artists never introduced any innovations in the representation of the fierce, terrible and threatening deities which derive

from Siva (Mahakdia). Divinities of this kind are not to be found in the most ancient compositions which depict episodes from the life of the Buddha Sakya-muni; the most that appears from time to time is a genius (yaksha) subduing heretics. All other paintings, whether their subjects are Bodhisats or saints, include representations of fierce deities, often accompanied by their female counterparts. Pictures of this kind already existed in India, but the Tibetans greatly developed the cult of these deities of Saivite origin. The Manchu Emperors who ruled over China in the r8th century appear to have had a special taste for pictures of this

kind, and Tibetan Buddhic art had great vogue at Peking at the subject of the picture gives some chronological indication. The end of that century. Paintings ordered by the Emperor Chienmain interest of a study of Tibetan paintings thus resides in a just lung and executed at Peking under direction of the Grand Lama appreciation of the antiquity of the subject represented rather of Peking are extant. One of them represents the fierce goddess than of that of the painting. One of the most ancient subjects is Sridevi (Lka-mo); it is carried out in the purest Tibetan style an extremely difficult matter to date a Tibetan painting, unless the

186

TIBETAN

except that there are certain details of execution which are clearly| Chinese, especially in the treatment of the mule on which the goddess is mounted and the emblems with which the frame of the picture is adorned. This is a good example of Lamaist painting dated 1777, which, though executed in China, shows, with the exception of certain details, all the characteristics of Lamaist works of art. An Inscription in four languages, Chinese, Mongol, Manchu and Tibetan, says: “In the forty-second year of Chien-lung, an Imperial decree was issued ordering the lchang-skya-hu-tog-thu (Grand Lama of Peking) to draw holy images, following the text of the sacred books, in order to do homage to the auspicious god-

dess Srimatt (Sridevi). . . .” A considerable number of religious pictures were executed during the reign of the Emperor Chienlung by Tibetan lamas at Pekin, and special mention should be made of the paintings showing definite Tibetan characteristics which represent the divinities of Confucianism and Taoism. To return to the normal work of Tibetan artists, it is necessary to mention a number of paintings representing the saints of Indian Buddhism and Lamaism. The clearly marked Indian influence visible in the pictures of the group of the great sorcerers has already been mentioned; the same influence, becoming gradually attenuated, may be seen in the series of pictures showing the life of some great saint, such as the famous Atiśa, who died in A.D. 1058 (Pl. IL, fig. 1.), or the Ichang-skya Rol-pa’i rdo-ye (Lalitavasjra) (1736-95), the same who had the picture of the goddess Sridevi painted at the order of the Emperor Chien-lung. The latter is not an ancient composition; both the subject and the painting itself are modern, and show the characteristic ‘Tibetan architecture of the monasteries of Dgah-ldan and Bra-sis lhun-po (Tachilhunpo), placed on rocks treated in a way which shows Chinese influence (see at the top and in the middle the monastery of Brag-dkar [White Stone]). The saint, who is seated in the European fashion in the middle of the picture on the right, carries the book and sword, the attributes of his patron the celebrated reformer Tsong Kha-pa (a.p. 1355-1417). These attributes are also those of ManjusSri, the Bodhisat of transcendental wisdom, who inspired Tsong Kha-pa. It is for this reason that a magic representation of ManjuSri appears in the centre of the painting under the aspect of the fierce Yamantaka with the head of a bull. Maitreya, the future Buddha, is shown in a medallion placed in the upper part of the picture on the left. The saint himself appears, after his death (at the top of the picture on the right) in the trifoliate niche of a stupa; he is being mourned by his disciples, and divinities are rising from the clouds to receive him. The painting showing the learned AtiSa (11th century) is less elaborate, and is clearly derived from a more ancient original. Tibetan artists sometimes use a technique similar to that of wax painting; some remarkable examples of this method are to be seen in R. Pfister’s collection. It is a highly successful attempt to find relief from the monotony of the flat tones of tempera painting; the faces stand out remarkably clearly, and the floral decorations show great originality in the choice of colours. The painting is unfortunately damaged by the imprints of the hands and feet of the Grand Lama of Bra-sis lhun-po (Tachilhunpo). The painting represented in Plate II., fig. 3, shows the fifth Dalai-Lama Ngag-dbang Blo-bzang-rgya-mcho (1617-80); special note should be taken of the delicacy of the floral decoration. The Tibetans also have a special fondness for paintings representing particularly venerated places. One of these pictures shows, in a sort of rough perspective, the principal religious edifices of Lhasa; in the centre the Potala, in the lower part the great temple (JoKhang),in the upper part the monasteries of Sera and Depong, which are two miles*away from Lhasa, and a number of small shrines treated in the minutest detail. Bon-po Paintings.—Before leaving the subject of Tibetan painting, it is fitting to mention the paintings which appear in the temples of the Bon-po, the followers of the pre-Buddhic religion of Tibet. The rare specimens of Bon-po painting which we have had an opportunity of studying are, as far as the legends represented are concerned, nothing more than imitations of Lamaist paintings. The trained eye can, however, clearly distinguish between Bon-po and Buddhist paintings. Bon-po paintings scarcely

ART

ever contain a large-scale figure of the hero of the legend the episodes of which are represented by the picture. Thus the paintings illustrating the legend of the Bon-po prophet GSen-rab-mi-bo (Ollone collection) consist only of a series of miniature scenes.

Buddhic Sculpture.—According to legend, the most ancient Buddhic sculpture which was imported into Tibet came from Magadha, but it is said to have reached Tibet through China, having been brought by the princess of Wen-tcheng, who was related to the Emperor Tang Tai-tsong and married the 1st Buddhist king of Tibet, Srong bcan sgam-po (7th century a.p.). This statue still exists in the Jo-Khang of Lhasa, and forms, together with another statue of the monastery of Kum-bum and the famous image of the Santal temple at Peking, one of a triad celebrated in

the Buddhist world. The Lhasa statue is probably of the same type as that which is preserved in the temple of Seiryo in Japan. A distinguishing feature of that work of art is the characteristic drapery with its close folds. A statuette in the Musée Guimet, though a comparatively modern work (18th century) (Pl. I., fig. 6) recalls these ancient originals. Most of the Tibetan statues to be seen in Europe are modern, but it is possible to trace back their origin, through a number of modifications, to Indian sculptures executed at the time of the Pala kings of Bengal (11th to rath centuries A.D.). The traces of Chinese influence which may here and there be noted are to be attributed to the Tang or even the Sung period. These statuettes, most of which are cast by the process known as à cire perdue, represent only a portion of the whole production of the skilled Tibetan metal-workers. There are also a number of bronze statues ro or x2 metres high representing the Bodhisat AvalokiteSvara with 11 heads. Occasional examples are found which have no counterpart in the Buddhic world, such as the Bodhisat who is shown making a mystic gesture which is nowhere else represented. (Pl. I., fig. 8.) Of three representations of the same divinity, one may show Chinese and one Indian influence, while the third is purely Tibetan. This applies to three representations of Manjusri which are preserved in the Musée Guimet; the first figure, which is brandishing a sword, is in the classical Indian style, the second, which is loaded with ornaments and is heavy of aspect, is Tibetan, while the third is a young Chinese prince, carelessly seated in an attitude of royal ease, his hand resting on a book. The statuettes of saints are in some cases actual portraits (PL I., ñg. 3). Wood-carving.—The finest examples of Tibetan craftsmanship are the bronzes and brasses, but there are also some fine statues carved in wood. The wood-carvers, however, excel most of all in the execution of low reliefs adorning the rectangular pieces of wood which are used to cover the sacred books. These reliefs show extraordinary technical skill. Bon-po Sculptures.—Very few Bon-po sculptures have as yet been studied. They are very bad specimens, and are influenced by late Chinese statuary. Iron Work;

Gold- and Silversmiths’ Work.—Some

of the

Tibetan metal workers are magnificent artists. Some of the designs of iron work are as delicate as lace; dragons, volutes and geometrical patterns are mingled in detailed and balanced designs ornamenting saddles, pen-cases, quivers and clasps for reliquaries (central motif: daśâkâro vaśî). Some of the reliquaries are carried out in beautiful repoussé work in silver and sometimes, also in

gold.

Beautiful brass vases and censers are also executed in

repoussé work. and sometimes much used for heavily set with

The designs.on these vases are sometimes Indian Chinese in character. Damascene work is very the decoration of pen-cases. Tibetan jewellery, turquoises, includes earrings, necklaces and brace-

lets. (See SILVERSMITHS’ AND Goipsmirus’ Work.)

Architecture—The available information concerning Tibetan architecture is very incomplete. No complete studies of monasteries with plans have been made except in the case of Kum-bum. Stipas of the Tibetan type have a characteristic form of their own; the base is raised to such a height that it sometimes shelters a little shrine, the bulb-shaped dome is sometimes very small, and the discs of the parasols, which are very close together, form a cone surmounted by the crescent and the disc. The base and the disc are of masonry, and the upper part of gilded copper. The

TIBETAN

PLATE

ART

ert “4 i

r

Fari

4)

Bed

ke

NEE Og

x PARA

rh EMS

adn, 14, i,

* tmp

ett A EE

W

eeet

en

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a uni

:

aai

TATATA ARGA

AAY i

so ae

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ae

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Oh or.obst r En

PA

XS"

&

Ae

mak

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T

eer rr

pal i i

du

OF

(1-5,

j

=

i

ah

wes

"a }

NAS Vee DEA si

H arg

r s na? ot p g fiy ~~ eS

Yir

de

Qd

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Ns Miraa eA E,aA EE

$

4

Bria

a

ES eee oflOn Meee YJ ate

BY COURTESY

BLAA L =32 hours. Considering next a canal of uniform breadth encircling the earth along a parallel of latitude, the equilibrium-form for a semi-diurnal constituent

is given by ¢=CHsin*@cos(ut-+2¢—e).

Taking the depth to be uniform

a. again neglecting the transverse component of current, the equations reduce to—

ho

a,

ae

av

g

a

asind a¢' at” ə asing age It is easily verified that the solution is given by— t=

$

F—

& ay

=" in

The narrow sea theory is thus never an accurate theory when the depth isnot uniform. For sucha channel, however, it is still possible to find an accurate solution representing a wave with straight transverse cotidal lines. When a transverse component v of current is admitted the equations of free motion become-—

Uy 8 py4

be

a at

pe

ay

200

g ax’

S

ðv

Ji Hou =

=p

of

ay’

and at the sides of the channel we must have vo. For a wave of the type to be examined we take— ¢=Zcos(nt—xx), u=Ucos(ni-~ xx), v= Vsin(ni—xx), where again n and « are constants and Z, U, V are functions only of y. On substituting into the dynamical equations we have—

E

aw 62

se n

ype )

n

dy

n? — 4c” dy * n ta

dy\ "dy. =

same as, or directly opposite to, that of the corrected equilibrium-form;

I — hof h

ag

=~

and then, on substituting into the equation of continuity, we have— d f,dZ n? — 4a og | awk dh , _

as is easily verified. The phase of the elevation is everywhere either the

RE

i

These show that the type of wave under examination (called a “Kelvinwave’’) can only exist if the depth be uniform, and that then—

k

na sin20 cos(2f—«—~427) h 1~n?a*/agh

[=

21

ne Er j

= aoa e+

and the corresponding solution is given by— t=—1CH cos20 cos(ni—e) es r—n°a"/4gh =—iCH

>

8 ax?

where z and « are constants and Z, U are functions only of y. On substituting we deduce—

au af Feet ats ape $)

”

ar

=o

f= He *?"/"eos(ni— xx),

The nature of the

pressions for ¢ and x become infinite. This means that the period of the

aae

2”ðuðf

and for a solution of the required type we take— u= U cos(nt—xx) ¢=Zcos(nt—xx),

u= FA (a?—27)cos(nt—e+37)

and the elevation has its equilibrium-form.

a o at

au

9):

v= —4nasing-

~ 1 —9?a*sin*6/4gh’ k The motion consists of a wave travelling round the earth with the same

speed as the equilibrium-form, and in fact the phase of the elevation

z

ee

ay

For each of an infmite number of definite relations between x and x this equation possesses a solution such that AV->0 at the sides. It follows that waves with straight transverse cotidal lines are possible in spite of the variable depth. In them the principal axes of the current-ellipses are parallel and perpendicular to the sides of the channel, and the time of the maximum longitudinal component of current coincides with that of high water at the same place. From a mathematical point of view, the basin just considered is analogous to a circular basin in which the depth is either uniform or a function only of the distance from the centre. Using polar co-ordinates, r, 6, with the pole at the centre, and letting now u and v denote radial a transverse components of current, we examine a solution of the orm— |* ¢=Zcos(nut—sd—e) F=Zcos(nt—sd—e), v= Vcos(ni—s@—e) u= Ucos(nt~sd—e—3 7m),

where n and s are constants and Z, Z; U, V are functions only of ry. The constant s will be either a positive or a negative integer, including zero, so that we have a wave progressing round the centre of the sea in either direction, or a standing oscillation. The principal axes of the currentellipses will be along and perpendicular to the radii. Proceeding as

before we obtain-—— ır d i: dr

d oy

E

s*h ae lz

soal Z)+

ee2=0.

a

When ¢is given so that Z, n, s are known, this differential equation and the coastal conditions determine Z uniquely, unless » and s happen to be connected as in a possible free motion. For free tides in the case of uniform depth, the solution of this equation, finite at the centre of the circle, is Z=HJ,(xr), where x°=(2%®—4w*)/gh, and H is arbitrary. The distribution of elevation in free sides is given by—

t=HJ,(«r)cos(mt—sd—e)

TIDES providing that— 205 kaJ a (ka) -m pa J (xa) =0,

where a denotes the radius of the circular coastline. The equation gives an infinite number of relations between z and s. For given values of A, a and w there is a definite infinite sequence of possible periods, with a

longest

period but with no shortest period.

(H. Lamb, Hydrodynamics,

Art. 2r0). The corresponding oscillations are known as “free oscillations

ZOI

r and s are any integers, and H is arbitrary. But the cases in which neither r nor s is zero are probably illustrative of very few actual seiches and the cases in which r or s is zero have already been considered. Analogous to the rectangular basin is the sectorial basin whose depth is a function only of the distance from the apex, and whose coastlines are given by

r=a, ¢=0, 6=a in polar co-ordinates.

uniform depth the equations of free motion are satisfied by—

of the first class,’’ and so long as the depth is uniform no other free oscillations are possible. But when the depth is not uniform there may be,

in addition to an infinite sequence of oscillations of the first class analogous to those just investigated, another infinite sequence called ‘‘oscillations of the second class.’? These have a definite shortest period

but no longest period. (/bid., Art. 212.) The mathematical relationships evolved in the two preceding examples

of small seas still obtain for an ocean in which the depth isa function only of latitude and the coastlines, if any, lie along parallels of latitude. For semi-diurnal constituents we have—

¢=CHsin*6cos(ni+-2¢—«) and we therefore seek a solution of the form — ¢=CHZcos(nt-+-26—€)

where Z is a function only of 8. Proceeding as in the previous examples we obtain— ih ksin d d6\ n?— 40cos°é dé

4h sin @ n?

4 42 d n d8

I an aot (2—sin*6)

htcosé

a a*sin? + g ane

This differential equation, together with the condition AU—o

at the

coastlines, or that the motion remains finite at the poles, determines Z

uniquely unless 2 has one of the values appropriate to free tides. The motion consists of a wave travelling round the earth like the equilibriumform. In fact, at any place the phase of the elevation is always either the same as, or else directly opposite to, that of the equilibrium-form. The distribution of range of tide along a meridian, however, will in general be

entirely different from that of the equilibrium-form. When the ocean covers the whole earth it is possible to allow for the mutual gravitation of the elevated water without seriously complicating the mathematical problem (S. S. Hough, Phil. Trans., A[1897]). At the poles the range of tide is zero, as in the equilibrium-form, and sufficiently near the poles the elevation has the same phase as the equilibrium-form. For very great depths the tides everywhere approach the equilibrium-form. When the depth is uniform and the ocean covers the whole earth, the

solution has been subject to much numerical evaluation. The first row in the accompanying table gives a series of depths in feet, and the figures below correspond respectively to oceans of these depths. The second row

Again taking wu and v to denote

radial and transverse components of current, it is easily verified that for

$= BJ x ja(xr)cos se costa —e)

where s is any integer, x is such that— J ofa (xa) =0,

and

n?/ oh = x.

Also analogous to these results are expressions for free tides in an ocean bounded by meridians and parallels of latitude on a non-rotating earth when the depth is a function only of latitude. (H. Lamb, Hydrodynamics, Art. 201). But the solution for the forced tides in such an ocean has only been given in certain special cases (J. Proudman and A. T. Doodson, Mon. Not. R.A.S. Geophys. Supp. [1927]). The elliptic basin of uniform depth possesses types of free motion which are analogous to those of the circular basin. The Bessel’s functions and trigonometrical functions of the circular basin are replaced by Mathieu functions (H. Jeffreys, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. [1923]). When the earth’s rotation is taken into account, the simplest problem not already mentioned is that of the reflection of a Kelvin-wave at the head of a broad rectangular gulf of uniform depth. For a given depth and period, such a wave can be reflected into one of the same type travelling in the opposite direction, if the breadth of the gulf is not greater than a certain amount (G.I. Taylor, Prec. Lond. Math. Soc. {r920]). The complete solution then shows a wave progressing towards the head of the gulf on the one side, continuing round the head and then away from the head on the other side. There are a number of amphidromic points on the medial line of the gulf. In the northern hemisphere the progression is such that the coast is always on the right. This arrangement may be compared with the cotidal lines shown in fig. 2 for the North Sea. The solution for the rotating rectangular basin has been given for the case of uniform depth, but is expressed by formulae very much more complicated than any quoted above (G.I. Taylor, /. c.). The solution for the rotating sectorial basin has only yet been given for the semicircular case

and for uniform depth (J. Proudman, Mon. Not. R.A.S. Geophys. Supp. [1926-8]), while that for the rotating elliptic basin has only been published for special conditions (S. Goldstein, idid.). It can be proved, however, that for seas of small lateral extent, which are not too shallow, the forced tides follow very closely their equilibrium-forms (J. Proudman, ibid.). The only ocean on a rotating earth possessing coastlines other than par-

allels of latitude, for which the dynamical equations have yet been solved, is one whose depth is proportional to the square of the cosine of the latitude, and which is bounded by two meridians separated by 60° of longi-

tude (G. R. much closer erated than For the Ke

Goldsbrough, Proc. Roy. Soc. A [1927]). This basin has a correspondence with those in which the actual tides are genany other for which a numerical solution has yet been given. constituent in this basin it is found that the critical mean

depth for resonance is 15,500 ft. As the mean depth of the Atlantic is 12,700 ft. we have an indication of a considerable amount of resonance,

gives the ratio of the range of the Af, constituent on the equator to the corresponding range in the equilibrium-form, when the mutual gravitation of the elevated water is neglected, as in the equations above (H. Lamb, Hydrodynamics, Art. 221). The third row gives the same ratio

when the mutual gravitation of the elevated water is allowed for. The fourth and fifth rows relate to free oscillations of the first class in the expressions for which ¢ and ¢ enter only through the factor cos(#é+2¢—e), and in the calculation of which the mutual gravitation of the elevated water has been taken into account. The fourth row gives in hours and minutes the longest periods of free waves travelling westward, while the fifth row gives similarly the longest periods of free waves travelling eastward, The shortest periods of the oscillations of the second class are all longer than a day. Numerical evaluations of forced tides in a polar or zonal ocean indicate that the actual tides cannot be regarded as derived

from tides generated primarily in the Southern Ocean (G. R. Goldsbrough,

Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. [1913], and Proc. Roy. Soc. A[r927]). (x6). The above examples exhaust all the instances in which complete

solutions of the dynamical equations may be obtained in a simple form, when the effects of the earth’s rotation are taken into account. But for seiches, of which the periods are small compared with a day, the effects of the earth’s rotation are not important, and when these effects are neglected simple solutions are possible for certain other basins. Consider the rectangular basin of uniform depth # bounded by the lines =o, «=a, y=o, y=). It is easily verified that the equations of free motion are satisfied by— yre s wy t = Hcos— cos ——~cos(nt—e), a

where—

n? —_— =

gh

b

y? S°N ‘a a? + 53)

and there can be little doubt that the Atlantic tides are largely generated in the Atlantic Ocean itself. GENERAL DYNAMICAL QUESTIONS (17). The observed tides on many coasts of the world are very much larger than their equilibrium-forms, and this has usually been attributed

to the magnifying effect of shallow seas. But the examples quoted in §13

show that mere diminution of depth, even to vanishing point, is not in itself a necessary source of much magnification, so that some form of resonance is required.

On the one hand, with mid-ocean tides of the

equilibrium order of magnitude, it is possible to have resonance on the continental shelf, if its breadth and depth are suitably related. On the other hand, it is also possible to have a considerable degree of resonance in the main oceans themselves, as is shown by the last of the examples quoted above (§16). All the examples of forced tides for which formulae are quoted above are such as to tend to their equilibrium-forms when their periods tend to become infinite. This, however, is due to the special simplicity of the examples considered and is not a general property of forced tides, when the effects of the earth’s rotation are taken into account but those of friction areneglected. On taking ¢, ¥, u#, v to be independent of time, the general equations give-—

oe

a

_

=p (hsinéu) + ad (hv) = 0, 2Qcospu =

g =

ô è =m

ad

(¢—f),

4

20coséu = — Sana

ð

ae (t—%).

rrem B a

These two dynamical equations show that the current will be directed

TIDES

202

along the contour lines of ¢—¢. On substituting for u, v into the equation of continuity, we find—

a a = a a zg Aseco) ze) = zg #seco) Ea

a =0,

which shows that ¢—f must be a function of Asecé@, or the depth of the ocean measured parallel to the earth’s axis. We therefore see that steady currents are possible if there are any closed contour lines of Asec, and the actual oceans do contain such contour lines. The problem of specifying the nature of the solution of the dynamical equations for the case of forced long period tides is further complicated by the possibility of resonance with the free oscillations of the second class. The effects of friction are sufficient to make any forced periodic tide conform to its equilibriumform if its period is sufficiently long, but a criterion of this length has not yet been satisfactorily evolved. If tidal motion were everywhere nonturbulent, friction would have no appreciable influence on a constituent whose period was less than a year. It is known, however, that the resultant motion in shallow seas is turbulent, and it is probable that even in mid-ocean the forces of friction are not less than those calculated on the hypothesis of turbulence. The total rate of dissipation of energy by friction in the actual semidiurnal tides has been estimated at about 2X ro? horse power (H. Jeffreys, Phil. Trans. A [x920]). The chief contributory areas were found to be the Bering Sea, the Yellow Sea, Malacca Strait and the North-West Passage, the dissipation in the great ocean basins being supposed negligible in comparison. The problem of estimating the length of time required to destroy the total energy in any constituent, at the rate at which energy is actually being dissipated in that constituent, turns largely on the amount of magnification of tides in shallow seas. If, in mid-ocean, the semi-diurnal constituents were of their equilibrium order of magnitude then the time re-

quired would be only about two days (H. Jeffreys, Nature [1923]). Compound Constituents.—(18). So far in our discussion of tidal dy-

the advancing crest shows that a shorter time elapses from low water to high water than inversely. The investigation also shows that the law of the ebb and flow of currents in estuaries mentioned in §2 must hold ood. a Instead of an indefinitely long canal, suppose we take a gulf so that

5

with product terms neglected, we have the solution in which at the head of the gulf ¢-=Hcosnt. Then, when we retain the product terms and apply ee oe as above,

PS

we find at the additional term cos2nt. If H’ is but less than H there will be a double high water (G.

Ea

es

PROFILE OF TIDE-WAVE IN

Waves [r842]).

ATMOSPHERIC

head of the gulf an of the form—H’ greater than 1H B. Airy, Tides and

TIDES

(x9). As air, like all other matter, is subject to gravitational influence, there will be tides in the atmosphere possessing many features of similarity with those in the ocean. One of the characteristics of these tides will be a very small oscillatory variation in the atmospheric pressure at any place, and this may be regarded as the superposition of harmonic constituents with the ordinary tidal periods. By the systematic analysis of long series of regular barometric records, the principal lunar semidiurnal constituent M4, of the barometric variation has been determined for a number of places, and found to have an amplitude of the order ‘oor inch. The Tanel theory of these tides has been the subject

of considerable study. The derivation of the equations is not so simple as for ocean-tides, one difficulty being that of taking account of the physical conditions in the upper regions. The equations which have been proposed are of the same general form as those for ocean-tides, but the theory is still imperfect. The results of analysis for the M constituent show variations of phase from place to place and certain seasonal changes which are as yet unexplained. The results of analysis for the Sz constituent show a much larger oscillation with an amplitude of barometric variation of the order -o03 inch. For this constituent, however, it is certain that thermal factors play a large part, though the theory is far from complete (S. Chapman, Quart.

namics we have neglected terms of the type a(¢v)/ ax in the equation of continuity, and of the type au/ax in the dynamical equations. The effect of this has been to make the differential equations linear, and it is the linearity of the equations which allows of the separation into independent harmonic constituents. Sucha neglect, however, is not always admissible, Journ. R. Met. Soc. [z918, 1919, 1924]). especially in shallow water and near rugged coasts. Suppose that over a region there is a predominant harmonic constituent, e.g., Mz, of speed 7; EARTH-TIDES then the effect of the retention of these terms is that the time enters in the (20). The main body of the earth yields to tidal forces, either with perform cos(ni—«)cos(é—e) or 4cos(22t—e—«e)+3cos(e,—e2). Terms fect or imperfect elasticity, and these minute tides of the solid earth have which contain the time-factor cos(2m!—e,—«) represent a constituent of been measured. The measurement of earth-tides consists in determining double the speed of the primary constituent, while those containing the the tilt of the earth’s surface about its mean position in the earth’s figure, factor cos(e,— e) represent a steady motion or displacement. The first of and this has been carried out with apparatus of two kinds. One instruthese is known as a jirst overlide and when derived from Mg is called M,. ment, viz., the horizontal pendulum, is of a type also used in Seismology Again, if the principal part of the tides comprises two harmonic constitu- (O, Hecker, Veroff. K. Preuss. Geod. Inst, [1907]). Its action is analogous ents, then in addition to overtides we have terms of the type— to that of a door whose hinges are not exactly one above the other, so that it lies in a definite vertical plane depending on the position of its line of cos(#yf— e)cos(12f — e) hinges. The other instrument consists of a horizontal tube, of length or įcos| (mtm) — 1—eo} +3008 {(% —m)i— ate}. from 100 to soo ft., acting as a water-leveland read by optical interferom-

These represent constituents of speeds m-+ 7; and

— #2. When the pri-

mary constituents are Af, and 5, they are denoted by WS, and Sf respectively. Since the force of friction at the sea-floor is not proportional to the speed of the current, there is also a frictional origin of compound constituents. To examine the matter further we take a canal of uniform breadth and depth #, of indefinite length and communicating at x=o with a sea. Neglecting the earth’s rotation and friction, the equations of free motion are—~

= {+x} +S =o.

au = +u ax

af

aor

mame (Foree

When the product terms are neglected a solution of the equations is— t =Hcosn(; — =)i c

u = EHcosa(1 — zy c c

where c?= gh, If now these expressions be substituted into the product terms and the equations again integrated, with no change of elevation at x=o0, we obtain— (=2 Heosn(t

_*\_3 gv? ... =) 8 asin

an(iF ay

“= Eucosn(t — =)oe £cos2n(t — z) cè c C 8 c a

2

-3 Ê ni zsinza(1— 2). cA 4 C

Further approximations would give second and third overtides, etc. All the overtides travel up the canal at the same rate as the fundamental, but they have double, treble, quadruple ‘‘speeds,’’ and the ratio of the amplitude of the first overtide to the fundamental is $enHx/r*. If the canal shallows very gradually the formula will still hold and we see that the height of the overtide varies as (depth)$2. Fig. ç, read from left to right, exhibits the progressive change of shape. The steepness of

eter devices (A. A. Michelson, Astrophys. Journ. [19r4]). But it should

also be possible to detect earth-tides by means of observations of ordinary water-tides. The general form of the dynamical equations, when allow-

ance is made for the yielding of the earth, is—

ogee z; T 2cosbv= TE— =BEspe the Fk oo.) ov =

NQcoséy

rp

as

= —

g —=—

asin @

>

ce (Hrem op

tma).

Now ¢ is known, so that if we also know ¢, u, v, these equations would enable us to calculate— I

å

a

öl

~

(See),

ð

awn

asing age Se.

But in the absence of full observational knowledge of water-tides over

a region we must have recourse to a certain amount of theory. Up to the present the method which has been adopted has utilized the ocean tides of long period and in particular the lunar fortnightly constituent Mf. It has been assumed that this constituent followed the equilibriumlaw, and this is not certain, while in addition there is the fact that the complete equilibrium-form has not yet been numerically calculated. There is a further serious difficulty in isolating the purely astronomical long period constituents in analysis, and it may well be doubted whether reliable constants for the Wf constituent have ever yet been obtained from the records of observation. When we come to consider the dynamical theory of earth-tides we see that there are various factors involved. There is the direct response of the solid earth to the tide-generating forces of the moon and sun; there is the yielding produced by the varying pressure of the tidal load on the ocean-Hoor; there is also the yielding of the earth’s varying gravitational field itself, as produced by the moving water and solid earth. The contributions from these factors have not yet been completely disentangled from the results of observation. The period of the slowest free tidal oscillation of a homogeneous sphere of the same radius and mass as the earth, and as rigid as steel, is about one hour (H. Lamb, Proc. Lond.

203

TIDES Math. Soc. [1882]).

T he corresponding period for a homogeneous fluid

sphere, of the same size and mass, is about one and a half hours (W.

Thomson, Phil. Trans. [1863]). It is therefore probably correct to as-

sume that the period of the free oscillations of the actual earth are all

small compared with those of the chief constituents of the tides.

This

means that the earth-tides will approximate closely to their equilibriumforms, or in other words, that they may be calculated on the principles

of Statics. For an earth of uniform density and elasticity and with an ocean of uniform depth over the whole of it, a complete solution of the tidal problem, both ocean and earth, has been obtained. allowing for all the

factors enumerated above (R. O. Street, Mon. Not. R. A. S. Geophys.

Supp. [1925]). For the simpler case in which there is no ocean, if the

assumed rigidity be that of steel, the earth-tide would be everywhere

equal to 1/3 of the equilibrium ocean-tide, while if the rigidity be that

of glass the fraction would be 3/5. Such determinations as have yet been made indicate that the effective rigidity of the earth as a whole is

somewhat greater than that of steel (W. D. Lambert, Bull. U. 5. Nat. Research Council [1922]). ANALYSIS

(2x).

OF OBSERVATIONS

The tide-gauge furnishes us with a continuous graphical record

published giving the height of water above datum at every hour of the year, while for a certain number of navigable channels tables of the tides of slack water are also issued. The determination of the information contained in these tables is known as tidal prediction, and obviously demands a knowledge of the laws of the tides at the place in question, including their correlation with astronomical variables. The standard method of tidal prediction is the harmonic method based on the idea of harmonic constituents (§9), and the necessary information for any

particular place is provided by the process of harmonic analysis (§21). For a number of ports, however, some of which are in British waters, it is found practicable to use the older non-harmonic methods, based on the non-harmonic

constants

(§9).

to obviate

of the level of the water above some known datum mark for every

instant of time. The first operation performed on this record is the measurement of the height of water above the datum for every mean solar hour. In analysis it is necessary that these hourly heights be combined in such a way as to magnify one constituent relatively to all others, and in practice only linear combinations are used. The complete process of finding all the important constituents may be carried out in two stages, in the first of which simple linear combinations are made and in the second, essentially a correction process, the results of all the linear

combinations for all the constituents are used. We will restrict our consideration to the problem of determining the principal solar series of constituents Si, Se, Sy, whose speeds are exactly 24, 12, 6 mean solar hours. At instants of time separated by 24 hours each constituent of this series will have the same value. If then we calculate the average

of the heights at the same hour of each solar day, the corresponding

value of each of these constituents will be unchanged. Any other constituent will occur in a different phase each day, so that the algebraic additions will partially counterbalance, and if the number of days taken extend over a year, the average value for a particular hour of a solar day will be very small. If such an averaging process be carried out for each

of the 24 hours of the day we have a method of isolating the principal solar series. When this series has been isolated with sufficient completeness the amplitudes and initial phases of its constituents may be determined in a number of ways (see HARMONIC ANALYSIS). The process just sketched has been followed in actual practice, especially in the early days of harmonic analysis of tidal observations. When applied to constituents other than those of the principal solar series it becomes less simple, as it is impossible to choose an interval of an exact number of mean solar hours which gives perfect repetition in the values of any other constituent. A common practice has been to treat the height at any mean solar hour as though it occurred-at another time not differing by more than half an hour. In some cases an allowance has been made for this assignment of heights to different times, but in other cases no such allowance has been made. Itis clear, however, that the effect on any con-. stituent of any definite arithmetical process may be accurately determined, and this has led to important modifications in the processes of analysis. In designing these modifications the criteria in mind have been: (1) the amount of labour involved, (2) the degree of elimination of all other constituents in the analysis for a particular constituent, (3) the completeness of the analysis (A. T. Doodson, Phil. Trans. A [z927]). Similar methods will serve for the analysis of a continuous record of a particular component of tidal current, say in the west-to-east or south-tonorth directions. Methods have also been devised for the harmonic analysis of observations of times and heights of high and low water only, and for the observations of times of slack water only (G. H. Darwin,

Proc. Roy. Soc. [1890]; A. T. Doodson, ibid. [1928)). Even when the most complete methods are utilized on the most care-

fully made observations, there remains quite an appreciable fraction of the variation of sea level which has not yet been reduced to law. For British waters this reaches the order of magnitude of x ft. and consists of something lying outside the harmonic constituents with the periods of the generating potential or of a small number of compound constituents (A. T. Doodson, Brit. Assoc. Report |x921]). i The variations of atmospheric pressure and wind produce changes in the level of the sea. Under favourable conditions and as a consequence of storms the change of level in an estuary may exceed ro ft. In so far as such changes are not periodic they are not represented by the results of harmonic analysis.

PREDICTION:

TIDE-TABLES

(22). For many purposes it is of great importance to know in advance the times and heights of high water at a particular place on a particular day. Consequently governments and harbour authorities publish, a year or so in advance, tables giving such information for all

the principal ports of the world.

In a few cases tables are-similarly

In any case, the only part of the

dynamical theory which is utilized is that which relates to periodicity, at one place, so that the empirical element is still very large. The process of harmonic prediction consists in the calculation of the value of each harmonic constituent for a given time, and then the addition of the values obtained for all the constituents. When this is done for every hour of a year, the computational task becomes enormous, and this a calculating ma-

chine has been specially designed. Fig. 6 illustrates diagrammatically the nature of the instrument. A cord passes over and under a succession of pulleys, every other pulley being balanced in a fixed position and the alternate ones being movable; the cord is fixed at one end and carries at the other a pen which traces a curve on a revolving drum. In the diagram the instrument possesses one unit; there are two balanced pulleys and one movable one. If the lowest or movable pulley were made to oscillate up and down with simple harmonic motion the pen would execute the same motion on twice the linear scale. If the instrument possessed two units, 7.¢., one more movable pulley and one more balanced one, and the second movable pulley also rocked up and down, the pen would add to its previous motion that of this second oscillation, again on twice the scale, For any number of additional units the pen would add together all the separate simple oscillations. The rocking motion is communicated to each movable pulley by means of a pin P attached to a fixed point of the wheel of centre C, sliding in a slot attached to the pulley frame. All the wheels C and the drum are geared together so that, as the drum turns, all the movable pulleys rock up and down. The gearing is of such a nature that if one revolution of the drum represents a single day, the rocking motion of each movable pulley corresponds to one harmonic constituent. The nature of the gearing is determined by the relative speeds of the different constituents, but the length of each crank CP and the angle at which it has to be set are derived from the results of harmonic analysis. When the machine has been set appropriately it will run off a complete tidecurve for any length of time. Of course the irregular meteorological effects on sea level cannot be incorporated in a tide-table, and hence any individual prediction is lable FIG. 6.~--TIDE-PREDICTING MENT

INSTRU-

to differ considerably from the actual occurrence.

HISTORY

OF THE STUDY

OF TIDES

(23). The writings of various Chinese, Arabic and Icelandic authors show that they paid some attention to the tides, but the theories advanced are fantastic. The writings of the classical authors of antiquity contain but a few references to the tides, for the Greeks and Romans lived on the shores of an almost tideless sea. Kepler (g.v.) recognized the tendency of the water of the ocean to move towards the sun and moon, but Galileo’s explanation referred the phenomenon to the rotation and orbital motions of the earth. It was Newton (g.v.) who, in his Principia of 1687, laid the foundation of the modern theory of the tides when he brought his generalization of universal gravitation to bear on the subject. He gave a geometrical construction for the tide-generating force, and calculated the magnitude of the solar

equilibrium-tide. He considered a canal encircling the earth and applied to each particle of water the laws which he had deduced for a satellite. He accounted for many of the general properties of the tides, such as the phenomenon of springs and neaps, priming and lagging, diurnal and elliptic inequalities. The only important factor which he did not mention is the dynamical effect of the earth’s rotation. Newton’s work was continued by D. Bernoulli, L. Euler and C. Maclaurin (gq.v.) who adopted not only the theory of gravitation but also Newton’s method of the superposition of two ellipsoids. In 1746 J. le R. d’Alembert wrote a paper on atmospheric tides, but this work, like Maclaurin’s, is chiefly remarkable for the importance of collateral points. The theory of the tidal movements of an ocean was almost untouched when in 1774 Laplace first undertook the subject.

In his Mécanique

Céleste he formulated the equation of continuity and the dynamical equations, and applied them to the case of an ocean covering the whole earth. He also established the principle of forced oscillations, which forms the foundation of the harmonic methods. The connexion between the tides and the movements of the moon and

sun is so obvious that tidal predictions founded on empirical methods

TIDORE—TIECK

204

were regularly made and published long before mathematicians had devoted their attention to them. The best example of this kind of tide-table was afforded by Holden’s tables for Liverpool, based on twenty years of personal observation by a harbour-master named Hutchinson. The use of automatic tide-gauges appears to have begun about 1830. The work of J. Lubbock (Senior) and W. Whewell is chiefly remarkable for the co-ordination and analysis of data at various ports, and for the construction of tide-tables. Airy in his Tides and Waves of 1842 studied profoundly the theory of tidal motions in canals, while in 1847 and 1857 F. W. Beechy published the results of a survey of tidal currents over the Irish Sea, the English Channel and the North Sea (P/il. Trans.).

About 1863 W. Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) became interested in the problems presented by earth-tides. In 1866 he took up the analysis of ordinary tidal observations and established the harmonic methods, which quickly developed. He introduced the rotation of the earth into the tidal dynamics of small seas, and in 1872 he designed the tide-predicting machine. In 1874 W. Ferrel, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, published his Tidal Researches which included a harmonic development of the generating potential, and from the same year A. W. Baird, of the Survey of India, organized a service of observation and harmonic analysis for Indian tides. In 1882 G. H. Darwin took up harmonic analysis and produced memoirs which for a long time formed the standard manual on the subject, and about this time J. E. Pillsbury, of the U. S. Coast Survey, began the observations of currents by means of current-meters. In 188s C. Bérgen introduced new ideas into the methods of harmonic analysis (see K. Hessen, Aun. der Hydrog. [t920}). Between 2870 and 1890 F. A. Forel made illuminating studies of the seiches of Lake Geneva, and about 1890 M. Margules investigated the dynamics of atmospheric tides (Sits. Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien).

From 1894 to r907 R. A. Harris, of the U. S. Coast Survey, published his Manual of Tides. ‘This work contained charts showing cotidal lines for the whole world, based on theories and hypotheses the leading feature of which was the principle of resonance. It was assumed that in each ocean there exist regions capable of free oscillation with a period near one of the principal tidal periods, and that the nature of these free oscillations may be calculated approximately, without allowing for the earth’s rotation or the interaction with neighbouring regions. Since 1900 a number of Scandinavian oceanographers, notably V. W. " Ekman, O. Pettersson and J. P. Jacobsen, have invented current-meters and L., Favé has observed tidal elevations in the open sea by means of his self-registering instrument, In 1912 A. Blondel applied the ‘‘narrow sea theory,” through the principle of least action, to the tides of the Red Sea (Am. Fac. Toulouse). From 1913 to 1920 R. Sterneck and A. Defant developed the narrow sea theory with special reference to the Adriatic Sea (Akad. Wiss. Wien; Ann, der Hydrog.). Defant applied this theory to the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the English Channel and the Irish Sea, and parts of fig. 2 are based on his work. Since about 1895 the dynamical theory of tides and seiches has been much advanced by the mathematicians: H. Lamb, H. H. Hough, H. Poincaré, Lord Rayleigh, G. Chrystal, E. Fichot, G. R. Goldsbrough, G. I. Taylor, H. Jeffreys, G. Bertrand, S. Goldstein and J. Proudman; while since 1920 much has been done on the analysis of observations by A. T. Doodson, K. Hessen and H. Rauschelbach.

BrIBLIocRAPHY.—-History: Harris’s Manual (1897). General: G. H.

Darwin, The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System (3rd ed. 1911); E. Fichot, Les marées et leur utilisation industrielle (1923): H. A. Marmer, The Tide (1926); A. Defant, Gezeitenprobleme des Meeres in Landndhe (1925). See also Kelvin’s collected Mathematical and Physical Papers, G. H. Darwin’s collected Scientific Papers and the various treatises and papers referred to in the article. For information on actual tides see the Admiralty Tide Tables, Part II., and tables published by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. For full bibliographies see J. C. Houzeau and A. Lancaster, Biblio-

graphie de Vastronomte (1882), and a bibliography of publications from 191071927 published by the International Union for Geodesy and Geophysics. (J. Pr.)

TIDORE or TIDOR, a mountainous island of the Moluccas,

D.E. Indies, lying south of Ternate, nearly circular in shape, with an area of about 30 square miles. The southern part is occupied

almost entirely by an inactive volcanic peak (5,900 ft.). Below the 1,000 ft. level coffee, fruit and tobacco are cultivated, the soil being very fertile. The northern half consists mostly of hills, though there are a few level strips along the coast. Pop., 31,832.

Tidore is part of the residency of Ternate, and, with neighbouring islands, comes under the resident of Ternate. The inhabitants are akin to the Ternatans. They dislike work, but sell fish and cultivate garden produce. Some Tidorese do smiths’ work, in which they are proficient.

The other islands of the Ternate-Tidore group are Hiri, Mayu,

Taifore,

Maitara,

Pilonga,

Maré,

Pasuraja,

Moti,

Makian,

Waidoba,

Taneti

and

the Kayua

and

Goraityi

groups.

Ali

stretch along by the coast of Halmaheira towards Bachian, with the exception of Taifore and Mayu, which lie out in the Molucca passage. Kayua (of coralline and crystalline rock formation), is nearly to m. long and has a mountain range traversing most of its length. The people are Mohammedans, and grow rice and maize, and fish. Makian has a mountain over 4,000 ft., is wellwooded, volcanic, and has suffered from eruptions. It has a population of over 8,000 Mohammedans, resembling the people of Ternate and Tidore, who weave, fish and grow tobacco, fruit, rice and sugar-cane. Sago, the staple food, is imported from Halmaheira. Moti is surrounded with coral reefs. Maitara has mountains which attain an elevation of nearly 3,000 ft., and is well forested and fertile. Like Ternate, Tidore is the seat of an ancient and once powerful sultanate. The Portuguese established themselves there in 1521 and fought the sultan, whose capital they destroyed. Later,

the Spaniards, when Portugal had become incorporated with Spain, obtained a hold which they retained until well into the 17th century, aiding the Tidorese in maintaining their independence in Ceram, Halmaheira and other islands, against the sultan of Ternate and the Dutch. The latter, in 1654, conquered the island,

but the nominal power of the sultan was (and still is) recognized by the Dutch Government. (E. E. L.)

TIDY

TIPS

(Layia platyglossa), a small North American

herb of the family Compositae, native to California. It is an attractive spring-blooming annual, about a foot high, bearing showy flowering heads, 14 in. broad, with sulphur-yellow rays tipped with white. This plant and other related Californian species, as L. elegans, are grown as garden annuals. The white-flowered L. glandulosa, found from British Columbia to Mexico, is also cultivated.

TIECK, JOHANN LUDWIG

(1773-1853), German poet,

novelist and critic, was born in Berlin on May 31, 1773, his father being a rope-maker. He was educated at the Friedrich-Werdersche Gymnasium, and at the universities of Halle, Gottingen and Erlangen. At Göttingen Shakespeare and the Elizabethan drama were the chief subjects of his study. In 1794 he returned to Berlin, resolved to make a living by his pen. He contributed a number of short stories (1795-1798) to the series of Straussfedern, published by the bookseller C. F. Nicolai and originally edited by J. K. A. Musdus, and wrote Abdallah (2796) and a novel in letters, William Lovell (3 vols. 1795-1796). Tieck’s transition to romanticism is to be seen in the series of plays and stories published under the title Volksmarchen von Peter Lebrecht (3 vols., 1797), a collection which contains the admirable fairytale Der blonde Eckbert, and the witty dramatic satire on Berlin literary taste, Der gestiefelte Kater. With his school and college friend W. H. Wackenroder (1773-1798), he planned the novel Franz Sternbalds Wanderungen (vols. i.—ii. 1798), which was the first expression of the romantic enthusiasm for old German art. In zr80r Tieck went to Dresden, then lived for a time near Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and spent many months in Italy. In 1803

he published a translation of Minnelieder aus der schwdbischen Vorzeit, between 1799 and 1804 an excellent version of Don Ouixote, and in 181r two volumes of Elizabethan dramas, Altenglisches Theater. The stories Der Runenberg, Die Elfen, Der Pokal, and the dramatic fairy tale, Fortunat, with earlier works, appeared in the collection Phantasus (3 vols., 1812-17). In 1817 Tieck visited England in order to collect materials for a work on Shakespeare (unfortunately never finished) and in 1819 he settled permanently in Dresden;

from 1825 on he was literary

adviser to the Court Theatre, and his semi-public readings from the dramatic poets gave him a reputation which extended far beyond the Saxon capital. The new series of short stories which he began to publish in 1822 also won him a wide popularity. Notable among these are Die Gemälde, Die Reisenden, Die Verlobung, Des Lebens Uberfluss. More ambitious and on a wider canvas are the historical or semi-historical novels, Dichterleben (1826), Der Aufruhr in den Cevennen (1826, unfinished), Der Tod des Dichters (1834), Der junge Tischlermeister (1836; but begun in 1811), an excellent story written under the in-

uence

of Goethe’s

Wilhelm

Meister.

Vittoria

Accorombona

TIEL—TIEN-SHAN (1840), in the style of the French Romanticists, shows a fallingoff. In later years Tieck carried on a varied literary activity as

205

mountains, are sometimes considered to belong to the Altai system; but there are good reasons for regarding them as an indecritic (Dramaturgische Blätter, 2 vols., 1825-1826: Kritische pendent range. Excluding these, the northernmost member of the Schriften, 2 vols., 1848); he also edited the translation of Shake- Tien-shan system is the Dzungarian Ala-tau (45° N.), the southspeare by A. W. Schlegel, who was assisted by Tieck’s daughter ernmost, the Trans-Alai, or rather its west prolongation, Peter the Dorothea (1799-1841) and by Graf Wolf Heinrich Baudissin Great Mountains in Rarateghin (Bukhara), though some geogra(1789-1878); Shakespeares Vorschule (2 vols., 1823-1829); the phers assign both the Alai and the Trans-Alai Mountains to the works of H.-von Kleist (1826) and of J. M. R. Lenz (1828). In Pamirs. Khan-tengri and the Central Tien-shan.—The peak of 1841 Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prussia invited him to Berlin where he enjoyed a pension for his remaining years. He died Khan-tengri (22,440 ft.) stands but on a spur which projects from the main watershed of the central Tien-shan, towards the southon April 28, 1853. Tieck’s Schriften appeared in 20 vols. (1828-46); and his Gesamwest. The loftiest summit on the actual watershed is named melte Novellen in 12 (1852-54). Nachgelassene Schriften were pub- Nicholas Mikailovich (22,670 ft.). The general altitude of the crest lished in 2 vols. in 1855. Of modern editions of Ausgewählte Werke of the watershed is about 16,500 ft., and it is overtopped by peaks see those by G. Klee (with an excellent biography, 3 vols., 1892), and rising 3,000~3,500 ft. higher. East of Khan-tengri is Khalyk-tau, G. Witkowski (4 vols., 1903). The Elves and The Goblet were translated by Carlyle in German Romance (1827), The Pictures and The and west three diverging lines of elevation, viz., the Terskei AlaBethrothal by Bishop Thirlwall (1825). See for Tieck’s earlier life R. tau; the Kokshal-tau, continued in the Terez Mountains; and, beKépke, Ludwig Tieck (2 vols., 1855) ; for the Dresden period, H. von tween these two, the successive ranges of the Sary-jas, Kulu-tau, Friesen, Ludwig Tieck: Erinnerungen (2 vols., 1871); also A. Stern, Ludwig Tieck in Dresden (Zur Literatur der Gegenwart, 1879); B. and Ak-shiryak. The snowy chain of Khalyk-tau is highest in the Steiner, L. Tieck und die Volksbiicher (1893); H. Bischof, Tieck als west and sinks gradually towards the east. The highest parts of the range have generally an east-west strike and the range itself Dramaturg (1897); H. Luedeke, L. Tieck und das alte englische Theater (Frankfurt, 1922); A. E. Lussky, Tieck’s approach to Romanis continued east in the Kokteke (12,300 ft.), with the Kui-kuleh ticism (Borna-Leipzig, 1925). pass at 11,500 ft. From Issyk-kul there is a sharp rise of 6,000—9,000 ft. to the TIEL, a town in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the right bank of the Waal (here crossed by a pontoon bridge), snow-capped ridge of the Terskei Ala-tau, the peaks of which 2x m. by rail west of Nijmwegen. Pop. (1927), 12,123. It pos- ascend to 15,000-16,500 ft. and even 18,000 ft. At this part the sesses fine streets and open places, but of its fortifications the system has a breadth of 150 m. The Terskei Ala-tau forms a sharp, Kleiberg gate (1647) alone remains. The principal buildings are continuous, snow-clad range. It is continued westwards in the St. Martin’s church (15th century), the town hall, court-house Son-kul (alt. 9,500 ft.), the Kara-kol, and the Suzamir-tau, until it abuts upon the Talas-tau. There are broad shallow basins south and the historical castle of the family of van Arkel. TIELE, CORNELIS PETRUS (1830-1902), Dutch theo- of the Terskei Ala-tau and between them from five to seven logian and scholar, was born at Leiden on Dec. 16, 1830. He was ridges as broad as the basins. The ridges rise to 13,000~-16,000 ft. educated at Amsterdam high school and afterwards at the semi- by long gentle slopes, are flat topped and snow covered with a few nary of the Remonstrant Brotherhood. He was destined for the individual peaks and high passes. Being an uplifted peneplain and pastorate in his own brotherhood. Tiele certainly had liberal reli- little or no erosion having taken place since late Tertiary times, gious views himself, which he early enunciated from the pulpit, as the result is that although highly mountainous, in external appearRemonstrant pastor of Moordrecht (1853) and at Rotterdam ance the district is that of a plateau. The passes over the Terskel (1856). Upon the removal of the seminary of the brotherhood Ala-tau and the country to the south lie at great altitudes— from Amsterdam to Leiden in 1873, Tiele was appointed one of Kulu-tau (13,560 ft.), Bedel (13,800 ft.), Kubergenty (12,400 ft.), its leading professors. In 1877 followed his appointment at the Terekty (12,600 ft.) and Jan-art (14,440 ft.)—all in the Kokshaluniversity of Leiden as professor of the history of religions, a tau; Terek (12,800 ft.) and Turugurt (12,730 ft.), both in the chair specially created for him. Of his many learned works, the Terek range; Barskaun (12,000 ft.), Suka (11,650 ft.), and Jauku (14,000 ft.) in the Terskei Ala-tau; and Tez (11,800 ft.) and Vergelijkende geschiedenis van de egyptische en mesopotamische Godsdiensten (1872), and the Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst Akbel (12,000 ft.), both in the Sary-jas; and Muz-art (12,000 ft.) (1876; new ed. 1891), have been translated into English, the on the east shoulder of Khan-tengri. The snow-line on Terskei former by James Ballingall (1878-1882), the latter by J. Estlin Ala-tau runs at 11,500 ft. The summits of the Kulu-tau reach Carpenter (1877) under the title “Outlines of the History of 13,700 to 14,750 ft.; those of the Ak-skiryak 15,000-16,000 ft. Religion” (French translation, 1885; German translation, 1895). The Kokshal-tau consists of several parallel ranges, is truly alpine A French translation of the Comparative History was published in character and bears large glaciers, which send out arms into in 1882. Other works by Tiele are: De Godsdienst van Zarathus- U-shaped valleys, behind which the pyramidal mountain peaks tra, van het Ontstaan in Baktrie, tot den Val van het Oud-Per- tower up. The loftiest range is that to the north, which exceeds sische Rijk (1864) a work now embodied, but much enlarged 16,000 ft., and the altitude increases generally from west to east and improved by the latest researches of the author, in the History as far as the Bedel pass in 78° 30’ E., where the road crosses from of Religions (vol. ii. part ii, Amsterdam, 1901), a part which Ak-su and Uch-Turfan to the valley of the Naryn and Ferghana. Eastern and Northern Tien-shan.—The system is known appeared only a short time before the author’s death; De Vrucht der Assyriologie voor de vergelijkende geschiedenis der Godsdien- here locally as the Barkul Mountains and the Karlyk-tagh. Its sten (1877; German ed., 1878) ; Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte middle parts are snow-clad, the snow lying down to 12,000 ft. on (two parts, Leipzig, 1886-1888); Western Asia, according to the the north side, while the peaks reach altitudes of 13,000—14,700 most Recent Discoveries (London, 1894). He was also the writer ft., but the range is only crossed by passes in the east, at altitudes of the article “Religions” in the oth edition of the Ency. Brit. from 7,805—10,984 ft. Towards the east, the Karlyk-tagh radiates outwards, and decreases in altitude, though it rises again in the He died on Jan. 11, 1902. TIEN-SHAN or CELEesTIAL Mountains, one of the most rocky Emir-tagh. From the Karlyk-tagh a stony desert slopes extensive mountain systems of Central Asia. In the widest accep- south to the Chol-tagh. The Chol-tagh marks the northern escarptation, the system extends from the Aral-Caspian depression ment, as the Kuruk-tagh, farther south, the southern escarpment, (about 67° E.) to the great bend of the Hwang-ho (about 103° of the great Pe-shan swelling of the desert of Gobi. These two E.). Chinese geographers confine the term to that part between ranges are eastern prolongations, the former of the Khaidyk-tagh Khan-tengri (80° 11’ E. and 42° 13’ N.) and the Barkul depres- and the latter of the Kok-teke Mountains, which enclose on north sion (92°-93° E.), where the northern ranges abut upon the Ek- and south respectively the Yulduz valley and the Lake of Baghtagh Altai; and this conception is accepted by some European yash-kul. Thus the Kuruk-tagh are linked, by the Kok-teke, on to geographers. P. P. Semenov applies the name to the ranges which the Khalyk-tau of the Khan-tengri group. The Khaidyk-tau, lie immediately west of Khan-tengri, mcluding Khan-tengri. The which are crossed by the passes of Tash-againym (7,610 ft.) and Tarbagatai and their north-western continuation, the Chinghis Kotyl (9,900 ft.), are probably connected with the Trans-Ili

206

TIENTSIN

Ala-tau, or its twin parallel range, the Kunghei Ala-tau, in the On the south of the Ferghana valley is the lofty range of the west. The Narat-tau appear to form a diagonal link between the Alai, backed by the parallel range of the Trans-Alai. Both ranges Khaidyk-tau and the Khalyk-tau and are crossed by passes Sary- abut at their eastern extremity upon the Pamir plateau, and both tyur (10,800 ft.), Mukhurdai (11,800 ft.), Jambi (11,415 ft.) extend a long way out into the desert. The Alai is a well-defined and the Dundeh-keldeh (11,710 ft.). ridge with steep slopes, and both it and Terek-tau, which prolongs West of the Barkul range is the gap of Otunkoza by which the it towards the Kokshal-tau, are flanked next the Ferghana valley Hami and Barkul caravan roads cross into the valley of Dzun- Palaeozoic metamorphic limestones and newer Tertiary series garia, and at Urumchi (87° 30’ E.), over 200 m. farther west, is of softer conglomerates and sandstones. The general altitude a similar gap which facilitates communication between ‘Turfan of both ranges is 16,000-19, 000 ft., but the Trans-Alai culand Dzungaria. Between these gaps stretches the snow-clad minates in peak Kaufmann (23,386 ft.). The Trans-Alai is a true range of the Bogdo-ola, average altitude 13,000 ft., and rising to border range, the ascent to it from the Pamir plateau (13,000 ft.) 17,000-18,000 ft. in the double peak of Turpanat-tagh. On the on the south-east being gentle and relatively short, while both it north side of this range the snow-line runs at an altitude of 9,500 and the Alai tower above the valley of the Alai to an altitude of ft. At the foot lies the broad, deep valley of Dzungaria (2,500— 11,000 to 14,000 ft. This valley is 75 miles in length and is 1,000 ft.). On the south the Bogdo-ola is flanked by the nearly continued towards the south-west by the valley of Karateghin. parallel range of the Jargéz, a range which carries no perpetual Its breadth varies from three to 12 mules, and it falls from 10,s00 snow. But its altitude does not exceed 10,000 ft., and its steep ft. (north-east) to 8,200 ft. (south-west). It is drained by the rocky slopes meet in a sharp, denticulated crest. West of the Kyzyl-su, which, under the name of Vakhish, finally enters the Urumchi gap, the Bogdo-ola is continued in the snow capped Amu Darya. Despite frequent avalanches of snow it is an importdouble range of the Iren-khabirga (11,500 ft.), which curve north- ant highway of communicat ion between Bukhara and the Pamirs west and finally, as the Talki Mountains, merge into the Boro- on the one hand and Kashgar and Ferghana on the other. The khoro range. They culminate in the peak of Dds-megen-ora principal passes over it into the valley of F erghana are Taldyk, (20,000 ft.). The Boro-khoro Mountains (average elevation 11,- 11,605 ft. with a military road; Jiptyk, 13,60 ft.; Saryk-mogal, 500 ft.) have all the characteristics of a border-ridge. The slopes 14,110 ft.; Tenghiz-bai , 12,630 ft.; and Kara-kazyk, 14,305 ft. are clothed with Coniferae between 6,000 and 9,000 ft., and the The Pamir plateau is reached by the Kyzyl-art pass at 14,015 ft. range separates the valley of Kulja (Ili) on the south from the The Alai Mountains are continued westwards in the radiating depressions of Zairam-nor (6,820 ft.) and Ebi-nor (670 ft.). The ranges of the Karateghi n, Zarafshan and Hissar Mountains and passes in the Boro-khoro lie at lower altitudes than is usual in the the Turkistan range, which reach altitudes of 18,500 ft. The Tien-shan ranges, namely at 7,000—7,415 ft, Trans-Alai are continued in the Peter the Great range, which On the north side of the valley of Borotala is the Dzungarian culminates in the Sandal group (24,935 ft.). The passes across Ala-tau, the northernmost member of the Tien-shan. The two these ranges are difficult and at 10,000-13,000 ft. The last outlyprincipal series of parallel ranges are the northern series (going ing range of the Tien-shan system in this direction is the Nura-tau. from east to west) of the Baskan-tau, Sarkan-tau, Karazryk-tau, It rises abruptly from the desert and lifts its snowy peaks to altiBionyn-tau, and Koranyn-tau, at an average elevation of 11,000— tudes of 15,000-16 ,000 ft., separating the river Syr Darya from 13,000 ft., and the southern series of the Urtak-saryk, Bejin-tau the river Zarafshan. The passes over it lie at 10,000—13,000 ft. and Kok-su, at altitudes of 12,000—14,000 ft. Routes.—The traditional routes between China, and West Western and Southern Tien-shan.—On the north side of the Turkistan and Persia have crossed the Tien-shan system at some Issyk-kul are the parallel twin ranges of the Trans-Ili Ala-tau and half a dozen points. After traversing the desert of Gobi from Kunghei Ala-tau. The two chains are connected by the lofty trans- Sa-chou to Hami, the northern route crossed over into the Dzunverse ridge of Almaty. The Trans-IH Ala-tau swings away to the garian valley either by the Otun-koza depression or by the gap at north-west, and is continued in the echeloned ranges of Kandyk- Urumchi, or else it proceeded over the Muz-art pass on the east tau, Kulja-bashi, Khan-tau and the Chu-Ili Mountains of general side of Khan-te ngri or over the Bedel pass in the Kokshal-tau and altitudes between 4,000 ft. and 9,000 ft. These latter ranges sep- so down into the valley of Kulja. The shortest route, though not arate the Muyunkum desert on the west from the Balkash deserts. the easiest, between Kashgar and East Turkistan, and Ferghana The Trans-Ili itself culminates in Mt. Talgar at an altitude of and West Turkistan is over the Terek pass or the pass at the head 15,725 ft. The Kunghei Ala-tau rises 8,000 ft. above the Issyk-kul of the Alai valley, a dangerous route in winter by reason of snow. and lifts its summits higher than 13,000 ft. The passes across BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Numcrous papers appear in the Geograph the ical Jourtwin ranges lie at 8,000~11,000 ft. (Almaty pass) in the Trans-Il Petermann’s Mitteilungen; Zeitschrift der Gesellshafi i nal; fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin; Izvestia of Russ. Geog. Soc. The most importa Ala-tau and at 9,000—-10,885 ft. (Kurmenty pass) in the Kunghei nt papers are:—Dr . M. Friedrichsen, M orphologie der Tiën-schan, (Z. Ala-tau. On neither of these ranges are there any true glaciers. Geo. Erdk. Berlin, 1899) ; G. Merzbacher, Die Physiographie der TianThe Alexander Mountains terminate over against the town of schan, 1913 and several other papers; E. Huntington, “The Mountai ns Aulie-ata (71° 20’ E.) at the relatively low altitude of Turkesta n,” in Geog. Journ, (London, .1905) ; P. Kropotkin, “The of 2,460 Ít., though farther east they rise to x 3,000—14,000 ft., Orograp hy of Asia,” Geog. Journ. (1904); C. D. Bruce, “Leh to and even reach Peking,” Geog. Journ. 15,350 ft. in Mt. Semenov. On the north their declivit D. Carruthers, Unknown Mongolia, ies are steep London (r913); Sir A. (1907); Stein, Serinde, 4 vols. Oxford (1921), and and rugged. They are crossed by passes at 6,550—1 1,82 5 ft. “Innermost Asia,” Geog. Journ. (1925). For geology see:—Dr. Kurt From the middle of the Alexander range (74° E.) the Talas-tau Leuchs, “Zentralasien,” Handb. der Reg. Geol, (Heidelburg 1916) and breaks away in a west-south-west direction, and E. Argand, Lé Tectoniq ue de P Asie (Liége, from near the 1924). western extremity of this latter two parallel ranges, the Chotkal TIENTSIN, a large commercial city in the province of (14,000 ft.) and the Ala-tau, break away in a south-westerly Chihli, China. Estimated populatio n 900,000. It is situated at direction, and running parallel to one another and to the river the junction of the Peiho and the Hun-ho, which is connected by Naryn, terminate at right angles to the middle Syr Darya, after the Grand canal with the Yangtze Kiang. The town is built on it has made its sweeping turn to the north-west. The Talas-tau a vast alluvial plain, which extends from the mountains beyond has an average elevation of 14,000-15,000 ft., its snow-capped Peking to the sea, and through which the Peiho runs a circuitous summits at 15,750 ft.; it is crossed by passes at 8,000-10,6s0 ft. course, making the distance by water from Tientsin to the coast Near the west end of the Alexander range, (71° E.) the Kara- about 70 m., as against 30 m. by railway. tau stretches north-west, between the Syr Darya and the In 1853 Tientsin was besieged by an army of T’aip’i consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks. Its averag Chu. It ng rebels, e eleva- who were ultimately forced to retreat. The tion is 5,000 ft., in places it reaches 7,000-8,000 city and suburbs were ft. In the same occupied by allied forces, English and French, in 1860-62, The north-westerly to south-easterly direction are the Fergha na Moun- city was constituted an open port. There were further riots in tains. The Ferghana Mountains, which are cleft by the Naryn 1870. During the period 1874-94 the city prospered under Li river, have a mean altitude of 10,000 ft., but attain elevations of Hlung-Chang, viceroy of Chihli. The entire city, native and 12,740 ft. (Suyuk) and are crossed by the Terek pass at 9,140 ft. foreign, suffered severely during the Boxer hostilities, June-July

TTEPOLO—TIERRA

DEL

FUEGO

207

1900. After this the city walls were razed and the municipal Lake Solier and Lake Fagnans receive the water from these mounservices considerably improved. There is a university, several | tains and hills. To the south of the lake rises the south-eastern cotton mills and important rice and salt markets. The river front | prolongation of the Andes with ridges at a uniform height of of the Peiho is governed by foreign Powers, who have exacted 3,500 ft. in which predominate crystalline schists. Some peaks of Tertiary granite break the uniformity, such as Mt. Sarmiento from time to time various “concessions.” TIEPOLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1692-1769), Italian (7,540 ft.), Mt. Darwin (about 7,500 ft.) and Mt. Ulewaia (4,500 painter, was born at Venice, and acquired the rudiments of his art ft.), called Olivaia on some maps. The section of the archipelago south of Beagle channel infrom Gregorio Lazzarini, and probably from Piazzetta, though the decisive influence on the formation of his style was the study of cludes the islands of Hoste, Navarin, Gordon, Londonderry, StewPaolo Veronese’s sumptuous paintings. He developed an extraordinary facility of brushwork, and proved himself, as a frescopainter, a colourist of the first order, though this early mastery of technique made him frequently neglect form and composition. He decorated many Venetian churches and palaces with ceilings

and frescoes full of turbulent movement and rich colour, extending his operations to the near cities of the mainland and to Bergamo (Colleoni Chapel) and Milan (ceiling at Palazzo Clerici). In

1750 he went to Würzburg to paint the magnificent ceilings and frescoes at the archbishop’s palace. From 1753 to 1761 he worked again at Venice and in the cities of north-east Italy, until he was summoned to Madrid by Charles ITI. to paint some frescoes for the royal palace. He died at Madrid in 1769. Tiepolo’s altarpieces and easel pictures show more clearly even than his frescoes how deeply he was imbued with the spirit of Paolo Veronese, for in these smaller works he paid more attention to the balance of composition, whilst retaining the luminosity of his colour harmonies.

The majority of his works, both in fresco

and in oils, are to be found in Venice in the churches of 5. Aloise, SS. Apostoli, Gesuati, the Academy, the Palazzi Labia and QuiriniStampalia, and the Doge’s Palace. See

Henry

de

Chenneviéres,

Les

Tiepolo

Molmenti, G. B. Tiepolo (Milan 1910).

TIERCERON,

(1898);

and

Pompeo

;

in mediaeval architecture, an intermediat

vaulting rib running from the spring of the vault to the ridge, at an angle between the cross rib and the diagonal or groin rib; or, in cross vaults, between the diagonal rib and the wall rib. Tiercerons came into use in the early Decorated period of English Gothic and Exeter cathedral (1308-67) shows the delicate beauty

and lightness that the use of tiercerons gives. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; VAULT. TIERRA DEL FUEGO, an archipelago lying between 52° 27’ and 55° so’ S. lat. and 63° 43’ and 74° 44’ W. long. at the southern extremity of South America, from which it is separated by Magellan strait. At the First Narrows and at other points the strait is scarcely a mile wide. In shape the main island is a triangle with its base in the Beagle channel. The total area is about 28,000 sq.m. of which 19,500 sq.m. belong to Chile and 8,500 to Argentina. Argentina holds that part of the main island which lies east of the meridian of Cape Espiritu Santo (68° 36’ 38” W.) and Chile holds all the western part of the main island and other numerous islands to the west and to the south of Beagle channel. The Argentine side is known as the Gobernacion of Tierra del Fuego (including Staten island) and the Chilean forms part of the Territory of Magellanes. Although in the ’80s of the past century extensive deposits of alluvial gold were discovered, their exploitation was not generally successful and farms took the place of mines. The Argentina census of 1914 reported 64 haciendas covering 4,830 sq.m. with about 800,000 sheep, 7,000 cattle and 5,000 horses on the Argentina side. The sheep industry is particularly profitable and growing rapidly.

Physical Features.—The greater part of the main island is

formed by the continuation of the Tertiary beds of the Patagonian table-land cut by the transversal depression of Magellan strait and

by the lowland extending from Useless bay in the west to San Sebastian bay on the east and analogous to the transverse valleys of the Patagonian table-land. North of the lowland is an undulating table-land with an average height of 4oo ft., intersected by

numerous arroyos with little water and with good sheep pasture. In the west and south-west the general character of the main island changes: the ends of the Tertiary beds are raised—small hills and

Mesozoic rocks appear, forming broken ridges east of the main range of the Andes.

In this region appears the Antarctic forest.

art Wollaston and numerous islets, disposed in triangular form with the base on Beagle channel and the apex at Cape Horn. Important explorations in this region were conducted by the French Mission de Cap Horn (1882-83). The most recent explorations on the western part of the main island of Tierra del Fuego immediately south of Beagle channel (in the Fiords de Agostini, Admiral Martinez and others) were carried out by Alberto M. de Agostini in 1913~14. The western group of islands includes Clarence island (formerly believed to be a single island but now known to be divided by a channel into two sections kncwn as Santa Ives and Desolation islands) and numerous small islands and rocks. Climate.—At Ushuaia ten years’ meteorological observations have shown a mean annual temperature of 42-8° F, with a winter mean of 34-7°, a summer mean of 50-2°, and an average yearly precipitation of 24-8 inches. Of all winds, 80% are westerly and a great difference in precipitation between the windward and leeward sides of the islands has been noted not only in the western part but also on Staten and Observatory islands. Precipitation on all windward slopes is almost continuous, producing dense forests on the lower slopes, where it falls as rain, and snow and ice-fields on the upper slopes. Inhabitants.—To the three geographical divisions correspond three well-marked ethnical groups—the Onas on the main island south of the Grande river, the Yagans (Yahgans) on the southern

islands and the Alakalups on the western. The origin of the Onas, like that of the other groups, is obscure. Undoubtedly among them are many that resemble some Patagonian type; but they seem to be not the same as the Tehuelche type and may pertain to one of the earlier Patagonian races. Their language is closely allied to that called Old Tehuelche; it is a hard guttural, slow-spoken speech, not at all resembling the soft, rapidly-spoken language of the Yahgans, which has many points of similarity with that of the Alakalups. The isolation of the Onas is peculiarly marked as they are insular people who do not use boats. The Yahgans live under conditions of extraordinary rigour. In order to obtain food, they venture naked with small canoes into the tremendous seas. Their life is a constant battle with starvation and a severe climate and their number is being rapidly depleted. They have no higher social unit than the family. The missionaries, who have reduced their language to writing, assert that it contains no less than 30,000 words, although the numerals stop at five, but it appears that a large number of words included in this total are compounds. Comparatively little is known of the Alakalups. Discovery and Exploration.—Tierra del Fuego was discovered by Fernando de Magellan in 1520 when he sailed through the strait named after him and called this region ‘Land of Fire.” In 1578 Sir Francis Drake first sighted the point which in 1616 was named Cape Hoorn (Anglicized Horn) by the Dutch navigators Jacob Lemaire and William Cornelis Schoote (x615-17). In 1619 the brothers Garcia and Gonzalo de Nodal first circumnavigated the archipelago. No systematic exploration was attempted until the British Admiralty undertook a thorough survey of the whole group by Philip Parker King (1762-1828) and Robert Fitzroy (1831-36). The latter expedition (Voyage of the “Beagle’’) was accompanied by Charles Darwin, then a young man. To these admirable surveys is due most of the present geographical terminology of the archipelago, and although supplemented by later surveys in many parts by the Chilean navy they still form the basis and,.to a large extent furnish the detail, for most hydrographic charts of the region. BrsriocraPpHy.——~J. Weddell, A Voyage towards to Tierra del Fuego (1825); C. Darwin, Journal during the Voyage of the “Beagle” (1845); W. Years’ Cruise off Tierra del Fuego (1857) ; Mission

the South Pole of Researches, P. Snow, A scientifique du

and etc. Two Cap

208

TIFFANY—TIGER

Horn, 1882-1883 (1888); Sir M. Conway, Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego (1902) ; R. Dabbene, “Viaje 4 la Tierra del Fuego,” Bolet. Inst, Geog. Argentina, vol. xxi. (1905) ; R. Crawshay, The Birds of Tierra

del Fuego (1907); E. Holmberg, “Viaje al Interior de la Tierra del Fuego,” Anales del Ministerio de Agriculture (Buenos Aires, 1906); J. M. Cooper, “Analytical and critical bibliography of the tribes of Tierra del Fuego,” Bureau of Amer. Ethnology, Bulletin 63 (1917); C. Spregazzine and C. Narelli; Resultados de la primera expedición a Tierra del Fuego (1922); A. de Agostini, Z miet viaggi nella Terra del Fuoco (1923); W. Koppers, Unter Feuerland (1924); M. Gusinde, “Meine vier Reisen durch das Feerland,” Proc. XVI. Internat. Congr.

of Americanists (1924); R. Kent, Voyaging Southward from the Strait of Magellan (1924); L. Nitsche, “El Grupo linguistico,

Alakalup” Revista del Museo de la Plata, vol. xxv. (1919), and “Estudios Antropologicos sobre las Onas,” Anales del Museo de La Plata, vol. ii. (1927). (N. A. T.)

TIFFANY,

CHARLES

LEWIS

(1812~1902), American

jeweller, was born in Killingly (Conn.), on Feb. 15, 1812. He removed to New York city in 1837, and with John B. Young opened a fancy goods store. In 1847 the firm began to manufacture gold jewellery. It became Tiffany, Young and Ellis in 1841 and was reorganized as Tiffany & Co. in 1853. At the beginning of the Civil War, Tiffany turned most of his capital to the manufacture of swords, medals and similar war material. In 1868 the company was incorporated and branches were established at London and at Geneva. Tiffany made a specialty of importing historic gems, jewellery and art works, and in 1887 bought some of the crown jewels of France. He was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1878. He died in New York on Feb. 18, 1902.

TIFFANY,

LOUIS

COMFORT

(2848-

), American

artist, son of Charles L. Tiffany, was born in New York city on Feb. 18, 1848. He was a pupil of George Inness and of Samuel Coleman, New York, and of Léon Bailly, Paris. He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1877), of the National Academy of Design (1880), of the American Water Color Society, and of the Société Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris. In 1900 he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in Paris, and in America has received a number of medals. He travelled extensively in Europe, and painted in oil and water-colour, but eventually devoted himself to decorative glass work. He became president and art director of the Tiffany Glass and Decorating Company, and produced a “Favrile” glass, of unusual beauty of colour. In 1918 he founded the Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation for art students at Oyster Bay (N.Y.), deeding his country home, Lawreton Hall, with over 6oac. of land, his art collection, and a maintenance fund of $1,000,000. TIFFIN, a city of northern Ohio, U.S.A., the county seat of Seneca county; on the Sandusky river, 40 m. S.S.E. of Toledo. It is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Big Four, the Pennsylvania and electric railways. Pop. 14,375 in 1920 (94% native white); 1930 Federal census 16,428. Tiffin was settled in 1817 and was named after the first governor of the State. It was incorporated as a town in 1835 and as a city in 1850, when the village of Fort Ball, across the Sandusky, was united with it.

TIFLIS, tke capital of the Georgian S.S.R., and the adminis-

trative centre of the Transcaucasian S.F.S.R., situated on both banks of the Kura river, and on the railway linking the Black Sea and the Caspian, in 41° 41° N., 44° 48% E. Pop. (1926) 282,918. Shut in by hills (1,500 to 2,400 ft.), it is sheltered in winter, but hot and stifling in summer, its average temperature ranging between 34-7° F, in winter and 73-4° F in summer. It manufactures bricks, tobacco, vegetable oils, soap, cognac, leather goods, furniture, and has a saw-milling industry.

In 1926-7, the Zemo-Avchal

hydro-electric station, with a capacity of ‘13,000 kilowatts, was opened. There are municipal electricity, water, canal and tramway services, and the town is well built. The Sion cathedral traces its origin to the sth century; other churches date from the 14th and r5th centuries, and the Armenian cathedral of Van from 1480. There are numerous educational institutions. The town is at the southern extremity of the Georgian Military road, which links it through the Dariel Gorge with Vladikavkaz. The Oriental markets and bazaars of the native quarter, where Persians, Kirghiz, Tatars and peoples from the east congregate, display the work of Georgian silversmiths, gunsmiths and sword-makers,

carpets, dried fruits and silken goods are important items, and there is much exchange of Persian and Russian wares. The Georgian annals put the foundation of Tiflis back to A.D. 379. (See GrorctA, History.) In the latter half of the sth century the chieftain of Georgia, Wakhtang Gurgaslan, transferred his capital from Mtskhet to the warm springs of Tiflis, where he erected several churches and a fort. In 570 the Persians took the

place and made it the residence of their rulers, but retained it

only for ten years. Tiflis suffered successive plunderings and devastations at the hands of the Greeks in 626, of one of the commanders of the Caliph Omar in 731, of the Khazars in 828, and of the Arabs in 851. The Georgians, however, always managed to return to it and to keep it in their permanent possession. In the course of the succeeding centuries Tiflis fell repeatedly into Persian hands; and it was plundered by the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane towards the end of the r4th century. Afterwards the Turks seized it several times, and towards the end of the 17th century the Lesghians attacked it. In 1795, when the shah of Persia plundered Tiflis, Russia sent troops to its protection, and the Russian occupation became permanent in 1799. One of the fullest accounts of Tiflis is contained in Brosset’s edition of the Description géographique de la Géorgie (St. Petersburg, 1842), by the

illegitimate son of Wakhtang VI., king of Karthli (i.e., Georgia),

who became a pensioner of Peter the Great.

TIGELLINUS, TOFONTUS, minister and favourite of the

emperor Nero, was a native of Agrigentum, possibly of Greek descent. During the reign of Caligula he was banished (A.D. 39) for adultery with the emperor’s sisters, but recalled by Claudius

(4z). Having inherited a fortune, he bought land in Apulia and

Calabria and devoted himself to breeding race-horses. In this manner he gained the favour of Nero. In 62 he was promoted to the prefecture of the praetorian guards. The great fire of 64 broke out afresh in his gardens, and he was suspected of being concerned with it. In 65, during the investigation into the abortive conspiracy of Piso, he and Poppaea formed a kind of imperial privy council. In 67 he accompanied Nero on his tour in Greece. He deserted Nero at the last, and took the praetorians with him. Under Galba he was obliged to give up his command, but managed to save his life. Otho on his accession (69) determined to remove him. While in the baths at Sinuessa, Tigellinus received the news that he must die, and, having failed to gain a respite, cut his throat. See Tacitus, Annals, xiv., xv., xvi.; Hist. i. 72; Dio Cassius lix. 23, Ixii. 13, 15, 27, Ixiii, 12, 21, Ixiv. 3; Suetonius, Galba, 15; Plutarch, Galba, Otho; ancient authorities quoted by Mayor on Juvenal, i. 155; B. W. Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero (1903).

TIGER (Felis tigris), an animal only rivalled by the lion in size, strength and ferocity among the cat-like beasts of prey (see CARNIVORA), the difference between the two lying mainly in the skin and its coverings. A tiger’s skull may, however, always be distinguished from that of a lion by the circumstance that the nasal bones extend higher on the forehead than the maxillae, in-

stead of stopping on nearly the same line. Although examples of both species present considerable variations in size, the length of the largest Bengal tiger may exceed that of any lion. Ten feet

from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail is no unusual length for a large male tiger. The female is somewhat smaller, and has a lighter and narrower head. The tiger has no mane, but in old males the hair on the cheeks is rather long and spreading. The ground-colour of the upper and outer parts of the head, body, limbs and tail, is bright rufous fawn; and these parts are beautifully marked with transverse stripes of a dark, almost black colour. The markings vary much in different individuals, and even on the two sides of the same individual. The under-parts of the body, the inside of the limbs, the cheeks and a large spot over each eye are nearly white. The tigers which inhabit hotter regions, as Bengal and the south Asiatic islands, have shorter and smoother hair, and are more richly coloured and distinctly striped than those of northern China and Siberia, in which the fur is longer, softer and lighter-coloured. Black and white phases have been recorded, but they are rare. The tiger is exclusively Asiatic,

but has a wide range in that continent, having been found in almost all suitable localities south of a line drawn from the River

TIGER-CA'T— TIGRANES

209

Euphrates, passing along the southern shores of the Caspian and _ throne c. 1120 B.c.. and was one of the greatest of Assyrian conSea of Aral by Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okhotsk. Its most _querors. His first campaign was against the Moschi who had northern range is the territory of the Amur, its most southern the occupied certain Assyrian districts on the Upper Euphrates; islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali. Westward it reaches to Turk- then he overran Commagene and eastern Cappadocia, and drove ish Georgia and eastward to the island of Sakhalin. It is absent the Hittites from the Assyrian province of Subarti north-east of however, from the great elevated plateau of Central Asia nor Malatia. In a subsequent campaign the Assyrian forces penedoes it inhabit Ceylon, Borneo or the other islands of the Indo- trated into the Kurdish mountains south of Lake Van and then Malay archipelago, except those named. turned westward, Malatia submitting to the invader. In his fifth The principal food of the tiger in India is caitle, deer, | year Tiglath-Pileser attacked Comana in Cappadocia, and placed and pea-fowl, and occasionally į a record of his victories engraved on copper plates in a fortress human beings. The regular “man- A74, he built to secure his Cilician conquests. The Aramaeans of north eater” is generally an old tiger £ Syria were the next to be attacked, and he thrice made his way MY whose vigour is past, and whose as far as the sources of the Tigris. The command of the high road teeth are worn and defective; it W0. to the Mediterranean was secured by the possession of the Hittite takes up its abode in the neigh- i\¥g town of Pethor at the junction of the Euphrates and Sajur, and bourhood of a village, the popu- *%) at Arvad he received presents, including a crocodile, from the ee

NSN RA NORM ‘NN tp

lation of which it finds an easier ! prey than wild animals. Though |

Egyptian king, and, embarking in a ship, killed a dolphin in the

chiefly affecting grassy plains or ey courtesy

oF

THE

swamps, tigers are also found in Fhe “Terr EUS forests,

and

seem

to

be

fond

of MOST

POWERFUL

W.Y.

ZOOLOGICAL

HINGE

OF

THE

ke

CAT

haunting the neighbourhood of Famity old ruins. As a rule, they do not climb trees; but when pressed by fear, as during an inundation, they have been known to do so. They take to the water readily and are good swimmers. The tigress gives birth to from two to six cubs, but three is the common number. She is an affectionate mother, and generally guards and trains her young with watchful solicitude. They remain with her until nearly full-grown, or about the second year, when they are able to kill for themselves. Whilst they remain with her she defends them with great courage and energy, and when robbed of them is terrible in her rage; but she has been known to desert them when pressed, and even to eat them when starved. As soon as they begin to require other food than her milk, she kills for them, teaching them to do so for themselves by practising on small animals. The tiger and the lion occasionally hybridize. See Sir J. Fayrer, Royal Tiger of Bengal (1875); F. W. Champion, With a Camera in Tiger Land (1927).

TIGER-CAT, typically Felis tigrina, an American wild cat ranging from Mexico, on the east of the Andes, to Paraguay and the central forest region of Argentina. It measures something over 30in., Including the tail. The fur is grizzly grey, with black spots. The name is also applied to the ocelot (q.v.).

TIGER-FLOWER, botanically Tigridia, a genus of bulbous plants (family Iridaceae), natives of Mexico, Central America, Peru and Chile. They have long narrow plicately-veined leaves springing from the bulb and a stem bearing two or three scattered smaller leaves and above a few flowers emerging from a spathe. The flowers are spotted (whence the name tiger-flower or tiger-

iris) and have free segments springing from a tube; the three large broad outer segments are concavely spreading, the three inner are much smaller and more erect. 7. Pavonia (flower of Tigris or tiger-flower) has large flowers with a golden orange, white or yellow ground colour.

TIGHINA

(Turkish, Bender, the Gate, from the fortress

erected by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1558, but demolished in 1897; Russian, Bendery), a town of Bessarabia, Rumania, capital of department of same name, on the Dniester. Pop. (1924) about

42,000, including many Jews and Ukrainians. It is connected by rail with Kishinev (37 m.) and southward via Basarabiasia with Cetatea Alba and Galatz, and a railway also runs over the river into Russia to Tiraspol and Odessa. Tighina possesses a tobacco factory, candle-works and brick-kilns and a saw-mill. Timber is floated down the Dniester, and the town is a centre for products of the surrounding districts. In the r2th century it was a Genoese trading centre, and has been held in turn by Tatars, Moldavians,

B.c. that the Chaldaean prince Ukin-zer (Chinzirus) was driven from Babylon and Tiglath-Pileser acknowledged as its legitimate ruler. In the early part of Tebet 727 B.C. he died, after having built two palaces, one at Nineveh, the other at Calah. See P. Rost, Die Keilschrifitexte Tiglat-Pilesers ITI. (1893); also BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, § v. History (“Second Assyrian Empire”); and authorities quoted in § viii. Chronology.

XII.

TIGRANES or DIKRAN, king of Armenia (c. 140-55 B.C.).

(Ass. Tukulti-pal-E-sarra, “my con-

He was the son or nephew of Artavasdes of Armenia, and a member of the dynasty founded by Artaxias, a general of Antiochus

Turks, Russians and Rumanians. camped here 1709-13.

TIGLATH-PILESER

sea. He was passionately fond of the chase and was also a great builder, the restoration of the temple of Assur and Hadad at Assur (q.v.) being one of his works. TIGLATH-PILESER I. or II., son of Hadad-nirari II., appears to have reigned from about 950 to 930 B.C., but nothing is known about him. TIGLATH-PILESER III. or IV., was a successful general who usurped the Assyrian throne on the 13th of Iyyar 745 B.c., after the fall of the older dynasty, and changed his name of Pulu (Pul) to that of the famous conqueror of earlier times. In Babylonia, however, he continued to be known as Pulu. He was a man of great ability, both military and administrative, and initiated a | new system of policy in Assyria which he aimed at making the head of a centralized empire, bound together by a bureaucracy who derived their power from the king. The empire was supported by a standing army and an elaborate system of finance. The first task of Tiglath-Pileser was to reduce the Aramaean tribes to order, and so win the gratitude of the Babylonian priests. Then he struck terror into the wild tribes on the eastern frontiers of the kingdom by a campaign which extended into the remotest parts of Media. Next came the defeat of a northern coalition headed by Sar-duris of Ararat, no fewer than 72,950 of the enemy being captured along with the city of Arpad, where the Assyrian king received the homage of various Syrian princes. Arpad revolted soon afterwards, but after a siege was taken in 740 B.C. The following year Azariah of Judah appears among the enemies of Tiglath-Pileser, who had overthrown his Hamathite allies and: annexed the nineteen districts of Hamath. The conquered populations were now transported to distant parts of the empire. In 737 B.c. Tiglath-Pileser again marched into Media, and in 735 he invaded Ararat and wasted the country round the capital Van to a distance of 450 miles. In 734 B.c. he was called to the help of Yabu-khazi (Ahaz) of Judah, who had been attacked by Pekah of Israel and Rezon (Rasun) of Damascus. Rezon, defeated in battle, fled to his capital which was at once invested by the Assyrians, while with another portion of his army Tiglath-Pileser ravaged Syria and overran the kingdom of Samaria. Ammon, Moab, Edom and the queen of Sheba sent tribute, and Teima in northern Arabia was captured by the Assyrian troops. In 732 B.c. Damascus fell; Rezon was put to death, and an Assyrian satrap appointed in his stead. Tyre also was made tributary. The next year Tiglath-Pileser entered Babylonia, but it was not until 729

The forces of Charles ,

fidence is the son of E-sarra,” z.e., the god In-Aristi), the name of

several Assyrian kings. Their numbering is not certain. TIGLATH-PILESER I., the son of Assur-ris-isi, ascended the

II. (See Sereucmw Dynasty.) He was given to Mithradates IL of Parthia as a hostage, and purchased his freedom by ceding 70 valleys bordering on Media.

TIGRE—TIGRIS

210

Tigranes ascended the throne in 95 or 94 B.c. (Plut. Luc. 21), and immediately began to enlarge his kingdom. He deposed Artanes, king of Sophene, and entered into alliance with Mithradates VI. Eupator of Pontus, whose daughter Cleopatra he married. In 93 he invaded Cappadocia in the interest of Mithradates,

but was driven back by Sulla in g2. During his first war with Rome, Mithradates was supported by Tigranes, although he abstained from interfering openly. But he meanwhile began war with the Parthians, whose empire was weakened after the death of Mithradates II. (about 88) by internal dissensions and invasions of the Scythians. Tigranes reconquered the valleys which he had ceded, and laid waste a great part of Media; the kings of Atropatene, Gordyene (now Bohtan), Adiabene (Assyria) and Osroene (Edessa) became his vassals, who attended him like slaves whereever he went; he also annexed northern Mesopotamia. In 83 he invaded Syria, defeated the last successors of Seleucus and occupied Cilicia. In the war between Mithradates and Sulla he did not interfere, but after the death of Sulla (78) he occupied Cappadocia again and expelled King Ariobarzanes I., the vassal of the Romans. During the next years he had a war in Syria, against Cleopatra Selene, and in Cilicia, where he destroyed the Greek town of Soli. Tigranes now had become “king of kings” and the mightiest monarch of Asia. So he built a new royal city, Tigranocerta, on the borders of Armenia and Mesopotamia, between Mt. Masius and the Tigris, where he accumulated all his wealth and to which he transplanted the inhabitants of twelve Greek towns of Cappadocia, Cilicia and Syria (for the situation, which is much disputed, cf. Tac. Ann. xiv. 24, xv. 5, ed. Furneaux). He also transplanted many Arabic tribes into Mesopotamia. But the Romans could not tolerate encroachment upon their sphere of

power, and in 69 Lucullus invaded Armenia.

Tigranes was beaten

at Tigranocerta on Oct. 6, 69, and again near Artaxata in September 68. The recall of Lucullus gave some respite to the two kings, who even invaded Asia Minor again. But meanwhile a son of Tigranes and Cleopatra, called Tigranes, like his father, rebelled against him (as the old man had already killed two of his sons, he had reason enough to be afraid for his life) and found refuge with the Parthian king Phraates III., who sent him back with an army. The old king now gave up all hope of resistance; he put a price on the head of Mithradates, and when Pompey advanced into Armenia and united with the younger Tigranes, he surrendered (66 B.c.). Pompey now changed his policy; he received the old Tigranes graciously and gave him back his diadem, while he treated the son very coolly and soon made him prisoner. The younger Tigranes was led in triumph into Rome, where he found his death when he tried to escape from his confinement by the

intrigues of P. Clodius m 58. The father after his defeat ruled about ten years longer over Armenia, as vassal of the Romans. He died about 56, and was succeeded by his son Artavasdes. also MITHRADATES. )

(See

See Lucian, Macrob. 15; Appian, Syr. 48; Mithr. 67, 104; Strabo, Xl, 531 seg.; xi., 539; Xvi, Justin, xxxvii., 3; xL, 1.

745, seq.;

Plut., Luc., Pomp.,

Sulla;

TIGRE, a northern province of Abyssinia; one of the four former principal divisions of the country. Tigré contains the towns

second millennium sB.c. the river appears to have been flowing along the Shatt al Hai; indeed the position of Lagash makes it almost certain that this was its normal course in Sumerian times. In Sassanid times it followed its present easterly course; during Arab times, however, it was apparently flowing along the Shatt al Hai. There are no ancient remains on the Tigris therefore below Kut al Amara, and owing to the changeable nature of the stream even few modern villages. In the alluvial area the Tigris lies lower than the Euphrates as far as the Shatt al Hai, and therefore in ancient times received the tailings of the canals, but did not supply water except locally for irrigation. It appears not to have deposited its silt as much as the Euphrates, probably due to the lack of suitable terrain for the formation of fresh water lakes, which are usually a silting ground for river deposits. Since its abandonment of the old channel the Tigris has probably contributed very considerably to the formation of new land at the head of the gulf. The upper drainage area also seems to have altered to a slight extent. The Arab geographers suggest that at one time at least part of the waters of the Khabur, a tributary of the Euphrates, flowed into the Tigris by a channel which was navigable when in flood. As late as 1832 Ormsby reported a stream from Jabal Sinjar which joined the Euphrates near Sharqat. This stream still appears to exist, but it no longer empties itself into the Tigris and in view of the waywardness of the rivers of Mesopotamia it is possible that Ormsby’s observation was made at an unusual period. Topography.—The Western Tigris, on whose banks lies the important town of Diarbekr flows east along the southern slopes of the Taurus and receives a number of tributaries of small size. The two main branches join at Til, from which point it runs in a

south-easterly direction. It continues to receive a number of small tributary streams, mostly on the left bank. From the neighbourhood of Mosul to the confluence of the Greater Zab there lies a fertile triangle of land between the hills and the river. Nineveh lay on the left bank opposite Mosul. A little lower down the stream was the city of Kalakh. At this point two great barrages

were erected in ancient times, which still effectively block the

river for navigation. From a little above the confluence of the Greater Zab down to Tekrit the river flows through an uninhabited desert, the only important town being Kalaat Sharqat, the ancient Assur, which at present forms the railhead of the southern part of the Baghdad railway. About thirty miles below Sharqat the Lesser Zab joins the Tigris. From Tekrit, a city founded during

the Persian domination, downwards, signs of ancient irrigation begin, although the alluvial plain is not entered till Samarra is reached. Below Samarra as far as Kut al Amara, a distance of about 200 miles, there was in ancient times a canal which served to straighten the course of the stream. The two principal tributaries in this region, the Adhem and the Diala, were also canalized, the Adhem reaching the main stream just below Samarra, the Diala below Baghdad. Close to the mouth of the Adhem are the ruins of an ancient city probably to be identified with Xenophon’s Opis. Near this point the river makes a great bend and flows south to

Baghdad (g.v.) at which point the Tigris and the Euphrates are

only about 35 miles apart. In ancient times the two rivers ran close to one another and there are traces of numerous old irrigation canals connecting them. Below Baghdad lie the ruins of ancient Ctesiphon, on the left bank; opposite Seleucia on the other ancient Giz than is Amharic, the official and more widely dif- bank Kut al Amara marks the point where the Shatt al Hai leaves fused language of Abyssinia. the present main stream. Below this point owing to the change See J. Schreiber, Manuel de la langue tigrai (Vienna, 1887-93); in the course of the stream there are no ancient remains along and L. de Vito, Grammatica della lingua tigrigna (Rome, 1895). the Tigris. The modern towns are Ali al Gharbi, Ali esh Sharki TIGRIS, the more eastern of the two rivers of Mesopotamia. Amara, Qalaat Saleh and Kurna, below which point the two rivers It rises from two principal sources. The eastern branch rises from unite to form the Shatt al Arab. several streams to the south and west of Lake Van. The western Navigation.—Although before the World War a launch navibranch rises about ten miles south of Lake Geuljik. The upper gated the river between Baghdad and Samarra (about go miles), waters of the Tigris therefore lie on the southern slopes of the and in 1838 a steamer went to within 28 miles of Mosul the upper Taurus the northern slopes of which are part of the basin of the Tigris is only navigable for native rafts. These rafts which may Euphrates. The Tigris in its lower course seems to be particu- be as much as 35 tons burden are made of timber supported by larly unstable. Although there is no evidence of any great change inflated skins. During flood they cover the 275 miles between in the upper waters, from Kut al Amara onwards the bed of the Baghdad and Mosul in three or four days. At their destination river has shown considerable variations. At the beginning of the the wood finds a ready market in this treeless country, and the

of Axum (g.v.), capital of the ancient Ethiopic Empire, and Adua (Adowa, g.v.). (See ABYSSINIA.) Tigriña, the dialect spoken in Tigré and Lasta, is nearer the

TILAK—TILDEN skins are carried back again on the backs of asses. No upstream traffic is carried on. The river flows over a bed of clay, sand or conglomerate, and is full of obstructions. Opinion has however been expressed that if these obstructions and the ancient barrages at Sharqat were cleared away, navigation to Mosul would be possible. In the lower part of the river there are bridges of boats at Baghdad, Gerara, Kut, Kut al Amara and Kale Sale. Between Baghdad and Kale Sale the Tigris is navigable all through the year by vessels drawing up to five feet of water. Below this point the river is in a bad condition, largely owing to the barrages built by native cultivators, but great efforts have been made to restore the channel. At low water it is generally estimated that

only three feet of water is available.

The low water period is

reckoned from July to November, and high water from December to June, but the river is extremely liable to sudden floods. The statistical details so far as at present recorded are as

follows. From Baghdad to Kut the distance by river is 216 miles, the distance by land being 103 miles. At Baghdad the river is rr4 feet above sea level, at Kut it is 57 feet, the fall in the river surface being I in 20,000. The width of the river is about a quarter of a mile, its depth at high water 26 feet, and at low

2IL

editor of two weekly papers, Aahkratta, printed in English, and Kesari (Lion), printed in Mahratti, which organs he used for anti-Government propaganda.

His violent condemnation in 1897

of the plague prevention regulations resulted in his being convicted for sedition and sentenced to 18 months’ imprisonment. For a similar offence he was sentenced in 1908 to six years’ transportation, subsequently commuted to simple imprisonment. After his release he took an active part in the home-rule campaign, and secured for his party the control of the National Congress. He died in Bombay on Aug. 1, 1920. His formative part in the cult oz Indian unrest is shown in the report of the Rowlatt sedition committee (1918). His speeches are collected in Lokamanaya B, G. Tilak (2nd ed. Madras, 1920).

TILBURG, a town in the province of north Brabant, Holland, and a junction station 134 m. E. by S. of Breda by rail. Pop. (1927), 71,327. Tilburg has risen into importance since the separation of Belgium from Holland as one of the chief industrial centres of the south.

TILBURY DOCKS, on the north shore of the Thames, in

Essex, England. They lie opposite Gravesend 25 m. below London bridge, and about the same distance from the Nore, being 44. The discharge in flood is 5,500 cubic metres a second, dropping thus within the Port of London. They were constructed in 1886. to as low as 300 cubic metres at low water. The velocity in flood There is extensive warehousing as well as accommodation for is a little under four miles an hour, dropping at low water 14. passengers, as the largest passenger steamers trading with the At Kut the Shatt al Hai discharges about 1,000 cubic metres at Port of London lie here. Railway communication is provided by high flood, but is dry at low water. Between Kut and Kut al the L.M.S. There is direct connection for goods traffic with all Amara the river distance is 153 miles, and by land 119. The mean the northern lines. The rapid development of the Port of London level at Amara is 28 feet, the drop between the two points being has necessitated many changes and extensions since the docks therefore about 19 feet, the gradient of the river level is r in were built. Changes began in 1917 when the Port of London 35,000. The average width of the river in this reach, which is authority extended the main dock 1,450 feet. In 1926 a new singularly free from any obstacles for navigation, is about 365 entrance was planned with a length of 1,000 ft., width rro ft., yards, while the depth is 25 feet in flood and about 6 ft. 6 in. at depth 454 feet. The site is 400 yd. above Tilbury Ness. New low water, with a respective velocity of about the same as in the dry docks are also being built (1928) east of the old dry docks. upper reach. The discharge at low water is similar but at high Provision is made for the landing of river cargo west of the water about 1,000 cubic metres less at the head of the reach; entrance to the tidal basin and also for better passenger facilities. owing however to branches at the lower end of the reach the disTILDEN, SAMUEL JONES (1814-1886), American charge at high water only reaches about 2,500 cubic metres per statesman, was born at New Lebanon, N.Y., on Feb. 9, 1814. In second. 1834 he entered Yale university, but soon withdrew on account Between Amara and Kurna the river is affected by various of ill health, and later studied in the College of the City of channels which drain off much of the water. At Amara on the New York. He was admitted to the bar in 1841, and rose rapidly left bank the Chala, with a bed about 6 feet lower than the main to the front rank. In the financial troubles between 1850 and stream, discharges about 1,000 cubic metres a second at high water 1860 it is said that more than half the railways north of the Ohio falling to rather more than a tenth of that amount at low. Below river and between the Hudson and the Missouri rivers were at this point first the Majar Kebir and then the Machera draw off some time his clients. In spite of his activity at the bar, Tilden about the same amount. Considerable changes take place there- maintained an interest in politics, serving in the State assembly fore in the size of the stream between Amara and Kurna, at which in 1846 and in the State Constitutional Conventions of 1846 and point the level is ten feet above sea level. The average width of 1867. In 1848, largely on account of his personal attachment to the Tigris at this reach is a little under 200 yards, with a depth Martin Van Buren, he participated in the revolt of the “Barnof 13 feet in flood and 6 ft. 6 in. at low water with a discharge of burner” or free-soil faction of the New York Democrats, and in only 1,250 cubic metres per second and 150 at high water and 1855 was the candidate of the “softshell” or anti-slavery faction low water respectively. Below Kale Sale although the depth is for attorney general of the State. During the Civil War, although the same the average width is only 65 yards. Below Ezra’s Tomb he opposed several of the war measures of President Lincoln’s some of the lost waters return to the river from swamps and Administration, he gave the Union cause his heartiest support. the stream becomes once more nearly 200 yards broad. The two In 1866 Tilden became chairman of the Democratic State comrivers meet at Karmat Ali at which point the Tigris, full of dark mittee, and soon came into conflict with the notorious “Tweed ‘marshy water, is over thirty feet deep and over 400 yards broad. ring” of New York city. As the “ring” could be destroyed only It will be seen from these details that the river presents great by removing the corrupt judges who were its tools, Tilden, after difficulties for navigation. In flood time it is liable to overrun its entering the assembly in 1872 to promote the cause of reform, banks and convert the whole region into a vast lake. In addi- took a leading part in their impeachment. By analysing the bank tion to river steamers two types of native boats are used, a large accounts of certain members of the “ring,” he obtained legal proof coracle or Quffek and river boats, Safineh, capable of carrying a of the principle on which the spoils had been divided. His fame cargo of as much as roo tons. The coracles can only go down- as a reformer brought him to the governor’s chair in 1874, and he stream but the river boats are poled or towed upstream and are at once gave his attention to breaking up the “canal ring,” made sailed or rowed with the current. up of members of both parties who had been systematically See Sir W. Willcocks, The Irrigation of Mesopotamia (1911), robbing the State through the maladministration of its canals. Memorandum respecting the Navigation of the Tigris and Euphrates In 1876 the Democrats nominated him for the Presidency, the (1913); Colonial Office Reports (annually). For ancient sites see Republicans nominating Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio. The S. Langdon, Cambridge Ancient History (1923) (Bibliography). (L. H. D. B.) result was the disputed election of 1876, when two sets of returns TILAK, BAL GANGADHAR (1856-1920), Indian nation- were sent to Washington from the States of Florida, Louisiana, alist leader, a Chitpavan Brahmin, was born at Ratnagiri July 23, South Carolina and Oregon. As the Federal Constitution con1856. At an early age he took the lead in providing education in tained no provision for settling a dispute of this kind the two Poona under Indian direction. In 1890 he was proprietor and houses of Congress agreed to the appointment of an extra-con-

212

TILDEN—TILE

stitutional body, the “Electoral Commission” (g.v.), which decided all the contests in favour of the Republican candidates. Tilden counselled his followers to abide quietly by the result. The remainder of his life was spent in retirement at his country home, Greystone, near Yonkers, N.Y., where he died Aug. 4, 1886. Of his fortune (estimated at $5,000,000) approximately $4,000,000 was bequeathed for the establishment and maintenance of “a free public library and reading-room in the City of New York”; but, as the will was successfully contested by relatives, only about $2,000,000 of the bequest was applied to its original purpose; in 1895 the Tilden Trust was combined with the Astor and Lenox libraries to form the New York Public library. See Writings and Speeches of Samuel J. Tilden (188%) and Letters and Literary Memorials of Samuel J. Tilden (1908), both edited by John Bigelow; also Bigelow’s Life of Samuel J. Tilden (1898); and P. L. Haworth, Tke Hayes-Tilden Election (1927).

TILDEN, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1842-1926), British chemist, was born on Aug. 15, 1842, at St. Pancras, London; he was first apprenticed to a pharmacist, and in 1863 became demonstrator at the Pharmaceutical Society’s school. In 1872 he was appointed senior science master at Clifton college; then, in 1880, he became first professor of chemistry at Manor college, Birmingham, and in the same year was elected to the Royal Society; in 1894 he transferred to the chair at the Royal College of Science, London, and there he remained until his retirement

in 1919. He died on Dec. 11, 1926. Tilden’s first contribution to chemical research was in connection with the per-iodides of organic bases (1865), and for some years he studied the alkaloids (g.v.) and other substances obtained from plants. In 1874 he examined, together with W. A. Shenstone, the properties of aqua regia and nitrosyl chloride, and whilst investigating the action of the latter on various organic compounds he discovered the nitroso-chloride of pinene. This discovery eventually led to a valuable method for the identification of terpenes (g.v.), and the reaction with nitrosyl chloride was subsequently used by many workers in this field. Tilden also studied terpineol and related bodies, and the action of heat on terpenes. In 1892 he observed the presence of a rubber-like substance in a bottle of isoprene which had been standing for some years, but owing to the fact that rubber was not then so valuable as it is to-day, the matter was not further investigated. In addition to his researches in organic chemistry Tilden contributed to physical chemistry. He determined the specific heats of elements at various temperatures, and thus showed the limits of applicability of Dulong and Petit’s law. (See Cuemistry: Physical.) He also verified Neumann’s law of the additivity of the specific heats of elements in certain compounds.

Hellenic civilization, but the most ancient examples of roof tiles we possess show such highly developed forms that earlier usage must be assumed. The Greek form of temple roof which remained constant throughout the history of Greek architecture consisted of two types of tile, used together. First the roof surface was covered with tiles generally flat, but with adjoining edges raised. These were laid in overlapping courses, and were all of equal size so that the joints of each course occurred directly in a line with those of the courses above and below. Convex covering tiles, also overlapping, were then laid over the joints of the flat tiles below, and were so profiled as to cover, not only the joint, but the raised edges of the lower tiles; in this manner an absolutely watertight roof could be produced. In order to make the architectural effect more delicate the ends of both lower tile and covering tile were rebated, so that the thickness of the overlapping portion was only half the thickness of the tile. At the bottom of each row of covering tiles was either a marble or tile upright,

curved, decorative member known as an antefix (g.v.). In some cases the covering tiles were of pointed, straight line section—the most common Greek type—in others a tile of semicircular section was used, easy to manufacture, but lacking in the extreme refinement of the other type; in the simpler domestic work, the lower courses were also of curved section, a segmental concave shape replacing the flat tile with raised edges. The marble

tile used in some Greek temples, as in that of Bassae (c. 430 B.C.,

by Iktinos) is universally of the type with flat under tile and pointed covering tile, although at times, in order to reduce the number of joints, the covering tile and the under tile are cut from the same piece of marble. Two other types of roof tile were common in Roman times and probably represent common Mediterranean types of much earlier origin. These are the so-called “Spanish tiles,” with a contour resembling a letter S, in which the convex part of each tile fits over the edge of the concave portion of the next, and the shingle or flat tile found frequently in the Roman ruins of the northern provinces. These flat tiles are often of stone. The usual material of all of these types of tile is burned clay, varying in colour from orange-yellow to purple-red. It is known, however, that bronze tiles were relatively common on the most monumental buildings of the Roman empire. Due to the rarity and value of bronze during the middle ages and the Renaissance, no examples of ancient bronze roof tiles are now known. All of the classic forms of clay tile continued in use in various parts of the world during the mediaeval period, but their supremacy as a roofing material gradually yielded to lead and zinc for churches, public buildings, palaces, etc., and to slate, stone and thatch for the smaller private houses. His published works include An Introduction to Chemical PhiloClay roof tiles used at the present day remain of substantially sophy (1876); A Manual of Chemistry (1896); Chemical Discovery the same form; improvements have been only in methods of and Invention in the Twentieth Century (1919); Life of Sir William manufacture and not in design. The flat tile designed to hook over Ramsay (1918) ; and Famous Chemists (1921). roof battens or boards, is perhaps the most common type of small TILE, a thin, flat slab, usually of burned clay, glazed or un- house roof covering in England and parts of France, and the glazed, used either structurally or decoratively in building. The combination of concave under tile and convex over tile is almost usage of the word varies widely; in connection with roofing, flat universal on pitched roofs in Italy, Spain, Greece and Turkey. slabs of any material are sometimes termed tiles, as for instance, The S-shaped tile is also common around the Mediterranean. The the marble tiles occasionally used in Greek temples or the bronze curved tiles are almost always laid in a heavy bed of watertiles used extensively in ancient Rome, and occasionally in China. proofed mortar, with ridges and hips covered by courses of overSimilarly, stone slabs, used for roofing, as in certain parts of lapping tiles, similarly bedded; with flat tiles, the use of mortar England, are termed stone tiles; slate, however, is never so is restricted to the convex or pointed tiles covering the hips and called, and wood shingles are so called only rarely. Many forms ridges. The best modern usage in laying tiles of this type deof rough terra-cotta used structurally in building are called tiles; mands the complete covering of the roof surface with a waterthus an arch of hollow terra-cotta blocks between steel beams is tight material such as slaters’ felt or heavy water-proofed paper, known as a “tile arch”; partitions built of hollow terra-cotta before the tile is applied. The tiles themselves are held in place blocks are known as hollow tile partitions, and the steel forms sometimes by copper nails which secure the under tiles direct to used for casting certain types of reinforced concrete floors are the roofing and the covering tiles to wood battens which run up frequently referred to as steel tiles. The differentiation between the slope of the roof under each row of covering tiles, and sometile, terra-cotta and brick is thus exceedingly vague. times by copper wire brought up through two holes in each tile Tiles divide themselves naturally into several classes: structural and twisted together. In America the popularity of houses of tile, such as the hollow terra-cotta blocks referred to above, for Spanish and Italian types has led to widespread manufacture of which see TERRA-COTTA; roofing tiles; floor tiles; and wall tiles. tiles both of the S-shape and alternately concave and convex. Roofing Tiles.—There is no evidence cf the use of roofing Although various attempts have been made to imitate clay tiles tiles in the Mediterranean basin prior to the development of in stamped metal and concrete, these imitations are so lacking

213 N

ROMAN STONE £ TILES

FROM

=

= Lidia a = TEGULA i

BRITAIN

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-CALLED SPANISH" TILE USED IN LATIN COUNTRIES FROM ROMAN TIMES TO THE PRESENT

s

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ed

GREEK MARBLE TILE ROOF TEMPLE OF APOLLO, BASSAE STH CENTURY, B C.

Peres E á vee

12TH CENTURY TILE FLOOR FROM MONASTERY OF STE. COLOMBE (YONNE)

DETAILS FROM A SIMILAR FLOOR IN THE ABBEY OF ST. DENIS

FLOOR OF THE CHAPEL OF THE CHATEAU D'HAULSY, (MARNE) 13TH CENTURY CENTER

AND

LOWER

ROWS,

FROM

EMILE

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CARRELAGES

TYPICAL

14TH

CENTURY

FLOOR

TILES

eversecarn

TYPICAL 13TH CENTURY FLOOR TILES tauxerres

PARTS OF A CIRCULAR PATTERN IN THE CHAPEL FLOOR FROM THE ABBEY OF CUNAULT 13TH CENTURY EMAILLES

DU

MOYEN-AGE

ET DE

in the individual variation typical of ceramic ware that their use has been restricted to the cheapest type of jerry-built construction; their use, even there, is seriously questionable. Quite different are the roofing tiles of reinforced and water-proof concrete, which are common in industrial buildings, especially in Europe, although their use in America is increasing. These modern, industrial tiles are usually of large size—sometimes running to 4 ft. in length, and arranged to interlock, with the exposed surfaces grooved or channelled in such a way as to lead the water away from any joints. In these concrete tiles colouring matter is usually added in the material itself, Roofing Tiles in the Far East.—Although the principle of the roofing tiles of China and Japan is the same as that in the “West, there are many differences in detail. Thus, in temples and palaces in China, the under tiles are slightly concave and overlap, much like those of classic roofs; the covering tiles, however, are made absolutely cylindrical in general contour, with rebated ends, so that they form long, unbroken lines of shadow down the roof. Moreover, instead of the upright antefix of the classic

LA

RENAISSANCE

PRECEDES

TILE FLOOR FROM THE CHATEAU OF POLISY (AUBE) 16TH CENTURY DE

L'HISTOIRE

DES

ANCIENS

PAVAGES,”

(MONEL

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)

lustre and with overlapping covering tiles like those of the West. The same pattern of rebatted, continuous, cylindrical covering tiles is common in the Buddhist shrines of Japan, but colours are

rare, the ordinary tile being grey, with a very effective and artistic silvery lustre.

Floor Tiles—Except as small fragments of tile occur in classic mosaic and terrazzo (q.v,), tile for floors does not seem to have been common in Europe prior to the r2th century. In the late r2th and 13th centuries, however, tile floors became usual in churches and other important buildings. The most common type consisted of square tile in two colours, usually a dark brown-red and a pale orange or brownish yellow. They were made by casting clay in such a manner that the parts to be ina lighter colour were sunk; when dry, these parts were filled with a clay

of different composition which would burn to a lighter colour; the tile thus prepared was then burned.

Patterns were formed of

many tiles and consisted usually of circles or stars containing

heraldic beasts, ecclesiastical symbols, etc.; In many cases the pattern was made with reversed colours, so that what was backroof, the Chinese tiles have ornaments that project downward, ground colour in one tile was ornament colour in the one next it. in generally scalloped shapes, over the face of the cornice. There In the earliest examples designs were formed by a mosaic treatis also, particularly in north China, a tremendous elaboration of ment in which the pattern was made by the shape and size of the ridge and hip tiles, which are frequently of great height, with individual tiles, as in the r3th century example found at Founan elaborately moulded section, and carry at their ends rows of tains abbey and at Prior Crauden’s chapel at Ely (1321-41), animals, a great dragon or the like. At the ends of the ridge are both in England. Other common types of mediaeval pavement large, grotesque beasts with their heads pointing inward; all these have the pattern merely incised, producing the artistic effect of ornaments. are modelled and baked in the tile itself. One of the a sketch. The development of floor tiles in Gothic France was similar. chief glories of the Chinese roof tiles is their colour. This is producéd by a shiny glaze that reveals the expected Chinese The r2th century examples are usually mosaic in type with black, ceramic skill. The usual colour of temple and palace roofs is dark green, light green and yellow as the predominating colours. bright yellow but other colours frequently occur. In central and The richest examples of these are in the abbey church of S. Denis, south China, even temple roofs are frequently black. The cheap near Paris, where certain elaborate, chapel floor pavements still roof tile of the ordinary house is also almost black, but without exist from the original building by Abbott Suger (rr40-44). By

214

‘TILE

the end of the century, mosaic had yielded to two-coloured tiles of red and yellow, similar to the English tiles mentioned above. The same type remained constant until well into the r5th century, the designs becoming continuously thinner and more delicate; in the 16th century the art died out, superseded by the painted maiolica pavements of Renaissance feeling. The Gothic revival of the middle 19th century led, in England, to the revival of the designing and making of tiles of the mediaeval type and many modern pavements were placed in old churches as a result. Most of this tile has a simple lead glaze and is made not by casting damp, plastic clay, as in the mediaeval examples, but by compressing powdered clay in steel dies so that shapes are more perfect and the rapidity of manufacture is vastly increased. This type of tile, usually known as “encaustic,” is especially associated with the English ceramic works at Stoke-uponTrent, particularly those of Minturn. Recently, however, the manufacture of such tiles has become wide-spread in the United States and in Germany. Meanwhile the Moorish skill in tile making had gradually come to be applied to floors. This type of maiolica tile was adopted in early Renaissance churches, both in Italy and Spain, although not many examples remain, as the glaze was too soft. The decoration of the Italian maiolica pavements consists of the same type of free and graceful classic arabesque trophies, acanthus ornament and coats of arms that is found on contemporary maiolica. In France not only were Italian tiles imported and used, but there soon grew up a local manufacture of similar painted floor tiles, especially at Rouen (established by Masseot Abaquesne, 1542—57), Nevers and Marseilles. With the increasing use of oak parquetry flooring for houses and marble for churches, toward the end of the 17th century, the use of tile diminished. There was similar importation of Italian and Spanish tiles into England during the early Renaissance and possible spasmodic attempts toward the making of certain types of this tile in England itself. In the 18th century the use of plain, undecorated, square, red tiles, now commonly known as quarry tiles, became common all over northern and western Europe, and to a less extent in the American Colonies. Although modern potteries all over the Western world are producing at the present time (1929) many varieties of elaborate, decorative floor tile, ranging from those in varied and brilliant colours with all sorts of blending glazes to the most complicated so-called Spanish tiles in relief, the greatest advances in modern floor tiles have been made in simple, vitrified, mosaic tiles for use in bath rooms, kitchens, swimming pools, etc. These are always machine pressed and are made of fine clays, thoroughly vitrified, and very hard. These are made in small squares, rectangles, hexagons and circles, in a few simple colours and are usually pasted, face down, on paper, in order to increase the speed of their application. (See Mosatc.) Some, by the addition of gritty substances, such as alundum or carborundum, are given a surface which prevents slipping, even when the tile is wet. Wall Tiles.—Earthenware was used spasmodically for wall decoration by the Egyptians, as In the doorway of the Abusir pyramid of Neterkhet (3rd Dynasty). More usually, however, they were in the form of mosaic (g.v.). Perhaps based upon earlier Egyptian examples, the people of Crete developed to an even higher degree the use of faience for walls. Thus our knowledge of early Cretan houses is largely furnished by many fragments of small faience plaques from the 18th century, B.c., which formed portions of a large, mosaic, faience, wall decoration. Moreover, there are in existence many modelled reliefs of faience from the middie and late Minoan period which were apparently inserted in the plaster of walls. Farther east, in the Tigro-Euphrates valley, a tradition of ceramic wall decoration was early established. (See WESTERN Astatic ARCHITECTURE.) This took the form of glazed and enamelled bricks rather than tiles proper. It is, nevertheless, Important, as being one of the first attempts to cover large and continuous wall surfaces with a decorative, ceramic material, and the friezes of marching beasts from Chaldean and Babylonian palaces, from the later Assyrian palaces and from their Persian successors,

the famous friezes of the archers and the lions from the early 4th century palace of Artaxerxes IT. at Susa, have remained models of this type of decorative work ever since. (See illustration of the Gate of Ishtar at Babylon, under Brickwork.) Moreover, the tradition of fine ceramic work continued vital throughout the stormy period of the fall of the Roman empire and the Mohammedan conquest. It isin Syria, the Tigro-Euphrates valley and Persia that wall tiles were, undoubtedly, first made. Thus tradition relates that the lustre tiles of the mosque of Sidi Okba at Kairouan were brought from Baghdad in 894, and it is certain that by the 13th century the manufacture of wall tiles for both exterior and interior use was well established in various centres in Persia, notably Rhages and Veramine. The exterior use of wall tiles was most highly developed, and in Persia, also, the transition from enamelled and modelled brick to true, thin tile can easily be seen. By the rsth century tile decoration was supreme in Persia and the character had changed. Mosaics and mouldings in relief yielded to a flat treatment with the richness entirely in the coloured, foliated ornament and the inscriptions painted on the tiles themselves. In later Persian art there is no distinguishable difference between the tiles of the exterior and the interior. Tt was these Persian tiles which governed the taste of the eastern. part of the Mohammedan world; the same running patterns of leaves, palmettes, the carnation and other flowers that appear on Persian carpets, decorate alike the interiors of mosques in Persia, Mesopotamia and Turkey, from potteries as far apart as Rhodes, Damascus and Kutayieh. In colour these have, universally, a blue-white ground with patterns predominantly blue and green and lesser touches of vermilion and rose and occasional yellows. Several potteries in Asia Minor still operate and produce exquisite wail tiles in the traditional patterns and colours. Because of the gracious delicacy of the interlacing stems and the careful spacing of the leaves and flowers, together with a spring-like clarity of the colours, these Turkish, Syrian and Persian wall tiles are among the most perfect wall decorations of their type. Moorish Wall Tiles.—Farther west, in Spain and north Africa, the Mohammedan potters were developing a new type of design which gave rise to the famous Spanish Azulejos, whose decorative richness was such an important feature in the Alhambra at Granada (14th century), the so-called house of Pilate at Seville and similar buildings. Although transitional types occur, like the great plaque from Malaga at the beginning of the rs5th century in the collection of M. de Osma, in which the patterns are of an almost Persian freedom, with twining foliage, in the greater number the design was almost purely geometric, being formed of interlacing lines that generate 8- and ro-pointed stars, octagons, irregular pentagons and similar figures. There are, in addition, a great many early tiles from the 13th and 14th centuries in which the influence

of Christian heraldry is dominant. Even in the transitional plaque mentioned above, coats of arms appear and it is evident that the Mohammedan potters produced much purely heraldic tile work for Christian consumption. Many of these tiles are rich with metallic Justre decoration; the chief colours are blue, green and brown, with white lines, and in the later work a growing use of black and yellow. The earliest examples of Moorish wall tiles produced their geometric patterns by a mosaic method in which each bit of separate colour is formed by a separate tile. In order to develop a more facile method of producing the same effect, the technique known as cuerda seca (dry cord), in which the tiles are rectangular, and the pattern on each tile is formed by raised fillets between the different colours, which prevented the adjoining enamels from running together. After the Christian conquest a third method was introduced, called cuenca (bowl), somewhat similar to the northern Gothic process in which the portions to be coloured were depressed and then filled with their enamels. These tiles, even in their old traditional Mohammedan patterns, were popular throughout the 16th century and even later for wainscots in Renaissance houses. The potters were evidently Moors; the great centres of manufacture remained as before in Malaga, Valencia, Granada and Seville. In the 16th century the Italian maiolica type of tile was introduced by Francesco Niculoso of Pisa, and these Spanish maiolica tiles

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BY COURTESY OF (1) ERNST WASMUTH FROM SARRE, “DENKMALER PERSISCHER BAUKUNST, (5) THE D'RECTOR MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK; PHOTOGRAPHS, (2, 4) EWING GALLOWAY, (3) HERBERT G. PONTING, F.R P.S.

ARTISTIC

EXAMPLES

OF THE

1. Elaborately designed tile wal! decoration of Shah-Zinda, Samarkand 2. Roofs of the summer ,

Palace of the royal family í ; :

.

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MUSEUM,

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in Peking, China

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TILE-FISH—TILLODONTIA were much used, as in the door of the convent of S. Paula at

Seville (early 16th century) or the exquisite altar-piece in the

Alcazar at Seville made by the same artist in 1503, where the design is purely Italian. Both the cuenca and the pisano or majolica types of tile have been made in Spain almost continuously ever since, and the recent years have seen a great increase in the Spanish tile output both in Spain and for export.

Meanwhile in Germany there had been developing a type of|

215

ro Ib. is more nearly the average size.

TILING OF ROOFS: see Roors; Tie. TILLAGE. The word “tillage” is practically synonymous with cultivation (g.v.), but it is of Saxon derivation and older usage. It is often employed in the form “tillages” in tenant right valuations and denotes the operations by which land has been prepared for crops by the outgoing tenant. Tillage conveys perhaps a simpler and more drastic significance than cultivation. The first implement of tillage was the spade

tile used principally for stoves, with ornament in relief and a glaze of green, yellow or brown. This tile was in widespread use as and it still remains, after thousands of years, the most effective. early as the 14th century and many examples exist throughout The importance of agricultural engineering has recently been Germany, upper Austria and Switzerland, in which the ornament is recognized and investigations into theoretical and practical quesof great richness, with Gothic architectural forms in the earlier tions affecting tillage are in progress throughout the world. (See

types and Renaissance forms later.

The most important of the north European tiles are undoubtedly those made in Delft from 1600 on. These are plain, square tiles, each containing a figure, a bit of landscape or a genre group, freely painted in a grey-blue upon a background of bluish-white.

The

little free-hand sketches were so instinct with life, and the colour so subtly beautiful that by the middle of the ryth century these tiles enjoyed a great vogue, not only throughout the Germanic

countries, but in England and the American Colonies as well. Although outside of Holland they were chiefly used for fireplace and stove facings, in Holland itself they were often employed for wall wainscotings. Some of the later examples have the decorations in manganese purple instead of blue. During the 18th century many attempts were made to imitate the Delft ware and during the latter half of the 18th century, particularly in England, scenes

TRACTORS; AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY.)

TILLEMONT, SEBASTIEN LE NAIN DE (16371698), French ecclesiastical historian, was born in Paris on Nov. 30, 1637. The boy was brought up in the little schools of Port Royal, and in 1660 he was made a tutor in the seminary of Buzenval, Jansenist bishop of Beauvais. Ten years later he came back to Paris, and presently became a chaplain at Port Royal. In 1679 the storm of persecution drove him to settle on his family estate of Tillemont, where he spent the remainder of his life, dying on Jan. 10, 1698. From the age of twenty he was at work on his two great books— the Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers siècles, and the Histoire des empereurs during the same period. Both works began to appear during his lifetime—the Histoire in 1690, the Mémoires in 1693—but in neither case was the publication finished till long after his death. There is a full account of his life in the 4th volume of Sainte-Beuve’s Port Royal.

printed from copper plates were used instead of the painted scenes. Although many of the ancient pottery centres are still producing tiles in the traditional manner and although modern imitations of TILLETT, BENJAMIN (1860_), British Labour poliold wares are of : excellent quality, the greatest modern contribution | ticlan, was born at Bristol, on Sept. rz, 1860. He started work

to wall tile design has been the great development of square or | in a brickyard at eight years, ; andPo was a “Risley” boy for two

rectangular tiles with relatively uneven surfaces and shapes on which colours and glazes of the greatest variety are unevenly flowed, so that each tile has marked individuality of colour and texture. All sorts of crackled and crystalline effects are common as well as the blending of two or more colours. The scientific development of glazings and colourings gives the decorator an almost unlimited palette for either exterior or interior use, even gold tiles being simple and comparatively inexpensive. There has been a corresponding development in the use of tile in relief, usually with the background sunk and glazed in a different colour. Important centres of tile production at the present day (1929) are: Asia Minor, for so-called Persian tiles; north Africa and Spain, for Moorish and Spanish tiles; north Italy for faience; Holland for “Delft” tiles; Belgium for many types of hand-made wall tiles; Germany for polychrome, machine-pressed; floor tiles; England for reproductions of Gothic floor tiles and richly figured tile work generally; and the United States, particularly New

years. He served six months on a fishing smack, was apprenticed to a bootmaker, and then joined the Royal Navy. He was invalided out of the navy and made several voyages in merchant ships. He then settled at the London docks and organized the Dockers’ union of which he became general secretary, taking a prominent part in the dock strike of 1889. He was one of the pioneer organizers of the General Federation of Trades, National Transport Workers’ Federation, National Federation of General Workers, International Transport Federation, and of the Labour party. For many years he was an alderman on the London County Council. He was M.P. for North Salford from rg17 to 1924, and

was re-elected in 1929. His publications include A Brief History of the Dockers’ Union (1910), and A History of the Transport Workers’ Strike (191). °

TILLEY, SIR SAMUEL LEONARD

(1818-1896), Cana-

dian statesman, was born at Gagetown, New Brunswick, on May 18, 1818, the son of Samuel Tilley, an American Loyalist, who had Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio and southern California for vitrified settled in St. John in 1783. From 1860 to March 1865 he was floor and hand-made wall tiles. premier of the province, and was prominent in organizing the BrstiocrapHy.—O. Jones, Plans and Elevations of the Alhambra conference on the union of the maritime provinces, which met at (1842); J. G. Nicholls, Examples of Encaustic Tiling (1845); L. Frati, Charlottetown In 1864, and which soon widened into a discussion Di un pavimento in Majolica (1853) ; Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire Ratsonné de Parchitecture, articles “Carrelage,” “Dallage,” “Tuile” (1854— of Canadian federation. In 1865 he was defeated in a general +6); H. Shaw, Spectmens of Tile Pavements (1858); M. Didron, election on the federation question, but returned to power in 1866, Annales Archéologiques, vol, ti. (1861); L. Parvillée, Architecture et partly through an intrigue of the colonial office. From 1868 till décoration turques au XVme siécle (1874); Havard, Histoire de la November 1873 he held various portfolios in the Dominion cabFaience de Delft (1878); M. Shurlock, Tiles from Chertsey Abbey (1885) ; H. Wallis, Typical Examples of Persian and Oriental Ceramic inet; from 1873 to 1878 he was lieutenant-governor of New BrunsArt (1893); O. von Falke, Majolika (1896); Forrer, Geschichte der wick, but in 1878 was again elected as member for St. John, and europäischen Fliesen Keramik (1900); H. Shaw, History of the Staf- entered the Conservative cabinet as minister of finance. Later in fordshire Potters (1829, 1900); J. Gestoso y Perez, Historia de los 1878 he introduced and carried through parliament the “national barros vidriados sevillanos (1904) ; A. Van de Put, Hispano Moresque policy” of protection, on which issue the election of 1878 had been Ware of the XV. Century (1904); G. J. de Osma, Apuntes sobre cerdmica morisca; textos y documentos valencianos No. r (1906); H. won. The tariff so introduced became the basis of Canadian Saladin, Manuel de l'Art Musulman, vol. i. (1907) ; G. Migeon, Manuel financial policy. In October 1885 ill health forced him to retire de l’Art Musulman, vol. ii. (1907) ; Byne and Stapley, Spanish Archi- from the cabinet. He was again lieutenant-governor of New tecture of the Sixteenth Century (1917). (T. F. H.) Brunswick from 1885 to 1893. He died on June 25, 1896. His Life, by James Hannay (1907), forms one of the “Makers of TILE-FISH (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps), a beautifully ‘ coloured fish of the family Latilidae, living in rather deep water Canada” series. TILLODONTIA, a group of extinct mammals from the in the western Atlantic. It was first discovered on a bank about Eocene of North America and Europe. The average size was 80 m. S.E. of Boston, and proved to be a valuable food fish. The tile-fish is said to reach a weight of ṣo Ib., but about about that of a living brown bear. The canine teeth are very

antl

216

TILLOTSON—TIMARU

small, one pair of incisors in each jaw much enlarged and chisel- In 1620 he became lieutenant-general to Maximilian and comlike. The general structure is very primitive, the brain small and mander-in-chief of the field forces. elongate, the cheek teeth of generalized (tuberculo-sectorial) With the victory of the White Mountain (1620) the new army type, the feet plantigrade, with five toes. The skull is more and its leader became celebrated throughout Germany and the carnivore- than rodent-like in general aspect. The best known subsequent campaigns (see THIRTY YEARS’ War) established their genera are Tillotherium, Esthonyx and Trogosis. Despite the reputation. The battle of Hochst (1622) won for Tilly the title relative large size of its members, the group is probably more sug- of count. gestive of the Insectivora than of The defeat of King Christian was soon followed by the interany other established order and vention of Gustavus Adolphus. The opening stages of the camit is apparently an early, extinct, paign did not display any marked superiority of the Swedes. rather aberrant offshoot of the At this time Tilly was commander of the imperial forces as well earliest stock of the placental as of his own army. The first great contest was for the possession mammals. (G. G. Sı.) of Magdeburg (1631). Tilly has been blamed for the atrociTILLOTSON, JOHN ties which accompanied the sack of this town after its fall (May (1630-1694), English archbish20). Yet his personal exertions saved the cathedral and other op, was the son of a Puritan religious buildings from pillage and fire. Four months later Tilly clothier in Sowerby, Yorkshire, BY COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM and Gustavus, the representatives of the old and the new art of where he was born in October OF NATURAL HISTORY war, met at Breitenfeld (g.v.). The victory of Gustavus was 1630. He was a fellow of Clare THE SKULL OF THE TILLOTHERIUM complete, though the imperial general, although severely wounded, Hall, Cambridge, and about FODIENS, AN EXTINCT MAMMAL drew off his men in good order. On the Lech, a few months later, 1661 he was ordained without subscription by T. Sydserf, Gustavus was again victorious, and Tilly received a mortal wound. a Scottish bishop. Tillotson was present at the Savoy Con- He died on April 30, 1632, in Ingolstadt. ference in 166r, and remained identified with the PresbyteSee O. Klopp, Tilly im 30-jahrigen Krieg (Stuttgart, 1861); K. rians till the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662. Shortly Wittich, Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf und Tilly; also memoir of Tilly in afterwards he became curate of Cheshunt, Herts., and in June 1663, Allg. deutsche Biographie; Keym-Marcour, Johann Tzerclaes, Graf rector of Kedington, Suffolk. He now devoted himself to an exact v. Tilly; Villermont, Tilly, ou La Guerre de trente ans (Tournay, 1859). study of biblical and patristic writers, especially Basil and ChryTILSIT, a town in the Prussian province of East Prussia, situsostom. The result of this reading, and of the influence of John ated on the left bank of the Memel or Niemen, 57 m. S.E. of Wilkins, master of Trinity College, Cambridge, was seen in the Memel and 72 N.E. of Königsberg by rail. Pop. (1925) 51,071. general tone of his preaching, which was practical rather than Tilsit, which received civic rights in 1552, grew up around a castle theological. In 1664 he became preacher at Lincoln’s Inn. The of the Teutonic order, known as the “Schalauner Haus,” founded same year he married Elizabeth French, a niece of Oliver Crom- in 1288. It owes most of its interest to the peace signed here in well; and he also became Tuesday lecturer at St. Lawrence, Jewry. July 1807, the preliminaries of which were settled by the emIn 1670 he became prebendary and in 1672 dean of Canterbury. perors Alexander and Napoleon on a raft moored in the Memel. In 1675 he edited John Wilkins’s Principles of Natural Religion, This treaty, which constituted the kingdom of Westphalia and completing what was left unfinished of it, and in 1682 his Sermons. the duchy of Warsaw, registers the nadir of Prussia’s humiliaWith Burnet, Tillotson attended Lord Russell on the scaffold in tion. i 1683. It was partly through Lady Russell that he obtained inTIMAEUS (c. 345-c. 250 B.c.), Greek historian, was born fluence with Princess Anne, who followed his advice in regard to at Tauromenium in Sicily. Driven out by Agathocles, he migrated the settlement of the crown on William of Orange. He possessed to Athens, where he studied rhetoric under a pupil of Isocrates and the special confidence of William and Mary, and was made clerk lived for 50 years. During the reign of Hiero II. he returned to of the closet to the king and dean of St. Paul’s. On his advice the Sicily (probably to Syracuse), where he died. While at Athens king appointed an ecclesiastical commission for the reconciliation he completed his great historical work. The Histories, in at least of the Dissenters. He was elected to succeed the Nonjuror San- 38 (Bury says 33) books, was divided into unequal sections, concroft as archbishop of Canterbury, but accepted the promotion taining the history of Italy and Sicily in early times: of Sicily with extreme reluctance, and it was deferred from time to time, at alone; of Sicily and Greece; of the cities and kings of Syria his request, till April 169r. In 1693 he published four lectures on (unless the text of Suïdas is corrupt); the lives of Agathocles and the Socinian controversy. He died on Nov. 22, 1694. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The chronological sketch CONvuriortkat, Ralph Barker edited his Sermons together with the “Rule of Faith” the victors at Olympia) perhaps formed an appendix to the (14 vols. 2695-1704). In 1452 an edition of his Complete Works larger work. Timaeus was bitterly attacked by other historians, appeared in 3 vols. with Life by Thomas Birch. especially by Polybius. TILLY, JOHANN IZERCLAES, Count or (1559The most serious charge against Timaeus is that he wilfully 1632), general of the Catholic League in the Thirty Years’ War, distorted the truth, when influenced by personal considerations: was born in 1559 at the chateau of Tilly in Brabant. He was des- thus, he was less than fair to Dionysius and Agathocles, while tined for the priesthood and received a strict Jesuit education. loud in praise of his favourite Timoleon. On the other hand, as But, preferring the career of a soldier, he entered a Spanish foot even Polybius admits, Timaeus consulted all available authorities regiment about 1574 as a volunteer, and in the course of several and records. His attitude towards the myths, which he claims campaigns rose to the command of a company. This being re- to have preserved in their simple form, is preferable to the rationduced, he again became a simple pikeman, and as such he took alistic interpretation under which it had become the fashion to part in the famous siege of Antwerp by Parma. He distinguished disguise them. In chronology, he introduced the system of reckonhimself by his bravery, and the duke of Lorraine gave him the ing by Olympiads, with which he compared the years of the Attic governorship of Dun and Villefranche, which he held from 1590 archons, the Spartan ephors, and the priestesses of Argos. This to 1594. Henry IV. attempted unsuccessfully to induce him to system was afterwards generally used by the Greek historians. enter the service of France. Somewhat later he left the Spanish Timaeus’ prose is of the Asiatic school; Cicero praises it, service for that of Austria to fight against the Turks. In 1602 BreLiocrarHy.—Fragments and life in C. W. Müller, Frag. hist. he became colonel in the imperial army, and raised a regiment of graec. i. iv.; frags. of bks. i. ii, ed. J. Geffcken, Timaios Geographie Walloon infantry which he commanded in the assault on Budades Westens (1892); Polybius xii. 3-28; Diod. Sic. xxi. 17; Cicero, De Orat. it. 14; J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), 167 sqq. pest, receiving a severe wound. In 1604 he was made general of artillery; having shown great capacity and devotion to the TIMARU, a seaport of Geraldine county, New Zealand, on emperor and the Catholic religion, he was made a field-marshal in the E. coast of South Island, roo m. S.W. of Christchurch by 1605. In 1610 he left the service of the emperor to enter that rail. Pop. (1927) 15,635. The slight inward sweep of the coast of Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic League. forms the Canterbu ry Bight, and the shore-line northward from

TIMBER

21I P/

Timaru is called the Ninety-mile Beach. The harbour is formed stances as sugar, starch or fatty oil: in the sap-wood they conseby breakwaters enclosing a space of 50 acres. Chief exports are quently invite attack by animals and fungi. Softwoods that, like wool, flour and frozen meat, and the industries are in connection | true pines, have resin-ducts in the wood also possess these in with these. Opals are found in the district. Timaru is the chief | the thicker medullary rays. town in South Canterbury district.

TIMBER.

The terms “wood” and “timber” are not synonyms,

for wood occurs in the veins of leaves and as strings in thick palmstems, also in thicker cylindrical form in twigs of shrubs and trees. The term timber, synonymous with the North American term lumber, applies solely to wood of considerable dimensions produced by trees. (See LUMBERING.) Two great classes of trees provide timber. (1) Conifers, including pines, spruces and larches, usually have more or less needle-

like leaves, and their naked seeds are most frequently borne on cones: they yield the so-called saftwoods. (2) Dicotyledons, including oak, ash, beech and teak, commonly have broader flat leaves and their seeds are always produced in closed seed-cases: they provide the hardwoods. Origin and Structure of Timber.—The part of the tree above ground typically consists of a main trunk and the branch-

system

whose

ultimate

finest

branches

are

the leaf-bearing

twigs.

The trunk and branches grow in length solely at their tips, so that the oldest part of a trunk or branch is its base and the

The fundamental difference between softwoods and hardwoods is best understood if we imagine a number of the wider “water| fibres” very greatly widened and strung end to end with their | terminal walls absorbed, so that long continuous tubes, some| times yards in length, are produced. These water-conducting tubes are termed wood-vessels: in cross-section they are often visible to the naked eye as “pores.” All commercial hardwoods have wood-vessels, which in the sap-wood contain air with or without liquid sap. In addition to the vessels, the different hardwoods have “fibres” of various forms. Finally medullary rays are present, and in many hardwoods some of them are much thicker than in softwoods and visible to the naked eye in cross-section, producing the so-called “‘silver grain” on the radial side view of the wood of, for instance, oaks, beech, plane, etc. Their contents in the sapwood are identical

with those of softwoods. Sap-wood and Heart-wood.—The change of sap-wood into heart-wood is a vital one, occurring only in the living tree, and thus is very different from the process of seasoning of timber

which takes place post mortem. The sap-wood is living inasmuch as its brick-shaped cells contain living protoplasm: the heartbranch has ceased to grow in length it can grow in thickness wood is dead, as the protoplasm dies and the cells lose their year after year and especially by producing new wood. This takes nutritive contents, which are replaced by air and more indigestible its origin from a microscopically thin sheet, the cambium, lying substances such as “tannin,” gums and resin. The heart-wood between the bark and the wood: the cambium deposits new wood contains less water than the sap-wood, and its water-conducting outside the pre-existing wood. In the cool-temperate climate the elements (“fibres” and vessels) become more or less plugged by cambium produces new wood only during spring and part of microscopic bladders or gums, or the pits are closed. Consethe summer and is inactive during autumn and winter: the wood quently sap-wood is more easily impregnated with wood-preservaproduced first in each year is frequently (e.g., ash, Scots pine) tive liquids than is heart-wood of the same tree. In different trees different from that produced later in the year, so that a distinction the age at which sap-wood first changes to heart-wood differs: for is drawn between the early spring-wood and the later summer- instance the change takes place earlier in larches than in true wood (frequently termed autumn-wood). In such cases a cross- pines, so that the former have fewer annual rings of sap-wood section of the tree-trunk will show a number of concentric annual outside the heart-wood and produce valuable durable heart-wood rings, whose number is equal to the age of the region of trunk earlier in the life of the tree, and contain a smaller proportion of cut. In the case of the beech and a number of other trees, the perishable sap-wood (see Dry Rot). Grain of Timber.—Most frequently the fibres and other structhe annual rings show no marked differentiation into spring-wood and summer-wood, but are recognisable because a very thin layer tural elements of knotless timber run parallel with the long axis produced latest in the growing season differs in appearance from of the trunk or branch, and the wood is described as being the rest of the wood. Finally many kinds of evergreen tropical straight-grained. If a plank or post be sawn in a direction not parallel to the axis of the trunk, the grain of the sawn article is trees (e.g., mahogany) show no distinct annual rings. In certain kinds of trees, for instance species of pines and leaf- not parallel to the sides of this and the plank or post is described shedding oaks, after the wood has attained a certain age it darkens as cross-grained. But not infrequently the grain of the trunk (or in colour, so that when a cross-cut of a too-year old part of the branches) runs in a spiral direction as if the trunk had been trunk is taken the darker older central wood contrasts as keart- twisted round its long axis: the grain is then described as spiral or torse, and the timber when cut up is inevitably cross-grained. wood with the surrounding pale sap-wood. Structure of Wood.—With the aid of the microscope it can- There are yet other, especially tropical, woods in which the grain be seen that a softwood consists mainly of very narrow hollow more or less swings from a left-handed to a right-handed spiral spindle-shaped “fibres” (properly, tracheids), running parallel to direction, so that the wood when cut into plain boards shows the long axis of the trunk or branch. The solid wall of each a double cross-grain or interlocked gram, and when cut along the fibre consists of wood-substance and on at least two of its sides radii of the trunk (“on the quarter,” rift-sawn) shows roe-jigure, shows a series of thin round patches, the pits, through which for instance in mahogany. In addition to these deviations from the straight grain the water or sap can pass from fibre to fibre. In addition to the fibres, certain softwoods, including those structural elements of the wood may pursue a wavy or sinuous of true pines, have very thin resin-containing tubes, the resin- course, for instance in so-called rammy-ash. When the waviness ducts, which run parallel with the fibres. In structure each duct is exaggerated the grain is said to be curly. Knots, being the basal parts of branches that have become in microscopic miniature recalls a tall factory chimney, as its central tubular hollow is surrounded by microscopic, short, more embedded in the thickening trunk, are naturally associated with or less brick-shaped cells, which are hollow and have thin walls. a change of direction of the fibres. The wood of large excrescences All commercial softwoods (excluding that of the yew) contain on the trunk of certain trees known as burrs exhibits structure resin but some of them (e.g., Californian redwood) have in place similar to that which would be produced by many crowded branches: and a somewhat similar structure is shown by bird’s of resin-ducts merely resin-containing short cells. Traversing the wood at right angles to the fibres are thin eye maple. The fibres of most timbers overlap and dovetail with one string-like or ribbon-like structures that run from the outside of the wood radially inwards towards or actually to the pith. These another at their ends, which are at different levels, and the medulare the medullary rays, which are usually nearly or quite invisible lary rays as seen in circumferential or tangential view are arranged to the naked eye in cross-sections of softwoods. They consist of apparently irregularly or in spirals. But some woods when exammore or less brick-shaped cells, which in the sap-wood contain ined from the same view-points show lines running across the albuminous substances and at times such other nutritive sub- grain and producing what is known as mpple-marking: this is

youngest is its slender tip. But after a portion of a trunk or

i

TIMBER

218

caused by either contiguous fibres ending at the same levels with little or no overlapping or medullary rays placed at the same

ensue when the wood is transferred to another place. In commerce the water-content of the wood is recorded as the

levels, so that the structure of the wood is tiered. Such structure

percentage weight

is often shown by true American

scientific work and in this article, as a percentage weight of the wood when it is absolutely dry. According to the latter method of recording, a log of wood is described as containing 200% of water when it contains 200 lb. of water to every 100 Ib. of dry wood. Such a high water-content does occasionally oecur naturally, for instance in freshly felled swamp (Louisiana) cypress; more frequent in freshly felled timber is roo% in the sap-wood. Heartwood contains much less. Here a popular error must be corrected: in cold-temperate regions the wood of a tree does not contain less water in winter than in summer; often the reverse is the case.

mahoganies.

Chemical Composition.—The wood-substance composing the walls of the hollow structural elements that constitute the solid frame-work or skeleton of wood may, for the present purpose, be regarded as always being composed of two main constituents, lignone and cellulose, together with smaller quantities of additional more or less gum-like bodies. The lignone can be removed from the wood by steam or warm weak acids (and is so removed in the manufacture of chemical wood-pulp), the cellulose remaining. The various substances here described collectively as cellulose are carbohydrates, which may be popularly defined as sugars or substances capable of being converted into sugars.

Thus cellulose

of wood yields for instance a sugar, glucose, which by fermentation can produce ethyl alcohol (spirits of wine). Cellulose by appropriate treatment with nitric or acetic acid produces soluble compounds which when precipitated serve to make artificial silk, dopes, films (collodion, etc.), and in the case of nitric acid, explosives. The general agreement of all kinds of timbers as regards chemical composition is illustrated by the fact that all these under destructive distillation yield tar and tar-derivatives and methyl alcohol (wood spirit). But the various kinds of wood also have additional chemical bodies which differ in the different species, and include tannin-like bodies, resins, scented ethereal oils and colouring substances. Physical Constitution.—Physically wood-substance is a very stiff jelly or gel, and consequently is comparable with glue, gelatin or gums. Like these, it is hygroscopic and swells as it absorbs water and shrinks as it dries. Wood-substance can take up only a definite amount of water, which lies near 30% of its dry weight when the wood is In a saturated atmosphere. A piece of wood containing this maximum amount in its walls but none in its cavities is described as having reached fibre-saturation point, and has attained its maximum volume: when liquid water is added to it

the water remains in the cavities and no additional swelling ensues. It is a familiar fact that when water is added to dry glue or gelatin these show a decline in hardness, strength and stiffness, and a rise in flexibility and extensibility: as wood-substance is a gel, the same changes in its properties take place when water is added to a piece of dry wood until fibre-saturation point is reached. Moreover, just as when heat is applied together with water to glue this shows increased loss of stiffness (by “‘melting”), so when moist steam is applied to wood this can readily be bent for the manufacture of furniture and so forth. The weight or heaviness of wood is recorded as the weight of a unit of volume of the wood, which is the density. The units employed in the British Empire and United States are cubic feet and pounds avoirdupois: elsewhere, and in PANNE work, they are cubic centimetres and grammes. Since the fundamental chemical composition of wood-substance approaches identity in all timbers, its specific gravity in these varies but slightly and lies near 1-55; that is, dry wood-substance weighs slightly more than one and a half times as much as water. Consequently when two perfectly dry pieces of wood of equal size differ in weight, the one is heavier than the other because it contains more wood-substance; in other words the density of perfectly dry wood is a measure of the amount of wood in a unit volume. The various kinds of timbers differ in their densities, some woods, including ebony and box, even when fully seasoned, sink in water, whereas some balsa-woods are lighter than cork. Consequently density facilitates identification of different woods.

Water Content.—The amount of water present in a piece of wood

is of profound practical importance,

since it determines

the weight (consequently cost of transport), size, shape, heatraising power, hardness, strength and stiffness of the piece, as well as the vulnerability of the wood to attacks by fungi and insects: it also determines the changes in these characters that will

of the wood

and

contained

water, but in

When exposed to the open air, preferably under cover, a freshly felled piece of wood dries and shrinks until the water-content at its surface has a vapour pressure equal to that of the atmosphere. The water-content of pieces of timber thus seasoned in the open air, and not too massive, varies according to the season and site between 15 and 20% in Great Britain but is much less in drier climates, for instance, that of Egypt, in which it may be 6%. Brought indoors into heated work-shops or rooms further drying and shrinking takes place, so that furniture in Great Britain contains about 7 to 9%, and in drier parts of South Africa and the United States only 6% or less. Placed in a drying oven at a temperature of 100°C, all the water, save that which is chemically combined, is regarded as

having been dried out and the wood is described as absolutely dry. When dry wood is once more exposed to moister air it reabsorbs water and swells. (= Different kinds of wood underbop =-~\\ go different changes of volume the same percentage gain CC “> Oh with or loss of water: heavy or nonresinous woods generally shrink or swell more than do light or resinous woods, with the consequence that softwoods usually show smaller changes of shape and volume than do hardwoods. But shrinkage and swelling are not proportional to density, for non-resinous woods of the same density show considerable differences in this respect; for instance, Central American mahogany with changed water-content undergoes comparatively slight change of size and shape. A piece of wood tends to shrink and swell unequally in different directions. Along the grain shrink-

fii."

T

FIG. 1.—SHRINKAGE AND CHANGE OF SHAPE INCLUDING WARPING FIG. 2.—SHAKES AND SPLITS (A) SEASONING SPLIT (B) FROST-RIB AND SPLIT (C) SIMPLE HEARTSHAKE (D) DOUBLE HEART-SHAKE (E) STAR-LIKE HEART-SHAKE (F) PARTIAL CUP-SHAKE (G} COMPLETE CUP-SHAKE

age

and

swelling

are

so

slight

that measuring rods made of well-seasoned wood are very reliable. Across the grain shrinkage and swelling are many times as great: in a radial direction 30 to 5o times and tangentially (or parallel to the annual rings) 60 to Consequently when a piece of wood dries it

100 or more times. undergoes greater‘ or less change of shape. The accompanying diagrams show cross-sections of pieces of wood respectively cut into boards, joists and cylindrical rods, and the change of shape caused by drying: the warping of boards 2 to 4 contrasts with the preservation of flatness of board 1 which is cut nearly parallel to

the radii (quarter-cut or rift-sawn). A piece of wood whose fibres, like those of very knotty wood or burrs, run in various directions obviously is especially liable to split when dried. It is partly for this reason that the burr-wood used in the manufacture of beautifully figured furniture is cut

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BY COURTESY OF THE FOREST PRODUCTS RESEARCH LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND THE IMPERIAL FORESTRY

MAGNIFIED

TRANSVERSE

Upper and lower photographs ilfustrate respectively Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga taxifolia (2, 5), and annual rings, produced at the beg inning o f the grow wood, produced later in the season. The proportion a

rings o f the Douglas Fir, but the reverse

IS

SECTIONS

INSTITUTE OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE

OF TIMBER

broad and narrow annual rings of Oak, Quercus robur (L, 4), Ash, Fraxinus excelsior (3, 6). The spring-wood of their ing season, is more o pen or porous, and weaker than the summer-

of weak spring-wocd is greater in the wide than in the narrow

the case in the Oak and Ash

TIMBER

219

|

into very thin sheets, termed veneers, which are glued on to ringing sound. straight-grained wood. Plywoods (including the commonest of | Wood, thanks to its structure, elasticity, low tensile strength, these, three-plywood) consist of thin veneer-like sheets glued to- and relative softness, can be riven or cleft along the grain and gether so that the grains of the successive sheets cross one another yields a more or less smooth surface. at a given angle (usually at right angles), with the consequence Defects of Timber.—(a) Standing Tree. Wood may have that plywood warps less and shrinks more uniformly than does structural peculiarities that represent defects from the mechanical

plain wood and is less unequal in strength in different directions. Colour.—The different kinds of wood may be wholly white or in the heart may be black or have colours ranging from brown,

point of view but may enhance the value because of the decorative effect. This is the case where deviations of the grain such as wavy or curly grain, or abundance of knots, weaken the wood. yellow, red, green to violet, or mixtures of these. It is quite Always decreasing the value of timber are long splits, termed exceptional for one and the same wood when perfectly sound to shakes, directed along the grain of the standing tree. These in show such a wide range of variation as does that of Liriodendron cross-section may run parallel with the annual rings (or contour (whose English name is Canary white wood and North American of the trunk) and are termed cup-shakes, and may assume the name is yellow poplar): this wood varies in colour from light form of short arcs or complete circles (ring-shake): in the latter yellow to green and iridescent blue. The colour thus facilitates case when the log is sawn the central part separates from the identification and helps to decide the decorative use to which a outer part. But in cross-section the shake may run in a radial wood shall be put. It is not true that dark coloured woods are direction, it is then a heart-shake: such a shake is widest more durable than light coloured, though this is true of the heart- towards the centre and tapers outward, and contrasts with the wood when compared with the sap-wood of the same timber. radial splits induced by drying of the felled timber which are Abnormal discolouration of wood is very frequently caused by wider at the outside and taper inwards. Heart-shake may assume fungi attacking the wood or its contents, such as the case with the the form, in cross-section, of a single split traversing the centre blue sap(wood) of softwoods, rusty red of woods attacked by and is described as simple, or this split may be crossed at right various fungi (including some causing dry rot), black lines and angles by another thus producing double heart-shake, or, finally white patches of many rotting timbers, and sometimes false heart- a number of splits may radiate from the centre and thus constitute wood in trees which normally lack a coloured heart-wood. star-shake, which is often associated with discolouration and decay. Heating Power.—The heat-yielding power of a piece of wood Radial frost-shakes are frequently associated with “‘frost-ribs” that sinks with increase of the water-content of this: consequently the are visible on the growing tree as ridges running down one or succeeding remarks refer to wood absolutely dry. During the com- more sides of the trunk. With these shakes contrast the internal bustion of wood the heat liberated is mainly derived from the radially directed splits that first arise in felled timber which has wood-substance: as the weight of this in a unit volume of wood is been so rapidly dried that “case-hardening” has resulted. the density, it follows that the heavier a wood is the more heat In coniferous wood resin-containing cavities, known as resincan it supply: the presence of resin in wood, however, increases pockets or pitch-pockets, occasionally occur: they are of varied the heat-giving power. But when wood is used as fuel the most dimensions but usually of width quite considerable in comparison important character often is the form in which the heat is liber- with the length. Sometimes longer resin-veins easily visible to the ated. Very heavy woods produce short or no flames and burn naked eye traverse the wood or this may clearly show a general slowly, light woods can produce long flames and burn fiercely: con- excess of resin in the absence of veins or pockets. In some cases sequently for fire-lighting or steam-producing the latter are used, excess of resin or abnormal development of the ducts is due to whereas for keeping rooms warm, woods of intermediate density wood-attacking fungi. In hardwoods so-called gam-veins are (e.g., oak, beech) are most efficient. occasionally present in Australian species of Eucalyptus, including Mechanical Properties.—The trunk and woody branches of jarrah, and in true mahoganies. a tree owe their strength and stiffness mainly to their wood. (6) Felled Timber-—Tunnels or other cavities are also produced Accordingly, wood must possess strength to resist breakage or by animals in felled timber. In sea-water they result from permanent damage by slow crushing, stretching, bending and twist- attacks by Mollusca (e.g., shipworms) or small Crustacea (cf. ing; it must also resist shock in the form of sudden application shrimps), and on land are due to insects. Decay or rot of timber of these stresses: it must possess sufficient stiffness to give the ‘taking place in the standing tree or felled timber is always due requisite pillar-strength to the trunk, and when a deforming stress to fungi (see Dry Rot), and is associated with discolouration is removed must return to its former shape. and weakening of the wood but much less frequently with the proIn conformity with its difference of structure along and across duction of internal cavities. the grain, wood differs in strength and stiffness in these two main Opposed to the shakes already considered are cross-shakes, directions. As regards crushing (compression) and stretching which are cracks or splits running at right angles to the grain. In (tension) wood is strongest and stiffest along the grain, and weak- the overwhelming majority of cases they are due to decay of the est at right angles to this: but as regards shear it is strongest at wood, caused by fungi, and consequent shrinkage (see Dry Ror). right angles to the grain: a beam in bending is strongest and They render wood useless for mechanical usage. But the logs stiffest when the load is applied perpendicular to the grain. of certain species of trees, including spruce, sabicu.and some Consequently, joists, beams, floor-boards, posts, axe-handles, African mahoganies, occasionally show cross-shakes, even when wheel-spokes and so forth are strongest when their grain is straight there 1s no trace of decay. and parallel to the sides of these objects, and they are weakened For a discussion of Felling, forms and sizes see LUMBERING. by cross-grain and considerable knots. See also TIMBER PRESERVATION. Special Softwoods.—The name cedar is given to various unThe remarkable mechanical property of wood is its combination of strength and lightness: for instance, if the crushing strength be related, usually fragrant, softwoods and hardwoods. The true divided by the density in the cases of constructional wood and cedars (Cedrus) are familiar as trees of three kinds: the Himairon, steel and other metals, the resultant value is highest in wood. layan deodar, the cedar of Lebanon and the Atlas Mountains Nevertheless, the tensile strength of steel or iron is so much higher cedar. Junipers (Juniperus) supply the pencil-wood cedar, the than that of wood that one of the former is used in engineering most important being the North American J. virginiana, though construction for members required to resist rupture by tension, pencil slats are also made from another species growing in Kenya whereas wood is often used where resistance to bending or com- Colony: the heartwood is durable, as the scented cedar-wood oil pression is needed. (See STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.) is antiseptic and distasteful to insects. Lawson’s cypress (ChaThe peculiar elastic properties of wood render possible its em- maecyparis Lawsoniana), indigenous in western United States, ployment as resonance-wood, used for instance in the bellies of yields the valuable Port Orford cedar. Other North American violins, and the sounding boards of pianos. Wood undergoing cedar woods are produced by arbor vitae trees (Thuja), the decay soon declines in strength and elasticity, and even when durable red cedar wood (T. plicata) being used for shingles. only partly decayed emits when struck a dull, in place of a sharp Bald, marsh or Louisiana cypress (Taxodium distichum) grows

220

TIMBER

in swamps of south-eastern United States and Central America: its durable wood is unsurpassed for conservatories. The European larch (Larix decidua) is rather heavy and the red heartwood is very durable. The rather similar North American timbers are those of the tamarack (L. americana) and the western larch (L. occidentalis}. Larch timbers find many of the same uses as hard-pines (see later). Pine, true-—The name pine is given to a2 medley of softwoods, but should be restricted to timbers belonging to the genus Pinus, Such genuine pine-timbers may be ranged into two classes, hardpines and soft-pines, the former of which are generally heavier. Hard-pines include one of the two most important softwoods of Europe, Baltic “red deal’ (Pinus sylvestris, the Scots pine),

European and North American species of elm (Ulmus). They generally have heart-woods lasting well in permanent contact with water; the water-pipes of London in olden times were often made of hollowed trunks of elms. Australia is the world’s centre for the growth of eucalyptustrees, a number of which produce hard, heavy, strong timber of large dimensions, and include farrak, karri, tallow-wood, and tuart.

Greenheart is a tropical South American wood, which is generally stated to be that of Nectandra Rodiaei, varies in colour from yellow-green to darker admixtures of colours. Resistant to shipworms it is used widely for piling in docks: for fishing rods it Is pre-eminent. which grows widely over Europe, and is represented in North Commercial hickory woods of good quality are produced by America by a very similar timber, red or Norway pine (P. a number of species of Hicorza in the United States. These find resinosa). The name pitch-pine as applied to North (and Central) much the same uses as ash, since they are tough, but being stiffer American timbers in Great Britain and the United States, respec- than ash they can be used for the shafts of golf-clubs. tively, is liable to cause confusion: in the latter country it refers The name mahogany is improperly given to a medley of woods to relatively poor wood of P. rigida, whereas in Great Britain which range from white to bluish red in colour and grow in and Europe it refers to pine-timbers of the highest class produced various countries. The original mahogany was that of Swvetenia by P. palustris and two or three other species all exported from mahagoni growing in the West Indies: this species together with south-eastern United States to England. the allied S. macrophylla growing on the mainland of Central Soft-pines include the timber of the American Weymouth pine America supply true American mahogany. These reddish-brown (Pinus Strobus), which is known in England as “Canadian yellow woods shrink and warp but little, are durable, light and polish pine” and in the United States as “Eastern white pine”: it is readily to yield beautiful decorative effects. Any other woods not used out of doors, but for making matches, patterns and for named mahogany should share these characters. Such is the high-class cabinet work. case with West African mahoganies produced by certain species Pines, so called-—A wide range of coniferous trees are known of Khaya (belonging to the same family, Meliaceae, as Swietenia), in Australasia as pines, and include the Kauri-pine (Agathis which are indistinguishable by most people from the American australis) of New Zealand, and Huon-pine (Dacrydium Frank- mahogany. The West African “Gaboon mahogany” is a wood linii) in Tasmania. The Oregon or British Columbian pine is belonging to trees (or a tree) of an entirely different family, and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) which grows in the Pacific is not a mahogany: neither are any of the so-called mahoganies States of North America. of India, Australia, the United States and South America. Californian redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) has a reddish Maples, including the European sycamore, belong to the genus heartwood light in weight, very durable, and used for the manu- Acer and yield white firm woods that have a silvery sheen. North facture of shingles and patterns. America supplies maples used in block-floorings and the beautiful White deal is the wood of the Norway spruce (Picea excelsa) bird’s eye maple used in furniture. which is wide-spread over Europe. The white wood ranges in True oak timbers are produced by species of Quercus, which quality from the common grades used in packing cases, wood- is a genus not growing south of the equator, and the commercially work of houses and pulp, to mountain-grown wood of the highest important ones are European, North American and Japanese in quality which provides the best sounding boards of pianos. To origin. The European timber is mainly derived from the widesimilar uses the black, white, red and Sitka spruces (Picea spp.) spread Q. pedunculata and Q. sessiflora, and stands apart from are put in North America. (See SPRUCE.) the other commercial kinds in being the sole one that can be Special Hardwoods.—The ash-tree (Fraxinus excelsior) is safely used alone in the construction of casks and barrels for widespread over Europe and supplies the timber of commerce, the storage of beer, wines and spirits without causing deteriorawhich is almost solely sap-wood, as any heart-wood is produced tion of flavour of these. Great Britain produces a unique type, late in life. The wood is remarkably tough and, after steaming, termed “brown oak,” which is used in the manufacture of panelcan be permanently bent without losing its shock-resisting power. ling and furniture in Europe and North America. The European It is used in the manufacture of axe-handles, oars, bodies of oak imported into England is known as Russian and as Austrian carriages and motor-cars, hockey-sticks and so forth. In North oak, when exported from Baltic ports and Fiume respectively. America six species of Fraxinus supply commercial timbers. North American commercial oak timbers are produced by a larger The beech-timbers of commerce are the woods of Fagus syl- number of species of Quercus belonging to two groups, the “white” vatica and F. americana in Europe and North America respec- and “red oaks,” which contrast in structure and uses. tively. The latter shows a distinction into white sap-wood and Genuine lustrous satinwoods in origin are respectively East reddish heart-wood, but not so the former which is of uniform Indian (Chloraxylon Swietenia) and West Indian (Xanthoxylum). reddish white. Being perishable out of doors beech-wood is Teak timber is produced by Tectona grandis which yields mainly made into articles used indoors, including furniture. commercial supplies only in the Indian Peninsula, Burma, Siam In addition to the softwoods enumerated a number of scented and Java. The valuable yellow to brown heart-wood is hard, hardwoods from varlous countries are termed cedars: of these strong, stiff and very durable; moreover, unlike oak, it does not the most familiar is the tropical American cedar (Cedrela odorata) attack iron. As the wood also “stands” well, it is excellently used in the manufacture of cigar-boxes and boards of boats. suited for use in window-sills, ships and flooring. The wood Very similar to the timbers of ordinary oaks are those of the shows annual rings, and thus contrasts with such spurious teak

true chestnuts, Castanea vesca of Europe and C. dentata of North timbers as “West African teak” (Chlorophora) and Indo-Malayan America, but these lack wide medullary rays and consequently “eng or yang teak” (Dipterocarpus). display no striking “silver grain.” The two most important walnut timbers are those of Juglans Species of Diospyros growing in tropical Asia and Africa supply regia, whose distribution stretches from England to northern the black ebonies of commerce. The black of the heart-wood India, and J. nigra, which is North American. The heart-wood of may be interrupted by patches of white (in Andaman marble- both species is brown, that of the former species is often traversed wood) or brown (in calamander wood). The Japanese and North by brown lines, while that of the American is wholly of a blacker American persimmon woods belong to species of Diospyros, and brown. Both woods are unrivalled for the manufacture of gunpieces of the latter have little or no black wood. | stocks and are excellent furniture wood, as when it has been The commercial timbers are produced by several species of thoroughly seasoned and polished it shrinks and swells very

TIMBER little.

The

wood

has clearly marked

LINE—TIMBER

PRESERVATION

22I

rings and thus !j ceans (Limnoria, the gribble, and Chelura) are most destructive construction in sea-water. In the tropics the greatest (Albizzia Lebbek) and West African (Lovoa Klaineana). A |enemy to timber are the termites known as white ants. third misnamed wood is known in Great Britain as “satin wal- |f{ Antiseptics Used in Wood Preservation.—Antiseptics used nut” (also as “hazel-pine”) and in the United States, its native in the preservation of wood may be divided into two broad classes, country, as gum (sweet or red). namely, oils and salts, of which the former are mostly derived from Confusion frequently arises in England as to the identities of coal-tars, though wood-tar products and certain essential oils several woods that are more or less white. From the United must be added to the list. The oils are in certain processes mixed States there are exported to England several kinds of wood hav- with salts, as for instance in the Card process, while, recently, ing that character. (1) One is named “canary whitewood” in considerable attention has been paid to mixtures of coal-tar creoGreat Britain but “yellow poplar” in America: it is produced by sotes and earth oils. Certain salts attracted attention as possible the tulip-tree (Liriodendron Tulipifera), and ranges in colour from antiseptics for the treatment of timber, as early as 1705, when light yellow to iridescent blue. (2) In addition are woods pro- Homberg used mercuric chloride, although this salt is more comduced by true poplar trees (Populus), which are named “cotton- monly associated with Kyan, after whom the process is named. woods” in the United States. (3) Thirdly there are woods Of all salts which have been used in treating wood that which has known in England as lime and in America as basswood, that are best stood the test of time is chloride of zinc, discovered by produced by lime-trees (Tilia spp.), which of course are very Boucherie, but known as Burnettizing, after Sir William Burnett. different from the limes (Citrus) producing the familiar juicy Copper sulphate was used as long ago as 1840, but has since fallen fruits. out of favour; the most recent to be seriously considered are BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Percy Groom, Trees and their Life Histories (Lon- fluoride salts, which were first exhaustively tested by an Austrian don, 1907), a finely illustrated book, giving accounts of the natural engineer, named Malenkovic. Between 1904 and 1908 an entirely histories, some of the diseases, and means of identification of a number new process was brought out by Powell, which consisted in boiling of European, North American and other species of trees, mostly yielding commercial timbers; Alex. Howard, Timbers of the World (Lon- timber in molasses, to which was added a small percentage of don, 1920), a comprehensive work dealing seriatim with the world’s arsenic for use where white ants were prevalent. most important timbers of commerce mainly from the view-point of It was Bethell who started on practical lines the treatment of their properties, including appearances and uses, and geographical and wood with coal-tar products in 1838, though it is certain that the botanical sources: it also includes special articles on the conversion and preservation of timber, and on artificial seasoning; A. Koehler, The possibility of injecting these oils into timber was attempted before Properties and Uses of Wood (New York and London, 1924), an this date. Probably no name is better known in connection with excellent general account of the subject; H. D. Tiemann, The Kiln Dry- timber preservation than that of Bethell, who used a product of ing of Lumber (Philadelphia and London, 1917), an authoritative and coal-tar commercially known as creosote, which is at present by lucid exposition on the theory and practice of artificial seasoning of far the most popular antiseptic in use. It should here be noted wood in kilns. (P. Gm.) that true creosote is a wood-tar product, though the word is now TIMBER LINE, the altitudinal boundary of natural tree commonly and erroneously used for the coal-tar product. Coalgrowth. In any elevated area in low or middle latitudes the line is tar creosotes differ greatly in composition, depending on the generally clearly marked, but its height is dependent not only on quality of the tar and the coal from which they are produced, and general but also on local climatic and soil conditions. (See various commercial grades are prepared to meet different requireSNOWLINE.) ments. For standard products the British Engineering Standards TIMBER PRESERVATION. The art of protecting timber Association’s Specification, No. 144/, 1921, dated Aug. roger, from decay or the ravages of insects is of very ancient origin. It should be consulted. Methods of Treatment.—Before treatment all bark should be is probable that the Egyptians, who were experts in the preservation of organic bodies, also preserved wood by artificial means. removed and the ends of the timber cleansed. It is important to Pliny mentions that the ancients employed essential oils, such as note that the inner bark either stops or retards lateral penetration, oil of cedar, olive oil, oil of spikenard, or vinegar. An even more which is one of the most difficult obstacles to be overcome. All annual

contrasts with two tropical spurious “walnuts.” the East Indian : to wood i

eeBA ee tI! Mr man etry a i

universal method was to char wood to protect it from decay, a well-known instance of which is the charred piles under-pinning the temple of Diana at Ephesus. The beginning of the roth century saw the introduction of modern methods of injecting wood

with either salt or oi] solutions. Later, a further impetus was given to wood preservation by the introduction of railways, requiring large quantities of wooden sleepers, and by the discovery of telegraphy, which necessitated large numbers of telegraph poles. There is at the present time an urgent need, other than that of direct monetary importance, for prolonging the life of timber, and that is to conserve the world’s timber supply by every possible means, which includes, amongst others, the antiseptic treatment of timber. Antiseptic treatment was introduced into America about 1850, and gradually spread to most civilized countries of the world, though in India and Australia, where extremely durable timbers are available, such as teak and jarrah, the treatment of railway sleepers has only been undertaken in quite recent years. Causes of Decay.—Timber may deteriorate from several causes; amongst the more common are decay due to fungi, the attack of insects and marine-borers, and mechanical defects such as abrasion, crushing, splitting or other types of fracture. One of the commonest forms of decay is known as “dry rot,” produced

processes, with the exception of the Boucherie and Powell processes, require that the timber should be seasoned. The degree of seasoning required will vary with the process, the class of tim-

ber to be treated and the use to which it is to be put. The moisture in wood occurs in the pores and cavities between the fibres and in the cell walls; the former being termed free-water and the latter sorbed water. As the timber seasons, the free-water is first given off until there remains from 25% to 30% by weight of the sorbed water. The moisture content should be reduced to below 20%, so that all the free, and part of the sorbed, moisture disappears, leaving the cavities free to take up the antiseptic. The methods by which timber may be antiseptically treated fall under three heads, namely, the brush method, treatment in open tanks and treatment in closed cylinders under pressure. By the open tank method the timber is Immersed either in

coal-tar creosote or a salt solution, in a tank which is heated by placing a fire beneath it, or preferably by means of steam coils. The antiseptic is gradually raised to a temperature of go°® C

to 95° C, maintained at that temperature for a period dependent on the thickness of the material under treatment, and then allowed to cool down to atmospheric temperature. The heating period should, generally speaking, be maintained for an hour for every by several species of fungi, of which the most important is Meru- inch in thickness of the material. When the timber is heated in lius lachrymans. The number of insects which attack wood is the solution it expands, and air is expelled from the cellular and very great, but probably those which do most damage are the intercellular spaces; as the timber cools that air is replaced by death watch beetle (Xestobium rufo-villosum), injurious to struc- antiseptic. Fair penetration may be obtained by this process, tural timber; the powder-post beetle (Lyctus sp.) and the common which in pine-wood sleepers containing 4 moderate percentage of furniture beetle (Anobium punctatum), destructive to furniture. sapwood, amounts to approximately 5 Ib. per cubic foot. This A number of marine molluscs (Teredo, the shipworm) and crusta- method of treating timber is applicable to cases where moderate

222

TIMBER-WOLF—TIMBUKTU

quantities of timber have to be dealt with. A process by which wood is treated with saccharine solutions, known as the Powell process, is carried out in open tanks; the timber is boiled in a diluted solution of sugar, to which a small percentage of arsenic is added for protection, in tropical countries, against the attacks of white ants. The process consists in boiling green timber for several hours, the time varying according to the dimensions and species of wood under treatment. It is then allowed to cool down and is placed in a drying chamber. This process has been successfully employed in Australia, while extensive tests carried out with Powellized sleepers on Indian railways give good results. Pressure Processes.—These are carried out in cylindrical retorts varying in size from 6 to 9 feet in diameter, and 30 to 160 feet in length, capable of withstanding a pressure of 200 Ib. per square inch, and fitted with doors at either one or both ends. Inside the cylinder are placed rails to take the trolleys on which the timber is loaded; and below the rails is inserted a system of steam pipes for heating the antiseptic solution, and in certain plants a steam spray line. To the cylinder are attached pressure and vacuum pumps and in some cases air pumps. A second cylinder or storage tank is generally provided, which is generally placed above the pressure cylinder. Surrounding the treating plant is the timber yard, which is conveniently laid out with feeder lines to and from the treating cylinder. The Full-cell or Bethell process, which employs coal-tar creosote, consists in subjecting the seasoned timber to a pressure of 100 to 180 lb. for one or more hours, after which the oil is run off and the timber allowed to drip. In some cases a vacuum is drawn for a short. period, to hasten the removal of the coal-tar creosote left on the surface of the timber. Some operators when dealing with green timber, first subject it to a steaming period of several hours, and then draw a vacuum for one or two hours, in order partially to remove the free moisture in the wood, but this does not result in such satisfactory penetration as does the treatment of seasoned timber. Treatment by a full-cell process results in an absorption of from 7 to 18 Ib. of coal-tar creosote per cubic foot. The open-cell process may be carried out according to two different methods; one method was patented by C. B. Lowry, by which the coal-tar creosote is run into the cylinder at a temperature of 200° F, and a pressure of from 180 to 200 Ib. is applied, until no more oil can be forced into the timber, że., until the timber has been treated “to refusal.” The pressure is then released, the oil run off, and a vacuum drawn, until the oil in the intercellular spaces has been removed; this oil may amount to 40% of the original absorption, leaving some 6 to 7 lb. per cubic foot behind in the timber. The other open-cell process, discovered by Riping, aims at as deep a penetration as possible and at the same time economizes, recovering, as does the Lowry process, a portion of the ot! originally introduced. To carry out this process a second cylinder, capable of withstanding 100 Ib. air pressure, is placed at a higher level than the treating cylinder. The air-dried timber is placed in the treating cylinder and subjected to an air pressure of 60 to 80 Ib. per square inch. The high level cylinder is filled with the preservative to within a few inches of the top, and an equal air-pressure is applied to its upper surface. The antiseptic is then allowed to flow by gravity from the upper to the lower cylinder, the air displaced in the latter being led into the former by a by-pass. The two cylinders are then disconnected and the pressure in the treating cylinder is gradually raised to rgo lb. per square inch and held there until ro to 12 lb. per cubic foot have

(xgr6); A. J. Wallis-Tayler, The Preservation of Wood (1917); the publications of the Govt. of India Forestry Research Inst., and of the U.S.A. Forestry Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis. (R. S. PN.)

TIMBER-WOLF

BY COURTESY SOCIETY

OF

THE

THE TIMBER

NEW

OR

YORK

GREY

ZOOLOGICAL

WOLF

(Canis

nubilus), or grey wolf, an American species (see WoLrr). The length of good specimens is about 641n., inclusive of the tail, and the range of colour is from black to white. Cattle ranchers and shepherds have established a war of extermination against this wolf and the coyote. TIMBREL or TABRET

(the tof of the ancient Hebrews, the deff of Islam, the adufe of the Moors of Spain), the principal musical instrument of percussion of the Israelites, identical with the modern tambourine. The tabret or timbrel was a favourite instrument of the women, and was used with dances, as by Miriam, to accompany songs of victory, or with the harp at banquets and processions; it was one of the instruments used by King David and his musicians when he danced before the Ark.

TIMBUKTU (Fr. Tombouctou), chief town of a district of the colony of French Sudan, French West Africa, 9 m. N. of the main stream of the Niger in 16° N. and 5° W. Timbuktu lies on a terrace formed by the southern scarp of the Sahara, about 800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by sandy dunes covered with mimosas and other spiny trees. Timbuktu communicates with the Niger by a series of marigots or channels with alternating flow, which fill at flood time and empty themselves into the Niger when the dry season supervenes. In Janu-

ary, the maximum period, the waters reach the walls of the town through the marigot from Kabara, which is the port of Timbuktu. Timbuktu has been described as “the meeting point of the camel and the canoe,” “the port of the Sahara in the Sudan,” and (more correctly) “the port of the Sudan in the Sahara.” It was formerly a much larger place than it was found to be at the time of its occupation by the French in 1893-1894, Extensive ruins exist north and west of the present town. The great mosque which at one time stood in the centre of the town now lies near the western outskirts, where its high but unsightly earth tower forms a striking landmark. The mosque of Sidi Yahia (in the centre of the town) and that of Sankoré in the north-east also possess prominent towers. Whereas in 1895 the town was little more than a vast ruin, under French protection the inhabitants, relieved from the fear of Tuareg oppression, set about repairing and rebuilding their houses; new streets were built; European schools, churches and other establishments were opened. But Timbuktu has not yet recovered; the population is only 7,000 with a majority of Sonrhai; at the time of the commercial transactions from March to June, the population reaches 25,000. The industries of Timbuktu—cotton-weaving, earthenware, leather-work and embroidery—are of subordinate importance, and the great bulk of the people are occupied exclusively with trade. The whole traffic of the surrounding lands converges on Timbuktu, two great caravans of 3,000 or 4,000 camels are yearly charged with salt from the Taudeni district, salt being an article which the Niger countries lack. Timbuktu, which possesses some valuable Arabic manuscripts —notably the Tarik es-Sudan, a 17th-century history of the been absorbed. The pressure is then released and the oil run off ; Sudan written by Abderrahman Sadi of Timbuktu—and is a this results in a partial vacuum being set up, and allows the com- centre of Moslem teaching, is a converging point of the chief pressed air in the wood to expand and to force out the surplus oil. west Sudanese and Saharan races—Arabs or Arabized Berbers A process invented by Card, for which a patent was granted in to the west; Sonrhai in the immediate vicinity, and thence 1906, consists in treating timber with a mixture of 20% coal-tar south-eastwards along the Niger; Ireghenaten or “mixed” Tuareg creosote and an 80% solution of chloride of zinc, the strength of southwards across the Niger as far as the Hombori Hills and the latter being regulated so that 4 lb. of dry salt be taken up per in the fertile Libbako plains beyond them; Fula, Mandingos, and cubic foot. It is a full-cell process, the operation being similar to Bambara in and about the city; and Imoshagh (Tuareg) belonging that of the Bethell process, except that the mixture is kept in to the Awellimiden confederation mainly to the north and east. emulsion by a powerful centrifugal pump which circulates it The local administration—preserved under French rule—is through a spray pipe. in the hands of an hereditary kahia, a kind of mayor, descended BIsLiocGRaPHY.—H. F, Weiss, The Preservation of Structural Timber

from one of the Ruma families.

(A. BE.)

223

TIMBY

History.—The history of Timbuktu is intimately connected | in December 1893 they found that the town had again fallen with that of the city of Jenné and the Songhoi empire. The beneath the rule of the Tuareg. The townsfolk, indeed, from the i

Songhoi

Niger made within zoom.

(g.v.) are a negro race reported to have come

countries from the Nile themselves masters of the bend of the Niger, in a direct line S.S.E. of

to the

valley. In the 8th century they a considerable tract of country and built the city of Gao (g.v.), Timbuktu, making it their capital.

In the 11th century they were converted to Islam.

Besides Gao,

the Songhoi founded Jenné (q.v.), which early attained considerable commercial importance. Meanwhile (11th century) a settlement had been made at Timbuktu by Tuareg. Perceiving the advantages for trade with the north offered by this desert rendezvous, the merchants of Jenné sent agents thither (12th century), and Timbuktu shortly afterwards became known to the

inhabitants of the Sahara and Barbary as an excellent market for their goods, and also for the purchase of the many commodities of the western Sudan. In the 12th or 13th century Timbuktu fell under the power of the Mandingo kings of Melle or Mali, a country lying west and south of Jenné. Its fame as a mart for gold and salt spread to Europe, “Timboutch” being marked on a Catalan map dated 1373. In 1353 it had been visited by the famous traveller Ibn Batuta. In 1434 the Tuareg made themselves masters of the city, which in 1469 was captured by the Songhoi

king Sunni Ali. It was at this time (1470) that Timbuktu was visited by an Italian, Beneditto Dei. In the days of Sunni’s successor Askia (1494-1529) the Songhoi empire reached its highest development, and Timbuktu rose to great splendour. The “university” of Sankoré became a chief centre of Mohammedan culture for the peoples of the western Sudan.

The riches of Timbuktu excited the cupidity of El Mansur, sultan of Morocco, who, in 1590, sent an army across the Sahara under an “Andalusian”

Moor

(that is, a Moor descended from

those expelled from Spain), which captured Timbuktu (1591) and completely broke up the Songhoi empire. For about 20 years after the conquest the pasha who ruled at Timbuktu was nominated from Morocco, but the distance of the Niger countries from Marrakesh enabled this vast viceroyalty to throw off all allegiance to the sultan of Morocco. The Niger Moors, known as Rumas after El Mansur’s musketeers, quarrelled continually among themselves, and oppressed the negro tribes. By the end of the 18th century two hundred years of oppression had reduced Timbuktu to comparative desolation and poverty. By this time the whole country was in a state of anarchy, and in 1800 the Tuareg swooped down from the desert and captured the place. They were in turn (1813) dispossessed by the Fula, who in 1840

gave place to the Tukulor. (See SENEGAL, History.) At this period European interest in the region had revived. Maj. Gordon Laing, who had reached Timbuktu from Tripoli in 1826, had been murdered by order of the Fula; but René Caillié, coming from the south, had been in the city in 1828 and had returned in safety. Heinrich Barth, an officially accredited representative of the British Government, reached Timbuktu from the Central Sahara in 1853 and some effort was then made to bring the place under British influence. El Backay (Bakhai), the sheikh who received Barth, gave him letters professing much friendship for the British, and in a letter to El Backay, dated April r5,

1859, Lord Clarendon, secretary of State for foreign affairs, said that “the friendship binding us shall not diminish through the centuries” and “as our Government is very powerful we will protect your people who turn to us.” A nephew of El Backay’s went to Tripoli, saw the British consul and was told that a British steamer was ascending the Niger and that the Government had recommended those on board “to make every effort” to reach Timbuktu. But no one from the lower Niger reached El Backay, whose influence appears to have declined after Barth’s visit; and no further attempt appears to have been made by

the British to keep in touch with Timbuktu.

Indeed, between

Barth’s visit and the French occupation only one white man,

Oskar Lenz, in 1880, reached Timbuktu and he crossed the desert from Morocco. It was in the following year, 1881, that the French, thrusting forward from Senegal, began the conquest of the countries of the Niger bend. When they reached Timbuktu

| time

of the decay of the Ruma power being at the mercy of all comers, were content to pay tribute to each in turn and sometimes to more than one simultaneously, for which they indemnified themselves by peaceful intervals of trade whenever the land routes were open and the Niger clear of pirates. But at times even the short tract separating the town from Kabara was so beset with marauders that it bore the ominous name of ‘“Ur-immandess,’’ that is, “He (God) hears not.” Little wonder then that the townsfolk freely opened their gates to the French as soon as Lieut. Boiteux reached Kabara in command of a small flotilla. The occupation of the town, against orders, was a daring exploit of a handful of marines. The force which “garrisoned” Timbuktu consisted of seven Europeans and twelve Senegalese. The somewhat larger body left with the gunboats was attacked by the Tuareg (Dec. 28) and suffered severely. Col. T. P. E. Bonnier, who was at Mopti, 200m. to the south-west, marched to the relief of Boiteux and entered Timbuktu without opposition on Jan. Io, 1894. He then set out with about 100 men to chastise the nomads. In the night of Jan. 14-15 his camp was surprised and the colonel and nearly all his men perished. The enemy did not follow up their victory, and within a short period French rule was firmly established in Timbuktu. In 1903 the French authorities placed commemorative tablets on the houses occupied by the four travellers, Laing, Barth, Caillié and Lenz, during their stay in Timbuktu. Under French rule the town has regained a measure of importance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-The chief original authorities are the Tarik esSudan (trans. Houdas, Paris, 1901) ; and Ahmad Baba’s “Chronicle” (trans. Barth), in Zeitsch. der morgenland. Gesellsch., ix. 826. Among mediaeval writers, see especially Ibn Batuta and Leo Africanus. Of early European records Barth’s Travels are the most important. A popular account is F. Dubois, Timbuctoo the Mysterious (London, 1896). Consult also O. Lenz, Timbuktu (Leipzig, 1884) ; Lady Lugard, A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905); C. D. Priest, “Timbuktoo,” Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. xlv. (1924) ; Ch. de la Roncière, La Découverte de l’Afrique au Moyen Age, 3 vols. (Cairo, 1925-27); Lieut. Péfontain, “Histoire de Tombouctou,” Bul. Comité Études Hist. et Sc. Afrique occid. Fran., vol. xxii. (1922). (E. R. C)

TIMBY, THEODORE RUGGLES (1819-1909), American inventor, was born on April 5, 1819, in Dover, New York. His

most noted invention was the revolving turret, which he first conceived in r84r. He first constructed a small model and displayed it in Washington. Later he built a steam-propelled model in Syracuse, N.Y. (1842). This he exhibited in the city hall, New York, where it was inspected by President Tyler and his cabinet. In £843 he obtained a caveat from the patent office. During the Civil War, when the “Merrimac” had been constructed with heavy iron armour by the Confederate Government, it became evident that a new type of ship must be built to compete with it. At this juncture John Ericsson came forward with plans for a floating battery. These plans were presented to the naval department and promptly accepted. Immediately an organization known as the “Battery Associates’ was formed to build armoured ships according to Ericsson’s plans. When Timby heard of this Government contract, he presented the caveat for his patent on the revolving turret, which was to be the main feature of Ericsson’s floating battery. The Battery Associates, recognizing Timby’s claim, agreed to pay him $5,000 on each turret built. Soon afterwards, with Ericsson as engineer of the design and construction, the battleship “Monitor” was completed. When she met the “Merrimac’? and gained her famous victory, Ericsson was given general recognition as the inventor of the revolving turret. No serious efforts were made to correct the misapprehension until Timby’s death. From 1861 to 1891, Timby invented and patented, at home and abroad, a system of coast defences, such as the sighting and

firing of heavy guns by electricity; the tower and shield; the cordon across a channel; the planetary and subterranean systems, and numerous modifications of the turret system. He died in Brooklyn, N.Y., on Nov. 9, 1909. See the Memorial Timby

to the 57th Congress for Recognition of T. R.

by the Patriotic

Memorial to T. R. Timby

League

of the Revolution

(1902),

and the

(1911) by the Timby Memorial Trust.

—

224

TIME—TIME

MEASUREMENT

TIME, the general term for the experience of duration. For time in its psychological

sense see Space-Time;

for time in

music, see below, for the methods of reckoning time see CALENDAR; Day; MontH; TIME, STANDARD,

and the articles TIME

MEASUREMENT

and

In Music, time is a term signifying the number of beats in

a measure or bar. When there is an even number of beats, as 2 or 4, the music js said to be in common or duple time. When there are 3 beats in a measure it is said to be in triple time, Further, when the beats are of the value of an aliquot part of a semibreve the time is termed simple. Thus four crotchets, or their equivalents, in a measure constitute simple common time, while three crotchets, or their equivalents, constitute simple triple time. When, on the other hand, the beats are of the value of dotted notes, and therefore not aliquot parts of a semibreve, the time is termed compound. Thus four dotted crotchets in a measure constitute compound common time, while three dotted crotchets in a measure constitute compound triple time. The time of a composition is indicated at the beginning by what is termed the “time signature,” in the shape of a fraction specifying the number of aliquot parts of a semibreve which each measure contains, as 4(=4 crotchets) or $ (=3 quavers).

TIME,

STANDARD.

In an isolated community clocks

and watches would naturally be set to the local mean time (see

Time

MEASUREMENT), and before the period of railway com-

munication the different The need for a more chiefly felt in America. by Greenwich time, and

ties. In Britain, France, Belgium and Holland, where it continues to be used, it is strongly supported. The advantage of adopting a continuous reckoning of the hours

from o to 24 instead of using the divisions a.m. and P.M. is obvious, and this reckoning is now in general use in some countries. For civil purposes the reckoning starts from midnight. In astronomy, however, there exists a reckoning, called astronomical time, beginning from noon; thus March 10 15 astronomical time is 3 A.M. on March 11 by civil time. Up to 1925 astronomical reck-

oning was used in the national ephemerides; but it was found that this caused some difficulty and confusion to seamen, and an international agreement was made to adopt civil reckoning in the ephemerides from 1925 onwards. It was recognized that this would probably lead to the abandonment (total or partial) of the astronomical reckoning by astronomers themselves. Unfortunately, the decision was interpreted in some quarters as implying a change of nomenclature—that “astronomical time” was henceforth to mean civil time—a purposeless and confusing change for which there is no authoritative sanction. The most prominent offender was the British Admiralty, who caused in this way a

change in the use of the designation G.M.T.

(Greenwich Mean

Time) in the Nautical Almanac without authority. The situation was considered by the International Astronomical Union in 1928,

who advised astronomers not to use the letters G.M.T. in any sense for the present. The terms Greenwich Civil Time (G.C.T.), Weltzeit (W.Z.) and Universal Time (U.T.) denote time meas-

towns as a rule kept local time. systematic plan of standard times was ured from Greenwich mean midnight and are not ambiguous. For Whilst the railways in England were run time reckoned from mean noon the expression Greenwich Mean the railways in France by Paris time, it Astronomical Time (G.M.A.T.) is the most satisfactory. The was not to be expected that railway systems in the middle and Julian day is counted from Greenwich mean noon as Hee A. S. E.) western States would adopt Washington time, differing by several TIME MEASUREMENT. The problem of the measurement hours from the local time of the region which they served. Hence each railway had its own time, or, in the case of the longer of time demands a reference to its philosophical foundation, if lines, several different time zones, and great confusion arose at it is to be viewed otherwise than as an empiric treatment of a overlapping points. The remedy of this state of things is due to practical necessity. Without touching the contention of relativSandford Fleming, a Scotch Canadian, who in 1878 brought for- ists that time is in a certain sense merely a fourth dimension added ward the plan of adopting for the whole earth 24 standard meri- to space, we may take it that to any individual it appears differdians 15° apart in longitude, starting from Greenwich. These ent and separate from his space, and is simpler than space to meridians were to be the centres of 24 time zones; in each zone treat because it has merely one dimension. The difficulty arises the time adopted would be uniform, and it would change by one precisely because of this fact, that it is fundamental and there hour in passing from one zone to the next. After long discussion is nothing similar or simpler to compare it with. Duration, perthe railway managers of the United States and Canada decided to manence, existence even, all presuppose the lapse of time and adopt the system. therefore some means for its detection, or, what is the same thing, Zone time based on the Greenwich meridian is now adopted some primitive measure of it. The fact upon which all these ideas almost everywhere except in Holland. In most countries the time are based is the possibility of repetition of experience. When exdiffers by an integral number of hours from Greenwich time, in periences are repeated, closely enough, we associate them with the accordance with the original plan; but in some of the British ideas of things and reality. Such appears to be the psychological dominions, also in Venezuela and Uruguay, a compromise involv- history of the construction of our world. We look then for the ing half-hour differences has been adopted. European countries measurement of time to some process with recognizable repeti(except Holland) are ranged in three groups, keeping respectively tions, which may be counted. This replaces the impalpable idea Greenwich time, mid-European time (one hour fast), east of duration by counted steps and thus brings time into the class European time (two hours fast). In the United States and Canada of measured quantities. Pulse beats, the alternations of day and there are five time-zones, called Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Moun- night, the periods associated with definite spectral lines are intain, Pacific respectively 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 hours slow on Greenwich stances of natural processes that have actually served this purtime. A full list of standard times of the different countries, as pose, besides artificial instruments such as the balance watch and well as of those keeping non-standard time is published year by the pendulum clock; but to isolate the essential features we may year in the Nautical Almanac. idealize an instrument for the measurement of time as a gyroscope In the summer months a number of countries advance their (A) mounted without friction inside a case (B), which may or time by one hour, or, as we may put it, adopt the time of the may not itself rotate, and is held, friction free, at the common next zone to the east. Thus legal time in Britain is Greenwich axis (0); or more abstractly still we may imagine two particles time in winter and mid-European time in summer. This plan was A, B, revolving at different angular speeds about a common centre first brought into practice in Germany early in 1916, closely fol- o. Each new passage of A past Bis a repetition, giving a countable lowed by Austria, Holland, Denmark and Norway. These coun- step of time. This may be used for measurement of time precisely tries, except Holland, have since abandoned it. In England a as a pair of compasses is used for measuring space. If we do not movement in favour of this plan of “daylight saving” had existed know that the revolution of a with respect to B is constant, that for some years, led by William Willett; a bill to introduce it corresponds to the use of a pair of compasses not known to be passed the second reading in 1908, and again in 1909. Under stiff at the joint; the measure can still be made for what it is pressure of war economy and persuaded by the example of Ger- worth and may be the only one possible. If the lapse of time many, parliament adopted the measure in May 1916. The ad- measured falls between two integral counts, we have the problem vantage of summer time, as it is called, depends very much on the of subdividing the standard unit by constructing a smaller one latitude, and it is scarcely suitable for more northerly or south- which is standardized by comparing it with the standard. No new erly countries; it is rather unpopular in agricultural communi- problem, theoretical or practical, is introduced thereby, ahd

UNITS]

TIME

MEASUREMENT

225

known methods are applicable to its treatment.

The parallel and ! further. Such is not the case. We may regard the clock as a machine to imitate the rotation of the earth. If the 24-hours dial of a sidereal clock is imagined as set in a plane parallel to the fected practically through the construction of an (arbitrary) equator, with the right side up, its index will continue to point standard yard or metre, from which copies are taken and com- always to the same star. The theory of the clock is complicated parisons made. If a copy a’ B’ is compared with the standard 4 B, and has nothing primitive about it. It indicates, however, that the the mark a’ is seen to agree with the mark a, at a particular time, construction of a clock that shall go uniformly is possible; but and the mark B’ to agree with the mark B, at a different time, the the practical execution of clocks, though enormously improved difference being the time taken by the observer to travel from A recently, is not perfect. The going is liable to derangement from tos. If we introduce mirrors at a’, B’, so that the congruences may a number of causes, not all of which are clear. In short, the clock be observed simultaneously, this does not abolish the time differ- is in the position of a secondary standard only, which must be ence but only reduces it by making light the traveller. The dif- adjusted to the primary standard, viz., the sidereal day or obference is essential in kind. Now consider the standard for time served rotation of the stars. The same remarks apply with inmeasurement, a gyroscope in which there is a mark A, rotating creased force to portable watches and the marine chronometer, within a case on which there is a mark B. Compare this with a in which the beats are given by a balance wheel actuated by a copy A’, B’. The cases 8, B’ may be in rotation, and the marks spiral spring. The method by which the clock is adjusted to the B, B’ cannot be brought into permanent coincidence. Thus the rotation of the earth is described below. To subdivide the second, step of time between two passages of a’ across B’ may be com- given by the beat of the clock, various devices are employed which pared with that occupied between two passages of A across B, are described more particularly in the article CuronocrapH. In only with an allowance for the time taken for a signal to pass principle, they all rely upon converting time measures into space across the space between B and B’. If B and pb’ are the same, as measures, by introducing a machinery that shall move a rethey may be if both are effectively the sphere of stars, then the cording paper at a sufficiently uniform speed, making the clock allowance for the passage of the signal is abolished, and the com- mark seconds upon this, or, alternatively, making a tuning fork parison of the two standards of time is more perfect than that or other rapid vibrator impress closer marks, and subdividing the of two standards of distance; the reason for this is that for the distance between the marks by any device suitable for space two ends of a standard of space we cannot have the same time, but measurement. When we go beyond times which the chronograph for two ends of a standard of time we can have the same point of can record, we have passed out of the region of actually countable space. We can pass to and fro in space but not in time. steps of time. If two points A, Aa pass across B at an interval which js an For a larger measure than the sidereal day, we turn to the year. ascertained fraction of the period of A,, with respect to sB, then, The year can only be defined precisely by means of a curiously knowing nothing else about them, an hypothesis is required, in elaborate theory. The year being the period of the revolution of order to tell from this observation what fraction of four right- the earth about the sun, we must define its motion and the point angles A, As subtends at o. If A, As rotate as if rigid and uniformly, to which it returns. Since the motion is perturbed by the moon the fraction is the same as the fraction of the period. If they ro- and the other planets, the orbit does not repeat itself, and any tate independently, say under the action of the same acceleration specification has no more than an “instantaneous” value at an to the centre o, no conclusion can be drawn without further data. assigned epoch. The process is to form a “theory of the sun,” asGenerally it must be remembered that in order to define the mo- signing its motion, for we may just as well contemplate geotion, e.g., in its relation to the right angle, it would be requisite metrically a motion of the sun round the earth, as of the earth to define first the metric of the space in which it takes place in round the sun. To do this, all the observations of the sun’s posiaddition to assigning its own “law.” But in the absence of special tion are assembled, over the whole period of time for which they statement, rigidity and uniform rotation will be presupposed, can be considered sufficiently exact, and the orbit is determined making the time interval and the angle a,oa, equivalent measures. of a character assigned by theory, and agreeing with the observaUnits of Time.—The practical standard for measuring time tions as well as they allow over the whole period. The outcome is the rotation of the earth, and is very close to the ideal one. If is an ellipse of changing shape in a changing plane. The changes we take the earth as the body a and the sphere of stars as the of course are small and slow, but by no means negligible. The body B enclosing it, their relative period gives an observable mean motion with respect to the stars may, however, be taken unit of time, the so-named sidereal day. It differs from the mean as unchanged, and this defines the length of the sidereal year. But solar day employed in civil reckoning in a way defined below. The as remarked elsewhere, a return relative to the stars is not constars are, of course, not quite fixed with respect to one another, venient to identify. It is more convenient to count from the but as they are their own standard of reference, their mean is equinox, or point where the equator intersects the sun’s path. A fixed, and there appears to be no meaning to be attached to the return to this point corresponds also with a return of the seasons. idea that it is in motion, especially if we allow in the case of each Hence we define the tropical year, which is slightly shorter than star for all systematic apparent motions such as those due to the the other because the equinox is in regressive motion. earth and the sun, and the individual motions peculiar to each From, the theory of the sun comes also the definition of a derivstar, leaving only an accidental residuum to cancel itself out. ative but indispensable measure, viz., mean. solar time. The mean Taking then the mean of the sphere of stars as the zero, and solar day is the mean period of rotation of the earth with respect supposing the local Euclidean geometry continued outwards to to the sun. The sidereal day is the period of rotation of the earth mark the positions of the stars, the rotation of the earth with with respect to the equinox. If the sun makes a circuit of its orbit

contrast between the measurement of time and of one dimensional space may be probed further. Measurement of the latter is ef-

of e mi ra a A AN ne ere ST e n epee

respect to the sphere of stars becomes an absolute quantity, that

starting from the equinox, in a tropical year, the earth will have

is to say, a quantity completely defined. In describing it so, some practical qualifications are subsumed. Thus, small allowances

rotated just one time more with respect to the equinox than with respect to the sun in that period. The tropical year is found to

varying in different latitudes and different times of the day and

contain 366-2422 sidereal days. Hence it contains 365-2422 mean

year require to be made on account of the finite velocity of solar days, and we have two parallel sets of units, days, hours, light by which the stars are recognized. Also, it is convenient minutes and seconds, in the ratio of 1-002738:1, or 1:5—-002730, to measure from a slowly moving zero, the equinox, which is easier the solar unit being the greater. Moreover, the mean solar to identify than the mean of the stars. Reference is made to these day starts at a different point from the sidereal day. The and others below. The principle is unchanged. latter starts when the equinox is on the meridian. The former A smaller unit than the day is provided by the pendulum clock, starts when an artificially defined “mean sun” is on the meridian. of which one beat or a semi-oscillation equals a second, of which The “mean sun” is an imaginary body defined for the purpose of there are 2460 60= 86,400 in the day. Much loose writing is keeping time, jn such a way that it moves in the equator in agreefound in relativist literature about “clocks,” as though the clock ment with the apparent sun’s mean motion in the ecliptic. It is the were a simple instrument which it was unnecessary to define transit of this body across the meridian of Greenwich that gives

TIME

226

MEASUREMENT

the zero for “Greenwich mean time.” As, of course, the “mean sun” cannot be observed, its reputed place with respect to the stars is calculated from the theory of the sun, in advance, in the ephemerides, and this permits us to observe other stars instead of it and to deduce the moment of its transit. By these means any observatory, of known longitude, constructs for itself “Greenwich mean time” from its own observations. In respect to the measurement of time the relations of the year with the system of mean time are more prominent than its use as a major unit of time. In the latter connection it belongs to the subjects of the CALENDAR and CHRONOLOGY. For astronomical purposes and for long measures of time the Julian day is to be preferred to the year, because it avoids all irregularities of chronology. The Julian day is simply the ordinal count of mean solar days, commencing at Greenwich noon. The number for 1925, Jan. 1, mean noon is 2,424,152, following the system of Joseph Scaliger, who devised it and introduced it into chronology. The number for the beginning of any other year may be derived from this, but is tabulated also in the Nautical Almanac, and elsewhere. Rotation of the Earth.—The rotating earth is the prime time-keeper and can be readily idealized into a perfect timekeeper. It is therefore desirable to examine critically how closely it approaches an absolute standard. It might be supposed that the links were few and easily dealt with. Such is not the case. They are numerous, and a fairly full outline of the treatment must suffice, referring for detail to the sources.

Let the position of the earth be defined by its principal axe of inertia (OC,OA,OB). If for the moment we suppose the earth rigid, these will be fixed in its body and evidently one may be called its polar axis (OC), while the other two (OA,OB) define the equator where they mark determinate longitudes. The instantaneous motion of the earth may be defined ina simple manner with respect to these axes, namely if A’B’C’ are their positions after an interval dt, A’B’C’ may be derived from ABC by rotations dt, wedt, w3di about the axes OA, OB, OC. It is

Jess simple to connect ABC, the position at the time considered,

with their position ApBpCo at an assigned moment or “epoch.” It is done by means of the so-named Eulerian angles, 6, ¢, where 6=CC’, 6 =AnCoC, W=180°—CoCA. These angles serve also to express 1, We, Ws, Viz: w = Osin Y—¢ sin 6 cos y, w= Ocos¥+¢ sin @ sin y, o = YHo cos 0.

Further, by Euler’s well-known theory of the rotation of a rigid body, a1, œw, w are given by the equations Aw

—

(B —

C)uzws

Cos —

where L, M, axes. least, taking W, w

=

L,

Bos— (C— Aws

w

=

M,

(A — B)wy wy = N,

A, B, C stand for the principal moments of inertia and N are the couples applied to the body about the principal

In the case of the earth we have very approximately, at symmetry about the polar axis, and the main rotation place about the same axis. Hence AB, NO, and

are small.

From the third equation, therefore w;=n, a

constant, and the equations for w, wz become Aw:-+(C—

A) ney

=L, Awe—(C—A)nw:=M. The solution of these two consists of a free oscillation of arbitrary amplitude and phase with period ar

supplemented by any particular integral of the equa-

tions. Leave aside for the moment the free oscillation or “‘complementary function,” and direct attention to the particular integral. For simplicity consider first the sun alone. By differential attraction on the protuberant parts of the earth in the neighbourhood of the equator the sun produces a couple, say P, applied to the earth’s body, the axis of which is in the equator and directed to a point g, perpendicular to the plane through the polar axis C and the position of the sun S. This couple is a maximum at either solstice and vanishes when the sun is at either equinox. It is easy to see that it does not change sign when

[EARTH’S

ROTATION

the sun crosses the equator. The values of the components L, M are then L=P sin (O — ni), M = — P cos (O —ni), where © stands for the distance of the sun from the origin, measured along the equator.

Now the equations for an, w may be written

A (1 — nw) + (Cno — L) = O,

A (a-n)

= (Cnwir— M) =0,

and the sun’s position, and therefore P and ©, change slowly compared with ni. solution is

o

=

Cn

Oo

Hence it may be seen that an approximate

P cos (© — nt)

—

Cn

nE

L a

+

F sin (© —nż), — Cn

which actually suffices for all purposes. The interpretation of this solution is that the pole C is at any moment turning in the positive sense with angular velocity P/Cn about the point s where CS meets the equator. Therefore the actual direction of the motion of C varies over two right angles, but the mean effect is a displacement of the north pole towards the vernal equinox, or whai $s the same thing, a regression of the equinoxes along the ecliptic. Besides its mean value, P contains also a reference to che actual positions of the sun and moon. Hence all the inequalities that are required to specify their positions figure as periodical inequalities in w, w in special degree those of a more permanent character, such as the position of the node of the moon’s orbit on the ecliptic, which will evidently affect the value of the couple contributed by the moon. Al these inequalities combined constitute the mutation, an oscillation of the node of the equator upon the ecliptic, distinguishing at any date the true equinox from the mean equinox. Since the motion of the equinox enters into every observation of position, other than merely differential ones, its determination is of the highest importance. It is an intersection of the equator with the ecliptic or plane of the earth’s annual motion round the sun. This itself is in motion since the earth is perturbed by the other planets, but the motion may be calculated and allowed for. It is, however, essential first to construct the “theory of the sun,” already referred to, based. upon a combination of all trustworthy observations of the position of the sun with respect to the fixed stars; and for the present object especial attention must be given to the two places in each year where the sun crosses the equator. This connects the equinoxes with the stars which can be observed with the sun, for the most part a small number of the brighter stars, and therefore not characteristic of the whole. But they again may be connected with a larger mass of fainter stars, and so on, gradually approximating to a reference to the mean of the whole body of stars which it is agreed to treat as fixed. As remarked above, it is from actual determination of the position of the equinox at different epochs that the period of the precession is deduced. It is a matter of astronomical convenience to take the sidereal day, not from a revolution with respect to the body of stars, but with respect to the true equinox. Hence the “sidereal day” as employed is not even of constant length: to reduce it to constant length we must remove from it the mutation which has been incorporated ın it. The chief amount is an 18-year fluctuation, running for half the period in one direction and half In the other and dislocating the proper zero of the day by rather more than + sec. at maximum. Return now to the question of a possible free oscillation of the axis of rotation of the earth, with respect to axes fixed in its body. We have so far supposed the earth rigid: but the earth, though very stiff in its main body, is not rigid. If it were rigid and if we suppose the actual axis of rotation to depart slightly from the principal axis of greatest inertia, it follows from the foregoing equations of motion that the axis of rotation would describe in the body a circle about the axis of inertia in a period 2m A

C—A) C

i

|

days, which the ascertained period of the precession

shows to be about 305 days. No such motion exists, whence for a long time it was falsely concluded that the two axes coincided so closely that observation could not separate them. This is not the case. Observations by F. Kiistner, extended by S. C. Chandler, and now conducted internationally at a number of suitably placed

PRACTICAL

DETERMINATION]

TIME

MEASUREMENT

observatories, show that the axis about which the earth rotates moves around its mean position, at a distance of some 3oft. or less (0.3), in a complicated curve, which can be analysed into two main components, one with a period of about 432 days, and

227

method, simple and at first sight complete in theory, but requiring to be overlaid in practice with very numerous corrections in order to bring execution near to the idea. As already pomted out, the clock is a secondary standard, which must be adjusted in the other one year. Both are therefore greater than the period for subordination to observations of the earth’s rotation. The astroa rigid earth. It was pointed out by S. Newcomb that the proper nomical observation is thus often described as ‘“‘finding the error interpretation is found in a slight yielding of the body under rota- of the clock.” The astronomical observation, where any accuracy tional stress, such as would accord with the estimated rigidity, is aimed at, is always that of sidereal time. The beginning of viz., a little greater than that of steel. The longer period probably the day at any place is the transit of the true equinox across the refers to this cause. A period of a year might easily be furnished meridian. Hence, as already remarked, it is affected by nutation. by some seasonal effect. The equinox itself cannot be observed, being merely the intersecChange of Length of the Day.—The foregoing has assumed tion of two abstract lines upon the sky; but by a very long chain that the couple N, the resolved part of the whole couple about of observations, going back continuously to Hipparchus 150 B.c., the polar axis, is zero, or say that its mean value is zero: which and earlier, the relative spacing on the sky of all the lucid stars, implies that the rotation period for the earth must be constant. and a great many more, has been determined with continually But reasons are known to be in operation that may change it. increasing accuracy, together with the “proper motion” belonging Thus if the body of the earth had gradually shrunk, as pretty to each. Relative to this mass of material the position of the certainly it must have done, the coefficient c would have dimin- equator and ecliptic are assigned, or what comes to the same ished, and the angular momentum remaining unaltered, the angular thing, the coordinates of each star are given relative to the velocity would have increased. On the other side, the tides which equinox and equator. A collection of this kind is called a star in their phases generally follow the moon by a time that is fixed catalogue. Star catalogues are of various grades. As far as at any place, move in the Same sense as the earth rotates, but measurement of time goes we need only consider the fundamental much more slowly, so that they furnish a species of friction catalogues, which are based on an elaborate critique of all the clutch or brake upon the earth and must slow down its rotation. A material, and of which the latest example is Boss’s Preliminary more general consideration of the earth-moon system and thei General Catalogue of 6,188 Stars; Epoch rooo. The places of secular changes of relative distance and relative motion shows that the stars given in such a catalogue cannot be used directly. They the slowing effect is divided between the earth’s rotation and the are ‘‘mean places at the epoch,” and require correction for (1) moon's mean motion, but does not alter this consideration. Hence proper motion in the interval, (2) precession, (3) nutation, it is very unlikely that the day, which we have used as a standard, (4) aberration, (5) parallax where sensible, (6) refraction, beis really constant. The only tests we can apply to it are the other fore the data will accord with the true or apparent place on the circulating bodies, the moon, Jupiter’s satellites, the sun, the day and at the place considered. As a rule these numerous and planets. Of these the moon is the most favourable. It moves much troublesome corrections (excepting the last) are computed and more slowly than the inner satellites of Jupiter, but its theory applied in the Nautical Almanac or other national ephemeris. though complicated accords much more closely with observation. Imagining then the whole heavens to rotate in a piece about the Now there is another theoretical cause for secular acceleration in polar axis, if we could observe correctly the passage of a single the moon’s motion, but the theoretical value does not accord with star across the meridian of the place and compare it with the the observational value. That the difference is really to be ascribed time registered by the clock, we should have determined the error to a lengthening of the day is indicated by tracing a proportionof the latter. This, however, again requires several precautions. ately smaller unexplained secular movement in the sun and In the first place, the meridian must be marked, by an instrument residuals from the planets Venus and Mercury, all of which are in that can survey all parts of it. Such an instrument must turn general agreement with the unexplained residues from the moon. (1) at right angles to an axis tbat is set, (2) horizontally, and The two causes of tidal friction and bodily changes in the earth (3) due east and west. We must define what line in the instruaffect in different degree the apparent accelerations of the moon, ment is to be perpendicular to the axis. In a telescope this can and the sun and planets. This permits us to determine separately be done with great precision. But the three geometrical conditions the two effects by fitting their joint outcome to the observed can only be achieved imperfectly, and the only way to find residues requiring explanation in both cases. These residues are whether they are achieved or not, is to study the way that remarkable. In place of a smooth curve of regular progression, faults in respect to them would affect the observation, and then they correspond very closely to a broken series of straight lines, to make a set of observations expressly to find the faults. Further, which would mean sudden changes of increase or decrease of the no matter with what care and solidity the instrument is built, length of the day al definite dates. Thus in 1897 there was a it cannot be trusted to keep the same values for its faults or sharp increase of the length by about -oo4sec. and in 1918 an errors from one night to the next, nor even, with changing temequally sharp decrease by the same amount. The portion of these perature, throughout a single night. This complicates the question changes that must be attributed to tidal friction seems to accord very much, for these observations are themselves fallible in very numerically with what can be calculated. The loss of energy much the same degree as the direct determinations of the time takes place almost entirely in the shallow seas, such as the Irish of transit of a star. In particular, the determination of the level Sea, where turbulent motion ensues and, so to speak, the energy of the axis has proved the source of erratic variations in “clock of the tide is trapped. As regards the other constituent, it is a error’ which have certainly nothing to do with the clocks. Yet different matter. If the whole earth contracted proportionately, reference to the level in some form is indispensable. In the a decrease in the length of the day of the amounts mentioned transit circle at an observatory, level error is usually found by above, would entail a shrinkage of half a foot in the radius over turning the telescope downwards to a bath of mercury, which all the surface. This seems very improbable, and still more is supplies a mirror that is a fiducial level, and viewing the reflection the change that would account for the increase of the day in 1897. in it of the webs in the focal plane of the object glass The The outcome of this criticism is that as far as astronomy Is distance from the web to its image involves the fault of level in concerned, uniform duration is an abstraction, an idea;.we can- the axis, which can thus be measured and applied to the observanot find any standard time-keeper that can be called absolute or tions. For feld work a smaller reversible instrument is used, in even uniform. It is perhaps improbable that one should be found. which the axis is first levelled with the help of a spirit level and The atom is a more likely place to look for an invariable standard. half-way through the observation the pivots are lifted from their But this, too, may be a delusion. Atomic motions are certainly bearings and reversed east and west. This seems to give more not less complicated than planetary motions. In any case, their consistent results than the other method, allowance being made for the lower telescopic power of the portable instrument. But periods, of the order of 107¥sec., are too small a standard. Practical Determination of Time.—Coming to the actual the matter is obscure. Further sources of error arise in registering determination of time, we have a similar sequence of a direct the apparent time of transit. (See CHRONOGRAPH.) In the end the

228

TIME

SALES—TIMGAD

best determinations of clock error are much less consistent than

under different circumstances of place and time, but could not fail

to result ultimately in increased certainty of prediction. At the present stage the investigation figures as a co-ordinated attempt matter of considerable delicacy, for the primary data, besides hav- to improve the determination of longitudes. International regulation of astronomical questions is centred in ing erratic features, are also irregularly spaced owing to weather conditions. We must take a considerable body of primary determi- the International Astronomical Union (1.A.U.), a post-war organnations, and use the going of the clock to detect and reject their ization formed at Brussels in 1919, in which a number of earlier erratic features, before we use the mean run so found in order to conventions were assembled in connection with the International assign the error of the clock. This work cannot be done without Research Council and operating through the principal research inthe exercise of judgment, and, according to their experience, dif- stitution of each adherent country. Perhaps the most energetic ferent persons exercise their judgment differently. The result is and fruitful work on special problems is still done by the initiative seen in the comparison of time as determined at different observa- of individual observatories, but the task is furthered in many ways tories, a comparison that has been made possible with accuracy and by the committee created by the LA.U. Two of these committees simplicity by means of wireless time signals. If the times differed have special reference to the subject treated here, the Committee by constant amounts it could be ascribed to an error in the re- on Longitudes by Wireless Telegraphy, and the International Time puted longitudes. But they do not. They vary rather irregularly Commission. The former has been organized to execute a scheme by quantities of the order of o-1sec., even o-2sec., which are of world longitudes, by the issue of time signals, In some cases perhaps not very large, but are much larger than is tolerated in specially designed, from the powerful stations at Bordeaux, any other region of astronomy, and much larger than the methods Nauen, Saigon (French Indo-China), Annapolis (Maryland), Honolulu, and others, and the determination of their times of rewould lead one to expect. Time measurement, being a problem concerning the phase of ceipt at as large a number of observing stations as possible. In a the earth’s rotation, is eminently a matter for international regu- preliminary explanation in 1926 upward of 40 observatories took lation. It is inconvenient for states to use local time strictly, and part; the results are voluminous, and are not yet (1928) fully a system of zones has been devised and is accepted by most discussed in co-ordination with one another, but enough has civilized states, whereby within each zone the same mean time appeared to prove that a much increased precision of longitude derules, but changes abruptly by one whole hour, or half an hour termination has been attained; thus, replacing the rather crude in some cases, at its borders. Thus the local time at Washington discrepancies that used formerly to occur, we find that the time observatory is 5h.8m.r6s. late on Greenwich, but the mean time required for the passage of wireless signals across the Atlantic, kept is sh. slow precisely. Since mean time is in any case a con- about -o2sec., appears as a Clearly measurable correction in all! structed time, not an observed one, no difficulty is introduced by the better series. The International Time Commission was designed in a more general way to organize the issue of wireless this convention. Some other agreements are wanted. Till 1925 Greenwich mean time signals suitable for all users, to receive those that were issued, time commenced at noon; from the beginning of that year the and to standardize such work generally. Its bureau is at the obmeaning of the term was changed so that the reckoning com- servatory of Paris, and in the issue of signals it works in conmenced at the previous midnight and the hours o—24 agreed with junction with the stations, military and civil, controlled by the those reckoned for civil time. Others have adopted the term French Government. For the standard data regarding precession and the motion of “universal time” to describe exactly the same system, so that there are now three designations current for a single scheme. the earth round the sun see S. Newcomb, “Tables of the Motion A further convention regulates the “date line,” in travelling of the Earth,” vol. vi. (1898), and “Determination of the Preacross which a calendar day is dropped from the reckoning in cessional Constant,” vol. viii. (1905) in “Astronomical Papers” passing eastward, or is added in passing westward. The line is of the American Ephemeris. Quoting those relevant to this article, arbitrary; it runs for the most part along the 180th meridian, we have but deviates to the east to Include Fiji and Tonga with Australasia Tropical year . . 365-24220 mean solar days Sidereal year . i : ‘ and to the west to include the Aleutian Islands with the continent 365°25636 mean solar days General precession in one tropical of North America.

the going of the best clocks. Yet the former must be treated as primary sources and the latter subordinated to them. This is a

year : a

EaAPN ëafy-s

lin =-he sagt Aaet

NJ *Pe 3I46 toate

| iCANE |$a” re DoR eile sn ~-" c +27 4

iPy š Oa Fs weAiaia

ray afes si

1

Pron 1k$ Nyearth ”ehta3 t ,

fl i

i

pale

“n

tion at Innsbruck, where it is crossed by | the transverse route from Germany to . | Italy by the Brenner Pass. The limestone A zone is very scantily peopled in contrast to the well-watered

crystalline

belt

on

fee a

Which isolated farms and small towns in

rN He

the valleys are more common.

The old

« isolation of these mountain valleys is fast disappearing under the swelling annual Boy IN TYPICAL COS. tide of tourists and, with its passage go TUME OF AUSTRIAN TIROL many of the old customs and picturesque peculiarities of costume. The province, like all others in the Federal Republic of Austria, has a large measure of local autonomy, centred at Innsbruck, but matters such as national defence, legal administration, foreign affairs, etc., are handled by BY COURTESY OF TOURIST OFFICE

THE

AUSTRIAN

the National parliament to which it sends representatives. See Austria; A. Steinitzer, Geschichtliche und Kulturgeschichtliche Wanderungen durch Tirol und Vorarlberg (Innsbruck, roos), and M. Steinitzer, Das Land Tirol (Vienna, 1923). (W.S. L.)

HISTORY In ī5-14 B.C. the country, later known as the Tirol, then inhabited by the Rhaetians (probably a Celtic race), was conquered by Drusus and Tiberius. The frontier of Italy was then advanced to a line running approximately from Gargazon to the Klausen Pass, the country north of this being organized into the province of Rhaetia. After 500 years of Roman rule, during which the country was probably almost completely Romanized, it fell a prey to the Teutonic invasions. The rich valleys of the upper Adige were colonized by Ostrogoths, from whom the present inhabitants are descended. A little later the Germanic Bajuvarii conquered and occupied the whole northern district, which was quickly Germanized. The Lombarids, who entered the country almost simultaneously from the south, establishing a duchy in Trent, came in smaller numbers, and were absorbed in the Latin population; from this difference sprang the later ethnographical and political controversy. Lombardy became part of the Frank empire of the Carolingians in av. 774, Bavaria definitively in 788, but the Imperial administrative system developed with time into the feudal rule of semi-independent counts. In 1004 the emperor Henry II. granted the county of Trent to the bishop of Trent. In 1027 Conrad II. enlarged this fief by the counties of Bozen and Vintschgau, bestowing the counties north of this line on the bishop of Brixen. Unable themselves to exercise temporal authority, the bishops delegated their governmental powers to lay lords. The most powerful of these was a family deriving its name from the castle of Tirol, near Meran, who as early as 1150 were counts and bailiwicks of Trent, acquired extensive lands from the bishop of Brixen in 1248, and by 1271 had practically replaced the ecclesiastical power by their own throughout Tirol. This family became extinct with the famous Margaret Maultasch, and Tirol passed by arrangement to Duke Rudolph IV. of Austria (1363). From this date until 1918 Tirol formed part of the Habsburg monarchy. At first Tirol was held as an appanage of a junior branch of the family, but was finally united with the main Austrian

ductive surface is forested, while, TOBLACHER SEA, IN THE VALLEY generally, methods are less scien- OF THE RIENZ, ONE OF THE MANY BEAUTIFUL LAKES IN TIROL tific than elsewhere in Austria. Industries.—Once an important mining centre for copper and rare metals, Tirol now raises only 14% of the Austrian output. salt takes first place and is worked at Hall being conducted in the form of brine by a leat from the Salzberg, 54 m. distant. The raising of lignite, zinc ores (Imst), and oil shale (Kufstein), and the preparation of cement (Lower Inn valley) complete the list of important mineral interests. In the development of manufactures Tirol is aided by its rich supplies of water power. Large electrical power stations exist at Landeck, Matrei, Wiesberg, etc., in some cases associated with possessions in 1665.

.

243

TIRPITZ Tirol’s geographical situation, the highway over the Brenner from northern to southern Europe, and the Arlberg route from east to west meeting at Innsbruck, gave it a great strategic importance, since command of the Brenner dominates the gate to Italy. Tirol was therefore frequently the theatre of severe fighting. Its sturdy population, however, guarded its liberties well. The spread of Protestantism in Germany occasioned a great peasants’

rising in 1525,

which

forced

concessions from the emperor. Although the Counter-Reformation afterwards made of Tirol the most wholly Catholic of all

Austrian crownlands, the estates (in which, ja alone in Austria, the peasants were represented), always preserved an unusual de- ! gree of liberty, and Tirol always cherished a strong feeling of unity and local patriotism. The most famous incident in the stormy history of the Tirolese was their insurrection in 1809 against the French and Bavarian

rule established

by Napo-

$

N

ceeded only in arousing a spirit of intense resentment and irredentism among the liberty-loving Tirolese. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See the great official work entitled Die oesterrétchisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild, vol. xiii. “Tirol” (1893) ; A. Achleit and E. Ubl, Tirol und Vorarlberg (Leipzig, 1895) ; J. Alton, Die ladinischen Idiomen in Lađdinien, Gröden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo (Innsbruck, 1879) ; E. H. Compton and W. A. BaillieGrohman, Tyrol (1908); J. Egger, Geschichte Tirols (3 vols., Innsbruck, 1872-80) ; J. Hirn, Tirols Erhebung im Jahre 1800 (Innsbruck, 1909) ; Alfons Huber, Geschichte d. Vereinigung Tirols mit Oesterreich (Innsbruck, 1864); A. Jager, Geschichte d. landsténdischen Verfassung von Tirol (3 vols. Innsbruck, 1882-85) ; W. D. McCrackan, The Tyrol (1905); E. Oefele, Geschichte der Grafen von Andechs (Innsbruck, 1877); E. Richter, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen, 3 vols. (1893-94) ; Chr. Schneller, Landeskunde von Tirol (Innsbruck, 1872); F. A. Sinnacher, Beitráge sur Geschichte der bischéfl. Kirche Saben und Brixen, really a special territorial history of Tirol, ro vols. (Brixen, 1821—37); I. V. Zingerle, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Tirol (Innsbruck, 1859); I. V. Zingerle and K. Th. von Inama-Sternegg, Die tirolischen Weisthiimer, 4 vols. (Vienna, 1875-88). O. Stolz, Die Ausbreitung des Deutschiums in Sidtirol im Lichte der Urkunden, 3 vols. (1927). For the modern problem of German South Tirol

pessi

leon after the treaty of Pressburg (1805). SA% Led by Andreas Hofer, the sturdy peasants (F frequently defeated numerically superior ais% forces; but, after the disastrous peace of ‘ AN ESS Schönbrunn (1809) had given Tirol (ex- |

cept its southern fringe, assigned to Italy) onar aisy pF THE AUSTRIAN definitely to Bavaria, the revolt was ruth- COSTUME lessly crushed by weight of numbers. Hofer TERTAL

OF THE

PUS.

was arrested, and finally shot at Mantua by Napoleon’s express order (Feb. 10, 1810). The Treaty of Paris (1814) reunited Tirol and restored it to Austria. The South Tirol Question.—During the World War the valleys of the South Tirol were the scene of fierce fighting, and the Tirolese poured forth their blood and their money in defence of the Habsburg monarchy. Nevertheless they were doomed to suffer even more severely at'the hands of the victorious Allies than did their Austrian rulers. An irredentist agitation for the annexation of the Italian-speaking Trentino had begun in Italy even before 1848, growing stronger as time went on. From the commencement of the war the Italian Government negotiated with both Austria and the Allies for a price for the co-operation of Italy in the struggle. The Austrian cabinet agreed to cede the Trentino, but refused to yield to any further Italian demands. Italy therefore concluded the Treaty of London (May, r915) with the allied powers by which she was promised, among other rewards, the Brenner frontier, which she claimed on strategical

grounds. The Treaty of St. Germain (g.v.) handed over to Italy

not only ‘the Italian-speaking Trentino but also the Upper Adige, inhabited by a population of purely German origin and speech, and numbering about 215,000 souls. As there were some 13,500 Germans in the Trentino, the total German population included within the new Italy amounted to approximately 229,000. This departure from the principle of national self-determination elicited strong but fruitless protests from the Tirolese communes. That a miscarriage of justice had been committed was subsequently acknowledged by one—President Wilson—of the statesmen responsible for it. If Italy could put forward a case for her acquirement of the Brenner frontier, based on strategical necessity, she could not honestly advance any racial or political claims to' the Upper Adige; nor, indeed, did she advance such claims until the advent of the Fascist Government. At the Peace Conference, Italy was not required to sign any treaty safeguarding the rights of minorities within her frontiers. (See Mrnoriries.) Signor Tittoni, however, on December 27, Igr9, declared publicly that Italy was under a’ moral obligation to apply the provisions of the Minorities Treaties towards her own minorities. Similar declarations were made on several occasions by responsible Italian statesmen, and the policy of the Italian Government towards their new subjects was at first not illiberal. Unhappily, both for Italy and the German minority itself, this policy was abandoned by the Fascists in favour of one of Italianization, inaugurated in July 1923—a policy that suc-

see more especially P. Herre, Die Südtiroler Frage (Munich, 1927); The Case of German South Tyrol against Italy, translated and edited by C. H. Herford (1927); O. Stolz, Das Staatliche Selbstbestimmungsrecht in der Geschichte Tirols (Innsbruck, 1921) ; Italian Green Book— Diplomatic Documents submitted to Italian Parliament (May 20, 1915); Foreign Office Historical Section, The Trentino and Alto Adige (1920); H. W. V. Temperley, History of Peace Conference, vol. v., pp. 278-287 (1922). (I. F. D. M.)

TIRPITZ, ALFRED

VON

(1849- 1930), German admiral,

was born on March r19, 1849, at Küstrin, the son of a high Prussian. magistrate, and in 1865 he entered the Prussian navy, the training for which followed the British model. In 1869 he became an officer, in 1888 postcaptain; in 1895 rear-admiral; in 1899 vice-admiral; in 1903 admiral; in rgrr Admiral of the Fleet. In 1897 he became secretary of state for naval affairs, and then, to his regret, had no further chance of practical service at sea. On March 15, 1916, for political reasons, he resigned all his offices. From his 29th year he was employed only in important positions of organisation or leadership. His creative talents were first utilised when torpedoes developed into an arm suitable for war, in building torpedo boats and in working out a tactical system for their mass employment. His work during this period proved

of great value to him later when constructing a fleet of great bat-

tleships. Here, and in constructing the fleet, he accomplished model work with a minimum of expense. After practical service at sea as captain, he became chief of staff of the Supreme Naval Command in 1892, and began the preliminary work for his plan of fleet construction by profound studies in the history and practice of naval warfare. The idea of the offensive use of arms was the guiding note of all Tirpitz’s work. His memoranda, designed to educate the naval officers in modern ideas of their profession, fell into British hands and in this way influenced British tactical ideas also. He combined practical operations with model squadrons of useless ships with the elaboration of his tactical ideas. Simultaneously with this went on the transformation of the modern ship of war, with its technical complications, into an apparatus which worked with mechanical perfection. He encouraged the education of crews to independent action in all emergencies. His tactical memorandum, No. 9 (printed in Nauticus, Jahrbuch für Deutschlands Seeinteressen, 1926), afterwards served to convince the reluctant Reichstag of the necessity of forming a German fleet according to definite laws.

General Policy—As a statesman, Tirpitz aimed at securing

the growing maritime interests of the German people. He felt the building of a fleet to be a necessity and no luxury, since it made Germany a more acceptable ally and helped to create a sort of balance of power at sea. He considered that it was an economic and a social necessity that the working German people should gain greater independence from all political eventualities. He further saw in Germany the power of the future on which the smaller European powers might lean at sea. In view of the forma-

tion of great self-sufficient economic units in the world, he probably considered

his ideas

to be a consistent

continuation of

Bismarck’s train of thought, and perhaps thought of a kind of economic Pan-Europa under a wise German leadership. =

244

TIRPITZ

Tirpitz opposed the suggestion that Germany might annex Holland, one reason being that he was always anxious to spare the small Nordic states. He would also have been prepared to make the Danes concessions in Schleswig in order to win their friendship, and was anxious for Italy to have a considerable fleet. Tirpitz never asked for war and always believed that a war could only interrupt Germany’s rise; but he supported a rapprochement with Russia as Bismarck wished it, and a German-RussianJapanese understanding. He disapproved of the German Baghdad policy because it infringed simultaneously on the Russian and _ British spheres of influence. He was against irritating America in any way and disapproved both of the German intervention in Manila and of the British-German blockade of Venezuela. Moreover he saw clearly that in forming Germany into a sea power he would have to reckon with the opposition of Great Britain. He believed firmly, however, that it must be possible, if Germany proceeded with caution, to pass through the danger zone of the time of fleet construction without war, and that, finally, an honest understanding between Germany and Great Britain could only be advanced if Germany was a real power on sea as on land. Summing up British psychology and British love for everything straight and strong, he reckoned that Germanic England, whose statesmanship and power at sea he rated very highly, would in the end prefer a rapprochement with a strong Germany to any other political combination. It was only unwillingly and with hesitation that he adopted “the idea of risk’ aimed at Great Britain in his naval estimate of 1900, Even after the outbreak of the World War, Tirpitz did not change his opinion that, taking all in all, the rapprochement between Germany and Britain was advanced rather than hindered by the construction of the fleet, and that only the outbreak of the

War, which was most unwelcome to him, had prevented the last maturing of his political aims. His naval programme always

negotiations with Haldane in 1912, and only provided for three new ships to be distributed over several years. Taking 62 great battleships and a life of 20 years, three large ships would be launched regularly every year on this plan. If Britain had really recognised German sea-power, Tirpitz would probably have agreed to some arrangement on the lines of the later Washington agreement of 1922, dealing with the proportionate strength of the two Powers. Tirpitz only became deeply interested in the construction of submarines after the Diesel engines were perfected for service in 1908. The ultimate strength of submarines was then fixed at 72. There was never any idea of mercantile submarine warfare. Tirpitz considered the battle fleet to be the best protection for the extensive German coast line, and spent little money on its fortification. But he modernised Heligoland, and expanded it into a fortified harbour, Parallel with the construction of the fleet, the state wharves were systematically expanded and grew to be industrial implements of the first order. . Political Relations.—Tirpitz’s relations with the Emperor were peculiar. The Emperor could not do without him to organise the expansion of the fleet, although not really liking his rather stiff manner. Tirpitz energetically opposed fantastic plans of naval construction. He often was hampered by William II.’s political ways, but so long as he controlled the construction of the fleet he held firmly to his real aim. Tirpitz was a convinced Monarchist and remained so after the War. Up to the outbreak

of the World War, Tirpitz enjoyed a steadily increasing popularity. The circle of his real co-workers and colleagues was, however, always small. The number of his personal friends was even smaller. He was a good judge of men and exploited the special talents of his subordinates ruthlessly. He himself always retained his wide general view and never lost himself in details. In the corps of naval officers his aims were not always fully understood.

aimed at leaving Britain a sufficient superiority. He considered that the formula of the respective strengths of three to two sug-

He probably never revealed his ultimate aims to any of his friends, and, like all great men, was often compelled to stand

gested by Lloyd George, which Churchill later, although with reservations, altered to 16 to ro or eight squadrons to five, gave Britain sufficient protection against aggressive German intentions.

alone. He was careful to keep up relations with deputies and with the press. He recognised very early the importance of publicity. Before the War Tirpitz exercised but little influence on the Admiralty staff. But he controlled the construction of the ships. The orders to the fleet and army at the outbreak of War were not known to him. Before the War he purposely paid little attention to the mobilization plans of the fleet. In politics Tirpitz seldom played an active part. He knew nothing of the British offer of an alliance at the close of the roth century. Although he offered his advice to the chancellor von Bethmann Hollweg he was not consulted when important political measures were taken; for example, when a cruiser was sent to Agadir in rgrr. At the end of rgrz, he could have become chancellor of the Reich, but he never desired this office. During the critical time of Lord Haldane’s visit in 1912, Tirpitz stated that be would have given up his supplementary naval estimate completely for a real neutrality agreement with Britain. He did not entirely approve of the measures taken by the German Govern-

The Naval Programme.—In

organising the construction of

the German fleet, Tirpitz thought out each step to its last con-

sequences. He refused flatly to construct the greater cruiser fleet which the Emperor was anxious to have when he was appointed secretary of state, in view of the experience

of the past with

cruiser warfare and the lack of German foreign bases. His aim was and remained the formation of a battle fleet. His naval estimates carefully avoided votes for new constructions of ships which depended on the momentary humour of the deputies. He aimed at securing legal authority for the number of ships of the

fleet to be built, for their regular replacement and maintenance. Inevitably a certain stiffness thus came into the naval programme, which was at times a little inconvenient during the critical years. Tirpitz feared that his successor would abandon important principles of his programme. He believed that the diplomats did not grasp the real idea of his programme The squadron of eight ships as a tactical unit was the base of his naval programme. The first law of 1898 approved a double squadron of ships of the line with the necessary cruisers. The law of 1900 doubled the battle fleet. Supplementary laws of 1904, 1906 and 1908 reduced the maximum age of ships and thereby altered the plan of new construction. The foreign cruiser fleet and the torpedo-boat forces were in-

creased, and account was taken of the British dreadnought programme. The Kiel Canal was widened to take battleships. The supplementary bill which Tirpitz introduced after Agadir in 1912 only increased the number of ships to be constructed by a little, but increased the strength of the active fleet. The supplementary law of 1912 was to be the last bill of the naval programme. The fleet of 1920 was to consist of one flagship of the fleet, five squadrons of battleships of eight ships each, 12 cruisers for home serv-

ice, eight large cruisers for foreign service and 40 small cruisers, including 10 for foreign service. Three squadrons of ships of the line with the necessary cruisers were to be always ready as a battle fleet. His construction programme was reduced after the

ment after the murder in Sarajevo (1914) and was for avoiding the threatened war at all costs.

Tirpitz did not share the opinion

that Britain would stand out of the war, and foresaw that the sympathies of America would be on the side of Britain. He was in favour of a short war, and for putting the German fleet to a

decisive battle. He believed that the intervention of America would in any case prevent a complete victory, but thought that if Germany exercised all her forces, the German Reich could remain a really great power, and at the worst acknowledge defeat whilst her forces were still unexhausted. He was also against any form of annexation but was only anxious lest the Belgian coast should pass into the possession of Britain. In general, he saw the War as the last struggle of freedom against the world capitalism of the Anglo-Saxons. At the beginning of the War Tirpitz offered to take over the entire control of the navy, including the military control, but this was refused. His advice was hardly listened to, by the politicians and hardly ever taken. The naval battle for which he wished was not

fought.

He

early recognised

the importance

of the new

TIRSO

DE MOLINA—TIRYNS

245

U-boats for the issue of the War, but was against employing

deron’s idealistic visions, nor his golden music; but he exceeds

U-boats too early in the commercial War, and named the spring

Lope in massive intellectual power

of 1916 as the right moment. He disapproved of the attitude of the German Government during the exchange of Notes with

and he exceeds Calderon in humour, in creative faculty, and in dramatic intuition. That his reputation extended beyond the Pyrenees in his own lifetime may be gathered from the fact that J. shirley’s Opportunity is derived from El Castigo del penséque; but he was neglected in Spain itself during the long period of

America on the occasion of the sinking of the “Lusitania” and the “Sussex,” regarding it as weak.

Tirpitz was not implicated in

the declaration of the U-boat warfare in 1917, and later stated that had he guessed Russia’s coming collapse and known of President Wilson’s efforts for peace, he would probably have used his influence against U-boat warfare in 1917. Post-War Activities.—After leaving his post in 1916, Tirpitz entered politics and helped ta found the Vaterlandspartei; and from 1924 to 1928 was a Nationalist member of the Reichstag. He supported the Dawes Plan but opposed the Locarno Pact, feeling that co-operation with Great Britain and the United States was more important than rapprochement with France. He died at. Eberhausen, near Munich, on March 6, 1930. See article in Nov. 1925 issue of Sud-deutsche Monatshefte on attempts at a naval agreement with Great Britain, and Ulrich von Hassel, Admiral van Tirpitz. For his own statement of the case see his Erinnerungen (1918) and Politische Dokumente; der Aufbau der deutschen Weltmacht (1924). (C. Hor.; X.)

and in artistic self-restraint,

Caideron’s supremacy, and his name was almost forgotten till the end of the 18th century, when some of his pieces were timidly recast by Dionisio Solis and later by Juan Carretero. The renaissance of his fame, however, dates from 1839-42, when an incomplete but serviceable edition of his plays was published. He is now

accepted as among the greatest dramatists of Spain. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —See P. Muñoz Peña, El Teatro del Maestro Tirso de Molina (1889); E, Cotarelo y Mori, Tirso de Molina; investigaciones bio-bibliogrdficos (1893); M. Menéndez y Pelayo, Estudios de critica literaria; segunda serie, pp. 131-198 (1895); R. Menéndez Pidal, El Condenado por desconfiado (1902); A. Morel-Fatio, Etudes sur Espagne; troisième série, pp. 25—72 (1904); E. Cotarelo y Mori, Comedias de Tirsa de Molina (1x906); “Comedias escogidas,” ed. J. E. Hartzenbusch (Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. v.); “Comedias,” ed. E. Cotarelo (Nueva biblioteca de autores españoles,

Born at Madrid, he professed

t906—07); Th. Schröder, Die dramatischen Bearbeitungen der don Juan-Sage ... (Halle, 1912); J. Cejador, “El Condenado por desconfiado” (Revue Hispanique, lvii., Dpp. 127-159, 1923).

in the Order of Mercy on Jan. 21, 1601. Sent by his superiors on a mission to the West Indies in 1615, he returned to Europe in

trict of Madras, with a station on the Madras and Southern Mah-

TIRSO

DE MOLINA,

the pseudonym of Gabriel Tellez

(1571-1648), Spanish dramatist.

TIRUPATI, a town of British India, in the North Arcot dis-

1617, and resided at the Mercenarian monastery in Madrid. His ratta railway, 84 m. N.E. of Madras city. Pop. (1921), 17,434. first publication, the incomplete Cigarrales de Toledo (1621?), It is famous for a temple on the neighbouring hill of Tirumala, is a miscellany, containing short tales, novels, verses and three 2,500 ft. above the sea, which is one of the most frequented places plays; one of the novels, Los Tres maridos burlados, probably of pilgrimage in southern India. The town is noted for its brassderived from Il Cieco da Ferrara’s Mambriano, and the play en- work and wood-carving. titled El Vergonzoso en palacio are admirable examples of witty TIRYNS (Gr. Té-riins, anglicized t7-rinz), a prehistoric fortcontrivance. The preface to the Cigarrales de Toledo (the second ress and afterwards a small Greek city, on an isolated ridge of rock part of which was never printed) states that Tirso de Molina had near the east side of the plain of Argos in Peloponnese, about 3 m. already written 300 plays, and at this period of his career he was from the coast, and from the port of Nauplia. There is a railway second only to his friend Lope de Vega in popularity. He rose to station close to the site. In Greek legend it was founded by important positions in his order, became superior of the monas- Proetus, brother of Acrisius, king of Argos. His successor, Perseus, tery at Trujillo in 1626, was elected later to the posts of reader founded Mycenae some to m. further inland. Later, Heracles here in theology and definidor general, and in May 1632 was appointed served Eurystheus in many “labours,” and Tydeus and his son chronicler of the Order of Mercy. His Delettar aprovechando Diomedes held it. After the Dorian conquest (g.v.) Tiryns, like (1635) is a devout counterpart of the Cigarrales de Toledo, much Mycenae, declined as Argos grew; it sent its small contingent to inferior to its predecessor in interest; a sequel was promised to fight at Plataea (¢.v.) in 479; but about 460 it was destroyed this collection of pious tales, pious lyrics and autos, but, as in the ‘by the Argives. Pausanias (c. A.D. 170) was shown here the case of the Cigarrales de Toledo, the continuation never ap- “palace of Proetus,” and the “chambers of his daughters,” a7 and peared. A first part of Tirso’s plays was published in 1627, the wondered at the “Cyclopean” walls, the rlovvs recx.eroa of third part (before the second) in 1634, the second and fourth in Homer JI. ii. 559. The same walls in 1884 attracted the atten1635, and the fifth in 1636. A sixth volume of dramatic pieces, tion of Heinrich Schliemann, the excavator of Troy (1871) and consisting of light comedies, was announced; but the project was Mycenae (1875), who uncovered, with W. Dörpfeld, a prehistoric abandoned. As official chronicler of his order, Tirso compiled the “palace” remarkable for many points of resemblance to the elaborate Historia de la merced, which occupied him till Dec. 24, “House of Odysseus” in the Odyssey; but made only a few sound1639, and still survives in manuscript, and on Sept. 29, 1645, he ings into the stratified remains under its floors. These were carebecame superior of the monastery at Soria. He died there on fully examined from 1908 onward by members of the German Archaeological Institute in Athens, and though their conclusions March 12, 1648. | Only a fraction of his plays have been preserved. In 1624 he had are not yet fully published, the following outline of the archaeology written 300 plays, and in 1634 he stated that he had composed of Tiryns is assured. The natural ridge on which Tiryns stands is about 330 yd. from 400 within the previous 20 years; of this immense production not more than 8o plays are in existence. Tirso de Molina is uni- north to south, and 112 at widest from east to west; the greater versally known as the author of Ei Burlador de Sevilla y con- height of its southern half now is mainly due to superstructures. vidado de piedra, the piece in which Don Juan is first presented on From about 2000 B.C. a small unfortified settlement can be traced the stage; but Zl Burlador de Sevilla represents only one aspect on, and also around this ridge, with three superposed layers of of his genius. No less remarkable than his representation of per- mud-brick houses; on what was probably the summit (under the verse depravity in El Burlador de Sevilla is his dramatic treat- later megaron) was a remarkable round building, nearly go ft. ment of a philosophical enigma in El Condenado por desconfiado. across, also of mud brick but roofed with slates and tiles, probably Though manifestly attracted by exceptional cases, by every kind for some public or official use.

of moral aberration, by the infamous and the terrible, his range is virtually unlimited. He reveals himself as a master of historical interpretation in La Prudencia de la mujer, and of tragical pathos in La Venganza de Tamar; his sympathetic, malicious wit finds dramatic expression in El Vergonzoso en palacio and Don Gil de las calzas verdes, and the fine divination of feminine character in Averigiielo Vargas and La Villana de Vallecas is incomparable. Tirso de Molina has neither Lope de Vega’s inventive resource, nor his infinite seduction; he has neither Cal-

About 1600 B.c. the southern half of the ridge was heavily

fortified with rude but massive walls, to protect a new “palace” of which the plan is obscure (for it lies underneath its successor), but the arts and industries are derived, ike those of the cóntemporary “shaft graves” at Mycenae, from the “Middle Minoan”

culture of Crete (g.v.). The settlement which it dominated extended some hundreds of feet to south and east of the ridge. Communication was by a gateway in the east wall, underneath the later “propylaea.” About 4 m. away, on the hill called St. Elias,

246

TISA—TISCHENDORF Stud., xx. 128; E. A. Gardner, J.H.S., xxi. 325; G. Dickens, JHS.

cist graves and rock-chambers are found, of various dates, and on the same hill is a ruinous “beehive tomb” like those at Mycenae, Heraeum and Midea, and probably contemporary with them; but

xxiii. 293; S. E. Bassett, “The Palace of Odysseus,” American Journal Arch., xxiii. 288.

nothing has survived from its contents. The “early palace” perished by violence and was succeeded, about 1300 B.C., by another, which occupied the whole area of the early citadel, and was in turn defended by the massive but

north-eastern Carpathian mountains in Ruthenia at a height of about 6,300 ft., and is formed by two streams, the Black Tisa

rudely-fashioned walls which are now conspicuous. These considerably enlarge the area of the fortress and enclose also the

whole of the northern half of the ridge. The latter, however, was not occupied by buildings (except a pot kiln and some workshops) but was levelled upwards with debris as a place of refuge for dependants and their cattle. The same principal entrance, heavily fortified, in the middle of the east side, served both this “lower citadel” and the “upper” section south of it, which was further protected by an inner gate with bolted doors, as at Mycenae, within which a covered porch (propylaea) panelled with wood above a stone plinth, gave access to a level outer court occupying the whole of the south end, and sustained by very thick substructures. These contain, on their east and south frontages, the famous “galleries” which served as store rooms in peace, and as casemates in war. As the “later palace” within these fortifications was not itself designed for defence, its construction was slighter, and it has perished above plinth level. Its plan, however, which has attracted the attention of commentators on Homer, since Schliemann’s time, is completely traceable. The outer court gives access, through a second porch, to an inner one, about 53 ft. by 70 ft., containing a domestic altar, furnished to east and west by colonnades, and giving access northward through a deep portico with two columns to a vestibule (with three doors outward and one inward) and so to a great hall to which the Homeric name megaron is commonly applied. This hall, about go ft. by 30 ft, has a central hearth, between four column bases, which supported a roof with some kind of louvre or clerestory to let out the smoke. On the cement floor, which is ornamented with painted panels of octopus and dolphins, a space is marked out between the hearth and the east wall, as the place of honour; but there is neither dais

nor any other doorway but that of the vestibule. From the latter

a small door leads west to a bathroom, of which the floor is a single limestone slab draining to the main sewer, as at Cnossus (qg.v.); in this room were found the remains of a clay bathtub. This “later palace” also perished by violence, and parts of its mud-brick walls were so calcined that at first sceptical scholars acclaimed them as Byzantine, and there was, in fact, a small Byzantine church (now removed), with a graveyard near the south end of the site. As it evidently lay long desolate, little remains of its decorative splendour except fragments of fresco, and of an alabaster frieze inlaid with blue enamel like the @puyxds Kvauowo of Od. vii. 87. The pottery is of degenerate Late Mycenaean style. | The frescoes of the “earlier palace,” with rich spiral and floral designs, resemble those of contemporary Cnossus (Z.M., i. ii.); those of the “later” included a majestic procession of women bearing offerings, an elaborate hunting scene, in which a boar is attacked by hounds and men, and other animals. are represented; an assault on a palace; a chariot procession; and bull-baiting gymnastic:of the Cnossian kind. A small painted plaque shows the worship of an armed goddess; and a fragment with ass-headed per-

sonages may be a masquerade. To the centuries after the destruction of the palace belong a series of graves with pottery of “geometrical” style, safety pins, and other objects of the Early Iron age. In the 7th century a temple was dedicated to Hera on the site of the Mycenaean megaron, and furnished with rude terracotta offerings. BIslioGRAPHY.~H. Schliemann, Tiryns (1885); C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann’s Excavations (1891). For excavations after 1905 see Tiryns, A. Frickenhaus, W. Miiller, Fr. Belmann (Hera Temple and Geometrical Graves) (x912); G. Rodenwaldt (the Frescoes) (1912); G. Karo, K. Muller (the Pottery); H. Dragendorff, K. Muller (the Buildings), in preparation; also G. Karo; Führer durch die Ruinen von Tiryns (Athens, 1915). See also Aegean Civilization; and for Homeric analogies, J. L. Myres, “The Homeric House,” Journal Hell.

TISA

(Ger. Theiss), tributary of the Danube, rises in the

(Cerna Tisa) and the White Tisa (Bilá Tisa) which unite above Rachovo where the mountain valley begins to widen. A few miles below Rachovo the river takes a generally westerly direction and makes a great curve around the Nyirség plateau entering

Hungary near the top of the curve and then continuing southwest to Szolnok. From here its course across the Hungarian plain is parallel to the Danube, which it enters near the small plateau of Titel, 20 m. east of Novisad. The winding course is about 870 m. long and the basin, covering an area of 56,600 sq.m., is shared by Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania and Yugoslavia. Two of its tributaries, the Szamos and Maros, coming from the impermeable rocks of Transylvania, bring a great volume of water, but these and the main stream quickly lose their velocity on reaching’ the plain where the fall is less than 3 cm. per km. Two periods of high water occur on the middle and lower Tisa, one in spring due to snow melting, the other in June following the summer rain; to this the Körös is a big contributor. The spring flood coincides with that of the Danube which, having a quicker flow, dams back the Tisa and causes extensive flooding sometimes felt as far as Szolnok. Huge canalisation and diking works have been undertaken to protect the surrounding lowland. The Tisa is navigable for steamers as far as Szolnok, 197 m., or as far as Tiszafüred, 255 m., depending upon the stage of the water, and for rafts and floating timber almost anywhere. It is joined to the Danube by the Francis Joseph canal and its tributary, the Béga, and is canalised to Timisoara. See W. D. Hines, “Report on Danube Navigation”? (League of Nations, Geneva, 1925); R. Milleker, Mitteilungen der Kommission fiir Heimatkunde: I, Die Hydrologie des Alfold, and IJ. Die hydrotechnischen Arbeiten in Alföld (Debreczen, 1925).

TISCHENDORF,

STANTIN VON

LOBEGOTT

FRIEDRICH

KON-

(1815-1874), German biblical critic, the son

of a physician, was born on Jan. 18, 1815, at Legenfeld, near Plauen, in the Saxon Vogtland. He was educated at the gymnasium of Plauen and the university of Leipzig, where he qualified as a lecturer in 1840 with a dissertation on the recensions of the New Testament text. These studies convinced him of the absolute necessity of new and exacter collations of mss. From October 1840 till January 1843 he was in Paris, studying in the great library, eking out his scanty means by working for other scholars and for the publisher Didot. The great triumph of these laborious months was the decipherment of the palimpsest Codex Ephraemt Syri Rescriptus, abandoned as illegible by earlier collators. The New Testament part was printed before he left Paris and the Old Testament in 1845. From Paris he, had paid short visits to Holland (1841) and England (1842). In 1843 he visited Italy, and after a stay of thirteen months went on to Egypt, Sinai, Palestine and the Levant, returning by Vienna and Munich. (See his Reise in den Orient [Leipzig, 1845-46].) From Sinai he brought a great treasure, forty-three leaves of what is now known as the Codex Sinaiticus. He kept the place of discovery a secret, and the fragments were published in 1846 as the Codex FridericoAugustanus, a name given in honour of the king of Saxony. He now became professor extraordinarius in Leipzig, and married (1845). In the same year he began to publish an account of his travels in the East (2 vols., 1845-1846). In 1850 appeared his edition of the Codex Amiatinus and of the Septuagint version of the Old Testament; in 1852, amongst other works, his edition of

the Codex Claromontanus. In 1853 and 1859 he made a second

and a third voyage to the East. In the last of these, in which he had the active aid of the Russian government, he at length got access to the remainder of the precious Sinaitic codex, and persuaded the monks to present it to the tsar, at whose cost it was published in 1862 (in four folio volumes). In 1859, he had been

made professor of theology and biblical palaeography. The mss.

brought to Europe on the first two journeys are catalogued in the

TISI—TISSUE Anecdota sacra et profana (Leipzig, 1855, enlarged 1861). also the Monumenta

sacra inedita (Leipzig,

See

1846), and Nova

collectio of the same (1855-1869). The 3rd volume of the Nova collectio gives the results of his last Eastern journey. Side by side with his industry in collecting and collating mss., Tischendorf

pursued a constant course of editorial labours, mainly on the New

Testament, until he was broken down by overwork in 1873. He died on Dec. 7, 1874, at Leipzig. . Four main recensions of Tischendorf’s text of the New Testament

may

be distinguished,

dating respectively

from his editions of I84I,

1849, 1859 (ed. vii.), 1869—72 (ed. viii.). The edition of 1849 may be regarded as historically the most important from the mass of new critical material it used; that of 1859 is distinguished from Tischendorf’s other editions by coming nearer to the received text; in the

8th edition the testimony of the Sinaitic ms. received great (probably too great) weight.

His edition of the Roman text, of the Septuagint, with the variants of the Alexandrian ms., the Codex Ephraemi and the Friderico-Augustanus, was of service when it appeared in 1850, but, being stereotyped, was not greatly improved in subsequent issues. Besides this may be mentioned editions of the New Testament Apocrypha [De Evangeliorum apocryphorum origine et usu (1851); Acta Apostolorum apocrypha (1851) ; Evangelia apocrypha (1853; 2nd ed., 1876) ; Apocalypses apocryphae (1866)] and various minor writings, in part of an apologetic character, such as Wann wurden unsere Evangelien verfasst? (1865; 4th ed., 1866), Haben wir den echten Schrifttext der Evangelisten und apostel? (1873), and Synopsis evangelica (yth ed., 1898). See in addition to the handbooks on New Testament criticism, Carl Bertheau’s article on Tischendorf in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (3rd ed., 1907).

TISI, BENVENUTO

(1481-1559),

commonly

called I

Garofalo, one of the most distinguished painters of the Ferrarese school, was born at Ferrara. His father, Pietro Tisi, head of the shoemakers’ guild in that city, originally came from Garofalo, a village in the Polesine. According to Vasari, the boy first studied with Domenico Panetti, and then went to an uncle at Cremona,

where he frequented the workshops of Boccacio Boccaccino. In 1499 he proceeded to Rome and remained 15 months with Giov. Baldini, a Florentine painter. Family affairs caused his return to

Ferrara in 1501. Soon afterwards he may have worked under Lor-

enzo Costa in Mantua. In 1504 he was again at Ferrara, where he became friendly with the two brothers Dossi. Towards the close of

1509 he returned to Rome and made the acquaintance of Raphael

and saw Michelangelo’s frescoes on the vault of the Sistine chapel just completed. After 1512 we find him settled at Ferrara, never quitting the city for any length of time until his death in 1559. His earlier works recall the style of Panetti and Boccaccino. In his middle period he was influenced by his association with Dossi. Then Raphaels and Michelangelo’s influence made itself felt. He was a prolific artist and almost every church of Ferrara was supplied with a picture from his brush. Garofalo’s earliest dated picture, “The Minerva and Neptune” of 1512, in the Dresden gallery, displays the influence of Lorenzo Costa. His paintings in the Borghese and Doria collections are probably earlier, being in the manner of Dossi and Boccaccino. Other important works are “The Immaculate Conception” (1514) and “The Madonna del Pilastro” in the pinacoteca at Perugia and “The Mater Dolorosa” at Dresden. He did not always confine himself to sacred subjects, and one of his finest works dealing with mythology is “The Sacrifice to Ceres” in the National Gallery (Mond collection). He was also employed in decorating palaces of Ferrarese nobles. His paintings in monochrome in the Seminario at Ferrara are fine and

well preserved, and those in the ceiling of one of the rooms recall Mantegna’s ceiling in the Camera du Sposi at Mantua. He continued constantly at work until, in 1550, blindness overtook him. See G. Morelli, Italian Painters, The Borghese and Doria Galleries (3892593) ; J. E. G. Gardner, The Painters of the School of Ferrara IQII).

TISSAPHERNES

(Pers. Cithrafarna), Persian soldier and

statesman, son of Hydarnes.

In 413 he was satrap of Lydia and

Caria, and commander in chief of the Persian army in Asia Minor

(Thuc. viii. s). When Darius II. ordered the collection of the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities, he entered into an alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 led to the conquest of the greater part of Ionia. But Tissaphernes was unwilling to take

action and tried to achieve his aim by astute and often perfidious

CULTURE

247

negotiations; Alcibiades persuaded him that Persia’s best policy was to keep the balance between Athens and Sparta, and rivalry with his neighbour Pharnabazus of Hellespontic Phrygia still further lessened his energy. When, therefore, in 408 the king decided to support Sparta strenuously, Tissaphernes was removed from the generalship and limited to the satrapy of Caria, whereas Lydia and the conduct of the war were entrusted to Cyrus the Younger. On the downfall of Athens, Cyrus and Tissaphernes both claimed jurisdiction over the Ionian cities, most of which acknowledged Cyrus as their ruler; but Tissaphernes took possession. of Miletus, where he was attacked by Cyrus, who gathered an army under this pretence with the purpose of using it against his brother Artaxerxes II. The king was warned by Tissaphernes, who took part in the battle of Cunaxa, and afterwards tried to destroy the Greek mercenaries of Cyrus by treachery. He was then sent back to Asia Minor to his old position as general in chief and satrap of Lydia and Caria. He now attacked the Greek cities, to punish them for their allegiance to Cyrus. This led to the war with Sparta in 399. Tissaphernes, who once again had recourse to subtle diplomacy, was beaten by Agesilaus on the Pactolus near Sardis (395); and at last the king yielded to the representations of Pharnabazus, strongly supported by the chiliarch (vizier) Tithraustes and by the queen-mother Parysatis, who hated Tissaphernes as the principal cause of the death of her favourite son Cyrus. Tithraustes was sent to execute Tissaphernes, who was lured to Colossae and slain in 395. (Ep. M.)

TISSERAND, FRANCOIS FELIX (1845-1896), French

astronomer, was born at Nuits-Saint-Georges, Céte d’Or, on Jan. 13, 1845. He entered the Ecole Normale Supérieure in 1863, and in 1866 became astronome adjoint at the Paris observatory. In 1868 he took his doctor’s degree with a brilliant thesis on Delaunay’s method. He went to Malacca to observe the solar eclipse of Aug. 1868. In 1873 he became director of the Toulouse observatory, and while there published Recueil d'exercices sur le calcul infinitésimal. He went with the French expedition of 1874 to Japan, and of 1882 to Martinique, to observe the transits of

Venus. In:1878 he became a member of the Académie des Sciences, and of the Bureau des Longitudes, and in 1883 he obtained the chair of celestial mechanics at the Sorbonne. In his principal

work, Traité de mécanique céleste (4 vols., 1888-96), he coordinated the researches of Laplace and of subsequent workers in the same field, and gave a résumé of the state of knowledge in that department of astronomy at the end, as Laplace’s Mécanique céleste did for the beginning of the 19th century. In 1892 he became director of the Paris observatory. He died suddenly on Oct. 20, 1896. TISSOT, JAMES JOSEPH JACQUES (1836-1902), French painter, was born at Nantes on Oct. 15, 1836. He studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris under Ingres, Flandrin and Lamothe. In 1861 he showed ‘The Meeting of Faust and Marguerite,” which was purchased by the state for the Luxembourg Gallery. He fought in the Franco-German War, and, falling under suspicion as a Communard, left Paris for London. Here he studied etching with Sir Seymour Haden, drew caricatures for Vanity Fair, and painted portraits as well as genre subjects. It was many years before he turned to the chief work of his career—the production of a series of 700 water-colour drawings to illustrate the life of Christ and the Old Testament. He disappeared from Paris, whither he had returned after a stay of some years in England, and went to Palestine. In 1895 the series of 350 drawings of Incidents in the life of Christ was exhibited in Paris, and in 1896 in London. They were then published by the firm of Lemercier in Paris. He died at Buillon (Doubs) on Aug. 8, 1902.

TISSUE

CULTURE.

The body is composed of countless

myriads of cells assembled in tissues and organs. The cells belong to several types: wandering cells such as blood leucocytes and tissue macrophages which roam through the entire organism; epithelial cells, the noblest elements of the body, which form. the glands, brain, skin, etc.; connective tissue cells present every-

where under various appearances, etc. They are the units 'of a strictly organized community. Their existence is bound to that of the whole. If the whole is taken apart, its component tissues and

248

TISSUE

CULTURE

organs die after a short time. The cultivation of tissues consists precisely in maintaining in a condition of active life cells that have been removed from the body. The aim of this method is to study the innate properties of each cell type, and the mechanism of their organization into tissues and organs. Its ultimate purpose is the discovery of the laws which express the relations between the tissues and the body fluids, and the building up of cell sociology. History.—The method of tissue culture may be considered the indirect outcome of studies made independently by several biolo-

gists on the survival of cells outside of the organism. However, the first chapter of its history was written in 1907 by R. G. Harrison in the beautiful experiments where nerve fibres were caused to grow im vitro from fragments of the central nervous system of frog embryos. In 1910, these experiments were extended by other workers to adult and embryo tissues of birds and mammals, which were observed to survive in a drop of plasma. But after a few days, degeneration began and death occurred. In these experiments, as well as in those of Harrison, the tissues were not cultivated in the proper sense of the word. They were only in a condition of survival. A second chapter was begun in 191 when A. Carrel developed a procedure by which the death of the surviving tissues could be indefinitely postponed and found, in r912, that embryo proteins possess the power of promoting the unlimited proliferation of tissue cells. Then, it became possible really to cultivate cells, that is, to cause them to manufacture new protoplasm from the substances contained in their medium. A long interruption occurred in the progress of these investigations due to the World War. But, in 1921, the development of procedures permitting the main cell types to be obtained in pure cultures opened a third and important period in the history of the method. Blood and tissue macrophages, iris epithelium, cartilage cells, thyroid cells, Malpighian epithelium, lens cells, and several types of malignant cells were isolated from other tissue elements and maintained in a pure state. At the same time, it became possible to measure accurately the rate of growth of the strains of tissue cells. New procedures were perfected by which living tissues could be main-

tained indefinitely in flasks where they were washed, fed, and measured without being disturbed and without danger of infection from bacteria. These great practical improvements rendered the method of tissue culture very much easier, and widely extended its application to physiological and pathological problems. Although it has not as yet reached its complete development, it may be considered the most powerful instrument now possessed for the investigation of cell physiology. Technique.—The handling of the delicate and minute structures which compose the tissues demands elaborate techniques and a long apprenticeship for their mastery. But the principles of

substances necessary for the synthesis of new protoplasm. This medium is composed of two parts, one solid and the other fluid (fig. 1). The solid part is made of coagulated blood plasma, that is, of a clot of blood from which the red and white corpuscles have been removed. Such a plasma is obtained by freeing blood of its corpuscles by centrifugation. It then becomes a clear, citrin fluid which is introduced into the flask with a pipette. The tissue cells are next deposited by a spatula in this medium which coagulates after a few minutes. Thus they become embedded in a transparent jelly, which they use as a scaffold, but not as a nutrient medium. The fluid medium is placed on the surface of the coagulum. Its rôle is to remove the waste products of the culture, and to supply the tissues with the necessary nutrient substances. Every two or three days, the fluid is removed and replaced by a large amount of a saline solution composed of sodium, potassium and calcium chlorides, sodium phosphate and bicarbonate, and glucose, which is called Tyrode solution. After the tissues have been thoroughly washed, the fluid is removed and replaced by a small amount of nutrient medium. This medium ordinarily consists of embryo proteins, or proteoses and peptones, or blood serum, according to the nature of the tissues. The tissues and fluids are handled with sterile instruments in rooms which are

kept strictly clean. It is most important that no bacteria be allowed to penetrate into the flasks. If infection of the medium takes place, death of the tissues soon occurs. This accident is almost completely prevented by the recently developed techniques. After the preparation of the culture is completed, the flasks are placed in an incubator and maintained at body temperature, Several cell types have so far been obtained in pure state: connective tissue cells or fibroblasts, epithelial cells, blood and tissue macrophages, and the malignant elements of a few tumors. Strains of fibroblasts are cultivated easily from almost every embryo, or adult tissue of human beings, dogs, rats, mice, fowls, etc. They remain packed together while macrophages wander through the medium. In addition, they multiply more rapidly than epithehal cells. Therefore, it is easy to obtain colonies composed exclusively of them. Fibroblasts are either polygonal or spindleshaped with long, sharp processes, and with an oval nucleus which generally contains two smaller nucleoli. They aggregate in a dense tissue which doubles in volume every 48 hours when kept at body temperature in a medium composed chiefly of embryo proteins.

They grow indefinitely.

A strain of chicken fibroblasts isolated

16 years ago is multiplying to-day at the same rate as at the beginning of its life im vitro. When the flasks are taken from the incubator and kept at room temperature, the cells stop multiplying and remain in this condition for three or four weeks without dying. Therefore, living culture cells can be sent for long distances without inconvenience. Strains of tissue cells have been these techniques are very simple. The cells are cultivated in flat, exchanged between laboratories located in New Vork and Berlin round flasks made of pyrex glass and after this long journey have promptly regained their usual and varying in size from 3 to rate of growth. Epithelial cells are more difficult to obtain in 8cm. in diameter (see fig.). The pure culture. Nevertheless, since Fischer isolated a strain of epiflasks possess a wide, oblique neck thelium from the few cells of the iris which adhere to the lens of 3cm. in length. Dust and bacthe chick embryo, pure cultures of thyroid gland, Malpighian teria from the air do not fall epithelium, lens epithelium and several types of carcinomatous into the flask when it is opened, BY COURTESY OF ROCKEFELLER INSTITUTE cells have been obtained by Ebeling, Kirby, Fischer and Carrel. FOR but remain on the wall of the menicat RESEARCH Their rate of growth is less than that of the connective tissue cells, neck where they are destroyed by FLAT ROUND. FLASK, 3-5 CM. IN but they can be maintained in a condition of active life for sevflaming. By means of a spatula, DIAMETER, FOR CULTIVATION OF eral years. They keep their normal characteristics indefinitely. the tissue cells are conveniently on mediume 2 niinen iari They grow in a thin layer at the surface of the solid medium, and handled inside the flasks. After medium d rarely form a dense tissue. They readily digest the coagulum. being flamed, the neck is hermetically sealed with a rubber cap. Leucocytes from the blood and wandering cells from the tissues It is thus possible entirely to protect the tissues against bacteria have also been obtained in pure cultures. They do not aggregate which are their deadly enemies, and also ‘maintain in the air of the as a tissue, but remain isolated from one another and scatter container the proper amount of humidity and of carbon dioxide. through the medium. When they accumulate in a large number or. Through the bottom of the flask, the tissues may be examined with are packed together, they generally die or become transformed a microscope at a magnification of about 120 diameters. When into fibroblasts. Their growth is slow and they are less resistant the cells must be studied in greater detail, they are removed from than epithelial or connective tissue’ cells. However, they can live the flask with a spatula, placed on a thin cover-glass, and exam- in flasks for several months The malignant elements of sarcomata ined while still living, at a magnification of I,500 diameters . and carcinomata have also been isolated and maintained alive On the bottom of the flask is spread the medium which must indefinitely outside of the body. supply the tissues with a scaffold for their growth and with the The rate of growth of the colonies of epithelial cells and of

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fibroblast

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con-

nective tissue) of a rat (magnified 1,000 times). 2. Two colonies of 17 month old strain of malignant fibroblasts from a rat sarcoma (tumour of

STRAINS connective tissue), growing In a flask 3.5 centimeters in diameter (magnified twice). 3. Pure strain of normal rat fibroblasts (magnified 4, A 16 year old strain of normal chicken fibroblasts

370

times).

TISSUE

CULTURE

fibroblasts can easily be ascertained. The measurements are made by placing the flasks on a projectoscope and drawing the outline

of the colony immediately after the preparation of the culture and

subsequently every two days, The area of the colony at the different stages of its development is measured with a planimeter, and the ratio of the area of new growth to that of the original fragment is calculated. The relative increase of the colony in 48 hours expresses the rate of growth. The curve representing the

continuous growth of a colony of epithelial cells or of fibroblasts in a flask containing a nutrient medium is a parabola. If the medium is non-nutrient, the curve is S-shaped. Modifications in the form of this curve indicate whether the medium contains substances that activate or depress the rate of cell multiplication. This method cannot be used for measuring the activity of wandering cells, because they never grow as a tissue, but remain at certain distances from one another and scatter on several planes. Their rate of multiplication can be approximately reckoned by the time taken by the cells to invade the entire area of the flask. The growth energy of a colony at a given instant is a function of several independent variables: its growth energy at the preceding instant, and the concentration in the pericellular fluid of the substances that increase or decrease cell activity. It could be ascertained by the activity displayed during an instant by the cells in a medium containing neither activating nor retarding substances, if such a measurement were possible. But the residual growth energy, which was found to vary at the same time as the inherent energy, may be used as a measurement of the latter. The residual energy is expressed by the duration of life and the proliferative activity of the cells in Tyrode solution. The morphology of the tissue cells growing im vitro is studied while they are living. Fragments of the coagulum containing cells are taken from the flasks and put on thin glass slides. They may also be readily cultivated in glass chambers especially con-

structed for cytological studies. The living unstained cells are photographed or cinematographed. When stained with neutral red, trypan blue, and Janus green, the cytoplasmic structures may be observed while in full activity. Cinematographic records can be taken at such a magnification that the details of the mitochondria, segregation apparatus, and surface membrane of the cells are clearly shown. Mode and Rate of Growth of Tissues.—This method has already supplied some important information regarding the physiological properties of tissue cells, the rôle of blood serum toward the tissues, and the nature of the chemical substances that determine the unlimited multiplication of fixed cells. The rate of growth of connective tissue and of epithelial cells in a nutrient medium of unvarying composition remains uniform indefinitely. Such a law appears to be the expression of one of the more fundamental properties of tissue cells. Since their rate of growth remains unchanged as long as the medium does not vary, the cell colonies may be considered to be immortal. A strain is able to transform an unlimited amount of chemical energy. The energy spent by the cells must arise entirely from the substances contained in the culture medium, and will never be exhausted as long as the same medium is supplied to them. It appears that the potentialities of tissues are much greater than those they display within the normal organism, and that the manifestation of their activity is determined by the physico-chemical conditions of the

pericellular fluid. The dependence of cells on the composition of the medium was further emphasized by a study of the rate of growth of colonies of fibroblasts or epithelial cells in media of

varying composition.

It was found that the activity of the col-

onies is a function of the concentration of nutrient substances within the medium, when waste products and other inhibiting substances are constantly removed. If cell colonies in different condi-

tions of activity are placed in similar media, their rates of multi-

249

which the tissues have been extirpated. The duration of their survival in vitro may extend over a period of three months. On the other hand, the residual energy of the tissues of an adult animal is very small. The connective tissue cells of an old animal are in a dormant condition. If cultivated in a nutrient medium, a long time elapses before they begin to proliferate. Should their resting state be attributed to a factor preventing them from spending their energy, or to a complete lack of energy? An investigation of the behaviour of these tissues in a medium completely lacking in nutrient substances showed that they possess very little residual energy. This means that they have no reserves in store. However, they have not lost the power of accumulating the substances which supply them with energy. When they are placed in a nutrient medium, they begin to multiply and to store up reserves. Adult fibroblasts may be compared to a motor which possesses no energy of its own, but runs as soon as it is supplied with fuel. The persistence of the essential characteristics of cells cultivated im vitro has opened a new field to histology. When the rate of growth and the constitution of the medium of a pure strain have been ascertained, the relations existing between the structure of the cells and their physiological state become apparent immediately. Blood monocytes, tissue macrophages and fibroblasts have been studied according to these principles. The appearance of the cells varies greatly with their nutritional condition. The anatomy of a cell type can be modifed at will by simple changes. in the nature and the concentration of the substances contained in its medium.

A profound transformation of classical cytology began when it became possible to identify cells not only by their morphology, but also by their physiological characteristics. Through the new techniques, a cell type is defined by the appearance of its colonies, its mode of locomotion as recorded by cinematography, its effect on the medium, its rate of growth, the nature of the substances which inhibit its multiplication, the nature and concentration of the substances required for proliferation, etc. The advantages of this conception of cytology are obvious. If all the manifested and hidden potentialities of every cell type were known, the behaviour of a tissue under given conditions could be predicted. The events in which the tissues take part are determined by the response made to the physico-chemical conditions of the medium by each cell according to its innate qualities. On the mode of response of a cell type to other cells and to the humours depend the characteristics of the community. Physiological Factors of Growth—The effect of blood plasma on tissue cells remained unknown until it was tested on pure cultures of fibroblasts and epithelium. These experiments

showed that, first, blood serum is not a nutrient medium for epithelial cells and fibroblasts; it inhibits their proliferation when added to a nutrient medium. Secondly, blood serum is an excellent nutrient medium for monocytes, tissue macrophages, and sarcomatous macrophages. Thirdly, the proteins and amino acids of the blood do not promote the proliferation of connective tissue and epithelial cells. Serum proteins or lipoids possess the property of restraining cell proliferation. But blood serum taken from an animal a few weeks old neither stimulates nor inhibits the growth of colonies of fibroblasts. When the age of the animal increases, its serum becomes more and more growth-inhibiting. The pro-

gressive increase In the growth-inhibiting properties

of blood

serum takes place rapidly at the beginning of life and very slowly in old age. The curve expressing this phenomenon resembles that of the decrease in function of the age of the patient in the rate of healing of a wound, as expressed in du Noity’s equation. The age of an animal can be ascertained approximately by the growth index of its serum. The inhibiting power of serum is due chiefly to lipoids. After extraction of the lipoids, the remaining proteins

are far less inhibiting than the whole serum. On the contrary, the

medium grew at first at varying rates, but after a few weeks no

isolated lipoids are toxic. In old age, the inhibiting effect of serum is augmented because both proteins and lipoids are more concentrated.

difference was observed in the activity of both colonies. The residual energy of embryo tissues, which is always very large, varies in inverse ratio with the age of the animal from

remained unknown until fibroblasts and epithelium were found to multiply with great velocity in the presence of embryo juice.

plication soon become identical.

of chick embryos

Fragments of connective tissue

and adult chickens cultivated in a nutrient

The nature of the substances responsible for cell multiplication

250

TISTA—TISZA

This juice is a complete food. For 16 years, a strain of fibroblasts has been fed on it, and has built up many thousands of colonies from the substances that it contains. The substance responsible for the unlimited growth of the cells is a protein, which is mixed with a lipoid having some inhibiting power. The primary split products of certain proteins produce as extensive a multiplication of fibroblasts as embryo juice does. The incomplete digests of ox fibrin, casein, egg albumin, liver, testi, thyroid, thymus, pituitary gland, etc., increase the rate of growth of fibroblasts, epithelial cells and macrophages. The split products of crystalline egg albumin, on the contrary, possess little growth-promoting power. When the digestion is carried further and the digests are composed chiefly of amino acids, their effect on the growth of tissue cells disappears almost completely. It is probable that the proteins of embryo juice are not absorbed as such by the cells after they have been hydrolyzed. The power of tissue juice to cause growth may possibly be attributed to the ease with which its proteins can be transformed into polypeptides by the tissue ferments. Monocytes and macrophages do not require embryo juice or protein split products in their medium in order to proliferate and manifest other forms of activity. They are voracious cells and feed upon red blood corpuscles, protein precipitates and muscle fragments, and also on plasma, embryo juice and protein split products at a low concentration. Through the method of tissue culture, the fundamental characteristics of the main cell types and the mechanisms that make them an organized whole are being progressively elucidated. Although the techniques will be still further improved, they have reached such a degree of development as to permit the construction of a new science of cytology based not only on the morphology, but chiefly on the physiological properties of the cells.

BrBLiocrapHy.—R. G. Harrison, Proc. Soc. Exp, Biol. & Med., 1906-07, J. Exp. Zodl., 1910; A. Carrel, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1910, J. Exp. Med., 1911 to 1928, inclusive; T. S. P. Strangeways, Technique of tissue culture in vitro, Cambridge (England), 1924; A. Fischer, Gewebeziichtung: Handbuch der Biologie der Gewebdezellen in vitro, Miinchen, 1927. (A. Car.)

TISTA, a river of northern India, which rises on the edge of

the Tibetan plateau, has a tumultuous course southward through the mountain gorges of Sikkim and Darjeeling and flows through North Bengal and Cooch Behar for another 140 miles till it joins

the Brahmaputra in the district of Rangpur. In the 18th century

its course was due south to join the Ganges; but in 1787 great floods diverted the stream towards the south-east, and it made its way by a new channel into the Brahmaputra, ‘ TISZA, ISTVAN (Stephen), Count (1861-1918), Hungarian statesman, was born on April 22 , 1861, youngest son of Kalman Tisza (qg.v.). Educated at Berlin, Heidelberg and Budapest, he entered the ministry of the interior, where he specialized in agrarian matters. His Magyar agrdrpolitik (Budapest, 1897), authoritative on its subject, was translated into German the same year. In 1886 Tisza began his long parliamentary career, and on June. 17, 1903, he was entrusted with the formation of a ministry of pacification, but was unable to secure a majority. On Oct. 27,

however, with the assistance of the Free Principles Party, he succeeded in composing a cabinet, in which he was minister of the interior as well as premier. On Nov. 16-18, to meet the obstruction of the opposition, he introduced’ new and stringent rules of .

4

procedure which he declared adopted, thereupon suspending ‘the session. The Andrassy group, however, left him soon after, and after a stubborn battle with anarchical conditions in which legislation was impossible Tisza appealed to the country and was heavily defeated. After Count Khuen-Hédervary became prime minister (Jan. roro) Tisza reorganized the old Liberal party under the name of the National Party of Work with a programme of a return to the strict principles of the compromise of 1867, In the elections of June 1910 this party secured an overwhelming majority, due largely to Tisza’s own personal suggestion and unceas-

ing activity.

In view of the obstruction of the extreme Left

against the army legislation, Tisza, considering that the threat of complications in the Balkans made it essential not to weaken the Austro-Hungarian army, had himself‘ elected president of

the Lower House in 1912, introduced new standing orders, and

| forced the Army bill through, ejecting the opposition from the House. A member fired three times at Tisza, who remained calm

in his chair. This scene made him very popular. He had to fight

some duels with his adversaries, including one with Count Michael Karolyi, which left the two adversaries bitter enemies. On June 15, 1913, Tisza was for the second time nominated prime minister. In his first memorandum on foreign policy, written after the second Balkan War, he deplores the growth of Serbia and the collapse of Bulgaria, Turkey and later Greece. Rumania, where public opinion was growing hostile to the dual monarchy, should be assured its territorial integrity, but if it abandoned its alliance, Bulgaria should be brought to bear against

it. War should be avoided.

In home politics, Tisza was willing

to favour such of the non-Hungarian nationalities as would support the State. He attempted to reach an understanding with the leaders of the Transylvanian Rumanians, but without success. After the murder of the heir to the throne at Sarajevo, Tisza, in a letter to Francis Joseph (July 1) opposed Berchtold’s suggestion for a sudden attack on Serbia. A week later he again urged his view that diplomatic steps were necessary and a severe ultimatum should be sent, but its conditions should not be impossible of acceptance. To avoid the intervention of the Entente, Tisza carried a motion in the council of ministers (July 19) that the integrity of Serbia’s territory should be respected even if war was declared. Though the war against Serbia was declared, he exerted himself. for peace by accepting Sir Edward Grey’s last proposal (July 31). Afterwards he was anxious to miss no opportunity of concluding peace. He was opposed to all German aspirations of territorial aggrandizement and to the introduction of unlimited submarine warfare. He was a true partisan of German alliance, but he admitted no interference with Hungary’s sovereign rights and was strongly opposed to the German idea of an economic “Mittel Europa.” , Tisza had many controversies with the Austrian Supreme Command and general staff. He was convinced that the fate of Hungary was bound up with that of the dual monarchy, but equally intent on preserving Hungary’s predominance within the monarchy. It was for this reason that he opposed the plans of Conrad von Hötzendorf (q.v.) to annex further territory, and advocated moderate peace terms in Serbia and Belgium. He refused, however, to make any territorial concessions to Rumania, such as might have kept her from joining the war against the Central Powers. His infiuence was immense so long as Francis Joseph lived. It was he who forced Berchtold to leave the foreign ministry although he refused himself to become foreign minister, King Charles, however, was under the influence of Tisza’s Austrian and Hungarian enemies. Their rancour was fostered by the participation of Tisza, a Calvinist, with the primate of Hungary in the act of coronation. The pretext for Tisza’s dismissal in June 1917 was his refusal to grant the suffrage to soldiers at the front and his opposition to the demands of the Socialists, The new cabinet had but a minority in parliament. . Tisza, now chief of the opposition and in the majority, framed a resoluti on in which he affirmed the necessity of the German Alliance and pointed out the ambiguous behaviour of the Czechs in the Reichsrath. Finding his position dificult, he went to the front. In the Bukovina and in Italy he commanded a regiment with distincti on. During, this time his only political action was his mission to Croatia and Bosnia (Sept. 1918). Returning to Budapest, he declared (Oct. 17) “We have lost the war,’ and thus gave the

signal for the collapse. He wanted a peace with honour, not a treacherous one. His last two weeks he spent in attempt ing to unite different parties; he was even ready to accept Karolyi’s leadership in order to save the country and to procure a good peace. Too proud and too conscientious to allow the publicat ion of his pacific endeavours, he was set as a mark for the defeatist soldiers and the mob. Though warned of his grave danger, he

remained

in Budapest, working until his last moment

to unite

the historical parties. He was killed by soldiers on Oct. 31, 1918,

the first day of Count Karolyi’s revolution. His last words were, “Tt had to be.” See Istvan Tisza, Ossres M unke, 2 vol., 1924 (Perso nal Recollections,

TISZA—TITANIUM letters June to end of Dec. 1914, pub. by the Hungarian academ The first volume of the letters was translated into German by o von Wertheimer, Graf Stefen Tissa; Briefje (1928).

TISZA, KALMAN

[Koroman]

(1830—1902), Hungarian

statesman, was born at Geszt on Dec. 10, 1830, the son of Lajos Tisza and the countess Julia Teleki, and educated at his father’s castle. In 1848 he obtained a post in the ministry of instruction of the revolutionary Government. After the war he travelled

abroad, afterwards

(1855) becoming assistant curator of the

Calvinist church at Nagyszalonta. He publicly and vehemently opposed the Austrian “Patent” of Sept. 1, 1859 and the “October Diploma” of 1860. In Aug. 1860 Tisza married the countess Helen Degenfeld-Schomburg, a union which brought him into close connection with the Karolyis, the Podmaniczkys and the Odescalchis. He was unanimously elected to represent Debreczen at the 1861 diet, and vice-president of the house at its second session, and became leader of the more radical party on the death of Count László Teleki. From 1867 onwards his influence increased steadily, despite the rupture of his party, which he reconstructed at the conference of Nagyvarad (March 17, 1868), when the famous Bihari pontok, or articles of Bihar, were subscribed, which bound the Tisza party to repeal all laws or institutions contrary to, and to promote all measures necessary for, the national independence. Thus the delegation system and the common ministries were marked out for attack, while every effort was to be made to procure for Hungary a separate army, a separate diplomacy and a separate financial system. It was chiefly owing to the efforts of Tisza and his party that Austria remained neutral during the Franco-German War. In 1875 his party amalgamated with the followers of Deak into the Szabadelvü párt or Free Principles Party, which took

office under Bela Wenckheim (1811-1879), whom (Oct. 2) Tisza succeeded as prime minister, a post he held, with a few interruptions, for the next 15 years. In 1879 he materially contributed to the formation of the Austro-German alliance. Not till 1888, when the national army bill was introduced, did he encounter any serious opposition, but thenceforth his position became precarious, and he resigned office on March 13, 1890. It was owing to his influence, above all things, that Hungary acquired a consolidated government and a position of predominance in the dual monarchy. It is an open secret that, on the retirement of Andrássy, 'he was offered the chancellorship. He refused it because, to use his own expression, “I am as wholly and solely Hungarian as the _ river (Theiss, Hung. Tisza) whose name I bear.” See G. Gratz, Kdlmdn Tisza (Modern Magyar Statesmen, 1.) (Hung.; 1902); P. Busbach, The Last Five Years (Hung.; 1895).

TITANIC, LOSS OF THE. At 2.20 a.m. on April 15, 1912, the White Star liner “Titanic,” at that time the largest ship afloat, on her maiden voyage, went to the bottom of the Atlantic after striking at full speed on an iceberg, with a loss of 1,513 souls out of 2,224 on board. The full record of the disaster is contained in the reports of the inquiries held at once in America by a committee of Congress under Senator Smith, and later in London by a special commission presided over by Lord Mersey (report issued July 30). See British

Parliamentary

(Titanic) 1912 (ed. 6352).

TITANIUM

Papers:' No. 2253, Shipping

Casualties

i

(symbol Ti, alomic number 22, atomic weight

48-1). In a substantially pure state, titanium has a very restricted commercial application. The method adopted by Hunter is the standard one for the production of the pure element, but an impure product may be obtained from the dioxide by the application of Goldschmidt’s thermit reaction. (see below) or by reduction with carbon in the electric furnace. Pure titanium is silver-white with a fracture similar to that of steel. It is hard and brittle when cold, but at a low red heat it is malleable and can be forged readily like iron. The specific gravity is 4.5 and the melting point, accord-

ing to Hunter, 1850°C. It is soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and'in agua regia, whilst hydro-

fluoric acid readily dissolves it. It combines with nitrogen with avidity. With oxygen and. the halogens, compounds of quadtrivalent titanium are produced. i.” ot

251I

The existence of the element known as titanium was discovered in 1789 by the Rev. William Gregor during an investigation of a peculiar black sand found at Menachan in Cornwall. This black mineral he called menachanite (or meccanite) and the new element he named menachite. Four or five years later, the German chemist, Klaproth, discovered a new metal whilst investigating the composition of the mineral rutile. On account of the strength of the chemical combination in which it was held, he gave to the new element the name titanium—an allusion to the Titans of Greek mythology, the incarnation of natural strength. In 1797 Klaproth investigated the mineral ilmenite—which was identical with menachanite—and recognized that titanium and the menachite of Gregor were identical. Nevertheless, titanium is the name which is now universally adopted for the element. Attempts to isolate titanium were first made by Lampadius in 1797 and later by Berzelius and other investigators. The metallic-looking products isolated by early investigators were generally nitrides or carbides, for titanium has a pronounced affinity for oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. In 1895, Moissan published an account of his experiments on the reduction of titanium dioxide with carbon at the temperature of the electric furnace. His final product was free from nitrogen and silicon but contained about 2% of carbon, probably as the carbide. This was the purest titanium isolated till the work of Hunter in 1910, who adopted a method previously used, unsuccessfully, by Nilson and Petterssen. By heating titanium tetrachloride with sodium in an air-tight steel cylinder, with exclusion of air, Hunter obtained titanium nearly 100% pure. Although frequently regarded as one of the rare elements, titanium occupies the ninth place in Clarke’s table of the estimated abundance of the elements in the earth’s crust. This table discloses the interesting fact that titanium is more abundant than such common elements as carbon, phosphorus or sulphur, and much more abundant than the useful metals, lead, copper and zinc. There is, however, a distinctive difference between the mode of occurrence of titanium and that of these other metals, for whereas the greater part of the titanium is so widely diffused through the earth’s crust as to make its recovery economically impossible, the less abundant metals are concentrated in segregated deposits (mineral veins, lodes, etc.) capable of salisfactory exploitation. Hence, of all the numerous titanium-bearing minerals, only three or, at most, five are entitled to be classed as possible ores of titanium. They are rutile (TiO.), ilmenite (FeTiO,), ` titaniferous magnetite (magnetite 1s Fe,O,), and possibly titanite (CaO-TiO.-SiO;) and perovokite (Ca,Fe”) TiO;. Rutile occurs in igneous, in metamorphic, and in sedimentary rocks, and its mineral associates include a wide range of species. Although widespread in occurrence, deposits of commercial importance are few in number and, so far, restricted to certain localities in the United States, Canada, Norway and South Australia. Rutile crystallizes in the tetragonal system, commonly as short, stout prisms or elongated prisms frequently showing striated prism faces. It is normally reddish-brown to red, the specific gravity of the ordinary red variety being 4.18 to 4.25. Titanium dioxide contains 60% of titanium and 40% of oxygen. Actually, the mineral usually contains from 54 to 59% of titanium with minute quantities of vanadium and iron. Rutile is infusible before the blowpipe and insoluble in acids, but fused alkalis and alkali carbonates bring it into solution. Ilmenite crystallizes in the hexagonal system as rhombohedra, but it is rarely seen as good megascopic crystals. Commonly it occurs as embedded grains and masses, whilst it may also be found as a sand. The mineral is iron-black with a metallic lustre. Although it is customary to assign to it the formula FeTiO,, numerous analyses indicate the. formula FeTiO,,x«Fe.O; whilst others correspond to neither formulation. Ilmenite is both cheaper and more plentiful than rutile, and probably the most extensive deposits of the mineral are those of the province of Quebec, Canada, and: the Eker/sund-Soggendal district of Sweden. Other important deposits are found in the United States and South. Australia, whilst ilmenite. is a by-product from the crude monazite sands of Ceylon and Travancore, India. For industrial purposes the only. distinction between ilmenite and titaniferous magnetite is: in the titanium

263

TITANOTHERIA—TITHES

content. Ore, classed as ilmenite, has a titanium content of 18 to 24% or more, whilst titaniferous magnetite seldom carries more than 15% of titanium. Although titanium is unimportant commercially, yet when al-

loyed with other elements it forms a number of useful products. Four of these alloys—ferrocarbon titanium, carbon-free ferrotitanium, cuprotitanium, and manganotitanium—are in commercial use. Ferrocarbon titanium is made by reduction of ilmenite with coke in an electric furnace, or by charging rutile mixed with carbon into an electric furnace containing molten iron or steel. The alloy so produced has a high carbon content (5 to 8%) but this can be reduced below 1% by remelting with rutile. Ferrocarbon titanium normally contains Ti 15—18, C 7, Si 1-5%, the rest being iron and small quantities of impurities. The carbonfree ferrotitanium is produced by the thermit process. The finelypowdered ilmenite (or oxides of iron and titanium) mixed with aluminium powder, in the correct proportions, is ignited by means of a fuse. A rapid reaction takes place in which the oxides are reduced to the elemental condition and an alloy of the following composition is produced: Fe, 67—69; Ti, 25; Al, 5—6; Si, I—1.05; P, 0.05; S, 0.01%. Cuprotitanium is made by the aluming-thermic reduction of rutile to which copper has been added, and manganotitanium is similarly produced by the reduction of rutile to which manganese or its oxide has been added. Titanium in the form of its alloys acts as a final deoxidizer and denitrogenizer for metals. The addition of the ferro-alloys to steel yields a cleaner and sounder product, whilst the cuprotitanium and manganotitanium are used as deoxidizers in brass and bronze prac-

tice. Titanium in the form of its compounds finds many useful applications. Ilmenite and rutile, as well as artificial titanium dioxide, have been used in the making of arc-lamp electrodes. Titanium compounds have proved of value as pigments in the paint industry, dyes and mordants in the textile and leather industries, refractory colouring materials for use in ceramics and in

the manufacture of artificial teeth. Titanium white, TiO,, is put on the market as a pigment to compete with white lead and zinc white. Titanium forms a wide range of salts in which it exhibits valencies of 4, 3, and 2, Titanium tetrachloride, TiCL, which may be conveniently prepared by passage of chlorine over heated titanic oxide (TiO,) and carbon, is a colourless liquid boiling at 136-4° C. It fumes excessively in the air and was used as a smoke-screen during the World War. By electralytic reduction of a solution of the tetrachloride in hydrochloric acid, a violet solution of

titanium trichloride is obtained. This compound has pronounced reducing properties and has been utilized for many useful volumetric processes (Knecht and Hibbert, New Reduction Methods in Volumetric Analysis, 1910). Salts of quadrivalent titanium are normally colourless, but the titanous salts, containing tervalent titanium, are generally violet or green, and include some powerful mordants which produce brilliant and stable colours, e.g., Tin(SO,)s,Na2S0.,5H.O. Hydrogen peroxide gives with titanium salts a yellow to brown coloration due to the formation of pertitanic acid, TiO.,xH,O. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——-Titanium, publication 579 (1922), Department Mines, Canada; W, M. Thornton, Titanium (New York, 1927). CW. Wa.

of

TITANOTHERIA, an extinct family of hoofed, herbivorous

the rebellion of Cronus and the birth of Zeus (see Cronus), a struggle ensued between Zeus and Cronus in which the Titans nearly all sided with the latter, but were finally defeated, and

imprisoned in Tartarus (Hesiod, Theog., 153-210, 617 et seq.). The standard work on the subject is M. Mayer, Die Giganten und Titanen in der antiken Sage und Kunst (1887); see also the classical dictionaries s.v.

TITCHENER, EDWARD BRADFORD (1867-1927), Anglo-American psychologist, was born on Jan. Ir, 1867, in Chichester, England, possibly a descendant of John Tychenor

(1532) of Chichester. For four years he attended Malvern college in Worcestershire, and then at the age of 18 (1885) he became a member of Brasenose college at Oxford. Here for four years more he was senior scholar in classics and philosophy and senior Hulmean exhibitioner. In his fifth year at Oxford he was a research student in physiology under Burdon-Sanderson, to whom he later acknowledged an intellectual debt. At this time physiological psychology as a laboratory science was just becoming established in Germany and America, and Titchener, trained in philosophy and physiology, turned to the new science

and went to Wundt (g.v.), the “founder” of experimental psychology, at Leipzig, where was the first and the leading psychological laboratory. Here he received his Ph.D. degree in 1802. Then, with the Wundtian impress upon him, in the days when psychological laboratories. were still rare, he accepted the post

in the laboratory at Cornell university, Ithaca

(N.Y.), where

he remained ‘until his death 35 years later. His chief work is the Experimental Psychology, the most thorough and extensive encyclopaedic handbook of experimental psychology that has been written in English. The first two volumes, covering qualitative psychology, appeared in rgor; the third and fourth volumes, treating of quantitative psychology or psychophysics, were published in 1905. |

In America, Titchener always represented the Wundtian traditions; he never became part of the American trend in psychology, a trend that emphasizes individual differences among persons and the application of psychology to human welfare. Titchener stood for the “pure” scientific psychology of the generalized, normal, adult mind. In the early days he thus became the exponent of the school of structural psychology which opposed functional psychology; in later times he represented the opposition to behaviourism and to the psychology of mental tests. His systematic contributions to theoretical psychology are to be found in his Lectures on the Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Attention (1908), Lectures on the Experimental

Psychology of the Thought-Processes (1909), Text-book of Psychology (1910) and, to a less extent, in his Beginner's Psychology (1915). He died in Ithaca (N.Y.), Aug. 3, 1927. See the biographical sketches, under the title “Edward Bradford Titchener,” by H. C. Warren, in Science, vol. Ixvi. (1927), and by E. G. Boring in The American Journal of Psychology, vol. xxxviii. (1927); also “Titchener at Leipzig,” by. Frank Angell, in The Journal of General Psychology, vol. i. (1928). (E. G. Bor.)

TITE, SIR WILLIAM (2798-1873), British architect, the son of Arthur Tite, a Russian merchant, was born in London in Feb. 1798, and died on April 20, 1873. The rebuilding of the Royal Exchange, opened in 1844, was Tite’s greatest undertaking. He, was M.P. for Bath (1855-73) and president of the Royal Institute of British Architects (1861-63 and 1867-70).

mammals remotely allied to the horses, tapirs and rhinoceroses and ranging from the Lower Eocene to the close of the Lower See Journal, Royal Institute of British Architects, pp. 209-212 Oligocene in North America, to the Middle or Upper Oligocene in (London, 1873—74). i Mongolia. The earlier members of the group were small and hornTITHES, a form of tribute consisting of a tenth of a man’s less but these gradually gave rise to huge animals surpassing property or produce, connected politically with taxation, and the existing rhinoceroses in size and characterized by the presence religiously with the offering of “firstfruits” to deity. This cusof a transversely placed pair of large horn-like outgrowths above tom was almost universal in the ancient world, and can be traced the nose. For the origin of the group, see PERISSODACTYLA, in Babylonia, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Greece, Rome and even in

TITANS, in Greek mythology, the children of Uranus (Heaven) and Ge (Earth). The Greek name is Teraves, the etymology of which is uncertain. According to Hesiod (Theog., 133), the male Titans were Oceanus, Cocus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus and Cronus; the female, Thea, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys. Later authors add other names. After |

China. The tax probably originated in a tribute laid by a conqueror: or ruler on his subjects; and we may assume that the custom of dedicating a tenth of the spoils of war to the gads led to a religious extension of the term, the original offerings to deity being “firstfruits.” Among the early Hebrews, for example, the king could exact a tithe from cornfields, vineyards, and flocks

TITHES (x Sam. viii. 15, 17); and on the religious side the oldest laws (e.g, Exod. xxxiv. 26) speak of bringing the firstfruits of the land to the house of Yahveh. By the 7th century (Deuteronomy) the word “tithe” has come to be used regularly for religious dues. But the analysis of tithe-legislation in the books ascribed to Moses is a complicated problem, owing to the way in which strata of legislation belonging to different periods are combined in the Pentateuch as we now have it; and for detailed investigation reference should be made to the works mentioned below.

Ulti-

mately the tithe system became a means of contributing to the regular support of the priests, as ministers of the public ritual.

Tithes in Christendom.—the earliest authentic example of

anything like a law of the State enforcing payment appears to occur in the capitularies of Charlemagne at the end of the 8th or beginning of the gth century. Tithes were by that enactment to be applied to the maintenance of the bishop and clergy, the poor, and the fabric of the church. In course of time the principle of payment of tithes was extended far beyond its original intention. Thus they became transferable to laymen and saleable like ordinary property, in spite of the injunctions of the third

Lateran Council; and they became payable out of sources of income not originally tithable. The Council of Trent definitely enjoined payment of tithes, and excommunicated those who withheld them (Sessio xxv. 12). In England the earliest example of a legal recognition of tithes appears to be in a decree of a synod in 786 (quoted by Selden, History of Tithes, ch. viii. 2). Other examples before the conquest occur in the laws of Alfred, Athelstane, Edgar, and Canute. It was Selden’s denial of the divine right of tithes which brought down the wrath of the Star Chamber upon his head

(1618), and he was forced to retract his opinion.

Tithes in English Law.—Two conveniently be made.

chronological divisions may

(i.} Before the Commutation Acts (1836 sqqg.). Tithes were classified by origin, as “praedial,” or arising immediately from the ground, e.g., grain of all sorts, hay, wood and the like; “mixed,” or arising from things immediately nourished by the ground, e.g., colts, lambs, eggs and the like; or “personal,” namely, of profits arising from the honest labour and industry of man, and being the tenth part of the clear gain, e.g., fishing, mills and the like; or according to value, as great, e.g., corn, hay and wood; or little, which embraced all others. Of common right tithes were only payable of such things as yield a yearly natural increase and generally only once a year. They were recoverable by a writ against the owner of the tithable property usually brought in the ecclesiastical courts, the jurisdiction of which in this respect was confirmed by the statutes Circumspecte agatis (13 Edw. L),

Articuli cleri (9 Edw. II.), and others of Henry VIII. and Edward VI.; and an act 2 and 3 Edw. VI. made any person refusing to set out tithes liable to pay double the value in the ecclesiastical court or treble in a common law court. At the time of the Commutation Acts, it was common for a tithe-owner to accept a fixed sum of money or fixed quantity of the goods tithable in place of the actual tithes, whether in respect of a whole parish or only of particular lands within it; and this could be sued for in the ecclesiastical courts. In the City of London there were customary tithes; in other towns and places there were compositions for tithes which were confirmed by local acts of parliament; and according to a return presented to the House of Commons in 1831, there were passed between 1757 and 1830 no less than 2,000 local acts containing commutation clauses. Gi.) The principle of the Tithe Commutation Acts (1836-1860) is to make permanent and general the system which had been only

partial or temporary (in most cases),.and to substitute a corn

rent (known as a tithe rent charge), permanent in quantity and

253

ascertained either by voluntary parochial agreement, or, failing that, by compulsory award confirmed by the commissioners; and the value of the tithes is fixed in the latter case by their average value in the particular parish during the seven years preceding Christmas 1835, without deduction for parochial or county and other rates, charges and assessments falling on tithes, the rent charge being liable to all the charges to which tithes were liable. The rent charge is apportioned on all the lands liable in the parish, and such apportionment may be altered or a new one made; and the value of the rent charge is fixed at the value (at the time of confirmation of the apportionment) of the number of imperial bushels and decimal parts of bushels of wheat, barley and oats as the same would have purchased at the prices so ascertained by the advertisement (of prices of corn) to be published immediately after the passing of the act 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 71, in case onethird part of such rent charge had been invested in the purchase of wheat, one-third part in the purchase of barley, and the remaining third part in the purchase of oats; and the respective quantities of wheat, barley, and oats so ascertained shall be stated in the draft of every apportionment. The price at which the conversion from money into corn is to be made at the time of confirmation of such apportionment, according to the provisions of the said act, are 7s. o4d. for a bushel of wheat, 3s. 113d. for a bushel of barley, and 2s. gd. for a bushel of oats (7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 69); the average price of the bushel of each grain is now computed by substituting for the “advertisement” above the statement of the septennial average price of the imperial bushel of British corn made under the Corn Returns Act, 1882; and thus the value of the statutory amount of corn is now fixed for each year at the beginning thereof at the average price of the three components of corn for the previous seven years. ‘The method of recovering rent charge under the Commutation Acts was distraint where the rent charge is in arrear for 2r days after the half-yearly days of payment, and entry and possession with power of letting if it is in arrear for 40 days. This power of distress and entry extends to all lands occupied by the occupier of the land whose tithe is in arrear as owner or under the same landlord; but no action lies against the owner or occupier of the land personally. If a tenant quits leaving tithe unpaid, the landlord may pay it and recover it from him. The tithe-owner cannot recover damages from the tithe-payer for not cultivating the land. Special provision is made for the recovery of the rent charge in railway lands.

The act of 1891 shifted the responsibility from the occupier

to the landowner by making the latter solely responsible. The landowner became liable to pay the rent charge in spite of any contract to the contrary between him and the occupier; the rent charge if in arrear for three months is recoverable by an order of the county court, whatever its amount may be; if the land is occupied by the owner, the order is executed by the same means as those prescribed in the Tithe Acts; but if it is not, then by a receiver being appointed for the rents and profits of the land. Appeal lies to the High Court on points of law; and a remission of rent charge may be claimed when its amount exceeds twothirds of the annual value of the land. The act does not apply to the particular kinds of rent charges mentioned above. The Tithe Acts do not apply to the city of London, which has always had its own peculiar customary payment regulated by episcopal constitutions of 13 Hen. ITI. and 13 Ric. II. and statutes of Henry VIII. confirming a decree of the privy council,

under which the rate of tithes was fixed at 164d. for every Ios. rent, and at 2s. od. for every 20s. rent of houses, shops and the like by the year. Provision was made by statute after the fire of London for certain annual tithes to be paid in parishes whose churches had been destroyed, and there have been local acts from time to time with regard to particular parishes therein.

payable in money, but fluctuating in value, for all tithes, whether payable under a modus or composition or not, which may have Brpriocraruy.—Early history of tithes, H. Lansdell, The Sacred heretofore belonged either to ecclesiastical or lay persons (Philli- Tenth (1906) ; W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (1902); C. H. Babylonian and Assyrian Laws (1904); M. Jastrow, Religions more, Eccles. Law, ii. 1161). Commissioners (now the board of Johns, of Babylonia and Assyria (1898); G. Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation agriculture) are appointed to execute the acts; a rent charge (Eng. trans. 1894); on Hebrew Tithes, G. F. Moore, art. “Tithes” on all lands liable to tithes at the time of the passing of the first in Encyclopaedia Biblica; A. S. Peake, art. “Tithes,”’ in Hastings act is substituted for those tithes, of which the gross amount is Bible Dictionary, with mariy reff.; for Scottish law, J. M. Duncan,

254

TITHING—TITIAN

Parochial Ecclesiastical Law in Scotland {3rd ed., 1903); for English ing the Infant Christ,” at the foot of the staircase in the ducal Law, Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law (2nd ed., 1895); Cripps, Law of palace of Venice. From Padua Titian in 1512 returned to Venice; Church and Clergy (1886); and for recent legislation: Tithe Act (8 and 9 Geo. v. cap. 54, 1918) ; Rating and Valuation Act (13 and 16 and in 1513 he obtained a broker’s patent and became superinGeo. V. cap. 90, 1925) ; Tithe Act (18 and 16 Geo. V. cap. 87, 1925) ; tendent of the government works, being charged to complete the Statutory Rules and Orders (1926), under “Tithe Act” (appointed paintings left unfinished by Giovanni Bellini in the hall of the days), order dated July 26, 1926, and “Tithe Rentcharge Recovery great council in the ducal palace (destroyed by fire). He set up an Rules” dated April 29, 1926. For a convenient summary of the present state of legislation, see Law Relating to Tithe Rentcharge and atelier on the Grand Canal, at S. Samuele. It was not until 1516, upon the death of Bellini, that he came into actual enjoyment of other Payments in lieu of Tithe (2nd ed., 1926). H. M.)

TITHING.

Formerly

throughout

England, except in the

north and west, every man had to be enrolled in a group of ten men, called a tithing, who were responsible for his appearance in court if he were accused of any offence. This was known as the system of frankpledge (g.v.). If the offender was not forthcomIng, enquiry was made whether he was in frankpledge; if he were not, and had no right of exemption, the township was amerced, but if he were in a tithing, then it was upon the tithing that the amercement fell. South of the Thames the tithings were districts normally identical with the township which discharged the duties of the frankpledge. Some townships, however, contained more than one tithing. There are also indications that in the ancient kingdom of Mercia the tithing was originally a district and not a mere association of persons.

TITHONUS

was, in Greek legend, according to Homer, the

son of Laomedon, king of Troy and husband of Eos (the Dawn). In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite Eos is said to have carried him off because of his great beauty. She entreated Zeus that he might live for ever; this was granted, but she forgot to ask for immortal youth for him. He became a hideous old man; Eos then shut him up in a chamber; his voice “flowed on unceasingly,” but his limbs were helpless. A later development is the change of Tithonus into a grasshopper, after Eos had been obliged to wrap him like a child in swaddling-clothes and to put him to sleep in a kind of cradle. In some versions she is said to have carried him away to the land of Ethiopia near the ocean streams.” See O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, i. 313, n. 16, who attributes a Milesian origin to the story; also the classical dictionaries.

TITI, a name properly applied to the small South American

monkeys of the genus Callicebus. The titis, of which there are numerous species, inhabit the forests of Brazil and the neighbouring countries and feed on fruits, insects and even small birds. The tail is long and bushy, and is not prehensile. They are very vociferous, though less so than the howler monkeys (g.v.) of the same region. The name titi (also spelt teetee) is also sometimes used for the spider-monkeys (Saimari), small, richly coloured, largely insectivorous forms, inhabiting Central and South America. (See SPIDER-MONKEY.) TITIAN (c. 1477-1576), Tiziano Vecellio, or Vecelli, one of the greatest representatives of the Venetian school of painting. The house at Pieve di Cadore where he was born is now a small

his patent, which yielded him an annuity of 120 crowns—and exempted him from certain taxes—he being bound in return to paint likenesses of the successive doges of his time at the fixed price of eight crowns each. The actual number which he executed was five. The year 1516 witnessed Titian’s first journey to Ferrara. Two years later was completed, for the high altar of the church of the Frari, one of his most world-renowned masterpieces, the “Assumption of the Madonna.” It excited a vast sensation, Titian was now at the height of his fame; and in 1525, he married a lady of whom only the Christian name, Cecilia, has come down to us; he hereby legitimized their first two children Pomponio and Orazio. Pietro Aretino, the literary bravo, of influence and audacity, arrived in Venice in March 1527 and soon became intimate with Titian who sent a portrait of him to Gonzaga, duke of Mantua, in June 1527. In 1530 he painted in Bologna a portrait of the emperor Charles V., and was created in 1533 a count palatine and knight of the Golden Spur, his children also being made nobles of the empire—-for a painter, honours of an unexampled kind. The Venetian government, dissatisfied at Titian’s neglect of the work for the ducal palace, ordered him in 1538 to refund the money which he had received for time unemployed; and Pordenone, his formidable rival of recent years, was installed in his place. At the end of a year, however, Pordenone died; and Titian was reinstated after having applied himself diligently to painting in the hall Barbarossa’s Victory at Spoleto, erroneously referred to as Battle of Cadore. This great picture, which was burned with several others in 1577, represented in life-size the moment at which the Venetian captain, D’Alviano, fronted the enemy, with horses and men crashing down into the stream. Fontana’s engraving, and a small copy in the gallery of the Uffizi in Florence, record the energetic composition. A visit was paid to Rome in 1546, when he obtained the freedom of the city and painted the portrait groups of Pope Paul III. and his two grandsons, the Cardinal Alessandro and the duke Ottavio Farnese. The picture now at Naples was left unfinished and Titian returned to Venice in the same year. In Jan. 1548 and again in r5 50-51 he went to Germany to paint Charles V. and others, in Augsburg. He exe-

cuted the portraits of the elector of Saxony (Vienna)

and of

Philip IT. (now lost; copy in Madrid), which was sent to England and proved a potent auxiliary in the suit of the prince for the hand of Queen Mary. In 1554 his beloved daughter Lavinia, whom he painted various times, married Cornelio Scarcinelli of Serramuseum. Titian, one of a family of four, was the son of Gregorio valle; she had succeeded her aunt Orsa, now deceased, as the manVecelli, a distinguished councillor and soldier, and of his wife ager of the household, which, with the lordly income that Titian Lucia. The date of his birth is generally given as 1477. Vasari in made, was placed on a corresponding footing. She died in childone passage (at variance with Ridolfi) says that Titian was born birth in 1560. With his European fame, Titian is the last man one in 1480; while Titian himself, writing to Philip II. in 1571, pro- would suppose to have been under the necessity of writing letters fessed to be ninety-five years old. ; . for payment, especially when the defaulter addressed was lord of He was still a child when sent by his parents to Venice, to an Spain and of the American Indies; yet he had constantly to comuncle’s house. There, according to Lodovico Dolce, he was placed plain that his, pictures remained unpaid for and his pensions in under Sebastiano Zuccato, a mosaicist and painter. He next be- arrear, and in the very year of his death (F ebruary) he recites the came a pupil of Gentile Bellini, and then of Giovanni Bellini. The many pictures which he had sent within the preceding twenty youth was a contemporary of Giorgione and Palma Vecchio, who years without receiving their price. In fact, there is ground for influenced him at first; when his period of pupilage expired, he is thinking that all his pensions and privileges, large as they were surmised to have entered into a sort of partnership with Giorgione. nominally, brought in but precarious returns. It has been pointed A lost fresco of “Hercules” on the Morosini Palace is said to haye out that in the summer of 1566 (when he was elected into the been one of his earliest works. In 1507—1 508 Giorgione was com- Florentine Academy) he made an official declaration of his inmissioned by the state to execute frescoes on the re-erected come, and put down the various items apparently below their Fondaco de’ Tedeschi (warehouse for the ‘German merchants). value, not naming at all his salary or pensions. Possibly there was Titian worked along with him, as is known to us only by engrav- but too much reason for the omission. ings. Towards 1511, Titian went to Padua, and painted in the In September 1565 Titian went. to Cadore and designed the Scuola di S. Antonio a series of frescoes, representing the life of decoration s for.the church at Pieve, partly executed by his pupils. the saint. Another fresco, dated ry2 3, is “St. Christopher carry- One of. these is a Transfiguration, another an Annunciation (now f

TITIAN

255

in S. Salvatore, Venice). He continued to accept commissions to ter, and learned his methods of work. He has left some able prothe last. He had selected as the place for his burial the chapel ductions—in the ‘ducal palace, the “Meeting of Charles V. and of the Crucifix in the church of the Frari; and, in return for a Clement VII. in 1529”; in S. Giacomo di Rialto, an “Annunciagrave, he offered the Franciscans a picture of the “Pietà.” This tion”; in SS. Giovani e Paolo, “Christ Fulminant.” A son of

work he nearly finished; but some differences arose regarding it, Marco, named Tiziano (or Tizianello), painted early in the 17th

and he then settled to be interred in his native Pieve. Titian was

about ninety-nine years of age when the plague, which was then raging in Venice, carried him off on Aug. 27, 1576. He was buried in the church of the Frari, as at first intended, and his “Pietà” (now in the Venice Academy) was finished by Palma Giovane, who at that time was his assistant. He lies near his own famous painting, the “Madonna di Casa Pesaro.” No memorial marked his grave, until by Austrian command Canova executed a monument. Immediately after Titian’s own death, his son and assistant Orazio died of the same epidemic. His sumptuous mansion was plundered during the plague by thieves. Titian’s portrait of himself in the sixties is at Berlin; Madrid has his portrait as an old man of 80. He was highly distinguished, and a fine speaker, enjoying (as is said by Vasari, who saw him in the spring of 1566) health and prosperity unequalled. He was patronised by the Estes, the Gonzagas, the Medicis, the Farneses. He was favoured by Charles V. and by Philip II. He gave splendid entertainments; and it is related that, when Henry III. of France passed through Venice on his way from Poland to take the French throne, he called on Titian with a train of nobles, and

century. There was another relative, Girolamo Dente, who, being a scholar and assistant of Titian, was called Girolamo di Tiziano. Various pictures of his were touched up by the master. Apart from members of his family, the scholars of Titian were not numerous; Paris Bordone and Bonifazio were the two of superior excellence. It is said that Titian engraved on copper and on wood, but this may well be questioned. He provided drawings for engravers. In 1508 according to Vasari appeared the series of woodcuts “Trionfi della Fede’ designed by Titian (facsimile reproductions P. Kristeller, Berlin, 1906). A few bold and sketchy pen

earliest Italian picture, expressly designated as “landscape” was one which Titian sent in 1552 to Philip II. His productive faculty

drawings are extant (Louvre, Uffizi). We must now briefly advert to Titian’s individual works, taking them in approximate order of time, and merely dividing portraits from other pictures. The earliest works which we proceed to mention may date towards r5os. In the chapel of S. Rocco, Venice, is his “Christ Carrying the Cross,” now greatly dilapidated; it was an object of so much popular devotion as io produce offerings which formed the first funds for building the Scuola di S. Rocco: in the scuola is his “Man of Sorrows.” The “Tribute Money” (“Christ and the Pharisee”), now in the Dresden Gallery, dated towards 1508. In the church of S. Marcuola, Venice, is the “Christ Child between St. Andrew and St. Catherine”; in S. Marziale the “Tobias and the Angel’; in the Capitoline Museum, Rome, “The Baptism of Christ”; in the Antwerp Museum, “Pope Alexander VII. presenting Jacopo Pesaro to St. Peter”; in the church of the Salute, Venice, St. Mark enthroned, along with SS. Sebastian, Roch, Cosmo and Damian. Somewhat later, painted after Giorgione’s death in r510 is the famous picture in the Villa Borghese, Rome, commonly named “The Sacred and Profane Love” (c. rgro-1r2). Towards 1512 was painted the “Three Ages,” now in Bridgewater House—a woman guiding the fingers of a shepherd on a reed-pipe, two sleeping children, a cupid, an old man with two skulls, and a second shepherd in the distance— one of the most poetically impressive among all Titian’s works, copies of which are in the Doria and Borghese galleries in Rome.

was immense, even when we allow for the abnormal length of his

Two of the pictures in the National Gallery, London—the ‘‘Holy

professional career. The later pictures were painted loosely, telling well from a distant view. He himself averred that after his visit to Rome in 1546 he had greatly improved in art; and in his very last days he said that he was then beginning to understand what painting meant. In his earlier pictures the gamut of colour rests mainly upon red and green, in the later ones upon deep yellow and blue. Palma Giovane records that Titian would set pictures aside for months, and afterwards, examining them with a stern countenance, as if they were his mortal enemies, would set to work upon them like a man possessed; also that he kept many pictures in progress at the same time, turning from one to the other, and that in his final operation on pictures of the last period he worked far more with finger than with brush. Michelangelo’s verdict after inspecting the picture of “Danae in the Rain of Gold,” during Titian’s stay in Rome, “That man would have had no equal if art had done as much for him as nature,” has often been quoted. He was thinking principally of draughtsmanship, for he added, “Pity that in Venice they don’t learn how to draw well.” However, as a draughtsman of the human figure Titian was competent and fine, and he is reported to have studied anatomy. His rendering of the nude was lifelike.

Family With Adoring Shepherd” and the “Noli me tangere’”—and the “Salome with the head of the Baptist” in the Doria Gallery, Rome, were going on at much the same time. The great Assumption in the Frari, Venice, painted in 1528, constitutes a landmark in Titian’s work. Then followed three pictures painted for Duke Alphonso of Ferrara, the “Worship of Venus” showing the statue of Venus, two nymphs and many cupids, the ‘“‘Bacchanal,” with

the painter presented him as a gift with all the pictures of which he inquired the price. He was not a man of universal genius, like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo; his one great and supreme endowment was that of painting. He carried to its acme the great colourist conception of the Venetian school. Titian’s pictures abound with memories of his home-country and of the region which led from the hill-summits of Cadore to the queen-city of the Adriatic. He was almost the first painter to exhibit an appreciation ‘of mountains, mainly those of a turreted type, exemplified in the Dolomites. Indeed he gave to landscape generally a new and original vitality, expressing the quality of the objects of nature and their control over the sentiments and imagi-

nation with a force that had never before been approached.

The

He distanced all predecessors in the study of colour.

Titian’s son, Orazio, born before 1525, who assisted Titian pro-

Ariadne dozing over her wine-cup, both now in Madrid, and the famous “Bacchus and Ariadne” in the National Gallery, completed in 1522. The “Resurrection of Christ” in S. Nazaro e Celso, Brescia, is dated 1522. The “Flora” of the Uffizi and the lovely “Venus Anadyomene” of the Bridgewater Gallery may date a year or so earlier. Another work of 1523 is the stupendous “Entombment of

Christ” in the Louvre. The picture comes from the Gonzaga collection and from the gallery of Charles I. in Whitehall. In 1530 Titian completed the “St. Peter Martyr” for the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo; for this work he bore off the prize in competition with Palma Vecchio and Pordenone. Of all his pictures this was the most daring in design of action. A fire destroyed it in 1867; the copy of it by Cardi da Cigola has taken its place.

To 1530 belongs also the “Madonna

del Coniglio”

(Louvre),

painted for Gonzaga; to 1533 the “St. John the Almsgiver” for San Giovanni Elemosinario, Venice; to about 1538 belongs

fessionally, became a portrait-painter of mark. He executed a the “Venus” in the Uffizi, Florence; and the “Venus of picture in the hall of the great council, destroyed by fire. Several Florence”; the portraits of the “Twelve Caesars,” for Gonzaga, other artists of the Vecelli family followed in the wake of Titian. Francesco Vecelli, his brother (d. 1560), was introduced to paint-

ing by Titian, and painted in the church of S. Vito in Cadore a picture of the titular saint armed. But he was diverted from painting to mercantile life. Marco Vecelli, called Marco di Tiziano

no longer extant;

the ‘Presentation of the Virgin in the Tem-

ple”—one of the conspicuous examples in the Venetian Academy, was finished in 1538. About 1540 were done the forcible paintings for S. Spirito, Venice, now in the church of the Salute

—“Cain Killing Abel,” the “Sacrifice of Abraham” and “David (1545-1611), a distant relation, was constantly with the mas- and Goliath”; in 1543 the “Ecce Homo” of the Vienna Gallery,

256

TITLE

GUARANTEE

where Aretino figures as Pilate. The “Venus and Cupid” of Florence, the “Venus” of Madrid and the “Supper of Emmaus” in the Louvre were still in hand, or just completed, when Titian was summoned to Augsburg in 1547. Probably in the forties he also painted the “St. John the Baptist” of the Academy at Venice,

COMPANIES

TITLE GUARANTEE

COMPANIES, the name given ‘to

companies which apply the principle of corporate indemnity to the protection of those interested in real estate titles, either as owners or lenders. They are of the class of indemnity companies in which technical skill and experience in investigation of risks are relied an impressive figure, classic in conception. In 154 he sent to upon to protect the guarantor from loss. They are peculiar to Philip IT. in England a second “Danae” and a “Venus and Adonis,” countries where the title to real estate is a matter of public record, About the same time he sent to Charles V, a “Trinity” (or, as and where the complexity of the record and the variety of possible Titian himself termed it, “Last Judgment”), which represented liens and encumbrances have made it difficult and expensive to the emperor, with his family and others, all in shrouds, praying determine whether the title is good. The only country where they to the Godhead. This was the object upon which Charles con- have reached large proportions or achieved success as independent tinued to keep his eyes fixed until the film of death closed on business enterprises is the United States. In Australia no investithem. A sketch of this picture ascribed to Titian has recently been gation of a title to real estate is necessary, because before the land acquired by the National Gallery, London. Later pictures, from passed into individual ownership the government adopted a sys1558 onwards, are the “Martyrdom of St. Lawrence,” “Christ tem of state registration and guarantee of title, so that its certifCrowned with Thorns” (Louvre), “Diana and Actaeon,” “Diana cate of registered title was universally accepted. In certain other and Callisto,” “Jupiter and Antiope,” the “Magdalene,” “Christ countries there is neither registration of title nor recording of in the Garden,” and “Europa’’—the last six for Philip II.: the deeds; the title-deeds are preserved and passed from owner to two Diana subjects are now in Bridgewater House, “The Europa” owner, and are accepted on the authority of the records and opinin the Gardner collection, Boston. The “Jupiter and Antiope,” ions of family solicitors. In the United States, however, there is commonly called “La Vénus del Pardo,” having at first been have been from the beginning acts providing that all deeds and in the Pardo Palace. It was presented to Charles I. of England mortgages be recorded, and the records, when properly made, and is now in the Louvre. In 1564 Titian offered to Philip IT. constitute legal notice to all the world of their contents and claims. his “Last Supper,” which had been in hand for six years; it was At the same time, there are other records of wills, suits, judg-

cut down in the Escorial to suit a particular space.

The “St.

ments, taxes and mechanics’ claims

which may encumber thé title. Jerome” of the Brera Gallery in Milan, a work of wonderful In the great cities these various records became in course of time energy, spirit and force, was probably rather earlier than this. so voluminous that the proper investigation of them, and the The last “Madonna” painted by Titian is in the National Gal- determination of the validity of the title in view of them, required lery (Mond Collection), It is enveloped in golden tone and the best skill of an experienced lawyer and involved very heavy loosely painted with utmost mastery of the brush. “The Christ expenses. On a re-sale of the property the new buyer did not Crowned with Thorns” in Munich and “The Entombment” in rely upon the lawyer who had made the examination for the seller, Madrid are powerful, emotional works of his last years. Here but felt called upon to employ and pay his own lawyer, who had as in his last work, “The Pieta,” his work displays a mystic in- to go over the same work again, and more, for with each new transtensity which contrasts with the superb materiality of his middle action the history was getting longer. The delay and expense period. Two of the mosaics in St. Mark’s church, Venice, namely, involved were great, and yet the owner had little or no protection, the Mark in pontificals and the sword sheathing angel on the right for a lawyer is not held to guarantee the correctness of his ‘opinion. of the high altar, were said to have been worked out after Titian’s The first company actually to undertake the guarantee of real designs. estate titles was formed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876. We now turn to the portraits—works great in style, stately, It differed from the Prussian Mortgage Insurance company (which and simple in perception and feeling. Among the finest examples guaranteed titles merely as an incident in its business as a dealer are Federigo Gonzaga of Mantua (Madrid), “The Lady at her in, and custodian and guarantor of, mortgages) in that its main Toilet,’ commonly called “Titian and his Mistress” or “Laura business was the issue of a policy of guarantee on a transfer of Dianti” (Louvre); Francis I. (Louvre), painted towards 1 536, title to land. The advantages of its method were immediately from a medal, for Titian never saw the French king; various recognized. Corporations to carry on the business were organized likenesses of himself, one of about rsso, and another of 1562; Paul TI. (Naples)—done in about four weeks, was pre- in New York, Washington, Baltimore and Boston, and subsesented to the pontiff in May 1543 and cost two gold ducats; quently in nearly every considerable city in the United States. In order to be independent of the inaccurate and clumsy methPietro Aretino (Pitti); Titian’s daughter Lavinia (Dresden); the Vendramin Family, untilıt left Ainwick Castle (1929) known ods of the public record offices, title guarantee companies generally as the Cornaro Family (Nat. Gall.); “L'Homme au Gant,” an un- compile in their own office a copy or digest of all the real estate known youth (Louvre): Eleonora duchess of Urbino, Francesco records of the locality in which they are established, maintaining duke of Urbino; Caterina Cornaro queen of Cyprus (Uffizi) ; for this purpose a staff of skilled clerks. To make the necessary examination of a title prior to the issuing of a guarantee, they Charles V. on horseback after the battle of Mühlberg painted at require continually a body of experienced real estate lawyers. Augsburg in 1548 (Madrid) and “Charles seated” executed at the By these means a title can be examined and guaranteed in a week, same time (Munich); the portrait of a man called Alexander whereas thirty or forty days was formerly required. This has done Medici (Hampton Court Palace); the physician Parma (Vienna), much to make real estate available capital, for individual and corThe female portraits done by Titian are few, usually of women of exalted rank, The beautiful Flora (Uffizi) and the Bella (Pitti) porate lenders on mortgage accept the guarantee of the companies are among the master’s most celebrated pictures. Of Ariosto the as the best evidence of title, and loans can be had without the painter is said to have done three portraits. Much uncertainty, delay that once prevailed. The expense of maintaining the staff of clerks and lawyers however, exists regarding these supposed portraits of Ariosto. is great, amounting to half of the gross charges on titles guarant One of the three appears as a wood-cut in an edition eed, of the Strictly speaking, the risks outstanding are also large, running up Orlando furioso. A portrait from Cobham Hall in the N ational to $100,000,000 a year for a single company in New York Gallery, London, was wrongly identified with Ariosto. in well-managed companies the losses are very small, not city; but exceedSee Vasari, Vite, ed. Milanesi; L. Dolce, L’Aretino, Dialogo ing 2% of the gross charges on titles guaranteed, so that the outPitiura, Rime e Lettere (Florence, 1910); J. A. Crone and della standing obligations G. B. should scarcely be called risks. In spite of the Cavalcaselle, The Life and Times of Titian (2 vols. 1877); office expenses, the charges for first bringing a piece Phillips, The Earlier Work of Titian (1897, 2nd ed. 1905), The Claude of land under Later Work of Titian (1898); G. Gronau, Titian (1900, Eng. trans. A. M. the guarantee are no more than owners were in the habit of paying each time for examination and opinion by counsel, Todd, 1904); O. Fischel, Tizian (Klassiker der Kunst r907); amounting to C. Ricketts, Titian (1910); about

C. Ridolfi, Le Maraviglie dell? Arte (ed. D. v. Hadeln, 1914); D. v. Hadeln, Titian’s Drawings (1927). (W. M. R.; I. A. R)

one-half of 1% on the value of the property amount of the mortgage; and when once the guarant or on the issued, it is re-issued on a subsequent sale or mortgaee has been ge on short

TITLE notice and for a small fee. TITLE INSURANCE

or GUARANTEE

INSURANCE—TITMOUSE (C. H. K.) OF TITLE,

a term used in the United States for a policy of insurance or a

guarantee of indemnity (see TITLE GUARANTEE COMPANIES), giv-

ing protection and safeguard to an owner of real estate, or a lender

of money upon it, against any loss or damage that he might sus-

tain because of any defect in the title prior to the date of the policy, because of the unmarketability of the title or because of any unknown liens or encumbrances against the property, prior to the date of the policy. There are two kinds of property that people use and own—

real and personal. Real estate, land, constitutes the real property; stocks, bonds, monies and such movable and chattel holdings are the personal. Personal property can be handled almost at will and in any manner of choice. Real estate is immobile. Real property rights and how one may use, own, possess—in fact, employ and enjoy the land he owns, have been safeguarded, restricted and defined in a very prescribed way by law, and custom has also exerted a considerable influence.

257

infants, deeds by lunatics, invalid and revoked powers of attorney, Claims of undisclosed heirs, mistakes of law, jurisdictional questions, conflict of legal decisions and opinions and many others.

Title insurance is peculiar to the United States because of the facts that the country has a public recording system, that it is not only necessary to ascertain all the minute facts and evidence about the title, but likewise arrive at and secure an opinion as to the sufficiency and legality of each step and matter. Title insurance

is a guarantee and protection as to all matters of record, as to the completeness and accuracy of the compiled evidence, as to things

not disclosed or ascertainable and the opinion as to their legality and validity. In order to do this, an abstract or history of title is first compiled. This evidence of title is then examined and passed upon by authorities on title law and real estate title matters, Physical examinations and surveys of the premises are algo made and the policy then issued. (R. B. Ha.)

TITLES OF HONOUR,

“those various names of greatness

or eminency, which are the most distinguishing titles of civil dignity” (John Selden, Titles of Honor), This definition covers, if we understand “civil” in its proper and widest sense, all titles, whether official or honorary, civil or military, temporal or ecclesiastical. In general, however, we now understand by titles of honour what Selden calls “honorary titles,” ie., distinctive designations implying rank and dignity, not office or vocation. See PEERAGE; FORMS or ADDRESS; EMPEROR; KING; PRECE-

In many countries, the ownership of land is restricted to the few There is little incentive and almost no possibility for the general ownership, widespread buying and selling of land. In them, title to real estate is largely a matter of inheritance. Ownership and the matters of title are ascertained from family records, files of title deeds of conveyance, wills and the tradition and general knowledge to be had about the title to the property. Family solicitors have usually handled such matters for genera- DENCE, etc. tions, taken care of things as they appeared, and upon occasion, TITMOUSE (often abbreviated to “tit”), meaning a little given the necessary details and furnished opinions about the title mouse, the popular name of any of a number of birds of the and rights of persons involved. In America, however, probably genus Parus, family Paridae, of the order Passeres. The genus js more than in any other country, anyone can acquire land, and usually non-migratory, and is widely spread throughout the world, the buying, selling and using of real estate as security, are every- being found everywhere except in South America and the Ausday matters. tralian region east of Flores. It is absolutely necessary, however, in any real estate transacThe great titmouse or ox-eye (P. maior) is found all over tion, whether it be a sale, settlement of an estate where there is Europe and north Asia. It is conspicuous by its black head, white a division of real property, the lending of money with a real cheeks and yellow breast with a black band down the centre. estate mortgage as security, and in fact, in all cases where real Its love-note resembles the noise made in sharpening a saw. estate is involved, to know the condition of the title. It should Equally widely distributed and even more common is P. coeruleus, always be ascertained who owns the property and that there are the blue titmouse, with a plumage of blue and yellow. Not disno adverse claims or owners of interests other than those of the similar are the coal-titmouse (P. afer), distinguished by its black reputed owner; that all taxes are paid or discovered, because any cap and white cheek and nape, and the marsh-titmouse (P. paldue or unpaid taxes, whether general, State, county, township, ustris), which is more soberly coloured. The crested titmouse or for special purposes such as parks, paving, public improve- (P. cristatus) inhabits the mountain pine-woods of Scotland and ments, are liens upon the lands against which they are levied; that Europe generally. The most familiar American form is the there are no suits pending, mechanics’ liens, judgments rendered chickadee (q.v.) or black-capped titmouse (P. atricapillus), but In any local court or liens filed by the Federal Government for other species of the genus Parus and the allied genera Psaltriparus fines in violation of some Federal statute or unpaid taxes due and Auriparus occur. from the provisions of the Internal Revenue Act which are liens During most of the year, the various species associate in family „upon the real estate involved; and also that there are no matparties, only breaking up into pairs to ters in any probate or surrogate court affecting the title. It is, breed. Composite bands of severalspecies therefore, the title to real estate that one acquires or lends money are often to be seen during the winter, upon, and not the land itself. In order to keep a history or The nests are placed in hollow stumps, record of the titles to the lands, the United States has what is holes in walls or similar situations and known as the public recording system. All matters affecting the fi have a thick lining of feathers and hair. title to all parcels of land, including transfers, estates, taxes and The eggs, often eight or nine in number, suits, are entered and recorded in their proper offices and coutts are white, freckled with rust colour. Of ý of records. a restless disposition, the birds feed There are two principal kinds of policies, the owner’s (or fee) largely on insects, but in winter will readand the mortgagee’s policy. The owner’s policy guarantees the }| ily eat suet, coco-nuts and seeds, particutitle to the property and the protection runs to the insured owner “Wig larly those of the sunflower. By their deor purchaser. The mortgagee guarantees the title to be vested 494 struction of harmful grubs, these birds in the mortgagor at the time of making the mortgage; that the are of incalculable value to the gardener. BY COURTESY OF NATIONAL ASSO. indebtedness secured by the mortgage or trust deed is a valid first CIATION OF AUDUBON SOCIETIES The allied genus Acredula includes the

lien on the property, and upon, being transferable to an assignee, TUFTED TITMOUSE cP. long-tailed titmouse (A. caudata), which OF insures the validity and genuineness of the assignment of the lien. BAEOLOPHUS) THE has a tail longer than itself and builds a In case of loss, failure of title or attack it becomes the duty of UNITED STATES `- beautiful oval nest of lichen, moss and the title company to indemnify its insured, take over the proper- wool lined with feathers. Over 2,000 feathers have been taken ty or defend the action. The protection of title insurance covers from one nest. When the female is brooding her tail is bent over all matters and questions that might be raised about all matters her back and protrudes at the nest entrance. disclosed of record, and in addition things not disclosed or The bearded titmouse, reedling or reed-pheasant (Panurus possible to ascertain. These last mentioned include forgeries, biarmicus) inhabits reed-beds. It belongs to a different family, frauds, false representations, lost deeds and wills, deeds made by the Panuridae.

256 TITTONI, TOMMASO

TTL TONI—TIVERTON (1855—

), Italian politician, was

born in Rome and educated at Naples, Oxford and Liége. In 1886 he was elected deputy for Civitavecchia and in 1902 was raised to the Senate. He was foreign minister for the second Giolitti cabinet (1903), and in this capacity he aimed at improving relations with Austria. On the resignation of Giolitti in March 1905, Tittoni became interim premier for a few days and remained in the Fortis cabinet as foreign minister. His proposed reduction of the duty on Spanish wines in connection with an Italo-Spanish commercial treaty aroused much indignation and caused the fall of the cabinet on Dec. 24, 1905. In March 1906 he was appointed

ambassador in London, but on the return of Giolitti to power in May, he returned to the Consulta, and there continued the policy of improving relations with Austria. In April rọro he was appointed ambassador in Paris. When the World War broke out, in

spite of his Triplicist policy, he openly expressed himself in favour of Italian neutrality. In Nov. 1916 he resigned from the Paris embassy. In June rọrọ Nitti chose Tittoni as foreign minister and first delegate at the Peace Conference, but he was forced to resign owing to ill-health in November. He was chosen president of the Senate in December,

and was later appointed

Italian delegate on the Council and Assembly of the League of Nations, but ill-health again forced him to relinquish the latter appointment. On the advent to power of Fascism he supported the new Government, without joining the Fascist party. TITUS, like Timothy, in the New Testament, is known from allusions in the Acts of the Apostles and the Pauline epistles. He was a convert from paganism, and St. Paul refused to allow him

to be circumcised (Galatians ii. 1 seg.) at Jerusalem, when the conservative party demanded this concession to religious feeling. He then appears in connection with the Corinthian church (see the Corinthian epistles), where he won the highest praise from the apostle for his upright and loyal services. He was specially entrusted with the business of organizing the collection for the poor Christians of Judaea, in the Achaian churches (2 Cor. viii. seqg.), and evidently acted as a commissioner of the apostle Paul

at Corinth during the dispute which followed. According to 2 Tim. iv. 10 he went off subsequently on a mission to Dalmatia, but the Epistle addressed to him implies a tradition that he superintended the work in the island of Crete, as a delegate of his chief. Later tradition made him bishop of Crete. Modern criticism has sometimes identified him with the author of the ““We’-journal

in Acts, and even thought that he was a brother of Luke (see Expository Times, xviii. 285, 335, 380). (J. Mor.)

: TITUS, EPISTLE TO: see PASTORAL EPISTLES.

TITUS, FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS (an, 40 or 41-81), Roman Emperor 79-81, son of the emperor Vespasian, was born on Dec. 30, A.D. 40 (or 41). As a young man he served

with credit in Germany and Britain, and had command of a legion, under his father in the Jewish War. In 68 he was sent by his father to congratulate the newly proclaimed emperor Galba, but hearing of Galba’s death he returned to Palestine. The next year Vespasian, having been proclaimed emperor, went to Italy, leaving Titus to carry on the siege of Jerusalem, which was captured on Sept. 8, 70. On his return to Rome he and his father

celebrated a triumph, recorded by the “Arch of Titus.” For the

rest of Vespasian’s reign he was associated with him in. the gov-

ernment with the title of Caesar.. During this time he was, not

popular, and he outraged public opinion by his connection with Berenice, sister of Herod Agrippa; both of them came and lived

in the palace for a while, but Titus had to send her back. He succeeded his father in 79, and falsified the pessimistic prophecies of his detractors. He put an end to prosecutions for treason, ban-

ished the informers, and became pontifex maximus.to avoid shedding blood. He was notably lenient to Domitian, who plotted against him. The Flavian amphitheatre (Colosseum) was finished in his reign, and he built new baths in Rome. He visited Pompeii when it was destroyed in 79, and contributed to its relief ; during his absence there was a three days’ fire in Rome, and he again

gave his assistance. The empire was peaceful during his reign. The only fighting was in Britain, where Agricola conquered as far as the Tay. Titus died on Sept. 13, 8r. P25

See Suetonius, Titus; Dio Cassius Ixvi. 18-26; C, Beulé, Titus et s¢ dynastie (1870) ; L. Double, L'Empereur Titus (1877) ; Merivale, Hist. of the Romans under the Empire (ch. 60) ; H. Schiller, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, i. vol. 2.

TITUS

TATIUS,

in Roman legend, the Sabine king of

of the Roman people.

Rome was to retain its name and each

Cures, who waged war upon the Romans to avenge the rape of the Sabine women (see Romutus). After various indecisive conflicts the latter, who had become Roman matrons, intervened and prevailed upon the combatants to cease fighting. A formal treaty was then arranged between the Romans and Sabines, whereby Romulus and Tatius were to be joint and equal rulers

citizen was to be called a Roman, but as a community they were

to be called Quirites (g.v.); the Sabines were to be incorporated in the state and admitted into the tribes and curies. After this arrangement had lasted for five years it came to an end by the death of Tatius, who was killed out of revenge by the inhabitants of Lavinium. According to Mommsen, the story of his death

(for which see PrutarcH) looks like an historical version of the

abolition of blood-revenge. Tatius, who in some respects resembles Remus, is not an historical personage, but the eponymous hero of the religious college called sodales Titii. As to this body Tacitus expresses two different opinions, representing two different traditions: that it, was introduced either by Tatius himself to preserve the Sabine cult in Rome; or by Romulus in honour of Tatius, at whose grave its members were bound to offer a yearly sacrifice. The soddles fell into abeyance at the end of the republic, but were revived by Augustus and existed to the end of the 2nd century A.D. Augustus himself and the emperor Claudius belonged to the college, and all its members were of senatorial rank.

,

See Livy i. 10-14; Tacitus, Annals, i. 54, Hist. ii. 95; Dion. Halic. ii. 36-52; Plutarch, Romulus, 19-24; Marquardt, Rémische Staatsverwaltung (1885) il. 446; Schwegler, Römische Geschichte, bk: ix. 3,145 X. 5.

TITUSVILLE,

a city of Crawford county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., on Oil creek, 1,180 ft. above sea-level, 42 m. S.E. of Erie; served by the New York Central and the Pennsylvania railways. Pop. (1920) 8,432 (86% native white); and 8,055, 1930 Federal census (including immediate suburbs). It is in the oil and gas region of north-western Pennsylvania. Development of the field dates from Aug. 27, 1859, when the first artesian oil well in America was drilled just outside Titusville by Col. Edwin L. Drake (1819-80), in whose memory a monument was erected in Woodlawn cemetery by Henry H. Rogers in 1902. Under the leadership of John D. Archbold, Titusville was (until 1875) the principal

centre in Pennsylvania of oppo-

sition to the Standard Oil Company. It was in the Titusville district that the natural gas resources of Pennsylvania were first

| developed (about 1872). On June

AS Pick BY

labs a

5, 1892,a cloudburst so. flooded

vest, Oil creek that it wrecked many

ees

COURTESY OF THE OIL WELL

> Oil tanks along its banks. The oil

SUPPLY caught fire (probably from light-

Pifer WELL IN INAMERICA, SUNK pig), and Oe causing NEAR oli TITUSVILLE 1859 carried down ee the creek, ‘ R the loss of 6o lives and great damage to property, Titusville.was founded.in 1796 by Samuel Kerr and Jonathan Titus. It was incorporated as a borough in 1847 and chartered as:a city in 1866. . |

TIVERTON, a town of Devon, England, at the confluence of

the Loman and Exe, 164 m. W. by S. of London by the G.W. railway. Pop. (1931) 9,611. St. Peter’s church, originally consecrated as a chapel by Leofric, bishop of Exeter, in 1073, is Perpendicular. Of the original Norman fabric only a doorway remains. Of the castle, founded about 1105 by Richard de Redvers, the banqueting-hall, a tower, the chapel: and a 14th-century gateway remain. Blundell’s grammar school, founded in 1604, has modern buildings outside the town in. Tudor style, | After the decline. of its woollen trade Tiverton became noted for the lace manufacture introduced by. John Heathcoat (1783~

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printing in that the colours are not applied directly upon the material. The printing y stamped in the desired position on the fabric. When the surface of the tjaps is first dipped into hot wax and immediatel ured except those parts covered by the applied wax design. material is Immersed in the dye, its entire surface becomes colo engagea in stamping the fabric with a tjap block. Fig. 2 After dyeing, the wax is removed. In fig. 1 the native craftsman is

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TIVOLI—TLEMCEN 1861), inventor of the bobbin net frame. Tiverton is mentioned under the name of Tuyford in the will of King Alfred. In the Domesday survey it appears as a royal manor containing two mills, but it was bestowed by Henry I. on Richard de Redvers, and in 1245 appears as a mesne borough under Baldwin de Redvers. In 1618 the borough received its first charter of incorporation from James I. Fresh charters of incorporation were granted by James II. in 1689 and by George I. in 1724.

259

TLAXCALA,

a town of Mexico, capital of a State of the

same name, on the Atoyac river, 7,500 ft. above the sea, 85 m. E. of Mexico City by rail. Pop. (1921), 2,069. Historic interest attaches to the church of San Francisco, the first erected on the American continent, which still contains the vestments, pulpit, font and cedar ceiling brought from Spain in 1521.

TLEMCEN,

a town of Algeria, the capital of an arrondisse-

ment in the department of Oran, near the frontier of Morocco, 68 m. by road and 102 by rail S.W. of Oran. It stands 2,500 ft. above the sea, on the north slope of the Lella Setta hills, which See Victoria County History: Devonshire; M. Dunsfold, Historical Memoirs of the Town and Parish of Tiverton (Exeter, 1790); W. rise to a height of 4,000 ft. The railway from Oran runs from Harding, History of Tiverton (1845-47). Tlemcen to Ujda and is being continued as far as Fez. Another TIVOLI (tiv’6-lé), (anc. Tibur, g.v.), a town and episcopal line links Tlemcen to the port of Beni-saf. But, although colonizasee, province of Rome, 18 m. E.N.E. of Rome by road and tram- tion prospers in the neighbourhood, Tlemcen has lost its former way, 243 m. by rail, 760 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921), 4,801 importance; the old capital has become a subprefecture. The various quarters are grouped around the principal mosque (town), 16,389 (commune). Tivoli lies on the west of the Sabine mts., where the river Anio issues from them, upon a limestone —the Jewish to the south-west, the Moorish to the south-east, rock above the river. The town on one side overlooks the Cam- that of the merchants to the north-east, while the new town with pagna di Roma and Rome itself, on the other the deep gorge of the civic buildings lies to the north-west. Of the sixty-four the Anio, with its lofty falls, and the environs are very beautiful. mosques which existed at the period of the French conquest, The Villa d'Este, begun in 1549 by Pirro Ligorio for Cardinal several have disappeared. The great mosque (Jamaa-el-Kebir) Ippolito d’Este the younger, has the finest example of a Renais- has a brick minaret 112 ft. high, adorned with marble columns, sance garden in Italy; it was erected on a steep slope, with many and cased with mosaic of the most varied designs; a fountain of terraces, and embellished with numerous fountains. The castle alabaster——-of the kind known as Algerian onyx—stands in the was built (1460) by Pius II. on the site of the amphitheatre; it is alabaster-paved inner court; and 72 columns support the arches now a prison. The town contains numerous old churches and of the interior. This mosque was built a. 1136 to replace a houses: the cathedral has a fine 12th century campanile, and con- much older building. The mihrab is finely ornamented with tains an old copy of the painting of Christ in the Sancta Sanctorum arabesques. The mosque of Sidi Ahmed bel Hassan, usually called in Rome; S. Silvestro, 11th century paintings; S. Giovanni Evan- Abul Hassan, built A.D. 1298, now transformed into a museum of gelista, paintings by an unknown follower of Melozzo da Forli, etc. antiquities, has two series of arches, which rest on alabaster In November 1826 a flood of the Anio led to a change in its pillars. The courts are ornamented by sculptures of great beauty course, and threatened to carry away the town. A new channel, and richness; the delicately-carved cedar ceiling bears traces of

polychromatic painting. The mosque of El-Halawi (the Sweetmeat Maker), dating from 1353, has eight magnificent columns of Algerian onyx. The ceiling of cedar is richly carved, and there is a smaller falls (the cascatelle) of that portion of the river which is fine colonnade on each side of the court. The minaret is decorated carried through the town and serves for industrial purposes. Five with mosaics. The military authorities occupy the Meshuar or consisting of two parallel tunnels 290 and 330 yd. long, ‘was therefore made to the north-east in 1826-35, and on emerging from these the river has a fall of 354 ft. Farther north-west are

citadel, built in 1145, which separates the Jewish and Moorish quarters and was formerly the palace of the rulers of ‘Tlemcen. Only the minaret of the mosque, dating from the r4th century, and the battlemented wall, flanked by two towers, remain of its former magnificence. The vast basin driving several factories, etc., in Tivoli itself. (sahri7} under the old walls, now dry TJAP PRINTING, a kind of block-printing executed by | (720 ft. in length, 490 in width and 10 in means of dipping blocks into heated wax and then impressing them depth), was apparently made for naval exupon the material—usually a cotton or silk fabric—after which it hibitions. A covered market occupied the is dyed and the wax removed, leaving a permanent design. These | site of the Kissaria, the place of residence blocks are made by the natives of Java and the other islands of of European merchants from Pisa, Genoa, the East Indies by bending small strips of copper into the desired Catalonia and Provence. Besides the large curves for sections of the pattern and inserting them into the end trade carried on there are native manufacgrain of the blocks of wood allowing them to project a little less tories of cloth, carpets and leathern artithan one-eighth of an inch from the surface. The small copper cles. A special manufacture is that of red ridges formed in this way are similar to the cloisons which are #3] shawls, used by Jewish women when in applied to keep the enamels separated in the decoration of the if mourning. well-known ware Cloisonné. Owing to the fact that it is a very miles W. are the sulphur baths of Acque Albule, which were

known to the ancients, and are still frequented. The temperature of the water is 75-2° F. The falls in the river afford electric power for lighting Rome and driving its trams, as well as for

i

difficult and painstaking. task to make these blocks or tjaps the results of this art often bring as high prices as direct hand-work.

(See BATIK.) TLAXCALA.

(tlash-kah’lah), a State of Mezicò, smallest,

but most densely populated in the republic, bounded N., E. and S. by Puebla, and W. by the State of Mexico. Area 1,554 square miles. Pop. (1921) 178,570. Tlaxcala lies on the great central plateau of Mexico and has a mean altitude of about .7,000 feet. The State has three railway lines crossing its territory. The capital is Tlaxcala with a population of only 2,069 and no town in. the

State reaches 10,000. The State nearly coincides with the ancient Indian republic founded in the 13th century by a-branch of the

Nahuatlan race, who probably migrated from the western shores of Lake Texcoco. Though surrounded on all sides by the great Aztec empire, the tiny republic maintained its independence until

the arrival of the Spaniards.

The Tlaxcaltecs, or Tlascalans,

after a fierce resistance to Cortés in 1519, became efficient allies of the Spaniards and contributed largely to their final success.

‘In the immediate neighbourhood of the,

etn? yan) modern Tlemcen are numerous remains of

ays genoa the fortifications of Agadir (vide. infra),

Hun Aa a

BO

tint

ae

and the minaret of the mosque,:a beauti-

ful tower dating from the 13th.century, the

FROM BENOIT, “ARCHITECTURE ower part of which.is built’ of large hewn

13TH CENTURY MINARET Stones from the Roman Pomaria. More OF THE MOSQUE OF AGA- noteworthy, however, arc the ruins of Sidi DIR

NEAR

TLEMÇEN

Bu Medin and of Mansura. Sidi Bu Medin

(more properly El Eubbad) is a little overa mile south-east of Tlemcen. It was founded A.D. 1337 by Ali V., the first of the Beni-

Marīn

(Marinide)

sultans who ruled Tlemçen.

The kubba or

tomb of Sidi Bu Medin, near the palace, is held in great veneration, by the Arabs. The saint himself was born at Seville A.D. 1126, and died near Tlemcen in his 7sth year.

The adjacent mosque is a

beautiful specimen of Moorish art. sys Mansura, which is about 13 m. west. of Tlemcen, owes, its, 5 ap

foundation to the attempts of the Beni-Marin rulers of Morocce

TLINGIT—TOBACCO

260

to extend their sovereignty. The Amir Abu Yakub Yusef besieged Tlemcen in the early years of the 14th century. The siege lasted eight years, and Vusef turned his camp into a walled city. The siege being raised, El Mansura (the victorious), as the new city was called, was abandoned. It was reoccupied when (1335) Ali V. renewed the siege, which this time proved successful. On the expulsion of the Marinides in 1359 Mansura was finally deserted. Besides the walls and towers, and the minaret of the mosque, little remains of Mansura, of which Ibn Khaldin has left a contemporary and graphic sketch. The minaret, notwithstanding that one side and parts of two other sides have perished, is one of the finest mosque towers in existence. It is 125 ft. high, and is built of hewn stone. See W. and G. Marçais, Les monuments Arabes de Tlemçen, Paris, 1903; A. Bel, Tlemcen et ses environs (with bibliography), Oron, 1908. (X.; A. Br.) HISTORY

The Sultanate of Tlemcen.—In 1248 Tlemcen was captured

by Abu Yahia Yarmorasen (Ghamarasan) who was chief of the Zenata tribe of Berbers and claimed descent from the Caliph Ali. Yarmorasen, who died in 1282, founded the dynasty of the Abdel-Wahid, who ruled the greater part of what now constitutes Algeria. Under their sway Tlemcen flourished exceedingly. The presence of Jews and Christians was encouraged and the Christians possessed a church. The bazaar of the Franks (kissaria)

TOAD,

a name

commonly applied, in contradistinction to

“frog,” to tailless amphibians of stout build, with warty skin. The true toads are the Bufonidae, with dilated processes to the sacral vertebra and without any teeth in the jaws. The genus Bufo comprises about roo species; smaller genera are Eupemphix, Pseudo-

phryne, Nectophryne, Nectes, Notaden, Myobatrachus, Rhinophrynus and Cophophryne. Bufo jerboa, in its slender form and long limbs surpasses the typical frogs, whilst on the other hand some true frogs (Rana), adapted to burrowing habits, are superficially quite toad-like. The Bufonidae include terrestrial, burrowing, aquatic and arboreal types; Rhinophrynus, of Mexico, is an ant-eater.

The genus Bufo is represented in every part of the world except the Australian region and Madagascar. Two species are found in the British Isles: the common toad, B. vulgaris, and the more local natterjack, B. calamita, which has a pale yellow line down its back, and legs so short that it cannot hop, but runs. The common American species is B. lentiginosus, very similar to B. vulgaris. Toads lay their eggs in long strings, forming double files in straight, jelly-like tubes. They feed on worms and insects. AMPHIBIA.)

TOADFLAX

(1509) struck a fatal blow at the European commerce of the town. The Beni-Zeiyan, after the capture of Algiers in 1516 by the corsair Barbarossa (g.v.) gradually lost. their territory to the Turks, while Tlemcen itself for 40 years became tributary to the Spanish governor of Oran. In 1518 the town was held for a short time by Arouj Barbarossa, but Arouj was killed in a fight with the Spaniards. In 1553 the Turks under Salah Rais, pasha of Algiers, captured Tlemcen and the Sultanate of Tagrart, as it was stil frequently called, came to an end. Under the Turks the town ceased to be of any importance. When the French entered Algeria the sultans af Morocco were ‘disputing the possession of Tlemcen with the Kuluglis, who fought first for themselves and afterwards for France, In 1835 Abd-el-Kader, on whose appearance the Moors retired, sought to re-establish the ancient empire of Tlemcen, but he retreated before Gen. Clausel in 1836. The Treaty of the Tafna (2837) gave Tlemcen to Abd-el-Kader, but, war being renewed in 1842, Tlemcen was definitely occupied by the French.

BY GOURTESY OF IOWA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TOADFLAX OR BUTTER-AND-EGGS

one of the tribes, or rather assemblages

with Haida and Athabascan (Na-Dene family).

Population, at

the popular

TOALA, a tribe of the south-west of the Celebes, probably TOBACCO,

the name given to the

leaves of several species of Nicotiana prepared in various ways mainly for smoking or chewing purposes, and in the powdered form, for inhalation as snuff. The use of tobacco is more widely spread than Is that of any other narcotic or stimulant.

Historical—The

of oe aa

discovery, estimated 10,009; 1861, 8,600; 1910, 4,400, (A. L. K.) T. N. T.: see ExpLosives; NITROGLYCERINE; BLASTING; CHEMICAL WARFARE; MEDICINE, ARTICLES ON.

TOADSTOOL,

of mixed pre-Dravidian stock.

OF

THE

oe

UNIVERSITY

tobacco

plant was

brought to Europe in 1558 by Francisco Fernandes, who had been sent by Philip II. of Spain to investigate the products of Mexico. Jean Nicot, the French ambassador to Portugal, sent seeds of the plant to the queen, Catherine de’ Medici. The services rendered by Nicot in spreading a knowledge of the herb have been commemorated in the scientific name of the genus Nicotiana. At first almost mirac-

works dealing with Tlemcen, and gives a critical estimate of their value. See also A. Bel and P. Ricard, Le travail de la laine & Tlemcen | (Algiers, 1913). (F.R.C.) |

TLINGIT,

a

name for fungi which more or less resemble mushrooms, but are either poisonous or worthless as food. See MusHRoom and FUNGI.

See W. and G. Marcais, Les Monuments arabes de Tlemcen (1903). This accurate and finely-illustrated work, one of the publications of | the Service des monuments historiques de P Algérie, cites the principal |

tribes, of the North Pacifc Coast Indians, inhabiting the coastal strip of south-eastern Alaska as far north-west as Controller bay. Their culture is that of the area, with dependence on fishing, canoe navigation, woodworking, totemic art, potlatch wealth distribution and slavery. They are divided into Raven and Eagle (or Wolf) moieties, and subdivided into matrilineal clans. The language is superficially distinct, but may prove ultimately to relate

(Linaria),

genus of small plants of the family Scrophulariaceae (q.v.), allied to the snapdragon (q.v.), but distinguished by the possession of a long spur at the base of the . corolla. The common toadflax (L. vulgaris), called also butterand-eggs, has yellow flowers and ‘is widespread as a wayside weed.

was a large walled enclosure, the gates of which were closed at sunset. As many as 5,000 Christians lived peaceably in Tlemcen, and the sultan included in his army a Christian bodyguard. In

1337 the power of the Abd-el-Wahid was temporarily extinguished by the Marinide sultans of Morocco. They left fine monuments of the period of their ascendancy, which lasted 22 years. Once more, under the Abd-el-Wahid, now known as the Beni-Zeiyan, from 1359 to 1553, Tlemcen enjoyed prosperity. It had a population reputed to number 125,000, an extensive trade; a brilliant court and a powerful army. The Spanish occupation of Oran

(See

or PENN.

UlOUS healing powers were attributed to the

TLINGIT INDIAN CHIEF plant, and it was designated “herba panaIN CEREMONIAL COSTUME cea.” “herba santa,” “sana sancta Indorum.” “Divine tobacco” it is called by Spenser, and “our holy herb’ nicotian” by Willam Lilly.

While the plant came to Europe through Spain, its use for smoking purposes spread to the Continent from England. Ralph Lane, the first governor of Virginia, and Sir Francis Drake,

brought to the notice of Sir Walter Raleigh the habit of smoking

tobacco, Lane is credited with having been the first English smoker, and through the influence and example of the illustrious

Raleigh “who tooke a pipe of tobacco alittle before he went to

TOBACCO the scaffolde” the habit became rooted among Elizabethan courtjers. During the 17th century the indulgence in tobacco spread with marvellous rapidity through all nations.

Botany.—Few

of the numerous species of Nicotiana possess

any economic importance.

The great bulk of the world’s tobacco

supply is derived from NV. tabacum, the Virginian tobacco, a plant indigenous to America. It is a coarse rank-growing annual, with a simple, unpranched, cylindrical stem, which often exceeds 6 ft. in height. The stem terminates in a panicle of pink or rose-coloured flow-

ers, possessing an elongated corolla tube (fig. 1). The plant has alternate, simple, oblong-lanceolate leaves, those at the lower part of the stem being slightly stalked, and of large size, reaching to 2 ft. in length, while the upper leaves are semi-

amplexicaul and of variable outline. The seeds are brown in colour, with a rough

A

Ege A,

Ve

GS 3 PAY

surface, and are so small and numerous ‘acco ms OT THE IMPERIAL that

1,000,000

single plant.

may

be produced

by a Fic. 1—rToBAcco PLANT

The stem and leaves of the IN BLOOM

plant are covered with long soft hairs which exude a viscid juice, giving the surface a moist glutinous feeling. From this species, N. tabacum, the tobaccos of Cuba, the United States, the Philippines, Canada, Nyasaland, Rhodesia and the Latakia of Turkey are derived, and it is also largely grown in India: the variety macrophylla is the source of Maryland tobaccos. N. Persica, regarded as another American variety of this genus, yields the famous Shiraz tobacco of Persia. N. rusticą is a smaller branching plant with greenish-yellow flowers, and although a native of Mexico it is much cultivated in the East Indies. Cultivation.—Tobacco is cultivated in localities scattered over almost the whole world, ranging from as far north as Quebec, Stockholm and the southern shores of Lake Baikal in one hemisphere, to as far south as Chile, South Africa and Victoria in the

other. While the plant can adapt itself to very varying conditions of climate and soil, the quality and flavour may be seriously deteriorated by unfavourable conditions. Very slight differences in climate appear to cause great variation in quality. Given suitable climatic conditions, the type of tobacco produced is determined mainly by the character of the soil, which should be well drained, and contain a large percentage of humus. Clay soils, retentive of moisture, as a rule yield heavy-cropping tobaccos which cure to a dark brown or red colour, while sandy soils produce tobaccos with a thin leaf, curing to a yellow or bright reddish colour. Cultural details necessarily differ according to the locality, and the type of labour employed, but those prevailing in the United States, the chief source of tobacco, may be taken as fairly representative, and are hereafter described. The seed is sown in nursery beds and the plants set out in the field later. Great care is taken in the preparation of the seed-bed, which should lie in a sunny situation, protected from winds, and be composed of good, rich soil in fine tilth. When necessary hotbeds are used. Insect pests are destroyed by burning fires, raised by intervening logs above the surface of the ground, or by steaming the bed. Fertilizers, usually guano or chemical manures, are incorporated with the surface: soil, which is pulverized to 3 in.

in depth.

The seed, owing to its minute size, is usually mixed

before sowing with a relatively large quantity of fine ashes, sand or méal, to ensure even distribution. Deep burying of the seed must be avoided, and the young and delicate seedlings carefully watered and if necessary shaded, during the early stages of growth. With seed of good quality a half-ounce of seed is sufficient for a bed of about 60 sq.yd.; and will yield about 40,000 plants for transplanting. The well hardened seedlings are transplanted into rows from 3 to 4 ft. apart, with a distance of from 14 ft. to 3 ft. between the plants, cigar types being’the closer-spaced varieties. When the flowering buds appear, these are removed by “topping,” and also the suckers which are subsequently produced. A limited number of leaves only is allowed to develop, ranging from 8 to 12 in the

261

heavy types and from 15 to 20 or more in cigar wrapper and binder varieties, Burley and Maryland. Cultivation under artificial shade has been found beneficial in some districts and this method is used with great success in the Connecticut valley and Florida for cigar wrapper leaf. Ripening is indicated by a change in colour of the leaf from a dark to a lighter shade of green, and by the appearance sometimes also of yellow spots. A ripe leaf easily cracks or shows a crease when folded between the fingers. The leaves on a plant decrease in age from below upwards, hence all are not ripe at one time. In high quality tobacco the leaves are “primed,” or picked singly, as they ripen. The usual course is to cut the whole plants off close to the ground when the middle leaves are about ripe, and allow them to wilt before removal to the drying sheds. Here the plants are supported on laths and the primed leaves on strings or wires until ready for curing. Improvement

by

Selection.—Plants

of the same

variety

grown under similar conditions reveal differences in such important characters as the number, size and shape of the leaves, tendency to form suckers, time of maturing, and resistance to disease. Variation in burning properties, elasticity of leaf, texture, taste, etc., are also observed. The differences are attributed to two factors: (1) variation in type due to crossing, change of soil and climate; (2) variations in type due to inherent tendency, local conditions and maturity of seed. Careful selection is necessary in the choice of plants grown from imported seeds for seed purposes, and only small crops should be grown until the required type has been perpetuated. The tobacco flower is fortunately self-fertile, and hybridization can be avoided by enclosing the selected flowers in paper bags. The pollen also

will retain its vitality for several weeks, if kept perfectly dry, and thus can be sent long distances without injury. Further treatment of the tobacco is usually conducted in three stages, known as “curing,” “fermentation” and “ageing”: on the success of these operations depend the production and fixing of the right colour, and the development of an agreeable aroma in the leaf. Curing.—Sun-curing is employed largely in Eastern countries, but is no longer practised in the so-called sun-cured district of Virginia. Air-curing is performed in barns provided with a free circulation of air. Cigar leaf and White Burley are usually cured thus, the process lasting about six weeks. In both sun- and air-curing the occurrence fires.

of damp

weather

may

necessitate

the use

of

In fire-curing, when the tobacco has acquired a rich yellow colour, slow fires are lighted on the floor of the barn to raise the temperature slowly to 150° F and there maintain it for four or five days: re-firing is required at intervals as the leaves again become soft.

The bright yellow leaf used for cut tobacco is cured by flue-heat in order quickly to secure and fix the required shade of colour. The heat is steadily raised from go°® F to 160° and even to 180° in the final stages. The whole operation lasts from three to five FIG. 2.--MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE days. In the modified process OF TOBACCO LEAF known as the ‘‘Kentucky cure,” a temperature of not more than roo° F is used, and the process requires from four to six weeks. Exposure to a moist atmosphere is in either case necessary to render the leaf sufficiently pliable for stripping and sorting. The tobacco is then made up into bunches or “hands” of from six to twelve leaves by twisting another leaf round the lower end. Fermentation.—Under favourable conditions, the enzymes naturally occurring in tobacco leaf act on the organic matters present, and the considerable alteration in their chemical constitution, thus caused, exercises a mellowing effect on the tobacco.

262

TOBACCO

Changes occur in the nicotine and other nitrogenous constituents,

and the starch and sugar bodies disappear, while the colour and aroma of the leaf also benefit by the operation when successfully conducted. Fermentation readily occurs when the tobacco is stacked into heaps, but precautions require to be taken to prevent the temperature rising beyond about 130° F, and the heaps are therefore frequently re-made and re-arranged during the operation which lasts about a month. Flue-cured tobacco is not fermented. After grading, the tobacco is pressed tightly into bales or hogsheads, and stored in warehouses, kept at a moderate and fairly uniform temperature, where it may remain often for several years to mature and complete the “ageing” process, before being manufactured. Further fermentation often spontaneously occurs during this stage. In addition to bales and hogsheads packers make extensive use of boxes or cases, especially for cigar leaf. | Manufacture.—Tobacco is manufactured in various forms

object of producing leaves suitable for smoking purposes, and also by the changes caused by the curing and fermentation. In addition to containing the volatile alkaloid, nicotine, the characteristic constituent of tobacco, sugar and starch are present in considerable quantities in the bright varieties of leaf, and also salts of such organic acids as acetic, citric, malic and oxalic. In consequence a much higher proportion (about 50%) of the constituents of the leaf is soluble in water than is the case with other plants. The insoluble constituents are made up chiefly of cellulose and pectic acid, which in combination with lime, impart rigidity to the vegetable structure, and of albuminous matter and tannin derivatives. Leaf tobacco is not usually dried below a moisture content of from 12 to 16%, as too dry a condition causes friability. The amount of nicotine ranges from 2% in bright leaf to 5% or more

in dark varieties.

The proportion

of ash obtained from dry

tobacco varies from about 10% in light leaf to 25% in cigar and other dark varieties. Production.—Production in the various countries is described below in separate paragraphs. United States—Tobacco was first cultivated on a commercial scale in Virginia early in the 17th century. It is now grown com-

mercially in eighteen States, the estimated produce for the year 1926 amounting to 1,323,388,000 Ib. and’ valued at $248,752,000. The produce of the chief tobacco-producing States expressed in millions of pounds, was as follows, viz., North Carolina (393),

FIG. 3.—TOBACCO PLANT (NICOTIKentucky (374%), Virginia (1324), Tennessee (107), South CaroANA TABACUM), FLOWERING for smoking and chewing pur- BRANCH lina (574), Pennsylvania (434), Georgia (40), Ohio (38), Wisposes, including cut smoking mix- A. Longitudinal section through fruit, consin (334), Connecticut (294), and Maryland (29). tures, cake or plug, and roll or B. Branch cut across, ©. Corolla Brazil—The climate and soil are very suitable for cigar leaf spun tobacco. In the preparation of various smoking mixtures, and production is steadily increasing. The crop in 1925 amounted the choice of leaf sufficiently mellowed by age, and the selection to 139,000,000 lb. of suitable brands of leaf to secure the best results are all imporJapan——-The Government monopoly controls the growth of tant considerations. The tobacco needs damping to render it tobacco, and the produce is mostly retained for home use. The workable, and this operation is usually conducted on the large crop in 1925 exceeded 132,000,000 pounds.’ scale by passing the leaf through rotating cylinders into which China,—Production of light cigarette types of leaf of American steam is injected. origin is steadily increasing. Very large quantities of lower grade In Great Britain the legal provisions exist that finished tobacco leaf are also grown, and China is one of the world’s foremost must contain not: more than 32% of moisture, and that no other tobacco producers. substance shall be found therein except essential oils for flavourDutch Indies—Sumatran tobacco is especially valued for ing, and olive oil to the extent of 4%, which may be used only in cigar wrappers. High equable temperatures and a heavy rainfall spinning and making up roll tobacco. characterize the eastern coastal growing regions, and very careful - ‘The thick portion of the stalk is as a rule removed before the attention is paid to the cultivation. The production in 1925 leaf is cut, except in the case of “bird’s eye,” to which the sec- reached nearly 207,000,000. pounds. tions of cut stalk give its characteristic appearance. The stripped Other important tobacco-growing countries outside Europe are leaves are then pressed into cakes, more or less lightly when in- as follows: Dominican Republic (45), Mexico (183), Persia (23) tended for shag and similar types, and by means of hydraulic and Algiers (65)—the figures in brackets indicate the crop in presses when flakes are required. The tobacco is then cut into millions of pounds for the year 1925. In the Philippines, where shreds by machine knives operating with a rapid vertical move- leaf of the cigar type is grown, the production in 1924 was ment, the speed determining the thickness of the flakes produced. 101,000,000 lb. From Syria comes the characteristic smokeShags and similar tobaccos are “panned” or roasted, partly to cured Latakia variety of tobacco. reduce the moisture, and partly to bring out their flavour. Europe.—Except in countries bordering on the Levant, where Roll tobacco consists of a filler of broken tobacco which is ‘the Turkish type is grown, dark and heavy tobaccos are usually twisted Into a rope and enclosed in a leaf wrapper by means of a produced. The approximate production, expressed in millions of spinning wheel. The “brown twist” so produced may be used for pounds, for the more important countries was as follows for the chewing purposes, but is usually converted into black or “Irish” year 1925, viz.: Belgium (17), Hungary (38), Germany (42), roll by coiling the twist into rolls of cylindrical shape, which, after France (69), Bulgaria (90), Italy (92), Turkey (104), Greece being enclosed.in canvas and tightly bound round with rope, are (129). and Russia (204). s stoved in steam-heated hydraulic presses, and when sufficiently . British Empire.—A lower rate of duty is charged on tobacco darkened in colour, removed to cold presses to mature. . grown in the empire, the amount of this deduction being increased ` In cake tobacco the leaves are moulded into shape by pressure , from one-sixth to one-fourth in 1925. Production has been greatly steam presses being used when dark coloured varieties are re- stimulated thereby, the quantities imported into Great Britain quired. Sweetening materials such as glycerin, licorice and sugar at the imperial preference rate of duty having risen from 19,000, are often added to this class of tobacco, although in Great Britain ooo lb. in 1925 to close upon 41,000,000 Ib. in 1927. The chief this practice.is restricted,to bonded factories. contributors to this total were.as follows: Northern Rhodesia Souff.—For light coloured varieties: stalks are employe d. The 1,697,214 lb., Southern Rhodesia 9,250,644 1b., Nyasaland, 14,distinctive aroma is developed by long ‘periods: of. ferment ation, 033,665 lb., British India 8,555,111 lb., British North Borneo sometimes, after, as well as before, milling.’ Various salts.and es- 1:348;501 lb., -Canada 5,619,923 Ib. sential oils are employed for flavouring purposes, but in Great ‘The increase in empire imports to Great Britain has been Britain there are certain legal restrictions regarding their use. accompanied by a decline in imports of foreign origin. Empire Chemistry of Tobacco.—The nature and proport ion of the imports, which represented only 1% of the total tobacco imports chemical constituents of tobacco are.greatly modified by the comin 1919, amounted to 14.7% of the total in 1927. pulsory diversion of.the,life processes of the plant to the sole ‘Imperial preference at the outset, found the British empire

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BY (1) OF COURTESY HARVLY CORRLTIT W.

2. de Arc Triomp 1. Conjectural view showing highway proposed plan for New York. a 3. Architectural treatment of sw

TOWNSEND terminals in America.

New railway stations in New York, Wash-

ington, Chicago and other great centres have been built in such a way as to afford dignified entrances to these cities.

(See INDUS-

TRIAL ARCHITECTURE.) The planning and construction of parkways which was begun in Boston many years ago has now been extended to many cities. The Fairmount parkway in Philadelphia is an outstanding exam-

ple of a fine central avenue linking the hub of the city with its extensive park system and including important architectural features. In the environs of New York probably the most extensive county park system in the world is being created by the Westchester park commission, and its success is largely due to the extent to which architectural design has been used for its landscape and structural features. New civic centres have been planned in many cities including Camden, Toledo, Denver and Pasadena. MODERN TENDENCIES The tendencies in all countries for good city planning are better to-day than they have been for the past century. The coming of the railroad destroyed interest and activity in planning cities. In recent years, electrification and improvement of steam-propelled trains, together with architectural treatment of railway stations, have been gradually destroying the convention that railway equipment and operations are essentially displeasing. The motor car has restored the highway as a principal means of travel, and the Improvement of the public rights of way now absorbs the chief energies and expenditures of local governments. There is found to be need of vigilance in planning street systems, and in relating street spaces to the uses and bulks of buildings. The use of steel frame construction and of the elevator has given a

new direction to building. (See ARCHITECTURE.) The growth of rapid transit lines is partly a cause as well as an effect of a demand on the part of the citizens for better environment in the neighbourhoods where they live. Concurrent with these developments, the wealth of cities has been greatly incrgased and more widely distributed, and the mass of citizens has become more highly educated; consequently an increased demand for improvements in physical surroundings has been created simultaneously with a growing ability to pay for such improvements. One of the least satisfactory features of modern town development is the disorderly growth taking place around cities that possess great architectural quality. Paris outside the ramparts, Washington outside the area planned by L’Enfant, and the modern part of Edinburgh are all suffering from lack of planning and architectural control. In the English university towns of Oxford and Cambridge the suburbs are being woefully commercialized. The newest development in town planning in all countries arises from the need of landing places for aeroplanes. Most large cities

335

ning and civic design. Although this is a development of the past 20 years, it includes not only the training of specialists in town planning, but the extension of fine art, architectural,. engineering and other courses for the purposes of broadening general education. Much.stimulus has been given to town planning education by the conferences and exhibitions beginning with those held in Berlin, Düsseldorf, London and Washington in rgro. Three years later a beginning was made in creating town and city-planning institutes, with architects, landscape architects, engineers and lawyers as members. Educational progress, however, has been largely in the science rather than in the actual art of town planning. The conditions of the modern city—in size, in speed of circulation, in concentration of building masses, and in growth and standardization of industry—are unique. Whatever guidance the planner may obtain from knowledge and experience of the past, or however sound his conception of principles and traditions may be, he cannot rely upon these alone to solve the problems of the city of to-day. First hand knowledge of entirely new facts—relating to forms of aggregation and distribution of functions and of means of communication—has to be obtained. The principal contribution of the present generation of specialists in town planning seems to be that of building up knowledge of these new conditions. Most of the so-called planning that is being done is part of this process of accumulating knowledge on the basis of experiment. Considered in this light, striking progress is being made towards the time when, it is hoped, the art of building and

reshaping towns will be developed on the basis of a sound scientific foundation. BrsrioGRaPHY.—Books

on town and city planning which emphasize

architectural features include: A. E. Brinkmann, Flats und Monument (Berlin, 1908) and Deutsche Stadtbaukunst in der Vergangenheit (Berlin, 1911) ; Prof. F. J. Haverfeld, Ancient Town Planning (Oxford, 1913); C. Moore, Daniel Burnham, Architect, Planner of Cities (1921);

W. Hegemann and E. Peets, American Vitruvius (New York, 1922); T. F. Tout, “Mediaeval Town Planning,” Town Planning Review, vol. viii. (Liverpool, 1920); P. Lavedan, Histoire de lurbanisme

(1926) and Qw’est-ce que lurbanisme? (1926); J. Heinrich Krause, Deinokrates, oder Hiitte, alten Welt (Jena, 1863); E. Kuhn, Ueber die Entstehung der Städte der Alten (Leipzig, 1878); G. Perrot and Ch. Chipiez, Histoire de Part dans Pantiquité (1882—1904); A. von Gerkan, Griechische Städteanlagen (1924). Town planning practice: C. Sitte, Stadtebau nach seinen Künstlerischen Grundsätzen (Wein, 1901); M. Robinson, Modern Civic Art (New York, ist ed. 1903; 3rd ed. 1913); P. Schultze~-Naumburg, Kulturarbeiten (Miinchen, 1906-09); R. Unwin, Town Planning in Practice (London, 1909) ; T. H. Mawson, Civic Art (London, rg1r) ; F. L. Thompson, Site Planning in Practice (London, 1923); N. P. Lewis, The Planning of a Modern City (New York, rst ed., 1916; 2nd ed., 1923) ; S. D. Adshead, Town Planning and Town Development (London, 1923); H. V. Lanchester, The Art of Town Planning (London, 1925); C. B. Purdom, The Building of Satellite Towns (London, 1925). Journals: American City Planning Institute, City Planning Quarterly; Journals of Town Planning Institute (British and Canadian) ; University of Liverpool, Town Planning Review. Reports: Report of Town Planning Conference, R.L.B.A. (1910) ; annual reports of National City Planning Conferences and numerous reports on city and regional plans, including plans of Chicago, Minneapolis and New York in U.S.A., and regional schemes in England. (T. AD.)

are now developing airports, and it is important that they be attractively designed. The architectural treatment of buildings surrounding airports is of great importance too. The trend of the time is towards improved living conditions and more spactousness in city building. Unfortunately fallacies, to the effect that congestion and overcrowding are unavoidable because of lack of TOWNSEND, SIR CHARLES VERE FERRERS space, and that concentration may proceed to any limits without (1861-1924), English general and politician, was born on Feb. destroying its own advantages, still persist. Hence there are now 2x1, 1861. He first joined the Royal Marines, but in 1886 was improved standards of living, more facilities for rapid movement, transferred to the Indian army. He received rapid promotion, and better sanitation and finer buildings on the one hand, and un- was one of the officers in the Kashmir contingent of the Hunzahealthy crowding, absence of light in buildings, congested traffic, Nagar expedition of 1891 to the Himalayas, becoming military lack of recreation spaces and uncomfortable travel on the other. governor of Hunza. In 1895 he went with Sir G. Robertson to The good elements in the first category give a starting point for Chitral, on the occasion of the revolt of Umra Khan and Sher a better conception of city building, and the very existence of Afzil. In 1896 he returned to Egypt with Kitchener’s Egyptian the evils is, in the face of growing intelligence, a necessary stim- army, and took part in the Dongola expedition. Townsend acted ulus to action in bringing about the realization of this conception. for a time as military attaché in Paris, and in 1907 received a In the task that lies ahead, the architect, the landscape architect staff appointment in India. In 1909 he commanded the Orange and the engineer must work together, for in city building, as in River Colony, with the rank of brigadier-general, and two years architecture, the best work of all three results from their co- later was promoted major-general. For a short time he held a territorial command in England, but in 1913 returned to India operation. Education.—One of the most hopeful features of the time The 2nd Rawal Pindi division, which he commanded at the outis the development of education and research in civic problems. break of the World War, was stationed by the Khyber, but in In several countries universities and schools now teach town plan- April 1915 Townsend was given command of the 6th Division in

336

TOWNSHEND—TOWTON

Mesopotamia. After outmanoeuvring the Turks in the flooded country round Amarah, with a fleet of barges, Townsend was encouraged to attack Kut on Sept. 26, 1915. He captured Kut, and on Nov. 22 attacked Ctesiphon, but was obliged to fall back on Kut. For a detailed account of the siege of Kut, see MESOPOTAMIA, OPERATIONS IN. Townsend surrendered on April 29, 1916, and was interned at Prinkipo. In Oct. 1918, the Turks released him as an emissary to make terms with the British. He received a K.C.B. for his services in Mesopotamia, but was not again employed. He resigned in 1920, and later in the same year became M.P. for the Wrekin division in Shropshire. In 1922 he joined the Conservative Party, but retired at the next election. He died on May 18, 1924,

ROME

summoned to the privy council. As ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to the states-general (ryog~11) he took part in the negotiations preceding the Treaty of Utrecht. In Sept. 1714, George I. selected him as secretary of State for the northern department. Townshend’s policy, after the suppression of the Jacobite rising in 1715, was one of peace at home and abroad ; he promoted defensive alliances with the emperor and with

France.

But in 1716 he was dismissed from his position owing

to the intrigues of Sunderland, who persuaded George and Townshend’s colleague, Stanhope, that Townshend and Walpole were plotting to place the prince of Wales on the throne, Early in 1720 a partial reconciliation took place between the parties of Stanhope and Townshend, who was president of the Sir on Townsend published My Campaign in Mesopotamia council from June, 1720 until Feb. 1721, when, after the death of 1920). Stanhope and the forced retirement of Sunderland, a result of the South Sea bubble, he was again appointed secretary of State for TOWNSHEND, CHARLES (1725-1767), English politi- the northern department, with Walpole as first lord of the treascian, the second son of Charles, 3rd Viscount Townshend, was ury and chancellor of the exchequer. The two remained in power born on Aug. 29, 1725, and was educated at Leiden and Oxford, during the remainder of the reign of George I. (See ENGLAND: At the Dutch university, he associated with Dowdeswell, his History.) Townshend secured the dismissal of his rival, John subsequent rival in politics, Wilkes, and Alexander Carlyle. He Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville, but soon differences arose represented Great Yarmouth in parliament from 1747 to 1761, between himself and Walpole. Although disliking him, George when he found a seat for the treasury borough of Harwich. II. retained him in office, but the predominance in the ministry Townshend was a member of the Board of Trade from 1749 to passed gradually from him to Walpole. Failing, owing to Wal1754, and a lord of the admiralty from 1754 until his resignation pole’s interference, in his efforts to procure the dismissal of a in 1755 owing to his passionate attack against the ministry. In colleague and his replacement by a personal friend, Townshend 1756 he was treasurer of the chamber, and in the following spring retired on May 15, 1730. His remaining years were passed at he was summoned to the privy council. Raynham, where he interested himself in agriculture. He died at With the accession of George III. in 1760 Townshend trans- Raynham on June 21, 1738. ferred his support from Pitt to the young king’s favourite, Bute, Townshend was twice married—first to Elizabeth (d. 17121), and in 1761, at the latter’s instance, was promoted to the post of daughter of Thomas Pelham, 1st Baron Pelham of Laughton, and secretary-at-war, which he did not throw up until Dec. 1762. to Dorothy (d. 1726), sister of Sir Robert Walpole. In the dying days of Grenville’s cabinet, and throughout RockTOWNSHIP, a subdivision of local government, found in ingham’s administration he held the post of paymaster-general, refusing to identify himself more closely with its fortunes as chan- most of the central and western United States. It is an outcellor of the exchequer. He accepted the latter position from Pitt growth of New England towns and of New York and Pennsylvania local government, which was influenced both by the New in 1766, and was admitted to the inner circle of the cabinet. The defeat of his proposal to continue the land tax at four England town and the Southern county. At first townships were shillings in the pound, by William Dowdeswell and the landed often called towns, showing the influence of the terms of New gentry caused Lord Chatham to meditate Townshend’s removal, England. Townships are generally about 6 sq.m, in size, dependbut before this could be accomplished Chatham’s mind became ing upon State constitutional or statutory provision. The townimpaired, and Townshend, who was the most determined and ship meeting has fallen very much into disuse, just as the town influential of his colleagues, swayed the ministry as he liked, meeting has ceased to be a potent factor in many parts of New pledging himself to find a revenue in America with which to meet England. In some of the States the chief administrative authority the deficiency caused by the reduction in the land tax. His wife of the township is the committee or board, while in the others it was created (August, 1767) baroness of Greenwich, and his elder is the supervisor, who also serves as the member of the township brother George, the 4th viscount, was made lord-lieutenant of on the county board of supervisors. Other township. officers are Ireland. He himself delivered in the House of Commons many the clerk, assessor, treasurer, overseer of the poor and constable. speeches unrivalled in parliamentary history for wit and reckless- Usually officials are chosen by the voters of the township. See H. G. James, Local Government in the United States a ness; and one of them still lives in history as the “champagne (S. Le. speech.” His last official act was to carry out his intention by TOWNSVILLE, a port of Queensland, Australia, situated on passing through parliament resolutions, which even his colleagues deprecated in the cabinet, for taxing several articles, such as glass, the west side of Cleveland Bay in the north-east of the State and paper and tea, on their importation into America, which he 750 miles north of Brisbane. It is built upon the banks and near estimated would produce the insignificant sum of £40,000 for the the mouth of Ross Creek—here spanned by an iron bridge—and English treasury, and which shrewder observers prophesied would rises picturesquely up the lower slopes of Castle Hill which lead to the loss of the American colonies. Soon after this event towers, a great rock-mass 936 ft. high, behind it. It is the outlet for a wide area of country of varied economic potentialities. he died somewhat suddenly on Sept. 4, 1767. The universal tribute of Townshend’s colleagues allows him The thriving town (pop. 30,000) is built substantially and, on the possession of boundless wit and ready eloquence, marred the whole, suitably to the climate. The estuary of Ross Creek has been straightened and deepened to allow of sea-going vessels (24 by an unexampled lack of judgment and discretion. ft. draught) to berth alongside the quays, and Townsville, with A Memoir by Percy Fitzgerald was published in 1866. a total “overseas” trade valued (1926/7) at £1,550,000, is the TOWNSHEND, CHARLES TOWNSHEND, 2np Vis- second port of Queensland and may be termed “the capital of the COUNT (1674-1738), English statesman, was the eldest son of North,” as Rockhampton is of the centre, and Brisbane of the Viscount Townshend of Raynham (c. 1630-87), of an old Nor- whole, and of southern Queensland in particular. The harbour is folk family descended from Sir Roger Townshend (d. 1493) of served by a series of regular overseas shipping lines (total tonnage Raynham, who acted as legal adviser to the Paston family. 1926-27: c. 80,000) as well as the regular coast services (comCharles Townshend succeeded to the peerage in Dec. 1687, and bined tonnage of all classes 1926~27, 1,050,500 tons). was educated at Eton and King’s college, Cambridge. At first a TOWTON, a village of Yorkshire, England, 24m. S. of TadTory, when he took his seat in the House of Lords, he afterwards caster, the scene of a battle fought on Palm Sunday, March 20, went over to the Whigs. In Nov. 1708 he was appointed captain 1461, between the armies of York and Lancaster. The party of of the yeomen of the guard, having in the previous year been Lancaster had lately won the battle of St. Albans, but, unable

TOXICOLOGY—TOY to gain admission into London, and threatened by the approach

of Edward the young duke of York from the west of England, was compelled to fall back northward. York having been proclaimed as Edward IV., followed them up into Yorkshire, and on the 27th his leading troops surprised the passage of the Aire at Ferrybridge. The Lancastrians were encamped at Towton, some miles away, covering Tadcaster and York; but a force under

Lord Clifford was promptly sent out, recaptured Ferrybridge by

surprise, and cut to’ pieces the Yorkist garrison. About the same time, however, Edward’s van, under Lord Fauconberg, an ex-

337

A third assemblage, the Entelonychia, is related to the toxodonts and typotheres and included with them under the order Notoungulata (also called Toxodonta). They are more primitive in teeth and foot-construction, many of them brachyodont, five toed, clawed and chiefly found in the older Tertiary formations of South America, with a few specialized survivors in the Miocene. Among these last Homalodontotherium, with large compressed claws but with grinding teeth somewhat like the rhinoceros type, is analogous to the Chalicotheriidae of the northern world, while

perienced soldier, crossed the Aire higher up, and Clifford was compelled to retire. He was closely pressed, and at Dintingdale, within a few furlongs of his own camps, was cut off and killed with nearly all his men. Edward’s main body was now close at hand, and the Lancastrians drew up on their chosen battlefield early on the 29th. This field was an elevated plateau, with steep slopes, between the present Great North Road and the river Cock, cut in two by a depression called Towton Dale. On opposite sides of this depression stood the two armies, that of York facing north, their opponents southward. Both lines of battle were very dense. On a front of little more than a thousand yards the Lancastrian party had nearly 60,000 men. Edward’s force (less than 50,000) was not all present, the rear “battle” under Norfolk being still distant. Snow and sleet blew in the faces of the Lancastrians and covered the field of battle. The skilful Fauconberg used this

advantage to the utmost.

Aided by the wind, his archers dis-

charged flights of arrows against the enemy, who replied blindly and feebly, hampered by snow and wind. The Yorkists withdrew until the enemy had exhausted their quivers, and then advanced

afresh. Their arrows soon stung the Lancastrians into a wild and disorderly charge. Suffering severe losses the latter closed with Edward’s line of battle. No quarter was given by either party, and on the narrow front the numerical superiority of the Lancastrians counted for little. The long, doubtful and sanguinary struggle was only decided by the arrival of Norfolk’s corps, which charged the enemy in flank. Driven backwards and inwards, the Lancastrians were in a desperate position, for their only way of escape to Tadcaster crossed the swollen waters of the Cock by a single narrow and difficult ford, and when, after a stubborn struggle, they finally broke and fled, they were slaughtered in thousands as they tried to cross. At the close of the day the defeated army had ceased to exist. 25,000 Lancastrian and 8,000 Yorkist dead were buried in and about Towton. See R. Brooke, Visits to English Battlefields (London, 1857); C. R. B. Barrett, Battles and Battlefields of England (London, 1896); H. B. George, Battles of English History (London, 1895).

TOXICOLOGY, the name of that branch of science which deals with poisons, their effects and antidotes, etc. (See Porsons and MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE.)

TOXIN:

SEARCH.

see DIPHTHERIA;

TOXODONTIA.

SCARLET FEVER; MEDICAL RE-

An extinct order or sub-order of South

American hoofed mammals, some (toxodonts) being massivelyproportioned three-toed beasts which played the part of rhinoceroses, and others (typotheres) small animals more nearly comparable to rabbits and the larger rodents in appearance and probably in habits. The order was distinguished by long-crowned, often rootless teeth of peculiar pattern, the front teeth enlarged and somewhat like those of rodents, the cheek teeth of triangular pattern above and unequal crescents below, the jaws deep and rather short, heavy zygomatic arches and the mastoid bone peculiarly inflated. The feet have from three to five digits, the arrangement of the carpals is alternating but the astragalus has a short neck and convex head, the fibula articulates with the calcaneum but the navicular does not reach the cuboid. In the Miocene of Patagonia the toxodonts are of moderate size, Nesodon as large as a tapir, Adinotherium of the size of a sheep, anà the typotheres are all small creatures comparable with a wood-chuck or guinea-pig. In the Pleistocene of Argentina Toxodon equals the

Indian rhinoceros in size, Toxodontherium and Xotodon of the Pliocene are no less gigantic, while Typotherium, the largest of the smaller group, may be compared to the modern capybara.

THE SKELETON OF THE TOXODON, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

AFTER

A

CAST

IN

THE

AMERICAN

Astrapotherium shows a remarkably close parallelism to the Met-

amynodon of the north.

The Litopterna (g.v.) also have some

affinity to the notoungulate groups, the whole assemblage being

peculiar to South America save for a couple of small and primitive entelonychians found in the Lower Eocene of Wyoming (Arctostylops) and the Paleocene of Mongolia (Palaeostylops); these may indicate that these South American Tertiary “ungulates” originally came from Holarctica about the end of the Cretaceous. The invasion of South America by northern mammal faunas at the end of the Tertiary period brought about the progressive ex-

tinction of the toxodonts and their allies, Toxodon and Macrauchenia being the last survivors. Unlike the edentates, the South American hoofed animals do not seem to have made any counter-

invasion into North America. TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL

(W.D.M.) | (1836-1919), American

Hebrew scholar, was born in Norfolk, Va., on March 23, 1836. He graduated at the University of Virginia in 1856, completed in one year the three-year course at the Southern Baptist theological seminary, served in the Confederate army, studied at the University of Berlin in 1866-68 and taught in various southern educational institutions. His resignation from the seminary in which he had studied was accepted in 1879 because of his sympathy with Darwin’s views on evolution and his belief that in spite of their divine inspiration there were obvious human errors in the Scriptures which, however, concerned the shell, not the kernel, of religious truth. After a brief period with the Independent he went to Harvard as professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages and until 1903 Dexter lecturer on biblical literature. He became professor emeritus in 1909 and died in Cambridge, May 12, 1919. He was the author of History of the Religion of Israel (1882),

Quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament (1884), Judaism and Christianity (1890), Introduction to the History of Religions (1913) and of various critical and exegetical works. See sketches in the American

Literature Review

TOY,

Journal of Semitic Languages and

(vol. xxxvi., Oct. 1919)

and the Harvard

Theological

(vol. xiii, Jan. 1920).

a child’s plaything;

ornament, a gew-gaw, a bauble.

also a trifle, a worthless, petty Children’s toys and playthings

survive from the most remote periods, though many so-called diminutive objects made and used by primitive man, sometimes classified as playthings, may have been workmen’s models, votive

offerings or sepulchral objects. A large number of wooden, earthenware, stone or metal dolls remain with which the children of

TOYNBEE—TRACERY

338

ancient Egypt once played; thus in the British Museum collection there is a flat painted wooden doll with strings of mud-beads representing the hair, a bronze woman doll bearing a pot on her head, an earthenware doll carrying and nursing a child; some have movable jeinted arms. There are also many toy animals, such as a painted wooden calf, a porcelain elephant with a rider; this once had movable legs, which have disappeared. Balls are found made of leather stuffed with hair, chopped straw and other material, and also of blue porcelain or papyrus. Jointed dolls, moved by strings, were evidently favourite playthings of the Greek and Roman children, and small models of furniture, chairs, tables, sets of jugs painted with scenes of children’s life survive from both Greek and Roman times. Balls, tops, rattles and the implements of numerous games, still favourites in all countries and every age, remain to show how little the amusements of children have changed. (See also DoLt; Tor.) TOYNBEE, ARNOLD (1852-1883), English social reformer and economist, second son of Joseph Toynbee (18151866), a distinguished surgeon, was born in London on Aug. 23, 1852. He had originally intended to enter the army, but ill health and a growing love of books changed his plans, and he settled down to read for the bar. Here again the same causes produced a change of purpose, and he entered as a student at Pembroke College, Oxford. Two years later he removed to Balliol college, where, after taking his degree, he was appointed lecturer and tutor to students preparing for the Indian civil service. He devoted himself to the study of economics and economic history. He was a practical social reformer, taking part in much public work and delivering lectures in the large industrial centres on economic problems. He overtaxed his strength, and after lecturing in London in January 1883 he had a complete break-down, and died of inflammation of the brain at Wimbledon on March 9. Toynbee had a striking influence on his contemporaries, not merely through his intellectual powers, but by his strength of character, love of truth and ardent and active zeal for the public good. He was the author of some fragmentary pieces, published

under the title of The Industrial Revolution (1884). Toynbee’s interest in the poor and his anxiety to be personally

acquainted with them led to his close association with the district of Whitechapel in London, where Canon Barnett (g.v.) was at that time vicar—an association which was commemorated after his death by the social settlement of Toynbee Hall, the first of many institutions for social betterment. (See SETTLEMENTS.) See F, C. Montague’s Arnold Toynbee (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1889); Lord Milners Arnold Toynbee: a Reminiscence (1901); and L. L. Price's Skort History of Political Economy in England for a criticism of Toynbee as an economist; also a new edition of his Lectures on the Industrial Revolution (1919), with preface by Lord Milner.

TOYNBEE,

PAGET

(1855-

), English philologist and

critic, was born at Wimbledon on Jan. 20, 185s, and educated at Haileybury and at Balliol college, Oxford. From 1878 he acted for 14 years as private tutor, afterwards making a name for himself as a Dante scholar. He has also published and edited a number of works relating to Horace Walpole. His publications include Specimens of Old French, with Notes and Glossary (1892); Life of Dante (1900; 4th enlarged ed.,

1910); Dante Studies and Researches (1902); Chronological List

of English Translations from Danie, from Chaucer to the Present Day (1906); Dante in English Literature from Chaucer to Cary (2 vols., 1909); Critical Texts of Letters of Dante (x91 5—10,

amended text and translation, r920); Dante Studies (1921); Horace Walpole’s Journal of the Printing Office at Strawberry Hill (1923); Horace Walpole’s Reminiscences (1924), etc.

TOYNBEE HALL.

then rector of St. Arnold Toynbee, a shortly before had Toynbee Hall, the

Founded in London by Canon Barnett,

Jude’s Whitechapel brilliant economist been hastened by pioneer university

in 1884, and named after and co-worker whose death his zeal for social reform, settlement, inaugurated an important movement (see SOCIAL SETTLEMENTS). In the earlier years of his ministrations at St. Jude’s, Barnett had succeeded in creating interest at Oxford and Cambridge in the problems of East London and had brought to Whitechapel a considerable num- ,

ber of undergraduates to spend their holidays with him and learn about social conditions. The connection which was established in this way prepared the universities for the suggestion of a closer union between them and the East End and Barnett’s plan to found a settlement: that is, a house of residence for university undergraduates who might wish to live in an industrial area, was at once warmly supported. With money collected mainly at Oxford he was able to purchase and reconstruct premises next door to St. Jude’s which had been used for the purposes -of an industrial school and with the help of a band of “settlers” to commence activities which left an enduring mark on the social history of the period. Mainly these activities were concerned

with the collection of social data, with social experimentation, and with the amelioration of social and industrial conditions; but Barnett’s underlying aim was to bring the generosity and learn-

ing of the young and the universities into effective relation with the industrial population so that both communities might come in time to serve ideals of citizenship and neighbourliness. The War involved the closing of the hostels (Balliol house and ` Wadham house) which Barnett had founded for working men students at Toynbee Hall and in other ways suspended the operations of the settlement. Since 1919 however most of its customary activities have been resumed and its work as a “popular univer-

sity” has been extended. An important feature of its annual programme is now a large “American Summer School” which is attended by about 100 preachers, educationalists and social workers from the United States, selected because of their interest in the international aspect of social and economic problems.

(J. J. M.)

TOZZI, FEDERIGO (1883-1920), Italian novelist, was born at Siena on Jan. 1, 1883, the son of an innkeeper. His childhood and early youth are described in Con gli ochi chiusi (1919). His father died in 1908, and Tozzi married the same year, and Z Podere (1921) is a record of his experiences at this time. He learnt Latin and studied old Tuscan, his first book being an Antologia antichi scrittori senesi (1913). Tre Croci (1920) translated into English as Three Crosses (1921), the only one of his novels which is not autobiographical, is considered his finest work. He died in Rome on March 21, 1920, before he was able to reap the fame which the success of his latest work brought him.

TRACERY,

the term given in architecture to the upright

curving or intersecting bars or ribs, used in a window or other opening to give beauty and variety to its silhouette. The term is also applied to similar forms used in relief, as wall decoration (sometimes calied wall-tracery), and hence, figuratively, of any intricate line pattern. The word is often restricted to the elaborate system of window decoration, with its derivative forms, developed in Europe during the Gothic period, but it may, with equal validity, be applied to the pierced marble screens common in the Mogul work of India, or to the pierced plaster windows of Persia, Turkey, Syria and Egypt. The origin of European tracery is confused. Pierced marble screens, with the openings glazed, were used occasionally in Byzantine work. The Byzantines also used, commonly, groups of two, three or even more narrow, arched windows, placed close together, under a single, large, relieving arch above. In this they were followed by most of the Romanesque styles. In such groups, the supports between the adjacent openings of each group usually consisted of single colonnettes, hence the arches over them were thin and shallow; and the tympanum, or section of wall supported by them and filling the space between them and the great enclosing or relieving arch over the whole group, was necessarily thin also. Such windows are found in the greater number of Italian campaniles and Romanesque towers, as well as in many Romanesque triforium arcades. To decorate the tympanum, piercing was an obvious and simple method. The result was the germ of tracery. Plate Tracery is found in early Gothic work both in France and England. In its simplest forms the tympanum is pierced with a single opening, usually circular, but occasionally taking a four-lobed or quatrefoil form. The points between the lobes, known as cusps (g.v.), later became an important element in

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EXAMPLES English Gothic tracery; Ange! Choir, Lincoin decorated 1. Geometric 2. Mogul pierced marble tracery; screen in the Taj Cathedral, 1250-80. Mahal, Agra, India, 1632. 3. Rayonnant French Gothic tracery; transept rose window, Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, c. 1270. 4. Rayonnant French

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TRACERY ning of the 14th century. 5. Perpendicular English Gothic tracery; west 6. Early Perpendicular front, St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, begun 1474. English Gothic tracery; east window, York Minster, 1408. 7. Curvilinear Decorated English Gothic tracery: west front, York Minster, 1338

TRACERY much Gothic ornament. In time, greater elaboration was sought by increasing the number and complexity of the piercings, and thus both the size and beauty of the entire unit. The climax of plate tracery appears in France in the group of magnificent win-

dows of Chartres cathedral (1194-1212); and in England in the rose window at Lincoln cathedral (1220), known as the Dean’s eye. Bar Tracery.—aAs skill in stone cutting and desire for complexity increased, the area of the tympanum wall left solid grew continually smaller, finally leaving only thin bars of stone separating the adjacent openings. Moreover, in Notre Dame cathedral, Paris, certain small, interior, round windows constituting a sort of upper triforium in the original design, carried decorations of little inverted arches built of stone—a sort of rudimentary

tracery. About 1220 the next inevitable step in the development was taken, and a window was considered not as a group of lights carrying a little piece of pierced tympanum wall, but as a group of lights where arches are formed of a bar of stone similar in section to that of the mullion or support between them, with the space between these arches and the enclosing arch—the old tympanum—occupied by a pattern of similar stone bars. In early work this pattern usually consists of a circle, sometimes cusped, tangent both to the enclosing arch and to the small arches of the lights below it. The cusps are usually of the type known as “soffit cusping,” cut on separate pieces of stone set into grooves in the inner faces of the circle.

French Rayonnant Tracery.—In France, bar tracery occurs in the rebuilt clerestorey of Notre Dame (between 1220 and 1230) in the simplest possible form, and in a more developed type, with cusps, in the apse chapels of Reims cathedral (prior to 1230). From about 1240 on it becomes common, rapidly increasing in lightness and complexity. In general, the pattern types are restricted. There are two, three or four lights. In two-light windows, a single cusped circle is the crowning feature. In threelight windows three smaller cusped circles fill the space above. Four-light windows are formed of two two-light windows, with an additional cusped circle above. In France the spring of the arches of the lower lights is kept far below that of the enclosing arch, so that the crowning circle is large. During the late 13th century, curved-sided triangles, and trefoil and quatrefoil forms, without enclosing circles, are occasionally used. In four-lght windows, the central mullion is often made heavier than the side mullions, both in depth and width, and this additional size carried around the enclosing arches of the side pairs. This heavier bar will have a section or profile, part of which 1s a duplicate of the smaller bars or mullions. Thus tracery of two planes and two moulding types is developed—ohe, that of the smaller bars, and the other, that of the larger. Each moulding type plane is known as an “order,” and such a window is said to have tracery of two orders. The climax of French Rayonnant tracery can be seen in S. Urbain at Troyes (1270), S. Chapelle in Paris (1246-48) and S. Nazaire at Carcassonne (early 14th century). The rose windows (q.v.) of the style, such as those of Notre Dame at Paris

(c. 1270), designed with radiating patterns using similar combinations of forms—~arches, circles, cuspings, etc.—are perhaps the most remarkable traceried windows of the style. During the later

Rayonnant period, for wall surfaces, is the filling of the tracery forms. At

tracery forms came to be used decoratively, pinnacles, gables, etc. Especially noteworthy gables of porches, above the door arches, with first this was done simply, with little piercing;

later, as in the Portail des Libraires, at Rouen cathedral (c. 1280), the gable became a mere decorative screen of lace-like open tracery. French Rayonnant tracery was the controlling influence in all continental tracery outside Italy. English Geometric Tracery.—Based on the same simple arch, circle and cusp forms as the French tracery, the English geometric tracery is infinitely richer and more varied. The great east end and west windows of the cathedrals allowed the development of four-, six- or eight-light windows, designed in two or three orders, carefully systematized, like the east window of Lincoln cathedral (c. 1280), in eight lights, with three orders. But the

greatest change was in single order windows of smaller size. In

339

these the use of cusps without circles became common, and all sorts of star-shaped, triangular and other geometric forms occur. English Curvilinear Tracery.—In the early years of the 14th century the English architects discovered that by the use of the ogee (g.v.) curve, or curve of double curvature, the occasional harsh angularities of the geometric style could be avoided, and wavy-lined tracery of great beauty produced. This gave rise to the so-called curvilinear tracery. Its simplest form is the reticulated, or network window in which the entire upper part is filled with a regular all-over pattern of waving bars, rhythmically tangent and then separating. But the introduction of the reverse curve set free the imagination of the designer, and an infinite number of varying types resulted, such as the rose window at Lincoln cathedral (1350), or the great west window at York (c. 1338). Perpendicular Tracery.—By the end of the 3rd quarter of the rath century a reaction had set in against this flowing curvature, and the 15th century saw the new style—the so-called perpendicular—-triumphant. It was based on one controlling idea— verticality. Mullions were run through unbroken from bottom to top. At intervals they were connected by horizontal bars running across the window, supported on little arches between the mullions, thus dividing the whole window into tiers of little archheaded lights. At the top there is great variety of treatment, but almost always the upper lights are smaller than those below; and there was frequent use of curved bars intersecting the verticals, and to some extent recalling the arched forms of the earlier styles. This new feeling appears in the transept window of Gloucester cathedral as early as 1335, and in a more developed form in the east window of the choir, which fills the entire east end, about 1350. During the 15th century the lines become more and more rectangular and the window heads have flatter and flatter arches. The climax of this development is reached in such

enormous end windows as those of the King’s College chapel, Cambridge, and St. George’s chapel, Windsor (¢. 1525). Wall tracery of perpendicular character was widely used both for exterior and interior work during the r5th and early 16th centuries. Great areas are sometimes filled with tiers of traceried panels, as in the Henry VII. chapel, Westminster Abbey (begun 1502). In some cases, where flint was common, a tracery of cut stone, filled in with dark flints, decorates church exteriors, as in Long Melford church and St. Laurence at Ipswich. Traceried forms are also the basis of much screen, stall and tomb design of the rsth century; rood screens are particularly rich. ‘Tracery is also the basis of the decorative rib treatments of fan vaulting. (See Fan VAULT; VAULT.) French Flamboyant Tracery.—tIn the last years of the 14th century the reverse curve came into use in French tracery, probably as the direct result of English curvilinear models. The French, however, soon gave tracery of this kind an individual spirit. In the best Flamboyant work, such as the tracery of S. Maclou, Rouen (begun 1432), and the west front of Rouen

cathedral (begun 1481), all of the forms are shimmer and more flame-like than is usual in English work. Particularly interesting is the application of Flamboyant tracery to rose windows, like that of the south transept of Beauvais cathedral (1500-48), in which the radiating character of the earlier types is maintained, although combined with the reverse curve. Flamboyant tracery forms the chief decoration of many gorgeous choir stalls and screens. The screen at Albi (c. 1500) has tracery of unbelievable

lace-like delicacy in its canopies, as well as larger patterns cover-

ing wall surfaces; the wood choir stalls of Amiens (1508—19) are even more delicate and the tracery is of the utmost richness and intricacy. Noteworthy, also, is the application of Flamboyant tracery forms to exterior detail, as in the porch of S. Maclou, Rouen, and the west front of S. Wulfran at Abbeville (1480). Italian Tracery.—Due to the Italian lack of understanding of Gothic structural principles, tracery never achieved in Italy the logical development of the north. The nearest approach to this is m the bands of tracery of Venetian palace windows, such

as those of the Ca d’Oro (1430), by G. and B. Bon. Elsewhere,

tracery was only understood as beautiful pattern, and much of 1t,

34.0

TRACHEA—TRACHYTE

even when copying the forms of bar tracery, is pierced from large sheets of marble, as in the triforium of the cathedral at Lucca (c. 1400) and the cloister of S. Maria della Verita, at Viterbo. Tracery in the Orient.—The Mohammedan designers not only followed Byzantine precedent in using plerced marble screens for windows but also, by the development of a new technique, invented a characteristic type of tracery, which combined the functions played by both leading and stone tracery in western work. This technique consisted in filling the window area with a pierced sheet of cement, each piercing being filled with a piece of coloured glass. Results of jewel-like intensity and brilliance were thus obtained, and being made of a plastic material, tracery of this type could have unlimited variety of pattern. The usual types found were basically floral, with the leaf shapes in glass, carefully arranged to give a sense of flow and growth. Such cement tracery is found particularly in the later work of Cairo, such as the mosque of Barkouk (c. 1384) and in the imperial Turkish work, such as the brilliantly jewelled windows in the 17th century mosque of Suleiman, Constantinople. In India, where ventilation is required, rather than floods of light, a different type was developed, without glass, and in a richer material— carved and pierced marble. Thus, in almost all of the great Mogul palaces, and in many of the tombs, large, pointed arch openings are filled with sheets of white marble, pierced in the most elaborate patterns, of the finest scale. The most delicate example of this pierced, marble tracery is that of the screen around the sarcophagi in the Taj Mahal (g.v.), at Agra

(1632-47).

Modern Types.—Church architects of the 2oth century, work-

ing, frequently, in a modernized Gothic style, have found in tracery a congenial means of free expression. Both geometric and curvilinear forms have furnished inspiration, but patterns have been developed of a freshness and individuality frequently quite different from the mediaeval custom. In these, foliated ornament is frequently added to the tracery basis. Noteworthy examples occur in Liverpool cathedral (Sir G. G. Scott, architect, still, 1928, uncompleted) and in the west front of the church of the Heavenly Rest and the Beloved Disciple, New York (1928), by Mayers, Brust and Philip, the Goodhue associates. An entirely modern development is seen in the use of pre-cast cement tiles, pierced in geometric patterns and glazed, built up into large windows, as in the church of Notre Dame at Raincy, France (1924) by Perret Frères. (See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE. ) (T. F. H.) TRACHEA, in zoology (1) the windpipe of air-breathing vertebrates, extending from the pharynx towards the lung. It ultimately bifurcates into two bronchi, one to each lung. The larynx, or voice-box, is a modified part of the trachea. (2) The breathing tubes of insects (g.v.). The ramifications of the insect tracheae are called fracheoles.

TRACHELIUM, in architecture the neck of the capital of the Doric and Ionic orders. In the Greek Doric capital it is the space between the annulets of the echinus and the grooves which marked the junction of the shaft and capital. In the Roman Doric and the Ionic orders the term is given to the interval between the lowest moulding of the capital and the top of the astragal

and fillet. (See also HYPOTRACHELIUM.)

enclosed by Mt. Oeta which here descends close to the sea and at the Trachinian Cliffs commanded the main road from Thessaly. The position was well adapted as an advanced post against invaders from the north, and furthermore guarded the road up the Asopus gorge into the Cephissus valley. Its citadel, Heracleia, was a subject of dispute between the Spartans and the Thebans at the end of the fifth century p.c. In Strabo’s time the citadel alone was inhabited. See Strabo p. 428; Herodotus vii. 198-203; Thucydides iii. ga, v. 51-52; Diodorus xiv. 38, 82; Livy xxxvi. 22-24. W. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, iii. 24-31 (London, 1835); G. B. Grundy,

Great Persian War, pp. 261-264 (London, 1901).

TRACHOMA,

the name given to a chronic destructive in-

flammation of the conjunctiva (see Eve: Diseases), or “granular conjunctivitis” (Egyptian ophthalmia). It is contagious, associated with dirty conditions, and common in Egypt, Arabia and in some congested districts of south-eastern Europe. Hence it has become important, in connection with alien immigration into the United Kingdom and America, and the rejection of those who are afflicted with it. It is important that all cases should be isolated, and that spread of the infection should be prevented.

TRACHYTE

(Gr. tpaxts, rough), in petrology, a group of

volcanic rocks which consist mainly of sanidine (or glassy orthoclase) felspar. Very often they have minute irregular steam cavities which make the broken surfaces of specimens of these rocks rough and irregular; whence comes their name, which was first given by Haüy to certain rocks of this class from Auvergne, and long included quartz-trachytes (now known as liparites and rhyolites) and oligoclase-trachytes, which are now more properly assigned to andesites.

Mineral Composition.—The

trachytes are often described

as being the volcanic equivalents of the plutonic syenites. Their dominant mineral, sanidine felspar, very commonly occurs in two generations, z.e. both as large well-shaped porphyritic crystals and in smaller imperfect rods or laths forming a finely crystalline ground mass. With this there is practically always a smaller amount of plagioclase, usually oligoclase; but the potash felspar (sanidine) often contains a considerable proportion of the soda felspar, and has rather the characteristics of anorthoclase or cryptoperthite than of pure sanidine. Quartz is typically absent from the trachytes, but tridymite (which likewise consists of silica) is by no means uncommon in them. It is rarely in crystals large enough to be visible without the aid of the microscope, but in thin slides it may appear as small hexagonal plates, which overlap and form dense ageregates; they often cover the surfaces of the larger felspars or line the steam cavities of the rock, where they may be mingled with amorphous opal or fibrous chalcedony. In the older trachytes secondary quartz is not rare, and probably sometimes results from the recrystallization of tridymite. Of the ferromagnesian minerals present augite is the most common. It is usually pale green, and its small crystals are often

very perfect in form.

Brown hornblende and biotite occur also,

and are usually surrounded by black corrosion borders composed of magnetite and pyroxene. Sometimes the replacement is complete and no hornblende or biotite is left, though the outlines of the cluster of magnetite and augite may clearly indicate from

which of these minerals it was derived. Olivine is unusual, though

TRACHEOTOMY, the operation of opening the trachea or found in some trachytes, like those of the Arso in Ischia. Basic

windpipe (see RESPIRATORY SysTEM) and inserting a tube to provide a means of breathing when the natural air-passage is obstructed. The operation is by no means easy when performed on a small child, for the wind-pipe is deeply placed amongst important structures. The chief anxiety is in connection with haemorrhage, for the vessels are large and generally overfull on account of the impairment of the respiration. The higher the opening is made in the trachea the easier and safer is the operation. Formerly, it was frequently performed in diphtheria (g.v.) but since the introduction of diphtheria antitoxin it has rarely become necessary. In adults tracheotomy is usually done for laryngeal obstruction by disease or foreign bodies.

TRACHIS,

a city of ancient Greece, at the head of the

Malian Gulf in a small plain between the rivers Asopus and Melas,

varieties of plagioclase, such as labradorite, are known also as phenocrysts in some Italian trachytes. Dark brown varieties of augite and rhombic pyroxene (hypersthene or bronzite) have

been observed but are not common. Apatite, zircon and magnetite are practically always present as unimportant accessory minerals. The trachytes being very rich in potash felspar, necessarily contain considerable amounts of alkalis; in this character they approach the phonolites. Occasionally minerals of the felspathoid group, such as nepheline, sodalite and leucite, occur, and rocks of this kind are known as phonolitic trachytes. The soda-bearing

amphiboles and pyroxenes so characteristic of the phonolites may

also be found in some trachytes; thus aegirine or aegirine-augite forms outgrowths on diopside crystals, and riebeckite may be present in spongy growths among the felspars of the ground mass

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to the genera Opisthorchis, Clonorchis and Metagonimus make use, in a similar manner, of freshwater fishes as second intermediate hosts, the first host being always, so far as is known, a snail. Economic Importance.—Schistosomiasis (or Bilharziosis) is probably the most important of the human diseases caused by Trematodes. In Egypt and many other parts of Africa two species of Schistosoma, S. haematobium and S. mansoni, are prevalent. The former also occurs in Asia, certain localities in the south of Europe, and Australia, and the latter in the West Indies and South America. In the Far East their place is taken by a third species, S. japonicum. These flukes inhabit the mesenteric and portal veins, and their eggs cause obstruction and rupture of the capillaries either in the wall of the bladder or in that of the bowel, with consequent haemorrhage and ulceration.

The common liver-fluke (Fasciola hepatica) is an important parasite of sheep, sometimes causing serious and fatal outbreaks of the disease known as “Tiver-rot.” As a human parasite this worm is rare, but certain smaller liver-flukes (Opisthorchis and Clonorchis) are not uncommon in eastern countries.

The lung-fluke, Paragonimus LIPS OF REDIA

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host. The fork-tailed cercariae of the blood-flukes (Schistosoma)

thus attack man and other warm-blooded vertebrates, and the adults inhabit the blood-vessels. The human lung-fluke,

Paragonimus, leaves its first intermediate host (a mollusc) as a cercaria, and enters certain freshwater crabs and crayfishes, in which it becomes encysted. Human infection, in the Orient, is acquired by eating these animals. Several small flukes belonging

FIG. 6.—TYPES

OF TREMATODES

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'TREMOLITE, PHARYNX

FROM

westermant, is a human parasite of some importance in the Far

AFTER (A) LEUCKART, “DIE PARASITEN DES MENSCHEN” (DE GRUYTER & CO ), (B, G, D} ZELLER IN “ZEITSCHRIFT FUR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE” (ENGELMANN)

a mineral of the amphibole (g.v.) group, of

the composition CaMg,(SiO;),, and crystallizing in the monoclinic system. Tremolite (named in 1796 from the Val Tremola, St. Gotthard, where it was first found) always contains water in solid solution in amounts varying up to 2-5% and is not prepared from dry melts. It is usually developed in fibrous and bladed crystals of white or grey colour. Solid solutions of tremolite and the corresponding iron compound, CaFe,(SiO,)., are known as actinolite. They are distinguished by their green colour. Tremolite is a common mineral of metamorphosed carbonate sediments Typical examples occur in the dolomite of Campolongo (Tessin)

and in limestone at Russell, New York. (C. E. T.) TRENCH, FREDERICK HERBERT (1865-1923), Irish poet and playwright, was born at Avoncore, Co. Cork, on Nov. 12, 1865. Educated at Haileybury and at Keble college, Oxford, he was elected a fellow of All Souls’ college, and from 1891Ig08 was an examiner in the Board of Education. This appointment he gave up in 1908 in order to devote himself to literary work, In 1908 he became director of the Haymarket theatre, London, where he staged King Lear and Maeterlinck’s Blue Bird. His first volume of poems, Deirdre Wedded, appeared in 1901. It was followed by further poems, notably “Apollo and the Seaman,” included in New Poems (1907), and Lyrics and Narrative

Poems (1911). Among his later publications were an Ode from Italy in Time of War (1915); Poems: with Fables in Prose (1918); and a poetic play Napoleon (1919), which was produced

in London by the Stage Society in 1919. He died on June 11, 1923. His collected works, edited by H. Williams, were published in 1924, and a volume of selected poems in the same year. ,—

1925).

Chevalley, Herbert Trench: Notice sur sa Vie et ses Ocuvres

TRENCH—TRENDELENBURG TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886), Anglican archbishop and poet, was born at Dublin on Sept. 9, 1807. He was educated at Harrow, and Trinity College, Cambridge. While incumbent of Curdridge Chapel near Bishops Waltham,

Hants, he published (1835) The Story of Justin Martyr and Other Poems, which was favourably received, and was followed in 1838

by Sabbation, Honor Neale, and other Poems, and in 1842 by Poems from Eastern Sources. He became rector of Itchenstoke (1845), Hulsean Lecturer (1845-46) and professor of divinity at King’s college, London. In 1851 he wrote The Siudy of Words, followed by English Past and Present (1855) and A Select Glossary of English Words (1859). All have gone through numerous editions and have contributed much to promote the historical study of the English tongue. His paper, read before the Philological Society “On some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries” (1857), gave the first impulse to the great Oxford New English Dictionary. His advocacy of a revised translation of the New Testament (1858) aided to promote another great national undertaking. In 1856 he published a valuable essay on Calderon, with a translation of a portion of Life is a Dream in the original metre. In 1841 he had published his Nozes on the Parables, and in 1846 his Notes on the Miracles, popular works which are treasuries of erudite and acute illustration. In 1856 Trench was raised to the deanery of Westminster. Here he instituted evening nave services. In January 1864 he was advanced to the more dignified but less congenial post of archbishop of Dublin. He died in London on March 28, 1886. See his Letters and Memorials (2 vols., 1886).

TRENCHARD, SIR HUGH MONTAGUE, tsr Barr., cr. I919, K.C.B. 1918 (1873), British air marshal, was born on Feb. 3, 1873. Commissioned in the Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1893, he served in the South African War with the Imperial Yeomanry and the Canadian Scouts. From 1903 to Igio he

served in West Africa. In rgr2 he qualified as an air pilot and became an instructor at the central flying school at Upavon, where he was appointed assistant commandant the following year. On the outbreak of the World War Trenchard assumed charge at Farnborough, but before the end of 1914 was summoned to France, and became head of the military wing of the Royal Flying Corps. His strong personality, foresight and power of command made his name a household word in France, and with the expansion of the air service he rose from major to major-general in little over a year. After the formation of the Royal Air Force he became, in March 1918, chief of the air staff. This position he resigned a month later, owing to disagreement with the first air minister, Lord Rothermere. But a few weeks later he received command of the newly formed independent air force, whose mission was to raid Germany, a post that gave scope to his gift for inspiring men and to his development of the strategical réle of aircraft. In 1922 he was promoted air chief marshal.

453

into one of cashiering and imprisonment. The rest of his life was spent in mild captivity in the fortress of Spielberg, where he died on Oct. 4, 1749. His cousin, FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON DER TRENCK (1726—1794), the writer of the celebrated autobiography, was born on Feb. 16, 1726, at Königsberg, his father being a Prussian general. He was educated at the University of Königsberg, entered the Prussian army in 1742 and became an orderly officer on Frederick’s own staff. But within a year he fell into disgrace because of a love affair—whether real or imaginary—with the king’s sister Princess Amalie, and in 1743 Frederick had him arrested and confined in the fortress of Glatz, whence in 1746 he escaped. Making his way home and thence to Vienna, in the vain hope of finding employment under his now disgraced cousin, he finally entered the Russian service. On succeeding to the family estates on his cousin’s death, he returned to Germany. In 1754 he visited Prussia, but was there arrested and confined in Magdeburg for ten years, making frequent attempts, of incredible audacity, to escape. After the close of the Seven Years’ War, Maria Theresa requested his release. Trenck then spent some years in Aix-la-Chapelle, and eventually returned to his Hungarian estates. Here he composed his celebrated autobiography and many other writings, and undertook various diplomatic or secret service missions. He went to Paris in 1791 to witness the Revolution. He was denounced as an Austrian spy and guillotined on

July 24, 1794. His autobiography first appeared in German at Berlin and Vienna (x3 vols.) in 1787. Shortly afterwards a French version, by his own

hand, was

published

eight volumes,

at Strasbourg.

appeared

His other published works, in

shortly after the autobiography

at Leipzig.

A reprint of the autobiography appeared in roro in “Reclam’s Universal Series.” See Wahrmann, Leben und Thaten des Franz, Freiherr von der Trenck and Friedrich, Freiherrn von der Trencks Leben, Kerker und Tod (both published at Leipzig, 1837).

TRENDELENBURG, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (18021872), German philosopher and philologist, was born on Nov. 30, 1802, at Eutin, near Lübeck. He was educated at the universities of Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin. He became more and more attracted to the study of Plato and Aristotle, and his doctor’s dissertation (1826) was an attempt to reach through Aristotle’s criticisms a more accurate knowledge of the Platonic philosophy (Platonis de ideis et numeris doctrina ex Aristotele illustrata). He spent seven years as tutor in a private family, occupying his leisure in preparing a critical edition of Aristotle’s De anima (1833; 2nd ed. by C. Belger, 1877). In 1833 Altenstein, Prussian minister of education, appointed Trendelenburg extraordinary professor in

Berlin, and four years later he was advanced to an ordinary

professorship.

In 1865 he engaged in an acrimonious controversy

TRENCK, FRANZ, FREIHERR VON DER (1711-1749), Aus-

on the interpretation of Kant’s doctrine of Space with Kuno Fischer, whom he attacked in Kuno Fischer und sein Kant (1869), which drew forth the reply Antt-Trendelenburg (1870). He died

trian soldier, was born on Jan. 1, 1711, of a military family. Educated by the Jesuits at Sopron (Oldenburg), he entered the Imperial army in 1728 but resigned in disgrace three years later. He then married and lived on his estates for some years. Upon

on Jan. 24, 1872. Trendelenburg’s Naturrecht may be taken as in a manner the completion of his system, his working out of the ideal as present in the real. The ethical end is taken to be the idea of humanity,

the death of his wife in 1737 he offered to raise an irregular corps of “Pandours” against the Turks, but this offer was refused and he then entered the Russian army. But after serving against the

the State and of history. Law 1s treated throughout as the vehicle of ethical requirements. In Trendelenburg’s treatment of

Turks for a short time as captain and major of cavalry he was

accused of bad conduct, brutality and disobedience, and condemned to death, the sentence being commuted by Field Marshal Münnich to degradation and imprisonment. He returned to Austria, where his father was governor of a small fortress, but there too came into conflict with every one and actually “took sanctuary” in a convent in Vienna. But Prince Charles of Lorraine obtained for him an amnesty and a commission in a corps of irregulars, where he rose to be lieutenant-colonel (1743) and

colonel (1744). But at the battle of Soor he and his irregulars

plundered when they should have been fighting and Trenck was

accused (probably falsely) of having allowed the king of Prussia himself to escape. He was court-martialled in Vienna, and condemned to death; but the sentence was commuted by the queen

not in the abstract as formulated by Kant, but in the context of

the State, as the ethical organism in which the individual (the potential man) may be said first to emerge into actuality, we may trace his nurture on the best ideas of Hellenic antiquity. Trendelenburg was also the author of the following: Elementa

logices Aristotelicae (1836; oth ed., 1892; Eng. trans., 1881), a selection of passages from the Organon with Latin translation and notes, containing the substance of Aristotle’s logical doctrine, supplemented by Erläuterungen zu den Elementen der Aristotelischen Logik (1842; 3rd ed. 1876); Logische Untersuchungen

(1840; 3rd ed. 1870), and Die logische Frage in Hegels System (1843), important factors in the reaction against Hegel; Historische Beiträge zur Philosophie (1846—67), in three volumes, the

frst of which contains a history of the doctrine of the Categories;

Das Naturrecht auf dem Grunde der Ethik (1860); Lücken im

TRENT

454 Völkerrecht

(1870), a treatise on the defects of international

law, occasioned by the war of 1870. On Trendelenburg’s life and work see H. Bonitz, Zur Erinnerung an F.A.T. (1872); P. Kleinert, Grabrede (1872); E. Bratuschek, Adolf Trendelenburg (1873); C. von Prantl, Geddchinissrede (Munich, 1873); G. S. Morris in the New Englander (1874), xxxii.

TRENT, the chief river in the midlands of England, the third in length in the country, exceeded only by the Thames and Severn. It rises in north Staffordshire, and discharges through the Humber into the North Sea, having a course of about 17o m. The source is on Biddulph Moor. The course is first southerly, and it skirts the Potteries, passing Stoke-on-Trent. Passing Stone, the course becomes south-easterly, and the united waters of the Sow and the

Penk are received on the right. Near Rugeley the direction becomes easterly, and near Alrewas the Trent receives the Tame (right), and turns to the north-east. The river now passes Burtonon-Trent, in this part of its course forming the boundary between Staffordshire and Derbyshire. The valley opens out as the stream, dividing into several channels at Burton and receiving on the left the Dove, enters Derbyshire. It then separates that county from Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire, receives in succession the

Derwent (left), Soar (right) and Erewash (left), enters Nottinghamshire, and passes Nottingham, 814 m. from the mouth. The next important town is Newark; the Devon (right) joins here. The valey becomes flat, though the river is rather deeply entrenched in some parts. Forming the boundary between Nottingham and Lincolnshire, the Trent passes Gainsborough, receives the Idle (left) and, entering Lincolnshire and skirting the Isle of Axholme, joins the Yorkshire Ouse near Faxfleet.

The lower

part of the valley resembles the Fens in character. The highest tides are about 40 m. up river, and the phenomenon of a bore is seen rising on spring tides to a height of 4 or 5 ft., 15 m. above the mouth of the river. The Trent is navigable for 94# m. from its Junction with the Ouse, to a point a short distance above the junction of the Derwent. It is also navigable for barges of 120 tons as far as Nottingham. There are eight locks. Below Gainsborough the navigation is open, and vessels drawing 9 ft. can reach this point on spring tides. From the Derwent mouth the Trent and Mersey Canal follows the Trent valley upward, and gives connection with the inland navigation system of the midlands and west of England. Short canals give access to Derby and the Erewash valley; the Leicester Navigation, following the Soar, connects with the Grand Junction canal; and the Grantham Canal carries a little traffic between that town and Nottingham. The Fossdyke, connects the Trent with Lincoln and the Witham, and lower down the Sheffield and South Yorkshire canal joins the river from the west at Keadby. There is also a canal, little used, to Chesterfield.

TRENT

TRENT,

(ITALY): see TRENTO.

COUNCIL

OF.

The Council of Trent (x545-

1563) has a long antecedent history of great significance for the fortunes of the Catholic Church. During the rsth and the earlier half of the 16th century, the conception of an “ecumenical council” remained an ideal of which the realization was expected to provide a solution for the serious ecclesiastical difficulties which were then prevalent. The emperor Charles V. urged on the papacy the necessity of convening a general assembly of the church. The passive resistance of the Curia was so stubborn that the decisive step was postponed time and again. But the goal was finally attained, and this result was the work of Charles, aided by three powerful cardinals. The bull Laetare Hierusalem (November 19, 1544) fixed the meeting of the council for March 15, 1545, in Trent, and assigned it three tasks: (1) the pacification of the religious dispute by

doctrinal decisions, (2) the reform of ecclesiastical abuses, (3) the discussion of a crusade against the infidels. The opening of the council was deferred once again. Towards the end of May 1545, twenty bishops were collected at

Trent; but there was no sign of action, and the papal legates— Del Monte, Corvinus and Reginald Pole—delayed the inauguration, the emperor and the pope being at cross purposes as to procedure. In the eyes of Paul III. the council was simply

the means

by which

he expected

of the Protestant heresy, in hopes

to secure

a condemnation

that he would

then be in

a position to impose the sentence of the Church upon them by force. For him the question of ecclesiastical reform possessed no interest whatever. In contrast to this, Charles demanded that these very reforms should be given precedence, and the decisions on points of dogma postponed till he should have compelled the Protestants to send representatives to the council. The pope, however, alarmed by the threat of a colloquy in Germany, at last ordered the synod to be opened (December 13, 1545). The procedure adopted secured the predominance of the Roman chair from the first. As the voting was not to be by nations, as at Constance, but by individuals, the last word remained with the Italians, who were in the majority. The council began its work in the region of dogma by defining the doctrines of the Church with reference to the most important controversial points—a procedure which frustrated the emperor’s hopes for a reconciliation with the Protestants. The doctrines dealt with, up to March 1547, were the Holy Scriptures and tradition (sessio iv.), original sin (sessio v.), justification (sessio vi.), and the sacraments in general, and baptism and confirmation in particular (sessio vii.). In March the council was moved to Bologna on the pretext that an epidemic was raging in Trent (sessio viii.), though, at the imperial command, part of the bishops remained behind. But on the 2nd of June the council of Bologna resolved (sessto x.) to adjourn its labours. At the Diet of Augsburg the emperor secured a, modus vivendi, leavened by the Catholic spirit, between the adherents of either religion; and this provisory settlement—the so-called Interim of Augsburg—was promulgated as a law of the empire (June 3, 1548), and declared binding till the council should reassemble. But the confusion of ecclesiastical affairs had grown worse confounded through the refusal of the pope to continue the council, when his death (November. 10, 1549) changed the situation. Pope Julius III., the former legate Del Monte, caused the council to resume its labours on May 1, 1551 (sessio xi.), under the presidency of Cardinal Crescentio. The personnel was, for the most part, different; and the new members included the Jesuits, Laynez and Salmeron. The French clergy had not a single delegate, while the Spanish bishops maintained ‘an independent attitude under the aegis of the emperor, and Protestant deputies were on this occasion required to appear at Trent. Their participation, however, was useless, for the discussion of doctrine on the basis of Holy Writ was from the Catholic standpoint impossible: and the revolt of the elector Maurice of Saxony (March 20, 1552) compelled the emperor to leave Innsbruck, and dissolved the conclave. Its dogmatic labours were confined to doctrinal decrees. on the Lord’s Supper (sessio xiii.), and on the sacraments of penance and extreme unction (sessio xiv.). On April 28, 1552, the sittings were suspended. Ten years elapsed before the council reassembled for the third time in Trent. During the intervening period, the religious problem in Germany had received such a solution as the times admitted by the peace of Augsburg (1555); and the equality there guaranteed between the Protestant estates and the Catholic estates had left the former nothing to hope from a council. The incitement to continue the council came from another quarter. It was no longer anxiety with regard to Protestantism that exercised the pressure, but a growing conviction of the imperative need of more stringent reforms within the Catholic Church itself. In France and Spain—the very countries where the Protestant heresy had been most vigorously combated—a great mass of discontent had accumulated; and France already showed a strong

inclination to attempt an independent settlement of her ecclesiastical difficulties in a national council. Pius IV. therefore announced (Nov. 29, 1560) the convocation of the council; and on Jan. 18, 1562, it was actually reopened (sessio xvii.). The Protestants indeed were also invited but the Evangelical princes, assembled in Naumburg, withheld their assent. To secure freedom of action, France and the emperor Ferdinand required

that it should rank as a new council; Pius IV., however, desigFerdinand, in

nated it a continuation of the earlier meetings.

TRENT addition to regulations for the amendment of the clergy and the monastic system, demanded above all the legalization of the marriage of the priesthood, while France and Spain laid stress on the recognition of the divine right of the episcopate, and its inde-

pendence with regard to the pope. In consequence of these reformatory aspirations, the position of the pope and the council was for a while full of peril. But the papal diplomacy, by concessions, threats, and by exploiting political and ecclesiastical dissensions, broke the force of the attack. In the third period of the council, which, as a result of these feuds, witnessed no session from September 1562 to July 1563, doctrinal resolutions were also passed concerning the Lord’s Supper sub utraque specie (sessio xxl.), the sacrifice of the Mass (sessio xxii.), the sacrament of ordination (sessio xxiii.), the sacrament of marriage (sessio xxiv.), and Purgatory, the worship of saints, relics and images. On Dec. 4, 1563, the synod closed. The dogmatic decisions of the Council of Trent make no attempt at embracing the whole doctrinal system of the Roman Catholic Church, but present a selection of the most vital doctrines, partly chosen as a counterblast to Protestantism, and formulated throughout with a view to that creed and its objections. The reformatory enactments touch on numerous phases of ecclesiastical life—administration, discipline, appointment to spir-

itual offices, the marriage law (decretum de reformatione matri-

455

1564; and the Catechismus a decreto concilii tridentini ad parochos, early in 1568. The oecumenical character of the council was never seriously questioned. On the motion of the legates, the resolutions were

submitted to the ambassadors of the secular powers for signature, the French and Spanish envoys alone withholding their assent. The recognition of the council’s enactments was, none the less, beset with difficulties. So far as the doctrinal decisions were concerned no obstacles existed; but the reformatory edicts—-adhesion to which was equally required by the synod—stood on a different footing. In their character of resolutions claiming to rank as ecclesiastical law they came into conflict with outside interests, and their acceptance by no means implied that the rights of the sovereign, or the needs and circumstances of the respective countries were treated with sufficient consideration. The consequence was that there arose an active and, in some cases, a tenacious opposition to an indiscriminate acquiescence in all the Tridentine decrees, especially in France, where only those regulations were recognized which came into collision neither with the rights of the king nor with the liberties of the Gallican Church. In Spain, Philip II. allowed, indeed, the publication of the Tridentinum, but always with the reservation that the privileges of the king, his vassals and his subjects, should not thereby be infringed. In his official confirmation Pius IV. had already strictly prohibited any commentary on the enactments of the council unless undertaken with his approval, and had claimed for himself the sole right of interpretation. In order to supervise the practical working of these enactments, Pius created (1564) a special department of the Curia, the Congregatio cardinalium concilii tridentint interpretum; and to this body Sixtus V. entrusted the further task of determining the sense of the conciliar decisions in all du-

monii “Tametsi,” sessio xxiv.), the duties of the clergy, and so forth. The resolutions include many that marked an advance; but the opportunity for a comprehensive and thorough reformation of the life of the Church—the necessity of which was recognized in the Catholic Church itselfi—was not embraced. No alteration of the abuses which obtained in the Curia was effected, and no annulment of the customs, so lucrative to that body and deleteribious cases. The resolutiones of the congregation—on disputed ous to others, was attempted. The Council of Trent in fact enjoyed only a certain appearance points—and their declarationes—on legal questions—exercised a of independence. For the freedom of speech which had been powerful influence on later development of ecclesiastical law. The Council of Trent attained a quite extraordinary significance accorded was exercised under the supervision of papal legates, who maintained a decisive influence over the proceedings and for the Roman Catholic Church; and its pre-eminence was uncould count on a certain majority in consequence of the over- assailed till the Vaticanum subordinated all the labours of the whelming number of Italians. That the synod figured as the Church in the past—whether in the region of doctrine or in that responsible author of its own decrees (sancta oecumemca et gen- of law—to an infallible pope. On the theological side it fixed the eralis tridentina synodus in spiritu sancto legitime congregata) results of mediaeval scholasticism and drew from it all that could proves very little, since the following clause reads praesidentibus be of service to the Church. Further, by pronouncing on a series apostolicae sedis legatis; while the legates and the pope expressly of doctrinal points till then undecided it elaborated the Catholic refused to sanction an. application of the words of the Council of creed; and, finally, the bold front which it offered to Protestantism in its presentation of the orthodox faith gave to its members the Constance—universalem ecclesiam repraesentans. The whole course of the council was determined by the pre- practical lead they so much needed in their resistance to the Evansupposition that it had no autonomous standing, and that its gelical assault. It showed that Church as a living institution, labours were simply transacted under the commission and guid- capable of work and achievement; it strengthened the confidence ance of the pope. This was not merely a claim put forward by both of her members and herself, and it was a powerful factor in the Roman see at the time; it was acknowledged by the attitude heightening her efficiency as a competitor with Protestantism and of the synod throughout. The legates confined the right of dis- in restoring and reinforcing her imperilled unity. Indeed, its cussion to the subjects propounded by the pope, and their posi- sphere of influence was still more extensive, for its labours in the tion was that he was in no way bound by the vote of the ma- field of dogma and ecclesiastical law conditioned the future evojority. In difficult cases the synod itself left the decision to him, lution of the Roman Catholic Church. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Supreme among the sources for the history of the as in the question of Clandestine Marriages and the Administrastands the splendidly planned work Concilium tridentinum; tion of the Lord’s Supper sub utraque specie. Further, at the council diariorum, actorum, epistularum, tractatuum nova collectio, ed. Socieclose of the sessions a resolution was adopted, by the terms of tas Goerresiana (in successive volumes, 1901 ff.). The following deserve which all the enactments of the council de morum reformatione special mention. P. Sarpi, Jstoria del concilio tridentino (London, aique ecclesiastica disciplina were subject to the limitation that 1619); Cardinal Sforza Pallavicini, Istoria del concilio -di Trento (Rome, 1656-57, a counterblast to the preceding) ; Brischar; Zur Beurthe papal authority should not be prejudiced thereby (sessio XXV. teilung der Kontroversen zwischen Sarpt und Pallavicini (1844) ; J. J. removed 1s supremacy papal the to as doubt Every cap. 21). v. Dollinger, Sammlung von Urkunden zur Geschichte des Konzils von their all when we consider that the Tridentine Fathers sought for Trient, i. 1, 2 (3876); Beiträge zur politischen kirchlichen, und

enactments and decisions the ratification (confirmatio) of the

Kulturgeschichte (3 vols., 1862—82) ; G. Paleottus, Acta concilii tridentint a 1562 et 1563 usque in finem concilii, ed. F. Mendham (1842);

Deus (January 26, 1564); and in its last meeting (sessio XXV.) the synod transferred to the pope a number of tasks for which their own time had proved inadequate. These comprised the compilation of a catalogue of forbidden books, a catechism, a short conspectus of the articles of faith and an edition of the missal and the breviary. Thus the council presented the Holy See with a further opportunity of extending its influence and diffusing its views. The ten rules de libris prohibitis were published in March 1564; the Professio fidei tridentinae in November

A. v. Druffel, Monumenta tridentina (3 parts, 1884-87, parts 4 and 5, continued by K. Brandi, 1897-99); Zur Geschichte des Konzils von Trient. Aktenstiicke aus den österreichischen Archiven, ed. T. v. Sickel (3 parts, 1870-72) ; F. Lainez, Disputationes tridentinae, ed. Grisar (2

pope, which was conferred by Pius IV

in the bull Benedictus

vols., 1886) ; Die römische Kurie und das Konzil von Trient unter Pius

iV. Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte des Konzils von Trient, ed. t. susta (vols. i. ii, 1904—09); Canones et decreta concilii tridentini (1:64; critical edition by A. L. Richter, 1853) ; Wessenberg, Die grossen Kirchenversammlungen des r5ten und r6ten Jahrhunderts, vols. iii: and iv. (Constance, 1840); L. v. Ranke, Die römischen Papste im 16 und 17 Jahrhundert, vol.i.; ibid. Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Refor-

456

TRENTE

ET QUARANTE—TRENTO

mation, i. (Stuttgart, 1889); P. Tschackert, s.v. “Trienter Konzil,” in | a number of positions beyond the frontier, especially east of the

Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie (1908), vol. xx,, ed, 3, (C. Mx.; X.)

Adige, whence their line extended from north of Mori, along the

Terragnolo valley, Costa d’Agra, across the Astico, Cima Mandriolo, across the river Brenta in the Val Sugana to the Cima game of French origin played with cards and a special table. It is d’Asta; farther east all the Ampezzo valley was occupied to the one of the two games played in the gambling rooms at Monte Tofana and Cristallo groups. There were many engagements in Carlo, roulette being the other. The diagram illustrates one the autumn and winter of 1915, especially north of the Cadore half of the table, the other half precisely corresponding to it. and at the head of the Cordevole valley round the Col di Lana, Two croupiers sit on each side, one of them being the dealer; the attacks on which caused serious losses to the Italians, until behind the two on the side opposite to the dealer a supervisor in April 1916 the summit was blown up by an Italian mine and of the game has his seat. Six packs of fifty-two cards each are the hill remained in Italian hands. The fighting on the Stelvio, used; these are well shuffled, and the croupier asks any of the the Adamello, the Ampezzo group and the peaks round San players to cut, handing him a blank card Martino di Castrozza was at a very high altitude, and the troops with which to divide the mixed packs. had to perform what even in ordinary times would be regarded There are only four chances at trente et as notable mountaineering exploits amid ice, snow and extremely quarante: rouge or noir, known as the difficult rocky terrain, exposed to intense cold, severe storms and grand tableau, couleur or inverse, known heavy enemy fire, the Austrians usually holding the most favouras the petit tableau. At Monte Carlo the able positions. Roads had to be built up the most precipitous stakes are placed on the divisions indicated mountains and heavy guns dragged up to a height of 2,000 to 3,000 on the table, the maximum being 12,000 feet. The Italians managed to capture many of these positions, francs and the minimum 20 francs which although at the cost of heavy losses; but in May 1916 the Ausmust be staked in counters. The dealer, trians, after an intense artillery preparation with masses of heavy who has placed all the cards before him, guns, launched a formidable attack on the Terragnolo~Val Sugana separates a few with the blank card, takes ~-Folgaria—Asiago area and drove the Italians back for a conthem in his left hand and invites the playsiderable distance. The object was to debouch into the Vicenza ers to stake with the formula, “Messieurs, plain and cut the communications with the Isonzo army. There faites votre jeu!” After a pause he exwas desperate fighting along the whole line, but the key positions claims “Le jeu est fait, rien ne va plus!” DIAGRAM SHOWING HALF of Coni Zugna, Passo Buole and the Pasubio to the west and the after which no stake can be made. He then OF TRENTE ET QUARANTE peaks on the outer edge of the Asiago plateau on the east held deals the cards in a row until the aggregate TABLE firm. By June 16 the momentum of the Austrians had exhausted number of pips is something more than 30, upon which he deals a itself, and an Italian counter-attack recovered most of the lost second row, and that which comes nearest to 30 wins, the top row ground. After the Austrian break-through at Caporetto in Oct. being always distinguished as noir, and the lower as rouge. In an- I9I7, an attempt was made to effect a breach also in the Asiago nouncing the result the word frenie is always omitted, the dealer plateau. The Ampezzo and Cadore areas had to be evacuated merely announcing zm, trots, quatre, as the case may be, though by the Italians, and in the heavy fighting through Nov. and Dec. when 4o is turned up it is described as quarante. The words noir some of the positions on the plateau were again lost, but the and imverse are also never used, the announcement being rouge outer edge was held, and the Austrians failed to descend into the gagne or rouge perd, couleur gagne or couleur perd. Gain or loss plain. In the battle of June 1918, when the west sector of the over couleur and inverse depends upon the colour of the first card Asiago area was held by British troops, another attack was dedealt. If this should be also the colour of the winning row, the livered there, and although the Austrians at first broke through player wins. Assuming, for example, that the first card dealt is red, at several points they were driven back to their original line. and that the lower row of the cards dealt is nearest to 30, the When the final battle of the war began (Oct. 23, 1918) the Italians, dealer will announce “Rouge gagne et le couleur.” If the first card together with British and French forces, carried out a demonstradealt is red, but the black or top row of cards is nearest to 30, tive action to prevent the enemy from shifting reserves to the the dealer announces “Rouge perd et le couleur.” It frequently Grappa and Piave areas where the main attacks were being dehappens that both rows of cards when added together give the livered. It was from the Asiago plateau that the victorious troops same number. Should they both, for instance, add up to 33, the on Nov. r poured into the Val Sugana, while the I. Army advanced dealer will announce “Trois aprés,” and the deal goes for nothing up the Adige valley and the two forces converged on Trento, except in the event of their adding up to 31. Un après (i.e., 31) is which was reached on Nov. 3. known as a refait; the stakes are put in prison to be left for the TRENTO (Lat. Tridentum; Ger. Trent or Trient), the capidecision of the next deal, or if the player prefers it he can with- tal of a province in the district of Venezia Tridentina, Italy. Pop. draw half his stake, leaving the other half for the bank. Assurance (1921), 31,881, town; 35,130, commune. It stands on the left against a refait can be made by paying 1% on the value of the bank of the Adige where this river is joined by the Fersina, and stake with a minimum of five francs. When thus insured against is a station on the Brenner railway, 35 m. S. of Bolzano and 565 a refait the player is at liberty to withdraw his whole stake, It m. N. of Verona, while a railway runs along the Fersina valley and has been calculated that on an average a refait occurs once in the Val Sugana to Bassano (6o m.). There is also an electric 38 coups. After each deal the cards are pushed into a metal bowl railway to Malè (45 m. N.). It has a very picturesque appearlet into the table in front of the dealer. When he has not enough ance, especially when approached from the north, with its emleft to complete the two rows, he remarks “Les cartes passent”: battled walls and towers filling the whole breadth of the valley. they are taken from the bowl, reshuffled, and another deal begins. A conspicuous feature in the view is the isolated rock Doss Trento TRENTINO, a mountainous area of North Italy, extending (the site of the Roman Verruca), that rises on the right bank E. and W. of the middle course of the Adige. Before the World of the Adige to a height of 308 ft. above the city. The cathedral War it was part of the Austrian province of Tirol. The Trentino (dedicated to San Vigilio, the first bishop) was altered at various frontier, which had been delimited after the war of 1866, was times between the 11th and rsth centuries, and was restored in strategically most unfavourable to Italy, as it left the mountain 1882-89. Outside is the fine fountain of Neptune (1767-69). The ranges wholly in Austrian hands and formed a wedge whence a Renaissance church of Santa Maria Maggiore, built in 1520-39, dozen military roads branched outwards threatening the richest was the scene of the sessions of the famous Oecumenical Council and most fertile parts of Italy. It also left 400,000 Italians un- (see p. 454) which lasted, with several breaks, from 1 545 to 1963, der Austrian rule. During the war the Trentino was the scene during the episcopate of Cristoforo Madruzzo. To the east of of heavy fighting, which extended from the Stelvio pass to the the city rises the Castello del Buon Consiglio, for centuries the Ampezzo valley and spread over into the Asiago plateau within residence of the prince-bishops, which is decorated with interestthe borders of Italy. Early in the war the Italian troops occupied ing frescoes, and contains the museum of antiquities and fine arts

TRENTE ET QUARANTE

(called also Rouge et Noir), a

TRENTON—TRENTON

AND

PRINCETON

457

on the Delaware here, at the mouth of the Assanpink creek, and by 168s a small settlement had grown up around it. In 1714 Stacy sold his plantation at “The Falls” to William Trent, later chief justice of New Jersey, after which the village came to be known as Trent-town, or Trenton. In 1745 Trenton was incorporated as a borough by a royal charter, but in 1750 the citizens voluntarily surrendered this privilege, deeming it “very prejudicial in 1027 the emperor Conrad II. bestowed all temporal rights in to the interest and trade” of the community. In 1783 Trenton the region on the bishop (the see dates from the 4th century) was proposed by the New Jersey delegates in Congress for the and transferred it to Germany, an event which fixed all its later seat of the Federal Government, and in Nov. 1784, while it history. The Venetian attacks were finally repulsed in 1487, and was under consideration, Congress met here for a brief period. the bishop retained his temporal powers till 1803 when they It became the capital of the State in 1790 and was chartered as passed to Austria. In 1814 the Trentino was formally annexed a city in 1792. The modern pottery industry dates from 1852. to the Austrian province of Tirol. Trento became an Italian city In 1860 the population was 17,228; in 1880, 29,910; in I900, 73,307; and in 1910, 96,815. There have been no annexations of in 1919, when the Trentino passed from Austrian to Italian hands. TRENTON, a city of Missouri, U.S.A., roo m. N.E. of Kansas territory since 1900. TRENTON AND PRINCETON, BATTLES OF(1776City, on the east fork of the Grand river; the county seat of Grundy county. It is on Federal highway 65, and is served by the 1777). These battles in the War of American Independence are Quincy, Omaha and Kansas City and the Rock Island railways. noted as the first successes won by Washington in the open field. Pop. (1920) 6,951 (96% native white); 6,992 in 1930 by the Following close upon a series of defeats, their effect upon his Federal census. The Rock Island railway has repair shops here. troops and the population at large was marked. After the capTrenton was platted as the county seat in 1841, incorporated as ture of Ft. Washington on Manhattan island, on Nov. 16, 1776, the British general, Sir William Howe, forced the Americans to a town in 1857, and chartered as a city in 1893. TRENTON, the capital city of New Jersey, U.S.A., and the retreat through New Jersey and across the Delaware into Penncounty seat of Mercer county; on the Lincoln highway and the sylvania. Howe then went into winter quarters, leaving the east bank of the Delaware river, 30 m. N.E. of Philadelphia and Hessian general, Rahl, at Trenton on the river with a brigade of sg m. S.W. of New York city. It has a county airport, and is 1,200 men. Although Washington’s army was discouraged by the served by the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways, 4 inter- year’s disasters, it could still be trusted for a promising exploit, urban electric lines, numerous motor-bus and truck lines and and by reinforcements had been brought up to 6,000 effectives. small steamers and barges on the Delaware river and through Ascertaining that the Hessians at Trenton were practically unthe Delaware and Raritan canal to the Raritan river at New supported, the American general determined to attempt their Brunswick. Pop. (1920) 119,289 (25% foreign-born white); capture. He planned to recross the Delaware with three columns, and 123,356 in 1930, with 35,000 more in contiguous suburbs. but only his own got across. The passage was made on the night of Trenton is at the head of navigation on the Delaware, which Dec. 25, 1776, through floating ice, to a point 9m. above the falls 8 ft. at this point. Three miles of the water front is occupied enemy, whom he expected to reach at dawn of the following day, by Riverside park, and there are municipal docks, wharves and the 26th. Dividing his force of 2,500 men into two divisions warehouses, with which a public roof-garden is combined. The under Generals Sullivan and Greene, he approached the town by city has an area of 8-5 sq.m., of which 266 ac. are in public parks; two roads, surprised the Hessian outposts, and then rushed upon the main body before it could form effectively. The charge of an assessed valuation for 1928 of $248,089,324; and commission form of government, adopted in 1911. It is the seat of a State the American troops and the fire of their artillery and musketry normal school (1855), the State library, the State school for the completely disconcerted the enemy. All avenues of retreat being deaf, the State home for girls, a State hospital for the insane closed and their general mortally wounded, the latter to the (1848), the State prison (1836) and the State arsenal, occu- number of g5o quickly surrendered. Elated by this success and eager to harass the enemy’s adpying the old prison. The State House stands on high ground not far from the river. In Mahlon Stacy park, adjoining the vanced posts at other points, Washington again crossed the Capitol grounds, are the “Hessian” barracks, erected by the Delaware on Dec. 30, and occupied Trenton. Hearing of this Colony in 1758 to mitigate the evils of billeting, and occupied move Lord Cornwallis at Princeton, rom. north of Trenton, by British troops during the Seven Years’ War, and at different marched down with about 7,coo troops wpon the Americans on times during the Revolution by British, Hessian and American Jan. 2, 1777, and drove them across the Assanpink, a stream troops. Washington’s crossing of the Delaware on Christmas running east of the town. The Americans, who encamped on its night, 1776, took place 8 m. above Trenton, and in the centre of banks that night, were placed in a precarious position, as the the city stands a granite column 150 ft. high, marking the spot Delaware, with no boats at their disposal at that point, prevented where he planted his guns in the Battle of Trenton on the follow- their recrossing into Pennsylvania, and all other roads led towards the British lines to the northward. Washington accordingly ing day. Among the interesting old houses are “Woodland” (formerly called “Bloomsbury Court”), built early in the 18th undertook a bold manoeuvre. Fearing an attack by Cornwallis on century by William Trent, “The Hermitage,” and “Bow Hill,” the next morning, he held a council of war, which confirmed his a quaint colonial mansion in the suburbs, which for some time plan of quietly breaking camp that night and taking a by-road to before 1822 was the home of Joseph Bonaparte. Trenton is the Princeton, then cutting through any resistance that might be see of Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishops. There offered there and pushing on to the hills of northern New Jersey, are too churches in the city, 33 public and 17 parochial schools, thus placing his army on the flank of the British posts. His hospitals with about 900 beds and a number of homes and other tactics succeeded. At Princeton (g.v.) he came upon three British charitable institutions under religious auspices. The Trenton regiments, which for a time held him at bay. The 17th foot Municipal Colony, on the outskirts of the city, is an assemblage especially, under Colonel Mawhood, twice routed the American of the city’s institutions for the care of the sick and the aged, in advanced troops, inflicting severe loss, but were eventually driven connection with a farm of 25 acres. There are two daily papers: back toward Trenton. The other regiments retreated north the State Gazette, established in 1792, and the Times (1882). toward New Brunswick, and Washington continued his march Trenton is an important industrial city, with 284 manufacturing to Morristown, New Jersey. Here he was on the flank of the establishments in 1927, producing goods valued at $107,416,599, British communications with New York, and hence Cornwallis

for the district. Opposite the railway station a statue of Dante | by Zocchi was erected in 1896. Tridentum, the capital of the Tridentini, was a station on the great road from Verona to Veldidena (Innsbruck) over thee Brenner. It was later ruled by the Ostrogoths (sth century) and the Lombards (6th century) after the conquest of whom by the Franks (774) Trento became part of the kingdom of Italy. But

retired to New Brunswick. Washington, besides his success in breaking through Howe’s lines, had placed himself in an advantageous position for recruiting his army and maintaining a strong Bank debits in 1927 aggregated $905,187,000. In 1680 Mahlon Stacy, a Quaker of Burlington, erected a mill | defensive in the next campaign. These two affairs of Trenton and of which $16,047,334 represented pottery (14% of the total produced in the United States) and $1,662,818 other clay products.

TREPOV—TREVELYAN

4.58

Princeton put new life into the American cause, and established Washington in the confidence of his troops and the country. vee W. S. Stryker, Tke Battles of Trenton and Princeton

(Boston,

1898) ; and Varnum L. Collins, ed., “A Contemporary Account of the Battles of Trenton and Princeton,” pub. No. r (Princeton, N.J., 1906).

TREPOV,

DIMITRI

Princeton

Hist.

FEODOROVICH

Assoc,

Extra

(1855-1906),

Russian general, chief of the imperial police, born at St. Petersburg (Leningrad), was city prefect of Moscow. In the disturbances of 1905 he was placed in command of St. Petersburg, when

he immediately took steps to expel all those who had taken part in the procession led by Father Gapon to the Winter Palace. The result was an epidemic of strikes throughout the empire. In the railway strike (Oct. 20) Trepov gave the famous order to the troops “not to spare their cartridges.’ He was now made commandant of the imperial police, and used his great power to undermine the authority of Count Witte with the tsar. He then became assistant-minister of the interior. An unsuccessful attempt to assassinate him was made on March 30, 1905. He died on Sept. I5, 1906.

TRESCOT,

WILLIAM

HENRY

(1822-1898), American

diplomatist, was born in Charleston, S.C., on Nov. 10, 1822. He graduated at Charleston college in 1840, studied law at Harvard, and was admitted to the bar in 1843. In June, 1860 he was appointed assistant secretary of State, and he was acting secretary of State in June-October, during Gen. Lewis Cass’s absence from

Washington. His position was important, because of his intimacy with President Buchanan and his close relations with the secession leaders in South Carolina. He opposed the re-enforcement of Ft. Sumter and used his influence to prevent any attack on the fort by South Carolina before the meeting of the State’s convention called to consider the question of secession. He returned to Charleston in Feb. 1861; served as colonel on the staff of Gen. Roswell S. Ripley during the Civil War; and later returned to Washington. He was counsel for the United States before the Halifax Fishery commission in 1877; was minister to Chile in 188r~82 and in 1882 with Gen. U. S. Grant negotiated a commercial treaty with Mexico. He died at Pendleton, S.C., on May 4, 1898. His writings include The Diplomacy of the Revolution (1852), An

American View of the Eastern Question

History

of the Administrations

(1854)

of Washington

and The Diplomatic

and Adams

(1857).

TRESPASS, in Jaw, any transgression of the law less than

treason, felony or misprision of either. The term includes a great variety of wrongs committed to land, goods or person. Up to 1694 the trespasser was regarded, nominally at any rate, as a criminal, and was liable to a fine for the breach of the peace, commuted for a small sum of money, for which 5 Will. and Mar. c. 12 (1693) substituted a fee of 6s.8d. recoverable as costs against the defendant. Trespass is not now criminal except by special statutory enactment, e.g., the old statutes against forcible entry, the game acts, and the private acts of many railway: companies. When, however, trespass is carried sufficiently far it may become criminal, and be prosecuted as assault if to the person, as nuisance if to the land. At one time an important distinction was drawn between trespass general and trespass special or trespass on the case, for which see Torr.

to the person, property or rights of another, as the immediate result of a wrongful act committed with actual or implied force. The statutes have provided for criminal trespass In many States, but not to the extent as existed prior to 1694 in England. Tres-

pass on the realty of another often is a criminal offence, through statutory enactment in the States.

TRES TABERNAE

(Three Taverns), an ancient village of

Latium, Italy, a post station on the Via Appia.

It is probable

that it stood at Cisterna, where a branch road running from Antium joins the Via Appia. Tres Tabernae is best known as the point to which St. Paul’s friends came to meet him on his journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). It became an episcopal see, but this was united with that of Velletri in 592.

TRESVIRI or TRIUMVIRI, in Rome, a board of three,

either ordinary officials or extraordinary commissioners. 1. Tresvivt capitales, whose duty it was to assist the higher magistrates in their judicial functions, especially criminal, were first appointed about 289 B.c. They possessed no criminal jurisdiction or ius prensionis (right of arrest) in their own right. They kept watch over prisoners and carried out the death sentence; took accused or suspected persons into custody; and exercised general control over the city police. They went the rounds by night to maintain order, and had to be present at outbreaks of fire. They assisted the aediles in burning forbidden books. They had to collect the sacramenta (deposit forfeited by the losing party in a suit) and examined the plea of exemption put forward by those who refused to act as jurymen. In imperial times most of their functions passed into the hands of the praefectus vigilum.

2. Tresviri epulones, a priestly body, assisted at public banquets. They were first created in 196 B.c. to superintend the epulum Iovis (banquet of Jupiter) on the Capitol, but their services were also requisitioned on the occasion of triumphs, imperial birthdays, the dedication of temples, games given by private individuals, and so forth, when entertainments were provided for the people. 3. Tresviri monetales were superintendents of the mint, up to the Social War occasional, afterwards permanent, officials. As they acted for the senate they only coined copper money under the empire, the gold and silver coinage being under the exclusive control of the emperor. 4. Tresviri reipublicae constituendae was the title bestowed upon Octavianus, Lepidus and Antony for five years by the lex Titia, 43 B.c. The coalition of Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus has also been called a “triumvirate,” but they never had the title tresviri, and were not a formally appointed commission. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. H. J. Greenidge, Roman Public Life (1901); J. E. Sandys, Companion to Latin Studies (1921); W. E. Heitland, Lhe Roman Republic (1923).

TREVELYAN, GEORGE MACAULAY (C.B.E. 1920), English historian (1876— ), third son of Sir George Otto Trevelyan (g.v.), was born on Feb. 16, 1876, and educated at Harrow and at Trinity college, Cambridge. During the World War he served as Commandant of the rst British Ambulance unit for Italy (1915-18). In 1927 he became regius professor of modern history at Cambridge. | His numerous publications include: England under the Stuarts In its more restricted sense trespass is generally used for entry (1907); Garibaldi and the Making of Italy (1911); The Life of on land without lawful authority by either a man, his servants or John Bright (1913); Lord Grey of the Reform Bill (1920); Brithis cattle. To maintain an action for such trespass the plaintiff ish History of the Nineteenth Century, 1782—r1901 (1922); Manin must have possession of the premises. The most minute invasion and the Venetian Revolution of 1848 (1923) and History of of private right is trespass. In addition to damages for trespass, an England (1926). injunction may be granted by the court. TREVELYAN, SIR GEORGE OTTO, O.M. rorz (1838Trespass may be justified by exercise of a legal right, as to 1928), English historian, was born on July 20, 18 38, ‘at Rothley serve the process of the law, or by invitation or licence of the Temple, Leicestershire, the son of Sir C. E. Trevelyan and his Owner, or may be excused by accident or inevitable necessity, as wife Hannah More Macaulay. He had a brilliant career at deviation from a highway out of repair. Harrow, which he entered in 1851, and at Trinity College, CamIn Scots law trespass is used only for torts to land. By the bridge. In 1862 he went to India as his father’s private secreTrespass (Scotland) Act 1865 trespassers are liable on summary tary, and while there wrote two humorous books, The Dawk conviction to fine and imprisonment for encamping, lighting fires, Bungalow, and The Competition Wallah, and in 1865 his first etc., on land without the consent and permission of the owner. serious work, Cawnpore. In 1864 he was again in London, and In the United States, common law doctrines as to trespass the following year was returned as Liberal M.P. for Tynemouth. hold in most of the States. It means, more particularly, an injury | From 1868 to 1887 he represented the Hawick Burghs, and from

TREVES—TREVITHICK 1887 until his retirement in 1897, the Bridgeton division of Glasgow. In 1868 he had become a civil lord of the Admiralty, but

resigned two years later. He then completed his Life of his uncle Lord Macaulay, which was immediately recognised as a master-

piece of biography. He was for two years (1880-82) secretary to the Admiralty, and then became for a year chief secretary for Treland, after the murder of Lord Frederick Cavendish. The strain of this position told severely on his health, and he returned in 1884, and was given the office of the duchy of Lancaster, with

a seat in the cabinet. He was credited with a large share in the authorship of the measure extending household suffrage to the counties (1885). He was secretary for Scotland in the first Home Rule parliament, but resigned with Chamberlain two months later. With Chamberlain he joined the Round Table Conference on the trish question at Harcourt’s house. Finding, however, that Liberal Unionism could not stand alone, he took office under Gladstone in 1892 as secretary for Scotland, a post which he held also in Lord Rosebery’s government. His many honours were crowned in grr with the Order of Merit. His Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay (1876) still holds its place as a biography of the first importance, and a new edition was issued in 1923. His next work was The Early History of Charles James Fox (1880). The second volume which he intended to write, was put aside in favour of his history of The American Revolution. This history led to a long and interesting correspondence with Roosevelt, to whom he sent a copy in 1904, some of Roosevelt’s letters being published later in Scribuer’s Magazine. He married in September, 1869, Caroline, daughter of R. N. Philips. He died on Aug. 16, 1928, and was succeeded in the baronetcy by his eldest son, Charles Philips Trevelyan, M.P.

(b. 1870) who was minister for education in Ramsay MacDonald’s two administrations, in 1924 and 1928. His second son, Robert Calverley Trevelyan, is the author of admirable translations from the Greek drama, and of original verse. His third son was George

Macaulay Trevelyan (g.v.). TREVES, SIR FREDERICK

(1853-1923),

British sur-

geon, was born at Dorchester on Feb. 15, 1853, and was educated at Merchant Taylor’s school, London, and the London hospital, where he became surgical registrar. In 1881 he was appointed as professor of pathology and in 1885 as professor of anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons, subsequently going into private practice. He served as consulting surgeon during the South African War in 1900, and was made surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria in that year and surgeon to King Edward VII. in 1901. He operated on King Edward VII. when he fell ill in June 1902. He was created K.C.V.O. in rg0r and a baronet in r902, and later serjeant-surgeon to King George and surgeon in ordinary to Queen

Alexandra.

During the World War he assisted in the founding of

459

pal picture gallery) contain paintings by artists of the Umbrian school—notably Lo Spagna, a pupil of Perugino. The cathedral (S. Emiliano) has a group of three altars decorated with fine sculptures by Rocco da Vicenza (1521).

TREVISO

(anc. Tarvistum), a town and episcopal see of

Venetia, Italy, capital of the province of Treviso, 49 ft. above sea-level. Pop. in rg2r, 35,366 (town); 49,737 (commune). It is situated on the plain between the Gulf of Venice and the Alps, 18 m. by rail north of Venice, at the confluence of the Sile with the Botteniga. The former flows partly round its walls, the latter through the town; and it has canal communication with the lagoons. It has narrow irregular colonnaded streets and old frescoed houses. The cathedral of San Pietro, dating from 1141 and restored and enlarged in the 15th century by Pietro Lombardo, with a classical facade of 1836, has seven domes. It contains a fine “Annunciation” by Titian (1519), an important

“Adoration of the Shepherds” by Paris Bordone (born at Treviso in 1500), and frescoes by Pordenone. There are also sculptures by Lorenzo and Battista Bregno and others. The baptistery is Romanesque. The Gothic church of San Nicolò (1310— 52) contains important works of art, including a large altarpiece by Fra Marco Pensabene and others; in the church and adjoining chapter-house are frescoes by Tommaso da Modena (1352), some frescoes by whom (life of S. Ursula) are also in the Museo Civico. The churches of S. Leonardo, S. Andrea, S. Maria Maggiore, and S. Maria Maddalena also contain art treasures. The Piazza dei Signori contains picturesque brick battlemented palaces—the Palazzo dei Trecento (c. 1207) and the Palazzo Pretorio (1218— 68). The loggia dei Cavalieri (1195) is also fine. The ancient Tarvisium lay off the main roads, and is hardly men-

tioned by ancient writers. In the 6th century it appears as an important place and was the seat of a Lombard duke. Charlemagne made it the capital of a marquisate. It joined the Lombard league, and was independent after the peace of Constance (1183) until, in 1339, it came under the Venetian sway. From 1318 it was for a short time the seat of a university. Its walls and ramparts were renewed under the direction of Fra Giocondo (1509), two of the gates, the Porta Mazzini and Porta Cavour, dating from I517-18. Treviso was taken in 1797 by the French under Mortier

(duke of Treviso). In March 1848 the Austrian garrison was driven from the town by the revolutionary party, but in the following June the town was bombarded and compelled to capitulate. See A, Marchesan,

Treviso medioevale

TREVITHICK, RICHARD

(Treviso, 1923).

(1771-1833), English engineer

and inventor, was born on April 13 in the parish of Illogan, Cornwall, and was the only son of Richard Trevithick (1735-97), manager of the Dolcoath and other important Cornish mines. His

earliest invention of importance was his improved plunger pole

pump (1797) for deep mining, and in 1798 he applied the principle His publications include several surgical and medical books, of of the plunger pole pump to the construction of a water-pressure which Surgical Applied Anatomy (1883) is well known, as well as engine, which he subsequently improved in various ways. Two a number of more popular books such as The Tales of a Field years later he built a high-pressure non-condensing steam-engine, Hospital (1900), The Riviera of the Corniche Road (1921), The Lake which became a rival of the low-pressure steam-vacuum engine of Geneva (1922), and The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences of Watt. He was a precursor of George Stephenson in the con(1923). struction of locomotive engines. On Christmas Eve 1801 his comTREVET (or Trivet), NICHOLAS (c. 1258-c. 1328), mon road locomotive carried the first load of passengers ever conEnglish chronicler, was the son of Sir Thomas Trevet (d. 1283), veyed by steam, and on March 24, 1802 he and Andrew Vivian a judge, and became a Dominican friar. After studying at Oxapplied for a patent for steam-engines in propelling carriages. ford and in Paris, he spent most of his subsequent years in In 1803 another steam vehicle made by him was run in the streets his is writing and teaching, and died about 1328. His chief work of London, from Leather Lane along Oxford Street to Paddington, Annales sex regum Angliae, a chronicle of English history covering the period between 1135 and 1307; this is valuable for the the return journey being made by Islington. He next built a steam locomotive for tramways, and in Feb. 1804 at Pen-y-darran in later part of the reign of Henry III. and especially for that of Wales he worked a tramroad locomotive which was able to haul: Edward I. 20 tons of iron; a similar engine was supplied to the Wylam colThe Annales were published in Paris in 1668, in Oxford in 17109, and were edited by Thomas Hog for the English Historical Society liery (Newcastle) in the following year. In 1808 he constructed a circular railway in London near Euston Square, on which the public in 1845. Manuscripts are at Oxford and in the British Museum. were carried at the rate of 12 or 15 miles an hour round curves of Perugia, of province the of town a TREVI (anc. Trebiae), Italy, 30 m. S.E. of Perugia and 5 m. S. of Foligno by rail. Pop. so or ioo ft. radius. Trevithick applied his high-pressure engine (1921), 4,566 (town); 6,009 (commune). The town stands on with great success to rock boring and breaking, as well as to a steep hill 1,355 ft. above sea-level. Several of its churches are dredging. In 1806 he contracted with the board of Trinity House, architecturally interesting, especially the Madonna delle Lacrime London, to lift ballast from the bottom of the Thames, at the rate (1487) outside the town, and most of them (and also the munici- of 500,000 tons a year, for a payment of 6d. a ton. Trevithick

the British Red Cross.

400

TRIAL—TRIANGLE

was the first to recognize the importance of iron in the construction of large ships, and in various ways his ideas also influenced the construction of steamboats. He was a pioneer in the application of steam to agriculture. A high-pressure steam threshing engine was erected by him in 1812 at Trewithen, while in the same year, in a letter to the Board of Agriculture, he stated his belief that every process in agriculture might be performed by steam, and that such a use of the steam-engine would “double the population of the kingdom and make our markets the cheapest in the world.” In 1814 he entered on an agreement for the construction of engines for mines in Peru, and to superintend their working removed to Peru in 1816. Thence he went in 1822 to Costa Rica. He returned to England in 1827, and in 1828 petitioned parliament for a reward for his inventions, but without success. He died, penniless, at Dartford on April 22, 1833.

at B and b, since in this case the triangle ABC might equally well have had the form of ABC’ in the figure, and therefore not have agreed with abc in form.

Two triangles are congruent if the three sides of the one are equal respectively to the three sides of the other. Two triangles are congruent tf a side of one is equal to a side of the other, and if the angles at the ends of these equal sides are the same in both triangles. Thus the triangles ABC and abe will be identical in form if

A Life of Richard Trevithick, with an account of his Inventions was published in 1872 by his third son, Francis Trevithick (1812-77).

TRIAL: see PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE. TRIAL BY BATTLE: see DuEL and WAGER. TRIAL OF ANIMALS, an ancient legal custom which persisted in Europe until recent times and which is continued by variaus savage or barbaric peoples. There is evidence that it grew out of the popular belief that animals are intelligent and consequently moraily responsible for their acts. However, the old doctrine of deodand (g.v.), which penalized inanimate objects that had taken human life, may be germane to the concept of the responsibility of animals, in which case both must be traced to the idea underlying animism: that not only human beings, but all other entities, are endowed with volition and consciousness. An early example of legal procedure against animals is furnished by Exodus xxi., 28: “And if an ox gore a man or a woman to death, the ox shall be surely stoned.” Plato, in The Laws, prescribed that “If a beast of burden or any other animal shall kill anyone, except while the animal is competing in the public games, the relatives of the deceased shall prosecute it for murder.” In Western Europe procedure against animals was settled, both in the ecclesiastical and civil courts; in all cases they were provided with counsel, were duly summoned to appear, exceptions taken in their favour were considered, and their sentences sometimes commuted on the grounds of relative youth, exiguity of body, or a reputation for respectability: a she-ass condemned to death in France in 1750 was pardoned because of gaod character. Brstiocrapay.—G. Bailly, Traité des monitoires (1668); BerriatSaint-Prix, “Rapports . . . sur les procès ... ? Mém. et diss... Soc. Roy. Ant. Fr., vol. viii., pp. 403-450 (1829); Léon Ménabréa, .,- “Des jugements ... coutre les animaux,” Mém. Soc Roy. Ac. Savoie, vol. xii. pp. 399-557 (1846) ; E. P. Evans, The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals (1906); E. W. Clodd and J. Hastings in Enc. Rel. and Ethics (1912); E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas (2nd ed., 1912-17); J. G. Frazer, Folk-Lore in the Old Testament (1919).

TRIANGLE.

A triangle, or more precisely a plane triangle,

is the geometrical figure composed of three points called the vertices (not lying in one straight line), and the three straight lines joining these, called the sides. Since no part of a plane can be inclosed by fewer than three straight lines, the triangle ranks as the simplest figure of its class, and plays a correspondingly important part in both practical and theoretical geometry. Congruence Theorems.—It is important to recognize the conditions under which two triangles may be known to be congruent; that is, alike in all respects except position in space, so that the one triangle is merely the other moved into a new position without change of form. The most important theorems of this character have been known from very ancient times, and were handed down in the first book of Euclid’s Elements. Two triangles are congruent if two sides of the one are respectively equal im length to two sides of the other, and if these two sides are in each case inclined at the same angle. Thus in figure 1, to be sure that the triangles ABC and abc are exactly alike, it is enough to know that AB=ab, AC=ac, and the angle at d=the angle at a. It would not be enough to know that

these same two pairs of sides were equal together with the angles

FIG.

f

BC=be, the angle at B=the angle at b, and the angle at C=the angle at c.

This theorem supplies the basis for the method of triangulation. If B and C are given stations whose position is known, the measurement of the angles ABC and ACB will determine, together with a knowledge of BC, the form of the triangle ABC, and so the position of A. Two triangles are congruent if two angles of the one are equal to two angles of the other respectively, and if the sides opposite one of the equal pairs of angles are equal. This theorem is readily reduced to the one before by means of the property stated at the beginning of the next section. The same consideration prepares us to accept the statement that two triangles may have the angles of one equal to the angles of the other without being congruent. In such a case the triangles are similar in shape, but may be of different sizes. Relations Between the Parts of a Triangle—The foregoing remarks emphasize the fact that the three sides and the three angles are not six independent magnitudes to which any values whatsoever may be given. For instance it is impossible to draw a triangle in which all the sides are equal and the angles unequal. The simplest relation connecting the parts of a triangle in general is that the sum of the three angles is two right angles. This follows from the fact that, when one side is continued outside the triangle, the angle so formed on the outside is equal to the sum of the angles inside the triangle at the other two vertices. The latter relation is exhibited in figure 1 for the triangle ABC, the line CD, drawn parallel to BA, dividing the exterior angle into two parts, of which DCA’ is equal to A, and A | DDC to B. The relation between the three

„angles enables one to find the value of the third when

two

of the angles

are

known. Thus, if two of the angles are 60° and 70°, the third is 180°—60°—70° = 50°. It is convenient to consider here certain D special forms of triangle. A triangle with two equal sides is called dsosceles. Such a triangle has the angles opposite to these sides also equal. This is easily proved by joining the middle point of the unequal TE side to the opposite vertex and deducing i the congruence of the two triangles so formed. The proof given by Euclid was much more elaborate, because Euclid did not permit the use of the middle point at a stage when the problem of finding it had not been taken up; and the

theorem was nick-named the pons asinorum, and regarded at one

time as a notable obstacle to the beginner in geometry. A right triangle is one which has one of its angles a right angle.

In figure 2 the triangle ABC has a right angle at C. Evidently CB=AB X s, and AC=AB X k, where s and k are proper frac-

tions depending on the angle A, and not on the size of the triangle.

461

TRIANGLE—TRIANON The ratios s and & are called the sine and cosine respectively of the angle A, and their theory constitutes the science of trigonometry (g.v.). If CD is perpendicular to AB, by the similarity of the three triangles, BD=CBxXs=ABxXS*, and AD=ACXk= AB x k?. Since AD+ BD=AB, it follows that s? -+ k?=1. On multiplying this equation by AB, it is seen that BC? ++ AC?= AB*, Here the meaning of BC? may be understood to be the

the sides of the triangle.

BrsriocrapHy.—For advanced reading there are J. Casey, A Sequel to Euclid (1889), and C. V. Durell, Plane Geometry for Advanced Students (1909-10) ; N. Altshiller-Court, College Geometry (1925);

TRIANGLE,

in music, an instrument of percussion of in-

definite musical pitch, consisting of a rod of steel bent into the form of a triangle. Suspended by a loop, it is played by means of a short steel rod. The tone of the triangle is clear and ringing, but it should have no definite pitch.

TRIANON, TREATY

FIG.

3

arithmetical square of the number of units in BC. The side AB opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse of the right triangle, and the result just obtained is that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides, a theorem ascribed to Pythagoras (q.v.), and of the utmost im-

(C. F. Gu).

R. A. Johnson, Modern Geometry (1929).

OF.

The treaty of peace between

the Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary was signed at the Trianon on June 4, 1920. Owing to the outbreak of Béla Kun’s revolution in Hungary, the delegates of that nation were not summoned to the Peace Conference till Nov. 1919. Previous to that date, however, on June 13, 1919 the Supreme Council had decided upon the new frontiers of Rumania and Czechoslovakia and had published them. The Hungarian Government received the treaty in Jan. 1920 and on June 4 it was signed at Trianon, Though the separation of Hungary from Austria and its complete independence were recognized, the details of the Hungarian Treaty were otherwise very closely akin to those of the Austrian, the most important difference being that, while the Treaty of St. Germain was signed with the republic of Austria, that of Trianon was signed with Hungary, or with “the national Government of Hungary,” a phrase permitting her to be regarded as a Government where the monarchy is temporarily in suspense. Though Charles never abdicated the kingship of Hungary and there is no provision in the treaty for his deposition or for that of any Habsburg, he was formally deposed by a law passed by the Hungarian Assembly (after his attempted Putsch, Oct. 1921) at

the insistence of the Allies.

(See Hasssurc.)

On her admis-

sion to the League of Nations in 1922 Hungary submitted to the League a document pledging herself not to restore the Habsburgs without the consent of the Allies, and confirming the under-

taking to the Conference of Ambassadors of Nov. fo, 1921. Territorial Clauses.—The territorial clauses of the Hun-

portance in geometry.

garian Treaty reduced her to a population of 7,500,000 (1910 census), of whom approximately 6,250,000 are Hungarians (Magyars); 500,000 are Germans, 500,000 are Jews, 230,000 are Slavs greater of two unequal sides has the greater angle opposite to it. and Slovaks and 50,000 are Rumanians, Fiume was ceded to the As supplementing the preceding statement (2) we have the sine principal Allies by article 53 and, after being erected into a free formula. In fig. 3, if CR is perpendicular to AB, the sines of A city, was eventually annexed by Italy (1924). Hungary lost to other nations over 3,000,000 Magyars, of whom 1,500,000 go to and B are respectively ae and =. These are proportional to Rumania, nearly 1,000,000 to Czechoslovakia and 500,000 to YuBC and AC, so that the sines of angles are proportional to the goslavia. Much of the Magyar population lost (as e.g., the Székler area) consists of Magyar islands isolated amid a sea of lengths of the opposite sides. Also BC? =RB?+RC= (AB—AR)? +-(AC?—AR?) = AB’+AC?—2AB-AR = AB’+-AC?—2AB-AC-R, Slavs or Rumanians. The Pécs area, with its valuable coal mines, where & is the cosine of A. These two relations are of great im- was returned and a line drawn in this area so as to give Hungary a defensible frontier. For economic reasons the three Magyar portance in triangle computations. Associated Lines and Circles.—It is only possible to quote towns of Satul-Mare (Szatmar) Oradea-Mare (Nagyvárad) and summarily a few of the more interesting configurations that arise Arad and the surrounding Magyar zone were given to Rumania. Part V.—The military, naval and air clauses were almost in connection with the triangle. The construction for the cirsimilar to those of the Austrian Treaty except that Hunexactly reveals vertices) the through passes (which circle cumscribed allowed an army of 35,000 instead of Austria’s 30,000. was gary sides the to that the three straight lines drawn perpendicular through their middle points meet at a common point, the centre Part VI., Prisoners of War and Graves, and Part VII., Penalties, were the same as in the Austrian Treaty. (See ST. GERMAIN, of the circle in question. The centre of the inscribed circle (which touches the sides and TREATY OF.) Part VIII—Reparation.—This section is verbally almost lies between them) is the intersection of another set of concurrent lines, the three internal bisectors of the angles of the triangle. identical with the Austrian section, and both are a close imitation The bisectors of two exterior angles, as BE and CE in fig. 3, of the German. For various reasons it was not possible to fix meet at a point on the bisector of the interior angle at the other the exact amount of reparation. But Hungary was forced to survertex, this point being the centre of another circle touching the render all rights to her merchant ships on “the ton for ton, class for class basis,’ and her reparations in kind were to be fixed in three sides. Four circles mm all are found to touch the sides. which was to deliver The lines joining the vertices to the middle points L,M AV, of three months by the Reparation Commission, and to the Serb-Croat-Slovene kingRumania, to Italy, to cattle perThe centroid. the called G point a in meet sides opposite the pendiculars AP, BQ and CR meet in a point O, called the ortho- dom (Annex iv. to Part viil.).

Allusion may be made to two triangle inequalities. (1) The sum of any two sides is greater than the third side; (2) the.

centre.

There is the remarkable theorem that the points L,M,N,P, Q,R and the middle points U,V,W of AQ, BO, CO lie on a circle (the nine-point circle), and the still more striking result (Feuer-

bach’s Theorem) that this circle touches the four circles touching

Financial

and Economic

Clauses.—Articles

180-199

are

mainly concerned with liquidating the Austro-Hungarian National Bank, thus separating the last link with Austria. Part X., the economic clauses, calls for no special remark, nor does Part XL, Aerial Navigation. The economic clauses are the same as the Aus-

TRIASSIC

462

SYSTEM

trian; the latter like that of both German and Austrian Treaties. Part XII., ports, waterways and railways, is mainly concerned with the regulation of the Danube, for which a statute was even-

In North and Central Germany the Zechstein clays are succeeded conformably by clayey Bunter beds. In other districts there is unconformity, with overlap of higher members of the

tually drawn up. As in the case of the Austrian Treaty (Article 311), the Hungarian in Article 294 provides for the free access of Hungary to the Adriatic, though practically nothing has been done to secure it. Part XIII., labour, is the same in all treaties and Part XIV., miscellaneous provisions, calls for no remark.

Bunter. The R6th contains rock-salt and bivalve-bearing beds of lime-

BIBLIoGRAPHY.—H. W. V. Temperley, ed. History of Peace Confer-

ence, vol. 4-5, including texts of Treaty and of agreements of contributions towards Act of Liberation (1921); George Birmingham, A Wayfarer in Hungary (1925). See also: Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary, and Protocol and Declaratg aaa at Trianon, June 4, 1920 (Treaty series No. 10, cmd. 896 of 1920).

TRIASSIC SYSTEM or TRIAS, geological terms used to designate the lowest major division of the Mesozoic

era—given

by F. von Alberti (1834) owing to the division of the system into a threefold series in Germany, in contradistinction to the twofold division (Dyas) of the underlying Permian.

Like the Permian

(g.v.) the Trias is represented by two

phases of sedimentation, the one continental as in Germany, the other marine—the latter being the normal aspect. Where the marine facies is developed the division between the Permian and Triassic systems, or in other words between the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras, can best be drawn by means of the faunas. Where the continental facies occurs fossil evidence is scanty, and the general similarity of the deposits, together with their rapid changes in lithological type, makes it difficult to define the boundaries of the two systems. In Britain they are so closely knit that the term New Red Sandstone was formerly suggested by Goodchild for the combined Permo-Trias; and there is a tendency to revert to that grouping.

Records of the continental phase reside in breccias, conglomerates, red and mottled sandstones, marls and clays, with beds of dolomite, limestone and coal, and layers of gypsum, anhydrite or rock-salt. The coarser deposits consist of frost- or

sun-riven scree material accumulated almost in situ, or as widespreading torrential fans. Conglomerates afford evidence of transportation by water, whilst the oblique bedding of certain sandstones, coupled with the perfect rounding of many of the grains and the dreikanter form of some of the enclosed pebbles, point to the action of wind. Some of the sands may represent dunes, but the majority were deposited with layers of mud in sheets of water which were shallow and subject to frequent desiccation. Of this we have evidence in reptilian footprints, fossil rain-pits, ripple-marks, sun-cracks and precipitated salts. Fresh influxes of water are shown by pellets of sun-dried mud and salt-pseudomorphs included in the sandstones. GERMANY

The Trias occupies a larger area than any other formation in Germany and is classified as follows :— {aon :

Rhaetic Keuper

Muschelkalk

Bunter

contoria

and clays with Avicula

Bone bed

Steinmergel and Stubensandstein (eee and Schlifsandstein [Latent Kohlenkeuper ;Lettenkohlensandstein Dolomitic limestones and marls fTrigonodus beds HauptN odusus beds

Gypsekeuper

Muschelkalk jhe

Kalk

Anhydrite group, dolomite, and marls and limestones with rock-salt, gypsum and anhydrite

Wellenkalk, with Schaumkalk zones near top Upper or R&th: variegated clays or marls with plants Middle or Hauptsandstein (and Vosgessandstein), with subordinate conglomerates Lower: Sandstones (some clayey) and shales, with oolite (Rogenstein)

stone and dolomite (Rhizocorallum Dolomite). The Muschelkalk—mainly calcareous—is the only division with a considerable fauna, which is poor, however, in comparison with that of the marine deposits of the Alps. In extent it is inferior to the Bunter, its westward limits stopping short of central France, although it occurs near Toulon and Montpellier.

In Alsace-Lorraine the Lower Muschelkalk takes on a sandy facies (Muschelsandstein) as does the Middle division in part of Luxembourg. The Upper Muschelkalk is the richest in fossils, being characterized by Ceratites nodosus, C. semipartitus and C. enodis. The Keuper (Marnes irisées of France) comprises red and variegated clays, pale sandstones, limestones, dolomites and impure coals. Estuarine conditions in the Kohlenkeuper are shown by Myophoria goldfussi and Estheria minuta as well as relics of fishes (Acrodus, Ceratodus, etc.), and terres-

trial conditions by Labyrinthodonts and Saurians (Mastodonseurus, etc.). The Gypsekeuper contains rock-salt in Lorraine. Stubensandstein and Schlifsandstein occur in south Germany. The former yields saurian remains (Aétosaurus ferratus and Belodon kappfi), the latter plants (Equisetum arenaceum, etc.). Rhaetic beds, typical of the Rhaetic Alps, mark the return into western Europe, by a wide-spread marine transgression, of the seas that characterized the subsequent Mesozoic era, and form a passage between Keuper and Lias (Infra-Lias of France), although the molluscan fauna and the flora suggest a Triassic age. In Germany the Rhaetic consists mainly of pale sandstones

and grey shales. The fauna—with Avicula (Pteria) contorta, Protocardum rhaeticum, and’ other forms—is not rich, but highly important, because of its great extent. Remarkable features are the bone-beds, a few inches thick, which occur at

several horizons, crowded with teeth, bones, scales and coprolites of fishes and reptiles. Here are found Jchthyosaurus and

Plesiosaurus, anticipating their maximum development; while remains of Belodon and Mystriosuchus serve as a link with Triassic Stegocephalian reptiles. Teeth of Microlestes ANTIQUUS, the oldest known mammal, occurred near Stuttgart.

Trias of German type, including Muschelkalk, extends at inter-

vals beyond the Pyrenees to the south of Spain. Triassic rocks occur in Heligoland and there is an outlier of Upper Triassic in the south of Sweden which includes coal-bearing Keuper and marine Rhaetic. Trias with Muschelkalk extends from Silesia into Poland. In north-west Russia the beds belong chiefly to the

Tartaric stage—in part only Triassic. BRITAIN

AND

IRELAND

As in Germany (excluding the Rhaetic) the Trias of Great Britain is of continental facies. Its outcrop in England and Wales is narrow in the south-west, but expands in the Midlands and bifurcates at the southern end of the Pennines, one extension projecting into Durham, the other into Cumberland and Westmorland, whence it extends into parts of south Scotland. Other occurrences are found in the Western Isles and on the opposed shores of Moray firth. Denudation has removed the Trias from all but north-eastern Ireland. No representative of the Muschelkalk has been found. The deposits usually follow the Permian (where developed) with conformity, although minor discordances occur here and there. Tending to fill up the Permian basins, they spread, in many cases, further afield and rest upon still older rocks, their higher members often overlapping their lower divisions. The typical sequence is as follows, and is compared with that occur-

ring west of the Pennines:

The relationship of Trias to Permian is difficult to determine. As stated elsewhere (see Permian) it has been claimed that part, if not all, of the Bunter of Nottinghamshire is equivalent to a great part of the Permian Zechstein of Durham. This awaits more general acceptance or denial: what may be conceded

TRIASSIC S. Lancashire and

the Midlands

Furness (Lancs.), Westmorland, Cumber- Maximum DRE T thickness jand and Isle of Man

Maximum thickness ee

Rhaetic beds (marine)

? Rhaetic beds

Over (Maris with gypsum |

&,| Waterstones

i

=

'

ate

I

"a

*

‘

'

a

H

1!

l

i

`

“ai :

P

n,

me à

e

Me

o

the most southerly and, next to Jamaica, the

largest of the British West Indian islands. Pop. (1925) including Tobago, 385,091. It is situated 6m. E. of the coast of Venezuela, between 10° 3’ and 10° 50’ N. and 60° 30’ and 62° W. Average length, 48m.; breadth, 35m.; area 1,754 sq. miles. In shape BY COURTESY OF THOMAS F. LEE it is almost square, with promontories westward from its north A HINDU TEMPLE IN TRINIDAD, SHOWING SEVERAL PRIESTS ON THE STEPS and south corners, enclosing the Gulf of Paria. To the west of Brea and Point Fortin in the south-west, and Guayaguayare in the northern spur lie several islands, of which Chacachacare, the south-east, proved the presence of oil in large quantities. A Huevos Monos and Monos Gaspar Grande are the most impor- considerable oil field has been located which has only in parts tant. The surface is undulating or level, except in the north and as yet been tapped, but a flourishing industry has already been south, where there are ranges of hills running east and west, established, the exports in 1928 being 5,200,000 barrels of oil prolongations of the Venezuelan coast ranges. Of these the north- and benzol, much of it refined locally. ern is the more elevated, its highest point being Tucuche Peak The soil of the island is very rich, and well adapted to the (3,r00ft.). The southern hills attain 600ft. A small ridge runs growth of tropical products, especially of sugar and cocoa, which east to west by south, through the centre of the island, from are its staples. Planting of new lands is rapidly progressing, the Manzanilla Point to San Fernando, with the isolated Mt. Tamana ` greater part of the unsold Crown lands (various blocks of which (1,028). The hills of the northern and southern ranges, fur- have been formed into forest or water reserves) containing a rowed by innumerable ravines, are densely wooded, valuable supply of timber. Owing to the variety of its resources, In its geology, as well as in its flora and fauna, Trinidad differs Trinidad has suffered less from economic depression than the little from the mainland, with which it was doubtless at one time other islands in the British West Indies. It exports cocoa, sugar, connected. There are four mineral springs and several mud vol- rum, molasses, coffee, coco-nuts, Angostura bitters, timber, indiacanoes, but the two most striking natural features are the Mara- rubber and asphalt. Large quantities of tonga-beans, the produce cas falls, and the Pitch lake. The Maracas falls, 3r2ft. high, of the mainland, are cured in bond at Port of Spain. The manufacare situated at the head of a valley of the same name, to the north- ture of bitters (Angostura and others) is an important industry, east of Port of Spain. The Pitch lake lies some 38m. S.E. of the as is also the raising of stock. In addition Trinidad has a large capital, by water, in the ward of La Brea. It is circular in form, carrying trade with the neighbouring republics, and rivals St. about 3m. in circumference, and rogac. in extent. The asphalt Thomas (g.v.) as a centre of distribution for British and Amerwells up in low bulging masses, separated from one another by ican merchandise through the West Indies and Venezuela. Trinidad narrow channels, in which the rain forms pools. Near the centre is immune from hurricanes and its seasons are regular, wet from of the lake the pitch is always liquid and can be observed bub- May to January, with a short dry season in October known as bling up. When the sun is hot the lightest footfall leaves an im- the Indian summer and lasting usually about four weeks, and pression, and the pitch emits a strong odour. The soil of the dry from end of January to middle of May. The average annual surrounding district is charged with asphalt, but is very fertile, rainfall is 63-22in. and the mean temperature is 80°F. Of the while the road to the neighbouring port of La Brea, running over inhabitants of the island, one-third are East Indians. Of the rest, a bed of asphalt, moves slowly towards the sea like a glacier. the upper classes are creoles of British, French and Spanish blood, The lake is worked by a company which exports the asphalt to the while the lower classes are of negro or mixed negro origin, with a United States, paying royalty to the local Government. few Chinese. English is spoken in the towns and in some of the The mountain range which runs along the north coast is formed country districts, but in the north and generally in the cocoaof clay-slates, micaceous and talcose schists, and crystalline and growing areas, a French patois prevails, and in several districts compact limestones, constituting the group of unknown age Spanish is still in use. Elementary education is given chiefly in called the Caribbean series. The rest of the island is composed of the State-aided schools of the different denominations, but there Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary strata. The Cretaceous beds are a number of entirely secular schools managed by the Governrise to the surface in the centre and are flanked to north and ment. Presbyterian schools are conducted by a Canadian mission. south by later deposits. The relations of the various divisions of Agriculture is a compulsory subject in all the primary schools. the Tertiary formation are still somewhat obscure; but they are Higher education is provided by the Queen’s Royal college, a grouped by J. B. Harrison into (1) Nariva and San Fernando secular institution, to which the Presbyterian Naparima college beds =Eocene and Oligocene; (2) Naparima marls= Miocene and and the Roman Catholic St, Mary’s college are affiliated. Attached (3) Moruga series=Pliocene and Pleistocene. The Naparima to these colleges are four scholarships of the annual value of £150 marls consist of a lower division containing Globigerina ‘and an for four years, tenable at any British university. The Roman upper division with Radiolaria and diatoms and are clearly of Catholics (with an archbishop at Port of Spain) and the Anglicans, deep-sea origin. The bitumen of the Pliocene and Pleistocene with the bishop of Trinidad at their head, are the most numerous

TRINIDAD—TRINITY religious communities. English money is legal tender, also the United States gold currency. Accounts are kept in dollars by the general public, but in sterling by the Government. The public revenue of the colony in 1926 was £1,737,288, expenditure £1,580,-

213, public debt £3,342,000, total imports £4,827,923 (£1,321,109 from the British empire, £1,181,378 from the United States), exports about £6,000,000; to the British empire, £2,644,367, to United States £1,800,500. There is a large transit trade, Trinidad

479

order were two Englishmen, who in r200 went to Morocco and returned thence to France with 186 liberated Christian captives. Vast sums of money were collected by the Trinitarians; but they were called upon, if other means failed, to offer themselves in exchange for Christian captives. Many thousands were liberated by their efforts. In the 17th century a reform called the Barefooted Trinitarians was initiated, which became a distinct order and is the only one that survives. There are now less than 500 members. Their headquarters are at San Crisogono in Rome. They devote themselves to the ransoming of negro slaves, especially children, and a great district in Somaliland has been since rgoq entrusted to them as a field for missionary work.

being a convenient entrepôt. A complete system of main and local roads is constructed or under construction; there are about gom. of railways, and most of the larger towns can be reached from Port of Spain by rail. Steamers ply daily between Port of BIBLIoGRAPHY.—The chief modern book on the Trinitarians is Spain and the islands at the northern entrance to the Gulf of Paria, and between San Fernando (the southern terminus of the rail- Deslandres, L’Ordre francais des Trinitaires (2 vols., 1903). Sufficient information will be found in Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregaway) and the south-western ports of the island. There is a weekly tionen (1907), ii. $57; and in the Catholic Encyclopaedia, article coastal service which calls at Tobago. A number of British and “Trinitarians.” European steamship lines visit Port of Spain. TRINITY. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity can be The colony (Trinidad and Tobago) is administered by a gov- best expressed in the words “The Father is God, the Son is God, ernor, assisted by an executive council and a legislative council and the Holy Ghost is God, and yet they are not three Gods but of 20 members, of whom ten are officials sitting by virtue of one God . . . for like as we are compelled by the Christian verity office and ten are unofficials nominated by the Crown. Port of to acknowledge every Person by himself (singillatim) to be God Spain, the capital, is situated on the west coast on the shores of and Lord, so we are forbidden by the Catholic religion to say that the Gulf of Paria. It is considered one of the finest towns in the there be three Gods or three Lords” (Quicunque vult). Though West Indies, with shaded streets, abundant water supply, and this doctrine was one of the first to be dealt with by modern an excellent service of tramways. It has two cathedrals, a fine methods of “comparative religion” (as long ago as when Gibbon block of public buildings containing the principal Government wrote, “300 B.C., The Logos taught in Alexandria, A.D. 97. Redepartments, the courts of justice and the legislative council vealed by St. John”)—and though it is natural to ask its relation chamber, other large Government buildings, a public library, and to certain triple arrangements of Pagan deities, to Jewish doctrines many good shops. In its botanical garden the residence of the of “Wisdom” and the “Word,” to the Hegelian triad “The Idea: governor is situated. The harbour is an open roadstead, safe and Nature: Spirit’”—it is probably less well adapted to this treatment sheltered, but so shallow that large ships have to lie at anchor than other Christian doctrines. At any rate the first step is to half a mile from the jetties. It is, nevertheless, the place of ship- discover what, in using this prima facie paradoxical language, the ment for the produce of the entire island, and also for that of the Christian Church believed itself to be asserting. Orinoco region. The population is about 61,530. It has a mayor Here a common misunderstanding must be cleared away. “The and corporation. Other towns are San Fernando, also on the Gulf Creed”—it has been suggested (see Hibbert Journal, xxiv. No. 1) of Paria, about 30m. S. of the capital; and Arima, an inland town —‘‘means that there is only one being that can, with strict theot6m. by rail E. of Port of Spain. logical correctness, be called ‘God,’ viz., the Trinity as a whole; Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1496. It remained in but each of the three persons can be called ‘God’ in a looser sense.” Spanish possession (although its then capital, San José de Oruna, This suggestion is offered as a short method of “rendering conwas burned by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595) until taken by the sistent” the statements of the Creed. But the paradox is not thus British in 1797. It was finally ceded to Great Britain by the lightly to be got rid of. Plainly the Church did not regard itself Treaty of Amiens in 1802. as lowering the conception of the Father, so that He should become In 1rg2r the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture was merely one Component of a Divine Whole. “The Father,” says established in Trinidad, at St. Augustine, about 7m. from Port ot. Thomas Aquinas, “is as great as the whole Trinity,” and exof Spain. Its purposes are to provide training in the science and plains that m such matters “greatness signifies perfection of nature practice of tropical agriculture for students intending to become and pertains to essence” (Summa Theol. i., xxx. r, xlii. 4). Fundamental Conceptions.—This conception of the Trinity tropical planters, agricultural administrators or specialists in agricultural science and technology. It is equipped with free laborato- is systematically developed by theologians, Greek, Latin and ries and experimental fields. The site was provided by the colony, Protestant. “The whole perfection of the Divine nature is in and £50,000 was subscribed locally towards the cost of the build- each of the persons. The essence and dignity of the Father and ing. Maintenance is provided for by imperial grants and con- the Son is the same, but is in the Father according to the relatributions from West Indian and West African Governments. tion of Giver, in the Son according to the relation of Receiver” British sugar machinery firms contributed £20,000 towards the (S.T. i, xlii. 4). Writers in the 4th and sth centuries had compared the relation of the Father to the Son with the relation of cost of the instructional sugar factory. See Stark’s Guide-Book and History of Trinidad (London) ; and for the “flame to its light,” of the “spring to the stream,” of the geology: G. P. Wall and J. G. Sawkins, Report on the Geology of “seal”? to its “impress.” “Think,” says St. Augustine (Sermo ad Trinidad (London, 1860); J. B. Harrison and A. J. Jukes-Browne, Catechumenos, sec. 8) “of fire as a father, light as a son. See: we “The Oceanic Deposits of Trinidad” (British West Indies), Quart. have found coevals: and it is easy to see which begets which.” The Journ. Geol, Soc., lv. 177-189 (London, 1899) R. J. L. Guppy, “The meaning of these comparisons is plain. They teach that the whole Growth of Trinidad,” Trans. Canadian Inst., viii. 137-149 (1905). Divine nature or essence is in each of the Three Persons. The TRINIDAD, an uninhabited island in the South Atlantic, impress, for example, is a full reproduction of the character of 680 m. E. of the coast of Espirito Santo, Brazil, in 20° 30’ S. the seal. They teach also that the Divine persons are inseparable. 29° 20’ W., 4m. long by 2 broad. We are dealing both with a “generical” and a “numerical” unity TRINITARIANS, areligious order founded in 1198 by St. (cf. Aug., F. and S., sec. 4; Modern Churchman, vol. xv. 12, 675-73 John of Matha and St. Felix of Valois, for the liberation of Chris- Webb, God and Personality, 69n). Thus, side by side with language declaring that Father and Son tian prisoners and slaves from captivity under the Moors and Saracens. The two founders went to Rome and there obtained are each in the full sense God, there is other language—not inthe approbation of Innocent III., 1198. The rule was the Augus- tended to be inconsistent with the former—which implies that tinian, supplemented by regulations of an austere character. The the Son is “necessary to the completeness of the Godhead.” The habit was white, with a red and blue cross on the breast. The Son, we are told, is not “external” to the Father (Athan., DisTrinitarians are canons regular, but in England they were often course I., ch. v.), does not “accrue” to the Father from withcu:, spoken of as friars. The first to go on the special mission of the but is “of the Substance of the Father.” If the Son, it is argued,

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HOUSE

were not eternal, the Father would not always be Father, and of Being at its highest” (Webb, J.7.S., Oct. 1900). Such an arguthis absence of fatherhood, it is implied, would be a defect (cf. ment leads not merely to a plurality but to a trinity of Divine the words consortium, solitarius, S.T. i., xxxi., 2 and 3). What 1s persons, and supports the Western doctrine of the procession of the value of these speculations? They cannot be understood apart the Spirit from the Father and the Son, tanguam ab uno principio from a knowledge of the context in which they grew up. This et unica spiratione (Council of 1274). It agrees also with the concontext may be summed up in a sentence. Christians, who were ception of the mutual indwelling of the Three Persons (Tanqueray, willing to die for Monotheism, deliberately held Jesus to be worthy S.T.D., ii, 664-665). Again, the argument—ii joined with the of full Divine worship; and offered the phrase Consubstantialem belief that “whatever we conceive the Divine life to be, our life patri as the intellectual justification of this attitude. In contact cannot be outside it’—is in accordance with the Scriptural conwith the “Spirit” (who was held to speak in the heart of the indi- ception that mankind is within the Eternal Son, that the Church vidual Christian) they believed themselves to be in contact with is His “body” or His “fulness.” Such a conception would lead God. In contact with Jesus as Master, they likewise found them- us beyond any mere “trinity of manifestation”; since it implies selves in contact with God; but with no divided allegiance, since that, though in knowing each Person of the Trinity we are knowthey conceived the Universe—in spite of its manifest evils—as ing God, yet to know God as Trinity is a real addition to our the work of the Father of Jesus Christ, and so the embodiment knowledge, and further, that the personal relations within the of the same Holy Will which expressed itself mast clearly in Jesus Trinity are necessary to His full glory, since they make possible to God something better than mere self-contemplation. and in the Holy Spirit. The doctrine, then, we may conclude, arose primarily from the The doctrine, then, is primarily religious; and if we define God—as in practice religion does—as “That which has an absolute conviction that worship of Jesus is consistent with Monotheism. claim upon our obedience” or as “the Supreme Object of our But if, secondarily, the doctrine when formed is defended as reverence,” the paradoxical element in the doctrine is at least offering the best attainable conception of the Divine perfection, diminished. The ultimate Object of the Christian’s reverence is— it follows that our sense of what is good and fitting, our aesthetic as reflection will show—the Christian ideal of holiness. A being and religious instinct for perfection, and likewise those qualities who fell short of this standard, however omnipotent or self-exist- in the doctrine which moved Dante (Parad., x. 1-6) to give it ent he might be, would not receive the Christian’s worship. Con- poetic expression, are all relevant to its discussion. (See PANTHE(C. J. Su.) versely, this standard would have an equal claim upon our rever- ism, ATHEISM.) BIBLIOCRAPHY.—F. C. Baur, Die christliche Lehre von der Dreieinence—since its claim to our obedience is conceived as being absolute—whether or not it were embodied in a person. Jesus is wor- igkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung (3 vols., Tübingen, 1841-43) ; D. Waterlank, Importance of the shipped because the Christian “‘identifies” Him with His Call—His Doctrine of the Holy Trinity (Oxford, 1856); C. P. Caspari, Der Law. Reverence and subjection to Him are reverence and subjec- Glaube an die Trinität Gottes in der Kirche des t. christlichen Jahrtion to it (John xiv. 21, etc.). Is there, then, any insuperable hundert (Leipsic, 1894); L. L. Paine, Critical Hist. of the Evolution difficulty in the notion of a threefold personal embodiment of the of Trinitarianism (Boston, 1900); R. F. Horton, The Trinity (1901) ; Kriiger, Das Dogma von der Dreieinigkeit und Gottmenschheit one Divine Will and Character, an embodiment so complete in G. (Tübingen, 1905); W. Adams Brown, The Trinity and Modern each case that contact with the Divine Person is contact with God? Thought (2 vols, N.Y., 1907); A. Dupin, Le Dogme de la Trinité Claims of Unity.—The answer to the foregoing question turns dans Les trois premiers siècles de Véglise (1907); L. G. Mylne, The upon the claims of unity. The unity of the world is sometimes rep- Holy Trinity (1916); S. A. Macdowall, Evolution and the Doctrine resented as based upon its presence to, and its existence in, a single of the Trinity (1918); R. Harris, Origin of the Doctrine of the Trinity (1919); W. S. Bishop, Spirit and Personality (N.Y., 1923). Divine Mind. Religion, however, is interested primarily in the TRINITY HOUSE, CORPORATION OF. An associaunity of the moral ideal, of the ideal of perfection generally. “The Monotheism of Israel,” it has been well said, “was prima- tion of English mariners which originally had its headquarters at rily moral seriousness.” Religion is concerned also with a faith— Deptford in Kent. In its first charter, received from Henry VIII. which is the basis of its trust and hope—in the necessity of the in 1514, it was described as the “guild or fraternity of the most complete realization of the good in the universe as seen in God; glorious and undividable Trinity of St. Clement.” The first master with a faith in that “perfection of the Universe” which St. Thomas appointed was the founder of the corporation, Sir Thomas Spert, regarded as God’s chief purpose in creation (i. 50, 3). A Universe comptroller of the navy to the king, and commander of the which has unity as the complete realization of this single ideal, “Harry Grace de Dieu.” Deptford having been made a royal has the unity which chiefly concerns religion. This ultimate unity dockyard by Henry VIII., and being the station where outgoing of subordination to a single principle is not necessarily identical ships were supplied with pilots, the corporation rapidly developed with the unity which comes from being included within the mind its influence and usefulness. By Henry VIII. it was entrusted of a single Divine Being. Nor is it obviously identical with the with the direction of the new naval dockyard. From Elizabeth, theologian’s “numerical unity of substance” (see e.g., Tanqueray, who conferred on it a grant of arms in 1573, it received authorSyn. Theol. Dog., ti. 575-576). The Unity, then, of the Object of ity to erect beacons and other marks for the guidance of navigaour supreme reverence and trust is not plainly inconsistent with tors along the coasts of England. In 1604 a select class, was the existence of personal distinctions (in the modern sense of the constituted called Elder Brethren, the other members being called word) within the Godhead. It was probably an afterthought to Younger Brethren. By the charter of 1609 the sole management regard the doctrine of the Trinity as providing a more satisfactory of affairs was conferred on the Elder Brethren; the Younger conception of “personality in God” than could grow up under a Brethren, however, having a vote in the election of master and “unipersonal” theology. Yet Trinitarianism has some points of wardens. The practical duties of the fraternity are discharged by superiority over a theory which may compel us to conceive God the acting Elder Brethren, 13 in number, of whom two are as waking up at the Creation from “an eternity of idleness” elected from the royal navy and x1 from the merchant service; (Shelley, Queen Mab, vii. cf. Journal of Theol. Studies, iv. 376). but as a mark of honour persons of rank and eminence are adLove—it may be argued—can only be at its highest perfection in mitted as honorary Elder Brethren. In 1647 the corporation was the “love of God for God”—in a love in which He that loves and dissolved by parliament, but it was reconstructed in 1660, and the He that is loved are wholly adequate to one another. A faith in charter was renewed by James II. in 1685. In 1687 a by-law of God’s perfection would thus tend to a belief in the “plurality of the Trinity House for the first time required an agreement in persons in the Godhead.” writing between the master and crew of a ship. A new hall and Amplifying Conceptions.—It has been similarly argued that almshouses were erected at Deptford in 1765; but for some time in conceiving the “not-self with which God contrasts Himself” the offices of the corporation had been transferred to London,

as “wholly internal to His essence” while the unity (the Holy Spirit) “within which the relation of the two falls is not, as in us,

a dark mystery at the back of our life but something which ‘proceeds from beth’ ” we have “the best notion that we can frame

where for a while they had a house in Water lane, Lower Thames street, and in 1795 their headquarters were removed to Trinity House, Tower hill, built from the designs of Samuel Wyatt. By an Act of 1836 they received powers to purchase from the

TRINITY

SUNDAY—TRIPHENYLMETHANE

Crown, as well as from private proprietors, all interests in coast lights. For the maintenance of lights, buoys, etc., they had power to raise money by tolls, the surplus being devoted to the relief of old and indigent mariners or their near relatives. In 1853 the control of the funds collected by the corporation was transferred to the Board of Trade, and the money over which the brethren

were allowed independent control was ultimately reduced to the private income derived from funded and trust property. Their practical duties in erection and maintenance of lighthouses, buoys and beacons remain as important as ever. Similar functions are carried out by the Northern Lighthouse board and the Irish Lighthouse board, for Scotland and Ireland respectively. They have also the care and supervision of pilots. Other Trinity Houses established under charter or act of parliament for the appointment and control of pilots are at Hull and Newcastle. The Elder Brethren of Trinity Masters also act as nautical as-

sessors in the high court of Admiralty. The corporation has a large wharf and repair shop at the mouth of the river Lea, where most of the work of buoying the Thames is carried out. See W. H. Mayo, Trinity House, London, Past and Present (19035); C. R. B. Barrett, The Trinity House of Deptford Strond (1893).

TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday next after Whitsunday. A festival in honour of the Trinity had been celebrated locally at various dates for many centuries before Pope John XXII. (131613234) ordered its general observance on the octave of Whitsunday. From Trinity Sunday onwards all Sundays until the close of the ecclesiastical year are reckoned in the Church of England as “after Trinity,” In the Roman Church as “after Pentecost.”

TRINOVANTES, commonly Trinobantes, a powerful British

tribe about 50 B.c-ap. 50 dwelling north and north-east of Lon-

don, rivals and neighbours of the Catuvellauni. When Caesar invaded Britain 54 B.c. they joined him against their domestic rivals. They were conquered by Rome in A.D. 43 and joined in Boadicea’s revolt in 61. In the tribal division of Roman Britain given by Ptolemy their land included Camulodunum (Colchester), but nothing more is known of them. But their name plays a part in mediaeval legends and romances. There it was interpreted as Troy Novant, the “new Troy,” and connected with the names of the Trojans Brutus and Corineus who were reputed to have given their

names to Britain and Cornwall.

TRIOLET,

i

(F. J. H.)

one of the fixed forms of verse invented in

mediaeval France, and preserved in the practice of many modern literatures. It consists of eight short lines on two rhymes, arranged abaaabab, and in French usually begins on the masculine rhyme. The first line reappears as the fourth line, and the seventh and eighth lines repeat the opening couplet; the first line, therefore, is repeated three times, and hence the name. No more typical specimen of the triolet could be found than the following, by Jacques Ranchin (c. 1690) :— “Le premier jour du mois de mai Fut le plus heureux de ma vie: Le beau dessein que je formais, Le premier jour du mois de mai! Je vous vis et je vous aimais. Si ce dessein vous plut, Sylvie, Le premier jour du mois de mai Fut le plus heureux de ma vie.”

This poem was styled by Ménage “the king of triolets.” The great art of the triolet consists in using the refrain-line with such naturalness and ease that it should seem inevitable, and yet in each repetition slightly altering its meaning, or at least its relation to the rest of the poem. The triolet seems to have been invented in the 13th century. The earliest example known occurs in the Cléomadés of Adenés-le-Roi

(1258-97).

The medi-

aeval triolet was usually written in lines of ten syllables, and the lightness of touch in the modern specimens was unknown to these perfectly serious examples. One of the best-known is that of Froissart, “Mon coeur s’ebat en odorant la rose.” According to Sarrasin, who introduces the triolet as a mourner in his Pompe funèbre de Voiture, it was that writer who “remit en vogue” the ancient precise forms of verse, “par ses balades, ses triolets et ses rondeaux, qui par sa mort (1648) retournaient dans leur

481

ancien décri.* Boileau threw scorn upon the delicate art of these pieces, but they continued to be written in France, though not by poets of much pretension, until the middle of the r9th century,

when there was a great revival of their use. There are delightful examples by Theodore de Banville. The earliest triolets in English are those of a devotional nature composed in 165r by Patrick Carey, a Benedictine monk at Douai, where he probably had become acquainted with what Voiture had made a fashionable French pastime. In modern times, the triolet was re-introduced into English by Robert Bridges, in 1873. with his— “When first we met, we did not guess That Love would prove so hard a master; Of more than common friendliness

When first we met we did not guess. Who could foretell this sore distress, This irretrievable disaster,

When first we met?—we

did not guess

That Love would prove so hard to master.”

Since then the triolet has been cultivated very widely in English, most successfully by Austin Dobson, whose “Rose kissed me today,” “I intended an Ode” and “In the School of Coquettes” are masterpieces of ingenuity and easy grace. TRIPHENYLMETHANE, a hydrocarbon, (CsHs);CH, which gives its name to an important group of synthetic colouring matters which includes magenta, paramagenta (rosanilines), malachite green, brilliant green, patent blue, aurin and rosolic acid (See DYES, SYNTHETIC.) It is a white crystalline solid melting at 92° C and boiling at 358° C/760 mm. Its preparation is best effected by adding anhydrous aluminium chloride to a mixture of dry benzene and dry carbontetrachloride; after 24 hours anhydrous ether is slowly added and the mixture then treated with acidified ice water. The hydrocarbon is extracted with benzene and obtained from this extract by a distillation under reduced pressure, being purified by crystallisation from ethyl alcohol (O. Kamm and J. F. Norris, Organic Syntheses, Vol. iv., J. Riley and Sons, 1925).

Other modes of formation are as follows: (1) Condensation of benzal (benzylidene) chloride, CsH;-CHCh, with mercury diphenyl; (2) condensation of benzene with chloroform in presence of aluminium chloride; (3) from paramagenta (pararosaniline chloride) by successive reduction, diazotisation and replacement of diazo-groups by hydrogen. The third process is of historical Interest as it served to establish the connection between the hydrocarbon and the rosaniline colouring matters (O. and E. Fischer, 1881). Conversely, triphenylmethane can be nitrated and its trinitro-compound can be reduced to paraleucaniline,

CH(CsH1-NH2)3, which on oxidation in acid solution yields pararosaniline chloride or paramagenta, (NHe2-C.H,).C:CsH.s:NH-Cl. Triphenylmethane on oxidation is found to give triphenylcarbinol, (CsHs)sC-OH, a feebly basic hydroxide which on treatment with hydrogen chloride is converted into colourless triphenylmethyl chloride, (CsHs)3C-Cl, melting at rrr° C. This chloride is the primary product of the foregoing condensation of benzene and carbon tetrachloride (v. supra). By the action of various metals (zinc, silver, copper or mercury) on triphenylmethyl chloride, M. Gomberg in the year rgoo isolated a very remarkable unsaturated hydrocarbon, triphenylmethyl, (CeH;)aC, and he showed that the reaction was general by removing chlorine from other triarylmethyl chlorides. Triphenylmethyl is colourless in the solid state but yields yellow solutions. Cryoscopic determinations show that the dissolved hydrocarbon is chiefly in the bimolecular state, (CeH;s) 3C-C (CeHs) a)

which is in equilibrium with the coloured unimolecular form. With increasing complexity of the aryl groups there is a greater tendency for the triarylmethyls to exist in the unimolecular condition, so that the successive replacement of phenyl by diphenyl is accompanied by an increase in depth of colour until trisdiphenylmethyl, (CsH;-CsH,)3C, which occurs only in the coloured unimolecular condition, is obtained as a green crystalline powder

melting at 186° C (W. Schlenk, T. Weickel and A. Herzenstein, 1910). On the other hand diphenyldiphenylenemethyl,

TRIPOD—TRIPOLITANIA

482

(CH CHC :C Hs), exists only in the colourless bimolecular condition. ln, Das Triphenylmethyl, F. Enke, 1914.)

TRIPOD,

(See J. Schmid(G. T. M.)

in classical antiquities, any “three-footed” utensil

or article of furniture. The name is specially applied to: (1) a seat or table with three legs; (2) a stand for holding the caldron used for boiling water or cooking meat; (3) a sacrificial tripod or altar, the most famous of which was the Delphic tripod, on which the Pythian priestess took her seat to deliver the oracles of the god, the seat being formed bya circular slab on the top, on which a branch of laurel was deposited when it was unoccupied by the priestess. Another wellknown tripod was the“Plataean,” made from a tenth part of the spoils taken from the Persian army aiter the battle of Plataea. This consisted of a golden basin, supported by a bronze serpent with three heads (or three serpents intertwined), with a list of the States that had taken part in the war inscribed on the coils of

munication by sea with Syracuse (via Malta), and also with Tunis, and with Misurata and the ports of Cyrenaica as far as

Tobruk, and weekly air service has been instituted from Rome via Syracuse. There are productive saltworks, and beer is made from barley grown locally and in Cyrenaica The oasis of Tripoli is very fertile and beautiful; its total surface is about 25 sq.m., and it contains about 4,000 houses, 8,500 wells and a million trees. At Sidi Mezri there is an important Governmental agricultural experimental station. The ancient Oea (one of the cemeteries of which has been discovered) was probably founded by Phoenicians from Sicily. It became a Roman colony after the fall of Carthage. It owed its importance in the middle ages and subsequently to the destruction of Sabratha and Leptis Magna by the Arab invasion in the i1th century. In r510 Tripoli was taken by Navarro; in 1530 it was granted to the Knights of St. John; but in 1551, it was lost again, and attempts to retake it, organized by Philip II. of Spain and led by Andrea Doria, came to nothing, the expedition being de-

feated at Jerba. It subsequently became a nest of pirates. TRIPOLI, a city in Syria, and the seat of administration of the sanjak of North Lebanon in French mandated territory, mod. Taraébulus. It is situated about 2m. inland from its port El-Mina, to which it is joined by a tramway. Pop. 36,000 (26,000 Muslims). the serpent. The golden bowl was ROMAN BRONZE TRIPOD IN MUSEUM Although there is no harbour, strictly speaking, there is safe carried off by the Phocians during 4! NAPLES anchorage on each side of the peninsula on which El-Mina stands, the Sacred War; the stand was removed by the emperor Con- and small craft can shelter behind an old Phoenician breakwater. stantine to Constantinople, where it is still to be seen in the The city has a French garrison, and a number of mission and other Atmeidan (hippodrome), but in a damaged condition, the heads schools, The chief industries are soap manufacture, sponge fishof the serpents having disappeared. Tripods are frequently men- ing, tobacco cultivation, and fruit growing. It has an export trade tioned in Homer as prizes in athletic games and as complimentary in fruit (especially oranges), eggs and cotton. gifts, and in later times, highly decorated and bearing inscriptions, History.—Tripoli is known only by its Greek name. Founded they served the same purpose. after 700 B.C., it became in the Persian period the capital for the TRIPOLI, the ancient Oea, formerly capital of the Turkish Phoenician triple federation—Sidon, Tyre and Aradus. Each of vilayet of Tripoli, and now of the Italian colony of Tripolitania, the three had its own district in the “triple town,” which at that North Africa, situated in 32° 53’ 40” N. and 13° 11’ 32” E. on time stood on the El-Mina peninsula. The Seleucids and Romans a promontory stretching out into the Mediterranean and forming extended and embellished the city. The Muslims took possession a small crescent-shaped bay which shelters the harbour from the in A.D. 638. In rzrog it surrendered to Raymond of St. Giles, after north winds. The mean temperatures are often lower than in a five years’ siege. A great library founded by ‘Ammar, the ruling many Italian cities, owing to its situation. Pop. (1928) about family, and consisting, it is said, of 100,000 volumes, was con70,000, of whom about 20,000 were Italians, and.15,000 Jews. The signed to the flames. When Sultan Kala‘tn of Egypt took the crenellated enceinte walls by which the city was surrounded had town in 1289 it was destroyed, and a new city arose on‘the present the form of an irregular pentagon, but have now been, to a con- site. Tripoli was often a disputed possession of the rival princes of siderable extent, demolished. They dated from Roman times, Aleppo and Acre. In 1834 during the Egyptian conquest of Syria, but the earliest portions actually preserved belonged to the By- it was made a centre of administration. British cavalry and zantine period, and the greater part to the 16th century. The armoured cars took possession of it on Oct. 13, 1918. It was incitadel, dating from the time of the Spanish occupation, now corporated in the State of Grand Liban by an arréié of the French serves as the residence of the governor, and here also is the high commissioner (Gen, Gouraud) on Aug, 31,1920. (E. Ro.) archaeological museum. The desert almost touches the western TRIPOLITANIA, an Italian colony in North Africa, with side of the city, while on the east is the verdant oasis of Meshia, an approximate area of 360,000 sq.m., mostly desert. It is bounded where are still to be seen the tombs of the Caramanlian sultanas. on the north by the Mediterranean, on the west and south by The aspect of the city is picturesque; the houses (many possessing Tunisia and French West and Equatorial Africa, and on the east beautiful gardens) rise in terraces from the seashore. The Turk- by Cyrenaica (g.v.). Pop. (1921) Europeans 20,716, of whom ish quarter contains numerous mosques whose minarets and 18,093 were Italian: natives (1927) about 550,000, mostly Arabs, cupolas break the monotony of the flat-roofed and whitewashed Berbers and Jews. The chief towns, all on the coast, are Tripoli houses. The Pasha mosque (originally a church built by the (g.v.) (pop. 70,000) and Misurata (pop. 14,000). Spaniards) has an octagonal minaret, but the most beautiful is Economic Conditions.—The agricultural possibilities, espethe Gurgi mosque (1833). Many of the streets are arcaded. Near cially those of the cultivation of grain on a large scale, are somethe port stands a Roman triumphal arch, quadrifrontal in form, what uncertain, owing to climatic conditions; while tropical culmade entirely of white marble, and richly embellished with tivation (coffee, etc.) would be impossible without costly irrigasculpture. It was erected in A.D. 163. tion works. Arboriculture, on the other hand, is believed to have

The modern part of the city, to the south-west of the old town, contains a number of official buildings, a cathedral, the Victory monument, theatres, hotels, etc., most of them along the fine new sea-front called Lungomare Conte Volpi, in honour of the former governor (1921-25). There is also a large tobacco factory, and important military buildings, artillery factories, supply base, hangars, etc., as well as a hospital.

The harbour has been dredged to an adequate depth for an area

of 1,200 ac., and the quays provided with modern appliances. In 1927, 1,603 ships, with a tonnage of 1,182,770, entered and cleared

the port, representing a traffic (inward and outward) of 163,487

tons of merchandise and 58,725 passengers.

There is regular com-

a very considerable future: it has been estimated that at least 20 million olive trees could be planted there, and vines, oranges and other fruit trees are also successful. Date palms flourish, barley (for beer), henna, castor oil, esparto grass and tobacco are grown and salt, hides, wool and silk worms are produced. Since 1918, 389,620 ac. of land concessions have been taken up by Italian Immigrants: and there would be room, it is thought, for as many as 100,000 selected Italian farmers and their families. The af-

forestation of the sand dunes has been mimosa and eucalyptus. Sponge fisheries tunny fisheries (500 tons) are carried on. built a railway along the coast westward

begun, with tamarisk, (40 tons in 1927) and The Government has from Tripoli to Zuara

TRIPOLITANIA

483

(75 m.) and begun a line eastwards to Homs, which runs as far as | the waters which formerly flowed north to the Mediterranean, west Tagiura (13 m.). Another railway (31 m.) runs inland from to the Atlantic, and south to the Niger and Chad basins. Ghat, Tripoli to El ’Azizia, and is to be continued to Ghariiani and the | which is skirted eastwards by the Akakus range, is a sandy plain Jebel. Motor roads run from Bu-Chemmex on the Tunisian dotted over with clumps or groves of date-palms. In the centre is frontier, through Zuara and Tripoli, to Homs, Misurata and Sirte, an open space where is held a great annual fair, and to this, comand southwards as far as Misda and Bu Njem, forming the first bined with its position on one of the caravan routes across the portion of the two caravan routes to Murzuk, by Tachertiba desert, the oasis owes ail its importance. For several years, at the (where the route to Ghat, and thence to Kano, branches off), and end of the roth and beginning of the zoth centuries, the only caraby Sokna and Zuila (where the route to Kufra diverges). An- van route used from the Niger countries to Tripoli was by way other route runs from Tripoli to Ghadames and thence to Ghat. of Ghat, disturbances in Bornu and raids by Tuareg having closed Revenue is largely derived from import duties, which give pref- all other routes. There is, in the oasis, a population of perhaps erence to Italian products. The value of imports in 1922 was 10,000 nearly all Ihajenen Tuareg, about half of whom live in the £985,000, while that of exports was only £145,000. In 1926 the town of Ghat (350 m. S. of Ghadames and 250 S.W. of Murzuk), value of imports was £2.112,000 and of exports £323,000. The which appears to be a relatively modern place. Ghadames (g.v.) colony has been a considerable burden to the Italian Treasury, on the contrary, is ancient. Climate, Flora and Fauna.——The climate of Tripoli is very largely through military expenditure. The military establishment in 1926-27 was some 17,000 men, of whom 4.800 were Italians. variable; cold nights often succeed warm days. The rainfall in Tripoli comprises four distinct regions—Tripoli proper, the Aujila the northern regions varies from 5 in. to 15 in. a year—December, oases, Fezzan (g.v.) and the oases of Ghadames and Ghat—which January and February being the rainy season. The mean temperawith the intervening sandy and stony wastes occupy the space ture on the coast lands is 68°; it is 5° higher at Ghadames. The flora in the greater part of the colony is Saharan, the date-palm between Tunisia and Cyrenaica. Physical Features.—For some distance east of Tunisia the being the characteristic tree. The gum-yielding acacia, the tamaseaboard is low and sandy with various oases (Zauia, Zanzur, the risk, sapan, mastic and pistachio are found in the wadis, and shz oasis of Tripoli itself, etc.), and is often regarded as a part of (wormwood) grows in clusters on the stony plateaus. In parts of the Sahara, which, however, begins only some 80 m. farther south, the coast belt the flora is more varied generally. In these regions beyond the Jebels Nefusi, Yefren and Gharian. The “Jebel,” as the laurel, myrtle and other evergreens are fairly common, and this system is locally called, terminates eastwards in the Tarhona the oak, cypress, pine, carob and other tress occur, notably the heights of the Homs (Khoms) coast district, has a mean altitude olive, found also in the oases. Other fruit trees are the almond, of about 2,000 ft. and culminates in the Takut (Tekuk) volcano fig, pomegranate, quince and apricot. The larger wild animals are scarcely represented in Tripoli. (2,800 ft.) nearly due south of the capital. It is not a true mountain range, but rather the steep scarp of the Saharan plateau, The wild boar is found in Jebel Akhdar, the hyena, fox and jackal which encloses southwards the Jefara coast plains, and probably in the deserts. The mouflon, gazelle, hares, rabbits and marmots represents the original coast-line. The Gharian section is scored are among the commoner animals. Reptiles include the horned in places by the beds of intermittent coast streams, and on its viper and the gecko. The characteristic animal is the camel, lower slopes is clothed with a rich sub-tropical vegetation. Gharian, found only in the domesticated state. Horses and cattle are bred, some 65 m. south from Tripoli by motor, and 2,350 ft. above sea- but the horses are not numerous; goats and a fat-tailed variety of sheep are kept in large numbers. Birds include the ostrich, vullevel, is the seat of the commandant of the southern territory. South of these escarpments, the vast Hammada el-Homra, the tures, hoopoes, wood pigeons and doves. Bees are numerous and “Red Hammada,” an interminable stony table-land covering some honey forms an article of export. Tripoli no doubt owes its stability in large measure to its posi40,000 sq.m. occupies the whole space between Tripoli proper and the Fezzan depression. The now uninhabited and waterless Ham- tion over against Sicily at the northern terminus of three great mada formerly drained through several large rivers, such as the historic caravan routes, one of which runs due south to Lake Wadis Targelat (Uani, Kseia), Terrgurt, Sofejin, Zemzem and Bel, Chad through Fezzan and Bilma, that is, across the narrowest north-eastwards to the Gulf of Sidra (Syrtis major). Southwards part of the Sahara; another runs south-west through Ghadames the table-land is skirted by the Jebel Welad Hassan, the Jebel es- and Ghat to Timbuktu and Kano, and the third south by east Suda, the Jebel Morai-Yeh, and other detached ranges, which have through Sokna to Wadai and Darfur. East of Tripoli are the small a normal west to east trend in the direction of the Aujila oases, seaports of Homs (Khons) and Lebda: while Misurata is more rising a little above the level of the plateau, but falling precipi- important both as a harbour and for its manufacture of carpets. tously towards Fezzan, The Jebel es-Suda (Black Mountains), To the east of Misurata is the inhospitable sandy waste of the most conspicuous of these ranges, with a mean altitude of 2,800 Gulf of Sidra (anc. Syrtis Major) so much dreaded by sailors in ft., takes its name from the blackened aspect of its limestone and antiquity. The caravan trade consists largely in leather objects sandstone rocks, which have been subjected to volcanic action, and Sudanese cotton fabrics: but it has now lost much of its giving them the appearance of basalt. Eastwards this range rami- importance owing to the French occupation of Timbuktu and the (X.) fies into the two crescent-shaped chains of the Haruj el-Aswad building of the railway from Lagos to Kano. See H. Vischer, Across the Sahara (1910) for a description of a and Haruj el-Abiad (“Black” and “White” Haruj) which rise some 700 ft. above the Red Hammada. i journey from Tripoli to Lake Chad. See also R. Calzini, Da Leptis Beyond the barren Ghadama district in the north of the Ham- Magna a Ghadames (1926); R. Bartoccini, Le Antichita della Tripolitania. (Milan, 1926); La Rinascita della Tripolitania (Milan, 1926). mada the dreary aspect of the wilderness is broken by several tracts under grass, corn and date-palms, and containing some perHISTORY manent reservoirs in the beds of the Wadis Sofejin and Zemzem, Tripolitania, also commonly called Tripoli simply, was originally where the plateau falls from a mean height of 2,000 ft. to 1,000 and 530 ft. respectively. But it again rises rapidly southwards a Phoenician colony. The wars between the Libyans and the to a somewhat uniform level of 1,600 or 1.700 ft., and here the ancient Egyptians do not come properly into the history of Tripomain caravan route from Tripoli to Murzuk and Lake Chad litania. (See Ecypr.) Before the colonization of the neighbouring traverses for a distance of fully 130 m. a monotonous region of territory to the east by the Greeks (see CyRENAICA) the Phoenisandstone, underlying clays, marls, gypsum and fossiliferous cians appear to have founded the cities of Sabrata, Oea and Leptis Magna. Oea, which stood between the other cities, became the silicious deposits. Ghat and Ghadames.—Ghat stands 2,400 ft. above the sea, capital of the country and was named Tripolis (the “Three on the Wadi Aghelad in the Igharghar basin, and consequently Cities”). These towns commanded the trade of the central Sudan, belongs, not to the Fezzan depression but to the Saharan plateau. caravans regularly crossing the Sahara, there at its narrowest. The Aghelad, or “Passage,” trends north to the Iasawan valley The early history of the two regions, Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, along the east foot of the Tasili plateau, that is, the divide between was similar. Cyrenaica passed from the Greeks to the Ptolemies

484

TRIPOLITSA—TRIPOLYE

and from them to the Romans. Tripolitania, adjoining westward region, and they met with considerable opposition from the natives Carthaginian territory, fell under the sway of Carthage and, (Berbers and Arabs) in their occupation of the interior. But by following its fortunes, became eventually a Roman province. Aug. 1914 every place of importance in the vilayet, including In the sth century both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were con- Fezzan, was in Italian hands Meanwhile in the coast districts quered by the Vandals, whose power was destroyed by the Byzan- the Italians had begun with great energy a big programme of tine general Belisarius in the following century. In the middle of public works, while towards the Arabs and Berbers they adopted the 7th century north Africa was overrun by the Arabs, and Chris- a policy of confidence and trust. Unfortunately, in Cyrenaica the war continued, the Turks havtianity gave place to Islam. From this period dates the decay of a civilization which had lasted about 1.000 years. Tripolitania be- ing incited the Senussites to continue the struggle. (See Sznussz.) came subject to the successive rulers of Tunisia It was pillaged in In Sept. 1914 the Fezzani, many of whom adhered to the Senussi 1146 by the Normans of Sicily. In 132: the Beni Ammar estab- sect, rose in revolt. Turkish, German and Senussi propaganda was lished an independent dynasty, which lasted with an interval very active throughout Tripolitania, and the declaration of war by (1354-69), during which two sovereigns of the Beni Mekki Italy upon Austria (May 28, 1915) was the signal for a general reigned, until 1401, when Tripolitania was reconquered by the rising. After some hesitation the Italians, in view of the situation Tunisians. In 1510 Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain took the city in Europe, abandoned the whole country, with the exception of of Tripoli, and in 1528 it was given to the knights of St. John, who the seaports of Tripoli and Homs (Khoms). Another seaport, were expelled in 1553 by the Turkish corsairs Dragut and Sinan. Zuwara, was reoccupied in Aug. 1916. Meanwhile, a brother of Thus the country fell to the Turks, though after the death of the Senussi chief ruled in Fezzan; Suleiman el Baruni, a Berber Dragut the connection with Constantinople seems to have weak- chieftain who had given much trouble in 1912~13, reappeared ened. The Tripolitan pirates soon became the scourge of the (Sept. 1916) with a firman from the sultan of Turkey appointing Mediterranean; half the states of Europe seem at one time or him governor-general of the vilayets of Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers; other to have sent fleets to bombard the capital of the country, Ramadhan el Shtewi, another powerful chieftain, established a nor was piracy stopped until after the French occupation of so-called republic of Tripoli and ruled at Misurata, which place Algiers in 1830. In 1714 Ahmed Pasha Caramanli achieved prac- became a German submarine base. There was, however, little tical independence. He and his descendants governed the country cohesion and much jealousy among the opponents of Italy as a regency, the claims of the Porte being recognized by the paySuch was the state of chaos in the country at the end of the ment of tribute, or “presents.” In the early part of the roth cen- World War, and the Italians were then in no mood to undertake tury the regency, owing to its piratical practices, was twice in- the reconquest of Tripolitania by force. There was little real volved in war with the United States. In May 1801 the pasha improvement in the situation until Giuseppe Volpi became govdemanded from America an increase in the tribute ($83,000) ernor in Aug. 1921. Under his direction a campaign, which began which the Government of that country had paid since 1796 for in Jan. 1922 with the reoccupation of Misurata, was conducted to the protection of their commerce from piracy. The demand was a successful issue by the end of 1923. Thereafter, by wise and refused and a naval force was sent from America to blockade conciliatory measures and by a bold policy of economic reconTripoli. The war dragged on for four years, the Americans in 1803 struction, Volpi restored order and a degree of prosperity to a losing the frigate “Philadelphia,” the commander (Captain Wil- large part of the country, though Fezzan was still troubled by liam Bainbridge) and the whole crew being made prisoners. The rival factions. In the latter part of his governorship Volpi had the most picturesque incident in the war was the expedition under- full support of the Fascist Government. For his services he was taken by William Eaton (g.v.), with the object of replacing upon created Count Volpi of Misurata. On resigning his post in July the Tripolitan throne an exiled pasha, elder brother of the reigning 1925 he became minister of finance in the Italian cabinet. His sovereign, who had promised to accede to all the wishes of the successor as governor was General de Bono. In 1927-28 systematic military operations were carried out by United States. Eaton, at the head of a motley assembly of soo men, marched across the desert from Alexandria, and with the aid the Italians which resulted in the occupation of the district—long of American ships succeeded in capturing Derna. Soon afterwards a no man’s land—at the eastern end of the gulf of Sidra, where (June 3, 1805) peace was concluded, the reigning pasha relinquish- Tripolitania and Cyrenaica meet. By these operations the Italians ing his demands, but receiving $60,000 (about £12,000) as ransom came into effective control of all the region north of the Sahara. for the “Philadelphia” prisoners. In 1815, in consequence of fur- A visit paid by the king and queen of Italy to Tripoli and other ther outrages, Captains Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur, at the } towns in April 1928 may be taken to mark the completion of the head of a squadron, again visited Tripoli and forced the pasha to task of establishing order and security in the colony. (See further comply with the demands of the United States. CyRENAICA and SENUSSI.) In 1835 the Turks took advantage of a civil war to reassert BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir R. L. Playfair, Bibliography of the Barbary their direct authority. They administered the country as an ordi- States, pt. i, “Tripoli and the Cyrenaica” (1892); A Handbook of a British Admiralty publication, 1917 (with short bibliognary vilayet (province) under a pasha. Turkish rule was marked Libya, raphy) ; A. Medana, Z} Vilayet di Tripoli di Barbera nell anno 1002 by occasional, spasmodic, and mainly ineffective efforts to develop (Italan Foreign Office, Rome, 1904) ; A. Fantoli, Piccola Guida della the country. When in 1881 the French seized Tunisia the Turks Tripolitania (Tripoli, 1925); La Rinas cita della T ripolitania, ed. À. Piccioli (Milan, 1926), an account of Count Volpi’s governorship. The were alarmed and greatly strengthened their garrison in Tripolitania. Disputes followed as to the extent of the Tripolitan hinter- letters (1819) of Richard Tully, consul at Tripoli from 1783 to 1793, throw a strange and vivid light on Tripolitan life during the 18th land, which the French endeavoured to circumscribe. It was nol century. (E. R. C.) only the French that the Turks had to fear. Italy had looked upon TRIPOLITSA, officially Tripolis, a town of Greece, capital Tunisia as her heritage and, baulked in that direction, she now of the nomarchy of Arcadia, and the seat of an archbishop, in fixed her eyes upon Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. More or less a plain over 2,000 ft. above sea-level, 22 m. S.W. of Argos. The definite understandings were reached on the subject with other name refers to the three ancient cities of Mantineia, Pallantium European Powers interested. For another generation, however, and Tegea, of which Tripolitsa is the modern representative. It the Turks remained undisturbed and under the impetus of the does not stand on any ancient site. Before the War of IndePan-Islamic movement Turkish authority was pushed far south, pendence it was the capital of the Morea and the seal of a pasha, a Turkish garrison even occupying the oasis of Bilma in IQIQ. With about 20,000 inhabitants; but in 1821 it was sacked by the Meanwhile, Germany was making endeavours to secure economic Insurgents, and in 1825 its ruin was completed by Ibrahim Pasha.

and, as a result, political predominance in both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. This led to action by Italy; war was declared upon Turkey in Nov. rọrr and both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were

declared to be under the full sovereignty of Italy. (For the war seé ItaLo-TuRKISH War.) When the Treaty of Lausanne was signed in Oct. 1912 the Italians, however, held only the coast

The town has since been rebuilt. i _TRIPOLYE (Komsomolye) a town of Russia on the Dnieper river, 56 km. south of the city of Kiev, with which it has steamer communication. It is famous for its painted pottery of late Neolithic date; its site and others in the district were explored by Chwojka and the name Tripolye was given to the culture

TRIPTOLEMUS—TRISTAN there represented.

This highly developed

dates

2750 B.c.

485

civilization probably | (pop. 7,743), where there is an Arts college. been Tripura represents the remnant of an ancient kingdom which discovered, Tripolye A, the grooved type, being the more at various times extended in the north to Kamrup and in the east common. Tripolye B, or painted pottery, is thought to be an to Arakan. Ralph Fitch, who travelled through the country in imported product and both are considered to be contemporary. 1585, noted that “the king of Tippara had almost continual wars Tripolye is mentioned in 1093 and later was inhabited by with the Arakanese.” The country now included in the Tippera disfrom

about

Two

types of pottery have

refugees from Kiev, after the capture of that city by the Mongols. In the 17th century Tripolye was a fortress, and the remains of its walls still stand, as do two old churches built in the Ukrainian style. During the 1917~20 civil war it was the headquarters of the bandit chief Zeleny, who drowned too victims in the Dnieper. A battle then ensued between the Communist Youth party (Komsomol) and the bandits and the town was re-named Komsomolye in memory of the Communist victims. See M. Rostovtzeff, Iranians and Greeks in South Russia, 1922. H. J. E. Peake, and H. J. Fleure, Priests and Kings, 1927. V. G. Childe, The Dawn of European Civilization, 1925. E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greek, 1913. In Russian: V. Chwojka, Article in vol. i. p. 736 of the Report of the XI. Russian Arch. Congress at Kiev, 1899, published in Moscow in 2 vols., rgor and 1902. V. Chwojka, The Ancient Dwellers in the Middle Dnieper, Kiev, 1913. Gorodtsov, Bytovaya Arkheologia, Moscow, 1910. Report of the Historical Museum of Moscow, 1916.

TRIPTOLEMUOS, an agricultural hero of Eleusis, first priest of Demeter, and founder of the Eleusinian mysteries. His name is of doubtful meaning (“he who ploughs or toils thrice”: i.e., diligently?) ; in some legends he is the inventor of the plough. In the best known legend (Apollodorus, i.) Triptolemus was the son of Celeus, king of Eleusis, and Metaneira. Demeter, during her search for her daughter Persephone, arrived at Eleusis in the form of an old woman. Here she was hospitably received by Celeus, and out of gratitude would have made his son Demophon immortal by anointing him with ambrosia and destroying his mortal parts by fire; but Metaneira, happening to see what was going on, screamed out and disturbed the goddess. Demophon was burnt to death, and Demeter, to console his parents, took upon herself the care of Triptolemus, instructed him in everything connected with agriculture, and presented him with a wonderful chariot, drawn by dragons, in which he travelled all over the world, spreading the knowledge of her gifts. In another account

(Hyginus, Fab. 147) Triptolemus is the son of Eleusinus, and takes the place of Demophon in the above narrative, but does not die. In the Homeric hymn to Demeter, Triptolemus is simply one of the nobles of Eleusis, who was instructed by the goddess in her rites and ceremonies. The Attic legend represented him as one of the judges of the underworld. He is often represented in art, and formed the subject of a play (now lost) of Sophocles. His altar and threshing-floor were shown on the Rarian plain near Eleusis; hence he is sometimes called the son of Rarus. See Preller-Robert, i., 767, and the classical dictionaries.

TRIPTYCH, a painting, carving or other decorative design, executed on three compartments or panels, so constructed that the two wings may fold on hinges over the centre-piece (Gr.

Tpim7uxos, three-fold). The backs of the wing-pieces are often also painted, carved or otherwise decorated. The subject of the side-pieces are usually appropriate and subsidiary to that of the centre. The triptych is most frequently designed as an altarpiece. An earlier use of the term is for a set of three wooden or ivory writing-tablets, hinged or otherwise fastened together, the central tablet being waxed on both sides for the impression of the stilus or writing implement, the outer tablets only on the inside. The three tablets thus formed a small book.

TRIPURA

(formerly called Hill Tippera), a feudatory State

of India, adjoining the British district of Tippera, in Bengal. Area, 4,116 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 304,437; estimated revenue Rs.

2,971,000 (including revenue from estates in British India). Tripura comprises six parallel ranges of hills running from north to south, at an average distance of 12 m. apart. The hills, of which the highest is 3,200 ft. above sea-level, are covered for the most part with forest and bamboo jungle, while the low ground abounds with trees of various kinds, canebrakes and swamps. The forests shelter wild elephants, bison, tigers, leopards and deer. The principal crop and food staple is rice. Half the population consists of Tiparas, a tribe of Mongolian origin. The capital is Agartala

trict was conquered by the Mughals and annexed in 1733, but Tripura still remained under its own line of rulers. When the East India company obtained the diwani or financial administration of Bengal in 1765, they placed a Rajah on the throne, and, since 1808, each successive ruler has received investiture from the British government. The present ruler is H. H. Maharajah Manikya Bir Bikram Kishore Deb Barman Bahaden, who succeeded in 1923. The District Magistrate of Tippera is ex-officio Political Agent for the State, and the governor of Bengal acts as Agent of the Governor-General for supervising the administration.

TRISECTRIX:

see Curve, SPECIAL.

TRISTAN or TRISTRAM, one of the most famous heroes of mediaeval romance. In the earlier versions of his story he is. the son of Rivalin, a prince of north-west Britain, and Blancheflor, sister to King Mark of Cornwall. Rivalin is killed in battle, and Blancheflor, after giving birth to a son, dies of grief. The boy is brought up as his own by Roald, or Rual, seneschal of the kingdom, who has him carefully trained in all chivalric and courtly

arts. With the possible exception of Horn, Tristan is by far the most accomplished hero in the whole range of knightly romance; a finished musician, linguist and chess-player, no one can rival him in more knightly arts, in horsemanship or fencing. He has besides, the whole science of vénerie at his fingertips. In fact, Tristan is the “Admirable Crichton” of mediaeval romance; there is nothing he cannot do, and that superlatively well—it must be regretfully admitted that he is also a most accomplished liar. Being kidnapped by pirates, Tristan is carried to Cornwall where he finds his way to the court of his uncle, King Mark, who is at first unaware of his identity, but, on learning it, joyfully accepts him as nephew and heir. He defeats the Irish giant, Morholt, who comes to claim the tribute payable every third year by Cornwall, but is

desperately wounded in the encounter. Set adrift in a boat, Tristan is carried by the waves to Ireland, where he is healed by the queen, sister to Morholt. Later on he returns to ask the hand of the princess Iseult for his uncle, King Mark, and, having slain a dragon which is devastating the country, succeeds in his quest. On the homeward journey Tristan and Iseult, by misadventure, drink of the love-potion prepared by the queen for her daughter and King Mark. Henceforward the two are bound to each other by an imperishable love which dares all dangers and makes light of hardships. The greater part of the romance is occupied by plot and counter-plot; Mark and the courtiers seeking to entrap the lovers, who by their wiles escape the snares laid for them. Finally, the two are discovered under circumstances which admit of no evasion, and Tristan is obliged to Jee to Brittany. There, believing himself to be forgotten, ne weds Tseult of the White Hand, daughter of the duke, but makes her ais wife only in name. Wounded by a poisoned weapon he sends to Iseult of Ireland to come and heal him. If she accedes to his request the ship on which she embarks is to have a white sail, if she refuses, a black. Actuated by jealousy, his wife, who has discovered his secret, seeing the ship approach on which Iseult is hastening to her lover’s aid, tells him that it carries a black sail. Tristan, turning his face to the wall, dies, and Iseult, arriving too late to save her lover, yields up her life in a final embrace.

Whether or not this beautiful story reposes upon a genuine historic tradition, the legend of Tristan and Iseult was one of the most popular themes of mediaeval romance; it was translated into many tongues, and the episodes are preserved in miniatures, carv-

ings and embroideries. The earliest form of the story is still a matter of debate. Prof. Zimmer held that the main incidents were of historic origin, dating from the period of the Viking rule in Ireland. The name of Iseult’s father, Gormond, is certainly Scandinavian, and she herself is noted for her golden hair; she is a northern, not a Celtic, princess. The name of Tristan, on the

486

TRISTAN

DA

CUNHA

are narrow other hand. has been referred to the Pictish Drustan, and the the west. At the base of the cliffs in some places fringes of beach. Some origin. story is now generally admitted to be of insular Nightingale island, the smallest and most southern of the group, think that the story was first told in the form of short episodic to m. from Inaccessible island. Its area is not more than 1 sq. is other the On poems. longer into woven on later lais, which were Its coasts are surrounded by low cliffs, from which there is a m. hand that distinguished scholar, M. Bédier, maintains that there high). There was but one poem at the root of all the varying versions of the gentle slope up to two peaks (1,100 ft. and 960 ft. (150 ft.) Middle and ft.) (325 koff islets—Stolten small two are century 12th the in composed Tristan story, and that that work, coast. the to adjacent rocks several by an unknown Anglo-Norman poet, was of such force that it —and The rocks of Tristan da Cunha are basalt, porphyritic basalt, determined for all time the form of the tradition. There certainly augite-andesite, palagonite, volcanic tuff and ashes. A dolerite, by century 12th the in was an important Tristan poem, composed foundation an Anglo-Norman named Thomas, which was translated into Ger- block of gneiss in the crater indicates a continental that it indicate island Nightingale in caves The island. but the of remain, now fragments Only Scandinavian. and man, English are they are sufficient to show that the original was a work of has been elevated several feet. On almost all sides the islands seaweed outstanding merit. The German translation, by Gottfried von surrounded by a broad belt of kelp, the gigantic southern the Strassburg, which seems to have followed the original closely, is a (Macrocystis pyrifera), through which a boat may approach good anchorage very beautiful poem and one of the classics of the middle ages. rocky shores even in stormy weather. There is no Besides the version of Thomas we have a fragment by a certain in rough weather. The prevailing winds are westerly. December to March is the Béroul, also an Anglo-Norman, and a German poem by Eilhart von Oberge, both of which derive from a common source. There fine season. The climate is mild and on the whole healthy, the _also exists in two mss. a short poem, La Folie Tristan, relating how temperature averaging 68° Fahr. in summer, 55° in winter—someTristan, disguised as a fool, visits the court of King Mark. This times falling to 40°. Rain is frequent; hail and snow fall occasionally on the lower grounds. The sky is usually cloudy. The poem is valuable, as, relying upon the sufficiency of his disguise, Tristan audaciously gives a résumé of his feats and of his rela- islands have a cold and barren appearance. The tide rises and falls about 4 ft. tions with Iseult, in this agreeing with the version of Thomas. History.—The islands were discovered in 1506 by the PortuThe “Gerbert” continuation of the Perceval contains the working

guese admiral Tristão da Cunha. Thereafter the islands (which were uninhabited) were occasionally visited by outward bound ships to the Indies. Attempts to form settlements were made by the Dutch in 1656, and by the English East India company a few years later, but the first permanent inhabitant was one Thomas Currie, who landed on the island in 1810. At this time American whalers frequented the neighbouring waters and, in the same year, an American named Lambert and a man named Williams made Tristan their home, but they were drowned while out fishing in is obscured by an interminable series of “banal” adventures. It May 1812. Currie was joined by two other men and they busied ' was in this form that Malory knew it. Fortunately for the present themselves in growing vegetables, wheat and oats, and in breeding generation the genius of Richard Wagner, inspired by the text of pigs. Owing to the fact that the islands were used as a base for Gottfried von Strassburg, has restored the story to its earlier American cruisers raiding British merchant ships, the islands were formally annexed to Britain as dependencies of Cape Colony on form, and enshrined it in imperishable music. Aug. 14, 1816. A temporary garrison was placed on Tristan, and Bæerrocrarny.—Thomas, Roman de Tristan (edit. J. Bédier, Société des Anciens Textes Français, 2 vols, 1902, 1905); Béroul, when it left, William Glass, his wife and two children and two Roman de Tristan (edit. E. Muret, same series, 1903); E. Kolbing, masons were left behind, and shipwrecked mariners, coloured Die nordische und die englische Version der Tristan saga (1877, 1888) ; women from Cape Colony, and British, Dutch, Italian and Asiatic La Folie Tristan (edit. J. Bédier, 1907); Tristan Menestrel, from

over of a short Tristan poem, called by him the Luite Tristan;

the latter part, probably a distinct poem, shows Tristan, in the disguise of a minstrel, visiting the court of Mark. Finally, in consequence of the popularity of the cyclic version of the Arthurian romances, the original Tristan story was worked over in prose form, and incorporated with the final version of the Arthurian legend, where it served to swell the already unwieldy bulk of the romantic corpus to an impossible extent. Little of the primitive story is here preserved, and its original tragic beauty

the Perceval (edit. J. Bédier and J. L. Weston, Romania,

vol. XXXV.,

1906). Gottfried’s Trzstan und Isolde has been several times published ; the best editions are those of Bechstein (1890) and Golther (1889).

There is an English prose rendering by J. L. Weston (Arthurian Romances, No. Ii.). A detailed analysis of the contents of the prose romance, compiled from the mss. of the Paris library, was published by E. Loseth, Le Roman en prose de Tristan (1890). For a study of the sources see Gertrude Schoepperle, Tristan and Isolt (2 vols., 1890), and for a bibliography of the extensive Tristan literature, J. D. Bruce, The Evolution of Arthurian Romance (1923). (J. L. W.)

TRISTAN DA CUNHA, the general name for a group of three small volcanic islands belonging to Great Britain, situated in the south Atlantic, the summit of the largest being in 37° 5’ 50” S., 12° 16% 40” W. They are midway between Cape Colony and South America. The islands rise from the submarine elevation which runs down the middle of the Atlantic. The depth between the islands is in some places over 1,000 fathoms. Tristan, the largest and northernmost island, has an area of 16 sq.m., is nearly circular in form, about 7 m. in diameter, and has a volcanic cone (7,640 ft.), usually capped with snow, in the centre. Precipitous cliffs, r,000 to 2,000 ft., rise from the ocean on all sides, except the north-west, where there is an irregular plateau of about 12 sq.m., roo ft. above the sea. A stream crosses the northern end of the plateau, falling over the cliff edge in a fine cascade. The crater of the central cone contains a freshwater lake about rso yd. in diameter. This and other crater lakes are said never to be frozen over. Inaccessible island, the westernmost of the group, is about 20 m. from Tristan. It is quadrilateral in form, the sides being about 2m. long, with cliffs about 1,000 ft., its highest point (1,840) is on

settlers have since made their home there. The settlers grew wheat (since made impossible owing to the ravages of rats) raised cattle, sheep and pigs, grew apples and peaches, and engaged in seal fishing. They had of necessity to make their settlement on the plain on the north-west of Tristan; here a number of substantial stone cottages and a church were built. It is named Edinburgh in memory of a visit in 1867 by the duke of Edinburgh. In October 1873 the islands were carefully surveyed by the “Challenger.” The visits of whalers were considerably reduced during the American Civil War, to the loss of the inhabitants of Tristan. In 1880, the population was 109, in 1885 15 men were drowned in a lifeboat disaster, in 1897, the population was 64, in 1909, 95 and in 1925, 130. They manage their own affairs without any written laws. Frequent attempts have been made to induce some or all of the population to leave and land has been offered to them in South Africa, but has not been accepted. Their life is a hard one, their chief food is the potato and fuel is very scarce. The inhabitants are described as moral, without intoxicating liquors, religious, hospitable to strangers, well mannered and industrious, healthy

and long lived. They are daring sailors, and in small canvas boats of their own building voyage to Nightingale and Inaccessible islands. They knit garments from the wool of their sheep; are good carpenters and make serviceable carts. Guano occurs on Nightingale, Inaccessible and Gough islands, but does not appear to be worked. Gough Island.—Gough island or Diego Alvarez lies in 40° 20’ S., 9° 44’ W., and is 250 m. S.S.E. of Tristan da Cunha. It is of volcanic origin, is rugged and mountainous, the highest peak rising to 4,380 ft. The island is about 8 m. long by 4 m. broad. Pre-

TRITON—TRIUMPHAL cipitous cliffs, from 200 to 1,000 ft. high, characterize the coast. They are divided by picturesque valleys. Streams fall over the cliffs into the sea in fine cascades. There are vast numbers of penguins and valuable guano deposits. It is also the home of numerous seals. Originally called Diego Alvarez, it derives its other name from a Captain Gough who visited it in 1731. It has been claimed as a British possession since the annexation of Tristan da Cunha. In 1904 Gough island was visited by the Antarctic exploring ship “Scotia” of the Bruce expedition, which discovered a rich marine fauna, two new buntings and three new species of plants. It has no permanent population. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —A comprehensive account of Tristan da Cunha appeared in The Cape Times (1906), in articles by W. Hammond Tooke. See also Mrs. K. M. Barrow, Three Years in Tristan da Cunha (London 1911); H. N. Moseley, Notes by a Naturalist on the “Challenger” (new ed., London, 1892); H. M. Rogers, Tristan da Cunha (1922); R. A. Rogers, The Lonely Islands (1926); and Handbook of Tristan

da Cunha

(1924),

and Colonial

Office Annual

Reports.

For

Gough Island, see R. N. R. Brown, “Diego Alvarez or Gough Island,” Scottish Geog. Mag. (1905) ; Brown and others, “The Botany of Gough Island,” Journ. Linnean So (Botany) (1905), and The Vovage of the “Scotia” (London, 1906).

TRITON, the Greek merman, son of Poseidon and Amphitrite. According to Hesiod (Theog. 930), he dwelt with his parents in a golden palace in the depths of the sea. The story of the Argonauts places his home on the coast of Libya. When the Argo was driven ashore on the Lesser Syrtes the crew carried the vessel to Lake Tritonis, whence Triton, the local deity, guided them

across to the Mediterranean (Apollonius Rhodius iv. 1552). He was represented as human down to the waist, with the tail of a fish, but ancient artists portray other and more fantastic seacreatures as well. His special attribute was a twisted seashell, on which he blew to calm or raise the waves. Various stories (as

Virgil, Aen., VI., 171, Pausanias, IX., 20, 4-5) represent him as jealous or violent. See F. R. Dressler, Triton und die Tritonen (Wurzen, 1892) ; Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed. 1894).

TRITUBERCULATA or PANTOTHERIA, a group of very small insect-eating mammals from the Jurassic rocks, characterized by the sharp-cusped lower molar teeth with an inwardly directed phalange (tuberculo-sectorial type). Some of them, such as Amphitherium, are, perhaps, the ancestors of all modern mammals except the platypus and echidna (Monotremata, g.v.). See MAMMALIA, PALAEONTOLOGY. TRIUMPH, the highest honour bestowed in Rome upon a

victorious general (Lat. triamphus). It was only granted on certain conditions, relaxed in special cases. Only those who held the office of dictator, consul, or praetor were entitled to the distinction; the war must have been brought to a definite conclusion, resulting in an extension of the boundaries of the state;

ARCH

487

shouting Jo triumphe. On reaching the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, the general placed the laurel branch on the lap of the image of the god, and offered the thank-offerings. A feast of the magistrates and senate concluded the ceremony. Under the empire only the emperors celebrated a triumph, because the generals commanded under the auspices of the emperors as leu-

tenants (legati); the only honour they received was the right of wearing the triumphal insignia (the robes of purple and gold and the wreath of bay leaves) on holidays. The last triumph recorded is that of Diocletian (a.p. 302). A naval triumph was sometimes allowed for victories at sea, the earliest being that celebrated by C. Duilius for his victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C. See Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung (1884); Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht (1887); J. E. Sandys, Companion to Latin Studies (1921).

TRIUMPHAL ARCH, originally an arch built to commemorate a victory of a Roman general, but more commonly used, in a broader sense, for any monumental arch built for purely commemorative or even decorative purposes. The term is also used for the great arch between the nave and apse or the nave and transepts of an early Christian basilica. It is probable that temporary structures spanning a road or street were built by many peoples of antiquity to celebrate the homecoming of a victorious army, but it was the Romans who first made such arches permanent monumental structures, broadened their use for general memorial purposes, and even applied them to the monumental gates of cities and towns. Obviously the building of such a structure as the developed Roman arch would occupy too much time to admit of its being used for the actual triumphal procession that it celebrated; it was, therefore, originally, probably a reconstruction in stone of an earlier, temporary archway. Although no existing triumphal arches are earlier than the empire, it is known that there was, in the Forum, close to the regia, an arch commemorating the victory of Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus over the barbarians of Savoy in r2r B.c. Augustus built a triumphal arch on the Via Sacra, commemorating the victory of Crassus over the Parthians. From that time on there

was hardly an emperor who did not build a triumphal arch somewhere in Rome. The greater number of these have perished, but those of Titus (completed under Domitian c. A.p. 80), of Septimius Severus (203-205) and that of Constantine (312), which incorporates much sculpture taken from the earlier arch of Trajan, still remain in good preservation. Many smaller monu-

mental arches also exist in Fome. Both emperors and private citizens built them in all the important centres of the empire.

Monumental gateways of triumphal arch type exist in many places in Syria, like that probably of the time of Hadrian at Palmyra, and certain city gates were given the importance of a triumphal the victory must have been gained over a foreign enemy. The arch, especially that of Autun, France (probably 3rd century power of granting a triumph rested with the senate. Special A.D.) and the Porta Nigra at Trier (4th century). In the earlier arches, the arch is the most important element, legislation was necessary to keep the general in possession of the imperium on his entry into the city. Without this, his command usually with simple stretches of wall on either side. The orders would expire and he would have no right to a triumph. He re- appear only as minor decorative features, either under the arch mained outside the city limits until the ordinance was passed; impost, as at Saintes, or as flat pilasters, carrying a crowning Lucullus on his return from Asia waited outside Rome three entablature, and placed at the corners of the structure, as at 5. Chamas. Only in the arches of Augustus, as at Susa and Aosta, years. The triumph, a solemn procession, starting from the Campus do engaged columns appear, and even then, still as minor decoraMartius, passed through the city to the Capitol. The streets tive elements. It was in the arch of Titus, at Rome, that the were adorned with garlands, and the procession was greeted with later definite arrangement was worked out, in which the columns shouts of Jo triumphe. At its head were the magistrates and project boldly, on high pedestals, and carry an entablature that senate, followed by trumpeters and then by the spoils, (arms, casts a strong shadow. Moreover, arch spandrils are sculptured, standards, statues, etc., representations of battles, and of the and the interior faces of the passage bear remarkable high relief towns, etc., of the conquered country). Next came the victims panels, showing the seven branch candlestick and the other destined for sacrifice, especially white oxen with gilded horns. trophies of the capture of Jerusalem. In the triple arch of Septimius Severus, the attic projects out They were followed by the prisoners kept to grace the triumph. The chariot of the victorious general (triumphator) was crowned over the end columns, the inscription runs through from end with laurel and drawn by four horses. The general was attired to end, so that the central columns are left without apparent like the Capitoline Jupiter in robes of purple and gold; in work to do. In the arch of Constantine, on the other hand, the his right hand he held a laurel branch, in his left an ivory sceptre free-standing columns have become, like the pilasters of the surmounted by an eagle. Above his head the golden crown early examples, purely decorative features, and each supports of Jupiter was held by a slave, who reminded him in the midst a colossal statue, so that despite the crudity of much of the of his glory that he was a mortal man. Last came the soldiers workmanship, this arch gives the most satisfactory effect of any

TRIVANDRUM—TROCHEE

488

ARCH OF TRAJAN, ENEVENTO 2ND CENTURY

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ARC DE TRIOMPHE, PARIS EARLY 19TH CENTURY

ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME, 4TH CENTURY

1ST CENTURY TYPES

d

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TRIUMPHAL

ARCH

FROM

THE

FIRST

TO

THE

19TH

CENTURY

TRIVIUM, in mediaeval educational systems, the curriculum of the later arches in Rome. The Arch of Trajan at Timgad reveals another interesting attempt to relate free-standing col- which included grammar, rhetoric and logic (Lat. for cross-road, umns to the body of an arch, by connecting the two columns of i.e., where three roads meet, from tres, three, and via, road). The each outer pair with a curved pediment, the attic over the trivium and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry and central arch running up to a higher level. The triumphal arch astronomy) together made up as the seven liberal arts. TRNAVA, a town in Slovakia, Czechoslovakia, on the river of the early Christian basilica is chiefly remarkable as the position for some of the richest and most beautiful of the wall Trnava, was transferred from Hungary by the Treaty of Trianon, mosaics that were the chief form of interior decoration. (See 1920. It is a market town for a rich agricultural region. Manufactures include sugar-refining, starch, beer, shoes and, oldest of BASILICA; BYZANTINE AND ROoOMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE; all, cloth; fertilisers are also prepared. Pop. (1923), 17,745. Mosaic.) TRNOVO [rrenovo], a city and capital of a department in There is an interesting early Renaissance triumphal arch at Naples (1453-70), to commemorate the entrance of Alphonso I. Bulgaria; 124 m. EN.E. of Sofia, on the river Yantra, on the into Aragon, designed by Pietro di Martino. The most interest- Trans-Balkan railway, which joins the Sofia-Varna line at Gornaing Renaissance and modern triumphal arches are, however, of Orehovitsa, 8 m. N. of Trnovo. Pop. (1926) 12,802. The city later date. The Porte Saint-Denis (1672-73), by Blondel and is remarkably situated. The Yantra runs in a deep gorge, the Porte Saint-Martin (1674-75), by Bullet, both in Paris, depart doubling first left, then right, round two promontories, which from the Roman scheme and substitute trophies and reliefs for stand like high fortresses, surrounded by water on three sides. the orders which the Romans used. Of the more Roman type, The first of these, the Tsarevitsa, is connected with the rest of is the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, Paris (1805), by Percier | the town by a high causeway, in part a bridge; the other, the and Fontaine, based on the arch of Septimius Severus. The Sieges | Trapesitsa, is entirely isolated. The inhabited town covers the Thor at Munich (1843-50), by Gaertner and Metzger, and the | two sides of ine roof-like ridge which terminates in the Tsarevitsa. Marble Arch in London, designed in 1828 by John Nash for an | On the latter a e a ruined tower, known as Baldwin’s tower, where entrance to Buckingham palace, and moved to its present posi- | the Frank emperor is supposed to have been imprisoned, and tion in 1851, are both closely imitated from the Arch of Con- | behind it, the somewhat unimposing remains of the palace of the stantine. The triple arch and screen at Hyde Park Corner, London | Asens (g.v.). Few of these ruins have been excavated. The (1828), by Decimus Burton, is a freer design, but still in the | Trapesitsa contains the fragments of several mediaeval churches Roman manner. Another noteworthy modern arch is the Wash- | in the Byzantine style. ington Arch, New York, by McKim, Mead and White, origTrnovo is believed to have been a Roman fortress; it was the inally constructed in temporary materials in 1889 in celebration | birthplace of Tsar Šišman, and the home of the second Bulgar of the tooth anniversary of Washington’s inauguration, later | empire, proclaimed here 1185 by the brothers Peter and Ivan reconstructed in marble and completed 1895. By far the largest | Asen, who were boyars of the Tsarevitsa and Trapesitsa. It was of all triumphal arches and the most beautiful of modern examples | capital of Bulgaria 1186-1394, when it was adorned with great is the Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile at Paris (begun 1805 from | splendour; most of the relics were destroyed in the earthquake designs by Chalgrin, but not completed till 1836). It is remark- | of r9rz. It was the seat of the Bulgarian patriarchate from 1232 able for its architectural proportions and the great scale and | to its abolition in 1767. Trnovo was taken by the Turks on July almost stark grandeur of its sculpture, which emphasizes its |17, 1394. It remained, however, a commercial centre. It was great width of 147 ft. and height of 160 feet. Under the arch is | captured by Russia in 1877. Prince Alexander of Battenberg the tomb of the “Unknown Warrior,” over which burns, every | was here proclaimed Bulgarian prince (1879). Here the Bulgarian night, the continuous “Flamme du Souvenir.” (T. E. H.) constituent assembly sat, all meetings of the Grand Sobranye

TRIVANDRUM,

a city of southern India, capital of the | (see Butcarta, Constitution) are held here, and the independent

state of Travancore, situated 2 m. from the sea-coast. Pop. | kingdom of Bulgaria was proclaimed in the church of the Forty (1921), 72,784. It is the residence of the maharaja, and contains | Martyrs (Oct. z, 1908). (C. A. M.) an observatory, a museum and zoological gardens. Its chief fame TROAD: see Troy. centres upon an old temple in the fort, a great resort of pilgrims, TROCHEE or Cnorre, literally the “running” or “dancing” round which the city grew up. The city contains the maharaja’s | foot (- ~) (Gr. rpéxew, to run, and xopos, a band of dancers).

Jaw college, a Sanskrit college, a woman’s college, technical and | Trochaic

training schools and a hospital and medical school.

metre

is of several kinds, usually described

by the

number of metra, or groups of two trochees, which they contain,

4.89

TROCHOPHORE—TROGON as the dimeter: Roma Roma, | cerne quanta Comrades, leave me | here a little

consisting of two metra or four trochees. The commonest form, especially in ancient drama, is the tetrameter catalectic or septenarius (four metra or eight trochees, lacking the final syllable), as Roma Roma, | cerne quanta |sit deum benjignitas Comrades, leave me |here a little, |while as yet ’tis | early morn.

TROCHOPHORE

or TROCHOSPHERE,

the names

applied to the free-swimming larval form of the segmented worms or Annelida (g.v.) and to the very similar (first) larval stage of the Lamellibranchia (bivalves) and Gastropoda (univalves) (gg.v.) among the Mollusca (q.v.).

TROCHU, was born served as Crimean campaign of war

LOUIS

JULES

(1815-1896), French general,

at Palais (Belle-Ile-en-Mer) on March 12, 1815. He a captain in Algeria and as a colonel throughout the campaign. He commanded a division in the Italian of 1859 In 1866 he was employed at the ministry in the

preparation

of

army

reorganization

schemes,

and he published anonymously in the following year L’Armée francaise en 1867, a work inspired with Orleanist sentiment, which brought him into bad odour at court. He left the war office on hal{-pay, and was refused a command in the feld at the outbreak of the Franco-German War. After the earlier disasters in 1870, he was appointed by the emperor first commandant of the troops of Chalons camp, and soon afterwards (Aug. 17) governor of Paris and commander-in-chief of all the forces destined for the defence of the capital, including some 120,000 regular troops, 80,000 mobiles, and 330,000 National Guards. He put Paris in

a state of defence, and showed himself a master of the passive defensive. At the revolution of Sept. 4, he became president of the government of national defence. His “plan” for defending the city failed; the successive sorties were unsuccessful, and when capitulation became inevitable he resigned the governorship of Paris on Jan. 22, 1871 to General Vinoy, retaining the presidency of the government until after the armistice in February. He was

elected to the National Assembly by eight departments, and sat for Morbihan. In July 1872 he retired from political life, and in 1873 from the army. He published in 1873 Pour Ja vérité et pour la justice, in justification of the government of national defence, and in 1879 L’Armée francaise en 1870, par un officier en retraite. He died at Tours on Oct. 7, 1896. TROELSTRA, PIETER JELLES (1860), Dutch Socialist leader, was born at Leeuwarden and educated for the legal profession at the University of Groningen, but early abandoned it for politics and journalism. He adopted Socialist opinions and becoming dissatisfed with the leadership of Domela Nieurenhuis, under whom Dutch Socialism had assumed an extremist complexion bordering on anarchism, he founded the Social Democratic Workers’ Party in 1894 for the constitutional achievement of Socialism. In 1913, the Liberal party offered the Socialists three seats in a government which would include in its programme universal suffrage and old age pensions. This Troelstra refused, on the assumption that the entrance of the Socialists into the government would strengthen the opposition to universal suffrage. His point of view was approved by the conference of the party. At the elections of 1918, as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage, the Socialists scored important gains, and under the influence of the German revolution, Troelstra, in a remarkable speech in the chamber, called upon the government to resign with a view to the formation of a socialist state. The leading members of his party repudiated his tactics but pressure was brought to bear upon the government, which resulted

in the eight-hour day and other reforms.

Thenceforward Troel-

stra’s influence with the proletariat increased steadily, until in 1925, owing to failing health, he retired from politics,

TROGIR

or TRAU,

a seaport of Dalmatia, Vugoslavia.

Pop. (1921) 3,354. The town is built upon an island, connected with the mainland by a bridge. The Venetian loggia is a fine specimen of a 16th century court of justice; and the cathedral

is one of the glories of Dalmatia. It is Hungarian Gothic, and founded in 1200, was only completed in 1450. Trau is a steamship station with a dockyard, and has some trade in fruit and wine, the fertile soil producing vines, figs, pomegranates and olives. The chief industries are the weaving of rascia, a coarse blue serge, and metal work. Tragurium, by which name it was known to the Romans, was probably colonised about 380 B.c. by Syracusan Greeks from Lissa, and its name is sometimes derived from rpwyctdos, a place near Syracuse. In 998 it submitted to Venice; but in 1105 it acknowledged the supremacy of Hungary, while retaining its municipal freedom, and receiving, in 1108, a charter which is quoted by Lucio. After being plundered by the Saracens in 1123, it was ruled for brief periods by Byzantium, Hungary and Venice. In 1242 the Tatars pursued Bela IV. of Hungary to Trau, but were unable to storm the island city, which remained in the possession of Hungary till 1413. The Italians attempted to take possession of the town at the close of the World War (1914-18), but were driven out by the inhabitants, 99% of whom are Slavs. See T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero, and Istria (Oxford, 1887) ; EH. A. Freeman, Sketches from the Subject and Neighbour Lands of Venice (London, 1881); and G. Lucio, Memorie istoriche in Tragurio, ora detto Trau (Venice, 1673).

TROGLODYTES,

“cave-dwellers,”

a name

applied

by

ancient writers to different tribes in various parts of the world, Strabo speaks of them in Moesia, south of the Danube (vii. 318), in the Caucasus (xi. 506), but especially in various parts of Africa from Libya (xvii. 828) to the Red Sea. The troglodyte Ethiopians of Herodotus (iv. 183) in inner Africa, very swift of foot, living on lizards and creeping things, and with a speech like the screech of an owl, have been identified with the Tebus of Fezzan. According to Aristotle (Hist. Am viii. 12) a dwarfish race of Troglodytes dwelt on the upper course of the Nile, who possessed horses and were in his opinion the Pygmies of fable. But the best known of these African cave-dwellers were the inhabitants of the “Troglodyte country” (TperyAodurix#) on the coast of the Red Sea, as far north as the Greek port of Berenice, as recorded by Diodorus (iii. 31) and Photius (p. 454 Bekker) from Agatharchides of Cnidus, and by Artemidorus in Strabo (xvi. 776). ‘They were a pastoral people, living entirely on the flesh of their herds, or, in the season of fresh pasture, on mingled milk and blood. But they killed only old or sick cattle (as indeed they killed old men who could no longer follow the flock), and the butchers were called “unclean.” They gave the name of parent to no man, but only to the cattle which provided their subsistence. They went almost naked; the women wore necklaces of shells as amulets. They practised circumcision or an operation of a more serious kind. The dead body, its neck and legs bound together with withies of the shrub called palturus, was set up on a mound, and pelted with stones amidst the jeers of the onlookers, until its face was completely covered with them. A goat’s horn was then placed above it, and the crowd dispersed with manifestations of joy. | TROGON, the name of birds forming the family Trogonidae. The trogons are birds of moderate size, the smallest hardly bigger than a thrush, the largest less bulky than a crow. The bill is wide at the gape, which is beset by recurved bristles. They seize most of their food on the wing. Their flight is shart, rapid and spasmodic. ‘Their feet are weak and of a unique structure, the second toe, which in most birds is the inner anterior one, being reverted; in all other birds that have two toes before and two behind, the outer toe is turned backward. The plumage is beautiful and ‘characteristic, and the glory of the group culminates in the quezal (qg.v.). The plumage is further remarkable for the absence of down and for the large size of its contour-feathers, which are extremely soft and so loosely seated as to come off in scores at a touch. The tail is a characteristic feature, the rectrices being often curiously squared at the tip. The nidification of these birds is in holes of trees, wherein are laid without any bedding two roundish eggs, generally white, but certainly in one species

(quezal) tinted with bluish green. The trogons form a very well-marked family of Coraciiform

TROGUS—TROJAN

490

birds placed near the colies (see Mouse Birp) and swifts (q.v.). The remains of one have been found in the Miocene of France. This discovery seems to account for the remarkable distribution of the trogons at the present day. While they chiefly abound in the tropics of the New World, they occur too in the tropical parts of the Old. About sixty species are recognized, which J. Gould in the second edition of his Monograph of the family (1875) divides into seven genera.

TROGUS, GNAEUS POMPEIUS, Roman historian from the country of Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis, nearly contemporary with Livy, flourished during the age of Augustus. The name Pompeius was adopted by his grandfather, who received the citizenship from Pompey. Trogus’ books on natural history are frequently quoted by Pliny; his principal work, however, was Historiae Philippicae in 44 books, so called because the Macedonian empire founded by Philip is the central theme of the narrative. This was a general history of the world, or rather of those portions of it which came under the sway of Alexander and his successors. Of this great work, we possess only the epitome by Justin, the prologi or summaries of the 44 books, and fragments. But even in its present mutilated state it is often an important authority for the ancient history of the East. Ethnographical and geographical excursuses are a special feature of the work. Fragments edit. by A. Bielowski (1853); see also, A. H. L. Heeren, De Trogi P. fontibus et auctoritate (prefixed to C. H. Frotscher’s edition of Justin); A. Enmann on the authorities used by Trogus for Greek and Sicilian history (1880); A. von Gutschmid, Uber die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus (1857); M. Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (2nd ed., 1899), ii., where all that is known of Tiımagenes is given; and article JUSTIN.

TROIA,

a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the

province of Foggia, situated 1,440 ft. above sea-level, 7 m. N.W. of the station of Giardinetto-Troia, which is 16 m. S.W. of

Foggia. Pop. (1921), 6,420. Troia occupies the site of the ancient Aecae, 12 m. 5. of Luceria, on the Via Traiana. Troia was itself founded in rory by the Greek prefect Basilius Bugianus. The cathedral dates from 1107, but the upper part of the façade with its rich sculptures, fine rose-window and polychromatic decoration, the choir apse and the interior were restored early in the 13th century. The bronze doors, partly in relief and partly in niello (1119—1127) were cast in Beneventum by Oderisius.

TROILUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam (or Apollo) and Hecuba. In the Ziad (xziv., 257) he is already slain before the action of the poem commences. According to a non-Homeric tradition (¢.g., Virgil den. i. 474), when a mere boy he fell by the hand of Achilles. In another account he was dragged to death by his own horses. His death formed the subject of a lost tragedy by Sophocles. The story of Troilus and Cressida (Caxton, Chaucer, Shakespeare, etc.) is entirely mediaeval.

TROITSK,

the name

of several Russian settlements, the

most important of which is the town of Troitsk in the Uralsk Area, in 54° 4’ N., 61° 35’ E., on the Ui, a tributary of the Tobol.

Pop. (1926)

29,643.

A fort was erected here in 1743, which

became a centre for trade with the Kirghiz steppe and Turkestan. A branch railway now links the town with Chelyabinsk and Sverdlovsk, and it is on the great Siberian road. It has tanneries and flour-mills, the latter supplying the Ural mining district.

TROITSOKOSAYSK,

a town of Asiatic Russia, in the

Buriat-Mongol A.S.8.R., in 51° 28’ N., 106° E., on the river near its Junction with the navigable Selenga, which waterway from Asiatic Russia to Mongolia. Two miles it is Russian Kiakhta, on the frontier, which adjoins Kiakhta or Mai-mai-Chén, a walled town with a large

Kiakhta forms a south of Chinese market-

place, and 10 m. N., at the confluence of the Kiakhta and Selenga,

is Ust-Kiakhta.

It was formerly the great route by which Chinese

tea entered Russia; and its December fair, when Russian leather, furs and wool were exchanged for tea, was very important. From 1689 to 1727 the trade was a Government monopoly, but from then till 1860 trade was thrown open to private merchants and as all trade across the Chinese frontier was by law compelled to pass through it, the town increased greatly in importance. In 1860, however, the whole frontier was declared open, and Kiakhta declined; the Transbaikal railway further diminished its impor-

PLANETS

tance. The combined population of Troitsokosavsk and Kiakhta was only 8,903 in 1926. Gold and osmiridium are found in the district, and salt is worked. A railway is projected to link Verkhne-Udinsk with Kiakhta, and this might restore the prosperity of the town, as there is a great market for leather in Mongolia, which has no tanneries; raw hides are often sent via this route to be dressed and re-exported. The altitude is 2,600 ft., and the climate severe (average January temperature, —18-4° F, average July, 67-1° F, and of ihe annual rainfall of rr in., 7-5 fall in July and August). The town was a storm centre in the post 1917 period, and was the scene of the massacre of 800 Bolshevik prisoners in 1920 by order of the Cossack ataman Semyonov.

TROJAN PLANETS, a group of asteroids revolving round the sun in the same period as Jupiter.

Joseph Louis Lagrange, in

his essay on the problem of Three Bodies (1772), noted certain simple cases in which an exact solution could be found by elementary methods. In some of these the bodies remained in a rotating straight line; these cases are unstable, and of little practical importance, though it has been suggested that the Gegenschein, or Counterglow, may be due to particles connected in this manner with the sun and earth. The most interesting case is that in which three masses (equal or unequal) S, J, T, whose centre of gravity is G, are situated at the angular points of an equilateral triangle. Then, if they are projected in the plane of the triangle, with velocities proportional to GS, GJ, GT, in directions making equal angles with GS, GJ, GT, in the same direction of angular motion, they will describe ellipses in the same period, exactly as though they were particles moving under accelerations directed, towards G and proportional to their distances from G; further, the triangle SJT

will remain equilateral throughout the motion, though it will vary in size unless the orbits round G are circular. This case, like the others, was regarded simply as a mathemati-

cal curiosity till the year 1906. On Feb. 22 in that year Prof. Max Wolf, in the course of the systematic search for new planets that is carried on by photography at Königstuhl Observatory, Heidelberg, found a faint planet, provisionally lettered TG, which subsequently received the permanent number 588 and the name Achilles. Its orbit was calculated by Dr. Berberich at the Berlin Recheninstitut; he found that its period was almost exactly the same as that of Jupiter (11-86 years). Thereupon Prof. Charlier, of Lund Observatory, noting that Achilles was about 554° in front of Jupiter, as seen from the sun, suggested. that this was an example in the heavens of the equilateral configuration which Lagrange had deduced by theory. It was seen, of course, that the ideal conditions were not exactly fulfilled; the inclination of Achilles to the ecliptic is r04°, and its eccentricity +—much larger than the corresponding elements of Jupiter’s orbit. But it was conjectured that since the equilateral configuration is stable, these deviations would simply produce periodic oscillations about that configuration. Achilles did not long remain the sole example of this type of motion; No. 617 Patroclus was found in the same year, and 624 Hector in the following year. Three more members were subsequently found, 659 Nestor, 884 Priamus and 911 Agamemnon. Of these Achilles, Hector, Nestor, Agamemnon are about 60° ahead of Jupiter (greater longitude), while Patroclus and Priamus are 60° behind. It is unfortunate that the obvious plan was nol followed of giving Greek names to those on one side, Trojan names to the other, but it would cause confusion to change now. The Trojans seem to be among the larger members of the asteroid group. Their diameters, estimated from their light, are of the order of 150 miles, which is greater than that of Juno, one of the original four asteroids. This diameter, however, is only one fivehundredth of that of Jupiter, so that, even if we assign to them double the density of Jupiter, the mass of each of them is only about one fifty-millionth of his. This is, of course, too small to produce any sensible effect on Jupiter, and the point G in the triangle may be taken as the centre of gravity of the sun and Jupiter. This is distant from the sun’s centre by xorg Of the side of the triangle, or 461,000 miles, which places it just outside the sun’s surface. This is the point which would be the centre of revolution under the strict Lagrangian configuration. It is obvious, however,

TROJAN WAR—TROLLOPE that the actual motion is far from exhibiting the Lagrangian simplicity and uniformity;

the inclination of two of the Trojans is

over 20°, and their eccentricities are also considerable. The question of the stability of the motion under these conditions has engaged the attention of at least three mathematicians. The first in the field was L. J. Linders, who followed a method in-

dicated by Poincaré (Legons de Méc. Cél 864), and obtained a first approximation to the resulting motion, which he found to be stable within certain limits of departure from the Lagrangian configuration. He found that the period of revolution of a Trojan planet would oscillate between 4,222 and 4,442 days, that of Jupiter being 4,332 days, or 11-86 years. The greatest departure.in angle from the mean position is 174°. He found that there would be long period oscillations whose duration is about rs0 years. Prof. E. W. Brown in igri studied the problem on the same lines as Prof. Sir G. Darwin had used in his investigations on periodic orbits. He treated the motion of Jupiter round the sun as exactly circular, and referred the motion of the asteroid to the revolving line joining Jupiter to the sun. The nearest approach of the asteroid to Jupiter compatible with stability was found to be about two

astronomical units, or 234°. W. M. Smart (1917) carried Linders’s work to a further order of approximation, but he still considered Jupiter as moving in a circle. He showed that the oscillations of the Trojans could be divided into two classes: (1) those arising directly from the inclination and eccentricity of the Trojans; the period of these is about 12 years. (2) a much slower oscillation, which may very approximately be represented as harmonic motion in an ellipse whose shorter axis is directed towards the sun, the

longer axis being 183 times the length of the shorter. The period in which this ellipse is described is 147-82 years, just 124 times Jupiter’s period of revolution. Two further papers by Prof. E. W. Brown deal more directly with the actual Trojans than his earlier one, which deals with ideal cases. He reduced the theory to a numerical form, and showed his approximations suffice to represent the observations of Achilles, extending over many years, within a few seconds of arc. He also examined the stability of the motion; it is stable as far as the sun and Jupiter are concerned, but the action of other planets especially Saturn may in a very long period (of the order of a million years) cause the Trojans to approach too near to Jupiter, after which the character of their motion will be changed, and they will cease to be Trojans. However, since the age of the planetary system is estimated as thousands of millions of years, and at least six Trojans still survive, it would seem that such disturbing action on Saturn’s part can only under exceptional circumstances lead to the expulsion of a Trojan; otherwise none of them would survive, for it does not appear likely that Saturn can reverse its action, and turn non-Trojans into Trojans. Any asteroids that had once been Trojans would continue to make near approaches to Jupiter’s orbit. It seems possible that the remarkable asteroid 944 Hidalgo (see MINoR PLANET) may once have been a Trojan, but no other asteroids are known that fulfil the conditions. The existence of the Trojans suggests that in the early days of the planetary system a large amount of scattered matter was cir-

culating round the sun at the same distance as Jupiter, of which the Trojans have survived in virtue of the stability of their configuration, while the remainder has had its period changed or been absorbed by Jupiter. Some may imagine that, as there are several Trojans on the same side of Jupiter with a common point as their centre of oscillation, there is some danger of collision between them. Such danger is very remote, for the length of their swings exceeds 100,000,ocom., and these are performed in different directions; also the times at which they reach the ends of their swings are different, though the periods of the different swings are nearly the same for all of them. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—L. J. Linders, Paper in Stockholm Vet. Akad. Arkiv for Matematik und Physik, Band iv., No. 20; E. W. Brown, Papers in Monthly Notices of R.A S. vol. Ixxi, pp. 438 and 454. (1911); W, M. Smart, Paper in Memoirs of R.A.S. vol. lxii, p. 79; E W. Brown, Papers in Transactions of Yale University Observatory,

vol. iii., parts 1 and 3. TROJAN WAR:

(A.C. D C.)

see Troy.

TROLLE, HERLUF

491 (1516-1565), Danish naval hero, was

born on Jan. 14, 1516, at Lillö. At the age of nineteen Troile went to Vor Frue Skole at Copenhagen, subsequently completing his studies at Wittenberg, where he adopted the views of Melanchthon, with whom he was in intimate correspondence for some years. His marriage with Brigitte, the daughter of Lord Treasurer Mogens Gjée, brought him a rich inheritance, and in 1557 he took his seat in the senate. Both Christian III. and Frederick II. had a very high opinion of Trolle’s trustworthiness and ability and employed him in various diplomatic missions. Trolle was, indeed, richly endowed by nature, and his handsome face and lively nature made him popular everywhere. His one enemy was his wife’s nephew, Peder Oxe, the subsequently distinguished finance minister, whose narrow, grasping ways, especially as the two men were near neighbours, did not contribute towards family harmony. In 1559 Trolle was appointed admiral and inspector of the fleet, and in 1563 he superseded the aged Peder Skram as admiral in chief. On May ro he put to sea with twenty-one ships of the line and five smaller vessels and, after uniting with a Lübeck squadron of six liners, encountered, off the isle of Öland, a superior Swedish fleet of thirty-eight ships under Jacob Bagge. Supported by two other Danish ships Trolle attacked the Swedish flagship “Makalés” (Matchless), then the largest flagship in northern waters, but was beaten off at nightfall. The fight was renewed at six o’clock the following morning, when the “Makalés” was again attacked and forced to surrender, but blew up immediately afterwards, no fewer than 300 Liibeck and Danish sailors perishing with her. The Swedish admiral was captured, and the remnant of the Swedish fleet took refuge at Stockholm. Despite the damage done to his own fleet and flagship “Fortuna” by this victory, Trolle, on Aug. 14, fought another but indecisive action with a second Swedish fleet under Klas Horn, and kept the sea till Oct. 13. Trolle spent the winter partly at his castle of Herlufsholm completing his long cherished plan of establishing a school for all classes, and partly at Copenhagen equipping a new fleet for the ensuing campaign. On June 1, 1565, he set sail with twenty-eight liners, which were reinforced off Femern by five Liibeck vessels. Klas Horn had put to sea still earlier with a superior fleet and the two admirals encountered off Fehmarn on June 4. The fight was severe but indecisive, and both commanders finally separated to repair their ships. Trolle was severely wounded in the thigh and shoulder, but he insisted on being the last to receive the surgeon’s attention. He died of his wounds at Copenhagen on June 25.

TROLLHATTAN,

a town of Sweden in the district (Jan)

of Elfsborg, 45 m. by rail N. by E. of Gothenburg. Pop. (1926), 15,923. It lies on the left (east) bank of the Göta at the point where that river descends ro8 ft. in the course of nearly a mile by the famous falls of Trollhattan (six in number) and several rapids. The scenic setting of the falls is not striking, but the great volume of water, nearly 18,000 cu.ft. per second, renders them most imposing. The narrowed river here surrounds several islands, on either side of one of which (Toppd) are the first falls of the series, Toppdé and Tjuf. These are 42 ft. in height. The water-power is used in rolling-mills, a cellulose factory and other works. The electric works supply power to Gothenburg and other

Swedish towns. (See GÖTA.) TROLLOPE, ANTHONY

(1815-1882), English novelist,

was born in London, April 24, 1815. He came of a family which

engaged in literary pursuits. TROLLOPE

(1774-1835)

was

His father, THOMAS

ANTHONY

a learned but unbusinesslike

bar-

rister, who spent much time on an Encyclopedia Ecclesiastica and gave up law for farming, with ruin as the result. His mother, Frances Mitton TROLLOPE (1780-1863) went with her husband to Cincinnati to retrieve their fortunes by running a fancy-goods

shop, and coming back disappointed achieved notoriety and roused violent resentment by her caustic book, Domestic Manners of the Americans (1832). She afterwards wrote some fifty novels and books of travel, and maintained the family by her literary earnings, her best novel being The Vicar of Wrexhill (1837) and The Widow Barnaby (1839), a fair second. (See Frances Trollope, her Life and Lirerary Work, 1895, by her daughter-in-law.) Her

492

TROMBA

eldest son, THOMAS ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE (1810-92), was a popular writer of novels and miscellaneous works, largely on Italian subjects, his adopted home being in Florence. His second wife, FRANCES ELEANOR TROLLOPE, also a novelist, collaborated with

him in Homes and Haunts of Italian Poets (1881). Anthony, who was the third son, gave an unvarnished account of his unhappy youth in his Autobiography (which was edited by his son Henry M. Trollope in 1883), an extraordinarily candid book that had a disillusioning effect on too fervid admirers by giving away the secrets of his workshop. It probably caused the long eclipse of his fame, which has recently been followed by a striking renewal. During the family impecuniosity, he was a day-boy at Winchester and Harrow, and suffered pangs through his shabby and dirty appearance, and the unpopularity and general discouragement which were the result. He reached the verge of manhood almost as ignorant as if he had had no schooling at all, yet he tried to start in life by taking the post of classical usher in a private school in Brussels. But he received the offer of a clerkship in the General Post Office, London, and after a farcical

MARINA experience for future novels of political life.

All this time he was steadily writing fiction.

The first of his

books to bring him remuneration was Tke Three Clerks (1858), a poor novel of the Civil Service which sold for £250. But before

long, he tells us in the Autobiography, he was earning on the average £4,500 a year, and in one instance he received £3,525 for a single book. An enormous output—for, besides more than fifty novels he wrote much else, and believed that no writer had made a larger contribution to letters in an equal space of time— was rendered possible by a methodical apportionment of the 24 hours. He rose regularly at 5 30 A.M., wrote steadily for two hours and a half, at the rate of 250 words every quarter of an hour, and thus calculated each book as so many days’ work, which was carefully checked off as it proceeded. Yet he found leisure to hunt three times a week during the season, played whist daily, and had plenty of time for social enjoyments. He lived in London for about eight years (1872-80), and then removed to the village of Harting, under the Sussex Downs. He was staying in town when he died of paralysis, Dec. 6, 1882. Trollope was a big, bluff, vociferous person, whose blustering and overbearing ways offended some, but whose John Bull philistinism did not conceal an essential honesty and good nature and a tender heart. He thought Pride and Prejudice the greatest novel in the language, and he idolized Thackeray; but he was as far from the exquisite art of the one writer as from the perfect mastery and irony of the other. With perhaps too much fidelity to the usual and commonplace, he depicted the great middle class as it was in mid-Victorian times. He was a “character-monger”’ of first-rate quality, who showed his personages moving in their own little spheres, and as he widened his circle of characters took in a larger sweep until he embraced almost as large and diversified a world as that surveyed by Thackeray. Among the characters that stand out, along with the two or three already mentioned, Mr. Crawley, the grimly pathetic hero of The Last Chronicle of Barset, the wicked but delightful Signora Neroni, Lucy Robarts, the best of many admirable heroines (unless Lady Glencora be

pretence at an examination was appointed (1834). For the seven years of his service here, his salary was small, he was in debt, troubled with awkward love-affairs, and often in hot water with his superiors. Then he was transferred to Ireland (1841) as a surveyors clerk, with a moderate salary but liberal allowances and the duties of a sort of travelling inspector. The change brought out a business capacity hitherto unsuspected. He enjoyed a comfortable income, he had time in spite of a busy life to indulge freely in hunting, he consorted with people of all classes and began to stock his memory for the long-cherished purpose of trying his hand at fiction, and in 1844 he married an English lady, Rose Heseltine, whom he had met in Ireland, and established himself in a house at Clonmel. Trollope’s first two novels, The Macdermots of Ballycloran (1847) and The Kellys and the O’Kellys (1848), failures though they proved, are examples of his thoroughness in making himself acquainted with a given sphere of life, as he was afterwards to do with clerical society, political life, and legal affairs, and also preferred to that place), her husband, Mr. Plantagenet Palliser, of his aptitude for developing a good story casually heard. The afterwards Duke of Omnium, Lady Lufton, and that shrewd and first is dark and pathetic, the second has many sparkling scenes; downright person Miss Dunstable, with such different examples of neither is the work of a Carleton or Banim, but both steer clear of the unattractive in life turned to artistic account as Mr. Sowerby the mere stage Irishman of Lever and Lover. Trollope perse- and Mr. Chaffanbrass—these make a notable gallery and are only vered, but a historical novel, La Vendée (1850) deservedly fell a selection from the catalogue. Other characters show uncertainty flat. of touch and a failure of motivation. Trollope was best at a sort A chance visit to Salisbury Close gave him his idea for The of coarse or at any rate very broad comedy, but he also had a Warden (1855), the simple, touching, but humorous story of a command of real pathos. Tragedy was outside his scope. He precentor in a cathedral town, who out of sensitiveness to public revelled in mankind’s idiosyncrasies, but shirked the closer scrucriticism resigns the well-paid office of warden to an ancient tiny into the byways of conscience, just as he was shy of the charity. Mr, Harding and his blustering son-in-law Archdeacon spiritual questions which must, surely, have played some part in Grantly reappear, with other clerical dignitaries, their Wives, the lives of his clerical personages. George Eliot, his contempofamilies and friends, including the famous “Bishopess,” Mrs. rary, would have dealt with Mr. Harding and Mr. Crawley in a Proudie, the unctuous and pushful Mr. Slope, and the epicurean totally different way. Dr. Stanhope and his disreputable children, in Barchester Towers Besides The Warden and Barchester Towers, the Barcheste r series

(1857). The “Barsetshire Chronicles” were thus Jaunched,' bringing their author praise and, in due time, substantial profit. Trollope was now inspector of rural deliveries for the south-west of

Ireland, with a roving commission that suited his tastes, scope for improvements on which he prided himself, and plenty of time for hunting. He is said to have been the inventor of the pillar-box. His ability and his experience of Post Office business led to his being sent on a mission to the West Indies (1858), which gave him material for a travel-book, The West Indies and the Spanish Main (1859). Other official journeys took him to Egypt (1858), the United States (1862), Australia and New Zealand (1871—72), and South Africa (1878), and resulted in further gossipy narratives and several tales. He got himself transferred to England (1859), taking charge of the eastern postal district and settling in a house at Waltham Cross. He retired from the Post Office (1867), out of annoyance at being passed over for promotion, Trollope was instrumental in starting the Fortnightly Review (1865), edited the St. Paul's Magazine (1868), rather disastrously, and was a contributor to Cornhill, Blackwood and other periodi-

cals. He stood for Beverley (1868), but only acquired useful

comprises:—Dr, Thorne (1838), Framley Parsonage (1864), Small House at Allington (1864), and The Last Chronicle of BarsetThe(1867).

The best of Trollope outside that series, besides such as are named above, are probably Orley Farm (1862), Can You Forgive Her (1864), Phineas Finn (1869) and its sequel Phineas Redux (1874), The Claverings (1867), The Belton Estate (1866), He Knew He was Right (1869), The Vicar of Bullhampton (18470), The Eustace Diamonds (1873), The Way We Live Now (1875), The American Senator (1877), The Duke’s Children (1880), Ayala’s Angel (1881) and Myr. Scarborough’s Family (1883). Trollope’s Autobiography was edited by his som (1883). The best biography is T. H. S. Escott’s Anthony Trollope, His Work, Associates and Literary Originals (1913) which may be supplemented by Michael Sadleir’s Trollope, a Commentary (1927), H. Walpole’s Trollope (“English Men of Letters,” 1928), Leslie Stephen’s Studies of a Biographer, IV. (1902), Henry

James’s Partial Portraits (1888), and Professor Saintsburv’s “Trollope

Revisited” (Essays and Studies by members of the English Association,

VI, 1920).

(E. A. Ba.)

TROMBA MARINA or MARINE TRUMPET, an obsolete bowed instrument about 6ft. in length, with an outline somewhat recalling that of an elongated cricket bat. It consisted of a body and neck in the shape of a truncated cone resting on a

triangular base.

In the days of Michael Praetorius (1618), its

TROMBONE—TROMP

493

length was 7ft. 3in. and the three sides at the base measured 7in., | doubled and their length accordingly halved, thereby making the tapering to 2in. at the neck. These measurements varied con- instrument more compact and lessening the length of the shifts, siderably, as did also the shape of the body and the number of though demanding greater nicety in the adjustment of the slide. The evolution of the trombone from the buccina is referred to strings. The bridge had the curious feature that a portion of its foot was left loose so that it vibrated against the belly with every in the article on the sackbut (qg.v.), the name by which the earliest movement of the bow, producing a trumpet-like timbre. It is to draw or slide trumpets, and subsequently the trombones, were this feature, in conjunction with its gen- , known in England. Of all wind instruments the trombone has perhaps been least eral resemblance in contour to the marine modified in form; changes have occasionally been attempted, but speaking-trumpet of the middle ages, that for the most part with only trifling success. The application of the name of the instrument is doubtless ventils or pistons was made for the first time in 1818, in Germany, due, though other derivations have been but instruments of this kind, though extensively used, have never suggested. In Germany, at the time when superseded the original sliding type.

the trumpet was extensively used in the churches, nuns often substituted the tromba marine, whence the name Nonnen-

TROMP, the name of two famous Dutch admirals.

I. Martin Harpertzoon Tromp (1597-1653) was born at Brielle, South Holland. At the age of eight he made a voyage to the East Indies in a merchantman, but was made prisoner and beautiful, fell into disuse during the first spent several years on board an English cruiser. On making his half of the 18th century. escape to Holland he entered the navy in 1624, and in 1637 was TROMBONE, an important member made lieutenant-admiral. In February 1639 he surprised, off the of the brass wind family of musical Flemish coast near Gravelines, a large Spanish fleet, which he cominstruments formerly known as sackbut pletely destroyed, and in the following September he defeated the (g.v.). The trombone is characterized combined fleets of Spain and Portugal off the English coast— by the slide, consisting of two parallel achievements which placed him in the first rank of Dutch naval cylindrical tubes, over which two other cylindrical tubes, communicating at their From satrin, «oLD MUSICAL commanders. On the outbreak of war with England Tromp aplower extremities by means of a short +. TROMBA MARINA. peared in the Downs in command ofa large fleet and anchored off semicircular pipe, slips without loss AN OBSOLETE STRING Dover. On the approach of Blake he weighed anchor and stood over towards France, but suddenly altered his course and bore of air. The outer tube, therefore, slides INSTRUMENT upon the inner, thereby altering the total length of tube and down on the English fleet, which was much inferior to his in so modifying the pitch. When the slide is closed the instru- numbers. In the engagement which followed (May 19, 1652) he ment is at its highest pitch. To the upper end of one of the had rather the worst of it and drew off with the loss of two ships. inner tubes is fastened the cup-shaped mouthpiece and to the end In November he again appeared in command of eighty ships of of the other tube is fixed the bell-joint, on the proper proportions war, and a convoy of 300 merchantmen, which he had undertaken to guard past the English coast. Blake resolved to attack him, and, of which depend the acoustic properties of the instrument. Sound is produced on the trombone, as on the horn, by means the two fleets coming to close quarters near Dungeness on Nov. 30, of the lips stretched like a vibrating reed across the cup mouth- the English, after severe losses, drew off in the darkness and piece from rim to rim; the acoustic principles involved are the anchored off Dover, retiring next day to the Downs, while Tromp same for both instruments. By overblowing, 7.¢., by the varying anchored off Boulogne till the Dutch merchantmen had all passed tension of the lips and pressure of breath, the harmonic series is beyond danger. The statement that he sailed up the Channel with obtained, which is effective between the second and the tenth a broom at his masthead in token of his ability to sweep the seas harmonics, the fundamental being but rarely of practical use. is probably mythical. In the following February (1653), while in There are seven positions of the slide on the trombone, each giv- charge of a large convoy of merchantmen, he maintained a runing a theoretical fundamental tone and its upper partials a semi- ning fight with the combined English fleets under Blake, Penn and tone lower than the last, and corresponding to the seven shifts on Monk off Portland to the sands of Calais, and, though baffling to the violin and to the seven positions on valve instruments. These some extent the purposes of the English, had the worst of the enseven positions, which give a complete chromatic compass of two counter, losing nine ships of war and 30 or 40 merchantmen. octaves and a sixth, are found by drawing out the slide a little On June 3, he fought an indecisive battle with the English fleet under Richard Dean in the Channel, but the arrival of reinforcemore for each one. ments under Blake on the following day enabled the English to turn the scale against him and he retired to the Texel with the loss of seventeen ships. Greatly discouraged by the results of the

geige. The instrument, whose tone was not

battle, the Dutch sent commissioners to Cromwell to treat for

BY COURTESY OF BOOSEY & CQ., LONDON THE TROMBONE, FORMERLY KNOWN BY ITS SLIDING TUBES

peace, but the proposal was so coldly received that war was immediately renewed, Tromp again appearing in the Channel towards the end of July 1653. In the hotly contested conflict which followed with the English under Monk on the 29th Tromp was shot by a musket bullet through the heart. He was buried with great pomp at Delft, where there is a monument to his memory. AS

THE

SACKBUT,

CHARACTERIZED

The quality of tone varies greatly in the different instruments and registers. The alto trombone has neither power nor richness of tone, but sounds hard and has a timbre between that of a trumpet and a French horn. The tenor and bass have a full rich quality suitable for heroic, majestic music. The contra-bass trombone, formerly little in request in the concert hall, is required for some modern orchestral music. Besides the slide trombone, which is most largely used, there are the valve trombones, and the double-slide trombones. The former in which the slide is replaced by three pistons permit more brilliant execution than the slide instruments, but their tone is inferior. In the double-slide trombone the sliding branches are

2. CORNELIUS VAN Tromp (1629-1691), the second son of the preceding, was born at Rotterdam on Sept. 9, 1629. At the age of 19 he commanded a small squadron charged to pursue the Barbary pirates. In 1652 and 1653 he served in Van Galen’s fleet in the Mediterranean, and after the action with the English fleet off Leghorn on March 13, 1653, in which Van Galen was killed, Tromp was promoted to be rear-admiral. On July 13, 1665 his squadron was, by a hard stroke of ill-fortune, defeated by the English under the duke of York. In the following year Tromp served under De Ruyter, and on account of De Ruyter’s complaints of his negligence in the action of Aug. 5, he was deprived of his command. He was, however, reinstated in 1673 by the stadtholder William, afterwards king of England, and in the actions of June 7, and 14, against the allied fleets of England and France, manifested a skill

494

TROMSO—TROPICAL

and bravery which completely justified his reappointment. In 1675 he visited England, where he was received with honour by

King Charles II. In the following year he was named lieutenant-

AGRICULTURE

abaca, jute, kapok; quinine, camphor, and other medicinal mate-

rials; dyes, and tannins.

Numerous other products extensively

used in the tropics may yet become better known in northern admiral of the United Provinces. He died at Amsterdam, on May countries, such as the cassava (manioc, yuca, tapioca), plantains, 29, 1691, shortly after he had been appointed to the command of ' yams, taro, dasheens, and other root crops; palm sugar, the beva fleet against France. Like his father he was buried at Delft. erages maté and kola; and the valuable fruits, avocado, mango, See H. de Jager, Het Geslacht Tromp (1883); and T. de Liefde, papaya, durian, mangosteen, etc. Great Dutch Admirals (trans. 1873). Table Showing Production of Some Important Tropical Crops

TROMSO, a seaport of Norway, capital of the amt (county)

and stift (diocese) of the same name on the north-western coast.

Pop. (1927) 11,241. It stands on an islet between Kvalé and the mainland.

The town has fish oil factories, tanneries, and makes

boots and shoes; also boats for the fishing and whaling. The buildings, many of wood, include the town hall and a museum. Sealskins and other furs, dried and smoked fish, and whale and seal oil, are exported, and the herring fishery is very productive. TRONDHJEM (trénd’yém) or Throndhjem, a city and seaport of Norway; chief town of the diocese of Trondhjem and the county of South Trondhjem, 384 m. by rail N. of Oslo. Pop. (1927) 55,716. It lies on the Trondhjem fjord on a peninsula between the fjord and the River Nid. The houses are principally of wood. The principal building is the cathedral, dating in part from the close of the rith century, but chiefly of the r2th and r3th centuries. It suffered from repeated fires, chiefly in the 17th century but was restored and is now the finest church in Norway and the scene of the coronation of the Norwegian sovereigns. The port has regular communication with all the Norwegian coast towns; also Hull, Newcastle, Hamburg, etc., and trades in timber, wood pulp, oil, fish, copper, etc. The industries include shipbuilding, fish-curing, and there are saw-mills and machine shops. Trondhjem, originally Nidaros, to which name it reverted as from January, 1930, was founded by Olaf Tryggvason, who built a royal residence and a church here in 996. It was made an archbishopric in 1152, and was the capital until 1380. The city attained its highest development about the latter half of the 13th century, by which time it had become an important pilgrimage centre and had 15 churches. It sustained frequent sieges. Its im-

portance declined about the time of the Reformation, but during the present century, as a port with modern facilities and a considerable trade, it has grown rapidly. Since rg2r it has been connected with Oslo by the Dovre railway.

TROON, municipal burgh, seaport and watering-place of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1931) 8,544. It is situated 6 m. N. by W. of Ayr, and 35 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the L.M.S. railway.

It has a fine natural harbour with a breakwater 3,000 ft. long,

and two graving docks. Shipbuilding is the leading industry, coal the chief export, and iron the chief import. TROPHY (Gr. rpdratov), a memorial of Victory set up on the field of battle at the spot where the enemy had been routed. It consisted of captured arms and standards hung upon atree (preferably an olive or an oak) and booty heaped up at its foot, dedicated to the god to whom the victory was attributed. If no suitable tree was at hand, a lopped trunk was fixed in the ground on an eminence. The tree or trunk bore an inscription containing the names of the god and the combatants, a list of the booty and the chief incidents of the battle. In the case of a naval victory the trophy, composed of the beaks of ships, was set up on the nearest beach and consecrated to Poseidon It was regarded as a sacrilege to destroy a trophy, since it was dedicated to a god. To facilitate reconciliation with their conquered foes, neither the Macedonians nor the Romans in early times erected such trophies. The Romans showed a preference for setting up the memorials of victory in Rome rather than on the field of battle: such were the trophies of Marius recording his victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri and Teutones. In imperial times their place was taken by columns or triumphal arches (see Rome: Archaeology).

TROPICAL AGRICULTURE.

Modem industry receives

from tropical regions two-thirds of the sugar entering international trade. From the tropics come the world’s bananas, pineapples, dates, vegetable oils; the indispensable beverage materials, coffee, cacao, and tea; sisal and henequen, and related fibres,

Sugar* Coffee Teat ; Cacao Crude rubber

Rice

World Production, 1928 25,326,935 long tons (1 long ton==2,240 Jb.) 36,095,000 bags of 60 kilos (x kilo==2,204 Ib.) 3,955,000 metric quintals (x met. quin.=220 41b.) 505,282 metric tons (1 met. ton=2,204 Ib.) 653,833 long tons (1 long ton=2,240 Ib.)

854,486,000 metric quintals (1 met. quin.=220.4 Ib.)

Sisal *Season of 1927-28.

239,000 tons (I ton==2,000 Ib.) 1927

Many important crops which originated in the tropics are now

extensively cultivated in temperate and sub-tropical zones. Among these are oranges and other citrus fruits, cotton, maize, melons,

beans, sweet potatoes, and tobacco. There are still hundreds of little known species awaiting development. Forest products are among the oldest known tropical exports. The tropics have long been the source of the world’s precious cabinet woods, such as mahogany, Spanish cedar, rosewood, satin-

wood, and many others. They have provided many useful forest by-products, chief among which are rubber, balata, and guttapercha essential for cable insulation, chicle, and other gums. So wide has been the demand for tropical forest products that the world no longer depends wholly for its supply on the wild forests, but now produces rubber, mahogany, and other forest materials from plantations, often grown in association with food crops. When compared with farming methods in North America and Europe, tropical agriculture is characterized by the employment of much hand labour, using crude, simple tools, and by a very limited use of labour-saving implements. The production per capita is small and the standards of living low. As a result, in most tropical countries native methods of tilling the soil are extremely primitive. The land is often in communal or tribal ownership and agriculture becomes a shifting, nomadic procedure, in which patches of forest are cut and burned and a mixture of crops planted. At the end of a few years the land is abandoned and another patch cleared and cultivated. Within the last century plantation or estate systems have been introduced by Europeans and Americans for the production of export crops of sugar, rubber, coffee, fruits, and fibres, under modern scientific methods, with native labour and white management. Conspicuous in this field are the sugar plantations of Java, Hawaii, Cuba, and Porto Rico; the rubber estates of Java and Sumatra, Malaya, and Ceylon; the banana industry of the Caribbean region, where one company alone cultivates 450,000 acres of land in six or eight countries, operates 1,600 m. of railroads and a large fleet of ships, has two sugar mills and a refinery, and maintains a chain of excellent hospitals and a research division with scientific laboratories and experimental fields. Under the leadership of scientific methods, a revolution in tropical agriculture is in progress. Great changes are being wrought. Enormous improvements have been achieved by breeding varieties of plants and live stock and by the culture of crops and the curing, Processing, preservation and shipment of tropical products. Experiment stations are maintained in almost every country. Notable

instances of the latter are found in Java, Sumatra, and Hawaii. Tropical industries attain success in the proportion that they em-

ploy and liberally support scientific research. Thus, the Dutch in Java have originated disease-resistant sugar canes with higher Sugar content; they have improved cinchona and transplante d quinine production from the Andean countries, and are now producing a better palm oil than Africa. Rubber, in like manner, has been taken from the Amazon to the Orient. It has been predicted that northern countries will eventua lly be unable to produce sufficient food for their increasing population and that the tropics will supply this deficiency. The importance of the rôle the tropics are destined to play in this product ion

TROPICAL

MEDICINE

495

sequent train of morbid symptoms. Native customs and modes of life evolved by the empiricism of years, may repay study. A temporary adoption of the Indian fashion of wearing the shirt outside the trousers has in practice averted the threatened onset of heat stroke. The early inhabitants of Northern Africa cooled their houses by structural devices which modern architects might copy and adapt to the needs of European residents. Methods of Tropical Medicine.—Accurate diagnosis is esOn the other hand, the tropics can be depended upon to supply sential to the correct treatment of any disease; this is no new the world with all its prospective needs of rubber, sugar, vege- knowledge—‘‘as sayeth the prince of physic Avicenna: ‘How table oils, beverages, hard fibres, spices, and similar tropical shouldest thou hele a sore and not yknow the causer’”? The aim commodities. In fact, these can be grown on a relatively limited of modern medicine is to prevent rather than to cure, and in like area, and their culture can not be greatly extended without glut- manner a close study of causation is a requisite preliminary to ting markets and depressing prices below the cost of production. wise and successful prevention. Therefore a basic knowledge of Consult the articles on RUBBER, SUGAR, CoFFEE, Rice, TEA, etc., bacteriology, entomology and other branches of medical parasitoland on INDIA, BrAzit, East InNpies, West INprEes, CEYLON, etc. ogy is a necessary part of the training prescribed for students of See O. W. Barrett, The Tropical Crops; J, C. Willis, Agriculture in tropical medicine. Not every species of Anopheles can be infected the Tropics. (W. A. Or.) with malaria, nor are the breeding habits of all the malariaTROPICAL MEDICINE. As medicine advances from the carrying anophelines the same. A system of drainage which status of an art to that of a science, so do the bounds which eradicates malaria in one locality may have no effect in another, demarcate tropical medicine become more faint. Few major and actually may intensify the disease in a third. Slight changes diseases are restricted to the lower latitudes, and tropical medi- in the chemical reactions of water may prevent mosquito breedcine, as here considered, embraces all those maladies which, for ing, a discovery likely to have far-reaching results in malaria some reason, prevail especially in the tropics, though not neces- prevention. And thus the importance of these ancillary sciences sarily limited thereto. Some diseases lightly regarded to-day as to tropical medicine becomes more obvious every day. Further, statistical data, when investigated and scrutinized by essentially tropical are merely commensurate with a primitive stage of civilization, and consequent unhygienic conditions. Bu- exact methods and correlated with clinical observations, may yield bonic plague smouldered in England for centuries, every few years valuable information regarding the nature and origin of disease. flaring up to epidemic degree, and ceased as an endemic infection If a malady is found to be periodic, the climatic and physical only about 1679. Cholera was common enough in John Wesley’s changes associated with the rise and fall of the infection may day to demand a paragraph in his little volume on household indicate the causal agents, and when their identity is established remedies. The Londoner of Charles IT.’s time could enjoy a jest effective measures may be taken against them. Rogers’ researches in Hudibras unintelligible to anyone not familiar with the stages show that cholera begins to spread only when the degree of atmospheric humidity has reached a certain figure; in consequence, the of a malaria paroxysm. The present stimulus to the special study of tropical medicine possible commencement of an epidemic can be foreseen and approcomes from the spread of commerce from causes far back in his- priate prophylactic measures undertaken in advance. Already troptory and from the ever-growing complexity of modern conditions. ical research has achieved great triumphs, and when the true Special Problems of Tropical Medicine.—Liability to con- economy of preventive medicine is realized more fully in tropical tract disease in the tropics is not due in the main to inherent administration, the return in increased efficiency will multiply. Resuits.—Before the last decade of the 19th century, the agent change in the individual, but to circumstances generally favouring a luxuriance of animal life. The causative organisms of some responsible for the spread of malaria (g.v.) was unknown. No diseases, e.g., malaria and yellow fever, depend for their propaga- eye had seen the bacillus of plague; and fleas were thought merely tion on Insects most numerous and active in tropical conditions; unpleasant creatures, rather less scandalous than lice. Yellow warmth and humidity are essential for the development of hook- fever mosquitoes besported themselves unheeded, except in so far worm larvae in the soil; and in such surroundings bacterial life as they might disturb an afternoon’s siesta. But when Patrick in general flourishes most abundantly. Though exceptions to these Manson argued that some biting insect serves as intervenient host rules spring to the mind—typhus fever, a louse-borne disease, for the nematode parasite of man, Filaria bancrofti, and turned reaches its maximum range under cold weather conditions, and his theory into proven fact, he stood like Cortez on a peak in the factors governing the transmission of common colds and Darien, viewing a new world. Following on Manson’s example and advice, and faced by difficulties which would have disheartcoughs determine the spread of pneumonic plague. The newcomer ened most, Ross carried out his laborious researches and finally to the tropics is faced by all these potential dangers. Preventive medicine has done him one great disservice. Born Anopheles was incriminated as the vector of malaria. In the old yellow fever (g.v.) days, a king’s ship, the Tiger in pre-hygiene times, he would almost certainly have acquired a natural immunity to a variety of diseases which nowadays in his cruised off Barbados, and out of a complement of 220, buried own country he escapes, but to which the native, surviving child- 600 men dead of yellow fever within two years; the commander, hood, is relatively immune. This resistance to disease, previously as he reported, “still pressing men out of the merchant ships that believed a racial characteristic, is now generally considered a per- came in, to recruit his number in the room of those that died sonal immunity gained by the individual during early life. As daily.” The heroic work of Reed and his collaborators proved regards this aspect of malaria in natives, Christopherson has that this infection is transmitted through the bite of a mosquito, shown. that in hyper-endemic areas children pass through a period Aédes argenteus (Stegomyia fasciata), and Noguchi’s indication of of acute infestation lasting for about two years. During this time a causative micro-organism apparently confirmed their work. Formanifestations of the disease are practically continuous. A stage tunately the peculiar breeding habits of the insect vector render of immune infestation is then reached which lasts through child- it relatively easy to control, and in the West Indies to-day yellow hood into adult life. Whatever the nature of the immunity it is fever is little more dreaded than in England. Ankylostomiasis (hookworm) (q.v.), which reduced the vitality sufficient to enable adults, under conditions that lead to intense infection in the child, to live infected but without suffering and lowered the efficiency of millions of people, has been laappreciably from sickness due to malaria. boriously investigated. Firm, constant, but inexpensive measures The northern sojourner in the tropics may complicate the of sanitation prevent infection, and recent close study of the freeproblems of tropical medicine, already sufficiently involved, by living stages of the worm points to still more effective methods of an unwillingness to adapt his regimen and habits to new surround- control. Schistosomiasis yields to the antimony treatment elabings. Therefore, physiological changes, including alterations in orated by Christopherson, and the labours of Miyairi and Suzuki the functioning of the endocrine glands, may result, with a con- and Leiper, showed that the parasites develop in water snails of foodstuffs for the northern races is a complex and still unsettled problem. Among the factors are the vast areas of undeveloped land in tropical America, Africa, and portions of the middle East (Borneo, New Guinea, Sumatra); the tendency of the native people to multiply as health conditions improve; the increasing importation of northern foodstuffs into tropical countries; and the disinclination of northern races to change their food habits and to consume tropical vegetables, fruits, and cereals.

496

TROPICAL

REVOLVING

vulnerable to attack. Prior to recognition of the curative properties of intra-venous antimony, kala azar (g.v.), which decimates rich populous tracts of Bengal and Assam, killed over goc% of those attacked.

The

disease is in process of investigation by a special commission, and the mode of transmission, so far baffling identification, is likely

to be revealed. If the active agent proves to be a species of “‘sandfiy,” as has been surmised, the success of the hygienic methods adopted in practice will be explained. The progress of physiological knowledge in the special branch of endocrinology has secured success in the treatment of cases

of sprue (g.v.), where the restoration of the calcium content of the blood has been effected by the administration of parathyroid extract.

Cholera and plague may be stayed by prophylactic vaccines, and the results of anti-typhoid inoculation were one of the medical triumphs of the World War. The incidence of tropical liver abscess has been enormously reduced by the use of emetine, and the special “liver-abscess-days’”—-earmarked for surgical operations—ortce a feature of some tropical hospitals, are now a thing of the past. Synthetic chemistry adds to the resources of the scientific physician of tropical diseases; “Bayer 205” and tryparsamide in the treatment of African sleeping sickness have given hopeful results, while new antimony compounds are replacing tartar emetic for intravenous medication, seemingly with all its advantages and none of its drawbacks. Thus the diseases which take so heavy a toll of human life are one by one yielding to science and coming under control, and the outlook to-day is brighter than even the most optimistic would have dared to prophesy some thirty years ago. In honouring the men who thus have extended the science of medicine, we should not forget those of old time who caught glimpses of truth, often through a glass darkly, but at times with a clearer vision.

Problems of the Future.—Even should science succeed in

finding a cure for every tropical disease, still other problems await solution Can the individual be protected and enabled to work as efficiently as in a temperate zone? Can impairment of his vitality and nervous energy be prevented and normal health and longevity secured? Whether or not the tropics can be made a safe home for white settlers depends largely on the extent to which local administration will initiate and maintain effective and scientific systems of sanitation, and will educate the indigenous population into ways of cleanliness and order. Panama sanitary methods, dependent on abundant capital and a soldierly precision of enforcement, are possible only in limited and specially favoured areas. And in certain tropical localities it is notorious that the practice of sanitary law bears little relationship to the excellence of the principles embodied in the statute-book. When all these difficulties have been faced and overcome, and the life of white settlers modified in matters of housing, diet, work and play to meet their altered physical environment, there remains the great question: Can a white race settle permanently in a tropical country and after several generations still retain its original stamina and mental vigour? In spite of thousands of years of colonization this question still awaits a final answer. Heretofore the results of disease—chronic malaria and ankylostomiasis stunting body and mind—moral decay, consequent on association with lower or even debased native modes of life, have been confused inextricably with the effects of climate. The unfavourable factor in tropical climates has been variously identified as the heat, or light, rays of the sun, the depressing monotony of an equable temperature, or a high relative humidity; the last admittedly trying, and affecting both comfort and efficiency. Even so, the individual can be trained to withstand a degree of temperature intolerable before acclimatisation, but whether continued exposure to such temperatures results in some subtle change in the nervous system, with loss of vigour and driving power, is a matter of dispute. Whatever the responsible agency, certainly some diminution in vitality commonly occurs, as is evidenced by the accepted practice of granting home leave to government servants and to staffs of business concerns, and this from no motives of philanthropy but because it pays.

STORMS—TROPINE COLOUR AND RACE ProgCW. P. MacA.)

(See also ANTHROPOLOGY, APPLIED; LEMS )

Brsuiocraruy.—Sir L. Rogers, Recent Advances in Tropical Medicine (London, 1928, bibl.) ; Manson’s Tropical Diseases, ed. by P. H. Manson-Bahr (8th ed. London, 1925); C. Manse, Handbuch der Tropen Krankheiten (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1924-26, bibl); W. Byam and R. G. Archibald, The Practice of Medicine in the Tropics (London, 1921, bibl.).

TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS, a generic term, in

meteorology, used for those disturbances of the general circulation of the atmosphere where the winds, often of destructive violence, are characterized by a combined circular and centrifugal movement. Such revolving storms have received a variety of names in different parts of the world. (See CYCLONE; HurrtCANE; TORNADO and TypHoon.) Many descriptions and explanations of them have been given. For comprehensive, regionally arranged bibliography see Shaw and Austen, Manual of Meteorology (1926).

TROPIC-BIRD,

a genus

(Phaethon)

of sea-birds

of the

order Steganopodes with webbed feet and long forked tails. The flight is by rapid strokes of the wing. The yellow-billed tropic bird

(P. flavirastris) has the widest range, inhabiting the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, and breeding on trees in various islands,

including the Bermudas. It lays a single pinkish-white egg, mottled with brownish-purple. The plumage is white, with black patches. P. aethereus is larger and lacks the yellow bill. It does

not occur in the western part of the Indian ocean. P. rubricauda

is still larger and has a red tail and a roseate tinge to the rest of the plumage. It is confined to the Pacific and Indian oceans. The tropic-birds form the family Phaethonidae.

TROPINE

(Tropanol), one of the simpler chemical products

into which the poisonous alkaloid atropine (g.v.) is converted by the action of acids or alkalis. Tropine is also poisonous but no longer retains the property of dilating the pupil of the eye. It crystallises in colourless plates melting at 63° C and boiling at 229° C, It is very hygroscopic and readily soluble in water. It isa strongly basic substance forming crystalline salts with acids.

When warmed with sodium in amyl alcoholic solution, tropine is transformed into a stereoisomeride, melting at 108° C, and boiling at 240° C, identical with the pseudo-tropine (y¥-tropine) obtained from the alkaloid tropa-cocaine with hydrochloric acid. The chemical constitution of tropine, CsHi;ON, is revealed by the following reactions. With chromic acid it is oxidised successively to tropinone and tropinic acid. Tropinone (Tropanone) has been synthesised from succindialdehyde, calcium acetonedicarboxylate and methylamine (R. Robinson, 1917), whereas tropinic acid by exhaustive methylation furnishes an unsaturated dicarboxylic acid reducible to x-pimelic acid, CO.H.- {CH. | 5‘COoH.,

On dehydration with fuming hydrochloric acid tropine yields the oily base tropidine (tropene), an unsaturated compound combining with hydrogen halides and reducible to hydrotropidine which is also an oil. The relationships of tropine to its oxidation and dehydration products are shown in the following graphic formulae :— HC. a

HC:

NMe CHOH. HeC-CH—CH, Tropine

ee

FHC-CH:-CH COH

NMe CO EeC-CH—CH, Tropinone

HC-

a

ie

NMe

H2C-CH-CO.H Tropinic acid

HC: CH—CH Tropidine

Tropic Acid, CeHs-CH(CH20H)-CO:H, the other decomposition product of atropine, is a hydroxy-acid readily converted by

dehydrating agents into atropic acid, CeHs-C(CO:H) :CH;, which has been synthesised from acetophenone (hypnone) by the following series of reactions :— CeHs-CO:CH;

PCCh

CeHs.C

Cl:CH:

KCN er

C:Hs-C(CN) :CH:

H:O

me

CsHs: C( COE) :CHo

Tropine and tropic acid combine to form a salt, tropine tropate, losing water to yield atropine which may therefore be represented by the following formula :—

TROPISMS—TROTSKY EC:

oo

oA

]

NMe CH-O-CO-CH

|

HC-

CH—

CH:

CeHs

Atropine

Other organic acids can take the place of tropic acid in this condensation with tropine, and the products, the acyltropines, are termed tropeznes. Certain of these possess the mydriatic action exhibited by atropine. (G. T. M.)

TROPISMS,

forced movements

of an organism

(or of a

large part of an organism) in response to external stimuli which bring about obligatory physiological reactions which are related to

the direction in which the stimulus reaches the organism. A good illustration is the familiar phenomenon of plants turning to the sun, which De Candolle called heliotropism (1835). It is now known to have its counterpart in some animals. The tropistic mode of behaviour includes positive and negative thermotropism, towards or away from a source of heat; positive and negative geotropism, towards or away from the direction of a gravitational stimulus; galvanotropism, towards or away from electrical radiations, chemotropism, in relation to chemical reagents; rheotropism, in relation to currents, and so forth. The essential characteristics of tropisms are their relation to the direction of the stimulus, and their obligatoriness. The young eel or elver is not trying to swim up-stream; it is physiologically forced to keep dead against the current. The physiological constitution of its body is such that it automatically adjusts itself towards securing equal pressure-stimulation on its two sides. The clarifying of the concept of tropisms Is mainly due to Jacques Loeb, and part of his

definition may be quoted. animals and plants.

“These tropisms are identical for

The explanation of them depends first upon

the specific irritability of certain elements of the body surface, and second, upon the relations of symmetry of the body. Symmetrical elements at the surface of the body have the same irritability; unsymmetrical elements have a different irritability. Those nearer the oral pole possess an irritability greater than that of those near the aboral pole. These circumstances force an animal to orient itself towards a source of stimulation in such a way that symmetrical points on the surface of the body are stimulated equally. In this way the animals are led without will of their own either toward the source of stimulus or away from it.” While engrained tropisms are eventually quite involuntary or forced reactions to external stimuli, it does not follow that there was no psychical factor in their racial evolution. Care must be taken not to exaggerate the réle of “pure tropisms”; and one may even ask if there are any. A noteworthy fact is the reversibility of many tropisms, for the same animal may show a positive or a negative reaction to temperature, light, gravity or an electric current, the

497

Great Britain and France were not admitted, on the excuse that they were only empowered to “report,” not to “decide’—was drawn up the famous preliminary protocol signed by Austria, Russia and Prussia on Nov. rọ. The main pronouncement of the “Troppau protocol” is as follows: “States which have undergone a change of government due to revolution, the results of which threaten other States, ipso facto cease to be members of the European Alliance, and remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alterations, immediate danger threatens other States the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be, by arms, to bring back the guilty State Into the Great Alliance. No effort was made by the powers to give immediate effect to the principles enunciated in the protocol; and after its promulgation the conferences were adjourned, it being decided to resume them at Laibach in the following January (see LAIBACH, CONGRESS OF). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See W. Alison Phillips, The Confederation of Europe (2nd ed. 1919) and the bibliography to ch. i. of vol. x. of the Cambridge Mod. Hist., p. 787,

TROSSACHS, THE (Gaelic, “the bristled country,” a crude allusion to its physical features), a defile in the south-west of Perthshire, Scotland. It is a narrow, beautifully wooded glen, of no great depth, extending from Loch Achray to Loch Katrine, and continued thence by a strip on the north-eastern shore to a point above the now submerged Silver Strand opposite to Ellen’s Isle—a total distance of 24m. It is situated 8 m. W. of Callander and 5 m. N. of Aberfoyle, between the steep green slopes of Ben Venue (2,393 ft.) on the south-west and the precipitous craigs of Ben A’an (1,750 ft.) on the north-east. The region has been famous for its beautiful scenery since the appearance of Sir Walter Scott’s The Lady of the Lake and Rob Roy with their vivid descriptive passages.

TROTSK

(Gatchina), a town in the Leningrad Area of the

Russian S.F.S.R., in 59° 33’ N., 30° 7’ E., situated among the lakes and pine forests on the banks of the Izhora river. It was originally a Swedish estate presented by Peter IJ. to his sister. Catherine II. gave it to Prince Orlov, and a castle and grounds were constructed by the Italian architect, Rinaldi, in 1770. Later it became a military camp, and, towards the end of the 18th century, @ summer residence of the tsars. Near the palace is the priory built by Lvov in 1797 for the Knights of Malta, of which order Paul I. was Grand Master. In the civil wars following 1917, Gatchina was used as a base by Kornilov and Kerensky in 1917, and Yudenich in rọrọ. In 1923 it was re-named after Trotsky. See Guide to the Soviet Union (Moscow, 1925) in English.

TROTSKY, LEV DAVIDOVICH

(1879-

), Russian

OF, a conference of the allied

politician, whose real name was Bronstein, was born near Elizavetgrad, the son of middle-class Jews. He was educated at the Peter and Paul Real Schule in Odessa and at the university of that town. He was arrested as a revolutionary in 1898, and soon after exiled to Eastern Siberia. In 1902 he escaped to England by means of a forged passport in the name of Trotsky (which name he used thenceforward). In London, despite his youth, he soon became an important member of the small body of social democrats which included Plekhanov and Lenin. He collaborated

sovereigns or their representatives to discuss a concerted policy with regard to the questions raised by the revolution in Naples of July 1820. At this congress, which met on Oct. 20, 1820, the Emperor Alexander J. of Russia and Francis I. of Austria were present in person; King Frederick William III. of Prussia was represented by the crown prince (afterwards Frederick William IV.). The three eastern powers were further represented by the ministers responsible for their foreign policy: Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by Count Capo d'Istria, Prussia by Prince Hardenberg, Great Britain, on the other hand, which objected on

the most famous of the Russian revolutionary newspapers. In 1905 he returned to Russia, was elected a member of the St. Petersburg Soviet of Workers’ Deputies and was chairman of the meeting at which the whole Soviet was arrested. He was exiled to Tobolsk but escaped immediately on his arrival in $iberia and went to Vienna, where he worked for the Arbeiter Zeitung and the Pravda. He also worked in a chemical factory. In rgto he attended the Social Democratic congress at Copenhagen, defending a position of his own, midway between that of

direction varying according to (a) the strength of the stimulation, (6) the internal physiological state, and (c) the coincident in-

fluence of the other factors. See S. J. Holmes,

J. Loeb, Forced Movements, delphia and London, r9r8).

TROPPAU:

(See PsycmoLocyY, COMPARATIVE.)

Studies in Animal Behaviour

see Opava.

(Boston,

1916);

Tropisms, and Animal Conduct (Phila(J. A. Tx.)

TROPPAU, CONGRESS

principle to the suggested concerted action against the Neapolitan Liberals, sent no plenipotentiary, but was represented by Lord Stewart, ambassador in Vienna. France, too, had given no plenary powers to her representatives. In a series of conferences—to

which the representatives

of

with the latter and others in the publication of Jskra (Spark),

the Bolsheviks and that of the Mensheviks.

In 1913 he was in

Constantinople as a war correspondent. The following year found him in Zurich and Paris, taking part in the publication of a revolutionary paper. He wrote a book on the origins of the World War, published in German, and was sentenced to eight months’

498

TROTZENDORFF—TROUBADOUR

imprisonment. But he opposed the War not only in Germany but in the Allied countries, and in 1916 was expelled from France. He was arrested by the Spanish authorities on crossing their frontier but was allowed to leave for America, where he edited the Russian revolutionary Novy Mir (The New World). When the revolution broke out in March 1917 Trotsky’s friends and subscribers to the paper collected the money for his journey to Russia. He was, however, arrested by the British authorities and taken ashore at Halifax, where he was interned until the Russian Provisional government asked for his release. He arrived in Petrograd soon after Lenin. He was the leader of a small party of social democrats and soon joined the Bolsheviks but did not actually become a member of the Bolshevik party until July 1917, when he was arrested for being concerned in the rising which took place in that month. He played a part hardly less important than that of Lenin in organizing the Bolshevik revolution in 1927 and became People’s Commissar for foreign affairs in the new Soviet Government. Trotsky was the most important figure in the Russian delegation during the negotiation of the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty. Believing that the moral effect of the revolution had already been such that the Germans would be unable to force their troops to move against Russia, he met the oppressive German demands with the statement that Russia would not sign a treaty on such terms but that she considered the War to be at an end and would demobilize her troops. The Germans thereupon continued their advance. Lenin had disagreed with Trotsky, considering that the risk was too great since at that time the Germans could easily have taken Petrograd. After a series of debates, Trotsky announced that he now sided with Lenin and by a majority of one it was decided to sign an even more unfavourable treaty than that previously refused. Trotsky was replaced by Chicherin as Commissar for

foreign affairs and took over the Commissariat of war. In spite of opposition he made great use of officers of the old régime in

organizing a new Red army. The results obtained were used to justify the employment of “bourgeois” technical experts in the factories. When he had made a new army that showed itself superior to those of the Whites his energies were used in preventing the complete collapse of the railways. In 1920 he organized as “labour armies” the troops that were not needed for war. Until the introduction of the new economic policy Trotsky urged industrial conscription, but wholeheartedly accepted the new policy which made such measures impossible. During the Polish war of 1920, he opposed the disastrous advance on Warsaw but was overruled by Lenin. In the autumn of 1923 he adopted a position that made it possible for the “old guard” of the Communist leaders to accuse him of canvassing for the support of the younger men. He was violently attacked by Stalin, Zinoviev and others. Many of his friends were shifted from their posts and he himself was on the way to the Caucasus to take a cure, when Lenin died. Throughout the revolution the names of Lenin and Trotsky had been coupled and the death of the one seemed to leave the other alone in the field. This was not really so. Seniority counts for much in the Communist party and the older leaders never forgot that Trotsky had only joined the party in 1917. The campaign to discredit him was continued. He lost his post as Commissar of war. When he returned from the Caucasus he was given work of small political significance, being made head of the committee for the development of electric power in Russia. In 1925 he resigned from this post and was made head of the Central Committee for Concessions. In Nov. 1927 he was expelled from the Communist party for his anti-party activities, and in Jan. 1928 he was exiled to Viernie in Turkestan. He was subsequently banished and went to Constantinople (1929). Trotsky was, after Lenin, the most brilliant of the revolutionary leaders. He wrote a number of books on the history of the revolution, on Lenin, on the civil war and on the relations between revolution and literature, besides essays on questions of the day. For this Encyclopedia Trotsky wrote the biograph y of

October (1925); Lenin (1924); Where Is Britain Going? (1926), American edition Whither England? (1925); Towards Socialism or

Capitalism? (1926); Problems of Life (1924) ; Literature and Revolution (1925); My Life (1929).

TROTZENDORFF (or Troceporrius), VALENTIN FRIEDLAND (1490-1556), German educationist, called Trotzendorff from his birthplace, near Gorlitz, in Prussian Silesia, was born on Feb. 14, 1490, of parents so poor that they could not keep him at school. Nevertheless he was sent to study at Gor-

litz, and became a schoolmaster there.

He resigned presently to

study under Luther and Melanchthon, supporting himself mean-

while by private teaching. He then became master in the school at Goldberg in Silesia, and in 1524 rector. There he remained three years, when he was sent to Liegnitz. He returned to Goldberg in 1531 and began that career which has made him the typical German schoolmaster of the Reformation period. He made his best elder scholars the teachers of the younger classes, and insisted that the way to learn was to teach. He organized the school in such a way that the whole ordinary discipline was in

the hands of the boys themselves. Every month a “consul,” twelve “senators” and two “censors” were chosen from the pupils, and over all Trotzendorff ruled as “dictator perpetuus.” One hour a day was spent in going over the lessons of the previous day. The lessons were repeatedly recalled by examinations, which

were conducted on the plan of academical disputations. Every week each pupil had to write two “exercitia styli,” one in prose and the other in verse, and Trotzendorff took pains to see that the subject of each exercise was something interesting. The fame

a. a rian iia er ane Mamee

of the Goldberg School extended over all Protestant Germany, and a large number of the more famous men of the following generation were taught by Trotzendorff. He died on April 20, 1556.

ee. Herrmann, Merkwiirdige Lebensgeschichte eines berühmten Schulmanns, V. F. Trotzendorffs (1727); Frosch, V. F. Trotzendorf, Rektor zu Goldberg (1818); Pinzger, V. F. Trotzendorff (with the Goldberg portrait, and a complete list of his writings, 1825) ; Koehler, V. FB. Trotzendorf, ein biographischer Versuch (1848); G. Bauch, Valentin Trozendorf und die Goldberger Schule (1921). The biographical facts appear to be derived from a funeral or memorial oration delivered by Balthasar Rhau in the university of Wittenberg on Aug. I5, 1564, and published in an edition of Trotzendorff’s Rosarium (1565).

TROUBADOUR,

the name given to the poets of southern

France and of northern Spain and Italy who wrote in the langue d’oc from the z2th to the 14th centuries. In Provencal the word is spelt trobaire or trovador, and is derived from the verb trobar,

to find, or to invent (Fr. trouver). The troubadour was one who

invented, and originally improvised, poetry, who “found out” new and striking stanzaic forms for the elaborate lyrics he composed. The earliest troubadour of whom anything definite is known is

Guilhem IX. (b. 1071), count of Poitiers and duke of Aquitaine, whose career was typical of that of his whole class, for “he knew well how to sing and make verses, and for a long time he roamed all through the land to deceive the ladies.” The high rank of this founder of the tradition was typical of its continuation; by far the largest number of the troubadours belonged to the noble class, while no fewer than 23 of their number were reigning princes. Among them is a king of England, Richard I., who is believed to have written in langue d’oil as well as in langue d'oc, and who has left at least one canzo, that written in prison, of remarkable beauty. These noble troubadours were distinguished by their wealth and independence from those who made their song their profession, and who wandered from castle to castle and from bower to bower. But whether dependent or independent, the poets exercised a social influence paralleled by nothing before it in the history of mediaeval poetry. They had great privileges of speech and censure, they entered into questions of politics, and above all they created around the ladies of the court an atmosphere of cultivation and amenity which nothing had hitherto approached. The troubadour was occasionally accompanied by an apprentice or servant, called a joglar, who provided a musical setting for the poet’s words, and sometimes sang the songs. There were recognized about 400 troubadours, during the whole Works N Excusu: Defence of Terrorism (1920); The Lessons of period in which they flourished, from Guilhem de Poitiers down

Lenin.

(A. RA.)

TROUBADOUR to Guiraut Riquier (c. 1230-94). Several ms. collections of biographies have been preserved, and from these we gain some idea of the careers of no fewer than rrr of the poets. The principal source of the lives of the troubadours is a collection, by various hands, made towards the middle of the 13th century. Of these Uc of Saint Cyr (c. 1200-40), himself a troubadour, was certainly one of the authors. Another, but unreliable, source of information is the Vies des plus célèbres et anciens poètes provencaux, published by Jehan de Notredame or Nostradamus, in 1575. Even the numerous genuine biographies are often embroidered with fantastic and whimsical statements which make a severe demand upon the credulity of a modern reader. One late troubadour, Rambaud of Orange, left a commentary on his own poems, and Guiraut Riquier one on those of a fellow troubadour, Guiraut of Calanson (1280). This proves the poetry of Provence to have passed early into the critical stage, and to have been treated very seriously by those who were proficient in it. This is further shown by the respect with which the Provençal

poets are mentioned by Dante, Petrarch and others. The verse form most frequently employed by the troubadours was the sirventés, a term which is earliest met with in the second half of the rath century. The troubadours also employed the ballada, which was a song with a long refrain, not much like the formal ballade of the north of France; the pastourella; and the alba. This last took its name from the circumstance that the word alba (dawn) was repeated in each stanza. This was a morning-song, as the serena, a later invention, was an evensong. The planh was a funeral elegy, composed by the troubadour for the obsequies of his protector, or for those of the lady of his devotion. Most interesting of all, perhaps, was the tenson, which was a lyrical dialogue between two persons, who discussed in it, as a rule, some point of amorous casuistry, but sometimes matters of a religious, metaphysical or satirical nature. The troubadours were essentially lyrical (see PROVENÇAL LITERATURE). The biographies of the troubadours, which throw an unparalleled light upon mediaeval literary life, may perhaps be most conveniently treated in connection with the courts at which each group of them flourished. It is in Poitou that we trace them first, where Guilhem, count of Poitiers, who reigned from 1087 to 1127, was both the earliest patron and the earliest poet of the school. The daughter of Guilhem X. carried on her grandfather’s tradition. This was Eleanor of Aquitaine, at whose court Bernart of Ventadour rose to eminence. This poet seems to have been the son of a kitchen-scullion in the castle of Eble II., viscount of Ventadour. Eble, himself a poet, was early impressed by the talents of his serving-boy, and trained him to be a poet. The beautiful wife of Eble, the viscountess Agnes of Montlucon, encouraged the suit of the youthful Bernart; indeed, they had secretly loved one another from their childhood. The poems which this passion inspired are among the most admirable lyrics which have come down to us from the middle ages. The husband at last discovered the intrigue and exiled Bernart from Ventadour. The troubadour took shelter with Eleanor of Aquitaine, who became in 1152 the queen-consort of Henry IT. of England, himself a protector of poets. Henry, eldest son of Henry II., was the patron of another eminent troubadour, Bertran de Born, viscount of Hautefort in Perigord. Dante saw Bertran de Born in hell, carrying his severed head before him like a lantern, and compared him with Achitophel, who excited the sons of David against their father. This

referred to the subtle intrigues by which the troubadour had worked on the jealousy existing between the three sons of the king of England. The death of Prince Henry (1183) produced from Bertran de Born two planhs, which are among the most sincere and beautiful works in Provençal literature. The poet was immediately afterwards besieged in his castle of Hautefort by Richard Coeur de Lion, to whom he became reconciled and whom he accompanied to Palestine. He grew devout in his old age, and died about 1205. There were poetesses in the highly refined society of Provence, and of these by far the most eminent was Beatrix, countess of Die, whose career was inextricably interwoven with that of an-

+99

other noble troubadour, Rambaut III., count of Orange, who held his court at Courthézon, a few miles south of Orange. Rambaut said that since Adam ate the apple no poet had been born who could compete in skill with himself, but his existing lyrics have neither the tenderness nor the ingenuity of those of his illustrious lady-love. The poems of Beatrix are remarkable for a simplicity of form rare among the poets of her age. Marcabrun (c. 1120—95), from whose pen some 40 poems survive, was an innovator and a reformer; to him the severity of classical Provençal style is mainly due, and he was one of the first to make use of that complex form which was known as the żrobar clus. He posed as a violent misogynist—"I never loved and I was never loved.” Marcabrun expresses great affection for “that sweet poet,” Jaufre Rudel, prince of Blaye, whose heart turned, like the disk of a sunflower, towards the Lady of Tripoli. Little else than that famous adventure is known about the career of this ultra-romantic troubadour, except that he went as a crusader to the Holy Land, and that his surviving poems have so mystical a tone that Jaufre Rudel has been suspected of being a religious writer who used the amorous language of his age for sanctified purposes, and whose “Princess Far-away”’ was really the Church of Christ. Peire d’ Alveona (Peter of Auvergne), like Marcabrun, was of mean birth, son of a tradesman in Clermont-Ferrand, but he was handsome and engaging, and being the first troubadour who had appeared in the mountain district, “he was greatly

honoured and féted by the valiant barons and noble ladies of Auvergne.” It is believed that Peire’s poems were produced between 1158 and 1180. He flourished at the court of Sancho III., king of Castile, and afterwards at that of Ermengarde, viscountess of Narbonne. It is doubtless owing to the repeated praise which was given by Dante, in the Jnferno and elsewhere, to Arnaut Daniel that this name remains the most famous among those of the troubadours.

He was a knight of Riberac, in Perigord, and attached himself as a troubadour to the court of Richard Cceur de Lion. Dante calls Daniel the “smith,” the finished craftsman, of language, and it is evident that it was the brilliant art of the Provencal’s elaborated verse which delighted the Italian. His invention of forms of verse (see SESTINA), in particular, dazzled the great Italian. Dante was curiously anxious to defend Arnaut Daniel as being a better artist than his immediate rival, Giraut de Bornelh; critical posterity, however, has reversed this verdict. Giraut laments, in his poems, the brutality of the age and the lawlessness of princes. A troubadour of the same district of south-western France was Arnaut de Mareuil, to whom is attributed the introduction into Provengal poetry of the amatory epistle. l Peire Vidal of Toulouse was the type of the reckless and scatterbrained troubadour. His biographer says that he was “the maddest man in all the world.” His early life was a series of bewildering excursions through France and Spain. At Marseilles he made a mortal enemy of Azalaïs, the wife of Viscount Barral

de Baux, from whom he stole a kiss (1180). He committed a thousand follies; among others, being in love with a lady called Louve (she-wolf), the poet dressed himself as a wolf, and was hunted by a pack of hounds in front of the lady’s castle. Folquet of Marseilles was a troubadour of Italian race, the son of a merchant of Genoa; Dante met Folquet in paradise, and gives an

interesting notice of him. It is in the sirventés of Folquet that critics have seen the earliest signs of that decadence which was so rapidly to destroy Provençal poetry. Gaucelm Faidit came from Uzerche, in the Limousin. He seems to have been a wandering minstrel of gay and reckless habits, and to have been accompanied bya light-o’-love, Guillelma Monja, who was the object of much satire and ridicule. Another troubadour, Raimbaut of Vaquiéres, passed the greater part of his life at the same court of Montferrat; he devoted himself to the Lady Beatrix, sister of the marquis. The most celebrated of the Italian troubadours was Sordello, born at Mantua, at the beginning of the 13th century, who owes his fame to the benevolence of later poets, from Dante to Robert Browning. We have now mentioned the troubadours who were most famous in their own time, and on the whole modern criticism has

TROUBRIDGE—TROUVERE

500

been in unison with contemporary opinion. There are, however, still one or two names to be recorded. The English historian of the troubadours, Dr. Hueffer, gave great prominence to the writings of Guillem de Cabestanh (or Capestang). This was a knight of Roussillon, who made love to Seremonda, countess of Castel-Roussillon. The Iady’s husband slew him in a paroxysm of jealousy and, having cut out his heart, had it delicately cooked and served to his wife’s dinner. When Seremonda had eaten her lover’s heart, her husband told her what she had done, and she threw herself out of the window and was killed. Feeling grew so strong that the surrounding nobles, with Alfonso, king of Spain, at their head, hunted the murderer down and killed him. The bodies of the lady and the troubadour were buried side by side, in the cathedral of Perpignan, and became the objects of pilgrimage. The great cause of the decadence and ruin of the troubadours was the struggle between Rome and the heretics. This broke out into actual war in June 1209, when the northern barons, called to a crusade by Pope Innocent ITI., fell upon the Albigenses and pillaged Béziers and Carcassonne. Most of the protectors of the troubadours were, if not heretics, indulgent to the heretical party, and shared in their downfall The poets, themselves, were not immediately injured, but the darkness began to gather round them as the ruin of Languedoc became more and more complete, culminating with the siege of Toulouse in 1218. The greatest name of this period, which was the beginning of the end, is that of Peire Cardenal, of Le Puy. He was protected by Jacme I., king of Aragon, having apparently fled from Narbonne and then from Toulouse in order to escape from the armies of Simon de Montfort. He was the inventor of the moral or ethical sirventés; and the author of singularly outspoken satires against the clergy. Another troubadour of this time was Guillem Figueira, the son of a Toulouse tailor, an open heretic who attacked the papacy with extraordinary vigour, supported and protected by Raimon H. Figueira was answered, strophe by strophe, by a female troubadour, Gormonda of Montpellier. The ruin of the southern courts, most of which belonged to the conquered Albigensi party, continued to depress the troubadours, whose system was further

disintegrated by the establishment of the Inquisition. The genial

and cultured society of Provence and Languedoc sank rapidly into barbarism, and there was no welcome anywhere for secular poets. The last of the French troubadours was Guiraut Riquier (c. 1230—94), who was born at Narbonne, and found protection at the Spanish court of Alfonso X. the Learned. Riquier, in a sirventé of about 1285, gives pathetic expression to his sense of the gathering darkness, which makes it useless and almost unbecoming for a troubadour to practise his art, while of himself he mournfully confesses: “Song should express joy, but sorrow oppresses me, and I have come into the world too late.” Guiraut Riquier passed away about 1294, and left no successor behind him.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F, Diez, Leben tnd Werke .der Troubadours (Zwickau, 1829, 2nd ed. revised by K. Bartsch, Leipzig, 1882); Die Poesie der Troubadours, 2nd ed., revised by K. Bartsch (Leipzig, 1883); C. Chabaneau, Les Biographies des troubadours (r913); F. Raynouard, Choix des poésies originales des troubadours (6 vols. 1816~21} ; Manuel Mila y Fontenals, Los Trovadores en España (Barcelona, 1861, 2nd ed., revised, Barcelona, 1889) ; Paul Meyer, Les Derniers troubadours de la Provence (1871) ; Francis Hueffer, The Troubadours (1878); A. Restori, Letteratura provenzale (Milan, 1891r); C. Appel, Provenzalische chrestomathie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Joseph Anglade, Les Troubadours (1908). Various editions of the life and works of separate troubadours have been published—Guilhem IX. of Poitiers, by A. Jeanroy (Toulouse, 1905); Bertram de Born, A. Thomas (Toulouse, 1888); Peire Vidal, by J. Auglade (1914); byCercamon, by Dejeanne (Toulouse, roos): Giraut de Bornelh, by A. Kolsen (Halle, 1907-08); Peire of Auvergne, by Zenker (Erlanger, 1900) ; Sordello, by Cesare de Lollis (Halle, 1896) ; Guiraut Joseph Anglade (Paris, 1905); Arnaut Daniel, by U. Riquier by Canallo (Halle, 1883); Marcabrun, by Dr. Dejeanne Toulouse A. (1909); S. Strowski, Folquet de Marseille (r910); A. Jeanroy, Ve de Saint-Cire (Toulouse, 1913); A. Jeanroy, Jaufré Rudel (xr915),

TROUBRIDGE,

SIR THOMAS,

Barr. (c. 1758—1807),

English admiral, was educated at St. Paul’s school, London, and entered the navy in 1773. Having seen some service in the East

Indies, he was taken prisoner by the French in 1794. In Feb.

1797 he commanded his ship, the “Culloden,” at the battle of

Cape St. Vincent. In the following July he assisted Nelson in the

unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz. He served in the Mediterranean and was created a baronet in 1799; from 1801 to 1804 he was a lord of the admiralty, being made a rear-admiral just before his retirement. In 1805 Troubridge was given a command in the East and he went out in the “Blenheim.” He was drowned in the wreck of the “Blenheim” off Madagascar, in Jan. 1807. TROUPIAL, a collective name suggested by Ridgway for the American family Icteridae, which includes the North American orioles, meadow-larks, cowbirds, grackles and blackbirds and the Central American caciques.

TROUT

(Salmo trutta), a fish closely related to the salmon,

but with a larger mouth, the maxillary extending to below the posterior edge of the eye in fish 6 in. long well beyond the eye in larger ones, and with the caudal fin less emarginate. In the + sea the trout ranges from Iceland ' and northern Europe to the Bay — : of Biscay, but as a fresh-water TROUT (SALMO TRUTTA) fish occurs in the countries north of the Mediterranean eastwards to Greece, and in Corsica, Sardinia and Algeria: a trout from the mountains of south-east Morocco has been described by Pellegrin as Salmo pallaryii

(Bull. Mus., Paris 1922). The trout of the Black, Caspian and Aral seas and their tributaries have smaller scales. The seatrout is silvery, with X-shaped blackish spots; it ascends rivers to breed and forms fresh-water colonies in every river and lake that it enters; the presence of trout in the Mediterranean countries indicates that in glacial times sea-trout frequented the Mediterranean. The river and Jake trout show great differences

in size and coloration and many specific names have been given; but it seems clear that all are but varieties of the one main species. In large lakes a weight of so lb. may be attained, whereas

in some small mountain streams afish of 4 oz. is exceptional ; the coloration varies from silvery white to blackish, with spots that

may be few or many, stellate or rounded, black, brown or red. In eastern North America the name trout is given to a char

(Salvelinus fontinalis) and in the west this name is given to the steelhead (S. gairdneri) of the Pacific coast and its numerous

fresh-water derivatives, which exhibit just as much diversity in coloration as the trout of Europe and have received even more

specific names; the best known is the rainbow trout (S. irideus). These trout of the Pacific slope have the caudal fin spotted, and often a red band along the side of the body; their relationship to the trout of Europe is not very close, their nearest allies being the various other Pacific species of Salmo, which are generally termed salmon. For trout-fishing see ANGLING,

TROUVERE,

the name given to the mediaeval poets of

northern and céntral France, who wrote in the langue d'oil or langue d'oui. The trouvères flourished abundantly in the r2th and 13th centuries. They were court-poets who devoted themselves almost exclusively to the composition and recitation of a particular kind of poetry, the subject of which was some refinement of love. The first appearance of trouvéres seems to date from 1 137, when

Eleanor of Aquitaine, herself the granddaughter of an illustrious troubadour, arrived in the court of France as the queen of Louis

VIL, speaking the Poitiers dialect of the langue d’oc.

She was

queen for 15 years (1137-52), the period during which the southern Influence was strongest in the literature of northern France, and the successive crusades tended to produce relations between the two sections of poetical literature. The northern poets rarely approach the grace and delicacy of the troubadours, while their verse shows less ingenuity and less variety. The earliest trouvères, like Conon de Béthune and Hugues de Berze, in writing their amatory Iyrics, were, however, certainly influenced by what troubadours had written. The poetical forms adopted by the trouvéres bore curious and obscure names, the signification of which is still in some cases

dubious, The rotruenge was a’song with a refrain; the serventois

TROUVILLE—TROY

501

was, in spite of its name, quite unlike the sirventes of the trouba- |with average depth of 18 ft. Timber, coals and cement are dours and had a more ribald character; the estrabot was allied to imported. The London and South Western railway company have the strambotto of the Italians, and was a strophic form “com- a daily steamboat service from Havre to Trouville In connection posed of a front part which was symmetrical, and of a tail which | with their Southampton and Havre boats. could be varied at will” (Gaston Paris). TROWBRIDGE (tr6od’brij), a market town, Westbury parThe court poetry of the trouvères particularly flourished under liamentary division, Wilts., England, 974 m. W. by S. of London

the protection of three royal ladies. Marie, the regent of Cham-

pagne, was the practical ruler of that country from r181 to 1197, and she encouraged the minstrels in the highest degree and dis-

cussed the art of verse with Chrétien of Troyes, Her sister, Aélis or Alice, welcomed the trouvères to Blois; she was the protector of Gautier d’Arras and of Le Chatelain de Coucy. Another Aélis, who became the second queen of Louis VII. in 1160, received Conon de Béthune in Paris, and reproved him for the Picard accent with which he recited his poetry. At the end of the 12th century the refinement and elegance of the court-poets was recognized in the north of France by those who were responsible for the education of princes. A trouvère, Gui de Ponthieu, was appointed tutor to Wiliam III. of Macon, and another, Philippe of Flanders, to Philippe Auguste. The vogue of the trouvères began during the third crusade; it rose to its greatest height during the fourth crusade and the attack upon the Albigenses. The first 40 years of the 13th century was the period during which the courtly lyrical poetry was cultivated with most assiduity. At first it was a purely aristocratic pastime, and among the principal trouvéres were

princes such as Thibaut IV. of Navarre, Louis of Blois and John, king of Jerusalem. About 1230 the taste for court poetry spread to the wealthy bourgeoisie, especially in Picardy, Artois and Flanders. Before its final decline, and after the courts of Paris and Blois had ceased to be its patrons, the poetry of the trouvéres found its centre at Arras, where some of the most skilful of all the trouvères, such as Jacques Bretel and Adam de la Halle, exercised their art. About 1280 the poetical system suddenly disappeared. The poet was invariably a lover, devoted to a married lady who

was not his wife, and to whose caprices he was bound to submit blindly and patiently. The progress of this conventional courtship was laid down according to certain strict rules of ceremonial; love became a science and a religion, practised by the laws of precise etiquette. The rondel of Adam de la Halle (published in E. de Coussemaker’s edition, 1872) beginning “À Dieu courant amouretes, Car je m’en vois

Souspirant en terre estrange !”

marks perhaps the highest point to which the delicate, frosty art of the trouvères attained. Music took a prominent place in all their performances, but little is known of the melodies which they used. But enough has been discovered to justify the general statement of Tiersot that “we may conclude that the musical movement of

the age of the trouvéres was derived directly from the most ancient form of popular French melody.” A precious ms. in the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier contains the music of no fewer than 345 part-songs attributed to trouvéres. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E, de Coussemaker, Art harmonique aux XIIme et XIIIme siècles (1865); A. Jeanroy, Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen dge (1889); J. Tiersot, Histoire de la

chanson populaire en France (1889); H. Binet, Le Style de la lyrique courtoise en France aux XIIme

et XIIIme siècles (1891);

G. Paris,

Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen âge (1892). The works of the principal trouvères have been edited; those of Le Châtelain de Coucy by F. Michel (1830); of Thibaut IV., King of Navarre, by P. Tarbé (1831); of Adam de la Halle by E. de Coussemaker (1872); of Conon de Béthune by Wallenskold (Helsingfors, 1891).

by the G. W. railway. Pop. of urban district (1931) 12,011. Trowbridge was mentioned in Domesday under the name

of Straburg, a manor held by one Brictric together with Staverton and Trowle, now both included within its limits. The first reference to the “town” of Trowbridge occurs early in the 16th century; previous to that date mention is made of the manor and castle only. Trowbridge is now a non-corporate town. It is now the chief centre of the West of England woollen industry and makes broadcloth and other woollen goods.

TROY, a city of south-eastern Alabama, U.S.A., county seat of Pike county; on Federal highway 231, and served by the Atlantic Coast and the Central of Georgia railways. Pop. (1920) 5,096 (50% negroes); 6,814 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is the seat of a State Normal School (1887); the trade centre of a rich agricultural region, producing especially cotton, cattle, hogs and peanuts; and has several manufacturing industries. The city was founded in 1823. TROY, a city of eastern New York, U.S.A., the county seat of Rensselaer county; on the east bank of the Hudson river, 7 m. above Albany, at the mouth of the Mohawk. It is on Federal highway 9 and the State Barge canal, and is served by the Boston and Maine, the Delaware and Hudson, the New York Central and electric railways, motor-bus and truck lines and river steamers. Pop. (1920) 72,013 (83% native white); 72,763 in 1930, by Federal census. Across the river are Cohoes and Watervliet, connected with Troy by bridges, and Schenectady is only 15 m. north-west. The city has a water front of 7 m. and an area of 9:32 sq.m, rising from the river to hills on the east goo ft. high. Its seven parks cover 276 acres. The Catskill mountains are visible on the south-western horizon. Troy is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Hudson. Two rapid streams, Poesten kill and Wynants kill, flowing into the Hudson from the east through deep ravines, furnish water-power, and hydro-electric current also is available. Troy has long been an important industrial and commercial city. It is the principal centre in the United States for the manufacture of collars, and among its other leading products are shirts, men’s clothing, surveying instruments, abrasives, valves, hydrants, bells, chains, brushes and automobile parts. The aggregate factory output in 1927 was valued at $47,081,220. Among the educational institutions in the city are the Rensselaer Polytechnic institute, founded in 1824 by Stephen Van Rensselaer of Albany, the oldest school of science with a continuous existence in the country. The site of Troy was part of the Van Rensselaer manor grant of 1629. In 1659 it was bought from the Indians, with the consent of the patroon, by Jan Barentsen Wemp, and in 1707 it passed into the hands of Derick van der Heyden. In 1777 Gen. Philip Schuyler had his headquarters on Van Schaick’s island, in the. Mohawk and Hudson. After the close of the Revolution there was an influx of settlers from New England; a town was laid out on the Van der Heyden farm; in 1789 the name of Troy was adopted in town-meeting; in 1793 the county seat was established here; in 1794 the village was incorporated, and in 1816 it was chartered as a city. A newspaper, Tke Farmers Oracle, began publication in 1797. In 1812 a steamboat line was estab-

lished between Troy and Albany, and in 1825 the Erie canal was opened.

During the War of 1812 Troy filled large contracts for

TROUVILLE, aseaside town of north-western France, in army beef. Puddling works were opened in 1839, and for many the department of Calvados, on the English channel, 34 m. N.E.

of Caen by rail. Pop. (1926) 5,869. Trouville stands at the mouth of the Touques on its right bank opposite Deauville. Its fine stretches of sand and excellent bathing make it the most frequented French resort on the channel, Deauville is well known for its race-course and villas. The port, shared with Deauville and formed by the Touques, is entered by a channel between jetties with a depth at high tide of 174 ft.; it is supplied with a half-tide dock, filled to scour the channel, and a floating dock,

years the city was the centre of the iron and steel industry of New York. The second Bessemer steel works in the United States was established here in 1865. During the Civil War Troy supplied

much cannon and ammunition, and made the armour-plate and

part of the machinery for the “Monitor.” The last steel and iron works discontinued operations about 1896. The collar industry dates its origin from 1819, when Hannah Lord Montague of Troy had the ingenious idea of making separate collars for her husband’s shirts. The idea spread, and in 1829 Ebenezer Brown, a local

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TROY

merchant, had collars made to sell in his store. The manufacture of cuffs was begun in 1845. After the introduction of the sewing

machine in 1852 the industry grew rapidly, reaching its peak about the time of the World War. The city had a population of 28,785 in 18503 39,235 in 1860; 56,747 in 1880; 60,651 In 1900; 76,813

in rọro. In 1820, 1854 and 1862 it suffered from destructive fires.

TROY, a city of western Ohio, U.S.A., the county seat of

Attalus I. for his war against Achaeus,

deserted his standard,

pillaged the towns on the Hellespont, and besieged Ilium, from

which, however, they were driven off by the troops of Alexandria Troas. In the 2nd century B.C. Ilum was in decay; as Demetrius of Scepsis says, the houses “had not even roofs of tiles.” The temple of Ilian Athena, however, retained its prestige; in 192 s.c. Antiochus the Great visited it before sailing to the aid of the Aetolians. In 190 B.c., before the battle of Magnesia, Romans and Ilians were alike eager to recall the legend of Roman descent from Aeneas; Lucius Scipio offered sacrifice to the [lian Athena;

Miami county; on the Dixie highway and the west bank of the Great Miami river, 20 m. N. of Dayton. It has a landing field, and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio and the Big Four railways, interurban trolleys and bus lines. Pop. (1920) 7,260 (92% and after the defeat of Antiochus the Romans annexed Rhoeteum native white); 1930 Federal census 8,675. Troy was settled in and Gergis to Ilium, “not so much in reward of recent services, as in memory of the source from which their nation sprang.” The 1807 and was chartered as a city in 1890. TROY and TROAD. The Troad (7 zpwas), or land of later history of Ilium is a catalogue of Roman benefactions, Troy, is the north-west promontory of Asia Minor, between the though, in 85 B.C., when Fimbria took it, he left it in ruins; valleys of the Caicus on the south and the Aesepus flowing into Sulla, however, was careful to rebuild it; Augustus confirmed its Propontis on the east. The eastern limit was variously defined by ancient privileges and gave it new territory; Caracalla (A.D. 211ancient writers. Geographically, it is undoubtedly (as Strabo says) 217), like Alexander, paid honours to the tomb of Achilles. In the range of Ida, which, from the north shore of the Adramyttian the 4th century, the Ilians were attracting tourists by their pseudogulf, sends its north-western spurs nearly to the coast of the Trojan memorials. After the 4th century the place is lost to Propontis. The greatest length of the Troad from north-west at view. Of the other ancient cities, Neandria seems to be rightly fixed Cape Sigeum (Yeni Shehr), to the south-west at Cape Lectum (Baba Kale), is about 40 m.; the breadth, not much greater. The at Mt. Chigri, not far from Alexandria Troas, remarkable for its central area is drained by the Menderes (anc. Scamander), which fine view of the whole Troad. Cebrene has been located in the eastern part of the plain of Bairamich; Palaeoscepsis, farther east, rises in Ida and reaches the Hellespont east of Cape Sigeum. Timber is supplied by pine forests on Mt. Ida. But the plains on Ida, while the new Scepsis was near Bairamich. At Kulakli, and hills are fairly wooded. Besides valonia oak, there are elm, south of the mouth of the Tuzla, Corinthian columns mark the willow, cypress and tamarisk, with lotus, galingale and reeds, as temple of Apollo Smintheus (excavated in 1866 by Pullan) and (approximately) the Homeric Chryse. Colonae was on the coast in Homeric days, about the streams. The vine is cultivated; watermelons are abundant; cotton, wheat and maize are grown. opposite Tenedos. Scamandria was at Eneh, in the plain of BairaEven under Turkish rule, the natural advantages of the land miti- mich, and Cenchreae probably some way north of it. The shrine gated the poverty of its inhabitants; in antiquity it was fertile of Palamedes, Polymedium, has been discovered by J. T. Clarke between Assus and Cape Lectum; the sacred enclosure and the and populous. Early History.—In Greek legend, Priam of Troy ruled all statue of Palamedes were on the acropolis. Clarke also found very that is bounded by “Lesbos, Phrygia and the Hellespont” (Z. ancient walls on Gargarus, the highest peak of Ida. The Site of Troy.—The traditional site, at the Hellenistic xxiv. 544). The Achaeans under Agamemnon destroyed Troy, and overthrew Priam’s dynasty. But there is Homeric prophecy that Tlium, is the mound of Hissarlik, on a spur between the main Aeneas and his descendants shall still rule over the Troes, in a Scamander valley and its last tributary from the east (anc. passage probably later than the bulk of the book, and it is certain Simois), about 34 m. from the Hellespont and from the Aegean that in the 7th or 6th century B.c. reputed descendants reigned shore, north of Besika bay. The famous academic dispute consomewhere in the Troad. Thracian tribes, including Bithynians and cerning the site, which began about A.D. 160 with Demetrius of Treres, swept into Asia Minor from Europe in the 7th century Scepsis, may be regarded as settled by the discovery, made in B.C., and the Ionian poet, Callinus, recorded the terror which they 1893, of a fortress on the mound .of Hissarlik, contemporary with the great period of Mycenae, and overlying the smaller and caused. Greek Settlements.—The earliest and most important of the the earlier acropolis first identifed by Schliemann in 1872. The Greek settlements were Aeolic, mainly from Lesbos and Cyme rival ruins of a small hill fort on the Bali Dagh which, with anin Aeolis; some may have been as early as the 13th century B.c. other on an opposite crag, commanded the gorge where the ScaAbout 620 B.c. Athenians occupied Sigeum, and were resisted by mander descends into the plain neither accord with Homeric deAeolic colonists from Mytilene, already established in that neigh- scription nor challenge the remains at Hissarlik in importance. bourhood. No site in the Troad accords completely with all the topoChief Greek towns in the Troad were Ilium in the north, Assus graphical clues ingeniously derived from the text of Homer. The (g.v.) in the south, and Alexandria Troas (g.v.) in the west. The hot and cold springs that lay just without the gate of “Troy” are site of the Greek Ilium is marked by the low mound of Hissarlik no more to be identified with Bunarbashi, which wells out more (Turk. “place of fortresses”) in the Trojan plain, about 3 m. from than a mile from the Bali Dagh ruins, than with the choked conthe Hellespont, the traditional site of Homer’s “Troy.” When duits south of Hissarlik, opened by Schliemann in 1882. But the Xerxes visited the Trojan plain, he “went up to the Pergamon of broader topography is recognizable in the modern plain of the Priam,” and sacrificed to the lian Athena. Ilium yielded to Der- Menderes. The old bed of that river is the Scamander, and its cyllidas in 399 B.c., and was captured by Charidemus in 359 B.c., little tributary, the Dumbrek Su, is the Simois. In their fork lies but was evidently still of small importance when, in 334 B.c., Hissarlik or Troy. In sight of it are, on the one side, the peak Alexander visited it on landing in the Troad. In their temple of of Samothrace (Il. xili. 11-14); on the other Mt. Ida (Kaz Athena the Ilians showed him arms which had served in the Dagh: viii. 52). Hissarlik lies in the plain (xx. 216), easily Trojan war, including the shield of Achilles. Either then or after reached by foes from the shore, or left and regained in a night the battle of Granicus, Alexander enlarged the town to be a by a Trojan visiting the Achaean camp (vii. 381~421). “city,” with political independence and exemption from tribute. Archaeological Investigation of Troy.—Schliemann’s ex: Lysimachus executed the intentions of Alexander when north- cavations at Hissarlik in 1872~74, supplemented and confirmed west Asia Minor fell to him in 3or B.c., building a wall 5 m. in by W. Dörpfeld in 1891-94, established the existence of nine circumference, Incorporating decayed towns of the neighbourhood, superposed settlements, as follows:— and building a temple of Athena. In the 3rd century s.c. Ilium x. On the virgin soil of the natural hillock a small village of was the head of a federal league of free Greek towns, from the late Aegean Neolithic period, at the dawn of the Bronze Lampsacus on the Hellespont to Gargara on the Adramyttian age, contemporary with the upper part of the Cnossian Neogulf. In 278 B.c. the Gauls, under Lutarius, occupied Ilium, but lithic bed, includes what were supposed by Schliemann to be twe abandoned it. Forty years later (218 B.c.) other Gauls brought by primitive settlements. Thin walls of rough stones, bonded with

TROY

503

mud, reveal no house-plans, nor traces of fortress wall. Implements in obsidian and various kinds of stone, clay whorls, a little worked ivory, accompany dark monochrome pottery, hand-pol-

quarters of this city will doubtless be found eventually. 7. The “sixth,” or “Mycenaean” Troy, perished by violence like the “second city,” but its inhabitants reoccupied its ruins,

ished, with simple geometric decoration, incised and often filled

until, in early Hellenic

times, the small unfortified

settlement

with white. 2. Superposed and comprehending a larger area, lies the “second city,” better constructed and preserved, and twice rebuilt. Its massive fortress wall of rudely squared “‘Cyclopean” masonry suffered several restorations and eventual destruction, except on

was established which maintained itself till the Homeric enthusiasm of Alexander the Great called a city again into being on Hissarlik. 8. The Hellenistic Ilium, however, has left comparatively little trace; fortifications erected by Lysimachus are visible on the the south. Double gates at south-east and south-west are well- acropolis and in the plain. A small Doric temple belongs to this preserved. The most complete and most important structures city, and a larger one, probably dedicated to Athena, seems to within are a megaron and vestibule of the type familiar in “My- be of Pergamene age. Fragments remain of its metopes, reprecenaean” palaces, with one or more smaller replicas alongside it, senting Helios and a Gigantomachia. Coins of this city show like the “women’s quarters” at Tiryns (g.v.) and Phylakopi. (See Athena on both faces, and inscriptions prove that Hellenistic AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.) This is the fortress proclaimed by Schlie- TIium was of some importance. 9. Lastly, about the Christian era, the Graeco-Roman city mann in 1873 to be the “Pergamos” of Troy, mainly because it perished by fire. But this second stratum belongs to a primitive built a theatre and an ornate gateway on the south-east slope, stage of local civilization preceding the “Mycenaean,” which is a large building on the south-west and others to north-east. This the earliest recalled by the Homeric

poems.

The pottery now

shows the first rare use of paint, and of technique and fantastic forms parallel to those of the pre-Mycenaean Cyclades. Troughspouted vases are characteristic, and rude reproductions of human features are common in this ware, which seems all native. Bronze had come into use for implements, weapons and vessels; a hoarded

treasure found in the ruins of the fortification wall includes much gold and silver. But the forms are primitive and the workmanship very rude. Personal ornaments are cut out of thin plate gold or built of coiled wire. But some of the discs, bracelets and pendants, with advanced spiral ornament, found in 1878 and ascribed to this stratum, belong undoubtedly to the sixth or “Mycenaean.” Rough fiddle-shaped idols, whorls, a little worked ivory and some lead make up a find, of whose early period (probably about 2000 B.c.) comparison of objects found elsewhere leaves no doubt. This treasure is now deposited in Berlin with the bulk of Schliemann’s collection. 3, 4, 5. After the burning of the “second city,” Hissarlik ceased for a time to have any considerable population. Three small village settlements have left their traces superposed and show only slight advances of material culture. 6. The mound, however, occupied too important a site, in relation to the plain and the sea, to remain desolate, and it was occupied in the 14th or 13th century by a great fortress, while a city not yet explored, spread below. This “sixth city” was first distinguished clearly by Dörpfeld in 1882, but Schliemann’s drastic methods confused its commoner pottery and metal objects with those of lower strata; and some grey ware, to which Schliemann gave the name “Lydian” was alone referred to this sixth or “Lydian” city, in his Troja (1884). This ware has been compared with the “Minyan” fabric at Orchomenus, but also resembles the “Lausitz” pottery, which originated on the middle Danube, and was intruded into Macedonia at the close of the rath century. For years this “sixth city” was neglected. In 1893, however, excavations in hitherto undisturbed ground outside the earlier fortress, exposed a wall of massive ashlar masonry resembling the fortifications of Mycenae itself, and “Mycenaean” walls at Phylakopi in Melos. With this wall occurred not only the grey ware, but painted potsherds unmistak-

ably “Mycenaean”; and further search showed that such sherds were characteristic of “sixth city” deposits. The inevitable inference is that this city imported contemporary “Mycenaean” ware to supplement its own ruder products. The area of its citadel is larger than the “second city,” its buildings, which include a large megaron, are of finer construction. This was the most important city yet built on the mound. It belonged to the “Mycenaean” age, which precedes the composition of the Homeric poems, and is reflected by them. Therefore this is Homer’s Troy. Its remains, however, having been obliterated on the crown of Hissarlik, almost escaped recognition, for when, long afterwards, the Hellenistic Ilium was built, the top of the mound was cut away and the uppermost strata vanished. Thus we find them now on the southern slope of the mound only, but have no diffculty in estimating their original extent. Tombs and the outer

city seems to have decayed in the 5th century A.D. BIBLIoGRAPHY.—J. F, Lechevalier, Voyage de la Troade (1802); Choiseul-Gouffer, Voyage pittoresque (1809); Dr. Hunt and Prof. Carlyle, in Walpole’s Travels (1817); O. F. v. Richter, Wallfahrien im Morgenlande (1822); W. M. Leake, Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor (1824) ; Prokesch v. Osten, Denkwurdigkeiten aus dem Orient (1836) ; C. Fellows, Excursion in Asia Minor (1839); C. Texier, Asie Mineure (1843); R. P. Pullan, Principal Ruins of Asia Minor (1865); P. B. Webb, Topographie de la Troade (1844); H. F. Tozer, Highlands of Turkey (1869); R. Virchow, Landeskunde der Troas, in Trans Berlin Acad. (1879); H. Schliemann, Troy (1875); Jlios (1880); Troja (1884) ; Reise der Troas (1881); C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann’s Excavations (Eng. trans, 1891); W. Dorpfeld, Troja (1892) and Troja und Ilios (1902); H. Schmidt, Schkemann’s Sammlung Troj. Altertiimer (1902); W. Leaf, Troy; a Study in Homeric Geography (1912). For the affinities of the “Lydian” pottery see E. J. Forsdyke, Journ. Hell. Stud., xxxiv. 126.; V. G. Childe, Dawn of European Civilization (1925), Antiquity (1928); W. A. Heurtley, Brit. School (Athens) Annual, xxvii. 1.

The Legend of Troy.—In Greek legend, the oldest town in the Troad was that founded by Teucer, who was a son of the

Scamander (a Cretan stream, according to Tzetzes) and the nymph Idaea. In his reign, Dardanus, son of Zeus and the nymph Electra, daughter of Atlas, in consequence of a deluge, drifted from Samothrace to the Troad, where he received land from Teucer, married his daughter Batea, and founded Dardania, at the foot of Mt. Ida. On the death of Teucer, Dardanus succeeded him, and called the whole land Dardania. He begat Erichthonius, who begat Tros by Astyoche, daughter of Simois. Tros called the country Troy and the people Troes (Trojans). By Callirrhoe, daughter of Scamander, Tros had three sons—Tlus, Assaracus and Ganymede. From Ilus and Assaracus sprang two separate lines; Ilus, Laomedon, Priam, Hector; and Assaracus, Capys, Anchises, Aeneas. Ilus went to Phrygia, where he received, as a wrestling prize from the king of Phrygia, a spotted cow, with an injunction to found a city where she lay down. The cow lay down on the bill of the Phrygian Atë; here Ilus founded Ilion; and Dardania, Troy and Ilion became one city. Desiring a sign from Zeus, Ilus prayed and found lying before his tent the Palladium, a wooden statue of Pallas, for which he built a temple. By Eurydice, daughter of Adrastus, he had a son, Laomedon,

who married Strymo, daughter of Scamander (or Placia, daughter of Atreus or of Leucippus).

In his reign, Poseidon and Apollo

(or Poseidon alone), built the walls of Troy, but Laomedon withheld their reward. In his reign also, Heracles besieged and took the city, slaying Laomedon and his children, except one daughter, Hesione, and one son, Podarces. The life of Podarces was granted at the request of Hesione, on condition that Podarces first be a slave and then be redeemed by Hesione; she gave her

veil for him; hence his name of Priam (Gr. mprdo@ar, to buy). Priam married first Arisbe and afterwards Hecuba, and had so sons and 12 daughters. Among the sons were Hector and Paris, and among the daughters Polyxena and Cassandra. Paris, betrothed to Oenone, awarded the golden “apple of strife” to Aphrodite (who promised him the love of the fairest of women) and brought upon Troy the resentment of Hera and Athena. Thereafter, Paris, visiting Sparta, found favour with Helen, heiress of

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lished by adventurers of unknown antecedents, and foreign names, from Ithaca and Aetolia to Crete and Rhodes, and as far north as Thessaly; their distribution closely covering that of the “Late Mycenaean” settlements, which are surely dated archaeologically to these generations, in Egypt, Cyprus and Palestine. (5) Whether the destruction of the “sixth city” resulted from an attack of this ‘““Achaean” confederacy of the south-west Aegean on the Hellespontine citade! of its Thraco-Phrygian cousins, or directly from those Danubian representatives of the “Lausitz” culture which characterizes the “seventh city,” and is recognizSee Homer, Jl. vil. 452 seq., XX. 215 seq., xxi. 446 seg.; Apollodorus ii. able as a disturbing factor in Macedonia also, later in the 12th 6, 4, iti. 12; Diodorus iv. 75, v. 48; Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 29, 72, century, cannot at present be determined; nor the value of the 1302; Conon, Narrat. 21; Dionysius Halicarn., Antig. Rom. i. 68 seq. synchronism between the attack on Troy and the great sea-andThe liad deals with a period of 5: days in the tenth year of the war: land-raids towards Egypt, of which the tale of Tithonus and the Odyssey with the wanderings and homecoming of an Achaean leader, Odysseus. For the wooden horse see Homer, Od. iv. 271 seq.; Memnon may preserve echoes. (6) Traditions of the establishVirgil, Aen. ii. 13 seq. ment of settlements, eventually Greek, round the margins of the Late Mycenaean world, are so numerous, and coherent both with The Historical Background of the Trojan War.—The “Tale of Troy,” with legends of heroes who “fought in the war,” Homeric and with archaeological evidence, that they may be acwas popular already when the Odyssey (see Homer) was com- cepted as an essentially historical counterpart of the situation posed; wherein, besides other allusions, minstrels sing Jays about described in the Odyssey; which, however, was transformed as it, and the Sirens boast that they “know it all.” From the profoundly by the “coming of the Dorians” as the Mycenaean 7th century B.c., at least, it supplied subjects to vase painters and world had been by the irruption of the “divine born” adventurers other craftsmen, and in the sth, to the sculptors of the Aegina five generations before. Between those two crises hes the ‘Heroic pediments (see GREEK SCULPTURE), and to Athenian dramatists. Age” of the Aegean; of its central episodes one is the struggle (See Drama: Greek.) Herodotus and Thucydides, like ancient between Argos and Thebes, ended by the tragic fall of the Cadwriters generally, accepted the Trojan war as historical, though meian dynasty; the other is the Trojan war, as disastrous to the (J. L. Mx.) they criticized epic statements in detail, and Herodotus noted victors as to the conquered. The Mediaeval Legend of Troy.—The mediaeval Roman de discrepancy between the Cypria and the Jiiad. Ephorus, and afterwards Strabo, marshalled geographical learning as com- Troie, exercised greater influence in its day and for centuries mentary on the Achaean and Trojan “catalogues” in J/. ii.; the after its appearance than any other work of the same class. Just scholars of Alexandria elucidated Homeric antiquities, those of as the chansons de geste of the roth century were the direct anPergamum their topographical and historical background; Deme- cestors of the prose romances which afterwards spread throughtrius of Scepsis in the Troad, misdoubted, on geological grounds, out Europe, so, even before Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius, there the reputed site of Troy. Traditional genealogies, collated by were quasi-histories, which reproduced in prose, with more or less Hecataeus (g.v.) and others, enabled Eratosthenes (g.v.) to date exactness, the narratives of epic poetry. The “Hpwzxés of Flavius the “Fall of Troy” to 1194 B.C., in the third generation before the Philostratus (jf. 3rd century A.D.) is a discourse on 26 heroes “coming of the Dorians” and in the second after Laomedon’s of the war. A fictitious journal (Ephemeris), professing to foundation. Homeric references to Egypt (where Thebes, not give the chief incidents of the siege, and said to have been Memphis, is the capital) and to Phoenicia (where Sidon is known, written by Dictys of Crete, a follower of Idomeneus, is mentioned but not Tyre) supply a historical background for the war, not by Suidas, and was largely used by John Malalas and other later than the 12th century; but the names of Egyptian kings Byzantine chroniclers. This was abridged in Latin prose, prob(Thés, Thuéris) in epic and classical tradition, are not identified: ably in the 4th century, under the title of Dictys Cretensis de Pliny (36-64) alludes to a Rameses “in whose time Troy fell.” bello Trojano libri VI, It is prefaced by an introductory letter Egyptian references, however, to repeated sea-raids into the from a certain L. Septimius to Q. Aradius Rufinus, in which it is Levant, between 1230 and 1190 8.c., depict a situation closely stated that the diary of Dictys had been found in his tomb at resembling Homeric descriptions; and the Aguaiusha (Akhay- Knossos in Crete, written in the Greek language, but in Phoenwasha), Danauna, Tikkara (Tzakarai) and probably other par- cian characters. The narrative begins with the rape of Helen, and ticipants in these raids may be safely recognized as Achaeans, includes the adventures of the Greek princes on the return voyDanaans, and Teucrians in Greek tradition. Hittite documents age. With Dictys is always associated Dares, a pseudo-historian confirm the existence of an oversea régime called Akkhayawa, of more recent date. Old Greek writers mention an account of the aggressive against south-west Asia Minor, one of whose leaders, destruction of the city earlier than the Homeric poems, and in the Attarissyas, active in Caria and north Syria about 1230, was a time of Aelian (2nd century A.D.) this Ziad of Dares, priest of contemporary, if not namesake, of Atreus, father of Agamemnon. Hephaestus at Troy, was believed to be still in existence. Nothing Consequently, roth century doubts as to the historical content has since been heard of it; but an unknown Latin writer, living of epic tradition, and attempts to discover “solar” and other between 400 and 600, took advantage of the tradition to compile mythological allegories in the personages and events of the war, Daretis Phrygii de excidio Trojae historia, which begins with the are being superseded by recognition of a social and political voyage of the Argo. It is in prose and professes to be translated régime historically assignable to the 13~12th centuries, of which from an old Greek manuscript. Of the two works that of Dares the following are turning-points: (1) The establishment of the is the later, and is inferior to Dictys. The matter-of-fact form of Trojans, with other Thraco-Phrygian peoples, in north-west Asia narration recalls the poem of Quintus Smyrnaeus. In both comMinor before 1260 B.C. fully justifying the defensive alliance pulations the gods and everything supernatural are suppressed ; between the Hittite king and Rameses II. in 1271 B.c. (2) The even the heroes are degraded. The permanent success, however, consolidation of a dominion, of which the “sixth city” at Hissarlik of the two works distinguishes them among apocryphal writings, was an important centre; the geographical range of Priam’s vas- and through them the Troy legend was diffused throughout westsals, from the Axius river to the Xanthus, and the memory of a ern Europe. The Byzantine writers, from the 7th to the 12th great fight “on the Sangarius river” far inland, are instructive. century, exalted Dictys as a first-class authority, with whom (3) The overthrow of Hittite dominion by this new régime, about Homer was only to be contrasted as an inventor of fables. West1200 B.C., followed by the land-and-sea-raids of 1197—94 as far ern people preferred Dares, because his history was shorter, and as south Palestine, where they were stopped by Rameses III. because, favouring the Trojans, he flattered the vanity of those (4) The counterparts, west of the Aegean, of the dynasty Lao- who believed that people to have been their ancestors. medon-Priam-Hector, are the “divine born” kingships (Pelops- mss. of both writers were contained in old libraries: and Many they Atreus-Agamemnon, Aeacus-Peleus-Achilles, and the like) estab- were translated into nearly every language and turned into verse. Tyndareus and wife of Menelaus, son of Atreus, and carried her to Troy. To recover Helen, the Achaeans under Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus, besieged Troy for ten years. In the tenth year Hector was killed by Achilles, and he by Paris. At last a wooden horse was contrived in whose hollow many Achaean heroes hid themselves. Their army and fleet then withdrew to Tenedos, feigning to have raised the siege. The Trojans conveyed the wooden horse into Troy; in the night the Greeks stole out, opened the gates to their friends, and Troy was taken. See also Homeric PorMs.

TROYES

505

In the case of both works, scholars were long undecided whether

errors

a Greek original ever existed but fragments of the Greek text of Dictys have been recovered. (See Dictys Cretensis.) The By-

Norman trouvère disappear in a dry version.

zantine grammarian, Joannes Tzetzes (jf. r2th century), wrote a Greek hexameter poem /iaca on the subject. In 1272, a monk of Corbie translated “sans rime L’Estoire de Troiens et de Troie (de Dares) du Latin en Roumans mot à mot” because the Roman de Troie was too long. Geoffrey of Waterford put Dares

manuscripts. In the 14th and the commencement of the rsth century four versions appeared in England and Scotland. The best known is the Troy Book, written between 1414 and 1420, of John Lydgate, who had both French and Latin texts before him.

into French prose; and the British Museum has three Welsh ms.

ms. Laud Misc. 595). There is the Gest Hystoriale of the Destruction of Troy (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1869-1874), written in

translations of the same author, of a much later period. For a thousand years the myth of descent from the dispersed

of the latter.

The vivacity and poetry of the AngloThe immense popu-

larity of Guido’s work is shown by the large number of existing

An earlier and anonymous rendering exists at Oxford (Bodleian

a northern dialect about 1390; a Scottish version (rsth century) heroes of the conquered Trojan race was a sacred literary tradi- by a certain Barbour, not the poet, John Barbour; and The tion throughout. western Europe. The first Franco-Latin chroni- Seege of Troy, a version of Dares (Harl. ms. s25 Brit. Mus.). clers traced their history to the same origin as that of Rome, as The invention of printing gave fresh impetus to the spread of told by the Latin poets of the Augustan era; and in the middle Guido’s work. The first book printed in English was The Reof the 7th century Fredegarius Scholasticus (Rer. gall. script. ii. cuyell of the Hystoryes of Troye, a translation by Caxton from 461) relates how one party of the Trojans settled between the the French of Raoul Lefèvre. BrptiocrapHy.—The Troy legend is dealt with in the elaborate work Rhine, the Danube and the sea. In a charter of Dagobert occurs the statement, “ex nobilissimo et antiquo Trojanorum reliquiarum of A. Joly, Benoit de Sainte-More et le Roman de Troie (1870-71); G. Körting, Der altfranz. Roman de Troie (1883); F. Settegast, Benott sanguine nati.” This statement is repeated by chroniclers and de Ste-More (Breslau, 1876); G. C. Frommann, Herbort v. Fritzlar 1¢. panegyrical writers, who also considered the History of Troy by Benoit de Ste-More (Stuttgart, 1837); R. Jackel, Dares Phrygius u. Dares to be the first of national books. Succeeding kings imi- Benoit de Ste-More (Breslau, 1875); Le Roman de Troie, ed. L. tated their predecessors in giving official sanction to their legend- Constans (Soc. d. anc. textes fr. Paris, 1904). ary origin; Charles the Bald, in a charter, uses almost the same TROYES, a town of France, capital of the department of words as Dagobert, “ex praeclaro et antiquo trojanorum san- Aube, 104 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway to Belfort. guine nati.” In England a similar tradition had been early Pop.’ (1926) 55,897. The town stands in the wide alluvial plain formulated, as appears from Nennius’s Historia Britonum and watered by the Seine, the main stream of which skirts it on the Geoffrey of Monmouth. The epic founder of Britain was Brutus, east. It is traversed by several small arms of the river, and the son, or in another tradition, great-grandson, of Aeneas, in any Canal de la Haute-Seine divides it into an upper town, on the case of the royal house of Troy. The tradition, repeated in left bank, and a lower town, on the right bank. The churches of Wace’s version of Geoffrey, by Matthew Paris and others, per- the town are numerous, and especially rich in stained glass of sisted to the time of Shakespeare. Brutus found Albion unin- the Renaissance period. St. Pierre, the cathedral, 13th to 16th

habited except by a few giants. He founded his capital on the banks of the Thames, and called it New Troy. Otto Frisingensis (12th century) and other German chroniclers repeat similar myths. About 1050 a monk named Bernard wrote De excidio Trojae, and in the middle of the rath century Simon Chévre d'Or, canon of the abbey of Saint-Victor, Paris, followed with another poem in leonine elegiac on the fall of the city and the adventures of Aeneas, in which the Homeric and Virgilian records were blended. About the year 1184 Benoit de Sainte-More (g¢.v.) composed a poem of 30,000 lines entitled Roman de Trote. He derived his information chiefly from the pseudo-annals of Dictys and Dares, but we may justly consider the Roman de Troie as an original work. From this source subsequent writers drew their notions of Troy, mostly without naming their authority and generally without even knowing his name. This is the masterpiece of the pseudoclassical cycle of romances: and in the Latin version of Guido delle Colonne it passed through every country of Europe. The De bello trojano of Joseph of Exeter, in six books, a genuine poem of no little merit, was written soon after Benoit’s work or about the years 1187~88. At first ascribed to Dares Phrygius and Cornelius Nepos, it was not published as Joseph’s until 1620, at Frankfurt. It was directly drawn from the pseudo-annalists, but the influence of Benoit was considerable. Of the same kind was the Troilus of Albert of Stade (1249), a version of Dares, in verse, characterized by the old severity and affected realism. But these Latin works can only be associated indirectly with Benoit, who had closer imitators in. Germany at an early period. Herbort of Fritzlar reproduced the French text in his Lied von Troye (early 13th century), as did also Konrad von Wiirzburg (d. 1287) in his Buch von Troye of 40,000 verses, which he himself compared to the “boundless ocean.” It was completed by an anonymous poet.

To the like source may be traced a poem of 30,000

verses on the same subject by Wolfram von Eschenbach; and Jacques van Maerlant reproduced Benoit’s narrative in Flemish. The Norse or Icelandic Trojumanna saga repeats the tale with some variations. In Italy, Guido delle Colonne, a Sicilian, began In 1270 and finished in 1287 a prose Historia trojana, in which he reproduced the Roman de Troie of Benoit, and so closely as to copy the

centuries, consists of an apse with seven apse chapels, a choir with double aisles, on the right of which are the treasury and sacristy, a transept without aisles, a nave with double aisles and side chapels and a vestibule. There are stained glass windows of the rtsth and 16th centuries. The treasury contains some fine enamel work and lace. The church of St. Urban has windows dating for the most part, from the years 1265-80. Most of the old houses of Troyes are of wood, but some are of stone of the r6th

century, notably the hotels de Vauluisant, de Mauroy and de Marisy. The prefecture occupies the buildings of the old abbey of Notre-Dame-aux-Nonnains; the dzel-de-ville dates from the ryth century. Troyes is the seat of a bishop and a court of assize. Its public institutions include a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators and a chamber of commerce. It has a school of hosiery, The dominant industry in Troyes is the manufacture of cotton, woollen and silk hosiery, printing and dyeing of fabrics. History.—At the beginning of the Roman period Troyes was the principal settlement of the Trecassi, from whom it derives its name. In the first half of the 4th century its bishopric was created as a suffragan of Sens. St. Loup, the most illustrious bishop of Troyes, occupied the episcopal seat from 426 to 479. In the early middle ages the bishops were supreme in Troyes, but in the roth century this supremacy was transferred to the counts of Troyes (see below), who from the r1th century were known as the counts of Champagne. Under their rule the city attained great prosperity. Its fairs, which had already made it a prominent commercial centre, flourished under their patronage, while the canals constructed at their expense aided its industrial development. The union of Champagne with the domains of the king of France in 1304 was disastrous to the city, since one of the first measures of Louis le Hutin was to forbid the Flemish merchants to attend its fairs. For a short time (1419-25), during the Hundred Years’ War, the town was the seat of the royal Government, and in 1420 the signing of the Treaty of Troyes was followed by the marriage of Henry V. of England with Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. in the church of St. Jean. In 1429 the town capitulated to Joan of Arc. The next 100 years was a period of prosperity, marred by the destruction of half the town by the fire of 1524. In the 16th

TROYON—TRUCE

506

century Protestantism made some progress in Troyes, but in 1562, after a short occupation, the Calvinist troops were forced to retire, and in 1572 fifty Protestants were put to death. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 was a severe blow to the commerce of Troyes, which was not revived by the re-establishment of the former fairs in 1697. The population fell from 40,000 to 24,000 between the beginning of the 16th century and that of the roth century. See T. Boutiot, Histoire de Troyes et de la Champagne méridionale

(4 vols. Troyes, 1870-80) ; R. Koechlin and J. J. Marquet de Vasselot,

La Sculpture ù Troyes et dans la Champagne méridionale au seizième sècle (1900).

TROYON, CONSTANT

(1810-1865), French painter, was

born on Aug. 28, 1810, at Sèvres, near Paris, where his father was connected with the porcelain factory. Troyon was an animal painter of the frst rank, and was closely associated with the artists who painted around Barbizon. Until he was twenty he laboured assiduously at the minute details of porcelain ornamentation. By the time he reached twenty-one he was travelling the country as an artist, and painting landscapes. Troyon was a favourite with Roqueplan, and became one of his pupils. Roqueplan introduced Troyon to Rousseau, Jules Dupré, and the other Barbizon painters. In 1846 Troyon went to the Hague, and saw Paul Potter's famous “Young Bull.” From the studies he made of this picture, of Cuyp’s sunny landscapes, and Rembrandt’s masterpieces he evolved a new method of painting, and it is‘only in works produced after this time that Troyon’s true individuality is revealed. Troyon died at Paris on Feb. 21, 1865. All his famous pictures are of date between 1850 and 1864. In the Wallace Gallery in London are “Watering Cattle” and “Cattle in Stormy Weather’; in the Glasgow Corporation Gallery is a “Landscape with Cattle’; the Louvre contains his famous “Oxen Going to Their Work” and “Returning to the Farm”; while the Metropolitan Museum of Art and other galleries in America, contain fine examples. His ‘Vallée de la Toucque, Normandy,” is

OF GOD

the regular clergy, particularly the vigorous congregation of Cluny,

and of William V. of Aquitaine, the most powerful lord of southern France, who urged its adoption at the councils of Limoges

(994) and Poitiers (999). The peace decrees of these various synods differed considerably in detail, but in general they forbade, under pain of excommunication, every act of private warfare or

violence against ecclesiastical buildings and their environs, and against certain persons, such as clerics, pilgrims, merchants, women and peasants, and against cattle and agricultural implements. With the opening of the 11th century, the pax ecclesiae spread

over northern France and Burgundy, and diocesan leagues began to be organized for its maintenance. The bishop, or count, on whose lands the peace was violated was vested with judicial power, and was directed, in case he was himself unable to execute sentence, to summon to his assistance the laymen and even the clerics of the diocese, all of whom were required to take a solemn oath to observe and enforce the peace. At the council of Bourges (1038), the archbishop decreed that every Christian 15 years and over should take such an oath and enter the diocesan militia. The

idea that peace is a divine institution seems to have given rise to a new name for the peace, the pax Dei, or peace of God. The treuga or treva Dei, the prohibition of every act of private warfare during certain days, goes back at least to the Synod of Elne (1027) which suspended all warfare from noon on Saturday till prime on Monday. Like the pax ecclesiae it found ardent champions in the regular clergy, especially in Odilo (962-1049), the fifth abbot of Cluny, and soon spread over all France. It penetrated Piedmont and Lombardy in 1041r and Normandy in 1042. By this time the truce extended from the Wednesday evening to the Monday morning in every week and also, in most places, lasted during the seasons of Lent and Advent, the three great vigils and feasts of the Blessed Virgin, and those of the 12 apostles and a few other saints. The treuga Det was decreed for

Flanders at the Synod of Thérouanne (1063) and was instituted in southern Italy in 1089, probably through Norman influence. one of his greatest pictures. Emile van Marcke (1827—1891) was The bishop of Liége introduced it in Germany in 1082, and three his best-known pupil. years later a synod held at Mainz in the presence of the emperor See H. Dumesnil, Constant Troyon: Souvenirs intimes (Paris, 1888) ; Henry IV. extended it to the whole empire. It did not extend to A. Huntin, “Troyon” (1893); D. C. Thomson, The Barbizon School of oe (London, 1890) ; W. Gensel, Corot und Troyon (Leipzig, England, where the strength of the monarchy made it unnecessary. The popes took its direction into their own hands towards 1906). the end of the r1th century; and the first decree of the Council TRUBNER, WILHELM (1851-1917), German painter, of Clermont (1095), at which Urban IT. preached the first cruwas born at Heidelberg on Feb. 3, 1851. He studied at Karls- sade, proclaimed a weekly truce for all Christendom, adding a ruhe, Stuttgart and afterwards with Diez at Munich, where he guarantee of safety to all who might take refuge at a wayside came under the influence of Leibl and the impressionist group. cross or at the plough. The Truce of God was reaffirmed by many He did not, however, join this or any other group, but went councils, such as that held at Reims by Calixtus IT. in r119, and his own independent way, although he too aimed at achieving the the Lateran councils of 1123, 1139 and 1179. When the treuga effect of light and air in his painting, and worked with broad Dei reached its most extended form, scarcely one-fourth of the strokes of the brush. For some years he made Munich his home. year remained for fighting, and even then the older canons relating In 1896 he settled in Frankfurt and in 1903 was made professor to the pax ecclesiae remained in force. The means employed for at the Karlsruhe academy. He died at Karlsruhe on Dec. 21, its enforcement remained practically the same: spiritual penalties, 1917. Tribner’s colour was always warm and rich, but from such as excommunication, special ecclesiastical tribunals, sworn the Frankfurt period onward he adopted a more restricted scheme leagues of peace, and assistance from the temporal power. The and relied on strong contrasts in place of the tender intermediate Council of Clermont prescribed that the oath of adherence to the tones of his earlier days. He had an admirable sense of values truce be taken every three years by all men above the age of 12, and his landscapes are sometimes built up almost in the manner whether noble, burgess, villein or serf. The results of these peace of Cézanne. His portraits were also particularly successful. efforts were perhaps surprisingly mediocre, but it must be borne in His landscapes include the series of Heidelberg landscapes (1889) mind that not only was the military organization of the dioceses with the “View from the Castle’ (Darmstadt); those painted at Chiemsee, and the later series at Amorbach and the Neuburg (1913). always very imperfect, but Continental feudalism, so long as it Among his portraits are those of the artist Schuch (Berlin), of his retained political power, was inherently hostile to the principle son in armour, and of the “Boy with Mastiff” (Diisseldorf). and practice of private peace. The Truce of God was most poweroe Fritz Knapp, Kiinstlerische Kultur des Abendlandes III., pp. 330

EL

Seg.

TRUCE OF GOD, an attempt of the Church in the middle ages to alleviate the evils of private warfare. The two measures which were adopted by the Church to remedy this evil—the pax ecclesiae or Dei and the treuga or treva Dei—are usually both referred to as the Truce of God, but they are distinct in character.

The latter was a development of the former.

The pax ecclesiae is first heard of in the year ggo‘at three synods held in different parts of southern and central France—at Charroux, Narbonne and Puy. It enlisted the immediate support of

ful in the r2th century, but with the 13th its influence waned as

the kings gradually gained contro! over the nobles and substituted the king’s peace for that of the Church. See Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. Treuga; A. Kluckhohn, Geschichte des Gottesfriedens (Leipzig, 1857); J. Fehr, Der Gottesfriede und die katholische Kirche des Mittelalters (Augsburg, 1861) ; E. Sémichon, La Paix et la trève de Dieu (2nd ed. 1869); L. Huberti, Studien sur Rechtsgeschichte des Gottesfrieden und Landfrieden, Bd. i. Die Friedens-Ordnungen in Frankreich (Ansbach, 1892); E. Mayer, Deutsche und franzdsische Verfassungsgeschichte (1899), vol. i.; A. Luchaire, “La Paix et la tréve de Dieu,” in E. Lavisse’s Histoire de France, Il. 2, pp. 133-138 (19072). (C. A. H.)

TRUCK SYSTEM—TRUJILLO TRUCK SYSTEM. The payment of the wages of workmen in Rind, or in any other way than the unconditional payment of money, a practice known as the “truck system.” Sometimes the workman was paid with “portion of that which he has helped to produce,” but the more usual form was to give the workman the whole or part of his wages in the shape of commodities suited to his needs. There was also a practice of paying in money, but with an express or tacit understanding that the workman should resort for such goods as he required to shops or stores kept by his employer. The truck system led in many cases to grave abuses and was made illegal in Great Britain by the Truck Acts, under which wages must be paid in current coin of the realm, without any stipulations as to the manner in which the same shall be expended. (See LABOUR LEGISLATION.)

TRUFFLE, the name of several kinds of subterranean fungi

of the family Ascomycetes. (See Funct.) Truffles have been famous for their esculent qualities from classical times. Several were recognized by the ancient Greeks and Romans; Theo-

phrastus (c. 300 B.C.) gives one of them a name which apparently refers to a common belief that truffles were produced by thunder. Pliny thought that they were amongst the most wonderful of all things in springing up and living without a root. There are numerous references to truffles in classical writings and Coelius

Apicius gives six recipes for cooking them. The subterranean Ascomycetes are usually placed in two main groups, the Tuberales and the Plectascales, depending upon the possession of fruit-bodies with or without an opening to the exterior during development. The suggestion is that these have arisen along parallel lines. A point of interest is that we also have subterranean forms of similar external appearance in Phycomycetes and Basidiomycetes. The best-known genus of the Tuberales is Tuber, which is mainly native to temperate regions. The different species range in size from that of a pea to that of an orange. A section of a young specimen shows a whitish homogeneous flesh which, as maturity is approached, becomes a rich dark colour showing a lighter “marbling.” Microscopical examination reveals that the trama plates bearing the hymenium are thrown into elaborate folds (venae internae) whereas other plates of tissue which are light-coloured, sterile and joined either directly or indirectly to the exterior run between them (venae externae). This complicated arrangement is reached by a series of advances which may be traced in the allied genera. The spores of Tuber are large and are usually not more than four in an ascus; in the same fruit-body a range from one to four may usually be seen. These were the first ascospores to be observed; Tournefort described them in 1710-11 and Micheli figured them in 1729. It was a common belief that they became truffles merely by enlargement, though fermentation of the earth, exudations of branches and leaves, excretion of roots, gall production by insects were frequently regarded as reasonable explanations of their formation. Truffles principally occur in open woodland on calcareous soil, being rare in or absent from sandy soil and pastures. They are usually associated with the roots of trees and are possibly mycorrhizal fungi. The most valued truffle in French cookery is the Périgord truffle (T. melanosporum) which is said to have first gained favour towards the end of the rsth century. It is brownish black, roundish and covered with polygonal warts having a depression at their summit; the flesh (gleba) is first white, then brownish grey, and when mature becomes violaceous black, with white veins having a brown margin. The odour is well-marked and not un-

pleasant.

The main French truffiéres are in Périgord and the

Department of Vaucluse, though truffles are gathered throughout a large part of France. The truffle industry is an important one and about one-third of the gatherings are now exported; foreign trade began seriously about a century ago and before the World War reached to as much as £3,000,000 annually. As the truffles often occur at the depth of a foot it is difficult to detect them unaided. Truffles, when occurring near the surface of the ground,

597

live on truffles and in the morning and evening columns of small yellow flies (Helomiza lineata, etc.) may be seen hovering over the place where truffles are present. Occasionally man is sufficiently “susceptible” to the scent of truffles to be able to locate them. Several kinds of animals, however, recognize the scent without difficulty. Truffle hunting is therefore carried on with their aid; pigs and dogs being generally used, though goats are said to be so trained in Sardinia. The truffle industry has proved so profitable in France that the government has taken in hand the reforesting of many large and barren areas, for many of the best truffle regions have become productive by the private planting of the appropriate trees. These are oaks (Quercus coccifera, O. Ilex with admixture of OQ. robur, Q. sessiliflora and hazel); “si voulez des truffes, semez des glands” is an adage which has been handed on for generations.

Direct attempts at cultivation have so far proved unsatisfactory. Calcareous ground is dug over and acorns or seedlings planted. Soil from truffle areas is usually spread about and the ground is kept in condition by light ploughing and harrowing. After three years clearings are made and the trees are pruned. Truffles if they are to appear do so only after five years or so; gathering begins then but it hardly pays until after from eight to ten years. The yield is at its maximum from five to twenty-five years later. Tuber melanosporum has not been recorded for England. The English truffle is T. aestivum which is found principally in beech woods. It is bluish black, roundish and covered with coarse polygonal warts; the gleba is white when immature, then ochraceous and finally brownish with whitish, branched, labyrinthine markings. It was formerly hunted on the south downs by the aid of mongrel terriers and was sold in Covent Garden. (J. Rm.)

TRUJILLO or TRUXILLO, a seaport on the Atlantic coast

of Honduras, in 15° 54’ N. and 86° 5’ W.

Pop. (1925) about

2,000. The harbour, an inlet of the Bay of Honduras, is sheltered on the north by the promontory of Cape Honduras; it is deep and spacious, but insecure in westerly winds. Mahogany, dyewoods, sarsaparilla, cattle, hides and fruit are exported; grain, flour, hardware and rum are imported. Trujillo was founded in 1524, and became one of the most prosperous ports of the new world, and the headquarters of a Spanish naval squadron. During the ryth century it was frequently and successfully raided by buccaneers, and thus lost much of its commerce, which still more, in modern times, has been diverted to Puerto Cortés and to Puerto Castilla, across the bay.

TRUJILLO, the capital and prefectural seat of the Department of La Libertad, in Peru, lies in lat. 8° 7’ S. and long. 79° 9’ ' W., some 300 miles up the coast and north of Lima, the capital. It is the second city in Peru in point of age, having been founded by Pizarro and his followers in the year 1537; and the third city in point of population, having approximately 40,000 inhabitants and only exceeded by Lima and Arequipa. It is 8 m. by rail from Salaverry, its port on the Pacific ocean, and 4 m. from the coast at its nearest point. Trujillo serves the important mining region of Quiruvilca (copper) and Milluachaqui (gold and silver) which is now being exploited by the Northern Peru Mining and Smelting Company, a subsidiary of the American Smelting and Refining Company of New York, and growing quantities of bar-copper, gold and silver ores, concentrates and precipitates are being shipped. It also serves two agricultural districts, that of the Valley of the River Moche and of the Valley of the Chicama, the last named being probably the most important sugar-cane growing district of Peru Much of the traffic that formerly passed through Trujillo from the Chicama valley is now being diverted to the port of Malabrigo or, as it is now called, Puerto Chicama. Though lying in the tropics, geographically, the climate is distinctly temperate due to the Humbolt current that sweeps up the

west coast of South America from the Antarctic ocean to Punta

Parifia, Peru, where it flows out to sea, the average temperature of this current being about 60° F. An extended observation of meteorological conditions at Trujillo shows a maximum temcrack it as they reach full size and experienced gatherers are perature of 85° F and a minimum of s5°, the mean variation thereby enabled to locate them. Further, many species of fly between diurnal and nocturnal extremes being 10 degrees. The

TRUJILLO—TRUMBULL

508

region is practically rainless and agriculture is carried on by irrigation from rains high up in the Andes which closely hug the coastline. Light rains occur at cycles of seven years and of greater importance at cycles of 31 years. One such period occurred in March 1925, when, between March 7 and the end of that month 15-5 in. of rain fell, ten times more than the total rainfall for the seven year period 1918-24 inclusive. These rains caused great damage to Trujillo and neighbouring towns and many houses were demolished and many people left homeless in a country where no provision for protection against rain exists. Trujillo is served by a narrow-gauge railway line that connects it with its port—Salaverry—with a branch to Menocucho in the Moche valley, and a line to Ascope in the Chicama valley. The city is the centre of a very rich and exceedingly interesting region from an anthropological and archaeological point of view; the ruined and deserted pre-Inca city, Chan-Chan, the capital of a civilization known variously as the Chimu, Mochica or Yunga, lies close by, and the Chicama valley, the lower Moche valley and the Valley of the River Viru are rich in remains of civilizations believed even to antedate that of the Yungas. Trujillo is approximately 22 hr. by steamer from Callao, thePor oo a . Ho.

TRUJILLO,

a town of Spain, in the province of Caceres;

on a hill 25 m. east of Cáceres, and on the Tozo river, a subtributary of the Tagus. Pop. (1920), 11,476. Trujillo was a town of importance in the middle ages. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was born here about 1471, and his palace still stands. In the oldest part of Trujillo are the remains of a castle said to be of Roman origin. The Julia tower is also said to be Roman. The Roman name for the town was Turgalium.

TRUMAIAN, a small group of tribes of South American Indians, constituting an independent linguistic stock. The Trumai live on the headwaters of the Xingu river in the State of Matto Grosso, Brazil. See K. von den Steinen, Durch Zentral Brasilien (Leipzig, 1886) and Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral Brasilien (Berlin, 1894).

TRUMBIĆ, ANTE (1863-

), Yugoslav statesman, was

born at Split. He became successively mayor of Split, and deputy for the city in the Dalmatian Diet, and after 1907 deputy in the Austrian Parliament. In 1tg05 he and his fellow Dalma-

tians, Pero Cingrija, Smodlaka and Supilo, as delegates of the Croat National party, worked for the renewed co-operation between Serb and Croat, which culminated in the resolutions of Fiume and Zara in tgo5, and in the parallel negotiations with the Magyar coalition parties. The programme of reform in Croatia, which was the basis of the agreement with Hungary, was soon frustrated by the intransigent attitude of the Wekerle Government. The Dalmatian Croats, notably Trumbić and Supilo, consistently endeavoured to improve their relations with the Italians and to combat the constant efforts of Vienna to set the two races at variance.

On the eve of the World War Trumbié crossed the frontier to Venice, where he was joined by Supilo and several other Croat and Serb leaders. The first winter of the war he spent in Rome,

hoping to win Italian official support. But Sonnino’s anti-Slav policy and the secret agreement concluded between Italy and the Entente at the expense of the Yugoslavs in the spring of 1915, forced him to transfer his centre of operations to France and England. The Yugoslav committee, of which Trumbić was president, was formally constituted in May rọr5 in London. In the summer of 1917 he and others negotiated with the exiled Serbian government in Corfu and representatives of all the Serbian parties, the so-called “Declaration of Corfu,” which provided the basis for a united Yugoslav State. Trumbié met representative Italians in Dec. 1917 and March 1918, and shared in the arrangements for the congress of oppressed nationalities, held in Rome in April. In Oct. 1918 Trumbić was appointed foreign minister in the Yugoslav provisional government and

peace delegate in conjunction with PaSic and Vesnić. He was unable to win support for Yugoslav claims from the Entente,

which

considered

itself

still bound

to Italy by

the

secret

Treaty of London. The Yugoslavs were obliged to come to a direct agreement with Italy, and the Treaty of Rapallo was signed in Nov. 1920. Trumbi¢’s long absence in Paris, coupled with the policy of abstention pursued by the Croat Peasant party under Radić, placed him at a fatal disadvantage when the question of the new constitution came up in 1921. Trumbi¢ voted in the minority and thereafter drifted steadily into stronger opposition to the new régime in Yugoslavia. His group formed part of the coalition “bloc” which was in power from July to Oct. 1924, and for a time he effected a working alliance with Radié and committed himself to federalism and even republicanism. The sudden volte face of Radié after the elections of 1925 left Trumbić somewhat isolated, as the leader of the newly constituted “Croat Federalist Peasant party.”

TRUMBULL,

JOHN

(1750-1831), American

poet, was

born in what is now Watertown, Conn., where his father was a Congregational preacher, on April 24, 1750. At the age of seven he passed his entrance examinations at Yale, but did not enter until 1763; he graduated in 1767, remained at the college studying, and in 1771-73 was a tutor. He spent a year in Boston in the office of John Adams, and after 1774 practised law in Connecticut. He was State’s Attorney in 1789, a member of the Connecticut assembly in 1792 and 1800, a judge of the superior court in 1801~19, and finally a judge in the supreme court of errors. The last six years of his life were spent in Detroit, Mich., where he died on May 10, 1831. While studying at Yale he had contributed in 1769—70 ten essays, called “The Meddler,” imitating The Spectator, to the Boston ‘Chronicle, and in 1770 similar essays, signed “The Correspondent” to the Connecticut Journal and New Haven Post Boy. While a tutor he wrote his first satire in verse, The Progress of Dulness (1772~73), an attack in three poems on educational methods of his time. His great poem, which ranks him with Philip Freneau and Francis Hopkinson as an American political satirist of the period of the Revolutionary War, was M’Fingal, of which the first canto, “The Town Meet-

ing,” appeared in 1776 (dated 1775). This canto, about 1,500 lines, contains some verses from “Gage’s Proclamation,” published in the Connecticut Courant for Aug. 1775; it portrays a Scotch Loyalist, M’Fingal, and his Whig opponent, Honorius, apparently a portrait of John Adams.

This first canto was divided into two,

and with a third and a fourth canto was published in 1782. After the war Trumbull was a rigid Federalist, and with the ‘Hartford Wits,” David Humphreys, Joel Barlow and Lemuel Hopkins, wrote the Anarchiad, a poem directed against the enemies of a firm central government. See the memoir in the Hartford edition of Trumbull’s Poetical Works (1820) ; J. H. Trumbull, Tke Origin of “McFingal” (Morrisania, New York, 1868); and the estimate in M. C. Tyler’s Literary History of the American Revolution (New York, 1897).

TRUMBULL,

JOHN

(1756-1843), American artist, was

born at Lebanon (Conn.), on June 6, 1756, the son of Jonathan Trumbull (1710~1785), governor of Connecticut. He graduated at Harvard in 1773, served in the War of Independence, rendering a particular service at Boston by sketching plans of the British works, and was appointed second aide-de-camp to Gen. Washington and in June 1776, deputy adjutant general to Gen. Gates, but resigned from the army in 1777. In 1780 he went to London to study under Benjamin West, but his work had hardly begun when

the news of the arrest and execution of Major André, who was deputy adjutant general in the English army, suggested the arrest of Trumbull as having been an officer of similar rank in the Continental army; he was imprisoned for seven months. In 1784 he was again in London working under West, in whosé studio he painted his “Battle of Bunker Hill” and “Death of es both of which are in the Vale School of Fine rts.

In 1785 Trumbull went to Paris, where he made portrait sketches of French officers for “The Surrender of Cornwallis,” and began, with the assistance of Jefferson, “The Signing of the Declaration of Independence,” well-known from the engraving by Asher B. Durand. These paintings, with “The Surrender of

TRUMBULL—-TRUMPET Burgoyne” and “The Resignation of Washington,” were bought

999

by the United States Government and placed in the Capitol at Washington. Trumbull’s “Sortie from Gibraltar” (1787), owned

most beloved of cricketers. Perhaps the best tribute to his greatness is that every new batsman of high promise in Australia is hailed as “a second Trumper.”

by the Boston Athenaeum, is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and a series of historical paintings, the “Trumbull Gallery,”

See M. A. Noble, The Game’s the Thing (London 1926); Scores and Biographies, vol. xv. (1925).

by far the largest single collection of his works

(more than 5o

pictures), has been in the possession of Vale college since 1831, when Trumbull received from the college an annuity of $1,000. His portraits include full lengths of Gen. Washington

(1790)

and George Clinton (1791), in the City Hall of New York— where there are also full lengths of Hamilton and of Jay; and portraits of John Adams (1797), Jonathan Trumbull, and Rufus King (1800); of Timothy Dwight and Stephen Van Rensselaer, both at Yale; of Alexander Hamilton (in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city, and in the Boston Museum of

Fine Arts, both taken from Ceracchi’s bust); a portrait of himself painted in 1833; a full length of Washington, at Charleston,

South Carolina; a full length of Washington in military costume (1792), now at Yale; and portraits of President and Mrs. Washington (1794), in the National Museum at Washington. Trumbull’s own portrait was painted by Stuart and by many others. He died in New York on Nov. 10, 1843. See his Sketch of and John pt. 2, pp.

Autobiography (1841); J. F. Weir, John Trumbull, A brief His Life, to which is added a Catalogue of his Works (1901) : Durand, “John Trumbull,” American Art Review, vol. ii, 181-191 (Boston, 1881).

TRUMBULL,

JONATHAN

(1710-1785), American po-

litical leader, was born at Lebanon (Conn.), on Oct. 12, 1710. He graduated at Harvard in 1727, and began the study of theology, but in 1731 engaged in business with his father. He next studied law, was elected to the assembly in 1773, and held public office almost continuously afterward. He served for seven years in the assembly, being speaker for three years; for 17 years as county judge of Windham county, for 22 years (after 1740) as governor’s assistant, for two years as deputy-governor (1767—69), and for three years (1766-69) as chief justice of the colony. In 1769 he was elected governor and continued in office until his voluntary retirement in 1784. During the War of Independence he was a valued counsellor of Washington. The story that the term “Brother Jonathan,” a sobriquet for the United States, originated in Washington’s familiar form of addressing him seems to be without any foundation. After the war Trumbull was a strong Federalist. He died in Lebanon on Aug. 17, 1785. His public papers have been printed in the Massachusetts Historical Society’s Collections, 5th series, vols. ix., x. (Boston, 1885-88), and yth series, vols. ii., iii. (1902). See I. W. Stuart, Life of Jonathan Trumbull, sen. (Boston, 1859).

TRUMPER,

VICTOR

(1877-1915), Australian cricketer,

was born at Sydney, N.S.W., on Nov. 2, 1877, and died there of Bright’s disease on June 28, 1915. His first appearance against England was in a second-class match against Stoddart’s team in 1894~95. In 20 seasons of first-class cricket, 1894-1914, he made 17,000 runs for an average of 45. His first visit to England, in 1899, was moderately successful; his next, in 1902, was a triumphal progress. “From start to finish of the season, on every sort of wicket, against every type of bowling, Trumper entranced the eye, inspired his side, demoralized his enemies, and made run-getting appear the easiest thing in the world” (H. S. Altham, History of Cricket). It was apparent at once that there had arisen a batsman of a class apart, whose supremacy, even in that golden age of batting, was comparable to that of “W.G.” He came again in 1905, and 1910; in all he made six centuries for Australia against England, and his first wicket partnerships with R. A. Duff were long a thorn in England’s side. Trumper was also a fine out-field, and could bowl fast for a short time. Trumper’s batting was of that supreme type which defies description. The only adequate idea of his style is to be derived from a wonderful series of photographs in Beldam and Fry’s Great Batsmen (1905). With his accurate timing and placing, and his speed on his feet, he had all bowlers at his mercy. “No one ever played so naturally,” Warner has said of him, “batting was just part of himself,” He had a charming personality and was the

TRUMPET,

and Australia,

in music, a brass wind instrument with cup-

shaped mouthpiece and a very characteristic tone. It consists of a brass or silver tube with a narrow cylindrical bore except for the bell joint, forming from 4 to + of the whole length, which is conical and terminates in a bell of moderate diameter. The tube of the trumpet is doubled round upon itself to form a long irregular rectangle with rounded corners. A. tuning slide consisting of two U-shaped cylindrical tubes fitting into each other is interpolated between the bell joint and the AT long cylindrical joint to which the mouthRDI } piece is attached. } The mouthpiece consists of a hemispherical cup with a rim across which the lips stretch. The shape of the cup, and more especially of the bottom, in which is pierced a hole communicating with the main bore, is of the greatest importance on account of its influence on the tone quality and on the production of the higher harmonics. It is recognized that the shallower and smaller the cup the more easily are BYcourtesy OF Boosey & Co, the higher harmonics produced; the sharper aia

cI

La

THE TRUMPET, sHowing the angle at the bottom of the cup the THE

MODERN

Form More brilliant and incisive is the timbre,

EQUIPPED WITH VALVES given, of course, the correct style of blowing. The diameter of the cup varies according to the pitch and to the lip-power of the player who chooses a cup to suit him. There are three principal kinds of trumpets: (1) the natural trumpet, mainly used in cavalry regiments, in which the length of the tube and pitch are varied by means of crooks; (2) the slide and double-slide trumpets, in which a chromatic compass is obtained, as in the trombone, by double tubes sliding upon one another without loss of air; (3) the valve trumpet, similar in its working to all other valve instruments. The first and second of these alone give the true trumpet timbre. The tone of the valve trumpet approximates to that of the cornet; nevertheless, it is now almost universally used. In the trumpet the notes of the harmonic series from the 3rd to the roth or 16th upper partials are produced by the varied tension of the lips and pressure of breath called overblowing. The fundamental and the second harmonic are rarely obtainable, and are therefore left out of consideration; the next octave from the 4th to the 8th harmonics contains only the 3rd, 5th and minor “th, and is therefore mainly suitable for fanfare figures based on the common chord. The diatonic octave is ‘the highest and its upper notes are only reached by very good players on trumpets of medium pitch. The lituus (g.v.) or cavalry trumpet of the Romans seems to have vanished with the fall of the Roman empire. Its successor, the cavalry trumpet

of the rsth and succeeding centuries, was

evolved from the straight busine, an instrument traced, by means of its name no less than by the delicate proportions of its tube and the shape of the bell, to the Roman buccina (q.v.). The bending of the tube of the trumpet in three parallel branches, thus creating its modern form, has usually been claimed for a Frenchman named Maurin (1498-1515). But the transformation was really made much earlier, probably in the Low Countries or north Italy; in any case it had already been accomplished in the bas-reliefs of Luca della Robbia intended to ornament the organ chamber of the cathedral of Florence where a trumpet having the tube bent back as just described is very distinctly figured. And this shape the instrument retained for more than 306 years. Later crooks and slides were introduced, then keys, and finally

TRUMPETER—TRUST

510

in 1815, Stölzel made the first completely satisfactory chromatic trumpet by tHe invention of the ventil or piston. (See MOUTHPIECE; VALVE; and WIND INSTRUMENTS.) TRUMPETER or TRUMPET-BIRD, a South American bird of the Psophiidae family, so called from the sound it utters. The family contains the single genus Psophia with half-adozen species, differing in little but colour and size. The range of several species seems to be separated by rivers (Wallace, Geogr. Distr. Animals) and in this connexion it may be observed that the birds seldom fly, though they run very fast. The best known species, P. crepitans, inhabits Guiana and is about the size of a large barn-door fowl, but with longer legs and neck. The plumage is black with the exception of the green and violet reflections on the tips of the neck-feathers and a brown and grey patch on the back. The legs are bright green and the bird lays white eggs, about the size of a bantam’s egg. Although the trumpeters must undoubtedly be accorded the rank of a distinct family, Psophiidae, like so many other South American birds they seem to be the less specialized descendants of an ancient generalized group—perhaps the common ancestors of the Rallidae and Gruidae. The structure of the trachea, though different from that described in any Crane (g.v.), suggests an early form of the structure which in some of the Gruidae is so marvellously developed, for in Psophia the windpipe runs down the breast and belly immediately under the skin to within about an inch of the anus, whence it returns in a similar way to the front of the sternum, and then enters the thorax. Analogous instances of this formation occur in several other groups of birds not at all allied to the Psophitdae.

TRUNK

(Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed), properly

the main stem of a tree from which the branches spring, especially the stem when stripped of the branches; hence, in a transferred sense, the main part of a human or animal body without the head, arms or legs. It is from this last sense that the term “trunk-hose” is derived. These were part of the typical male costume of the 16th century, consisting of a pair of large puffed and slashed over-hose, reaching from the waist to the middle of the thigh, the legs clad in the long hose being thrust through them; the upper part of the body was covered by the jerkin or jacket reaching to the thigh (see Costume). The word “trunk” as applied to the elongated proboscis of the elephant is due to a mistaken confusion of French trompe, trump, with “trunk,” meaning the hollow stem of a tree. A somewhat obscure meaning of French tronc, i.e., an alms-box, has given rise to the general use of “trunk” for a form of travellers’ luggage.

TRURO,

THOMAS

WILDE,

ist Baron

(1782-1855),

lord chancellor of England, was born in London on the 7th of July 1782, being the second son of Thomas Wilde, an attorney. He was educated at St. Paul’s School and was admitted an attorney In 1805. He subsequently entered the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in 1817, having practised for two years before as a special pleader. Retained for the defence of Queen Caroline in 1820 he distinguished himself by his cross-examination and laid the foundation of an extensive common law practice. He first entered parliament in the Whig interest as member for Newark (1831-1832 and 1835-1841), afterwards representing Worcester (1841-1846). He was appointed solicitor-general in 1839, and became attorney-general in succession to Sir John

(afterwards Baron) Campbell in 1841. In 1846 he was appointed chief justice of the common pleas, an office he held until 1850, when he became lord chancellor, and was created Baron Truro of Bowes, Middlesex. He held this latter office until the fall of the ministry in 1852. He died in London on the rrth of November

1855. His son Charles (1816-1891) succeeded as 2nd baron, but on the death of his nephew the 3rd baron in 1899 the title became extinct. Lord Truro was the uncle of James PLaistED WILDE, BARON PENZANCE (1816-1899), who was appointed a baron of the court of exchequer in 1860, and was judge of the court of probate and divorce from 1863 to 1872. In 1875 he was appointed dean of the court of arches, retiring in 1899. He was created a peer in 1869, but died without issue, and the title became extinct. à

TRURO, an episcopal city and municipal borough of Cornwall, England, 113 m. N. of Falmouth, on the G.W.R. Pop. (1931) 11,074. It lies in a shallow valley at the junction of the Kenwyn and Allen at the head of Falmouth harbour. Truro (Trueret, Treurok, Treueru) was a comparatively small manor in Domes-

day held by Jovin of Count Robert of Mortain.

Its municipal

charter dates from Richard Lucy the chief justiciar who held the demesne lands. Reginald earl of Cornwall, by an undated charter, added other privileges. Henry II. confirmed them. A new charter was given in 1589. From 1295 to 1885 Truro had separate parliamentary representation, returning two members. The cathedral church of St. Mary was begun in Early English style in 1880, The episcopal see, founded in 1876, covers the former archdeaconry of Cornwall in the diocese of Exeter; the area including the whole of the county of Cornwall, with a small portion of Devonshire. There are tin-smelting works and potteries. Small vessels can lie at the quays, though the harbour is dry at low water. China clay is the chief export.

TRURO, the chief town of Colchester county, Nova Scotia, on the Salmon river, near the head of Cobequid Bay, 61 m. from Halifax by rail. Pop. (1931), 7,901. It is an important junction on the Canadian National and Dominion Atlantic railways, and the thriving centre of a lumbering and agricultural district.

TRUSS, in engineering and architecture, a combination

of

structural members, usually straight, and so arranged in one plane that by being connected at their ends they form a rigid frame on which to support a roof, floor, bridge or other similar weight. In the theoretically perfect truss the component parts are so designed as to enclose between themselves rigid triangles and so arranged that every member is stressed only in the direction of its own length, either in compression or tension, with no bending forces present. This, the controlling ideal of modern truss design, governs in the design of those trusses which are purely structural, or designed primarily from the utilitarian standpoint. In ordinary architectural practice the exigencies of individual building problems, or the demands of aesthetic effect frequently render complete following out of the engineering theory impractical, and in one important class of architectural

trusses, the hammerbeam (g.v.) trusses, considerable side thrust is exerted upon the supporting walls or piers. Although the basic principle of truss design, that of the rigidity of a triangle, is so simple, the scientific design of trusses is a matter of comparatively recent development; and in the greater number of classic, Romanesque and Gothic trusses, despite the ingenuity of their construction and, especially in late Gothic work, the beauty of their design and execution, it is only rarely, and as it were by accident, that a perfect triangulation of the members is achieved. A truss diagram is a graphic method of discovering the stresses in the component members of a truss, based upon the mechanical theory of the resolution of two angular forces into the diagonal of the parallelogram constructed upon them. (See BRIDGES: MEcHANICcS; ROogs.)

TRUST, INVESTMENT: see Investment Trust. TRUST and TRUSTEES. Use in Early English Law.—The use or trust is said to have been the invention of ecclesiastics well acquainted with Roman law, the object being to escape the provisions of the laws against mortmain by obtaining the

conveyance of an estate to a friend on the understanding that they should retain the use, i.¢., the actual profit and enjoyment

ot the estate. Uses were soon extended to other purposes. They were found valuable for the defeat of creditors, avoiding of attainder and charging of portions. A use had also the advantage of being free from the incidents of feudal tenure; it could be alienated inter vivos by secret conveyance, and could be devised by will. In 1535 the famous Statute of Uses (27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 ) was passed, forming the basis of conveyancing until it was repealed in 1925 by the Law of Property Act. The statute does not, however, apply indiscriminately to all cases, as only certain uses are executed by it. It does not apply to leaseholds or copyholds, or to cases where the grantee to uses is anything more than a mere passive instrument, e.g., where there is any direction to him to sell the property. The

CREATION

TRUST

OF TRUST]

publicity of transfer, which

it was

the special object

AND of the

Statute of Uses to effect, was almost at once defeated. Trusts—A trust in English law is defined in Lewin’s Law of Trusts, adopting Coke’s definition of a use, as “a confidence re-

posed in some other, not issuing out of the land, but as a thing

collateral, annexed in privity to the estate of the land, and to the person touching the land, for which cestui que trust has no remedy

but by subpoena in Chancery.” The term trust or trust estate is also used to denote the beneficial interest of the cestui que trust. A trust has some features in common with contract (g.v.); but the great difference between them is that a contract can only be enforced by a party or one in the position of a party to it, while a trust can be, and generally is, enforced by one not a party to its

creation. A division often adopted in modern textbooks and recognized by parliament in the Trustee Act 1850, is into express, im-

plied and constructive. An express trust is determined by the person creating it. It may be either executed or executory, the former where the limitations of the equitable interest are complete and final, the latter where such limitations are intended to serve merely as minutes for perfecting the settlement at some future

period, as in the case of marriage articles drawn up as a basis of a marriage settlement to be in conformity with them. An implied trust is founded upon the intention of the person creating it; examples of it are a resulting trust, a precatory trust, and the trust held by the vendor on behalf of the purchaser of an estate after contract and before conveyance. A constructive trust is judicially created from a consideration of a person’s conduct in order to satisfy the demands of justice, without reference to inten-

tion. The law was consolidated by the Trustee Act 1893 and some subsequent amending statutes as the Law of Property Act, 1025. Who May Be a Trustee or Cestut que Trust—The Crown and corporations aggregate can be trustees. Provision is made by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, for the administration of charitable and special trusts by municipal corporations. There are certain persons who for obvious reasons, even if not legally disqualified, ought not to be appointed trustees. Such are infants, lunatics, persons domiciled abroad, felons, bankrupts and cestuis que trustent, Any one may be a cestui que trust except a corporation aggregate, which cannot be a cestui que trust of real estate without a licence from the Crown. For the Public Trustee, see below. The disabilities affecting some Roman Catholic charities were abolished by the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1926. Creation and Extinction of the Trust-—A trust may be created either by act of a party or by operation of law. The Statute of Frauds altered the common law by enacting that all declarations or creations of trusts or confidences of any lands, tenements or hereditaments shall be manifested and proved by some writing, signed by the party who is by law enabled to declare such trust, or by his last will in writing, or else they shall be utterly void and of none effect. For the purpose of conveying or creating a legal estate they must be made by deed (Law of Property Act, 1925, S. 52). Interests created by parol are by will only (s. 54). Trusts arising or resulting by implication or construction of law are excepted, and it has been held that the statute applies only to real estate and chattels real, so that a trust of personal chattels may still be declared by parol. The declaration of a trust by the Crown must be by letters patent. Trusts created by will must

conform to the requirements of the Will Act. (See Witz.) Except in the case of charitable trusts, the cestui que trust must be a definite person. A trust, for instance, merely for keeping up family tombs is void. By s. 10 of the Trustee Act 1893 (superseding Lord St. Leonards’s' Act of 1860 and the Conveyancing Act 1881), the surviving or continuing trustee or trustees, or the personal representative of the last surviving or continuing trustee, may nominate in writing a new trustee or new trustees. On such appointment the number of trustees may be increased.

Existing trustees

may

by deed consent

a trustee wishing to retire.

to the discharge

Trust property may

of

be vested in

new or continuing trustees by a simple declaration to that effect.

Also a separate set of trustees may be appointed for any

part of the property held on distinct trusts.

Trusts

created

TRUSTEES

511

by operation of law are those which are the effect of the application of rules of equity. They include resulting and constructive trusts. A resulting trust is a species of implied trust, and consists of so much of the equitable interest as is undisposed of by the instrument creating the trust, which is said to result to the creator and his representatives. An example is the purchase of an estate in the name of the purchaser and others, or of others only. Here the beneficial interest is the purchaser’s. An example of a constructive trust is a renewal of a lease by a trustee in his own name, where the trustee is held to be constructively a trustee for those interested in the beneficial term. Besides being duly created, it is necessary for the validity of the trust that it should be a lawful one. An unlawful trust is one which contravenes the policy of the law in any respect. Examples of such trusts are trusts for a corporation without licence, for a perpetuity, and for purposes subversive of morality, such as trusts for illegitimate children to be hereafter born. Superstitious uses also fall under this head. There are also certain trusts which are avoided by statute under particular circumstances, such as settlements in fraud of creditors. (See Bankruptcy.) The law cannot be evaded by attempting to constitute a secret trust for an unlawful purpose. If an estate be devised by words prima facie carrying the beneficial interest, with an understanding that the devisee will hold the estate in trust for such a purpose, he may be compelled to answer as to the secret trust, and on acknowledgment or proof of it there will be a resulting trust to the heir-at-law. In the case of an advowson suspected to be held for the benefit of a Roman Catholic patron, there is a special enactment to the same effect.

(See QUARE IMPEDIT.)

The rules of equity in charitable trusts

are less strict than those adopted in private trusts. Charitable trusts must be lawful, e.g., they must not contravene the Statutes of Mortmain; but a wider latitude of construction is allowed in

order to carry out the intentions of the founder, and they will not be allowed to fail for want or uncertainty of objects to be bene-

fited. The court, applying the doctrine of cy prés (q.v.), will, on failure of the original ground of the charity, apply the funds as nearly as possible in the same manner. On this principle gifts originally made for purely charitable purposes have been extended to educational purposes. Further, trustees of a charity may act by a majority, but ordinary trustees cannot by the act of a majority (unless specially empowered so to do) bind a dissenting minority or the trust property. A trust estate is subject as far as possible to the rules of law applicable to a legal estate of a corresponding nature, In pursuance of the maxim, “Equity follows the law.” Thus trust property as assets for payment of debts, may be taken in execution, passes to creditors in bankruptcy, and is subject to dower and curtesy, to the rules against perpetuities, and to the

Statutes of Limitation.

A trust is extinguished, as it is created,

either by act of a party or by operation of law. An example of the former mode of extinction is a release by deed, the general means of discharge of a trustee when the purposes of the trust

have been accomplished. Extinction by operation of law takes place when there is a failure of the objects of the trust: e.g., if the cestui que trust die intestate without heirs or next of kin. Equitable interests in real estate in other countries are as a rule subject to the lex loci rei sitae, and an English court has no jurisdiction to enforce a trust or settle a scheme for the administration of a charity in a foreign country. An English court has, however, jurisdiction to administer the trusts of a will as to the whole real and personal estate of a testator, even though only a very small part of the estate, and that wholly personal, is in England. (See Ewing v. Orr-Ewing, L.R. 9, A.C. 34.) Rights and Duties of the Trustee——The principal general prop-

erties of the office of trustee are these: (1) A trustee having once accepted the trust cannot afterwards renounce. (2) He cannot delegate it, but an inconvenience which formerly attached to dealings with trustees and trust property, in consequence partly of this rule, and partly of the liability of persons dealing with trustees to see that money paid to them was properly applied, was largely obviated by s. 17 of the Trustee Act 1893 (replacing s. 2 of the Trustee Act 1888), which in effect provides that a trustee may

appoint a solicitor to be his agent to receive and give a discharge

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for any money or valuable consideration or property receivable by the trustee under the trust, by permitting the solicitor to have the custody of and to produce a deed having in the body thereof or endorsed thereon a receipt for the consideration money or other consideration, the deed being executed or the endorsed re-

TRUSTEES

[PUBLIC TRUSTEES

the register of holders of annuity Class D, and annuities comprised in the register of annuitants Class C of the East Indian Railway Company; in the stock of any railway company in India

upon which a fixed or minimum dividend in sterling is paid or guaranteed by the secretary of state in council of India, or upon

ceipt being signed by the trustee; and a trustee is not chargeable with breach of trust by reason only of his having made or concurred in making any such appointment; and the producing of any such deed by the solicitor is a sufficient authority to the person liable to pay for his paying to the solicitor without the solicitor producing any separate or other direction or authority

the capital of which the interest is so guaranteed; in the debenture or guaranteed or preference stock of any company in Great Britain or Ireland established for the supply of water for profit, and incorporated by special act of parliament or by royal charter, and having during each of the ten years last past before the date of investment paid a dividend of not less than 5% per annum on its in that behalf from the trustee. (3) In the case of co-trustees ordinary stock; in nominal or inscribed stock issued, or to be the office must be exercised by all the trustees jointly. (4) On issued under any Act of Parliament or provisional order by the the death of one trustee there is survivorship: that is, the trust corporation of any municipal borough in the United Kingdom will pass to the survivors or survivor. (5) One trustee shall not having, according to the returns of the last census prior to the be liable for the acts of his co-trustee. (6) A trustee shall derive date of investment, a population exceeding 50,000; or by any

no personal benefit from the trusteeship.

The office cannot be

renounced or delegated, because it is one of personal confidence. It can, however, be resigned, and legislation has given a retiring trustee large powers of appointing a successor. The liability of one trustee for the acts or defaults of another often raises very difficult questions. A difference is made between trustees and executors. An executor is liable for joining in a receipt pro forma, as it is not necessary for him to do so, one executor having authority to act without his co-executor; a trustee can show that he only joined for conformity, and that another received the money. The rule of equity by which a beneficiary who consented to 4

breach of trust was liable to indemnify the trustees to the extent

of his interest has taken definite statutory shape in s. 45 of the Trustee Act 1893 (replacing s. 6 of the Trustee Act 1888), which enacts that when a trustee commits a breach of trust at the instigation or request, or with the consent in writing of a beneficiary, the High Court may, if it thinks fit, and notwithstanding that the beneficiary is a married woman entitled for her separate use and restrained from anticipation, make such order as to the court seems just for impounding all or any part of the interest of the beneficiary in the trust estate by way of indemnity to the trustee. The rule that a trustee is not to benefit by his office is subject to some exceptions. He may do so if the instrument creating him trustee specially allows him remuneration, as is usually the case where a solicitor is appointed. The main duties of trustees are to place the trust property in a proper state of security, to keep it (if personalty) in safe custody, and properly to invest and distribute it. A trustee must be careful not to place himself in a position where his interest might clash with his duty. As a rule he cannot safely purchase from his cestui que trust while the fiduciary relation exists between them. Investments by trustees demand special notice. The Trustee Act, 1925, has consolidated the law on this point, and provides, as it were, a code or charter of investment authorizing trustees, unless expressly forbidden by the instrument (if any) creating the trust, to invest trust funds in various modes, of which the more important are as follows: In any of the parliamentary stocks or public funds or government securities of the United Kingdom; in real or heritable securities in Great Britain; in stock of the Bank of England or the Bank of Ireland; in India 7, 54, 44, 34, 3 and 2% stock; in any securities, the interest of which is for the time being guaranteed by parliament; in consolidated stock created by the Metropolitan Board of Works, the London County Council; debenture stock created by the Receiver for the Metropolitan Police District, Metropolitan Water stock; in the debenture or rent-charge or guaranteed or preference stock of any railway company in the United Kingdom incorporated by special act of parliament, and having during each of the ten years last past before the date of investment paid

county council in the United Kingdom in certain water stocks: in securities authorized under the Colonial Stock Act, r900, etc.; the Housing (Additional Powers) Act, 1919; loan securities issued

by the Government of Northern Ireland; in any of the stocks,

funds or securities for the time being authorized for the investment of cash under the control or subject to the order of the High Court. Trustees may from time to time vary any such

investments for others of an authorized nature.

The statutory

power to invest on real securities does not, of course, authorize the purchase of realty; but by s. 5 of the Trustee Act 1893 a power to invest in real securities (in the absence of express provision to the contrary) authorizes investment on mortgage of leasehold property held for an unexpired term of not less than 200 years and not subject to a greater rent than one shilling a year, or to any right of redemption or condition of re-entry except for nonpayment of rent. The Trustee Act 1925 must be consulted for full information. The position of trustees in respect of what was frequently an undue personal responsibility for the administration of their trust has been much improved by s. 8 of the Trustee Act 1888 which enables an honest trustee to plead the Statutes of Limitation, It

has been decided that in the case of a breach of trust consisting of an improper investment of the trust funds, time begins to run in favour of the trustee from the date of the investment. Subsection (3) of the Judicial Trustees Act 1896 gives power to the Court further to relieve honest trustees for breaches of trust.

Under the old law trustees could not safely advance on mortgage more than two-thirds of the actual value of agricultural land or one-half of the value of houses. This “two-thirds rule” is now made statutory by s. 8 of the Trustee Act 1893. The same section protects trustees for not investigating the lessor’s title when lending on the leasehold security, and for taking a shorter title than they might be otherwise entitled to on the purchase or mortgage of any property, if they act with prudence and caution. By.s. 9 (replacing s. 5 of the Trustee Act 1888) trustees who commit a breach of trust by lending more than the proper amount on any property are excused from making good any more than the excess of the actual loan over the sum which they might have

properly lent in the first instance. (See generally the Trustee Act, 1925, for. full information.) Rights and Duties of the Cestui que Trust.—The cestui que

trust has a general right to the due management of the trust property, to proper accounts and to enjoyment of the profits, Fle can as a rule only act with the concurrence of the trustee,

unless he seeks a remedy against the trustee himself.

Judicial Trustees—-The Judicial Trustees Act 1896, inaugurated a semi-official system of trusteeship which was new in England, but had been known in Scotland for upwards of 150 a dividend at the rate of not less than 3% on its ordinary stock years. Public Trustee-——A step further was taken by the Public and in certain other railway or canal stocks; in the debenture Trustee Act 1906, which established the office of public trustee stock of any railway company in India, the interest on which is By the act he is a corporation sole, with perpetual succession and paid or guaranteed by the secretary of state in council of India; an official seal and may sue and be sued under his official title. in the “B” annuities of the Eastern Bengal, the East Indian and He may, if he thinks fit, act in the administration of estates of the Sindh, Punjaub and Delhi Great Indian Peninsula and Madras small value; as custodian trustee, or as an ordinary trustee; he Railways, etc.; and also in deferred annuities—comprised in may be appointed a judicial trustee, or administrator of a con-

UNITED

TRUST

STATES]

AND

vict’s property, The law of trusts generally is applicable to him. Full information as to the machinery and procedure of the office and the requirements

necessary

to obtain

the services

of the

public trustee are obtainable on application to the Public Trustee Office, Kingsway, London. Scotland.—tThe history of the law differs considerably from that of England, though perhaps the position of the Scottish trustee is now not very different from that of the trustee in England. The Statute of Uses did not apply to Scotland, since neither that nor any similar legislation was necessary in a system in which law and equity were administered by the same tribunals. Trusts seem to have existed from time immemorial, and have been frequently regulated by statute. The policy of the English Statute of Frauds was no doubt intentionally imitated in the Act 1696, c. 25, enact-

ing that no action of declarator of trust should be sustained as to any deed of trust made for thereafter, except upon a declaration

TRUSTEES

513

of Uses or by local legislation, has in substance done away with all passive trusts except such resulting or constructive trusts as are created by operation of the law. Consequently for the effective creation of a trust it is necessary to impose affirmative duties of administration upon the trustee.

Furthermore

legisla-

tion in the several States similar to the provisions of the English Statute of Frauds requires trusts of real property to be in writing,

though trusts of personal property unless created by will may be established by oral evidence. Notable American legal doctrines concern the purposes for which trusts may be created. The spendthrift trust, a distinct American institution, seeks to secure the beneficiary against his own improvidence or incapacity by providing against alienation by anticipation of the trust income by the beneficiary either by his own voluntary act or im invitum by his creditors. The beneficiary cannot assign his right to receive future Income nor can such income be subjected to the payment of his debts. In England such trusts have been held invalid on the ground that it is against public policy to permit the ownership of property without permitting its alienation nor burdening it with liability for its

or back-bond of trust lawfully subscribed by the person alleged to be trustee and against whom or his heirs or assignees the declarator should be intended, or unless the same were referred to the oath of the party simpliciter, The act does not apply to all cases, but only to those in which by the act of parties docu- owner’s debts. The majority of the American States have upheld ments of title are in the name of a trustee, but the beneficial the validity of such trusts, following the views enunciated by the interest in another, The person creating the trust is called the Massachusetts court in Broadway Nat. Bank v. Adams, 133 Mass. truster, a term unknown in England. On the other hand the term 170 and the Supreme Court of the United States in Nechols v. cestui que trust is unknown in Scotland. The office of trustee is Eaton, 9t U.S. 716. American legal doctrines surrounding the prima facie gratuitous, as in England, it being considered to fall creation of charitable trusts have had a curious development, under the contract of mandate. Some of the main differences After intimating that their validity depended solely upon statute, between English and Scottish law are these. There is no pre- the Supreme Court of the United States in the famous Girard sumption in Scotland of a resulting trust in favour of a pur- Will Case (2 How. 127) concluded that the English Statute of chaser. A trust which lapses by the failure of a beneficiary goes Charitable Uses of 1601, 43 Eliz. c. 4, was but declaratory of the to the Crown as ultimus heres. The office of trustee is not a common Jaw and that such trusts were valid in the absence of joint office, therefore there is no right of survivorship, and on legislation. Several State courts had theretofore repudiated the the death of a trustee the survivors are incompetent to act, unless Statute, and the early legislation of these States failed to recognize a certain number be declared or presumed to be a quorum, or the the existence of charitable trusts. The failure of the famous office be conferred on trustees and the accedors and survivors of Tilden trust devising several millions for charitable purposes to them. Sometimes the concurrence of one trustee is rendered abso- the city of New York under a decision of the Court of Appeals lutely necessary by his being named sine qua non. The Court of of New York led in 1893 to legislation in that State and similarly Session may appoint new trustees, but generally appoints a situated States restoring the old English system of charitable judicial factor. There has been a considerable amount of legisla- trusts. Indeed, since then the American courts have generally tion, chiefly in the direction of extending the powers of trustees been more liberal than the English courts in their interpretation and of the court in trust matters. The powers of investment given of what uses may be regarded as charitable. The policy involved in the English mortmain statutes finds its counterpart in different to trustees are much the same as those allowed in England. types of American statutes. Some restrict the amount of propBrsrrocraPuy.—The principal authority is T. Lewin, Law of Trusts (13th ed. W. Banks, 1928) ; see also H. Godefroi, On the Law of Trusts erty a charitable corporation may hold; others prohibit a testator and Trustees (sth ed. 1927) and A, Underhill, Law of Trusts (8th ed. from giving more than a certain portion of his fortune to charity; 1926). For American law see J, W. Perry, 4 Treatise on the Law of and still others invalidate all gifts to a charity made within a Trusts and Trustees (2 vols. 2nd ed. 1874). The principal authority on charitable trusts is O. D. Tudor, The Law of Charities and brief period before the death of the donor. There are numerous distinctions between English and American Mortmain (4th ed. of Charitable Trusts, ed. L. S. Bristowe, C. A. Hunt and H. G. Burdett, 1906). For the history see Francis Bacon, law concerning the rights of the trustee, of which the more imReading upon the Statute of Uses (1642, later ed. 1804) and Law portant may be noted. Unlike the English rule, the trustee even Tracts (1737); G. Gilbert, The Law of Uses (1734; 3rd ed. 1811); F. W. Sanders, On Uses and Trusts (1799; 5th ed. 2 vols., 1844), and in the absence of a provision in the trust deed for remuneration, is entitled either by statute or under equity rules to a reasonable G. Spence, Equitable Jurisdiction (2 vols., 1846-49). CX.; W. A.B.) United States.—It is generally true that the institutions of compensation for his services. Such remuneration Is commonly the English law were adopted bodily by the American colonists calculated on a commission basis, and the trustee possesses a lien and became part of their jurisprudence modified only in such upon the trust property for his services. Two or more trustees details as the exigencies of the new country demanded. That this are entitled to one commission only. Strict rules, however, prewas true of trusts is, however, somewhat remarkable in view of vent a trustee from deriving any personal benefit from his trusteeAmerican hostility during the 18th and early roth centuries to the ship by action antagonistic to the best interests of the beneficiary. English system of equity jurisprudence. Indeed, several colonies The various States have many different rules governing the manner possessed no chancery courts and not until the late roth century in which the trustee shall invest the trust property. The subject had full equity powers been vested in State courts such as Massa- is largely controlled by legislation setting forth the specific types chusetts and Pennsylvania. Despite this, however, the trust as of securities which the trustee may purchase. Corporate bonds of developed in England was well-known in America. Remedies were approved railroads and public utility companies are generally conadministered in the absence of equity powers by law courts sidered legal investments and a few of the States permit Investthrough their own legal forms. The institution consequently fol- ments in the common stock of reputable corporations. Though lowed the English law in its major outlines and only the more mortgages upon real property are permissible investments, real estate as such is commonly considered too speculative and too | important differences need here be considered. Passive trusts, in which the trustee performs no active duties unconvertible for purchase by the trustee, Two different rules but is simply a receptacle of the legal title, have under various prevail in America concerning the distribution of income of trust theories ceased to exist for practical purposes, such a grant being estates as between life tenants and remaindermen. When such deemed to vest the beneficiary with legal title. This result, reached income is represented by dividends, the rule of some States rein the American States through a judicial extension of the Statute quires the payment of cash dividends to the beneficiary, whereas

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TRUST

COMPANY

stock dividends are to be held as capital. Other States, however,

regard the source of the dividend as the test, holding that all dividends whether in stock or cash accruing from profits earned subsequent to the creation of the trust are payable to the beneficiary.

Ofiinterest also is the development in America of the institution

of the trust as a means for aggregations of capital to carry on business. This development should be distinguished from the monopolistic illegal “trust.” The legal trust contemplates contributions by a number of persons of capital to trustees who, under a declaration of trust executed to them, carry on the business for the benefit of such persons as are beneficiaries. Transferable certificates are issued to the contributors and income from the conduct of the trust is paid to them in the manner of dividends. Since the organization is simply an adaptation of the common law trust no legislative authorization is a condition precedent to the right to carry on business in this manner. The declaration of trust also provides that only the trust property and neither the trustees nor the shareholders are to be individually liable to creditors. The chief distinction between such an organization and a partnership is that the shareholders as beneficiaries cannot control the management of the business by the trustees, and if power to manage the business is vested in the shareholders or if they are permitted to appoint and remove trustees at will, the courts treat the organization as a partnership. Though this application of

the trust is not unknown in England (see Smith v. Anderson, 15 Ch. D. 247), conditions peculiar to America have made for its extraordinary growth in the latter country. The device originated in Massachusetts, hence the term “Massachusetts trusts,” due to the fact that the laws of that State did not allow corporations to deal in real estate. Experience refined the forms of organization to permit their application to other enterprises, but until late years the device was not generally employed in other States. But when. legislation during the beginning of this century sought to impose onerous burdens upon the doing of business in the corporate form, especially upon corporations of other States, the trust device was generally resorted to in order to avoid these burdens. The business trust thus became a familiar type of organization. It was expressly recognized by legislation in Oklahoma in rg1g, and since then by a few other States. Some State courts, however, have as yet failed to recognize the possibility of adapting the trust as a form of business organization. Another adaptation of the trust for business purposes is the voting trust, a device whereby the stock of shareholders is deposited with a trustee for the purpose of controlling the policy of a corporation. The interests of the shareholders are commonly represented by transferable certificates. Though in some States such trusts cannot be employed to control certain types of business, their legality is recognized provided that all shareholders shall be permitted to avail themselves of the trust agreement and provided that its purpose is to benefit all shares alike.

form in many instances a complete commercial banking service and many also maintain complete savings departments, but their

trust functions are distinct from their general banking services

and cover two separate fields, namely, personal trusts and corporate trusts.

Personal Trust Department.—In its personal trust department, the trust company, either as executor or administrator, set-

tles estates of individuals.

As trustee, it manages property under

the laws pertaining to trusts, distributing income and principal to beneficiaries designated in the wills or trust deeds under which it operates. A trust company may be designated as trustee either by the terms of a will, or by the terms of an agreement entered into during the life of an individual. The latter form of trust is usually known as a living trust or a voluntary trust, and when made to cover policies of life insurance it is designated as a life insurance trust. In its personal trust department, the trust company also acts as a guardian of property for minors, and as committee of property of incompetent persons. The fundamental duty of a trust company is sound management of property placed under its care and application of income and distribution of principal in strict accordance with the terms of the instrument under which it acts. An additional service to individuals which a trust company performs is caring for securities in safekeeping or custody. Through this service, the trust company attending to the collection of income and maturing principal, the details of routine care and watching for changes in the status of holdings, such as redemptions, conversion privileges, etc.—the securities, however, are always under the control of the owner and may be withdrawn or added to. Corporate Trust Department.—lIn its corporate trust depart-

ment, the trust company plays a vital part in the issuance of bonds, the registration and transfer of stocks, the handling of property under escrows, the exchange of securities under capital readjustments and changes, as fiscal agent for governments and corporations, and in other capacities. It renders important service in corporate reorganizations, under bondholders’ or stockholders’ protective agreements; consolidations, dissolutions and reorganizations; voting trust agreements; creditors’ agreements; receipt of subscriptions to securities offered in the form of rights and disbursements of liquidating dividends. As paying agent for corporations it pays interest on bonds, also the principal of matured or called bonds; it also handles the disbursement of dividends for corporations. The trust company also holds securities for corporations in safekeeping, affording the same service as that to individuals described previously. An important feature of trust company service, as it is organized by the larger trust companies, includes special service to municipal, county, State and Government officials, as trustee and paying agent under bond issues, registrar of bond issues, and in other fiduciary capacities. Early History.—Early in the rgth century the first trust companies made their appearance in the United States and carried on BIBLIOGRAPHY.—American Law Institute, Restatement of Law of a business of insurance and trusteeship for estates and individuals. Trusts (in preparation) ; Bogert, Law of Trusts (1921) ; Fletcher, Cor- As the corporate form of commercial organization became a domi-

porations, vol. 9 (1920); Loring, Trustee’s Handbook (2d ed. 1900); nating factor of American business toward the close of the cenMcKinney, Liabilities of Trustees (2d ed. 1927); Perry, Law of Trusts (6th ed. r91r); Sears, Trust Estates as Business Companies (2d. ed. tury, there were created many opportunities for the trust company 1921); Warren, Corporate Advantages without Incorporation (1929) ; to enter new fields and to undertake duties hitherto unattempted. Wrightington, Unincorporated Associations and Business Trusts (ad Also, it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that the ed. 1923). (J. M. La.) large private capital aggregations had been amassed. The com-

TRUST COMPANY, is a financial institution organized to bination of this accumulation of large personal fortunes and the increasing tendency toward the corporation type of business

perform duties and functions for corporations and private individuals and to assume the general responsibilities imposed upon individuals and corporations under the law of trusts. While the principal business of these companies in their formative period early in the last century was the supervision of personal estates and the negotiation of insurance, the insurance function has dis-

appeared, and the trust companies have become a major factor in commercial banking for both domestic and foreign business, in addition to being corporate fiduciaries. The broad financial powers that the trust companies enjoy have earned for them the name of department store banks, and their growth in the United States

has been rapid since the opening of the zoth century. As organized to-day, trust companies in the United States per-

organization provided the extensive field in which the trust companies were privileged to operate. Since the Civil War, which caused the enactment of the National Banking Act in 1863, there have existed side by side two systems of banking in the United States, namely national and

State. The expansion of the trust company in the ’80s and ’gos, however, soon attracted considerable attention. It was not long before the banking community of the country realized that this new form of financial organization was destined to become one of the important systems in the country’s banking machinery. Under the general trust company law of New York State enacted in 1887, trust companies were empowered to accept de-

TRUSTS posits and pay interest upon balances. This feature of trust company activity was the root of the national bank-trust company

controversy that subsequently developed. Shortly after 1900, however, trust companies began to maintain a cash reserve against deposits. During 1903, the New York clearing house

adopted a resolution in regard to the reserve requirements

of

trust companies. Starting at 5% of their deposits, it was later advanced to 15%. Trust companies in New York city later with-

drew from membership in the New York clearing house, but subsequent legislation fixed the reserve against deposits at 15%, which was divided into three classifications, namely, 5% in cash, 3% with approved banking institutions, and 5% in certain types of bonds, preferably government or municipal issues. With the enactment of the Federal Reserve law, important changes were made in the financial machinery of the country; seasonal and periodic demands for funds in different parts of the country could not easily be met. Under the Federal Reserve System, with the country divided into 12 sections, the flow of credit from one section to the other was greatly stimulated, and the primary cause of financial panics practically eliminated.

Recent Expansion.—Since 1900 the history of the American

515

unusual or excessive demands when and where needed. A constantly growing realization of the superiority of the fiduciary service rendered by a corporate trustee over an individual, with its fixed responsibility, legal continuity and trained staff, is stimulating the growth of these institutions rapidly. Observing the growth of this form of banking service the national banks secured an amendment to the National Banking Act in 1918 by which they were permitted to perform fiduciary services and many of the larger national banks now maintain trust departments organized for such purposes. (F. H. Sr.)

TRUSTS.

The term “trust” is a convenient though mostly

inaccurate label popularly applied to any large business concern, or amalgamation or association of business concerns, which exercises some degree of monopolistic power over output and prices in the industry with which it is connected. The “trust,” as it first appeared in America in the ’80s, was a form of organization in which the shareholders of a number of enterprises agreed to assign the whole of their stock to a small board of trustees, receiving in exchange trust certificates representing the valuation of their properties. This particular way of bringing a number of rival businesses under one direction has no particular significance nowadays, and it is but by historical accident that it has given its name to something much wider than itself; but the term has become established, and when a British official committee was appointed in 1918 to enquire into all forms of trade organization and combination it was officially designated “The Committee on Trusts.” The subject of this article, then, is not “trusts” in the derivational sense, but the whole movement of which the “trust” proper was and still is one example. That movement has two main aspects. It entails, in the first place, a change in the size of the business unit, a change from a multitude of small separatelycontrolled businesses to a few big businesses; and in the second place a change in the basic principle upon which industry is conducted, a change from competition as the ruling factor in the fixing of output and prices to deliberate control, fortified by monopoly, on the part of the manufacturing or commercial interests concerned.

trust company has been one of phenomenal expansion and development. The report of the controller of the currency of the United States for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1900, which summarizes the condition of all reporting financial institutions in that country, stated that 290 trust companies possessed a total capital of $126,930,340, while their deposits amounted to $1,028,232,400. During the next 27 years, the number of companies reporting to the cantroller of currency had increased to 2,731, and their aggregate capital during this interval rose even more rapidly. The report of the condition of these institutions on June 30, 1927, stated that total capital amounted to $1,161,305,900, and that deposits were $16,824,822,700. The developments in the trust company field during the last ten years are still further emphasized by the fact that in 1917, 2,009 trust companies had total resources less than half the amount possessed by the companies in existence at the close of 1927. A growth of 127% in trust comFrom Competition to Combination.—The system undet pany resources occurred in this period, in comparison with the advance of only about 25% in the number in operation. j which goods are produced, distributed and bought is still comA statistical review of trust company growth is presented in monly referred to as the “competitive system,” but for the last half century and longer the economic order has been changing the accompanying table: and the assumptions upon which it was formerly held that Trust Companies in the United States supplies, prices, profits and wages were best left to the free play of competition are becoming ever less valid. For an account Number Capital Deposits of the competitive system and the nature of the change from 1927 2,731 $I I6Ir,305,900 | $16,824,822,700 competition to combination the reader should see the article 1926 2,684 1,087,415,500 15§,982,226,300 COMPETITION IN INDUSTRY, where the virtues and triumphs of 1925 2,701 1,021,167,900 | 15,097,778,400 competition are extolled but it is shown that there comes a stage 1920 2,241 716,729,000 9,704,751,300 in industrial development at which the continuance of competi1915 I,777 503,382,683 5:010,05¥,200 tion along the old lines is actually detrimental to industrial effIQIO 1,527 446,168,100 35308,287,200 I900 290 126,930,840 1,028,232,400 ciency and obstructive to further progress, and that when that 1897 251 106,968,300 566,922,200 stage is reached, or when industrialists wake up to the fact that 1891 17r 79,292,900 355,330,000 there is an easier way than competition to the ends they pursue, competition gives place to combination. Trust Companies in New York City 1927. ee Per cent. of U.S.

I3I 4°8

$264,275,000 22°47

$5,083,581,700 30°2

Regional Distribution.—Although the development of trust companies in the eastern section of the country has been greater than in the central or western sections, this is almost entirely due to the fact that the States bordering on or adjacent to the Atlantic ocean were the first to be settled, and hence the first in which wealth was created. With the expansion of business and the increase in population in the central,

western and southern sections of the country, the introduction of the trust company idea has gone along at a rapid pace. With New

FORMS

(1) Gentlemen’s

OF COMBINATION

Agreements.—Industrial

combination in

the dual sense of the replacement of many small firms by a few large firms and the substitution of concerted control for competition takes a wide variety of shapes. At its simplest and most elusive there is no outward sign of change but a few business rivals meet from time to time and reach an “understanding” in regard to prices, output, division of business, etc. In effect, the competitors agree not to compete: that is all. Nothing is put on

paper; a gentleman’s word is as good as his bond. Such understandings are fairly common among local coal dealers, carriers, shopkeepers etc., and are no less a figure in industrial diplomacy

York as the present financial centre of the country, however, the greater aggregate in trust companies’ resources is destined to be in on the largest scale. The reader should see the article GENTLEand near this section. The inauguration of the Federal Reserve MEN’S AGREEMENTS. (2) The Trade Association.—A more advanced kind of comSystem did not in any way reflect upon or change the method of bination is that in which a large proportion of the manufacturers of borders the within State supervision of financial institutions the States, but rather co-ordinated all financial resources to meet or traders in a particular line of business form an association for

TRUSTS

516

the purpose of regulating the trade. Here, as in the “Gentlemen’s Agreement,” is exemplified one only of the two aspects of combination: there is no change in the size of the business unit, but something has happened to the competitive principle by which the relations of the various firms are supposed to be governed. Associations for the regulation of trade are associations for the “rationalization” of competition. This can be effected in a variety of ways; by fixing uniform prices, by apportioning and controlling output, by supervising tenders, by dividing up the market.

For

an account of these bodies, which are to be found in almost every branch of industry in Great Britain and America and indeed in all industrial countries, the reader should see the article AssoCIATIONS,

INDUSTRIAL.

The economic effects of the limitations

of competition effected by these associations, and the social and political problems to which the possibilities of abuse of their powers give rise, will be discussed at greater length in the present article as part of the comprehensive phenomenon and problem of the “Trust” movement.

(3) The Consolidation—The most concrete type of combi-

nation is the mammoth business of such size and power that it represents within itself the greater part, locally, nationally, or maybe internationally, of the particular line of business in which it is engaged and is able within limits to control the output of the industry and dictate the prices at which its particular type of goods shall be sold. In local trade its rudiments may be seen in the case of the cobbler or farrier who has “no opposition” and whose customers must pay his prices or incur the expense of going far afield for the satisfaction of their needs: but these do not make the modern problem; improving facilities of transport and the ease of establishing rival concerns provide sooner or later an effective remedy. The phenomenon and the problem are only

formidable where the consolidation is on at least a national scale. In these cases it almost always occurs where two or more previously independent business concerns are permanently amalgamated into one large concern under more or less completely centralized direction and control. It may be a coalition of equals, or it may be the result of a powerful concern buying up one or more smaller rivals: it may have been engineered by outstanding personalities within the industry, or it may be the result of operations promoted by outside financiers: the previously independent businesses may continue to operate to all outward appearance as though they were still independent, or some of them may disappear as separate entities, their goodwill and business passing to more efficient establishments within the amalgamation. According to their origin, scope and manner of operation, distinguishing names have been given to these conglomerate bodies. The term “combine” is frequently used in Great Britain, generally to designate a merging of firms in the same line of business at the instance of some dominant concern or group among their number. The term “merger” is more usually used in the United States in much the same sense. The term “Kartell” is widely used to denote the specifically German type of joint selling organization. (See CARTEL.) Trust, as already mentioned, has particular application to the former American plan of assigning the stock of the associated enterprises to a body of trustees. There is no need for present purposes to examine more closely these differences in financial structure and control. The terminology is largely arbitrary, and the distinctions often without real significance. It is, however, useful to recognize another broad distinction in the composition and industrial range of the greater consolidations which cuts right across those mentioned above, that between the “vertical” and the “horizontal” type; for the relative beneficence and success of the one and the other is a matter of some moment. The “vertical” consolidation results from a merging of firms engaged m the production of a commodity at successive stages of manufacture; e.g., coal and iron mining, pig iron, iron and steel and ships. The “horizontal” consolidation, on the other hand, results from the merging of firms engaged in the same line of business at the same stage of production, e.g., the firms engaged in the bleaching and dyeing industry or those engaged in the manufacture of cement. Multiple Directorships; Banking and Accountancy Con-

trol.—Among

[NATIONAL a miscellany

of forms

CHARACTERISTICS

taken by the movement

under discussion, other than those already named, three of far

greater import than might at first sight appear call for specific

mention. The first of these is the increasing practice of one person holding directorships in a number of ostensibly competing firms or in firms engaged in mutual trade. Cases of persons holding a dozen directorships are common; and it is on record that as many as thirty-two directorships, including thirteen chairmanships and three positions of managing director, in businesses

of the first order of magnitude concerned not only with manufacture but also with banking, shipping, railways and telegraphs, have been simultaneously held by one person. The same phenomenon appears in more systematic guise where arrangements for the collaboration of erstwhile competing firms take the form known as “interlocking directorates” in which an interchange of shares is accompanied by arrangements whereby the directors of one concern sit upon the board of another. Where these conditions obtain it is evident that the idea of competition in its old crude sense must be modified. The second is the control exercised over a large part of the industrial field by the great banks. It is not suggested that the details of prices, output and marketing are matters with which the banks concern themselves, but their in-

fluence over the industrial and commercial! policy of their clients is hardly in dispute, and that influence has its reflex upon the policy of its clients towards each other. (See BANKING.) The third is the increasing part played in the financial administration and structural reshaping of great industrial concerns by firms of accountants who have come to combine with ordinary accountancy work the functions of the financing house and the entrepreneur. Throughout any survey of tangible consolidations and trade associations these less tangible influences must be kept in mind if a comprehensive idea of the extent of trade combination is to be obtained. National

Characteristics.—The

combination movement

has

accommodated itself in each country to national conditions and characteristics. In the United States the size of the national market, the natural protection accorded to home manufacturers by the distance of that market from European manufacturing -centres, and the singular uniformity in the goods required by American consumers, were all favourable to centralized large-scale production. The greater importance of rail transport costs as an

element in total selling costs and the highly monopolistic position of the main railroads gave added cause for collaboration among manufacturers with a view to collective bargaining with the railroad interests. These circumstances, together with a national zest for power and masterdom, conduced when time was ripe to a

rapid growth of great industrial consolidations.

In the United

Kingdom great consolidations wielding monopolistic and political power have not in general been so formidable as in America, nor have British associations of independent manufacturers developed so fully the range of activities displayed by such organizations in Germany. The movement toward industrial combination in the United Kingdom has been relatively more cautious and less spectacular than elsewhere. The reasons for this would appear to be partly the deep-rootéd individualism of the British manufacturer and partly the greater difficulty of establishing monopolistic consolidations in a country where many of the principal industries are widely dispersed, where the raw materials of most of the great industries are drawn from world-wide sources and where such shelter as monopoly might obtain from protective

import duties has not been available. None the less, combination has replaced or minimized competition over a great part of the industrial activity of the United Kingdom. In Germany the local concentration of the coal and iron industries, the moderate protective policy, the state-ownership of the Prussian railways, and the inter-relations of industry with government, all contributed to the emergence of a special type of trade combination in the form of a joint selling organization between independent concerns in the same line of business empowered to fix and maintain prices and to allot the participation of each independent producer in the aggregate output. For this German type of combination the reader should see the article CARTEL.

TRUSTS

EXTENT]

Industrial Occurrence.—It would be difficult to lay down any rule as to the industries which are most susceptible to combination or have travelled farthest along that road; but a few generalisations can be made. Industries engaged in supplying the need for a standard unvarying product—e.g., steel bars and rails, sewing cotton, cement, salt, sugar, tobacco—invite combination more than do industries engaged in miscellaneous and varying production, such as general engineering and shipbuilding. Manu-

facturers

requiring much

capital for their establishment,

or

capable of being carried on much more economically with expensive plants are in general more easily collected into large aggregates by the instrumentality of high finance and are more

secure against sporadic competition than are industries which require little capital. Local proximity has been a factor of some importance in certain cases as facilitating centralized control; but improvements in transport and communication are minimizing this factor. Patents have formed the bed-rock of combinations in some industries e.g., electrical, chemical and shoe-machinery; and national monopoly has supported others. Manufacture in general lends itself to consolidation much more than agriculture; but combination plays an important part in the marketing of agricultural products. For many years retail distribution lagged behind manufacture as a subject for combination; but the last twenty years has seen an immense increase in the multiple shop or chain store. Indeed, no array of purely economic factors will explain why combination has developed much farther in some industries than in others; why, for example soap, cocoa and sewing cotton should be represented in Great Britain by vast establishments; why shipbuilding and coal-mining should have stood so much aloof from the general tendency. The present industrial spread of the movement would appear to have depended, as much as on anything else, on the chance emergence in certain industries, at the critical moment, of dominant personalities who have conceived great plans and carried them through. Where the right man with the necessary powers has been lacking at the propitious moment combination has had to wait. The growth and present existence of trusts in the United States has been very largely conditioned by legislation. The passing of the Sherman Act of 1890 necessitated the abandonment of the trust proper and led to the adoption of the method of complete amalgamation either by outright purchase or by the formation of holding companies. This process of consolidation has proceeded very rapidly, with the result that a wide range of American industrial production has come to be under the dominion of giant concerns exercising a large degree of monopoly power. Most prominent among these are the United States Steel Corporation, the International Harvester Company, the American Tobacco Company, the American Sugar Refining Company, the United States Rubber Company and the Central Leather Company; but in the Electrical, Chemical, Cement, Oil Seed, Meat, Shoe Machinery, Constructional, and Non-ferrous Metal industries, to name but a few, great consolidations play a dominant part. In the United Kingdom consolidations of such a size as to be capable of exercising some degree of monopolistic power also exist in the main branches of manufacture. In the cotton branch of the textile industry Messrs. J. & P. Coats and The Fine Cotton Spinners’ and Doublers’ Association are of long standing; and two great postwar amalgamations are The Amalgamated Cotton Mills Trust and

Crosses and Winkworths.

In the woollen and worsted industries

combination has taken the form rather of association than consolidation; but Woolcombers Ltd. is an amalgamation dating back some years, while since the World War large amalgamations have been formed in the worsted spinning and knitting wool spinning sections of the industry. Outstanding in the bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing industries are the Bradford Dyers’ Association, the Bleachers’ Association, the Calico Printers’ Association, the British Cotton and Wool Dyers’ Association and the English

Velvet and Cord Dyers’ Association.

In the chemical industry

Brunner Mond and Company, the United Alkali Company, Nobel

Industries and British Dyestuffs were amalgamated in 1926 into one great undertaking; Lever Brothers, the Salt Union and Borax

Consolidated, are each dominant in their respective branches of

517

industry. In the coal industry amalgamation has not proceeded far, except in South Wales, where there are two large groups of anthracite collieries, merged under Amalgamated Anthracite Collieries Ltd. and United Anthracite Collieries Limited. In the iron and steel industry combination by terminable association has been accompanied by great concentrations of capital, such as Dorman Long and Co., Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., Baldwin’s Ltd., The Ebbw Vale Co. and Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds. The engineering and shipbuilding industries, again, present a network of terminable associations studded by large consolidations. Foremost among these are Vickers Ltd., Armstrong Whitworth & Co., Cammell Laird & Co. and John Brown & Co., but a score more could be quoted within almost the same range of importance. In other industries examples of dominant consolidations may be found, notably in matches, glass, bottles, electric lamps, machinery and tobacco. International Combinations.—From combines of national range and consolidations of national magnitude it is a natural step to agreements and amalgamations on the international scale.

It has been estimated that there were in existence before the war 114 international associations, chiefly in the coal, ores, metal, transport, chemical, textile, pottery, paper and electrical industries. The object of the majority of these organizations was the regulation of competition, and especially the exclusion of foreign competition from the respective home markets of the participants and the division and demarcation of sales territories; but some of them regulated prices, credit terms and selling practices generally among their members and in a few cases there were arrangements for the exchange of patents or knowledge of technical processes. The outbreak of war in 1914 broke up most of these international groups, but since the war some have been re-formed and others are in process of formation or re-formation. Among these the International Rail Makers’ Association is one of the earliest, having been first formed in 1884 by British, German and Belgian steel manufacturers for the purpose of dividing up export orders and securing the home market to the home manufacture. The association was re-constituted under the name European Railmakers’ Association In 1926. The pool formed by the French, German, Belgian and Luxembourg steel makers in 1926 provides for the allocation of output quotas among its members with penalties for exceeding the quota and compensations for keeping below it. Associations existed before the war to regulate the international relations of manufacturers engaged in the production of galvanized steel, tubes, pipes, rods, wire nails and enamel ware, and many of these have been or are being re-formed. A copper syndicate comprising producers responsible, it is said, for some 90% of the world output and intended to control prices and reduce the number of middlemen was formed at the end of 1926. Potash, electric lamps, explosives, glass bottles and gas mantles are the subject of other agreements among the principal manufacturers in the various countries. In addition to these international associations, agreements, cartels or combines there were built up before the war a number of giant consolidations of world wide extension. In petroleum the world trade is largely dominated by two enormous groups, the Standard Oil Group and the Royal Dutch Shell Group. These in collaboration control something less than half the world’s production but a far greater proportion of international trade. In tobacco the export trade of America and Great Britain is largely in the hands of the British-American Tobacco Company, and the match industry is largely dominated by a trust headed by the Swedish Match Company. Relative Extent and Trend of Combination.—The degree to which combination has supplanted competition as the ruling factor of business operations must not be exaggerated. Even in the most powerfully organized industries competition plays its part with fitfully recurring intensity; while there are still industries (e.g., coal, shipbuilding, textile, manufacturing, as well as a host of minor industries) in which the concerted control of output or prices or the concerted direction of industrial policy has made relatively little headway. But the steady trend is toward increased combination. Under the influence of war conditions not

Sie

TRUSTS

only were numbers of listless associations galvanized into great activity and enterprise, but many new associations were formed. Also, one effect of the excess profits tax was to encourage the buying up of unprofitable businesses by prosperous concerns, for such purchases were in effect paid for by moneys which would otherwise have gone in excess profits duty to the revenue. For this and other reasons the war period was one of unusual increase in the number of amalgamations. Since the war the movement hag shown no signs of slackening but the impetus has been towards amalgamation rather than association; indeed trade associations have been through a difficult time and several have dissolved. Despite the misfortunes that have come upon certain of the greater consolidations as the Nemesis of prosperity and inflation during the war and the post-armistice boom, the tendency is still toward large-scale amalgamation, and our economic and financial system appears to provide thus far no machinery whereby a great consolidation may dissolve into its constituent elements. It is an old American aphorism that “you cannot unscramble eggs.” The Advantages of Combination.—Great possibilities of industrial and commercial improvement lie beyond the confines of free competition, and are only to be realized by combination in one or other of its several forms; by informal consultation and co-operation, by formal association, or by actual amalgamation. Only from the latter proceeds in full measure the advantage that may follow from extending over a wide area the intelligence and control of technicians and administrators of outstanding ability such as only a large undertaking can afford to retain; and only the consolidation can order with plenary powers the policy of the industrial block over which it exercises authority and can acquire control of the sources of raw material and an influential interest in the means of transport; but associations as well as consolidations can effect many improvements and economies along the whole line of manufacture and sale. By the consolidation purchases of material and components can be made in gross instead of in detail, with the advantages of better selection, better terms and lower transport charges; middlemen can be side-stepped and, as already stated, the control over the sources of material can be acquired. The association is not entirely powerless in these matters, for it can assist members to better buying by collecting and distributing information on the point. As regards manufacture, it is possible under combination to arrange for a standardizing of parts and sizes throughout the industry, whereby production can be greatly cheapened and the parts of one maker made interchangeable with those of another. Again it is possible to arrange that instead of every firm trying to cover the whole ground, each shall devote itself to some particular section, and install specialized equipment for its own section and for that only, in which case wasteful duplication can be avoided and specialized skill developed; or, where other conditions prevail, it is possible to bring equipment and inside organization throughout the industry to a uniformly high level. Further, whereas under free competition the firms in one district may be working overtime while those in another district are on short time, it is possible with combination to maintain something like an equal distribution of work and to control orders so that the volume of work does not fluctuate so greatly from one period to another. The economies in the matter of distribution to be achieved by associations and combines need little demonstration. Critics of the competitive system have often pointed out the wastefulness of the “five milkmen in one street.” The economic waste of numbers of rival travellers, each seeking to frustrate the efforts of the rest, and of competitive advertisements which cancel each other out, has long been a subject of comment. But only by some form of understanding or concerted arrangement of monopoly can such wastes of competition be put an end to. Moreover, for a country carrying on a large export trade, representation in foreign markets is a matter of primary importance, and it has become increasingly apparent that independent manufacturers, if they combine for nothing else, must combine for the purpose of pushing their wares abroad if they wish to keep and extend their foreign connections. With these advantages that combination alone holds out goes

[MONOPOLY

another—the freer exchange of knowledge. Under competition every one of a host of small manufacturers works out his own

problems, evolves his own methods and processes, and “keeps what he knows to himself.” When a combine or a consolidation is formed this secrecy is ended and anything worth imitating at

one branch is available for all the others. Associations do not always adopt the policy of “open doors” as between the members, but many of them go a long way in that direction, and the regular meetings conduce to a friendly atmosphere in which ideas are exchanged. The two essentials of the healthy rivalry which ad-

vances, as distinct from the jealous competition which obstructs,

are a common basis of comparison and the pooling of data. With combination it is possible to arrange for a uniform system of costing throughout an industry and for the circulation of cost-sheets showing what has been achieved by the most efficient firms. With such a sheet before him the less efficient member can see precisely where his methods are faulty and can set to work to improve them. Possible Losses from Combination.—Against these possible gains on the score of productive and distributive efficiency must be set some possible losses. Where an industrial unit grows beyond the compass of one man’s personal detailed direction, “system” must be introduced and system can degenerate into bureaucracy and red tape. What is gained in power and knowledge at the centre may be lost in freedom and strength at the circumference, and the over-grown unit is in constant danger of becoming inefficient and reactionary. Again, under the shelter of monopoly a comfortable somnolence may descend upon the giant concern, the fear of change is a well-known characteristic of large administrations, and the large business unit may become stagnant and even reactionary, especially if its control falls increasingly into aged hands.

Rationalization.—Since the World War, a term not previously familiar has come into general use to signify the process of reordering industry so as to achieve the advantages just mentioned. It is “the rationalization of industry.” The implications of the term cannot, however, be properly understood except with reference to the indispensable condition of “rationalization’”—centralized control wielded with monopolistic powers. Whatever be in practice the net balance of the advantages and disadvantages set out above, whether they result in greater or in less productive efficiency, “rationalization” brings in its train the danger of monopoly power being used to exact monopoly prices and conditions from the public. The problem for all industrial communities is therefore one of how to leave business concerns free to achieve the economies and other advantages of combination in so far as they are consistent with the general interest, and at the same time to provide means of curbing any tendency to use monopoly power detrimentally to the public and of penalising those who do so use it. (See RATIONALIZATION.) Monopolistic Power.—Size is an important element in combination, but mere bigness is not disconcerting so long as competition remains effective as a curb upon the operations of the mammoth organization. The problems with which industrial communities are faced arise when the proportion of an entire industry covered by a great amalgamation is so large as to give it some degree of monopolistic power. It has sometimes been laid down as a rough working rule that any consolidation or association which covers 80% of the output of an industry can dictate the prices at which the other 20% shall sell its competing products and so may be described as having an effective monopoly; but that formula cannot be applied indiscriminately, inasmuch as the limiting conditions of control vary greatly from industry to industry and in some industries very effective monopolies of merely local range may exist. Confidence that the fear of competition can be relied upon to restrain tendencies to extortion on the part of even the most complete monopolies rests upon the belief that no association, combine, or consolidation, even though it has a monopoly, can for long put up prices above what is fair and reasonable, because, if it does, it will only “invite competition”: new people will come into the industry, competition will start afresh, and prices

will fall. But a powerful monopolistic firm or group can make it

ECONOMIC EFFECTS]

TRUSTS

extremely difficult for any new entrant to get a footing. It can monopolize raw materials, put pressure on merchants and retailers,

or scare investors by hints of an under-selling campaign.

It can

tie the distributing trade to it with deferred rebates and condi-

tional commissions. It can make it so that no one will enter the field against it except as a perilous speculation. It can in fact, if so inclined, build a stockade round its industrial territory. These

are the instruments and devices by which a monopoly which is not complete and which is always in peril of a recrudescence of com-

petition can maintain its dominance. For a fuller statement of the history, nature and significance of monopoly the reader should consult the article Monopoty. The practical outcome of the principles there expounded, as evinced in the case of the great consolidations and powerful associations, are dealt with in this article.

Effects of Combinations: General—lIt is in the nature of things not possible to prove conclusively the effect of combination upon the well being and prosperity of an industry or upon the volume of its output or the prices charged to customers. It is possible to trace, in very many cases, the course of prices and

profits before and after the forming of a particular consolidation or association, but from such surveys there is always lacking a knowledge of what prices and profits would have been had no combination been formed. Further, it does not follow that an increased level of prices and profits, if proved, is of necessity an evil. There have undoubtedly been, and will yet be, cases of industries working for long periods at less than their proper remuneration, and it may well be a gain, considered corporately, that an industry so placed should improve its position even at the expense of the rest. The idea that the state of an industry under competitive conditions is an ideal standard from which to measure departures is not tenable. Effect upon Prices.—One of the most important trade associations in Great Britain, the National Light Castings Association, declared in its original rules “The object the Association has in view is that of raising and keeping up the price of the buyer. .. .” Most associations, however, would repudiate the suggestion that they aimed at raising prices; and would describe their policy as being directed towards “preventing price-cutting,” “securing fair and reasonable prices,” “providing a fair return on capital and energy,” or, most probably, “stabilizing prices.” This latter phrase puts the case for price-control at its strongest. Stabilization, regularity of output, continuity of returns is a desirable condition for any industry, a condition much preferable to one of violent alternations of good times and bad; and steady prices are an important element in steadiness of prosperity. Associations have done much to prevent prices falling, at times of slack demand, to ruinous levels and there can be no doubt that during the war scarcity and post-war boom periods the prices of goods controlled by associations were not in general allowed to rise to the heights reached by goods not so controlled. This greater steadiness of prices has certain advantages for the consumer. Contractors and buyers of semi-manufactures and components find it satisfactory to be able to depend, in sending out estimates or in planning ahead their own developments, on a reasonable stability in the price they will have to pay for their wares. Again, so far as the stabilization of prices is accompanied by the

519

combination are carried out, the extent of the monopoly power possessed by the amalgamation. There is, however, one factor which may and often does over-rule all these, that of capital infla-

tion accompanying amalgamation. If the purchase price paid to the stock-holders of the several businesses is higher than the capital value of their earning capacities prior to amalgamation, or if the expenses of flotation and the rewards taken by promoters are considerable, the very increase in the capital on which dividends are payable may prevent any reduction in prices even though economies are effected in working costs; the increased capital may, indeed, be regarded as a future charge upon the industry arising from and equal to the economies the combination is expected to achieve. Effect upon Output.—The output of an industry depends upon the demand for its products and that demand is largely conditioned by the price at which they are sold, In general, and with very many qualifications and exceptions, the effect of combination upon output is a reflex of its effect upon price. So much are price and output recognized as interdependent that trade associations have a choice of two ways of “stabilizing” the industry, one being the fixing of prices and the other the regulating of output. In the article ASSOCIATIONS, INDUSTRIAL, an account is given of the system under which certain associations regulate the output of the whole of their members by allotting to each a fixed percentage of the total production, whatever that total may be, with penalties for exceeding the quota and compensations for falling short of it.

It is held by the promoters of such “pooling” associations that the effect of the system is not to diminish output. It is explained that under the system the total output is neither fixed nor even regulated: but is free to expand or contract in accordance with the total demand. It is difficult, however, to accept this view without some reservations. Since those who increase their output beyond the average are penalized, and those who fall below the average are rewarded, it would appear that the aggregate output must tend to be less than it would have been in the absence of any “pool.” Yet such statements as “there has never been a time when we have failed to supply the utmost demand of the market” are doubtless made in good faith and have a certain truth. What happens is that under the influence of the penalties and rewards prices rise, and though the whole demand at the increased price may be met, it is a demand depressed to some extent by the greater costliness of the article. This appears in every way likely to be the immediate effect of the pool system; but against it may be set the consideration that in the long run the gains of steady and equalized production in the various works composing the industry and the greater efficiency due to the removal of obstacles to the interchange of knowledge may accrue to the public in the shape of lower prices, whereupon demand may recover and output increase. Effect upon Quality.—It has been contended and with some truth, that the fixing of a uniform price at which all establishments in a given branch of industry shall sell their products does not mean an end of competition but rather a change-over from competition in price to competition in quality. Differences in price are more evident than differences in quality and are apt to affect the judgment more. The difference between £1 and 19/— in the price of an article is a plain matter of five per cent: the difference of five per cent in quality is less easily discernible. The immediate standardization by prices: i.e., the charging of uniform prices or effect of the standard uniform price for various makes of. the prices regulated in accordance with a known scale to all pur- same article is undoubtedly to turn attention at once to differences chasers, there is some advantage in each contractor or retailer other than price, and it may be accepted as usually the case that knowing that his rival is buying on the same terms as himself. the establishment of uniform prices is followed by a tendency to These advantages, first to the industry itself and second to the improvement in designs and quality and hence in value. Effect upon Evolution of Industry.—According to the commanufacturers and traders who use its products are to be set off against the natural tendency of associations to steady prices in an petitive principle industrial evolution proceeds in part by the illupward direction; and it must be kept in mind as at least a possi- endowed and ill-placed firm being “unable to compete” and after a bility that the proceeds of steadier prosperity will be devoted to struggle more or less prolonged going out of business. The ease improvements so that in the long run the public may gain the ad- and certainty with which this process of the “elimination of the unfit” accomplished itself in practice under the competitive system vantage of cheaper goods. The effect of actual amalgamations of business concerns upon may easily be over-rated, but it certainly did occur, The risk of the prices at which their products are sold depends upon a multi- failure, of the total loss of all the capital sunk in the undertaking, tude of factors—the circumstances of the businesses before the was one of the accepted risks of industrial enterprise. Under comamalgamation, the thoroughness with which the economies of bination other provisions are made for the flow of business from

520

TRUSTS

the less efficient to the more efficient units. In the case of trade associations working a quota system the less efficient members of the group are the more ready to let their business go to the more efficient in that they receive, from the pool, monetary compensation. The least efficient may find it worth while to close down altogether and draw the compensation in perpetuity, and the firms best equipped for efficient production may find it well worth their

while to do more than their quota and pay the penalty.

This transference of work from the less to the more efficient firms does in fact take place to a considerable extent, and it cannot be doubted that as a result production is carried on to greater advantage, but it is not so clear that much of the advantage accrues to the general public, since the greater part of the

gains of increased efficiency go in the form of compensation to the less competent producers. Similarly with amalgamations. It may be essential to the attainment of an effective monopoly that all the firms in a line of industry, inefficient and unprofitable, shall be brought within the amalgamation. But the inefficient concern will

[LEGAL

POSITION

guard of foreign competition is apt to be rendered inoperative by international agreement or consolidation just when its influence is making itself most felt. LEGAL

POSITION

OF MONOPOLISTIC

COMBINATIONS

Great Britain.—The position is set out in a report furnished in 1927 by the Board of Trade to the League of Nations. In brief, combination of manufacturers or traders is not governed by any special statute, but is subject to the common law doctrine that restraints on trade are bad. Contracts or agreements In restraint of trade are in principle unenforceable, though they are not actually illegal unless they involve an illegal act. Nevertheless a con-

tract which is technically in restraint of trade has long been regarded by the courts as valid and enforceable when it involves a particular restraint which is not larger than the protection of the party with whom the contract was made reasonably requires.

The

doctrine of the unenforceability of contracts in constraint of trade is part of the larger legal doctrine of “public policy,” which is in-

not sell out at a knock-down price; the fact that its non-existence terpreted in economic matters as equivalent to freedom of trade, is needed by the amalgamation gives it a new value. Many a trust or disapproval of measures in restraint of trade. In recent years and combine, therefore, has had to acquire properties already over- however, the courts have shown a perception of the fact that free due for dissolution and has had to choose whether to keep them in competition is not necessarily in the interests of the community, being or close them down. It will be observed that in both types and that, on the contrary, competition may be accompanied or folof combination the cost of providing for the elimination of the lowed by serious disadvantages. There has consequently been a units that have shown themselves least fit in the industrial struggle tendency for the law relating to combinations to be stated with falls not upon the owners of the derelict business but upon the modifications. It may be noted also that in a number of cases the more efficient survivors. Questions as to what shall happen to courts have upheld the legality of trade boycotts and other devices the least profitable concerns in an industry whose capacity exceeds by which trade associations seek to strengthen their positions foreseeable demand are among the most difficult of all that con- against outside competitors, Such devices are regarded as methods front attempts to “rationalize” such industries and were the main of competition and it is held that no action will lie in the absence obstacle in 1927 and 1928 to rationalization in the coal and cotton of a specific illegal act. It remains true, however, that the interpretation which the courts give to the common law doctrine relatindustries of Great Britain. Industrial States—It must be accepted that the tendency is ing to contracts in restraint of trade is a limiting factor upon the powerfully and probably irresistibly towards the formation of formation of powerful cartels, in that it is difficult for the latter great consolidations representing whole branches of industry and to secure the enforcement of agreements as against disloyal or rethat these consolidations have it in their power to effect great im- calcitrant members. Under the Profiteering Act of 1919~21 invesprovements in the lay-out and organization of the industry and to tigations were made into the operations of trusts and combines cut out much of the friction, waste and overlapping which is often in a number of industries and reports were published, but the acts lapsed in 1921 since when there has been no legal authority to redue to competition. It has at the same time to be borne in mind that as these con- quire information to be furnished regarding the operations of solidations come into being the old accepted basis and operating trusts or combinations. Canada.—Section 408 of the Canadian Criminal Code deals principle of industry undergoes a radical change, is completely revolutionized. The wheel comes once again full circle and indus- with conspiracies in restraint of trade. The following are defined tries are corporate bodies with monopolistic powers, in which a as offences under this section: to limit transportation facilities, central intelligence directs policy and ordains what supplies and to restrain commerce, to lessen manufacture, and to lessen compeprices shall be. A consolidation representing the greater part of tition. The Combines Investigation Act, 1910, was totally repealed by Statute of 1919 and this latter measure was in turn an industry, with command or influence over the sources of material and the channels of the distributing trade will be a close repealed by the Statute of June 13, 1923. This Statute is entitled corporation from which would-be intruders can be excluded. The “An Act to provide for the Investigation of Combines, Monopoprospect opening out is thus one of a series of industrial mon- lies, Trusts and Mergers.” It is the only definite combines act archies or republics, enjoying an economic sovereignty within the existing in the British empire. It provides for the appointment political realm. of a registrar, whose duty it is, on receipt of a properly executed Limitations of Powers.—What are the limiting conditions application, to cause an enquiry to be made into all matters conwithin which these organizations can wield their monopoly powers. cerning the alleged combine. Upon the report of this preliminary It will be evident that in the first place a combination repre- enquiry the minister responsible for the administration of the act .senting an entire branch of industry and charged with the best decides whether further enquiry is called for, in which case it is present and future interests of that industry will not fix prices at undertaken with powers to require evidence on oath, and entry a level which will cause the volume of trade to shrink, plant to be to all premises and documents. At the conclusion of every such idle, and gross earnings to fall. How far it could go, if it cared to, investigation a report must be presented in writing and within in the direction of extorting monopoly prices depends on the 15 days after its receipt by the minister it must be made public, elasticity of the demand for the goods it handles and in particular unless for reasons of public interest. The law has thereupon to upon whether there is some other article, not very inferior, upon take such action as is necessary, and this may take the form of which the consumer can fall back in the event of prices being reduction of import duties on foreign competing goods, revocaraised against him. In so far as its goods are sold to manufacturers tion of patents, or prosecution in the courts on the charge of being in other industries the undue exercise of monopoly power is likely a party to or knowingly assisting in the formation or operation to produce a corresponding degree of combination among its cus- of an illegal combine. tomers, resulting in prices being a matter of negotiation, bargainUnited States.——Under the common law of the United States ing, and agreement between parties of the same order of strength. as under English common law agreements in restraint of trade are Where the combination is of no more than national range, foreign not enforceable. In 1890 there was passed the Sherman Anticompetition or the fear of such competition may act, in the absence Trust Act which prohibited under severe penalties “every conof high import duties, as a check upon any tendency to abuse of tract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conmonopoly power in some branches of manufacture, but the safe- spiracy, in restrdint of trade or commerce among the several

LEGAL POSITION]

TRUSTS

States, or with foreign nations” and declares it to be an offence

to “establish or attempt to establish a monopoly, or to combine or conspire . . . to establish a monopoly of commerce between the several States or in the foreign nations.” Much difficulty arose over the interpretation of the act, in particular as to whether

it applied to all contracts in restraint of trade or merely to those in unreasonable restraint of trade. Successive Supreme Court decisions made the position increasingly clear, but in general in the direction of a more liberal interpretation of the statute. From the 1912 decision in the case of the United States Steel Corporation it appeared that the legality of a combination depended on the proportion of the industry it represented, and a 1911 decision made contracts not illegal unless in unreasonable restraint of trade. As a result of these decisions it was felt that the Sherman Act needed strengthening and, on the other hand, it had become evident that some power of dispensation was required to modify

the cruder effects of the act. Consequently, in 1914, two further acts were passed, the Clayton Act, and the Federal Trade Commission Act. The Clayton Act legalizes certain activities of trade association which were declared illegal under the Sherman Act. It makes it illegal for a company to acquire shares in another company if this leads to “a real diminution of the competition between companies” or “tends to establish a monopoly”; it pro-

hibits price discrimination between different purchasers which aims at lessening competition or creating monopoly; and the giving of discounts or rebates on condition that the buyer shall not use or deal in the goods of competitors; and it contains provisions against the holding of posts simultaneously in different companies by directors and employees. The Federal Trade Commission Act established a commission of five members to be appointed by the president to which was

assigned two main tasks: to investigate and report upon the organization and conduct of corporations alleged to be infringing the anti-trust laws, and to prevent unfair competition. In pursuance of the latter function the commission could, after oral hearing, issue an order requiring the cessation of any practice which it judged to be in contravention of the acts. If the order failed to be carried out the commission might apply to the circuit court for enforcement. With the exception of the r918 WebbPomerene Act, which permits associations for the purpose of foreign trade which would be illegal in internal trade, the legal position of trusts and associations remains as laid down in the 1890 and rg14 Acts interpreted by successive Supreme Court decisions. British Attitude to Anti-Trust Laws.—As seen by British eyes legislation of the Sherman and Clayton kind is not easily made effective without the doing of more harm than good. The

Committee on Trusts, appointed in Feb, 1918, turned its attention rather to what might be called “policing” action than to repression. It sought for ways in which combinations might be controlled or supervised to safeguard the public interest from the abuse of monopoly power while being otherwise left free to achieve all those economies and improvements which combination alone can furnish. Public ownership, public control, public competition, profit limitation and profit taxation were passed under review. In all these suggested schemes three main difficulties were encountered at the outset; first, that of defining a monopolistic concern; second, that of distinguishing rightful rewards of enterprise and efficiency from the exactions of monopoly; and, third, that of determining the datum on which rate of profit can be calculated. These suggestions were one by one rejected as limited in scope, difficult of application, or hazardous in reaction, and the committee turned its attention in other directions. It was thought that if fuller publicity in regard to the conduct and earnings of business concerns generally, and of the working and effects of combinations in particular, could be secured, the desired object would be in great measure achieved. It was also thought that some machinery should be provided whereby suspected or alleged abuses could be penalised. Accordingly, the conclusion was reached that there should be established a department of state charged with the duty of in-

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forming itself as to the nature, extent and development of combinations of all kinds in so far as they tend to the restraint of trade and the creation of monopolies, and of making preliminary inquiry into complaints made in regard to them, also that a tribunal should be set up to which the department could apply for powers to obtain particular information, and would refer for full investigation cases in which combinations appeared to act injuriously to the public interest. The requisite publicity would thereby be secured in two ways: the relevant facts as to offences proved before the tribunal would be made public, and the department would present annually to parliament a report upon the nature, extent and development of combinations. Publicity thus secured would not only be in itself a considerable safeguard against the abuse of monopolistic power, but it would serve to reveal actions and developments for which publicity alone was not a sufficient safeguard, and against which further action should be taken, whether in the form of nationalization, public competition or the

control of prices and profits. These conclusions formed in substance the recommendations of the committee; but down to the end of 1928 they had not been made the subject of legislation. Until the appointment of the Committee on Trusts no official investigation of the problem presented by the growth of combination in British industry generally had been made. The report of that committee, with its appendices, afforded for the first time to parliament and the public authoritative information as to the position. Subsequently committees appointed under the Profiteering Acts of 1919 and 1920 issued reports upon particular industries in which much detailed information was embodied. These reports constitute a mine of information for the student of industrial combination in the United Kingdom. : The standing of trusts and other combinations before the law, the government and public opinion of the United Kingdom presents curious anomalies. In July 1927 Justice Eve refused a petition to permit the twelve constituent members of the amalgamation ‘British Ropes, Ltd.” to charge their assets, through the medium of a holding company, for the purpose of buying other businesses, and denounced the scheme as a most villainous and mischievous form of finance. He declared the combination to be inspired by gain only, its object being to reduce competition to its smallest possible limits and then to impose on the public a price in excess of what the public would be called upon to pay if competition had been left to find its own level. On appeal, the Master of the Rolls reversed the decision on the ground that there was reason as well as legal right, in the grouping of the companies concerned; and in this reversal Justice Lawrence concurred, but on the ground that the court was not concerned, under the Companies Acts, to see how the alteration would affect persons outside the company; the variety of these legal pronouncements reflects

the indefiniteness of the bearing of the common law upon the modern monopolistic activities. The attitude of parliament as reflected in acts concerned in part with sectional questions of monopoly is perhaps most significant in its Inconsistency. Amalgamations among the great banks have been prohibited; amalgamations among the railways have been enforced; and under the Mining Industry Act of 1926 compulsory powers can be given in certain cases to the promoters of colliery amalgamations for the bringing in of any recalcitrant undertaking whose adherence is essential to the success of the scheme; and in the case of rubber the state has participated in an international output-restriction scheme. BrsriocrapHy.—For the United Kingdom: Report of the Committee on Trusts (Cd. 9,236 of 1919), with Memoranda by J. Hilton, P. Ashley and J. Macdonnell. Reports of 57 committees appointed under the Profiteering Acts 1919 and 1920. A list of these reports, together with a survey of the work done by the committees, will be found in a report—The Work of the Central Committee (1921). Other official publications bearing closely on the subject are the Report of the Royal Commission on Food Prices (Cmd. 2,390, 1925) ; Reports of the Committee on Industry and Trade (1925 and 1926); various Reports by committees appointed under the Safeguarding of Industries Acts: Reports on the coal industry and coal prices /by committees appointed by the Mines Department (1923 and 1924); the Linlithgow Reports on the distribution and prices of agricultural produce by committees appointed by the Minister of Agriculture (1923 and 1924) ; Reports on prices of building materials by Ministry of Health and

$22

TRUTH

Board of Trade (1923 to 1925); Report of the Royal Commission on the Coal Industry (1926). The best account of industrial combination in the United Kingdom before the War is given in H. W. Macrosty, The Trust Movement in British Industry (1907), and the most recent objective account in P. Fitzgerald, Industrial Combination in England. For the United States: Documents issued by the Federal Trade Commission, Washington D.C.; Public Regulation of Competitive Practices, National Industrial Conference Board (1925) ; Thorp, the Integration of Industrial Operation (1924); Elliott Jones, The Trust Problem in the United States (1923). General: The following are among the more important of the Reports dealing with Cartels and Trusts issued in connection with the World Economic Conference of 1927. Cartels and Combines, Dr. Weidenfeld; International Cartels, Dr. H. MacGregor; Cartels and Trusts and their development, M. Paul de Rousiers; Recent Monopolistic Tendencies, Prof. Gustav Cassel; Rationalisation in the United States, the Hon. David Houston. For Trusts and Combination in Germany see the bibliography under Karteils, The B.E.A.M.A. Report on Trusts and Combines in the Electrical Industry (1927); A. P. L. Gordon, The Problem of Trust and Monopoly Control (1928); H. Levy, Monopolies, Cartels, and Trusts in British Industry (1927). (J. H.)

TRUTH.

The concept of truth belongs to the fundamental

philosophical problems—in fact, one may describe it as the central question of all theoretical philosophy. The first step in philosophic reflection consists in asking the question concerning the nature and criteria of truth. The world of being is no longer accepted as a simple datum, but a “reason” for it is required; a “principle” is sought which will enable human cognition to distinguish “genuine” being from “non-genuine” being, “reality” from “appearance,” truth from error. The same change of attitude occurs also in regard to values. Here, too, cognition is not satisfied with the values accepted on the testimony of tradition, custom or authority, but inquires into the meaning of the difference between “good” and “evil,” and seeks universally valid, “objective” norms to justify this distinction. In this two-fold significance, the problem of truth was first raised in Greek philosophy. From it evolved the various fields of philosophy within Greek thought. Logic as also ethics and physics have their common root in the problem of truth. For they are all founded on the presupposition that both

the immediate view of reality, as presented to us in perception, and the immediate purposes pursued by instinctive impulse and desire, are not finally valid. This immediacy is transcended in the

theoretical as well as in the practical sense: it is “questioned” and “called to account.”” This account implies that from now on, in the sphere of thinking, as in that of willing, individual contents are distinguished as having positive or negative value, the latter being rejected as “invalid,” the former retained as “valid.” This fundamental distinction forms the pervading theme of Greek philosophy. The individual systems differ only in the means by which they try to solve it, by which they try to obtain a clear definition of the difference between “True” and “False.” ‘ In theoretical respects, the first step is made when the certainty of immediate sense perception is shaken and is opposed by another, “critical” authority. It is not the senses which decide about truth and falsehood, about being and non-being; the decision rests with reason, pure thought. The beginnings of this view can. be traced to the older Ionian philosophy of nature, but it reached its proper development only in the classical systems of the great pre-Socratics. Parmenides and Heraclitus, Pythagoreanism and Atomism reject unanimously the view of the world as perceived through the senses and oppose to it another view which is based on thought—the power of the “Logos.” According to Heraclitus, the senses alone are “bad witnesses”: they can be used for a knowledge of reality only when they are judged by the soul as to their value and truth. The senses individualize and separate; as long as we follow them exclusively, each perceiving mind has its own world in which it remains enclosed. Thought, however, is “common to all”: by means of it, alone, we reach a universally valid, ‘‘objective” view of the cosmos. “It is a duty to follow that which is common; but although the Logos is common to all, the majority live as though they had an insight of their own” (Heraclitus, Fragment 2 [Diels]; cf. Fragments 72, 89, 112-114). “Wisdom resides in One, in the recognition of the reason which pervades all and everything” (fr. 41). According to Parmenides, the road to truth consists in not allowing oneself to

be misled by well-worn habit into trusting sense perception: ‘no, by reason decide the controversial test, the question of Being and Non-Being” (Parmenides, Fragment 1, cf. 33 sqq.), The true power of conviction (riorts aAnOns) does not reside in

the senses but in pure thought: “for thinking and being are the same.” Similarly, the Pythagoreans see the true essence of reality in number, because number is to them the principle of all truth.

“For nothing of delusion (fevdos) does the nature of number admit; but delusion occurs only in the realm of the unlimited, the unreasonable, and of that which is not determined by the Logos” (Philolaos, Fragment 11). Democritus distinguishes two forms of cognition: the genuine and the spurious one. The spurious one comprises sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch—in short, the whole world of sense qualities, which exist only “according to custom” ;—the genuine one gives us an insight into the veritable, the “true” reality, which belongs only to the atoms and empty space (Democritus, Fragment 11). The completion of this trend of thought is reached in Plato. According to the platonic doctrine of ideas the sensible world, as a world of becoming, can possess no veritable being or truth. It is a world of mere “opinion” (d6£a), a world of “appearance,” whereas truth and knowledge refer only to objects of pure thought which are not subject to change. This “rational” conception of truth, however, was not without its countercurrents in Greek philosophy. The Sopfists deny the possibility of a universal truth valid for all thinking subjects. According to the proposition of Protagoras that “man is the measure of all things,” truth is relative and subjective: “for each, his perception is true” (cf. Plato’s Theaetus). Out of this opposition, there develops in later Greek philosophy the controversy between the “dogmatic” and the “sceptical” schools. For the former, there is a universally valid “criterion” of truth, which gives to certain concepts and principles absolute certainty.

According to the Stoics this criterion consists In “cataleptic

presentation” (@avracia xaraAnrrixy). It forms a spontaneous achievement of thought, a type of assent (ouvyxardaleo.s), which must be added to the sensible impression in order to make it known. A doubt with reference to the “cataleptic presentation” is not possible: we possess full evidence that the object is reproduced in it as it is in itself. In opposition to this the Greek Sceptics deny that there is any such criterion of “evidence.” All supposed “truth” is mere probability. For the absolute objects, the “things in themselves,” are entirely unknown to us (déyAaqa) ; accessible to our judgment are merely the appearances of things, ` which, however, take entirely different shapes according to the differences of the perceiving subjects and the conditions of the perception itself. The definiteness of reason, of the “Logos,” is thus abandoned: concerning any subject there are innumerable assertions each of which may claim to be equally valid. (See ae Das Wahrhetisproblem in der griechischen Philosophie, IQT3. Mediaeval scholasticism, in its definition of the concept of truth, refers throughout to Greek philosophy, especially to Aristotle. According to it, truth consists essentially in the agreement of thinking and being, in the adaequatio intellectus et rei (Thomas Aquinas, De veritate 1, 2). But this definition bears now a new content. For the problem of truth belongs no longer exclusively to the realm of logic, to the sphere of pure cognition, but refers! essentially to the question of religious certainty. The opposition between “sensibility” and “thought” is now replaced by the opposition between “faith” and “knowledge.” Religious faith seeks sup-

port in the intellect (jides quarens intellectum), although it cannot find in it a sufficient foundation but stands in need of another, superior source of certainty. ‘Thus the problem arises as to how both principles of certainty, how “natural intellect” and “revelation” stand to one another. Scholasticism, at times, supposes a relation of mere subordination; at times, it asserts a complete separation between them. In the later nominalism this idea of separation is predominant. There arises the doctrine of “twofold truth,” according to which a definite sentence may be true from the standpoint of knowledge and false from the standpoint of faith. The problem of truth and of logical and religious certainty

TRUTH had been conceived most profoundly by Augustine.

“Do not turn

outward; go back into yourself; in the inner life of man resides the truth.” The inner life gives us, as a first indubitable starting

point, the certainty of the thinking, feeling and willing subject: the certainty of our own Being and Knowing and Willing. This certainty cannot be attacked by doubt because doubt itself 1s an

act of thought and must, therefore, presuppose the latter. “Whoever knows himself as doubting, knows something true and is certain of that which he knows; he is thus certain of truth. There-

fore, whoever doubts whether there is a truth, has thus in himself a truth about which no doubt is possible. Therefore, he who doubts at all, cannot doubt truth as such.” (Augustinus, De vera

religione, cap. 39.) However, this immanent truth as exhibited in the thinking consciousness, is not the only one, nor a sufficient one for the foundation of religious cognition. For the Being to which religious cognition refers, lies, as an infinite Being, beyond the

limits of human consciousness. For a knowledge of the Divine mere ratio must be “transcended” by another power of the mind. Entering into the inner life of the subject and going beyond this

inner life are thus the two phases which disclose the realm of truth as a whole. If there were only a truth of finite and contingent things, we could stop with the finite, empirical consciousness as the bearer of this truth. However, since there is a region of eternal truths (veritates aeternae )—Augustine cites the truths of religion and of pure mathematics—there must be an infinite intellect which thinks them and in which they subsist. Human thought does not create these truths; it is only able to receive them in so far as it is enlightened by a higher power. In every cognition of a necessary and eternal truth, our reason is only seemingly self-active and autonomous. In order to apprehend such a truth, it must be enlightened by the divine intellect. The divine Logos is the “hidden sun’? which alone makes truth visible for us.

The intimate connection of the problem of truth with the problem of God, which is characteristic of mediaeval epistemology, continues for a long time also in modern philosophy. The aftereffects of the Augustinian doctrine are obvious in Nicolaus Cu-

sanus and Marsilius Ficinus. (See under Fıcınus.) (Cf. Ernst Cassirer, Individuum und Kosmos in der Philosophie der Renais-

ŝance, 1927.) But also Descartes and Malebranche, Cudworth and the Cambridge Platonists show clearly traces of this. On the other hand, however, there develops a more and more pronounced tendency to emancipate the problem of truth from all entanglements with theological questions and to give it logical independence. Modern rationalism, as represented especially by Herbert of Cherbury’s De veritate (1624), maintains the pure self-determination, the unconditioned autonomy of thought. Human reason decides according to its own, universally valid, innate principles about truth and error. Its fundamental concepts and axioms are absolutely binding. There can be no conflict between faith and knowledge because any truth of faith needs the test of reason to attain to and be determined in its certainty. In Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz, the clear and distinct cognition (clara et distincta perceptio) is set forth as the criterion of truth. Those judgments alone may claim universal assent which are founded on clear and distinct ideas and which allow us to recognize the connection of these ideas with the same certainty that obtains in the propositions

of mathematics.

(See RATIONALISM.)

Accordingly, the characteristic trait of truth, the norma veritatis, is no longer placed in the agreement of a presentation or cognition in us with an external “transcendent” object, but in the agreement with definite principles of reason itself. Every idea is called true which can be derived from them in a strictly deductive manner, by the method of purely logical or mathematical inference. When this proof has been given for a certain idea, there can be no doubt that the objective reality must conform with the idea; for this agreement forms, itself, a necessary axiom of reason. Thus, Spinoza, for instance, expounds in his Treatise on the improvement of the understanding that that which makes a thought

a true thought, must lie entirely within it; that the real cause of truth is to be sought, therefore, not in an external object, but exclusively in the intellect itself. The mathematical idea of the sphere, for instance, is “true” even if there is no entity to. be found

523

in intuition and empirical perception which corresponds to the definition of the sphere in all respects and with perfect accuracy; and after this ideal conception of the sphere, we determine the reality of “nature” as it is grasped and “clearly and distinctly” recognized through geometry and mechanics. With particular clarity this conception of truth appears in Leibniz’s Meditationes de cognitione, veritate et ideis (1684). Against the nominalistic view of Hobbes, that truth consists only in the correct connection of certain linguistic signs (veritas non in re, sed in dicto consistit), Leibniz emphasises that the correctness of the connection between the signs must be based on a relation between the ideas themselves. Truth, therefore, always depends on the relations which subsist between the pure ideas. The process in which the assumption of one idea necessarily implies another, gives birth to the systematic coherence of knowledge—and this nexus according to the principle of sufficient reason makes up the fundamental character of all truth. Even the truth of phenomena consists only in the fact that they obey certain laws which correspond to the ideal truths of pure logic and pure mathematics. A different form is given to the problem of truth in the English philosophy of the 17th and 18th centuries. In Locke the “intuitive” truth of mathematical ideas is contrasted with the empirical certainty of the existence of things, which can never be inferred by pure logic, but rests on the testimony of sense perception. Empirical truth, in this sense, belongs only to the simple ideas which are given to us immediately through sensation or reflection. What we can predicate, on the other hand, about the connection of these simple ideas, about their coexistence, their regular recurrence, etc., has no truth in the strict sense of the word, no demonstrative certainty, but rests on mere probability. With Berkeley and Hume, this view is developed further and stated more radically with reference to the empirical knowledge of nature. The order of nature is not founded on principles which can be understood in themselves as necessary and unconditionally valid, but it represents a purely empirical regularity with which “we become acquainted through kabit and custom; the knowledge of this order can, therefore, never claim to be more than probable. With Kant, the battle between the rationalistic and the empirical conceptions of truth is decided in such a way that the laws of pure understanding are recognized as necessary and universal, as valid a priori, but that, on the other hand, these laws themselves can retain their validity only within the bounds of experience. The traditional definition of truth—namely, that it is the ‘‘agreement of knowledge with its object”—involves, as Kant expounds in the Critique of Pure Reason (p. 82), a logical circle. For the problem of knowledge consists in determining just what the “relation of a presentation to its object” means, and how we can ascertain this relation. The concept of an “object of knowledge” is only the concept of a “Something in general=X,” “because, apart from our knowledge, we have nothing which we could set over against it as corresponding to it.” “It is clear, however, that because we have only to do with the manifold of our presentations and because that X which corresponds to them, in so far as it is to be something distinct from our presentations, is for us nothing, the unity made necessary by the object can be nothing other than the formal unity of consciousness in the synthesis of the manifold of presentations. Then we say: we know the object, when we have effected synthetical unity in the manifold of intuition.” (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, st ed., p. 104 seg.) The “transcendental” truth, the truth of the object, rests thus on the “formal” truth; for only the forms of pure intuition and understanding make a connection of the phenomena possible; this connection, however, and nothing else, is meant when we attribute to a phenomenon objective significance, objective validity. However, since, on the other hand, the concepts of the synthesis ¢ priori, although not originating in experience, all refer, nevertheless, to experience as the condition of its possibility, one may say that the possibility of experience is that which alone gives objective reality to all our cognitions. Cognition a priori has, therefore, truth (agreement with the object) only because it contains nothing further than what is necessary for the synthetic unity

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TRUTNOV— TRYON

of experience. (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, znd ed. p. 195 ff.) of the problem of truth. (Rickert, Der Gegenstand der Erkenntnis, In this sense, Kant declares that with regard to theoretical cog- 1904.) In general, the treatment of the problem of truth in the nition of nature, experience supplies the rule, and that it is the epistemology of the rgth and 2oth centuries, as compared with “source of truth” (Krit. d. r. Vern. p. 375); but in contradistinc- that of the 18th century, shows a change in point of view. The tion to the empiricism of Locke and Hume, experience is here to opposition of “experience” and “thought,” of “empiricism” and be understood not as a “mere rhapsody of perceptions,” but a “rationalism,” has been replaced by the opposition of the “theosynthetical unity according to laws. In this point, Kant sees retical” and the “practical,” “intellectualism” and iia E. CR. the decisive contrast between his “formal” idealism and the specuTRUTNOV, a town of Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, is situated lative idealism represented, for instance, by Berkeley. “The thesis of all true idealists, from the Eleatic school down to at the foot of the Riesengebirge, on the right bank of the Upa, a Bishop Berkeley, is contained in this formula: ‘All cognition tributary of the Elbe. Founded by German colonists in the 13th through sense and experience is sheer illusion, and only in the century it developed a flourishing linen industry which was helped ideas of pure understanding and reason is truth.’ The principle by the bleaching suitabilities of the mountain streams and which governs and determines my idealism throughout, is, on the meadows. Pop. (1921) 14,584, of whom 11,412 were Germans. TRUXTUN, THOMAS (1755-1822), American naval contrary: ‘All cognition of things merely out of pure understanding or pure reason, is sheer illusion, and only in experience is officer, born at Jamaica, Long Island, N.Y., Feb. 17, 1755. While still young he went to sea. During the Revolutionary War he was truth” (Prolegomena, Appendix). Also in the epistemology of the 19th and the beginning of the first persuaded to serve in a royal ship. But having been wounded soth century, the problem of truth is the central problem. It is in an action with a privateer manned by his countrymen, it is especially the battle between pure “formalism” or “logicism” on said that he declared he would never fight them again. Hencethe one hand, and “pragmatism” on the other, which gives to forth he commanded a succession of privateers sent out to cruise this epistemology its stamp. In the sense of “Jogicism,” the against British trade. He had the reputation of being uniformly successful in all engagements with British vessels. When the concept of truth is determined especially by Bernhard Bolzano (1781—1848). Bolzano demands that the logical definition of truth independence of the United States was recognized he returned to must be set forth without any regard for the individual minds for trade with a high reputation as a seaman. When the U.S. navy whom the truth is valid, and without any intermingling of psy- was reconstituted In 1798 he was one of the original corps of six chological determinations. Truth is entirely independent of the captains. American commerce was then subject to much intolthought of an individual mind. This view is expressed in Bol- erable interference on the part of the French as well as of the zano’s concept of a “truth in itself.” “I understand by a truth in British naval officers. It was against the first that Truxtun renitself any proposition which predicates something as it is, whereby dered the services which have made him a prominent personage I leave undetermined whether this proposition has really been in the history of the U.S. navy. In Feb. 1799, he was captain of thought and expressed by anybody or not. Be it the one or the the United States “Constellation” and on the roth of that other, the proposition shall always receive from me the name of month he captured the French “L’Insurgente.” In the fola truth in itself if only . . . the object with which it deals, really lowing year, and while still in command of the “Constellation,” possesses what it attributes to it. Thus, the quantity of flowers, he fought the French “Vengeance,” and drove her into Curacao. for instance, which a certain tree standing in a definite place had After 1802 he was not further employed by the navy department. last spring, is an indicable number even if nobody knows it; a He died at Philadelphia on May 5, 1822. proposition, therefore, which indicates this number, has for me: TRYON, DWIGHT WILLIAM (1849-1925), American the name of an objective truth even if nobody is cognizant of it.” artist, was born at Hartford, Conn., Aug. 13, 1849. At the age This formal determination of truth, which abstracts from any of 25 he left his position as a clerk in a Hartford publishing reference to actual thinking, is opposed by pragmatism (g.v.). house to devote himself entirely to art, and two years afterwards For pragmatism, the concept of truth can be understood only went to Paris, where he became a pupil of the École des Beaux if it is referred to the activity of thought, and if this activity is Arts, under J. de la Chevreuse, Charles Daubigny and A. Guillenot considered merely in the abstract but is treated as a vital met. He first exhibited at the Salon in 188r. In 1882—86 he expression of a living individual. “True” is the term applied to was director of the Hartford School of Art, and in 1886 became those representations which hold good in the course of one’s ex- professor of art at Smith college. He became a National Acadeperlence, z.¢., which prove practically useful. This “power to mician (1891), and won numerous medals and prizes at important work” is the real characteristic and criterion of truth. It is, ac- exhibitions, among his pictures being “Daybreak,” “Moonlight” cordingly, not so much an abstract-logical, but rather a biological and “Early Spring, New England.” He died at South Dartmouth, conception: the truth of a judgment is decided not by the agree- Mass., July r, 1925. ment with a reality existing in itself, but by its practical effiTRYON, SIR GEORGE (1832-1893), British admiral, a clency. As a consequence, there results that relativity of truth younger son of Thomas Tryon, of Bulwick Park, Northamptonwhich had already been urged by the Greek Sophists, especially by shire, was born on Jan. 4, 1832. He entered the navy in 1848, Protagoras. Truth is never absolute and universally valid: it is and served on various stations and in the Abyssinian expedition always true only for a definite biological species, inasmuch as the of 1867. In 1889 Tryon was promoted vice-admiral; and in advantage of certain beliefs depends upon what is conducive to August 1891 was appointed to command the Mediterranean fleet, the species. (For a criticism of pragmatism, see CASSIRER: Sub- which under him—following the example of his old chief, Sir stance and Function.) In an entirely different manner and with Geoffrey Hornby—became an evolutionary and, in that sense, exa different tendency Rickert tries to base the conception of truth perimental squadron. On June 22, 1893, the fleet being off Tripoli not so much upon theoretical as upon “practical reason.” Accord- on the coast of Syria, in two columns, Tryon made the signal to ing to Rickert’s doctrine, we must start our quest for this concept invert the course, the ships turning inwards in succession. By a not from the idea of what is, but from the idea of what ought to fatal error, the psychological cause of which has never been exbe, not from “ontology,” but from the theory of values. The plained, he ignored the patent fact that the two columns were so concept of reality finally presents itself as a concept of values; near each other that the manoeuvre, as ordered, must entail the for we apply the name “real” to that which, in demanding recog- most serious risk, if not certainty, of collision. And, in fact, the nition from every thinking mind, is valid as a norm for all two leading ships did come into collision, with the result that the thought. Only by regression to a superindividual command, to a “Victoria,” Tryon’s flagship, was cut open and sank in a few “transcendent ought,” can the meaning of truth be clarified and minutes. Tryon and 358 officers and men were drowned. understood. All cognition, inasmuch as it proceeds by judgments, See the Life, by Rear-Admiral C. C. Penrose-FitzGerald. że., by assent and dissent, implies an act of taking sides. Such TRYON, WILLIAM (1729-1788), American colonial govan attitude, however, is possible only towards a value. Insight into ernor, was born at Norbury Park, Surrey, England, in 17209. this “primacy of the ought” is necessary for a satisfactory solution In 1764 he succeeded Arthur Dobbs as governor of North Caro-

TRYPANOSOMES— TSCHAIKOVSKY lina. By refusing to allow meetings of the Colonial Assembly he

prevented North Carolina from sending represéntatives to the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. With the support of the law-abiding element he suppressed with severity the Regulator uprising of 1768-71, caused partly by excessive taxation. In July, 1771, he

was transferred to New York, where he acted as governor, nominally at least, until 1780. On his return from a trip to England in 1775 he found the colony in rebellion and was compelled to take refuge on the sloop-of-war “Halifax” in New York harbour. He was restored to power when the British took possession of New York city in September, 1776, though his actual authority did not extend beyond the British lines. In 1777 he became commander of a corps of Loyalists, and in 1779 invaded Connecticut and burned Danbury, Fairfield, and Norwalk. In 1780 he returned to England, and on Jan. 27, 1788 died at his London home. See M. D. Haywood, Governor William Tryon and his Administra-

tion in the Province of North Carolina (1903).

TRYPANOSOMES, single-celled parasitic animals belonging to the class fagellata, chiefly found in the blood of vertebrates: some cause dangerous maladies, e.g., sleeping sickness in man, and nagana, or tsetse disease in ruminants, in Africa. For further particulars see PROTOZOA.

TSAI-DAM

(Zamam),

a basin area in Central Asia, be-

tween the eastern Kuenlun mountains on the south and the Altyntagh and Nan-shan mountains on the north, in the north part of the Chinese province of Kuku-Nor. Its altitude is about 8,200 ft. above sea, and it has many brackish pools and swamps with bare hills around them, there being little vegetation, save on the mountain slopes around. The name Tsai-dam is widely applied to dry lake bottoms in the Mongolian region. See i Trinkler, Tzbet (Mitteilungen Geogr. Ges. München, bd. so, IQ2I--22).

TSANA: see Tana. TSANKOFF, ALEXANDRE

(1879-

), Bulgarian

525

created the revolutionary-terroristic “Narodovolzy.” Tschaikovsky fought desperately against the new tendencies, and after a strong moral crisis left Russia with a few followers for America, where he founded in the wild steppes of Kansas a colony of people “seeking God in themselves.” He organised this commune of “Godmen” in the belief that only people enlightened from within could conquer social evils and form a perfect society. Nikolai Vassilievich remained true to this conviction and his Christian faith to the end of his days. The Kansas experiment did not succeed and after two years Tschaikovsky returned to Europe “to fight for his ideals among men.” He could not return to his country; long years of exile began. He worked in the “Red Cross of the Narodnaya Volia,” in the “Fund of the Free Russian Press” and went to the United States to collect funds and to make propaganda for the Russian movement for freedom. In 1909 during a secret voyage to Russia he was arrested, but set free after trial. He devoted himself to the organisation of the co-operative movement in Russia. The war and revolution found the “first Russian Narodnik” at work in relieving the sufferings of the Russian people: he helped with the food supply of the Northern front, and fed the populations of Lettonia, Poland and Latvia ruined by the war. In the revolution of 1917 he fought to the last the Bolshevist currents in the councils of workers and soldiers deputies, finally resigned and gave himself entirely to the White fight against the Bolshevist government.

He

was

elected

a member

of an

All-Russian

directory in Ufa, and later became president of the Northern Government on the Archangel front. Afterwards he was a member of the “political consultation” in Paris, and of the SouthRussia government in Ekaterinodar and the Crimea. Exile again; once more emigration. The White front was broken, the White fight lost. After the fall of the Crimean front Tschaikovsky organised in Paris a secret “centre of action,” for a fight against the Bolsheviks inside Russia. Until 1923 efforts were made to organise in Russia “a new revolution” but for lack of funds the “centre of action” ceased its existence.

statesman, was born in 187g in the town of Oriatovo, on the Danube. He got his secondary education at Roussé and studied law TSCHAIKOVSKY, PETER ILICH (1840-1893), Russian at Sofia university. After specializing in political economy in Germany where he was sent by the university he became profes- composer, born at Votkinsk, in the province of Viatka, on May 7, sor of economics at Sofia university. A social-democrat in his 1840, was the son of a mining engineer, who shortly after the student years, Tsankoff long remained outside active politics. boy’s birth removed to St. Petersburg (Leningrad) to become In 1922 he became leader of a small group called the National director of the Technological institute there. While studying in Concord (Naroden Sgovor), drawn from the intelligentzia of the the school of jurisprudence, and later, while holding office in the various political parties and the mass of ex-officers, which aimed ministry of justice, Tschaikovsky picked up a smattering of at combining the dispersed national forces for a struggle against musical knowledge, but he was never suspected at first of posthe semi-dictatorship of Stamboliski. To him fell the premiership sessing any special musical talent, of which there had been of the coalition Government, representing all the political parties, no previous traces in his family. Nevertheless, the seriousness of except the communists, that took power on June gth, 1923, after his musical aspirations revealed itself in due course and led him a military coup d’état, in the preparation of which Tsankoff’s to enter the newly founded Conservatorium of St. Petersburg National Concord had its share. Prof. Tsankoff remained prime under Zaremba, where he was induced by Anton Rubinstein, its minister till the end of 1925 when he was replaced by Andrea principal, to take up music as a profession. With the former he fared better than the latter who, though Liaptcheff (q.v.) another leader of the Democratic Union. His tenure of office coincided with one of the most tragic periods in worshipped by Tschaikovsky, seems never to have appreciated the modern Bulgaria’s history. The disturbance that broke out after gifts and promise of his young pupil who was destined none the the overthrow of Stamboliski’s régime took thousands of human less completely to eclipse his own fame. Very different was the lives. The principal moments in it are the communist rising of attitude of Nicholas Rubinstein (Anton’s brother) who showed his Sept. 1923 and the communist outrage at Sveta Nedelia in April belief in the young musician in the most practical manner by inviting him to become, in 1866, practically the first chief of the 1925. recently founded Moscow Conservatorium, since Serov, whom he TSARITSYN: see STALINGRAD. succeeded, never took up his appointment. TSARSKOYE SELO: see DvetsKkoveé SELOo. In Moscow, while engaged at the Conservatorium, Tschaikovsky TSCHAIKOVSKY, NIKOLAI VASSILIEVICH (18501926), Russian revolutionary and politician, born at Viatka, wrote among Other things his first opera The Vojevode, which was, studied chemistry at the university of St. Petersburg under Men- however, a failure when produced in 1869. In the meantime he delyeev and Butlerov, and published in the Bulletin of the Acad- had met in St. Petersburg Balakirev, Stassov, Rimsky-Korsakov emy of Sciences, an original work on chemistry. But pure science and other representatives of the then “advanced” school in Ruscid not satisfy the ardent youth, who strove for practical activity. sian music, who exercised a stimulating influence on him, although Herbert Spencer and Auguste Comte were Tschaikovsky’s spiritual neither then nor later was he ever wholly in sympathy with their guides. The rọ year old student became the soul of the “circle,” ideals. Also at this period he fell desperately in love for a time with which soon took his name. “The circle of Tschaikovsky” laid the foundation of the Russian Narodniki (populist) movement the opera singer Désirée Art6ét who, however, shattered his hopes and for many years directed its channels. Persecutions by the by marrying someone else. He found consolation in his art, an authorities changed the character of the movement; from purely his third opera The Oprischnik, was one of many work éd cultural it became political, and from the original circle it soon at this time, others including the pianoforte concerto in B flat

m

526

TSCHAKSTE

minor, the third symphony and another opera Vakoula the Smith. The Oprischnik was produced at St. Petersburg in 1874 and Vakoula the Smith in 1876, but neither had any success. A happier fate attended the B flat minor piano concerto, which though severely condemned in the first instance by Nicholas Rubinstein (to whom it was originally dedicated) as clumsy and unplayable, as a mere duel between the piano and orchestra, and so on, was afterwards taken up with enthusiasm by Hans von Biilow {to whom the composer transferred the dedication)

and performed by him everywhere with the greatest success. At the same time it is only fair to add that Tschaikovsky, though much hurt by Nicholas Rubinstein’s strictures, considerably modified the work on the strength of his criticisms and that Rubinstein in turn ultimately recognized the merits of the concerto and played it constantly. To the period of the late ’7os belong the E flat quartet, the ballet The Swan Lake, and the “Francesca da Rimini” fantasia among other compositions, while during this period also, namely in 1877, Tschaikovsky first began to work on the opera of Eugen Onegin, destined to become the most popular of all his stage works and first heard at the Moscow Conservatorium in March 1879. Meanwhile the more personal side of the composer’s career had been given a romantic touch by his acquaintance with his lifelong benefactress Nadezhda Filaretovna von Meck (183 I~1894) and his deplorable fiasco of a marriage. In 1876 he had aroused the interest of Mme. von Meck, the widow of a wealthy railway engineer and contractor. She had a large fortune and she began by helping the composer financially in the shape of commissions for work, but in 1877 this took the more substantial shape of an annual allowance of £600. The strangest feature of their association consisted in the fact that, by agreement, they never met, though they corresponded with one another continually. In 1890 Mme. von Meck, imagining herself—apparently a pure delusion— to be ruined, discontinued the allowance; and though Tschai-

kovsky was then no longer really in need of it, he was deeply wounded by the manner in which she had made the announcement, and to the end of his days never entirely recovered from the shock which his abnormally sensitive nature had received from the termination of their relations. Not less distressing was the episode of his marriage. Tschaikovsky married Antonina Ivanovna Milyukova on July 6, 1877, but the union proved an impossible one through no fault of hers but simply through his own abnormality of temperament; and it resulted in separation in October. Tschaikovsky, who was deeply affected, went abroad with his brother to recover and was restored in due course to a more satisfactory state, but such happiness as he was to enjoy throughout the remainder of his career was qualified in an ever increasing degree by the tendency to melancholy and morbid introspection which, from the first, had been a conspicuous characteristic of his disposition. Nor can it be said that he did not have many causes for discomfort and disillusionment in the ill luck and indifferent appreciation which attended in so many instances the performances of his works. But he continued to produce none the less with unchecked ardour and the fourth symphony may be named among the other works which he composed during his period of recuperation abroad. Later, after his return to Russia, came the Italian Capriccio and the “1812” overture among other things. In 1879 he wrote his Maid of Orleans (produced in 1880) and his first suite for orchestra. In 1881 died Nicholas Rubinstein, to whose memory he dedicated the pianoforte trio in A minor. To the next five years belong the Manfred symphonic poem and the Hamlet overture fantasia, the operas Mazeppa and Charodaika, the ‘“Mozartiana”’ suite and the big fifth symphony, of which even the last-named, though reckoned nowadays among his finest achievements, failed to elicit any great enthusiasm at first. Nor were the opera The

first produced, so far at least as the critics were concerned. Better fortune, however, attended the Casse-noisette music in suite form which soon found unlimited favour and quickly established itself as one of the most popular pieces of its class ever written.

(Incidentally, it may be noted that Tschaikovsky himself had the poorest opinion of this music when he was actually writing it.) But though, after the time honoured experience of genius, Tschaikovsky gained full appreciation so tardily in his own country, in foreign countries his claims were much more readily recognized. In 1887 the first of several concert tours took him to

Leipzig, Berlin, Prague, Hamburg, Paris and London, and won many warm friends for his music in every instance, not least so in London where he conducted the Serenade for strings and the Variations from the third suite at a Philharmonic concert. Later, in 1891, he paid a visit to America, where he conducted six concerts—-four in New York, one in Baltimore and one in

Philadelphia—and again he was everywhere received with unbounded enthusiasm, the works performed being the Coronation March, the third suite, two sacred choruses, the B flat minor piano concerto and the Serenade for strings. In 1893 Tschaikovsky sketched his sixth symphony, becoming

more and more absorbed in his task as the work proceeded and more and more firmly convinced that it was the greatest thing he had ever done, a judgment subsequently confirmed in full measure by the world at large; for this was the symphony afterwards known as the “Pathetic,” and under that title destined to enjoy such world-wide fame and popularity as perhaps no similar work had ever known before. Yet even this symphony had a cold and indifferent reception on the occasion of its actual frst performance (on Oct. 28, 1893) at St. Petersburg, though in this

instance the verdict was speedily reversed, both in Russia and elsewhere. But the composer was not fated to witness and enjoy its triumphs. For within ten days of its production the world was shocked by the news of his wholly unexpected death—from an attack of:cholera, caused by the drinking of unfiltered water— on Nov. 6, 1893. : As to the precise value of Tschaikovsky’s music and the place which it is likely ultimately to take critical opinion has been sharply divided, but with a prevailing tendency to accord far less importance to his work than some consider its due. Almost inevitably the enormous popularity enjoyed by so many of his works at the hands of the general public has strengthened this tendency and the impartial student may well wonder if, even when the worst has been allowed, the process of critical belittlement which has been witnessed during recent years in the case of Tschaikovsky, has not gone far beyond the requirements of the case. : While his work as a whole may be unequal, there is in the finest of his orchestral compositions, which represent him at his best, a breadth and scope, a wealth of inspiration and imagination, and a command

of his materials which may

well secure

for them a

far greater measure of favour at the hands of posterity than is anticipated by some of his critics. How, indeed, the title of a great master can be denied to the composer of such things as the fifth dnd sixth symphonies, the “Francesca da Rimini’ fantasia,

the B flat minor piano concerto, and the pianoforte trio, it is indeed hard to understand. Tschaikovsky’s operas are admittedly on a lower plane than the best of his orchestral writing, though containing many delightful pages, and much the same applies to the songs, albeit these also include many examples—he wrote over roo in all—of rare beauty and charm. BrstiocrapHy.—Modeste Tschaikovsky, The Life and Letters of Peter Ilitch Tschaikovsky (3 vols., Moscow, 1900-02; Eng. trans. by Rosa Newmarch, 1 vol., London, 1906); Rosa Newmarch, Tschaikousky, His Life and Works (London, 1900); E. Markham. Lee, Tschaikovsky (vol. ii. of “Music of the Masters” series; London).

(H. A. Sc.)

Queen of Spades (which later vied with Eugen Onegin in popu-

TSCHAKSTE, JAN (1859-1927), first president of the republic of Latvia, was born in Courland, Sept. 14, 1859. Hẹ was

larity) or the delightful ballet The Lake of Swans, The Sleeping Beauty and Casse-noisette any more favourably received when

educated at the Mitau gymnasium, studied law at the University of Moscow, and was for some years in the public prosecutor’s depart-

TSCHUDI—TSETSE-FLY ment of the Courland Government. Leaving the public service in 1888, he started practice as a barrister in Mitau and began to edit the paper Tévija (Fatherland). In 1902 he served on a committee appointed by the local administration to enquire into

agricultural conditions in Courland, and from time to time was employed on various Imperial Government committees. In 1906 he was elected a member of the first Russian Duma. The German invasion of Courland, July 1915, obliged him to leave Mitau. He went to Petrograd (Leningrad) where he founded a central relief committee for war refugees. In 1916 he went to Stockholm to

promote the cause of Lettish independence and published there in German his book, Die Letten und ihre Latvija. In 1918 Tschakste was elected chairman of the People’s Council and was later head of the delegation sent to Paris and London to secure the recognition of the republic of Latvia. He was president of the Latvian National Council and in 1920 he was president of the Latvian Constituent Assembly, and also became professor of international law at the University of Riga. On Nov. 14, 1922, he was unanimously elected president of Latvia by the first Latvian Saemia (parliament), and on Nov. 6, 1925, was reelected for a further period of three years, but he died on March 14, 1927, before the completion of his term of office, after a long and painful illness. His activities as a statesman have been dealt with in special publications and, since his death, a memorial fund has been started.

527

forces, assisted by the “Ever-victorious Army,” had checked the progress of the rebellion, and Tsēng was able to carry out a scheme which he had long formulated of besieging Nanking, the rebel headquarters. While Gordon, with the help of Li HungChang, was clearing the cities on the lower waters of the Yangtsekiang, Tsēng drew closer his besieging lines around the doomed city. In July 1864 the city fell into his hands, and he was rewarded with the rank and title of marquis. After the suppression of the Taipings the Nienfei rebellion, closely related to the former movement, broke out in Shantung, and Tséng was sent to quell it. He failed, and was relieved of his command by Li Hung-Chang, who succeeded him in the viceroyalty of Chihli. Tséng died in 1872. Tséng was a voluminous writer. His papers addressed to the throne and his literary disquisitions are held in high esteem by the scholars of China, who treasure as a memorial of a great and uncorrupt statesman the edition of his collected works in 156 books, which was edited

by Li Hung-Chang in 1876.

TSETSE-FLY,

(R. K. D.)

the name given to any one of the twenty

species of Glossina, a genus of African blood-sucking fiies of the family Muscidae, order Diptera (q.v.). In appearance they are brownish insects banded or mottled with darker markings: they are somewhat larger than the house-fly and have a prominent proboscis projecting horizontally in front of the head. Their habit of resting with the wings closed flat, one over the other, on the ed from other bloodTSCHUDI, GILES or AEGIDIUS (1505-1572), Swiss back enables them to be distinguish does not lay eggs but brings forth historian, a zealous Catholic, who became the chief magistrate sucking flies. The female insect larva which is deposited on the or landammann of Glarus in 1558, and in 1559 was ennobled by at intervals a single fully-grown itself in some shady place and conceals speedily it where ground, the emperor Ferdinand, to whom he had been sent as ambassador. where there is bush or forest, abound flies The pupa. a to turns He is, however, best known as the historian of the Swiss Conlakes and islands; they rivers, of margins the frequenting often federation. His great work is the Chronicon helveticum, or y Fidgendssche Kronik, dealing with the period from rooo to 1470. are not found continuousl but are restricted to areas known as fly belts. Both sexes are active blood suckers and are most In spite of its many inaccuracies, falsifications and acceptance e of baseless legends (comp., é.g., the article, TELL) this work is troublesom during the hotter parts of the day, attacking both man and domestic animals. They are of great economic sigone of great interest and merit, and was long considered the leading authority on its subject. It enshrines the text of many nificance because they act as carriers of the pathogenic organisms (trypanosomes) which are responsible for fatal diseases in man ancient documents that would otherwise have been lost. animals. When a tsetse-fly alights on an infected subject and and Tschudi’s chief works were not published until long after his es may be taken in death. The Beschreibung Galliae Comatae appeared under Gal- sucks its blood, numbers of the trypanosom at require organisms to undergo a dethe tiny These time. same lati’s editorship in 1758, and is mainly devoted to a topographical, velopmental phase within the fly and when it 1s completed, are historical and antiquarian description of ancient Helvetia and Rhaetia, the latter part being an early work on Rhaetia revised and greatly enlarged. This book was designed practically as an introduction to his magnum opus, the Chromcon helveticum above mentioned, which was published by J. R. Iselin in two

stately folios (1734~1736). See Lives by I. Fuchs (1805) and C. Vogel (1856).

TSENG

KUO-FAN

(1811-1872), Chinese statesman and

general, was born in 18rz in the province of Hunan, where he took in succession the three degrees of Chinese scholarship. In 1843 he was appointed chief literary examiner in the province of Szechuen, and six years later was made junior vice-president of the board of rites. The Taiping rebels were overrunning Hunan, and Tséng was ordered to assist the governor of the province in raising a volunteer force, and on his own initiative he built a fleet of war junks, with which he attacked the rebels. His lieutenants recovered the capital, Chang-sha, and destroyed the

rebel fleet. Following up these victories of his subordinates, Tséng recaptured Wuchang and Hanyang, near Hankow, and was rewarded for his success by being appointed vice-president of the board of war. The rebels retook Wuchang and burnt the protecting fleet. Tséng, however, succeeded in clearing the country round the Poyang Jake, and subsequently in ridding the province of Kiangsu of the enemy. In 1857 he took supreme command in Cheh-kiang. Subsequently the rebels were driven westwards and

Tséng then cleared the province of Ngan-hui of rebel bands. In 1860 he was appointed viceroy of the two Kiang provinces

and Imperial war commissioner. At this time, and for some time previously, he had been fortunate in having the active support of Tso Tsung-t‘ang, who at a later period recovered Kashgar for the emperor, and of Li Hung-Chang. In 1862 he became assistant grand secretary of State. At this time the Imperial

TSETSE-FLY (GLOSSINA PALPALIS), FOUND IN WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA. THE SMALLER FIGURE SHOWS THE INSECT WITH ITS WINGS -CLOSED FLAT IN A RESTING POSITION, AND THE LINE ON THE LEFT INDICATES THE NATURAL SIZE

ready to pass into the blood of any man or animal upon which the fly happens to feed. In this manner the tsetse-fly Glossina palpalis transmits Trypanosoma gambiense, the causal agent of sleeping sickness from man to man by means of its piercing mouth-parts, and in a similar fashion Glossina morsitans transmits Trypanosoma rhodesiense, which is responsible for the more local or Rhodesian form of that disease. This same species of tsetse-fly is also the principal carrier of Trypanosoma brucet, which causes nagana disease among domestic animals. Five other

528

TSHI—TUAM

kinds of tsetse-fly have been proved experimentally to be capable of transmitting trypanosomes, and it is probable that a number of species are natural carriers of the diseases mentioned. The development of communications has probably been TEsponsible for the spread of sleeping sickness from West Africa to eastern Central Africa where the population had acquired no immunity. In the five years 1901-06 it is stated that over 200,000 natives died of the complaint in Uganda, where it was previously unknown, and the local tsetse-flies up till then were believed to have been uninfected with the trypanosome. The island population of Lake Victoria Nyanza suffered most seriously from this outbreak. Among the various methods which have been tried to control the fly, the clearing of vegetation around villages, so as to make such localities unsuitable for the insect, is now receiving attention. No feasible methods of luring or poisoning the insect are known, while the destruction of the concealed pupae presents great difficulties if carried out on a sufficiently extensive scale, The utilization of natural parasites has received some attention but at present offers little prospects of success. It has been proved experimentally that monkeys can be infected with the sleeping sickness trypanosome, and certain wild game, including antelopes, are regarded as functioning as “natural reservoirs” for trypanosomes although they themselves apparently suffer little ill effects. For a discussion of this subject and all matters connected with the tsetse, see E. E. Austen and E. Hegh, Tsetse Flies (1922); also R. Newstead, Guide to the Study of the Tsetse Flies (1924). An account of the ravages of sleeping sickness is given by G. D, H. Carpenter in A Naturalist on Lake Victoria (1920). (A. D. I.)

the small town of Tsimo, where they encountered the enemy for the first time. The second Japanese contingent began to land at Laoshan bay, within the leased zone, on Sept. 18 and soon established touch with the first army. The Japanese forces under Gen. Kamio thus amounted to about 22,980 officers and men, and they succeeded in some 10 days in wresting from the Germans several of their advanced positions. On Sept. 24 there arrived at the

arena of campaign the British force, commanded by Gen. Barnardiston, consisting of gro officers and men of the 2nd South Wales Borderers and 450 of the 36th Sikhs. After the non-combatants had been permitted to leave the fortress, the general attack of the position was commenced on Oct. 31, the Japanese

blockading fleet off the harbour assisting by a continuous bombardment. On the morning of Nov. 7 white flags were descried on the forts of Moltke, Bismarck and Iltis, to the pleasant surprise of the attacking army, which had expected a protracted

siege. After the fall of the stronghold it was ascertained that all enemy ships, including the Austrian cruiser “Kaiserin Elisabeth,” had been sunk in the port of Tsingtao. The Japanese army lost during the campaign 1,968 killed or wounded, and the Japanese navy, a cruiser, a destroyer and a torpedo boat. The port of Kiaochow was reopened for trade by the Japanese on Dec. 28, 1914. (See Wortp War: Bibliography.)

TSINLINGSHAN,

a range of mountains which forms the

southern wall of the Wei-ho valley and extends eastwards into the

plain of north China (Honan).

It forms a boundary in geology,

climate and human relations between the region of loess in the

north and the basin of the Yangtze to the south. The Tapaling or Tapashan is a range diverging from it south-eastwards, with the TSIMSHIAN, an American Indian linguistic stock on Nass valley of the Han between them. These mountains are often held to be structurally a continuation of the Kuenlun system and, like and Skeena rivers and Milbank sound, British Columbia. They are typical North Pacific Coast tribes, forming, with the Tlingit, the Kuenlun, show folding of rocks up to the Upper Carboniferous the Haida and certain Athabascans of the adjacent interior, a age, with granites and gneiss in many places, especially in the matrilineal sub-culture group. The four Tsimshian phratries, north. The reduction in height from the great mountains of the Raven, Wolf, Eagle and Grizzly Bear, are distributed through the Kuenlun system on the west to the Tsinlingshan on the east is three tribes composing the stock, namely Tsimshian proper, Niska very marked, though the latter reach 10,983 ft. and its average and Gitksan. Population, originally estimated, 7,000; 1906, 3,700. height is surprisingly great. The break between the Kuenlun system and these mountains is a part of the great break seen all TSINAN, TSI-NAN-FU: see CHINAN. TSINGTAO, a port on a large inlet named Kiaochow bay, on along the east side of the Tibetan plateau. The north face is very the south side of the base of the Shantung peninsula, China. The steep, and loess reaches up to some 3,300 ft. above sea-level at bay was occupied by Germany after the murder of two mission- places along it. The top of the range is broad, with sharp heights. aries in Shantung in 1897, and negotiations followed, resulting in The south face has rounded heights and wild, deep-cut valleys. a lease of land to Germany for 99 years. The area leased’ was In spite of its size and height the range is essentially one mass, about 117 sq.m., and all points within 32 m. of any point on the and not a complex of chains such as we find, for example, in the bay were held not to be affected by Chinese ordinances without Alps. The Chinese were interested in and occupied the Han valley German consent. A free port was created in 1899, and a branch in distant antiquity, but until a way was worked out across the of the Imperial Maritime Customs was established there for col- Tsinlingshan, these had to pass south-eastwards up the Tankiang, lection of duties on shipments to and from the interior, in accord- a long detour if the ultimate goal were Han-chung-fu, or, perhaps, ance with the general tariff. Tsingtao, on the bay, became the Chengtu in Szechwan. The date of the first making of a road port and chief centre, and the German Government created edu- across the range is in doubt as between 200 B.c. and A.D. 200. cational and agricultural institutions in the leased territory, and TSU-SHIMA, an island belonging to Japan, situated about fortified the port. Japanese forces took the place in 1914, and midway between Korea and the island of Iki, so that the two held it till 1922, when it was returned to China under the Washing- islands were used as places of call in former times by vessels plyton Agreement. The port is connected with Chinan, the capital ing between Japan and Korea. Tsu-shima lies about 34° 20’ N., of the province of Shantung, by rail, and here the railway joins 129° 20’ E. The nearest point of the Korean coast is 48 m. disthat from Peking and Tientsin to Pukow on the Lower Yangtze. tant. It has an area of 262 sq.m. and a population of c. 42,000. The Siege of Tsingtao.—The first part which Japan took It is divided at the waist by a deep sound (Asaji-ura), and the upon herself to play in the World War was the reduction of the southern section has two hills, Yatachi-yama and Shira-dake, German stronghold of Tsingtao, on the bay of Kiachow. This 2,130 ft. and 1,680 ft. high respectively, while the northern secfortress served at the outset of the war as the only base of opera- tion has Ibeshi-yama and Mi-take, whose heights are 1,128 ft. TSHI, a group of Negro peoples of the Gold Coast (g.v.). The chief of these are the Ashanti and Fanti.

tions in Eastern Asia for the German marauders menacing the

Allied trade routes. It was imperative to make von Spee’s raiders homeless, and the military and naval operations against the redoubtable base, which was under the command of Capt. MeyerWaldeck and garrisoned by some 13,000 men, of whom 5,599 were German regulars, were started with the utmost despatch. On Aug. 27, 1914, the blockade of Kiachow bay was declared by the Japanese navy, and Lungkow, 150m. N. of Tsingtao, was chosen

as the point for landing troops. On Sept. 2, 1914, the Japanese division, under the orders of Lieut.-Gen. Kamio, commenced landing at Lungkow. Despite the terrible weather conditions, the vanguards arrived on the rath at

and 1,598 ft. The chief town is Izu-hara. The Mongol armada visited the island in the 13th century and committed great depredations. In 1861 an attempt was made by Russia to obtain a footing on the island. The name of the battle of Tsu-shima is given to the great naval engagement of the 27th and 28th of May 1905, in which the Russian fleet under Admiral Rozhdestvensky was defeated by the Japanese under Admiral Togo.

TUAM,

a market town and episcopal city of Co. Galway,

Ireland, 20 m. N.N.E. of Galway on the Great Southern railway.

Pop. (1926) 3,288.

It is the seat of a Roman Catholic arch-

bishopric, and of a Protestant bishopric. The cross of Tuam, re-erected in modern times, bears inscriptions in memory of Tur-

TUAN CHI-JUI—TUBE logh O’Conor, king of Ireland, and O’Hoisin, successively (1128) abbot of St. Jarlath’s Abbey and archbishop (1152) of Tuam, when the see was raised. St. Jarlath’s Roman Catholic college is a seminary founded in 1814 for the education of priests.

TUAN

CHI-JUI, Chinese politician, was born in Anhwei.

He succeeded Yuan Shih-kai as viceroy of the Hukuang Province, and was one of the military leaders who signed the memorial of Jan. 1911, urging the Emperor to abdicate. He was acting Premier from May to July 1913, Minister of War in 1914, and Premier in April 1916. In Oct. ror8 he resigned, and, after an ill-advised coup on behalf of the Anfui Club, played no great part in affairs till Nov. 24, 1924, when he succeeded Tsao Kun as President.

TUAPSE, a town on the Black Sea in the North Caucasian

Area in 44° 10’ N., 38° 50’ E., linked by a branch line with Armavir on the Rostov-Baku railway. It has oil refineries working on oil from the Grosniy district, to which a pipe line is being

constructed (1928).

Its population was 12,142 in 1926.

TUAREG, also TAWAREK (sing. Targi), the name given by Arabs to the western and central Saharan Berber peoples in the desert from Tuat to Timbuktu and from Fezzan to Zinder, an area of about 1,500,000 sq.m.

The Tuareg resort to the centres

from which the trade routes radiate, Timbuktu, Ghat, Ghadames, Murzuk and Tuat. Their general colour is reddish yellow. Their hair is long, black and silky, beards black and thin, eyes generally black; noses small, hands delicate, and bodies muscular. They are tall and graceful. The aristocratic section is called Tmajagh; Arabs call them muleth themin (veiled people). The men wear the veil day and night, the women never. The Tuareg, at any rate the noble class, are among the purest of the Berber stocks but have become largely Arabised. The script is known as T’ifinagh, consists of 40 to 50 symbols. They dress generally in a black tunic (some wear white), trousers of white cotton, and wear a cloth called likam or tagilmus, the end of which is drawn over the face, leaving visible only the eyes and the tip of the nose. These cloths are dark blue or white. To this difference of colour is due the terms “black” and “white” Tuaregs. Socially the Tuareg are divided into six classes, viz.: Imajeghan or nobles; Marabout or priests; Imghad or serfs; Irejanaten or mixed people, issue of noble and Imghad; Jkelan negro slaves and Buzu outdoor slaves. The nobles are all pure blooded and provide the tribal chiefs. They do no manual work. Among the Imghad serfdom is hereditary, and they are bound collectively to a noble tribe or group of tribes. The Tuareg weapons are a straight twoedged sword about 4 ft. long, a dagger bound to the left forearm and spears and leathern shields.

549

Tidikelt. In Salah (1,047), In Ghar (1,871). The district commands the routes southwards to Timbuktu and the Sudan. The oases appear to have been inhabited from a very early period. The Arabs took possession in the roth century and imposed Islam upon the people. The treaty of 1845 between Morocco and France left the question of the possession of Tuat, Gurara and Tidikelt unsettled. In 1899 a French scientific mission, under Flamand, was despatched to the oasis of Tidikelt. The French were attacked by the natives (Dec. 28, 1899), whom they defeated. This was the beginning of a campaign which ended in March 1gor in the complete occupation of the oases and of the Zusfana-Saura line of communication. The French were not, however, left in peaceable possession. Attacks by the nomad tribes, were made on the line of communications, and during 1903 the French troops suffered serious losses. To punish the tribes

the town of Figig was bombarded (June 8, 1903). From 1904, the methods of governor Jonnart and of General Lyautey brought about rapid pacification. In 1905, the extension of the railway from South Oran to Colomb Bechar, which had been occupied in Nov. 1903, definitely stabilised French domination in that region. Major A. G. Laing visited the Tuat territory in 1825, but his papers were lost. The next European to visit Tuat was Gerhard Rohlfs, who described his explorations in Tagebuch seiner Reise durch Marokko nach Tuat, 1864 (Gotha, 1865) and Reise durch Marokko ... Exploration der Oasen von Tafilet, Tuat und Tidikelt . . . (Bremen, 1868). E. F. Gautier, Sakara algérien (Paris, 1908), Id. La conquête du Sahara, Paris, 1910; Id. Le Sahara, Paris, 1923; G. B. M. Flamand, Recherches géologiques et géographiques sur le haut-pays de V’Oranie et sur le Sahara, Lyon, 1911; Augustin Bernard and N. Lacroix, La pénétration saharienne, Alger, 1906; Les territoires du Sud de l’Algérie 3 vol, Alger, 1922.

TUATARA,

the common name of the aberrant lizard-like

reptile Sphenodon of New Zealand.

—are a family of valved instruments of powerful tone forming the tenor and bass of the brass wind. In the orchestra these in-

struments are called tubas; in military bands euphonium (tenor), bombardon and helicon (bass). The modern tubas owe their existence to the invention of valves or pistons by two Prussians, St6lzel and Bltimel, in 1815. The tubas are often confounded with the baritone and bass of the saxhorns, being like them the outcome of the application of valves to the bugle family. There is,

however, a radical difference in construction between the two types. Given the same length of tubing, the fundamental octave of the tubas is an octave lower than that of the saxhorns, the quality of tone being besides immeasurably superior. This difference is entirely due to the proportions of the truncated cone of the bore and consequently of the column of air within. By increasing the calibre of the bore in proportion to the length of the tube

See Heinrich Barth, Travels in Central Africa (1858); W. J. Harding King, A Search for the Masked Tuaregs (London, 1903) ; M. Benhazera, Six Mois chez les Touareg du Ahaggar (Algiers, 1908) ; Lieut. C. Jean, Les Touareg du sud-est (Paris, 1909); E. Doutté, Magte et religion dans Afrique du nord (Algiers, 1909); E. F. Gautier, Le Sahara (1923); F. R. Rodd, People of the Veil (1926).

TUAT, a word sometimes applied generally to all the oases in the western part of the Algerian Sahara, ż.e., between 2° W. and 24° E. 26° and 30° N., sometimes restricted to a particular group which borders the east side of Wad Messaud between 263° and 274° N. According to the first usage Tuat includes the oases of Gurara in the north and Tidikelt in the south with the important centre of Insalah. The three groups are spoken of collectively by the French as the Tuat archipelago. The district is comparatively fertile, and produces dates and some cereals and vegetables. The wadi Saura (known in its lower course as the Messaud), formed by the junction of the wadis Zusfana and Ghir, marks the north-western boundary of the oases. The inhabitants live in ksurs or fortified villages, grouped in districts. The Tuat group forms part of the Southern Territories of Algeria; Gurara and Tuat are attached to the territory of Ain Sefra and to the native commune of Timimun. Tidikelt to the Oasis territory and to the native commune of Wargla. The total population is 48,914, of which Gurara has 21,338, Tuat 17,493 and Tidikelt 10,329. The principal ksurs are in Gurara, Timimun (pop. 4,828), Deldoul

(4,527) at Tuat, Timmi (3,037), Zaouiet-Kounta p

(2,948); at

See REPTILE.

TUBA, in music, the tubas—bombardon, helicon, euphonium

THE TUBA,

THE DEEPEST

TONED it was

found that the funda-

INSTRUMENT OF THE BRASS WIND mental note or first sound of the FAMILY harmonic series was easily obtained in a full rich quality, and by means of the valves, with this one note as a basis, a valuable pedal octave, absent in the saxhorns, is obtained. The modern tuba finds its prototype in the Roman tuba. Compared with the other military service instruments of the Romans, the buccina and cornu, the tuba was straight and was used to

sound the charge and retreat, and lead the soldiers in action. TUBE. This term generally refers to a hollow cylinder or pipe for conveying liquids or gases.

In botany it denotes the narrow

basal portion of a gamopetalous corolla or a gamosepalous calyx.

TUBE

530

RAILWAYS—TUBERCULOSIS

For a discussion of the manufacture of metal tubing, see the articles on IRON AND STEEL; CHEMICAL APPARATUS, The manufacture and application of glass tubing is discussed under GLAss MANUFACTURE. Tubes for boilers (że., fire tubing and water tubing), are treated under Borters and STEAM GENERA-

TION. The term as used in the textile industry (z.e., tube yarns), is found in articles related to textiles. The application of the term to sub-surface transit is found in the article Rattways, TuBe. The article PNEUMATIC CONVEYING treats the use of tubes in postal and similar services. Under Tyre various types of inner tubes for vehicles are described. The Coolidge Tube and tubes used for X-ray treatment and Radiotherapy are discussed under articles related to these subjects. The tubes used in lighting are discussed under LIGHTING AND ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION. For Estuary Tubes see AQUEDUCTS. Perhaps the most common use of the word in recent years has been in connection with vacuum tubes used in the radio, These are discussed under THERMIONICS and THERMIONIC VALVES. Many special tubes applying to different fields of science and industry are found under various headings in their related fields. One

device,

however,

which

deserves

mention

here

is the

Knowles Grid-Glow Tube or relay. This is a device for controlling electrical power which is so sensitive that it can be operated by the mere approach of the human hand. Superficially the Knowles Grid-Glow Tube resembles the radio tube for it has the anode, the cathode, and Grid. However, it has no filament; the connection of the anode and cathode are the reverse of the radio tube; the grid is merely a piece of heavy wire and the tube is filled with neon, argon, or some other gas. The ordinary relay is a device which is operated by a small current which controls a much larger one. The relays commonly used in electrical engineering have an amplifying power of about 10,000, which means that they can control a current 10,000 times greater than the current controlling them. A Knowles Grid-Glow Tube has an amplifying power of the order of 100,000,000 and it is probably the most sensitive thing of the kind ever devised. The energy required to operate it is about one one-thousand-millionth

( maoa ) Of a watt. This small amount of energy is sufficient to start a current of 25 milli-amperes flowing through the tube. This current is sufficient to close or open a switch of 25 amperes and this in turn to control almost any operation. It is possible by use of this relay to turn on the lights of the city, start a railway train, or manoeuvre a battleship. The tube is the invention of Knowles of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co.

TUBE RAILWAYS: see RarLways, TUBE. TUBERCULIN. Tuberculin, the name given to various specific substances obtained from artificial cultures of the tubercle bacillus, discovered by Robert Koch in 1890. Koch wrote: “Tuberculin will become an indispensable agent in the diagnosis of tuberculosis, especially in the early stages of phthisis” and “Much more important is its curative action.” As a diagnostic agent tuberculin has been proved by the fost

mortem examinations of Mettetal, Binswanger, Mikulicz and France to be a trustworthy means of detecting the presence of tuberculous lesions in the body. In 1908, W. Camac Wilkinson wrote, “I hold that the specific reaction only occurs when there are living tubercle bacilli somewhere in the body.” (WeberParkes Prize Essay, p. 127) The trend of scientific opinion is in this direction. In all chronic tuberculous diseases of the lungs, bones, Joints, serous membranes and elsewhere, injections of tuberculin prove, not merely that infection with tubercle bacilli has occurred at some time, but that living and active tubercle bacilli are somewhere at work in the tissues and therefore tuberculosis exists. In fact tuberculin alone can prove in the early stages of this disease that a tuberculous focus exists. The value of tuberculin in treatment is far more difficult to assess In a disease so capricious, so inconstant and so treacherous as phthisis. Effects due to the disease are often ascribed to the remedy. “Post hoc, propter hoc.” No opinion is sound unless a large number of cases have been treated and then controlled by after examinations for at least five years. Controlled in this way

in a series of early and moderately advanced cases of phthisis, all having tubercle bacilli in the phlegm, 68% were alive 8—10 years after treatment and many of them were well.

Tuberculin treatment is the only method that can be applied in the aggregate, because at tuberculin clinics, treatment for a year need not cost more than £10—£15 per case; ambulant treatment is feasible and quite safe; there is no waiting list; the convenience of workmen is studied; in 75% of all cases there is no need for

the patient to give up work or leave home. The method is simple, economical and wastes little time. Every patient should be treated in as early a stage as possible. Wilkinson has in recent years applied tuberculin to the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases of the eye, notably conjunctivitis, iridocyclitis, scleritis, episcleritis and even retinitis. The results have been remarkable. In several patients sight which was lost has been restored; in many cases, tuberculosis was not suspected. It is hoped that the results of tuberculin in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the eye, may restore it to the place

assigned to it by Robert Koch in 1890. (W.C. W.) TUBERCULOSIS. Tuberculosis is a disease of man and animals caused by the tubercle bacillus, which belongs to the “acid-fast” group of bacteria, some of which are pathogenic and others quite harmless. The most important pathogenic varieties are the “human,” the “bovine” and the “avian.” Whether these are to be regarded as distinct organisms or merely as mutations is not yet settled but they are easily distinguished by their selective effects on test animals. Fundamentally, tuberculosis consists in an inflammatory reaction of any particular tissue to the invading bacilli, and since tubercle bacilli are relatively little virulent, this tissue reaction is subacute in character. It consists in the formation round the

bacilli of a microscopic agglomeration of cells constituting the so-called “tubercle.” In a typical tubercle there is usually a very large or “giant” multi-nucleated cell in the centre, surrounded by smaller epithelioid cells, and outside these again a zone of lymphocytes. Blood vessels are completely absent, and the bacilli may be contained within the giant cell or scattered among the cells. Though in the earliest stage, the tubercle is microscopic, when several are formed close together they become visible to the naked eye, and constitute the condition known as miliary tubercle from their supposed resemblance to millet seeds. Almost as soon as formed the tubercle undergoes central degeneration (caseation), believed to be directly caused by a toxin produced by the bacilli, aided by the avascular character of the tubercle itself. The further progress of the disease varies greatly according to the resisting power of the individual and the presence or absence of secondary, usually pyogenic, infection of the tuberculous focus. If resistance be low, and especially if pyogenic micrococci gain access, the focus becomes merely a specialized variety of abscess and behaves like other abscesses, even, at times, to the extent of invading the blood stream and leading to a generalized tuberculosis. If, on the contrary, resistance be high the inflammatory reaction terminates in a reparative formation of fibrous (scar) tissue, often with local deposition of calcium salts. Between these extremes are innumerable varieties. Tuberculosis, when it has reached the stage at which it is clinically recognizable, may be regarded as the end-result of a slow progressive and long unrecognized bacterial invasion. It should never be forgotten that, in the majority of infected persons, this clinically recognizable end-stage is never reached; in other words, only a relatively small proportion of the number of infected persons actually becomes clinically tuberculous.

Distribution

Throughout

the World.—A_

world-survey

shows that tuberculosis tends to be widespread in densely populated areas linked by commercial and social ties with the outside world, and is rare or absent in sparsely populated and culturally isolated communities. Climatic, geological and racial factors appear to play a secondary part. Density of population, with the opportunities for frequent and close contact with infective persons

which it involves, appears to be all-important in the dissemination of the germ, while wages, occupation, housing, diet, climatic g

TUBERCULOSIS

Jor

conditions and racial customs constitute ancillary factors of varying significance in so far as they bear upon the capacity of the individual to resist the infective dose or doses to which he has

infection, constitutes a factor of supreme importance in limiting the spread of tubercle bacilli within the body, by causing local inflammation, cell-proliferation and finally fibrosis, with arrest been subjected. of the wandering germs and their confinement within a fibrous or With human tuberculosis, it is where men are herded together in calcified area. And this reactive intolerance is manifested, not the centres of industry that the infection becomes so common as only toward endogenous re-infection from pre-existing foci but to to be almost universal. That this statement is true is proved by exogenous re-infection from outside the body. Pulmonary Disease.—With this conception in mind, it is not the post-mortem findings of reliable pathologists in Europe and America who have investigated long series of cadavers of persons difficult to understand why the tuberculosis of adult life in civildying from all diseases. In the words of M. Fishberg “no matter ized and “tuberculized” communities usually takes the form of what the cause of death may have been, whether the persons knew pulmonary disease. In the generalization of infection through the they had tuberculosis or not, between 50 and 100% of people blood stream from the primary lymph-gland foci, the bacillary living in large cities show active, quiescent or healed tuberculous emboli must travel along the veins from the glands and since all lesions In some organ of their bodies.” the venous blood must necessarily pass through the capillary bed These findings bring into sharp relief the importance of the dis- of the lungs before being re-distributed throughout the body, the tinction between infection and disease. The results of tuberculin lung tissue presents the first filter to be encountered by the bloodtests applied to healthy persons (Pollak, Vienna, 1911; Mantoux, borne bacilli. It is into the lungs, too, that all contaminations are Paris, 1909 and 1910; Fishberg, New York, 1914; Calmette, Lille, drawn in respiration. While both blood-borne and air-borne 1911 and others) show that, by the age of 15 years, nearly every tubercle bacilli may pass unchecked through the “virgin” lungindividual living under urban conditions has already become tissue of children and non-infected adults, they tend, where “‘reinfected with the tubercle bacillus. active intolerance” exists, to be arrested in the pulmonary tissue It is clear, therefore, that, in densely populated countries, and to set up the inflammatory and ulcerative phenomena of tuberculous infection is far more widespread than tuberculous phthisis. disease. In sparsely populated and isolated countries, on the I. IN GREAT BRITAIN other hand, neither tuberculous infection nor tuberculous disease Changes in Clinical Type.—The statement is frequently is common. Borrel, for instance, found that only 3% of the Senegalese soldiers summoned to Europe for the World War gave a made that the cases of pulmonary tuberculosis encountered 30 or positive response to the tuberculin skin-test on arrival in France, so years ago were much more acute than those seen to-day, and a while numerous investigations carried out in the African and general impression exists amongst clinicians that phthisis is more Asiatic colonies and dependencies of the European Powers show acute even now in parts of Ireland, Scotland and Wales than in that primitive tribes living under their natural conditions are London and the big industrial centres. This clinical impression receives strong support from the statistical enquiries of J. Brownalmost free from tuberculosis. It has frequently been shown, however, that the members of lee (M.R.C. Special Report Series No. 18, 1918), who has shown these primitive communities, on quitting their native surroundings that, in males especially and to a less extent in females, the ageand coming into contact with the “tuberculized” populations of period of maximum death-rate has steadily receded from the Europe, tend to show a marked susceptibility to tuberculosis; the “young adult” group to the “middle age” group in the succeeding | clinical course, In these cases, being of a rapidly progressive and decennia from 1851-60 to the present time. This diminution of the ‘young adult” type of death-rate has, usually fatal type. It would seem, in fact, that, where there has been little or no however, been less marked in certain counties of Ireland, Scotland previous exposure to infection, the individual remains completely and Wales, and indeed, in agricultural communities everywhere, unprotected against tuberculous disease, while, on the other hand, than in the larger centres of population, Brownlee, in the report there is manifest in the members of communities in which tuber- quoted, suggested that these differences might be due to the existculous infection is ‘widespread, a considerable power of resisting ence of para-tubercle bacilli of unequal virulence, but later the development of the tubercle bacillus and of rendering latent researches by Tulloch have failed to discover any antigenic variants in a large series of “human” tubercle bacilli investigated by the active foci of infection. Clinical Manifestations——The primary clinical manifesta- him. It may be assumed, therefore, that the recession of the tions of tuberculosis tend to vary with the portal of entry of the age-period of maximum mortality from early adult to later life bacillus. In uninfected subjects, the germs can pass through the implies a more protracted clinical type of pulmonary tuberculosis mucous membranes of the respiratory and alimentary tracts, now than formerly and in the larger centres of population as comwithout causing, at the moment, any marked local disturbance, pared with the more sparsely populated agricultural districts. Fall in Tuberculosis Mortality.—As will be seen from the and their transit thence is easy along lymphatic channels to the nearest lymphatic glands. In these glandular filters, the tubercle appended table (extracted from the registrar general’s Statistical bacilli tend to be arrested and there they pullulate and set up the Review of England and Wales for the Year r924, Table 6, page 35) there has been, from 1838 onwards, a steady fall in the tuberfirst foci of disease. The formation of secondary foci of infection depends upon the culosis death-rate affecting both the pulmonary and all other spread of tubercle bacilli from their primary foci in the lymphatic forms of the disease. This fall, which has been observable in other glands to other tissues and organs. The presence of secondary civilized countries, though often claimed as evidence of the value foci thus implies a generalization of the infection chiefly by way of modern methods of prevention, was just as marked before the of the blood stream. This generalization can take place much recognition of the infective nature of tuberculosis as after the more easily in susceptible persons than in those who are more discoveries of Villemin and R. Koch had given a definite direction resistant, and in the young than the old. Thus the tendency to to: sanitary effort. Clearly therefore, some factor of natural widely disseminated tuberculosis is much more marked amongst adaptation must have been present to supplement the efforts of those groups of individuals in which the “tuberculin test” shows preventive medicine. Those who favour the theory of an “hereditary disposition” to the highest proportion of negative results. In the infants and young children of European and American tuberculous infection see in this diminution of mortality the communities, the proportion of bone and joint tuberculosis and of result of the dying off of susceptible stock and the survival of tuberculous meningitis is far higher than in adults; while, in the the more resistant. Others consider that, with the wide disseminaadults of “primitive” communities, brought for the first time into tion of infection resulting from the agglomeration of large numcontact with infection, the same tendency to wide dissemination bers of persons into urban communities, there has been at work a factor of natural auto-immunization, individuals acquiring of lesions is always found. The reactive intolerance implied in a positive response to the various degrees of resistance as the result of mild and repeated tuberculin test which is only acquired as the result of a preceding infections. t

TUBERCULOSIS

534

Taste I. Annual Mortality at All Ages per Million Persons Living |

i Period 1838-42 (5 years)

;

1847-50 (4 years) r8si-s5

kt

|

Tuberculosis

(all forms)

Tah ston ator:

(ot

aa) y

4,410

3:782

3,638

2,805

3,714

2,889

bacillary strain that it no longer produces tuberculosis but merely a transitory and benign infective process accompanied, however, by the development, in experimental animals, of a high degree of resistance against re-infection by virulent strains. This vaccine of Calmette (B.C.G.) is now being administered not only to

calves but to the infants of tuberculous parents shortly after | birth.

So favourable have been the results of experiments

on

laboratory animals that there are grounds for hope as to pre-

2,572

vention of human and bovine tuberculosis. Results published by

1861-65

si

3,313

2,527

1866-70 1871-75

. i T

3,201 2,042

2,447 2,217

"i

2,543 2,324 2,122 1,906

Calmette and his co-workers have, however, been criticized on statistical grounds (notably by A. Wallgren in Acta Pediatrica 1927, vil, 120) and it will take years to evaluate the success or failure of these experiments. In the interval, the want of any specific preventive measure throws us back upon general measures of hygiene, attempts to diminish the pool of infective persons by improved methods of treatment and the supervision,

| 1856-60

1876-80

, 1881-85 ' 1886-90 | x8gi-g5 i; r896~Igoo

;

f sf ot

. .

; IQOI-O5

a 4

| I906—Ir0

:

IQII~I5*

;

1923

ed

1924

i

1922

1025 1926

2,817

1,743

|

2,038

1,830 1,635 1,461 1,323 1,218

1,566

1,106

1,441

1,107

1,126

884

1,414

1916—20* 1921

35323

LIZI

1,062 1,058

1,038 96I

1,047

889

836

841I

833 77I

*The mortality for the years ror5—2o relates to civilians only.

In favour of the latter theory, it may be said that “acquired immunity” plays a part in limiting the spread of other bacterial diseases, that even the most susceptible animals may be made relatively resistant to tuberculosis through mild laboratory infections and that a high degree of resistance in any given community, as evidenced by a relatively low death-rate and a relatively chronic clinical type, goes hand in hand with a wide diffusion of infection as proved by tuberculin tests. Prevention.—Man is liable to infection from two main

sources, the first and infinitely the more important being infected persons and the second, milk from infected cows. Not all infected persons are equally infective. Those suffering from the chronic type of pulmonary disease with cavities are, perhaps, the most dangerous of all, such cases producing, as a rule, copious expectoration of a sputum heavily charged with bacilli while, being relatively resistant, they often survive for years and are well enough to remain at home. There exist, too, cases whose symptoms are more suggestive of chronic bronchitis or asthma than of tuberculosis and who consequently remain undiagnosed, no precautions being taken. Not only the sputum of such persons but the droplets emitted in coughing and talking are sources of danger to others, while the excreted bacilli may accumulate on the clothing and bedding used by them and in the apartments which they occupy. Such persons establish the greatest concentration of infective matter within the home, and the smaller, the worse ventilated and the more crowded the home, the more massive the infection and the more serious the danger to others. In the home contact with susceptible persons is most likely—for the home is the nest for infants and young children. It is upon the homes and the families of infected persons that preventive measures must. be focussed. Adequate provision of hospital and sanatorium accommodation

is also a prime necessity so that infected persons may be removed

from amongst their still healthy relatives. The use of sputum flasks, the ventilation of rooms, provision of good food for dependants—all these will help. In France, promising results are being attained on the Grancher System by which the young children of tuberculous parents are placed with selected foster parents in country districts. Another interesting line of prophylactic effort now under trial in France is the protection of the infants born to tuberculous parents by “vaccination” with living but attenuated tubercle bacilli. A. Calmette and C. Guerin have succeeded, by special cultural methods, in so reducing the virulence of a selected

control and, where possible, isolation of infected persons through the machinery of the tuberculosis schemes of local authorities

and by precautions against the sale or the use of milk containing

living tubercle bacilli. General measures of hygiene find their most important application in arrangements for the conscientious notification of

diagnosed cases, the inspection of “contacts,” the medical inspection of school children, the provision of “clean milk,” the better ment of housing, the adequate disinfection of contaminated articles and places and tactful and efficient “health visiting.” Recent Methods of Treatment.—Symptomatic treatment, while often affording relief, cannot cure. Even “specific” treatment aiming at the production of immunity, while helpful in certain patients, has proved disappointing. Tuberculin, in its various forms, is no longer regarded as “a cure in the strict sense of the term” and is not entirely free from risk. The natural power of the human body to amplify its powers of resistance is very great and many cases do well if placed under favourable conditions of life. In this lies the secret of “sanatorium treatment” in which the mode of life of the patient is carefully adjusted to the limits imposed by his disease. Within these limits he can exercise and work with benefit to himself and an increase in the amplitude of his resistance. For the more favourable types of pulmonary cases, sanatorium treatment offers a very definite prospect of restoration to average health and working capacity. Although so much stress is laid on controlled exercise and work, the basis of the treatment is rest. In the case of “surgical tuberculosis,” too, where the bones and joints of the body are affected, we find in rest the greatest of all adjuvants to recovery. A study of the

results attained at such English centres as the Treloar Hospital for Cripples at Alton, the Shropshire Orthopaedic hospital, the North Wales sanatorium and the “Metropolitan Asylums’ Board hospital at Carshalton will suffice to prove the curability of surgical tuberculosis in children by judicious immobilization and rest. Fresh air (see Pusiic Hrattu), sunlight (see HELIO-

THERAPY) and also the artificial sunlight produced by arc lamps are being used, more and more, to help on the results of treatment by surgical rest, and wonderfully favourable results are already claimed for these methods. In pulmonary tuberculosis, too, the method of “surgical rest” for the affected part is applicable where the disease is confined or almost confined to one lung; and new vistas are being opened up through the use of artificial pneumothorax, apecolysis and thoracoplasty. Nothing is more certain than that the surgical treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis is destined to play an increasingly beneficent part in the future. But, while all these methods are of proven value in appropriate cases, none of them can be claimed as a cure, and it is to Chemiotherapy that we turn in our hope for the future. Robert Koch found that salts of certain metals, and especially

gold, had a lethal effect on the tubercle bacillus but only in concentrations which were also deleterious to the tissues. Research however, has continued on these lines, and Prof. Mollgaard, of Copenhagen, has succeeded in producing a gold compound, sodium aurothiosulphate or Sanocrysin, which, while still under test, appears to have a definitely lethal effect on tubercle bacilli in the

TUBERCULOSIS human or animal body, in concentrations which are non-toxic for the patient. Here, again, we appear to be upon the threshold of a great advance in the treatment of tuberculosis. The method,

533

TABLE II. Tuberculosis Expenditure (England)

(See THERAPEUTICS.) Tuberculosis Schemes.—Up to the end of 1910, the work of

Payments from the Exchequer in aMof expenditure

however, is not without danger.

fighting tuberculosis in Great Britain was left, for the most part, to the initiative of the more progressive local authorities, supple-

,

sy expenditure

on rom of local insurance incurred authorities | committees | during the period mentioned in col. 7

(x)

(2)

Period

mented by private enterprise and the work of voluntary organiza-

tions.

Much knowledge was accumulated through the work of

the Royal Commissions of 1890 and rgor and through the activities of the Local Government Board, but there was no co-

ordinated national effort to deal with the disease. In Nov. 1911, it was made incumbent on every medical practitioner attending on or called to visit any person suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis to notify the case immediately to the medical officer of health concerned. These regulations, the outgrowth of orders by the Local Government Board of Dec. 1908, were made applicable to all forms of tuberculosis in Dec. r912. In 191i, too, the National Insurance Act made provision for sanatorium benefit for insured persons, the Local Government Board being empowered to authorize county councils to provide, maintain and manage institutions for the treatment of tuberculosis. Under the Finance Act, rgrz, and the Insurance Act, a sum of £1,500,000 became available for provision of or grants in aid toward sanatoria and other tuberculosis institutions while the Government undertook to pay 50% of the annual cost of the anti-tuberculosis work carried out by local authorities. The Public Health (Tuberculosis) Act of rọ2r placed a statutory obligation on each county and county borough council to make

arrangements for the treatment of all persons suffering from tuberculosis, whether insured or not. Finally, in 1911, a departmental committee, presided over by Major (now Lord) Astor, was appointed to report on the general policy in regard to tuberculosis in its preventive, curative and other aspects. The tuberculosis schemes now operative everywhere throughout England, Scotland and Wales are based, chiefly, on the report of the Departmental Committee. The units in a complete scheme are as follows: 1. The Tuberculosis Dispensary or Institute-——The functions of this unit are to be “a receiving and clearing-house and a centre for diagnosis, consultation and observation, where persons can avail themselves of the services of specially qualified medical men.” On the dispensary or institute is based, too, the work of the tuberculosis nurses and visitors “who advise and instruct patients in a hygienic mode of life” and help the tuberculosis officer to keep in touch with the homes of tuberculous cases. 2. Residential Institutions——These consist of sanatoria for the more favourable cases and hospitals for those patients unable, at the moment, to benefit by sanatorium treatment. The schemes include arrangements for home nursing, dental treatment, provision of extra nourishment, training In new occupations and “after-care.” For a full account of this subject a pamphlet on “‘Anti-Tuberculosis Measures in England,” by Dr. F. J. H. Coutts, C.B., senior medical officer, Ministry of Health, may be consulted.

July 15, 1912, to March 31, 1913. . . «| Year ended March 31, IOI4 ‘ i : Year ended March 31, I9I5 ' ; i ; Year ended March 31, rg16 : ; f Year ended March 31, IQI? : E S : Year ended March 31, 1918 : : A : Year ended March 31, IQIQ an ao”

Year

ended

Ig20

Year

f

ended

IQ2I . Year ended IQ22 eS Year ended

1926 Year

1927

96,000 | £ 34,000

(4)

£

30,000

373,000

189,000

87,000

395,000

227,000

176,000

700,000

2I1,000

237,000

894,000

251,000

300,090

1,087,000

266,000

384,000

1,285,000

314,000

450,000

:

1,054,000

621,000

635,000

: N March 31, ae. 2. ok March 31,

2,050,000

828,000

I,OII,000

3,074,000

200,000

1,717,000

315,358

2,345,016

March :

March

ended

£

(3)

March

31,

.

«+

s oi

31,

« | 2,849,815 31,

(fixed annual

payment)

2,972,357

315,358

2,696,112

ultimate economy would seem to lie in the endowment of research directed towards preventive measures and curative treatment. (S. L. C.)

United States.—During the present century tuberculosis has

been a declining disease in all industrialized nations. A moderate though rather steady fall in its death-rate was interrupted by the World War, when all countries involved experienced incréases of ° mortality that were roughly proportionate to the stresses and

deprivations (as of food and shelter) incident to the conflict. After 1918 the decline in mortality reappeared at an accelerated pace and to an unprecedented degree. This universal recession of the age-long principal cause of death was most pronounced im the United States. Here its outstanding features may be summarized as follows: (1) a drop in the tuberculosis death-rate from 202 per 100,000 population in 1g00 to 80-7 In 1927. (2) An estimated total of 102,000 deaths among a population of approximately 117,000,000 in 1927 as compared with upward of 154,000 deaths among only 76,000,000 people in

1900.

(3) Almost a million and a half fewer deaths from tuber-

culosis during 1900-25 than if the old high rate of 1900 had continued throughout the period. (4) The retreat of tuberculosis The growth of anti-tuberculosis work in England since the from first to fifth place as a cause of death. Until roz2 it had passing of the Insurance Act may be gathered from the steady always been the most mortal of all diseases; In 1914 it yielded increase in expenditure shown in the table in next column up this position permanently; and since 1924 it has been outwhich is quoted from Dr. Coutts’ pamphlet. ranked by the classifications Diseases of the Heart, Pneumonia Large as these figures may seem, there is still a vast field to (all forms), Cancer and either Cerebral Haemorrhage or Nephritis. cover if tuberculosis is to be dealt with adequately on the present This unexampled diminution of a formerly entrenched prinlines. The actual notifications, amounting for England and Wales cipal disease has attended a development and perfection of sanato 57,737 persons in 1924, or I-47 per 1,000 of population, are | torla for its treatment that have far outstripped similar- efforts admittedly an under-estimate of the known cases, while the in any other country. Thirty-four of these institutions, with undiagnosed carriers of infection must be more numerous still. 4,485 beds, in 1900, had by Ig1o grown to 145 with 20,195 beds If the isolation of infective persons is to become effective—and | and by 1925 to over 600, with facilities for 73,715 patients (inthe Public Health Act, 1925, contains clauses providing for the : cluding 13,401 under the auspices of the Federal Government), compulsory hospitalization of infective cases—it will be neces- At present about 150,000 new patients with tuberculosis are being sary to face the public maintenance of their dependants while admitted to sanatoria annually, and Drolet has estimated that, up patients remain in residential institutions. And there is an ur- to 1926, a total of 1,234,000 individual patients had received gent need for further expenditure to provide accommodation and treatment in the tuberculosis sanatoria of the United States. treatment for cases of surgical tuberculosis. The best chance of As between the several States the disease varies widely in both

534

TUBEROSE—TUBINGEN

mortality and morbidity. Colorado, to which sufferers resort for climatic treatment, has long had the highest death-rate, while

Utah, adjoining it, has reported the lowest rate (39 for 1924).

In general, tuberculosis mortality is normally highest in the Southern States as a group, particularly those with relatively larger urban population (Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, Louisiana, Virginia). The high rates of these States are the direct result of the exaggerated toll of tuberculosis among their city negroes, for whom the disease is two to three times as deadly as for the whites. Nevertheless, encouragement is to be found in the fact that the tuberculosis mortality of the negro is also declining markedly. The recent radical restriction of immigration has not been in effect long enough to disclose its influence on the nation’s tuberculosis.

In former times of unrestrained immigration, the pour-

ing of new thousands of young and vigorous members of European stocks into the great Atlantic ports probably operated toward a reduction of local mortality by dilution of population. In general, the Russian Jews appeared to weather American urban life best, so far as tuberculosis was concerned, and in New York city would consistently show death-rates for the disease below those of the general community. Next usually came Italians, French (many from Canada), Germans and English, with rates not much higher than those for native American stock. The Irish have been notably prey to tuberculosis on American soil, while the Finns, whose numbers are small, have had rates almost as high as the negroes in New York city. Any, attempts to explain these national (rather than racial) differences must no doubt take into consideration such a prime factor as relative adaptability to American life. The diminution of mortality has been most pronounced in the large cities. For instance, in 1900 the tuberculosis death-rate for New York city was 39% in excess of that for the general population of the country (death registration area). By 1925 this disparity had fallen to 7% and exhaustive analysis will show that it represents a general phenomenon. There is no longer any doubt that tuberculosis is declining more rapidly in the cities than in the country districts of the United States. Tt is also declining most at the earlier ages of life; that is, more among infants under two years of age than among children, and more among the latter than among the general population. ‘ In New York city the death-rate for infants in 1923 was only one-sixth that of 1898 (94 in 1923 and 609 in 1898), while for children under 15 the decline was from 136 to 33; meanwhile the rate for the general population was cut in three. The forces that are combining to bring tuberculosis under control in the United States are by no means clear. They are, no doubt, numerous and complex. That the sanatoria are playing their part can hardly be questioned. These institutions annually remove tens of thousands of the ill from active life and thus interrupt innumerable infectious contacts between the sick and the healthy. They, meanwhile, train the patients in habits of better health and return them to the community as living object-lessons of the benefits of a hygienic regimen. That the American people have accepted the sanatorium movement is evidenced by the tens of millions of dollars that they are providing out of public funds for the founding and maintenance of sanatoria. The sanatorium movement in the United States is the outgrowth of organized propaganda set in motion by the National Tuberculosis Association established in 1904. The efforts of this organization, working through its affiliated local societies, entered into every hamlet. For 25 years it has exhorted the people continuously on practices designed to avoid and treat tuberculosis, maintaining services and agencies to be applied to every phase of the disease. Its funds are recruited through the unique manner of selling, every year at Christmas-time, the so-called “Christmas Seals,” stamps to be affixed to postal matter but not for postage. Their sale has become so enormous as to bring an annual gross return of over $5,000,000 though they cost but a cent each. Working toward the reduction of tuberculosis must also be regarded the amelioration of existence and the rise of the standards of living that have characterized our era and which have, in

turn, flowed from the extraordinary multiplication of national and personal wealth in the United States. These resultants of the industrial age have served to cut down tuberculosis; organized own purendeavour has been alive to their influence and for its poses has moulded them to greater effectiveness. In the United States sanatorium regimen is synonymous

with treatment of the disease to a degree that is unmatched elsewhere in the world. The attitude of the medical profession toward newer and more special modes of therapy has been, in general, more

conservative than that of their European confréres. However, artificial pneumothorax and the more radical surgical measures

(thoracoplasty, phrenicotomy, pneumolysis, etc.) have become standard procedures in selected cases of pulmonary tuberculosis and are in general usage. Heliotherapy and other forms of. ight treatment are universally employed in non-pulmonary disease; their utility in phthisis has not won the same general approval and at present the weight of opinion advises awaiting more tangible results before expressing final Judgment. Specific treatment

(tuberculin), valuable only in expert hands, holds its own; its

most settled field embraces certain forms of ocular tuberculosis. Chemotherapy has made no headway. The X-ray is universally recognized as indispensable in diagnosis, but each succeeding year strengthens the conviction that réntgenography cannot supplant tried and standard methods of physical examination, but, on the contrary, gains in utility

only as it is brought into co-ordination with the latter. Of the many specific and laboratory tests only the long-recognized demonstration of tubercle bacilli in tissue products is regarded as decisive in diagnosis. The spirit of study and research of the disease has developed enormously. It was given great impetus by The American Review of Tuberculosis, a monthly scientific periodical, founded in 1917 by the National Tuberculosis Association. Among the more prominent centres of research in tuberculosis are the Trudeau Foundation at Saranac Lake, the Henry Phipps institute at Philadelphia,

the Kenneth Dows laboratories of the Johns Hopkins university

at Baltimore, the National Jewish hospital at Denver, the municipal sanatorium at Chicago, the Lymanhurst School for Children at Minneapolis and the Colorado foundation at Colorado Springs,

all of which were established since 1910.

(A. K.K.)

BrerrocraPHy.—Medical Research Council, Special Report No. 18, “Epidemiology of Phthisis in Great Britain and Ireland,” parts x and 2 (1918) ; Special Report No. 33, “Pulmonary Tuberculosis; Mortality after Sanatorium Treatment” (1919); Special Report No. 46, “Epidemiology of Phthisis in Great Britain and Ireland,” part 3, H.M. Stationery Office, London (1920) ; Special Report No. 67, “Report on Artificial Pneumothorax,” H.M. Stationery Office, London (1922). See also Sir A. Newsholme, The Prevention of Tuberculosis, 2nd ed. (1910) ; Sir J. K. Fowler, Pulmonary Tuberculosis (1921); C. Rivière, The Early Diagnosis of Tubercle, 3rd ed. (Oxford 1921); id., Problems in Tubercusa Administration, Diagnosis, Employment, Settlements (Oxford,

1923).

TUBEROSE,

.

The cultivated tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa)

of the family Amaryllidaceae is a plant allied to the Mexican agaves, and is a native of the same country. The tuberous rootstock sends up a stem 3 ft. in height, with numerous lanceolate leaves and terminal racemes of waxy white, funnel-shaped, very fragrant flowers. Each flower is about 14 in. long, with a long tube and a six-parted limb. The ovary is three-celled, and the ovoid fruit is crowned by the persistent flower. The plant is largely grown in the United States and at the Cape of Good Hope for export to England, as it is found that imported bulbs succeed better than those grown in the United Kingdom. The doubleflowered form is that principally grown.

TUBILIDENTATA,

an order of mammals, including only

the African aard-varks (g.v.), and formerly united with the Xenarthra and Pholidota (qq.v.) as the order Edentata, under which heading these groups are treated.

TUBINGEN, a town of Germany, in the republic of Wiirttemberg, on the banks of the Neckar, at Ammer and Steinlach, 22 m. S. of Stuttgart 20,266. Tübingen is mentioned as a strong was ruled from 1148 by counts palatine.

its junction with the by road. Pop. (1925) fortress in 1078, and In 1342 it was pur-

TUBUAI—TUDELA chased by the count of Wiirttemberg, whose descendants afterward acquired the title of duke. The town was captured by the Swabian League in 1519, by Turenne in 1647, and again in 1688

by the French, who destroyed the walls. The most conspicuous building is the old ducal castle of Hohentiibingen, built in 1507-35 on a hill overlooking the town,

and now containing the university library and the observatory. The quaint old Stzfiskirche (1469-83) is a Gothic building containing the tombs of the rulers of Wiirttemberg; the town-hall dates from 1435 and was restored in 1872. Tiibingen’s chief claim to attention lies in its famous university, founded in 1477

by Duke Eberhard of Wiirttemberg. Melanchthon was a lecturer here (1512-18). The university adopted the reformed faith in 1534, but in 1817 a Roman Catholic theological faculty was added to the other faculties. The leading faculty has long been that of theology. The university was attended in 1925 by 2,478 students and had a teaching staff of 150.

In the neighbourhood

_is the former Cistercian monastery of Bebenhausen, founded in TI&5.

TUBUAI

(or AUSTRAL)

ISLANDS:

see

Pactric

ISLANDS.

TUBUPHONE,

a musical instrument resembling the Glock-

enspiel (qg.v.), with metal tubes replacing the steel bars of the latter. TUCKER, ABRAHAM (1705-1774), English moralist, was born in London, of a Somerset family, on Sept. 2, 1705, son of a wealthy city merchant. He studied at Merton college,

535

city has an excellent Carnegie library.

In the immediate vicinity lie ruined villages of the ancient Pueblo peoples. In history Tucson is first heard of in 1699 as an Indian rancheria or settlement. In 1763 it was a visita of the Jesuit mission of San Xavier del Bac, founded between 1720 and | 1732, 9 m. south of Tucson. It was made a presidio (San Augustin del Tugison), or military outpost in 1776, and, although a few Spaniards may have lived there before, the founding of Tucson as a Spanish town dates from this time. It was never afterward

abandoned during the Indian Wars. The first decade of the roth century was the apex of its prosperity under Spanish rule, and its population was between 2.000 and 3,000 people. By 1848 this number had dwindled to 760. Tucson lay within the territory acquired by the United States by the Gadsen Purchase in 1853. It was occupied by the United States in 1856, and with the arrival of American troops and traders a new era of prosperity began. In the 60’s and 70’s the place witnessed considerable commercial activity, it being a general pack-train centre. In 1860 the Weekly Arizonian, the first newspaper in the State, was established there. Fort Lowell, 7 m. north-east of the city, was built in 1873 as a protection against the Apache Indians; it was abandoned in 1891. Tucson was occupied by the Confederates in Feb. 1862, and by the Union forces in May. It was the territorial capital from 1867 to 1877. The Southern Pacific railway arrived from the West in 1880, and in 1910 the connection with the Mexican railways was

made. Tucson was chartered as a city in 1883.

TUCUMÁN, a northern province of Argentina, bounded N.

Oxford, and in 1727 settled down as a county gentleman at Betch- by Salta, E. by Santiago del Estero, S. and W. by Catamarca. worth castle, near Dorking. His chief work was The Light of Area, 10,422 sq.m. Pop. (1924), 332,933; 1927 estimate, Nature Pursued (7 vols. 1,765 pp.), which was completed but not 409,358. The Sierra de Aconquija is on the western frontier of all of it published when he died on the 2oth of November, 1774. the province and there is also broken country in the north, but in In some important points Tucker anticipates the utilitarianism the east the country is flat, alluvial and very fertile. The only afterwards systematized by Paley. “Every man’s own satisfac- large river is the Sali, or Dulce, which receives a large number of tion” Tucker holds to be the ultimate end of action; and satis- small streams from the Sierra de Aconquija and flows through faction or pleasure is one and the same in kind, however much it Santiago del Estero to the Porongos lagoons on the frontier of may vary in degree. This universal motive is further connected, Córdoba. Tucumán’s main industry is the production of sugar. as by Paley, through the will of God, with the “general good, the Nearly a million acres of irrigated land in this province are de-

root where out all our rules of conduct and sentiments of honour are to branch.” The Light of Nature was republished with a biographical sketch by Tucker’s grandson, Sir H. P. St. John Mildmay (1805), 7 vols. (other editions 1834, 1836, etc.), and an abridged edition by W. Hazlitt appeared in 1807. See James Mackintosh, Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1832); and specially Sir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the 18th Century, Wl. IIQ—I30.

TUCSON

(t00-sén’), a city in southeastern Arizona, lying in

the broad valley of the Santa Cruz river. It is about 2,400 ft. above sea level and is sheltered by mountains 5,000~9,000 ft. high.

Pop. (1910) 13,193; census 32,506.

(1920) 20,292; in 1930 by the Federal

In 1920 5,181 were foreign-born, of which 82%

were Mexicans. Tucson has many irrigated farms in its vicinity and is the centre of one of the oldest agricultural districts of the State. Its climate is dry, mild and equable and attracts many winter visitors. It is on the main line of the Southern Pacific railway and is also the northern terminus of the Southern Pacific of Mexico railway, which gives direct service to Guadalajara and Mexico City. The Southern Pacific has its division headquarters and repair shops in the city. The University of Arizona (1891; non-sectarian, coeducational) occupies a campus of 75 ac. upon a high hill in the northeastern part of the city. Its attendance increased from 201 in 1909 to 1,778 in the winter session 1926-27. There are 22 buildings, rr of them built since 1910. Among them are the University library, containing 70,000 volumes, and Steward Observatory. Connected with the university is the State Museum, which houses extensive archaeological and natural history collections. At Tucson are also the Southwest experiment station of the U. S. Bureau of Mines and a desert botanical laboratory maintained by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In 1900 Tucson became the see of a Roman Catholic bishop and the church maintains a cathedral, St. Joseph’s Academy and San Xavier Mission for Indians. The

voted to the raising of cane and there are some 30 mills operating. About 85% of the Argentine supply comes from this region, which yields an annual average of 500 million pounds of sugar as well as some seven million gallons of alcohol made from the residue of the cane.

TUCUMAN or SAN MIGUEL DE TUCUMAN, acity

of Argentina, capital of the province of Tucumán, on the right bank of the Sali, or Dulce river, 780 m. by rail N.W. of Buenos Aires, in lat. 26° 50’ S., long. 64° 35’ W. Pop. (1914) 91,216. The climate is warm. A summer maximum of 104° F has been recorded, and frosts occur in occasional winters. The rainfall, which occurs almost wholly between September and April is moderate, about 30 in. per year. Malarial diseases, especially

“chucho” (fever and ague), are common. Tucumán is laid out in regular squares, and still retains many of its old characteristics,

low buildings enclosing large courts (patios), with large rooms, thick walls and tile roofs. Tucumán was founded in 1565 by Diego Villaruel at the confluence of the Salí and Monteros rivers, but frequent inundations led to a removal to its present site in 1585. In 1680 it succeeded Santiago del Estero as the capital of the province of Tucumán, then under the government of the Spanish viceroy at Lima. The province of Tucumán then extended from Jujuy south to Córdoba. In 1776 the viceroyalty of La Plata was created and Tucumán was transferred to its jurisdiction. In 1816 a convention of delegates from the La Plata provinces met in Tucumán and signed (July 9) an act of independence, which formally dissolved all ties with the mother country.

TUDELA,

a town of northern Spain, in the province of

Navarre, on the Saragossa-Logroño and Tudela-Tarazona railways,

and on the right bank of the river Ebro, which is here joined by its tributary the Queiles. Pop. (1920), 10,362. Tudela, the Roman Tutela, was taken from the Moors by Alphonso I. of Aragon in 1114. The town was an episcopal see from 1783 to 1851. The

53

TUDOR-—TUFF

He came back again with Warwick in 1470 and was Ebro is here crossed by an ancient bridge of 19 arches. The attainder. join the queen when Tewkesbury was fought and lost. to hurrying and 1135 In founded Maria, Santa church, collegiate Romanesque adventures he carried off his young nephew Richmond many After Spain. northern in perfect consecrated in 1188 is one of the most The two came back together in 1485. After BosBrittany. to There are many sawmills in the town, and an active timber trade. was created duke of Bedford and restored to his Jasper worth, five gave which Tudor, of TUDOR (Famy). The house hip being given him in 1492. He lived earl-marshals the earldom, ists sovereigns to England, is derived by all the Welsh genealog in 1487 against Lincoln and Simnel his puppet Stoke at fight to named is who , Anglesey in edd Tregarn of from Ednyfed Vychan to be one of the leaders of the host that landed in France in in 1232 as steward of Llywelyn, prince of North Wales, and seven and He died in 1495 leaving no issue by his wife Catherine, the 1492. years later, as an arbitrator in a convention to which Davydd, of the second duke of Buckingham and a daughter of Richwidow of Gronw ap Vychan Tudor party. a the son of Llywelyn, was Earl Rivers. But his bastard daughter Ellen is said Widvile, ard Gronw Trecastell was the father of four sons, of whom the eldest, of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. mother been have to Richard with and Prince Black the with favour in Vychan, was in architecture and the decorative arts, PERIOD, TUDOR. of bishop the of steward Il. He was forester of Snowdon and final phase of Perpendicular Gothic the covering term loose a Bangor's lordship in Anglesey. He died in 1382, an infant son or even Jacobean work, Elizabethan of phases earlier the and them carried sister whose dd, Penmyny in being heir to his lands by the fact that those differentiated usually is it which from to her husband Gwylym ap Gmffydd of Penrhyn. predominates are termed influence Gothic the which in examples as II. Richard served Rhys and Gronw’s brothers Gwylym Tudor, while those in which classic influence is more noticeable are captains of archers. Their youngest brother, Meredydd ap Tudor, as Elizabethan or Jacobean. Since the Gothic tradition perknown the of officer an Gronw, like and, 1392 in Anglesey of escheator various parts of England and especially in Oxford and in sisted and man a slain have to said is household of the bishop of Bangor, until late in the 17th century, it is difficult to assign Cambridge the of fled to the wild country about Snowdon. He was the father to the Tudor style. In ecclesiastical architecture the limits date a Tudor, Owen called y commonl , Meredydd ap handsome Owen Tudor period saw the climax of Perpendicular development. (See VI., Henry squire who appeared at the court of the infant king AR Periop.) The characteristics in exterior secular and attracted the admiration of the queen mother. About 1428 or PERPENDICUL of rectangular windows; rich oriel or bay 1429, it must have been common knowledge that Owen Tudor and work are: large groups windows; sometimes fantastic chimney treatand interesting Queen Catherine were living as man and wife. There is no direct many gables; much brickwork, frewith roofs complex ments; for passed been lately but had act An evidence for their marriage. half-timber (q.v.). In interior lavish and patterns in quently withmaking it a grave offence to marry with the queen dowager saw an extraordinary development of period this work secular s cut aiterward been have to said is act this consent: royal out the wood panelling which was frequently used to cover all four sides out from the statute book. Richard III. denounced his rival of a room, and often enriched with linen-fold (g.v.) decoration Richmond as the son of a bastard, but it must be remembered \-and occasional naive travesties of classic forms and the lavish use mother own his of memory the that Richard was ready to foul of moulded plaster-work for ceilings, cornices and walls. Charin order to say the same of the young Edward V. But no one yet has found time or place of Owen Tudor’s marriage with Catherine acteristic examples of the style are: the older portions of Hampton Court palace (1515-25); Layer Marney (1522-25); Moreton of France. Five children were born to them, the sons being Edmund and Old Hall, Cheshire (1550); Compton Winyates (c. 1520); BurJasper and another son who became a monk. In 1436, a date ton Agnes (1602~10); Ford’s hospital, Coventry (begun 1529); which suggests that Bedford had been Owen’s protector, the at Oxford, Corpus Christi college (1516), the Founder’s tower influence of Gloucester was uppermost. In that year the que2n dowager was received within Bermondsey Abbey, where she died in the following January. Her children were taken from her, and Owen Tudor “the which dwelled with the said queen” was ordered to come into the king’s presence. He had already seen the inside of Newgate gaol, and he would not obey without a safe conduct. When he had the safe conduct sent him he came up from Daventry and went at once to sanctuary at Westminster, whence

even the temptations of the tavern would not draw him. Allowed to go back to Wales, he was retaken and lodged again in Newgate. He broke prison again and returned to his native Wales. When Henry VI. came of full age he made some provision for his stepfather, who fought on the Lancastrian side. At Mortimer’s Cross (Feb. 4, 1461) Owen fell into the hands of the Yorkists, who beheaded him in Hereford market place.

His eldest son, Edmund of Hadham (b. c. 1430), was knighted in 1449, and in 1453 he was summoned as earl of Richmond. He was declared of legitimate birth, and in 1455 he married Lady Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset. His only child, afterwards Henry VII., was born three months after his death. Edmund's younger brother, Jasper Tudor, survived him many years. Jasper was knighted in 1449 and, about the date of Edmund’s patent, was created earl of Pembroke. He bore the royal arms of France and England, differenced with a blue border charged with the royal marilets of the Confessor’s fabulous shield, and the same was formerly to be seen upon his Garter stall-plate of 1459. He fought at St. Albans in 1455 for the king who had advanced him, and two years later we find him strengthening the defences of Tenby. In 1460 he seized Denbigh, where the queen joined him after Northampton. He shared the defeat at Mortimer’s Cross and left the country in 1462. In 1465 he made a last descent upon Wales, to be driven off by William Herbert, who was rewarded with his earldom of Pembroke, already forfeited by

(1492-1505) and the hall (1541) at Magdalen, the tower of the old examination schools (c. 1620) and the chapel of Oriel (1637) ; at Cambridge, Queens’ college (c. 1450), the two earliest courts of

S. John’s (between 1511r and 1600), and the King’s gateway and Great Court at Trinity (built between 1518 and 1605)...

(T. F. H.)

TUFF, a rock consisting of volcanic ash, the ejectamenta of craters in a state of eruption (Ital. tufo). The products of a volcanic eruption may be classified into (@) steam and other gases, (b) lavas, (c) ashes. The ashes have not been burnt in any way, though they resemble cinders in appearance; they are merely porous, slaggy pieces of lava which have been tossed into the air and have become vesicular by the expansion of the gases within them while they were still plastic. Among the loose beds of ash which cover the slopes of many volcanoes, three classes of materials are represented. In addition to true ashes (a) of the kind above described, there are lumps of the old lavas and tuffs (b) forming the walls of the crater, etc., and which have been torn away by the violent outbursts of steam, pieces of sedimentary rocks (c) from the deeper parts of the

volcano, which were dislodged by the rising lava, and are often intensely baked and recrystallized by the heat to which they have been subjected. In some great volcanic explosions nothing but materials of the second kind were emitted, as at Bandaisan, Japan, in 1888. There have been many eruptions also at which the quantity of broken sedimentary rocks mingled with the ashes is very great; as instances we may cite the volcanoes of the Eifel and the Devonian tuffs, known as “‘Schalsteins” in Germany. In the Scottish coalfields some old volcanoes are plugged with masses consisting entirely of sedimentary débris; in such a case we must suppose that no lava was ejected, but the cause of the

eruption was the sudden liberation and expansion quantity of steam.

These

accessory

or adventitious

of a large materials,

however, as distinguished from the true ashes, tend to occur in

TU angular fragments; and when they form a large part the rock is more properly a “volcanic breccia” than ashes vary in size from large-blocks 20 ft. or more in the minutest impalpable dust. The large masses

FU-——TUGGURT of the mass a tuff. The diameter to are called

‘bombs’; they have mostly a rounded, elliptical or pear-shaped form, owing to rotation in the air while still viscous. Many of them have ribbed or nodular surfaces, and sometimes (at Vulcano

and Mont Pelée) a crust intersected by many cracks like the surface of a loaf of bread. Any ash in which they are very abundant is called an agglomerate (q.v.). In those layers and beds of tuff which have been spread over considerable tracts of country and which are most frequently encountered among the sedimentary rocks, smaller fragments preponderate greatly, and bombs more than a few inches in diameter may be absent altogether. A tuff of recent origin is generally loose and incoherent, but the older tuffs have been, in most cases, cemented together by pressure and the action of infiltrating water, making rocks which, while not very hard, are strong enough to be used for building purposes (¢é.g., in the neighbourhood of Rome). If they have accumulated sub-aerially, like the ash beds found on Etna or Vesuvius at the present day, tuffs consist almost wholly of volcanic materials of different degrees of fineness with pieces of wood and vegetable matter, land shells, etc. But many volcanoes stand near the sea, and the ashes cast out by them are mingled with the sediments that are gathering at the bottom of the waters. In this way ashy muds or sands, or even in some cases ashy limestones are being formed. As a matter of fact most of the tuffs found in the older formations contain admixtures of clay, sand and sometimes fossil shells, which prove that there were beds spread out under water. Apart from adventitious material, such as fragments of the older rocks, pieces of trees, etc., the contents of an ash deposit may be described as consisting of more or less crystalline igneous rocks. If the lava within the crater has been at such a temperature that solidification has commenced, crystals are usually present. They may be of considerable size like the grey, rounded leucite crystals found on the sides of Vesuvius; many of these are very perfect and rich in faces, because they grew in a medium which was liquid and not very viscous. Good crystals of augite and olivine are also to be obtained in the ash beds of Vesuvius and of many other volcanoes; blocks of crystalline minerals (anorthite, olivine, augite and hornblende) are common objects in the tuffs of many of the West Indian volcanoes. Where crystals are very abundant the ashes are called “crystal tuffs.” In St. Vincent and Martinique in 1902 much of the dust was composed of minute crystals enclosed in thin films of glass, because the lava at the moment of eruption had very nearly solidified as a crystalline mass. Some basaltic volcanoes, on the other hand, have ejected great quantities of black glassy scoriae, which, after consolidation, weather to a red soft rock known as palagonite; tuffs of this kind occur in Iceland and Sicily. Petrographically tuffs are classified according to the nature of the volcanic rock of which they consist; this is the same as the accompanying lavas if any of these were emitted during an eruption, and if there is a change in the kind of lava which is poured out, the tuffs indicate this equally clearly. Rhyolite-, trachyte-, andesite-, and basalt-tuffs are thus the most frequently occurring pyroclastic rocks of the present day. Tuffs are well represented in the stratigraphical record ranging from the PreCambrian to Recent. The older tuffs are most often greatly changed by silicification and devitrification. They may be completely metamorphosed with loss of all original textures and can then only be recognized by their chemical composition and field relationships. Many chlorite and hornblende schists in metamorphic regions represent recrystallized ash beds of basaltic

character. The Swedish hilleflintas (g.v.) include rocks of pyroclastic origin of the nature of rhyolite-tuffs, but they are completely changed by recrystallization to a granular assemblage of

quartz, felspar, mica, etc. (See also VOLCANO.)

(J. S. F.)

TU FU GB, 40. 713-770), a Chinese poet and painter of the T'ang dynasty, considered by some Chinese critics as the supreme poet, Tu Fu was born in Tu Ling in the Shensi prov-

ince, and

is therefore

537 often

called Tu

Shao-Ling

($t

E$),

although his father was a native of Hsiangyang in Hupeh. His family belonged to the military and literary class. At 15, his essays and fantastic verses won great admiration. After ten

years of wandering, he went to the capital, Changan (2% ), for his literary examinations. Although his written papers were excellent he was not given a degree, as his views were unorthodox. He then became a wanderer, and on the “Lute Terrace” in Ching Hsien, he met his much admired friend Li Po, whom he immortalized in verse.

In 749 the emperor (¥32) invited all great scholars for examination. Tu Fu presented himself, but waited for four years until he managed to please the emperor with his three great Ju (= -KRIŠER, a prose poem, generally in six syllables). He was given a post in the Chih Hsien library which he held for four years, he was then promoted to another post at Fêng-hsien. In

758, when the rebellion of An Lu-Shan (fkl), which drove

the emperor Ming Huang from the throne, broke out, he was exiled and went to live with a relative at White Water village

(RBIH).

When a new emperor ascended the Dragon throne, Tu Fu went to pay his respects to him, but on the way he was captured by brigands, beaten, and made prisoner for a year. He escaped, and, emaciated and clad in rags, he reached the emperor. He was appointed to the post of censor, but fell into disgrace and was delegated to a minor post as governor of a small town in Shensi. This position he did not accept, and joined his family at Kansu. They were struggling for existence, and the poet supported them by digging up roots for food and by selling frewood. Several of his children, however, died of hunger. After six months in office in Hua Chou, he retired to Chêngtu in Szechwan, living in a house of grass roots. Here he wrote some of his most beautiful lyrics. In 768 he took up nomadic life once more. He was caught by floods and compelled to go into a ruined temple at Hu Huang

without food. After ten days’ starvation he was given a feast by the local ofħcials, and died (770) of over-eating. BIBLIOCRAPHY.—Ku T'ang Shih Ho Chüeh (h ERY? MR, a Chinese edition compiled by Wang Yuenting, 1732); Taigiro Mori, To Shi Sen Hyo Shaku C RR ep ee in Japanese, 1909); Li Uensang, “Li Po and Tu Fu” (M41 F RIE), Chosen Moondan (PREIE, in Korean, 1923). : (Y. K.)

TUGELA,

the largest river in Natal, its basin being about

8,000 sq.m. in extent. It rises on Mont aux Sources, in the Drakensberg, at over 10,000 ft. above sea-level. After a mile or two it plunges over the great escarpment forming the most rugged and picturesque scenery, and then flows as a dignified stream in

a broad, open valley to a point a few miles below Colenso, about 60 m. eastward from the source. Here the valley becomes steeper and narrower, owing to rejuvenation. This character persists until within a few miles of its mouth, the river being sometimes 2,000 ft. below the neighbouring plateau. The Tugela is quite unnavigable. Its volume has great seasonal fluctuations, being easily fordable in many places in winter, and often quite impassable during summer rains. The Tugela receives as tributaries on its right bank the Little Tugela, rising near Cathkin Peak, and the Bushman and Mooi rivers, which both originate near Giant’s castle. On its left bank it receives the Klip river, which flows past Ladysmith, the Sunday’s river from the Biggarsberg, and the Buffalo river, which rises near Majuba and flows not far from Isandhlwana, at which place, and also at Rorke’s Drift, on the Buffalo, memorable actions were fought in the Zulu War. The boundary between Natal proper and Zululand follows the Tugela from its mouth to the confluence with the Buffalo river, and then runs up the latter to its junction with the Blood river,

so called on account of the defeat of Dingaan’s impi by the Boers in 1838.

TUGGURT, capital of the region of the Wadi Ghir, Algerian Sahara, 127 m. S. of Biskra, with which it is connected by a railway. It is the chief town of a “mixed?” commune and of a territory of 212,783 inhabitants.

Tuggurt, which has a population of

12,108, was formerly surrounded by a moat, which the French

TUGUEGARAO—TULAREMIA

538

filled up. The town is entered by two gates. Just within the northern gate is the market place, which contains the chief mosque.

The surrounding oasis contains about 200,000 date palms. From Tuggurt a road 75 m. long leads across the desert north-east to

El Wad

(g.v).

i

,

TUGUEGARAO, a municipality (with administration centre

and ro barrios or districts) and capital of the province of Cagayan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Cagayan river, about 60 m. from its mouth, and near the southern boundary of the province. Pop. (1918), 19.298, of whom 75 were whites. The river is navigable to Tuguegarao for vessels of light draught. The Cagayan valley is the great tobacco-producing region of the Philippines, and Tuguegarao is an important shipping point for tobacco. Ibanag is the principal language but Ilocano and Tagalog are also spoken by many.

TUKE, the name of an English family, several generations of

which were celebrated for their efforts in the cause of philanthropy.

WritramM TUKE (1732-1822) was born at York on March 24, 1732. His name is connected with the humane treatment of the insane, for whose care he projected in 1792 the Retreat at York, under the management of the Society of Friends, which became famous as an institution in which a bold attempt was made to manage lunatics without the excessive restraints then regarded as essential. His son Henry Tuke (1755-1814) co-operated with his father in his reforms.

Henry’s son SAMUEL TUKE (1784-1857) continued the work begun by his grandfather, and published a Description of the Retreat near York, etc. (York, 1813). He also published Practical Hints on the Construction and Economy of Pauper Lunatic Asylums (1815). He died at York on Oct. 14, 1857. Samuel's son James Hack Tuxer (1819-1896) is chiefly remembered for his philanthropic work in Ireland, which resulted from a visit to Connaught in 1847, where he witnessed much distress. Letters descriptive of the state of things he saw when he was distributing relief in 1880, were published in The Times, and in his pamphlet, Jrish Distress and its Remedies (1880), he pointed out that Irish distress was due to economic rather than political difficulties, and advocated state-aided land purchase, peasant proprietorship, light railways, government help for the fishing and local industries, and family emigration for the poorest peasants. From 1882 to 1884 he superintended the emigration of poor families to the United States and the Colonies. To his reports on the distribution of seed potatoes in 1885, and his letters to The Times, which were reprinted under the title The Condition of Donegal (1889), were due in a great measure the bill passed for the construction of light railways in 1889 and the Irish Land Act which established the Congested Districts Board in 1891. He died on Jan. 13, 1896. See Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons (1815-16)3 Dr. Conolly, Treatment of the Insane without Mechanical

Restraints (1856); Dr. Hack Tuke, Chapters in the History of the Insane in the British Isles (1882).

sandrovsky military school, out of which he passed in July 1914. In Feb. r91§ he was taken prisoner by the Germans, and, after sev-

eral fruitless attempts to escape, he succeeded in the autumn of

1917 and made his way back to Russia. He was at once taken into

the military service of the Soviet, took part in the operations in defence of Petrograd (Leningrad), and in June 1918 received the command of an army. He commanded successively the I., VIII. and V. Armies and then the Caucasian front. After the

successful conclusion of operations against Denikin, Tukhachevsky was given the command of the Western front. After the Civil War he became chief of the military academy, and in April 1924 was appointed assistant chief-of-staff.

TUKULOR,

a tal, long-headed, well-proportioned and mus-

cular people with long faces and fine features, incorporating Serer, Wolof, Mandinga, Soninke and Fulani elements in Senegal and

the French Sudan.

They call themselves Futankobe or Futanke;

the Wolofs call them Tokoror or dwellers in the Tekrur or Senegalese Futa, or Tukolor, the name adopted for them by the French. Their language resembles Fulani and is related to Wolof

and Serer. The Tukulor organized a theocratic elective monarchy,

with a religious chief (Almamy), a functionary whose office was abolished in 1881. Their present organization is by territorial groups. The Tukulor are fanatical Muslims. The people are skilled cultivators and cattle-raisers, and are very brave. See Dr. Lasnet, Une mission au Sénégal Sénégal Niger (1912).

(1900);

Delafosse, Haut

TULA, (1) a province of the Russian S.F.S.R., surrounded by those of Kaluga, Moscow, Ryazan, Tambov and Orel, and not coinciding with the pre-1917 province of the same name. Area 24,574 sq.km. Pop. (1926) 1,499,428, mainly Great Russians. It consists of plateau land (950 to 1,020 ft.), deeply entrenched by the Don and its tributaries, the Upa and Sosna. About 9% is forested, the northern region having coniferous trees, and the south small and scattered patches of birch, ash and oak. The south is in the steppe black earth region, where agriculture gives a good guarantee to the peasant, but the north is poorer grey forest soil. There is little good pasture and dairying is not much developed, though sheep, working and milch cattle, horses,

pigs and goats are bred to some extent. The climate is extreme, with five months’ winter frost, an average July temperature of 66° F and 16—18.in. of rain per annum. The chief crops are rye (482%), and oats (28-3%). Buckwheat, potatoes, wheat, millet, grass, hemp and sugar beet are grown, while along the Oka in the north-west of the province, apples, cucumbers, cabbages and onions are cultivated. Peat working is not profitable and the electric stations at Aleksin and Epifan use the local coal. This is mined along the railway extending eastwards from Aleksin on the Oka through Tula to the province of Ryazan. The better agricultural conditions lessen the réle of koustar (peasant) industries, which here consist mainly of the manufacture of small metal goods, especially samovars and wooden wares.

(2) Tula is also the name of the chief town of the above province, situated in the broad but low, marshy and unhealthy at the York Retreat. After studying medicine in London, he valley of the Upa, in 54° 12’ N. 37° 37’ E. Pop. (1926) graduated M.D. at Heidelberg in r853. In r858, in collabora- 150,132. Tsar Boris Godunov founded the first Russian gun tion with J. C. Bucknill, he published a Manual of Psychological factory here in 1595, and in 1632 a Dutchman, Winius, estabMedicine, which was for many years regarded as a standard work lished an iron factory. The factories were rebuilt on a larger on lunacy. Jn 1853 he visited a number of foreign asylums, and scale in 1705 and 1714 and towards the end of the 18th cenlater returning to York he became visiting physician to the York tury a marked expansion of the industry took place. The making Retreat and the York Dispensary. In 1859 he retired, but he of rifles is still the main occupation of the town, other indusresumed practice in London in 1875 as a specialist in mental tries being the manufacture of samovars (tea urns), sugar rediseases. In 1880 he became joint editor of the Journal of Mental fining, smelting, the making of cutlery, leather and sewn goods and flour-milling. The town is first mentioned in 1147, but its Science. He died on March 5, 1895. Among his works were Jilustrations of the Influence of the Mind former site seems to have been higher up the Tulitsa, an affluent on the Body (1872); Insanity in Ancient and Modern Life (1878); of the Upa. Its wooden fort was replaced in r514—21 by a stone History of the Insane in the British Isles (1882); Sleepwalking and kreml or citadel, which still exists. DANIEL Hack TUKE (1827—1895), younger brother of James Hack Tuke, abandoned a solicitor’s career to undertake work

Hypnotism (1884); Past and Present Provision for the Insane Poor in Yorkshire (1889); Dictionary of Psychological Medicine (1892).

TUKHACHEVSKY, MIKHAIL NICOLAEVICH (1893— ), Russian soldier, was born in the government of Smolensk.

He was educated in the corps of cadets and the Alek-

TULAREMIA,

a specific infectious disease caused by the

Bacterium tularense. It occurs in rabbits and squirrels throughout the West and South of the United States and causes considerable loss of life among them. In many ways it is quite similar to a plague. The first authentic human case was reported in 1913

TULCEA—TULIP in Utah. Since then it has become increasingly important owing to its more general recognition and also to its undoubted increase

539

“breeder” tulips. The breeder bulbs and their offsets may grow on

for years producing only self-coloured flowers, but after a time,

in frequency. It is transmitted to man either by an intermediate

which is varied and indefinite, some of the progeny “break,” that

host as the louse or flea or by direct handling of infected animals.

is, produce flowers with the variegation which is so much prized. The flower is then said to be “rectified”; it is a bizarre when it has

It usually begins as a small swollen, ulcerated spot on the skin which is followed by enlargement of the neighbouring glands. This is soon followed by a chill and a high fever which has a tendency to remit daily. There is sometimes a generalized skin rash with general involvement of the glandular system. Occasionally there is a dull typhoid state. The average course is about two weeks. The death rate is rather low but numerous fatalities have been reported. The disease is of particular importance because of its rapid spread to new territories indicating that it will probably occur more frequently in the future.

TULCEA, the capital of the department of Tulcea, Rumania, picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Danube, 42 m. from its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1928) 28.000, including many Russians, Turks, Greeks and Jews. A railway to Cerna Voda is projected. There is a large water-borne trade in cereals. TULIP, a genus (Tulipa) of bulbous herbs belonging to the lily family (Liliaceae). The species are found wild along the northern shores of the Mediterranean, in the Levant, Armenia, Caucasus, Northern Africa, Persia, and sporadically across North and Central Asia to Japan. The cup-shaped flowers have six regular segments in two rows, as many free stamens, and a threecelled ovary with a sessile stigma, which ripens into a leathery

many-seeded capsule. The species are numerous, and are distinguished one from another by the scales of the bulb being woolly or smooth on the inner surface, by the character of the flower-stalks, by the filaments being hairy or otherwise, and by other characters. Owing to the great beauty of the flowers they have long been favourites in European and American gardens, and have been crossed and recrossed till it has become almost impossible to refer the plants to their original types. The early flowering “Van Thol” tulips, the segments of which are mostly scarlet with yellow edges, are derived from T. suaveolens, a native of the Caspian region. T. Gesneriana, a native of Armenia and central Russia, is the origin of some of the later flowering varieties. T. pubescens, which is probably a hybrid between the two species just named, is the source of some of the early flowering kinds known as Pottebakker, etc. T. oculus-solis and T. Clusiana are lovely species, natives of southern Europe, and T. silvestris, with elegant yellow flowers, is a doubtful native of England. More recently, owing to the exertions of Russian naturalists, a large number of new species have been discovered in Turkistan, and introduced into Europe. Some of these are very ‘beautiful, and render it probable that by intercrossing with the

older species still further difficulties will be presented in the way of identification. These difficulties are further enhanced by the fact that, quite apart from any cross-breeding, the plants, when subjected to cultivation, vary so greatly in the course of two or three years from the original species from which they are directly descended that their parentage is scarcely recognizable. This innate power of variation has enabled the florist to obtain, and ultimately to “fix,” se many remarkable varieties. At the present day tulips of all kinds are much more extensively grown than at any previous period. Not only are millions of bulbs cultivated in Holland for export every year, but thousands are now also grown for the same purpose in the Channel islands, more particularly in Guernsey. Large quantities are also grown in the fen district of England and about Belfast in Ireland. Tulips were introduced into the Low Countries in the 16th century from Constantinople and the Levant. The florists’ varieties of tulips, which have sprung from Tulipa Gesneriana, are arranged in separate classes named bizarres, bybloemens and roses, according to their colour and marking.

Tulips are readily raised from seeds, and the seedlings when they first flower (after about 7 years cultivation) are of one colour— that is, they are self-coloured. Judged by the florists’ rules, they are either good or bad in form, and pure or stained (white or yellow) at the base; the badly formed and stained flowers are thrown away, while the good and pure are grown on, these being known as

a yellow ground marked with purple or red, a bybloemen when it has a white ground marked with violet or purple, or a rose when it has a white ground marked with rose colour. Tulips flourish in any good garden soil that has been deeply dug or trenched and manured the previous season. To secure perfect drainage and greater warmth a fair quantity of sand or grit should be present. Fresh manure should be avoided, but the remains from an old hot-bed or mushroom bed may be incorporated. The best time to plant is in September and October, the bulbs being buried about 6 in. deep and the same distance apart. The best effects are produced in formal beds by planting the same variety in each, to secure the plants being of the same height and in flower simultaneously. Propagation.—-Tulips are usually increased by offsets, which most varieties produce in fairly large numbers. These are taken off and sown in drills, like seed. They are usually strong enough to flower the third year from this sowing. Some varieties produce offsets sparingly and must be increased by seed—a slow and uncertain method. New varieties are raised from seed. (The colour variation in the flowers of seedlings is discussed above.) Seeds are sown in boxes or cold frames, in light sandy soil, and the young plants are allowed to remain undisturbed until the second year. They are then lifted and treated like offsets, being sown thinly in beds out of doors. They usually flower in about the seventh year. The soil in which tulips are propagated should be sandy, free working and thoroughly drained. A warm sheltered position is a necessity.

Cultivation.—Planting

is best effected

during

September,

October and early November. It is usual thoroughly to dig and manure the ground in preparation. Holes 6 to 8 in. apart and 5 in. deep are then made with a dibbler. Sometimes a little loose earth or sand is put in to the depth of about x in., and the bulbs laid singly thereon, the holes being closed by the dibbler and the whole raked over. Valuable varieties are planted at about the same depth, with a trowel, a little sand being placed around them. The early flowering varieties should be potted as early in September as practicable, later batches for succession being potted during October. Pots 5 and 6 in. in diameter are the most convenient for the early-flowering kinds, but seven-inch pots give the better results for the “Darwin” section of the May-flowering kinds which are now used for gentle forcing. Five or six bulbs are put in each pot and the tops should be covered with half an inch of soil and half an inch left for water. The soil should be a light and fairly rich compost, comprising about 2 parts loam, 1 part decayed manure or horse droppings that have been thoroughly sweetened, 1 part leaf mould and half a part of sand. Pot firmly, and plunge the pots in several inches of ashes out of doors, to protect the bulbs from frost. As soon as growth commences at the top and a fair amount of roots are formed they may be introduced into gentle heat, in batches according to the need and amount of stock available. For market a slightly different method is adopted. The bulbs are placed in long shallow boxes, plunged in soil or ashes in semi-darkness, and are afterwards transferred to benches in the forcing houses where they. flower. Bulbs which have been forced are of no further value for that particular purpose. If planted in borders and shrubberies, however, they will continue to bear fairly good blossoms in the open air for several seasons. i

Varieties—Early Single (or Double) Flowering Kinds are the most useful for bedding and pot culture. Late Single Flowering Kinds——These are all tall-growing hardy kinds suitable for growing in herbaceous borders where they can be left undisturbed; or for producing massed colour effects in flower beds. They include (a) “Cottage” or. May-flowering tulips, so named because they were discovered in the gardens of old cottages, mansions, abbeys and monasteries, throughout England, Scotland, Ireland, Belgium and France; (b) “Darwin” tulips

540

TULIP

TREE—TULSA

which are a distinct race, having a wide range of large selfcoloured flowers, but no yellows. Parrot Tulips —This late flowering group is supposed to be derived from the curious green and yellow striped T. viridiflora. The flowers are mostly heavy and drooping, petals brightly coloured, the edges being curiously notched and wavy.

TULIP-TREE

(Liriodendron Tulipifera), a North American

the seat of a bishop, of a prefect, of tribunals of first instance and of a chamber of commerce and a board of trade-arbitrators.

Its

principal industry is the manufacture of small-arms, established in 1690, and now carried on by the state. There are other minor

industries.

The well-known

cascades of Gimel formed by the

Montane are near Tulle.

TULLOCH,

JOHN

(1823-1886), Scottish theologian, was

forest tree closely allied to the magnolia (q.v.), called also yel- born at Bridge of Earn, Perthshire, in 1823, and received his low poplar and whitewood, native from Rhode Island and Ver- university education at St. Andrews and Edinburgh. In 1845 he mont west to Michigan and south to Florida and Louisiana. It is became minister of St. Paul’s, Dundee, and in 1849 of Kettins, in one of the handsomest trees of eastern North America, with a Strathmore, where he remained for six years. In 1854 he was straight trunk sometimes 190 ft. high and ro ft. in diameter, appointed principal of St. Mary’s College, St. Andrews. The deeply furrowed bark, and large smooth leaves, truncate or appointment was immediately followed by the appearance of broadly notched at the apex and two- to four-lobed at the base. bis Burnet prize essay on Theism (1855). At St. Andrews, where The conspicuous tulip-like flowers, about 2 in. deep, yellowish- he held also the post of professor of systematic theology and green on the outside and orange-coloured within, are followed by apologetics, he lectured on comparative celigion and treated

a dry cone-shaped fruit, from which at maturity the numerous seeds hang suspended on short slender stalks. From Virginia to the lower Ohio valley and southward, where the tulip-tree attains its maximum size and abundance, it is a valuable timber tree, furnishing the light, fine-grained lumber known as yellow poplar, whitewood or tulipwood. In 1925 the total cut of yellow poplar lumber in the United States amounted to 375,662,000 bd.ft., valued at the mill at $16,318,857. The largest and oldest tulip-tree in the eastern States is at Annapolis, Md. The tulip-iree is widely planted for ornament, and, with protection when young, thrives in England, sometimes attaining a height of 80 ft.

TULL, JETHRO

(1674~1741), English agricultural writer

doctrine historically, as being not a fixed product but a growth. In 1862 he was appointed one of the clerks of the General Assembly, and from that time forward he took a leading part in

the councils of the Church of Scotland.

In 1878 he was chosen

moderator of the Assembly. He did much to widen the national Church of Scotland. He was deeply interested In the reorganization of education in Scotland, both in school and university, and acted as one of the temporary board which settled the primary school system under the Education Act of 1872. He died at Torquay on Feb, 13, 1886. Tulloch’s most important works include: Leaders of the Reformation (1859); English Protestants and their Leaders (1861); Rational Theology and Christian Theology in the Seventeenth Century (1872) ; a monograph on Pascal (1876); Modern Theories in Philosophy and Religion (1884); Movements of Religious Thought in Britain during the Nineteenth Century (1885). See the Life by Mrs. Oliphant (1888).

and farmer, was born at Basildon, Berkshire, in 1674, probably in March. He entered St. John’s college, Oxford, in 1691, and was called to the bar at Gray’s Inn in 1699 but never practised. In TULLUS HOSTILIUS, third legendary king of Rome (672~ that year he married and began farming on his father’s land at 640 B.c.). His successful wars with Alba, Fidenae and Veii shadow Howberry, near Wallingford, and here about r7or he invented forth the earlier conquests of Latian territory and the first exand perfected his machine drill, and began experiments in his new tension of the Roman domain beyond the walls of Rome. It was system of sowing in drills or rows sufficiently wide apart to allow during his reign that the combat between the Horatii and Curiatii, for tillage by plough and hoe during almost the whole period of the representatives of Rome and Alba, took place. He is said to growth. In 1709 he moved to a farm near Hungerford and from have been struck dead by lightning as the punishment of his pride. r71z to 1714 travelled in France and Italy, making careful ob- Tullus Hostilius is simply the duplicate of Romulus. Both are servations of the methods of agriculture in those countries which brought up among shepherds, carry on war against Fidenae and aided and confirmed his theories as to the true use of manure and Veli, double the number of citizens, organize the army, and disapthe importance of “pulverizing” the soil. He did not publish any pear from earth in a storm. As Romulus and Numa represent the account of his agricultural experiments or theories until 1731, Ramnes and Tities, so, in order to complete the list of the four when his Horse-hoeing Husbandry appeared. This was followed traditional elements of the nation, Tullus was made the represenby Horse-hoeing Husbandry, or an Essay on the Principles of tative of the Luceres, and Ancus the founder of the Plebs. The Tillage and Vegetation, by J. T., in 1733 He was attacked in distinctive event of this reign is the destruction of Alba, which the agricultural periodical The Practical Husbandiman and Farmer may be regarded as an historical fact. But when and by whom it and accused of plagiarizing from earlier writers. He died on Feb. was destroyed is uncertain—probably by the Latins. 21, IFAL.

a market town and the county town of

See Livy i. 22~31; Dion. Halic. iii. 1-35; Cicero, de Republica, ii. 17 and Rome: Ancient History,

Dublin. Pop. (1926) 4,924. There is considerable trade in agri-

W. of Kansas City, on the Arkansas river; county seat of Tulsa county, It is on Federal highways 64, 66 and 75; and is served by the Frisco, the Midland Valley, the Missouri-Kansas-Texas,

TULLAMORE,

Co. Offaly, Ireland, on the Grand Canal and a branch of the Great Southern railway, by which it is 58 m. west by south of cultural produce, and brewing and distilling are carried on. There are several small ruined castles in the neighbourhood, notably Shragh Castle, dating from 1588.

TULLE, a town of central France, capital of the department

of Corrèze, 58 m. S.S.E. of Limoges by rail. Pop. (1926) 10,520. Tulle (Tutela) owed its importance in the middle ages to the

abbey of St. Martin, founded in the 7th or 8th century.

The

abbacy was raised to the rank of bishopric in 1317. The town was taken by the English in 1346. It was again conquered by the English in 1369; but, when the inhabitants succeeded in freeing themselves, they were exempted from all imposts by Charles V.

The Protestants seized Tulle in 1585. The town extends along the narrow valley of the Corréze, its streets here and there ascend-

ing the hill-slopes on either side by means of stairways. Of its t2th century cathedral, once attached to an abbey, only the porch,

TULSA, a city of Oklahoma, U.S.A., 218 m. (by air) S. by

the Oklahoma Union, the Sand Springs, the Santa Fe and electric railways. Pop. (1920) 72,075 (84% native white and 12% negroes); 441,258 in 1930 by the Federal census. It was the second largest city of the State in 1930, and is frequently called “the oil capital of the world.” The city occupies 17 sq.m., 800 ft. above sea-level, at the meeting-point of the old boundaries of the Creek, the Cherokee and the Osage Nations. The old council tree of the Creeks, a large elm, still stands. There has been a commission form of government since 1908; and a city plan and a regional plan have been adopted. The water supply is brought from a reservoir In the Spavinaw Hills (60 m. E) by force of gravity alone, though the difference in elevation of source and terminus is only go ft. Mohawk Reservoir, a 500,000,000-gal. reserve, is

the central feature of a park of 2,000 ac. of timbered land, with lagoons, lakes and watercourses fed by the surplus from the the r4th century, remain. The neighbouring cloister (12th and reservoir, There are 34 public, two parochial and several 13th centuries) has been restored. The abbot’s house (1sth cen- private schools. The University of Tulsa, founded at Muskogee tury) has a carved doorway and well-preserved windows. Tulle is in 1894 as Henry Kendall College, was moved there in 1907. The nave and a tower of the 13th century, with a fine stone steeple of

541

TULSI DAS—TUMBEZ city’s assessed valuation for 1928 was $126,352,220. Tulsa is the commercial and financial capital of a rich agricultural country, and of oilfields producing an average of 400,000 barrels of crude oil a

day. All but one of the large companies operating in the MidContinent Field have headquarters here, and the International Petroleum Exposition is held here annually. The output of the city’s factories In 1927 was valued at $20,300,932. White settlement began in 1882, when an extension of the Frisco line was com-

pleted to the Indian trading post. “Tulsey Town,” as it was called then, grew slowly, reaching a population of 1,390 in 1900. It was chartered as a city In 1902. Oil developments began in rgor. In tgro the population had increased to 18,182.

TULSI DAS (1532-1623), the greatest and most famous of Hindi poets, was a Sarwariya Brahman, born, according to tradition, in A.D. 1532, during the reign of Humiaytin, most probably at Rajapur in the Banda District south of the Jumna. His father’s name was Atma Ram Sukal Dubé; that of his mother is said to have been Hulasi. A legend relates that, having been born under an unlucky conjunction of the stars, he was abandoned in infancy by his parents, and was adopted by a wandering sédhu or ascetic, with whom he visited many holy places in the length and breadth of India; and the story is in part supported by passages in his poems. He studied, apparently after having rejoined his family, at Sukarkhét, a place generally identified with Sordn in tbe Etah district of the United Provinces, but more probably the same as Varahakshétra on the Gogra River, 30 m. W. of Ajédhyaé (Ayodhya). He married in his father’s lifetime, and begot a son. His wife’s name was Ratnawali, daughter of Dinabandhu Pathak, and his son’s Tarak. The latter died at an early age, and Tulsi’s wife, who was devoted to the worship of Rama, left her husband and returned to her father’s house to occupy herself with religion. Tulsi Das followed her, and endeavoured to induce her to return to him, but in vain; she reproached him (in verses which have been preserved) with want of faith in Rama, and so moved him that he renounced the world, and entered upon an ascetic life, much of which was spent in wandering as a preacher of the necessity of a loving faith in Rama. He first made Ajédhya (the capital of Rama and near the modern Fyzabaid) his headquarters, frequently visiting distant places of pilgrimage in different parts of India. During his residence at Ajodhya the Lord Rama is said to have appeared to him in a dream, and to have commanded him to write a Rämäyana in the language used by the common people. He began this work in the year 1574, and had finished the third book (Aranya-kand), when differences with the Vairigi Vaishnavas at Ajodhya, to whom he had attached himself, led him to migrate to Benares, where he settled at Asi-ghat. Here he died in 1623, during the reign of the emperor Jahangir, at the great age of or. The period of his greatest activity as an author synchronized with the latter half of the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), and the first portion of that of Jahangir, his dated works being as follows: commencement

of the Ramayan,

1574; Ram-satsai, 1584;

than the Bible among the rustic population in England. Its verses are everywhere, in this region, popular proverbs. Not only are Tulsi’s sayings proverbial: his doctrine actually forms the most powerful religious influence in present-day Hinduism; and, though he founded no school and was never known as a guru or master, but professed himself the humble follower of his teacher, Narhari-Das, from whom as a boy in Stkar-khét he heard the tale of Rama’s doings, he is everywhere accepted as an inspired and authoritative guide in religion and conduct of life. The poem is a rehandling of the great theme of Valmiki, but is in no sense a translation of the Sanskrit epic. Besides the Lake of Rama’s deeds, Tulsi Das was the author of five longer and six shorter works, most of them dealing with the theme of Rama, his doings, and devotion to him. The former are (1) the Dohabali, consisting of 573 miscellaneous doka@ and sdratha verses; of this there is a duplicate in the Rdm-satsaz, an arrangement of seven centuries of verses, the great majority of which occur also in the Dohébali and in other works of Tulsi; (2) the Kabitta Raméyan or Kabittdbali, which is a history of Rama in in the kabitta, ghandkshari chhappdt and sawaiyad metres; like the Rém-charit-manas, it is divided into seven knds or cantos, and is devoted to setting forth the majestic side of Rāma’s character; (3) the Git-Rdmayan, or Gitdbali, also in seven kāņds, aiming at the illustration of the tender aspect of the Lord’s life; the metres are adapted for singing; (4) the Krishn@wali or Krishna gitabali, a collection of 6x songs in honour of Krishna, in the Kanauji dialect: the authenticity of this is doubtful; and (5) the Binay Pattrikd, or ‘Book of petitions,” a series of hymns and prayers of which the first 43 are addressed to the lower gods, forming Rima’s court and attendants, and the remainder, Nos. 44 to 279, to Rama himself. Of the smaller compositions the most interesting is the Vairagya Sandipani, or “Kindling of continence,” a poem describing the nature and greatness of a holy man, and the true peace to which he attains. This work has been translated by Dr. Grierson in the Zndian Antiquary, xxil. 198-201. A manuscript of the Ayddhyd-kand, said to be in the poet’s own hand, exists at Rajapur in Banda, his reputed birthplace. One of

the Bal-kand, dated Sambat,

1661

(A.D. 1604)

19 years before the

poet’s death, ‘and carefully corrected, it is said, by Tulsi Das himself, is at Ajodhya. Another autograph is reported to be preserved at Malihabad in the Lucknow district, but has not, so far as known, been seen by a European. Other ancient MSS. are to be found at Benares, and the materials for a correct text of the Raémdyan are

thus available. Good editions have been published by the Khadga Bilés press at Bankipur (with a valuable life of the poet by Baijnath Das), and by the Ndgart Pracharint Sabhé at Allahabad (1903). The ordinary bazar copies of the poem, repeatedly reproduced by lithography, teem with interpolations and variations from the poet’s language. An excellent translation of the whole into English was

made by the late Mr. F. S. Growse, of the Indian Civil Service (sth edition, Cawnpore, 1891). The best account of Tulst Das and his works is contained in the papers contributed by Dr. Grierson to vol. xxii. of the Indian Antiguary (1893). In Mr. Growse’s translation of the Raém-charit-Mdnas will be found the text and translation of the passages in the Bhaktamala of Nabhaji

and its commentary,

which

are the main

original

authority for the traditions relating to the poet. In the introduction to the edition of the Ramdyan by the Ndadgart Prachdrint Sabhé all ` the known facts of Tulsi’s life are brought together and critically discussed. For an exposition of his religious position, and his place in the popular religion of Northern India, see Dr. Grierson’s paper in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, July icon: pp 47 Ae

Parbati-mangal, 1586; Rdmagyd, 1598; Kabitta Rdmdyan, between 1612 and 1614. A deed of arbitration in his hand, dated 1612, relating to the settlement of a dispute between the sons of a land-owner named Todar, who possessed some villages adjacent to Benares, has been preserved, and is reproduced in See Sir G. A. Grierson, Notes on Tulsi Das (Allahabad, 1921). facsimile in Dr. Grierson’s Modern Vernacular Literature of TULU LANGUAGE, otherwise Tutuva, a language of the Hindustan, p. 51. Todar (who was not, as formerly supposed, Akbar’s finance minister, the celebrated Raja Tédar Mall) was Dravidian family, found chiefly in the south Kanara district of his attached friend, and a beautiful and pathetic poem!’ by Madras. It has no literature, nor has it been adopted for official Tulsi on his death is extant. He is said to have been resorted use even where it is spoken by the majority of the population. It to, as a venerated teacher, by Maharaja Man Singh of Jaipur is regarded as one of the most highly developed languages of the (d. 1618), his brother Jagat Singh, and other powerful princes; Dravidian family and must be classed as lying between Tamil and and it appearà to be certain that his great fame and influence as Kanarese, nearer to the latter than to the former. See Bishop a religious leader, which remain pre-eminent to this day, were Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages (1875); Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv. (1906). fully established during his lifetime. TUMBEZ, a littoral province of Peru, located on the Pacific Tulsi’s great/poem, popularly called Tulst-krit Ramdyon, but named by its Author Ram-charit-manas, “the Lake of Rama’s coast in the extreme north-west corner of the country, is bounded deeds,” is perhaps better known among Hindiis in upper India east by Ecuador and south by the department of Piura, from which it was created in 1gor. Pop. 8,602; area 1,591 square miles. 1See Indian Antiquary, xxii. 272 (1893).

TUMBLE-WEED—-TUMOUR

544 pi

Its capital is the city of Tumbez (pop. 2,000) located on the Tumbez river about 7 m. from its port on the Pacific ocean

pleteness and because clinically it is not always easy to diagnose

the true nature of a swelling, it is necessary to touch briefly on

(Puerto Pizarro), with which it is connected by rail. Though a the distinguishing features of the first three groups. 1. Inflammatory or Infective Swellings.—These have cerlittoral province, it is administered by a prefect, and enjoys the other privileges belonging to a department. The province was tain characteristics which separate them sharply from other an ancient stronghold of the Incas and when Pizarro landed in classes of swelling. In the first place they are due to the irritative 1527, he found Tumbez already a prosperous city. Nearby the action of some micro-organism. Inflammation due to microbial Spanish founded their first settlement in Peru. Because of its action always follows a typical course. First, numbers of wanderaccessibility, modern development began early, dating from ing cells derived from the blood, the lymph or the connective about 1883. The mountainous district behind the city contains tissues collect at the site of irritation, and these, with the coaguil and several hundred wells have been sunk. Refineries have ulable serum poured out from the blood vessels produce the hard been built at Tumbez, Zorritos and Talara. Sugar, tobacco, coffee painful swelling with which every one is familiar. The mass may and cocoa are produced in the district, and cobalt, coal, salt and gradually subside or it may soften in the centre so that an abscess results. Thus an inflammatory swelling may be solid or fluid sulphur are found. Local and foreign trade are growing rapidly.

TUMBLE-WEED, a botanical term for a plant which breaks

loose when dry, and is blown about, scattering its seeds by the way. They are especially abundant in the prairie regions of the United States and Canada. Examples are: the old-witch grass (Panicum capillare), Russian thistle (Selsola pestiver), winged

pigweed

(Cycloloma

atriplicifo-

lium), bug-seed (Corispermum hyssopifolium) and tumbling

mustard

(Sisymbrium

alttssi-

mum).

TUMBLING MUSTARD (Sisymbrium altissimum), a bi-

ennial herb of the cress family | (Cruciferae, g.v.}, native to Eu- N rope and extensively naturalized in North America, especially in the North-western States and adjacent Canada, where it has become a pestiferous weed. It | grows from 2 ft. to 4 ft. high, with erect, freely branching stems; deeply cut leaves; pale yellow, mustard-like flowers, and BY COURTESY long, very narrow, divergent seed- SURVEY

according to circumstances. The common inflammatory bacteria— staphylococcus and streptococcus—cause suppuration in the majority of cases, but a few organisms such as the different varieties

of streptothrix, Treponema pallida, and the tubercle bacillus, set up an inflammation so chronic that it does not usually end in the formation of pus, but rather in the development of a hard, solid mass of very slow growth, that may persist for months or even years. To the naked eye and to touch these solid inflammatory swellings may closely simulate the spontaneous tumours and, often, the two have been confused, but a microscopical examination will correct the mistake in nearly every case. For the minute structure of infective swellings, whatever their situation, is almost identical; they consist merely of an irregular collection of inflammatory cells; and this of itself is sufficient to mark them off from the group of tumours proper. To this statement there is one exception, for a form of malignant tumour, known as a sarcoma, may bear a very deceptive likeness to an inflammatory swelling. 2. Swellings due to Hypertrophy.—A tissue or organ is said to be hypertrophied when it is increased in size but remains approximately normal in structure. The most familiar example is

OF

THE

IOWA

GEOLOGICAL

pods. (See TUMBLE-WEEDS:) TUMBLING MUSTARD (SISYMBRIUM TUMKUR, a town and dis- ALTISSIMUM), A FREELY BRANCHtrict of southern India, in the ING PLANT WITH YELLOWISH west of Mysore state. The town FLOWERS

(pop., 1921, 14,246), which is a health resort on the Devarayadurga hills, has a station on the Madras and Southern Mahratta railway, 43 m. N.W. from Bangalore. The area of the district is 4,061 sq.m. It consists chiefly of elevated land intersected by river valleys. A range of hills rising to nearly 4,000 feet crosses it from north to south, forming the water-parting between the systems of the Krishna and the Cauvery. The principal streams are the Jayamangala and the Shimsha. The population in 1921 was 773,122. The cultivated products consist. chiefly of millets, rice, pulses and oil seeds.

TUMMEL, a river of Perthshire, Scotland. Discharging from ‘ Loch Rannoch, it flows eastward to a point near the Falls of Tummel, where it flows south-east until it falls into the Tay, just below Logierait, after a course of 58 m. from its source in Stob

Ghabbar (3,565 ft.). Its only considerable affluent is the Garry, 24 m. long, which issues from Loch Garry (24 m. long, 4m. wide). About midway in its course the Tummel expands into Loch Tummel (23 m. long, 4 m. wide), between which and the confluence with the Garry occur the Pass and Falls of the Tummel.

TUMOUR, a term applied, from the earliest period of medical

literature, to any swelling of which the nature and origin were unknown. Consequently a heterogeneous collection of swellings was described as tumours, including such diverse conditions as an abscess, a tuberculous gland, the enlarged spleen of malaria or a

cancer. With the progress of bacteriology and the improved technique of histology it became necessary to separate these various “swellings” into groups: (1) Inflammatory or Infective Swellings ; (2) Swellings due to Hypertrophy; (3) Cysts; (4) Spontaneous Tumours, or New-growths. By general consent the term “tumour” is now restricted to the last group. However, for the sake of com-

the hypertrophy of the skeletal muscles that follows increased use, or the hypertrophy of the heart muscle which helps to compensate for faulty action of the valves. But neither of these constitutes a hypertrophic swelling. For an instance of this we must turn to the enlargement of the spleen that occurs in malaria

and certain forms of anaemia, of the thyroid gland in some varieties of goitre, and of the lymphatic glands in Hodgkin’s disease. In each of these conditions there is an increase of apparently normal tissue, and from a microscopical examination of

the hypertrophied organ it is difficult to say that it is unhealthy.

3. Cysts—A cyst may be defined as a collection of fluid surrounded by a wall or capsule. The nature of the fluid varies according to the site and origin of the cyst; the cyst-wall is usually composed of a tough layer of fibrous tissue. Cysts arise by the dilatation of a pre-existing space with fluid, the central degeneration and liquefaction of a solid mass, as in some varieties of cancer, the disintegration of blood clot as in some cysts of the brain, the natural growth of some parasites, e.g., hydatid cysts. When the cyst-wall is tensely stretched by the pressure of the fluid within it, a cyst may easily be mistaken for a solid tumour.

4. Spontaneous Tumours (Neoplasm, New Growth) —The

following definition of a spontaneous tumour, or tumour proper, suggested by Ziegler is perhaps the most satisfactory: “A neo-

plasm or tumour is a new formation of tissue, which is atypical in

structure, serves no useful purpose to the whole economy, and the growth of which has no typical termination.” In this definition | the words “new formation of tissue” exclude the cystic swellings;

the attribute “atypical in structure” excludes hypertrophies; and

the final clause “the growth of which has no typical termination” excludes all inflammatory swellings which progress, however

slowly, towards either suppuration or resolution and recovery. These tumours arise by the exaggerated and abnormal proliferation of a single cell, or a group of cells. They increase in size solely by the multiplication of their own cells, and the only contribution which the surrounding tissues sometimes make to the process is

the formation of a “stroma,” or supporting framework of fibrous tissue; and even that is wanting in many cases. Inasmuch as the

TUMOUR newly-formed cells of the tumour resemble the parent cells the

minute structure of a tumour, whatever its situation, recalls that

of the tissue whence it originated. A tumour growing from skin therefore imitates in its essential features the cell-structure of normal skin; the resemblance of some uterine tumours to normal endometrium is often so close as to make it a hard task to distinguish the one from the other; whilst the similarity of bony and ones tumours to true bone and cartilage is evident to all.

This imitation of the parent type by the spontaneous tumours is one of their most remarkable characteristics, and provides a reliable criterion by which they may be separated from the inflammatory swellings, which, as mentioned above, are all built up on the same general plan. Consequently it is almost always possible to determine the origin of a tumour from an examination of its histological appearances; and conversely we know that an epithelial tumour will never spring from a connective tissue nor a

connective tissue tumour from an epithelium. The spontaneous tumours are seen in every tissue and organ of the body, though in some they are relatively infrequent. Nor are they confined to man, for they have been found throughout

the vertebrate kingdom. It is often stated that a higher state of civilization brings with it a greater susceptibility to tumour formation. As to this, reliable evidence is hard to obtain, and the apparent immunity of certain native races is, at least in part due to earlier death and lack of sufficient observations. It is usual to divide the new-growths into two groups: The Nonmalignant, Innocent or Benign, and the Malignant or Cancerous. Of these two groups the malignant have attracted most attention and study, on account of the danger to life which they involve, but in point of numbers they are greatly outweighed by the nonmalignant group. Two or more non-malignant tumours, of dif-

ferent varieties, are often found in the same individual; but with the cancers this is rare. Non-malignant Tumouts.—These are usually rounded in shape. In size they vary enormously; a fibroid tumour of the uterus or a fatty tumour may be as small as a pea or may weigh forty pounds. Often they cease growing after attaining a certain size, but there are very many exceptions to this, and it is seldom possible to predict the subsequent course of one of these growths. They possess, however, four constant characteristics by which they may be distinguished from the malignant variety. 1. A non-malignant tumour, whatever its size, remains localized to the part from which it originates. It is not an “infiltrating” growth, i.e., does not eat its way into the surrounding tissues, but rather pushes them aside, and so may be called “expansive.” Moreover, it is separated from them by a thin but usually well-marked layer of fibrous tissue known as the “capsule” of the tumour and formed by the surrounding healthy tissues and representing their reaction to its presence. 2. Non-malignant tumours are not of themselves dangerous to life but may be so from secondary conditions to which they give rise. They may, however, cause a great deal of pain and even death, when situated in special positions. Thus, a small tumour may cause intense pain by pressing on a nerve, or dropsical swelling of a limb by obstructing a vein, or death from suffocation by blocking the larynx. 3. Non-malignant tumours never reproduce themselves in distant parts of the body. More than one may be present in the same individual, but each arises independently. 4. A non-malignant growth never recurs after operation. The boundaries of the growth are so well defined that complete removal is usually easy, and the operation is a simple and satisfactory proceeding. Apparent exceptions to this statement as in adenoma of the thyroid are due to later growth of an adjacent but independent minute neoplasm set free by removal of the pressure exerted by the larger one. Malignant Tumours, or Cancers. (See Cancer.)—There are

three main varieties of malignant tumour: the Sarcomata, arising from the connective tissues; the Carcinomata, arising from epithelial tissues: the Endotheliomata, arising from endothelium. It is customary to describe them as cancers. The main features of

543

these tumours are as follows :— 1. Jnfiltrating Nature-—A cancer follows a course very different from that of an innocent tumour. Its growth has no appointed termination, but continues until death; moreover, it is more rapid than that of the innocent tumours, and does not permit of the formation of a capsule by the neighbouring tissues. In consequence such a tumour shows no well-defined boundary, but from

its margin fine tendrils of cancer cells, travelling by the lymphatic channels in all directions invade the surrounding parts and induce pressure atrophy of the essential tissue cells in the process. Thus a cancer of the breast will attack both the skin covering it and the underlying muscle and bone; a cancer of the womb will eat its way into the rectum, bladder and even sacrum, until these organs becorne to a great extent replaced by cancer cells, and can no longer perform their proper functions. 2. Formation of Secondary Growths—tIn addition to this spread of growth by direct extension, another characteristic of malignant tumours is their tendency to reproduce themselves in parts of the body far removed from the original site. These secondary deposits, or metastases, are due to the tumour cells making their way through the walls of the small lymph and blood vessels and becoming detached in small groups by the force of the circulation, by which they are carried to some distant part of the body, there to continue their career of uncontrolled growth. The sarcomata and carcinomata differ somewhat as regards the path of dissemination. The sarcomata are tumours with bloodcontaining spaces between the cells; consequently dissemination usually occurs by way of the blood-stream, and the commonest site for the secondary deposits of sarcoma is the lung. In carcinomata the blood vessels are well formed, and the growth invades the small lymph channels, and the first metastases are in the lymphatic glands; later, these deposits may occur throughout the body, particularly in the liver and other abdominal organs, the lungs and the bones. The formation of metastases is of the utmost importance from a clinical point of view, as the success of an operation for cancer depends on the removal of all cells of the growth. For instance, a few months after the first appearance of a cancer of the breast the axillary lymph glands will be found to be hard and enlarged. This means that some of the cells of the primary growth have been carried in the lymph stream to these glands, and have multiplied there; consequently any operation for the removal of the cancer of the breast must include the removal of these glands. If the breast tumour only be taken away the growth will continue unchecked in the glands. In many cases where there is no evident enlargement the microscope reveals cancer cells; and a certain opinion can only be given after a microscopical examination. In operations for cancer of the FROM BARLOW, “PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY AND breast or tongue the modern HISTOLOGY" (J. & A CHURCHILL) FIG. 1A.—DIAGRAM TO SHOW RE- practice is toregard the lymphatic LATIONS OF AN INNOCENT TUMOUR glands of the axilla or neck (ADENOMA) OF THE BREAST respectively as infected in every Showing tumour; normal breast tissue, case, however early it be, and to and underlying muscular tissue In FIG. 1B.—SECTION OF TUBULAR remove them accordingly.

FIBRO-ADENOMA OF BREAST X 180

other parts of the body where the

glands are inaccessible, the only solution of the difficulty is to urge the removal of the tumour at the earliest possible moment. The frequency and rapidity of metastasis formation varies greatly. As a general rule cancer of the breast is more liable than other forms of growth to be followed by widespread secondary deposits. On the other hand, in cancer of the skin secondary infection is usually confined to the neighbouring lymphatic glands, and in a large proportion of cases affecting the neck of, the womb,

544

TUMOUR

the cancer extends locally but forms no metastases whatever.

3. Nature of Termination—In one or two well authenticated cases a malignant tumour has disappeared of its own accord without any treatment, and a natural cure may be said to have occurred. But these form such an infinitesimal proportion of the whole that they do not affect the general truth of the statement that the universal and natural tendency of a malignant tumour is to cause death. Although the separation of new growths into the malignant and non-malignant groups is supported by their respective clinical and histological characters, the difference between them is probably one of degree rather than of kind. It is beyond doubt that occasionally a tumour, which for years has been devoid of malignant characters may suddenly become cancerous. Moreover, cer-

tain tumours seem to lie on the border line, for example, rodent ulcers and cancers of the parotid gland. These are malignant in that they are undoubtedly infiltrating tumours, they are innocent in that they never form metastatic deposits. Therefore it seems that malignancy or the re- FIG. 2A.—DIAGRAM TO SHOW RE. verse is not to be regarded as an LATIONS OF MALIGNANT TUMOUR absolute and constant attribute of FIG, 2B.—SECTION OF SPHEROIDany particular tumour or class of AL-CELL CARCINOMA tumours, but rather as an expression of the balance struck in the conflict between the opposing forces of the tumour and its host. Histology of Tumours.—In tumours it is generally true that the essential cells behave approximately in the same fashion as In the corresponding normal tissue. In a duct or tubular gland the lining columnar cells are arranged in a single layer side by side to leave a lumen, and in tumours formed from duct-like structures the same tubular arrangement is recognizable. Similarly, just as in a secreting gland the epithelium multiplies and breaks down into the secretion so in tumours formed from secreting glands the cells multiply and fill the acini (spheroidal cell carcinoma) or in part break down into a representative of the normal secretion (adenoma). So also the characteristic of a connective tissue cell that it forms some substance around it, e.g., fibrous tissue, cartilage or bone, is reproduced more or less faithfully in the connective tissue tumours. To understand clearly the differences and likenesses that obtain between the malignant and the non-malignant new growths it is necessary to compare the histology of the two groups. These are shown in Figs. 1a, Ib, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4. In the adenoma the individual gland cells and their mutual relations resemble those of the normal breast from which the adenoma is derived and follow the normal arrangement very closely though the collections of cells are irregularly disposed throughout the stroma, Finally the growth is surrounded by a well defined capsule of fibrous FIG. 3.—SEMI-DIAGRAMMATIC REPtissue. OF MALIGNANT AND In the carcinoma, the re- RESENTATION NON-MALIGNANT TUMOUR semblance of cancetous tonormal

breast cells is slight; their mutual arrangement is disturbed; the collections of cells are arranged in disorderly masses not enclosed

by any semblance of a capsule, but transgressing their proper boundaries and invading the underlying muscles. Figs. 3 and 4

show semi-diagrammatically analogous changes in the formation of

an innocent and a malignant tumour of the intestinal mucosa and

the skin respectively. Speaking generally it may be said that the cells of an epithelial non-malignant growth are fully differentiated and typical of the normal, whereas the cells of a carcinoma show less perfect dif-

ferentiation, are in some degree atypical and resemble rather the actively growing cells found at an early stage of embryonic life. But it is in the cells of a sarcoma that the widest departure from type is seen. A sarcoma is a malignant growth arising from connective tissue, but the resemblance to adult connective tissue is

almost non-existent and the cells are essentially of an embryonic type. These differences between the innocent and the malignant cell bear out the well-established physiological rule that the less the functional development of a cell or tissue the greater its power of growth,

In theory it is always possible to distinguish with certainty between an innocent tumour and a cancer by means of the micro-

scope. In practice this is, unfortunately, not the case. There are some tumours whose histological appearances are on the borderline between the two conditions, and often these are the very cases in which the clinical features give no direct clue to their nature.

In such circumstances it is only by taking into consideration every

detail, that an opinion can be formed. The Causation of Tumours.—Innumerable suggestions as to the causation of tumours have been put forward from time to time. Here, reference can only be made to the more important. First in point of time comes Virchow’s hypothesis that tumours arise as the direct result of chronic irritation or injury. A cancer of the lip or tongue may follow the irritation of a clay pipe or a jagged tooth, cancer of the urinary bladder may result from the irritation of Bilharzia ova (see BILHARZzIASIS), of the gall-bladder from irritation of a gall-stone, of the skin from prolonged exposure to X-rays. But, on the other hand, there must be innumerable instances in which such causes of irritation have not been followed by a tumour. As a complete explanation Virchow’s

hypothesis is insufficient, but it

-=

lt ge FIG. 4.—SEMI-DIAGRAMMATIC REP. RESENTATION OF A MALIGNANT (RIGHT) AND A NON-MALIGNANT

is certain that chronic irritation has, at least, an accessory or predisposing influence in tumour formation. Another theory is Coknheim’s hypothesis of embryonic remnants. According to Cohnheim more cells are, at times, produced in embryonic life than are required for the development of the body, and a remnant is left unappropriated. Owing to their em-

bryonic nature, these cells possess an exaggerated power of proliferation, and if at a later period of life this should be roused into

(LEFT) TUMOUR INVOLVING INTESTINAL MUCOSA OR ENDOMETRIUM activity by some mechanical or other form of stimulus, their rate of growth will outstrip that of the adult cells and a tumour will develop. This is at best only a partial explanation which may be applicable to a small proportion of tumours. The Parasitic hypothesis is still a matter of keen debate (see CANCER RESEARCH). In some degree cancer with its localized primary growth and widespread secondary deposits resembles certain infective diseases of microbial origin, such as pyaemia, where from a small primary site of infection the bacteria become disseminated throughout the body. From this analogy it was argued that tumour formation was due to the activity of some parasite. But if the mode of dissemination of a cancer and of a microorganism be carefully examined this analogy is found to be false. When a micro-organism lodges in a gland or other part of the body, by its irritative action it stimulates the cells of that gland

or tissue to increased activity, and any swelling that occurs is

produced by the proliferation of those cells. But when a group of cancer-cells is deposited in a gland the subsequent growth arises entirely from the multiplication of those cancer-cells, and the gland cells take no part whatever in its formation. At the present time the general weight of evidence seems to

TUMOUR favour the idea that tumour formation is ultimately due to some intrinsic cause, whereby the normal processes of growth are disturbed, rather than to any extrinsic cause such as microbial in-

fection. Therefore it is from a careful study of the laws of growth, and from research directed along broad biological lines that the best results are to be looked for in the future. Classification of Spontaneous Tumours,—Many classifications have been suggested but one on a scientific basis is not yet within reach. That given below is suggested as convenient for the

commoner varieties but owing to the complexity of new growths often a specimen cannot be placed in a single group and is better classified, for example, as a fibro-myoma, myxo-chondroma, chondro-sarcoma, adeno-carcinoma, etc. Rarer neoplasms such as the hypernephroma, chloroma, chordoma, seminoma and sympathoma are not considered here. I. MESOBLASTIC

OR CONNECTIVE-TISSUE

Innocent Lipoma (fatty tumour). Fibroma (fibrous tumour). Myoma (muscular tumour).

TUMOURS

Malignant

Sarcoma.

Osteoma (bony tumour). Chondroma (cartilaginous tumour). Odontoma (tumour in connection with teeth). Myxoma, (mucoid tumour). Neuroma (tumour in connection with nerves). Glioma (neuroglial tumour). Angioma (tumour composed of blood or lymphatic vessels). Il. EPI-

AND

HYPOBLASTIC

OR EPITHELIAL

Innocent Papilloma.

TUMOURS

Malignant Carcinoma.

Adenoma. HI.

ENDOTHELIAL

TUMOURS

(MESOBLASTIC)

Innocent

Malignant

Some parotid and similar growths.

Some pleural, periboneal, and similar growths.

I. Connective-tissue Tumours!.—Lipoma

(fig. 5).—Of the

connective-tissue group the fatty tumours are the most common. They often arise from the layer of fat beneath the skin on the back, though at times they are found on the limbs and elsewhere. They are soft, painless swellings, sometimes of great size; though usually single, as many as a dozen may be present in the same individual. Lipomata are also found in the abdominal cavity, growing from the subperitoneal layer of fat. Fibroma.—Pure fibromata are rare and chiefly seen in the

sheaths

of

nerves

(fig.

10)

where they are often multiple, the larynx, the gums forming one variety of so-called epulis and the

subcutaneous tissue (painful subFIG.

5.~—LIPOMA

OF

THE

PALM

is a source of danger or discomfort, for in many cases they are discovered by chance or not until after death. On the other hand they may give rise to severe symptoms, in many different ways (see GYNAECOLOGY). A fibroid tends to prevent conception, whilst, should pregnancy occur miscarriage is common, and if carried to term, labour is greatly impeded. Occasionally a fibroid undergoes sarcomatous change. Osteoma (fig. 7)—Bony tumours not infrequently arise from the bones of the head or face. They grow very slowly, and are so hard that surgical removal may be very difficult. They also occur as irregular outgrowths from the bones of the limbs, and are then known as Exostoses (fig. 8). A common site for these is the inner and lower end of the femur, at the point of attachment of the adductor muscle, and such a tumour seems to originate from an ossification of the tenFIG. 6.——-UTERUS IN SAGITTAL SEC. don of this muscle TION SHOWING INTERSTITIAL AND Chondroma (fig. 9)—CartilSUBMUCOUS FIBROIDS aginous tumours occur chiefly in children and young people, growing from the bones of the limbs in the neighbourhood of the joints. They are frequently multiple, especially in the hands and feet, but never affect the terminal phalanges. These tumours grow slowly and are quite painless. Odontoma.—Several varieties of this tumour have been described arising in connection with the teeth and due to delayed or faulty development. They may cause great deformity of the jaw. Myxoma.—This is composed of loose, gelatinous connective tissue similar to that found in the umbilical cord. Some nasal polypi seem to be of this nature, but

tissue, and therefore better termed fibro-myomata, they are very

Fibromyomata

of the uterus occur in

married and unmarried women and are most common from 35 to 45 years of age; in girls under 20 they are almost unknown, They may attain a great size and are often multiple. Not every fibroid 1Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14 and 16 have been redrawn from Bland Sutton’s Tumours, by permission; figs. 9, 10, rz and 12 are from Rose & Carless, Surgery, by permission.

myxomatous

tumours

from the neuroglia, the supporting tissue of the brain and spinal cord. Consequently gliomata are only found in these two struc-

the commonest and most important are the so-called fibroids of the uterus (see under Myoma). Myoma.—This tumour is composed of muscle fibres, unstriated except in one very rare variety rhabdo-myo-sarcoma. Pure myomata are rare and sometimes found in the oesophagus, stomach and bladder. In the uterus, with more or less admixture of fibrous

capsule of the tumour.

true

are rare. It is, however, not unFIG. 7.—OSTEOMA OF THE LEFT common for a fibroma or a sarFRONTAL SINUS (SEEN FROM BEcoma to be converted by degenerLOW) ationinto myxomatous-like tissue. Neuroma.—A pure neuroma is very uncommon, but a tumour known as a Pseudo-neuroma is to be often found in the course of a nerve. This is formed by a localized overgrowth of the fibrous tissue of the nerve sheath. Glioma.—This variety of tumour arises

cutaneous nodule). But almost all tumours contain some admixture of fibrous tissue and of these

common. They originate in the wall of the uterus, but generally come to project either internally into the cavity of the uterus, or externally into the peritoneal cavity; and often their sole connection with the uterine wall is a stalk or pedicle formed from the

545

Fic.

8.—-EXOSTOSIS OF THE FEMUR PRODUCED BY THE OSSIFICATION OF THE TENDON OF THE ADDUCTOR MAGNUS

tures, and the retina which is really an extension of the brain. . Angioma.—This consists of a mesh-work of blood vessels bound together by a small amount of fat and fibrous tissue. Two varieties are described: (a) The simple naevus, oY port-wine stain, scarcely deserves to be called a tumour. It appears as areddishblue discolouration of the skin due to over growth and dilatation of the underlying blood-vessels. This condition is most commonly found in the face or scalp, and may

be of congenital origin. (b) In the cavern-

ous naevus the vascular hypertrophy is on a larger scale, and may produce a definite pulsating tumour.

Here, again the head is the usual situation. see PATHOLOGY.)

(For illustrations

Sarcoma.—This is the malignant type of the connective-tissue

TUMOUR

546

tumour. Hence, fibro-sarcoma, chondro-sarcoma, osteo-sarcoma, as noted above the melanoma is apt to start in such a wart glio-sarcoma, etc., are met with. The general arrangement of a sar- Papillomata are also found in the bladder (fig. 14), as long deli coma shows a mass of atypical cells loosely bound together by a cate filaments growing from the bladder wall. These consist o a connective-tissue core covered by a thin layer of epithelium. small amount of connective tissue. The Adenoma.—(Figs. 1a and 1b.) The glandular tumours are com cells vary greatly in size and shape in difmon in the breast, the ovary and the intestinal canal. The struc ferent tumours, and in accordance with the ture of an adenoma of the breast has already been described (vide prevailing type the following varieties of supra), and the structure of other adenomata is on the same sarcoma have been described: (i.) roundgeneral plan, subject to the difference imposed by the tubular o; cell sarcoma, (ii.) spindle-cell sarcoma, acinous character of theglandcon(iii.) melanotic sarcoma, (iv.) myeloid sarcerned (see GLAND). The main coma, Nevertheless the melanotic growth features of an innocent glandular is held by many authorities not to be of tumour are: (a) the presence of connective tissue origin and therefore asara rounded, painless swelling with coma, but epithelial and therefore a carcina well-defined margin; (b) the oma. To it the non-committal name swelling is freely movable in the melanoma is often given. Similarly the surrounding tissues, not attached myeloid variety owing to its peculiar char- Fic. 9—MULTIPLE acters is by many excluded from the group CHONDROMATA OF THE to skin; (c) neighbouring lymphatic glands are not enlarged. of sarcomata and placed in a separate FINGERS Carcinoma.—The following vaclass “myeloma.” The round and spindle cell varieties contain the great majority of all sarcomata, and may occur in almost any part rieties of carcinoma are deof the body, but they are especially liable to attack the bones (fig. scribed :— carcinoma FIG. 12.—MALIGNANT TUMOUR 0} i. Squamous-cell 11). A sarcoma of bone may be either THE PAROTID GLAND (fig. 4), arising from those parts periosteal when it grows from the periosof the body covered by squamous epithelium, namely the skin teum covering the outer surface of the lips, tongue, mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, vagina, anus and bladder bone, or endosteal when it lies in the medii. Spheroidal-cell carcinoma (figs. 2a and 2b), arising fron ullary cavity. A peculiar form of sarspheroidal epithelium, as in the breast, pylorus, pancreas, live coma, by many classified as an endothelioma, is found in the parotid and other and prostate. iii. Columnar-cell carcinoma (figs. 15 and 16), arising fron salivary glands. The cells are usually spincolumnar epithelium, as in the dle-shaped, and among them lie scattered intestine, stomach and ducts of masses of cartilage and fibrous tissue. These tumours are seldom very malignant, and the breast. dissemination is rare (fig. 12). The melaThe general histology of these noma consists of cells widely irregular in tumours corresponds to that of a shape and may be pale yellow or brown or FIG. OMAT 10.—PSEUDO-NEU.REU UHO spheroidal-cell carcinoma already black owing to the presence of few or Many GROWING FROM NERVE described (vide supra), variation granules of pigment (melanin) in and SHEATH AND CAUSING between the three groups being among the tumour cells. A melanotic sar- THE

FIBRES

TO

coma may arise from a pigmented wart or STRETCHED OVER IT

BE

dependent

on the character

of

the cells. Thus Keratinization is mole, or from the pigmented layers of the retina. The primary a common feature of squamous growth is usually small, but dissemination occurs with great cell carcinoma and when colloid rapidity throughout the body. degeneration of a carcinoma ocMelanomata are intensely maligcurs it is always either a sphenant, whether the cells contain roidal or a columnar cell growth. little or much melanin. The Amongst spheroidal cell carcinomyeloid sarcoma, or myeloma mata great variation occurs in (fig. 13), is composed of irreguthe amount of fibrous tissue larly shaped cells amongst which present; when fibrosis is very FIG. 13.—LOWER END OF A FEMU are large multinucleated cells great the growth is often termed IN LONGITUDINAL SECTION, SHOW ING A MYELOMA like the myeloplaxes of bonea “scirrhus.” The clinical characmarrow (see BONES, ANATOMY teristics of a carcinoma, whatever its situation, are: (a) the pre: oF; Bones, DISEASES oF). It is ence of a swelling which has no well defined margin, but fade oniy found in the interior of away into the surrounding tissues to which it is fixed; (b) whe bones, chiefly in those of the the tumour lies in or near the skin it becomes fixed to this an arm and leg. The degree of ulcerates at an early date; (c) the tumour is painful and tende malignancy is low, dissemination though the degree of pain varies widely, possibly never occurs, and reand in the early stages there may be none; currence after operation is rare. (d) the neighbouring lymphatic glands Il. Epithelial Tumours.— soon become enlarged and tender, showing Papilloma.—The familiar examthat they are the seat of metastatic deple of a papilloma is the wart, posits. which is formed by a proliferaiv. Rodent cancer or rodent ulcer, often tion of a few papillae of the skin called basal cell carcinoma, is a special together with the overlying variety of squamous cell carcinoma arising squamous epithelial layers (fig. from the germinal layer of the skin prob14.—VILLOUS PA 3). It seems probable that some ably in the close relation to the sebaceous FIG. ILLOMA GF THE BLADDI BARLOW, “PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY AND warts are of an infective nature, FROM histor d.aa enuromun glands. It shows itself as a slowly profor instances of direct con- Fie. 11.—PERIOSTEAL SARCOMA OF gressing ulceration of the skin, and is especially common on tł tagion are not uncommon and FEMUR face near the eye or ear. The condition is one of purely loc in special regions they occur in the definitely infective diseases malignancy, and dissemination does not occur. gonorrhoea and syphilis. Occasionally warts are pigmented, and IM. Endothelial Tumours.—Endothelioma is a variety «

TUMULUS-—TUNG growth that is rather inferred on general histological grounds than founded

upon

indisputable

miscroscopic

or clinical

characters.

OIL

547

occupied by villas and mansions.

On Rusthall Common

about a

mile from the town is the curiously shaped mass of sandstone

known as the Toad Rock, and a mile and a half south-west is the

striking group called the High Rocks. The Tunbridge Wells sana-

torium is situated in grounds sixty acres in extent. Five miles south-east of Tunbridge Wells is Bayham Abbey, founded in 1200, where ruins of a church, a gateway, and dependent buildings adjoin the modern Tudor mansion. The vicinity of Tunbridge Wells is largely residential. To the north lies the urban district of SOUTHBOROUGH (pop. 7,352). There is a large trade in Tunbridge ware. which includes wood-tables, boxes, toys, etc., made of hard woods, such as beech, sycamore, holly, and cherry, and inlaid

with mosaic. Tunbridge Wells was incorporated in 1889. a na

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The town owes its rise to the discovery of the medicinal springs by Dudley, Lord North, in 1606. Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., retired to drink the waters at Tunbridge Wells after the birth of her eldest son Charles. Soon after the Restoration it was visited by Charles II. and Catherine of Braganza. It was a

favourite residence of the princess Anne previous to her accession to the throne, and from that time became one of the chief resorts of London fashionable society. In this respect it reached its height in the second half of the 18th century, and is specially associated with Colley Cibber, Samuel Johnson, Cumberland the dramatist, David Garrick, Samuel Richardson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Beau Nash and Mrs. Thrale. The Tunbridge Wells of that period is sketched in Thackeray’s Virginians.

TUNDRA,

FROM

ZIEGLER,

“PATHOLOGICAL

ANATOMY”

(MACMILLAN)

FIG. 15.—SECTION THROUGH ADVANCING MARGIN OF COLUMNAR CELL CANCER OF STOMACH SHOWING, (A) MUCOSA, (B) SUB-MUCOSA; (C) MUSCULAR COATS; (D) PERITONEUM

Since endothelial cells lie next one another without intervening substance they resemble in this respect epithelial cells but embryologically they are mesodermal and therefore allied to the connective tissue group. The features of endothelial tumours therefore might be expected to resemble now the one, now the other group and, indeed, there is some tendency to refer to the endotheliomata unusual varieties of growth which cannot well be placed in recognized groups. Nevertheless a primary subdural growth or one of the pleural cavity cannot be glandular however much it may resemble a carcinoma microscopically. Growths involving proliferation of the endothelium lining

blood and lymphatic channels (perttheliomata) are perhaps the most examples of endothelioma

convincing Fic. 16.—CANCER OF THE SIGMOID FLEXURE OF THE

See also Cancer; Cancer RESEARCH. COLON

the cold, desert, treeless plains which form the

Arctic lowlands of Europe and Asia. The name is also generally applied to a similar area in North America. The word is of Russian origin and means a marshy plain. The prevailing low temperatures are consequent on high latitude and proximity to the frozen northern ocean and result in very scanty vegetation.

TUNGABHADRA,

a river of southern India, the chief

tributary of the Kistna. It is formed by the junction of two streams, the Tunga and the Bhadra, which both rise in Mysore in the Western Ghats. The united river for nearly all its course forms the boundary between Madras and the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad. On its right bank stood the capital of the ancient Hindu dynasty of Vijayanagar, now a wilderness of ruins. T'UNG-CHOW, a city in the province of Chih-li, China, on the banks of the Peiho, 12 m. E. of Peking. Its population 1s estimated at about 50,000. It is situated at the highest point of navigation of the Peiho, and is the port of Peking. It is an old settlement known to the founder of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.) as Lu-Hien; under the T’ang dynasty (A.D. 618) its name was changed to Htian-Chow, and at the beginning of the 12th century, with the advent of the Kin dynasty, Haan-Chow became T’ung-Chow. During the Boxer outbreak in 1900 T’ung-Chow was occupied by the allied armies, and a light railway built connecting the city with Peking.

fortress near the junction of Wei-

TUNGKWAN, 2 Chinese Breviocrapuy.—J. Ewing, Neoplastic Diseases (3rd ed. Philadelphia, ho and Hwang-ho. The way down the valley is hemmed in by ; bibl.) 1925 (London Cancers and Tumours Gilford, 1928, bibl.) ; H. E. H. Kettle, Pathology of Tumours (and ed. London 1925); Sir J. great loess walls, sometimes on one side of the valley, sometimes,

Bland Suiton Tumours Innocent and Malignant (7th ed. London 1922 as at Tungkwan, on both. The river is rapid and flows, at places, bibl.) ; Max. Borst, Lehre v. d. Geschwilsten (Wiesbaden 1902 bibl.) ; over a rocky bed, so it is unsuited for navigation in this region.

Allgemeine Pathologie der malignen Geschwiilste (Leipzig, 1924, bibl.) ; Report

of the International Conference

TUMULUS,

on Cancer

(London, 1928). (W. S. L.-B.)

an artificial mound of earth or stone, usually

conical in shape, erected either as a memorial, or over the grave of a royal personage, noble or hero, or the relic of a saint. Funerary tumuli are sometimes known as barrows (q.v.). TUNBRIDGE WELLS, a municipal borough and inland

watering-place of England, chiefly in the Tonbridge parliamentary

division of Kent, but extending into the eastern division of Sussex, 32 m. S.E. by S. of London by the S. railway. Pop. (1931) 35,367.

It owes its popularity to its chalybeate spring and its

beautiful situation in a hilly wooded district. The wells are situated by the Parade (or Pantiles), a walk associated with fashion since the time of their discovery. It was paved with pantiles in the reign of Queen Anne. Reading and assembly rooms adjoin the pump-room. The town is built in a picturesquely irregular

manner, and a large part of it consists of districts called “parks”

TUNG

OIL.

Two varieties are known, differing slightly in

their physical properties, termed Chinese Tung Oil (China wood oil) and Japanese Tung Oil according to the country of origin. In China the oil is prepared from the seeds ot Aleurites cordata; these are roasted in flat dishes over a fire, then coarsely powdered and expressed in primitive wooden presses. ‘The kernels which contain up to 53% of oil yield in practice about 40%. The pale yellow oil for exportation, known as “white tung oil” is obtained by expressing the seeds in the cold; the hot-pressed oil—

“black tung oil’—is dark brown in colour and possesses a strong, unpleasant odour. Chinese tung oil has the highest specific gravity

(0-940 to 0-944) of all known fatty oils, with the castor oil, and the highest refractive index. The property of Chinese tung oil is the readiness with comes polymerized, setting to a hard jelly on being

exception of characteristic which it beheated for a

short time to a temperature of 250° Centigrade. Polymerization is also induced by dropping saturated solution of iodine on to the

TUNGSTEN

548

surface of the oil, which immediately solidifies. The pronounced precipitate of tungstic acid (H.WO,) is obtained which yields drying properties of tung oil render it suitable for use in the WO, on calcination. In the preparation from scheelite the finely manufacture of paints and varnishes. In China it is further used ground ore is decomposed with hydrochloric acid, whereby calfor water-proofing paper. Tung-oil trees have been successfully cium chloride passes into solution, and tungstic acid, together introduced in the United States in the north-central part of with insoluble impurities like silica, remains as a sludge: Florida where more than 1,500 acres are planted. Up to 1929 all CaWO,-+-2HCl = CaCl.+H.wQ,. available seed was being used for planting. More than 100,000,000 To purify the tungstic acid produced in these processes, it may pounds of the oil are imported annually and it is hoped that be dissolved in ammonia and crystallized out as ammonium paraeventually the domestic supply will meet American needs. (See also Orts AND Fats; and M. Toch, Chemistry and Technology of tungstate, 5(NH,).0,12W0O;,2%H.O. This is decomposed by hydrochloric acid to yield purified tungstic acid, or ignited in air to Paints, 1926.) (E. L.; G. H. W.) TUNGSTEN. The name tungsten means “heavy stone” tungstic oxide (WOQ;). Freedom from impurities and a suitable physical condition are (Sw. tung, heavy., sten, stone), and directs attention to the high absolutely necessary if tungsten is to be used for incandescent specific gravity of the element and its ores. (Symbol W, atomic number 74, atomic weight 184-0.) Up to the middle of the 18th century the mineral then known as tungsten, but now called scheelite, together with wolfram, were both considered to be ores of tin. In 1781, K. W. Scheele showed that this mineral contained a peculiar acid, which he named tungstic acid, combined with lime as a base, and in the same year Bergmann advanced the opinion that the new acid was a metallic calx. Two years later the Spanish chemists, the brothers d’Elhuyar, proved that this acid was present in wolfram, and by heating the acid with carbon produced metallic tungsten for the first time. ‘Tungsten occurs in nature in the form of tungstates of iron, manganese and calcium, which may be divided according to their crystalline form into two groups. The iron and manganese tungstates, crystallizing in the monoclinic system, form the wolfram group, whilst calcium tungstate or scheelite belongs to the tetragonal system. Pure iron tungstate (FeWO,) is known as ferberite and pure manganese tungstate (MnWO.,) as hiibnerite. The mineral wolfram or wolframite is normally a mixture of these two compounds in varying proportions. Wolfram generally occurs in columnar, blade-like or massive forms, though sometimes it is found in well formed prismatic or tabular crystals. It breaks up readily into thin flakes and its specific gravity ranges from 7-2-7-5.

The colour may vary from nearly black to a brownish tinge characteristic of specimens rich in manganese. Scheelite or calcium tungstate (CaWO.) may occur in the form of well developed crystals which are usually double tetragonal pyramids, but frequently it is found in a massive form with four good cleavages. The specific gravity is about 6 and the colour variable. It is generally grey, pale-yellow, or pale-brown, rarely green or reddish, with a waxy lustre. The world’s principal supplies of tungsten ores have come from China, Burma, Japan, Australia, Bolivia and the United States. Extraction and Manufacture.—The tungsten content of the ore as mined is usually 0-5 to 2.0%, so that a concentration process Is necessary for extraction.

The wolfram in the ore is associ-

ated with quartz and other gangue material, but it can be readily separated from these impurities owing to its high density. To remove cassiterite (SnO.) which is present in a large proportion of wolframite ores, magnetic methods are employed. Wolfram, containing iron, is fairly magnetic, whilst cassiterite is not attracted as a rule even by powerful magnets. With scheelite, fortunately, the association of cassiterite is not common, otherwise (since scheelite is non-magnetic) chemical processes would have to be employed to effect the separation. Many methods are available for the extraction of tungsten from its ores but the general principles involved in the extraction from wolfram may be illustrated by a brief summary of the sodium carbonate fusion process. The concentrate, after removal of cas-

siterite and other deleterious impurities, is mixed with excess of sodium carbonate and heated in a reverberatory furnace to about 1,000° C in an oxidizing atmosphere. Thereby sodium tungstate

lamps or for wireless work. In this case, the method universally adopted for the preparation of the metal is reduction of the oxide by hydrogen, whereby the tungsten is obtained as a powder. For alloying purposes, however, where greater latitude is allowed

in the amount of impurity and where the physical condition of the metal is of minor importance, the oxide is reduced by carbon and the resulting powder used for tungsten steels and other alloys. The high melting point of tungsten precludes its industrial manufacture in the cast state from the powdered metal, and even if this were possible the product would be of little value as it would be both brittle and difficult to work mechanically. From

the researches of Coolidge, who took out his first patent in 1906, a process has been developed which is capable of producing a fine tungsten wire that can be manipulated with little more diffculty than any other fine wire. In this process the powder is compressed in a hydraulic press into bars which are then heated to a high temperature in a furnace in an atmosphere of hydrogen, whereby a strong but brittle product results. This is now converted into rods by a mechanical hammering process in which the metal, previously heated to 1,500° C in an electric furnace in a hydrogen atmosphere, is subjected to 10,000 blows per minute in a special swaging machine. Further reduction of the diameter of the wire—usually from z1mm.—is effected by drawing through dies Tungsten wire can be drawn to o-orrmm. diameter, whilst by immersion for 45 seconds in a fused mixture of sodium nitrate and nitrite at 340° C a wire of diameter o-orgmm. is uniformly reduced to 0o-oo7mm. Physical and Chemical Properties.—Tungsten in the form of wire or sheet is dull white. The physical properties alter with changes in the structure of the metal, so that values for density, tensile strength, specific electrical resistance, etc , vary with the stage of swaging or drawing. The theoretical value for the density of pure tungsten, calculated from the atomic spacings, is 19-32. The probable melting point is 3,382° C, although the value 3,267° 30° C is also quoted. Tungsten has the highest melting point of the metals. X-Ray analysis shows that tungsten has a body-centred cubic lattice, the length of the cube edge being 3:155-to-oor A. For further physical data, see C. J. Smithells, Tungsten (1926). Tungsten undergoes no appreciable oxidation on heating in air below red heat nor does it react with nitrogen, except when in the state of vapour. It is very resistant to the action of acids, neither agua regia nor hydrofluoric acid attacking it to any appreciable extent. The best solvent for the fused metal

is a mixture of concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids. Aqueous alkalis are without action but fused alkalis dissolve the metal.

Tungsten in its compounds exhibits valencies of 3, 4, 5 and 6,

whilst, in addition, compounds of the empirical formula WR: (where R=Cl, Br, or I) are known. In the case of chloride, however, the molecular formula is W.Cl. The trioxide WO, is a

bright canary-yellow powder which becomes dark orange when heated and fuses between 1,300°—-1,400° C. It is insoluble in

is produced, and the iron and manganese present are converted most acids including agua regia but hydrofluoric acid dissolves it. to oxides: With aqueous alkali hydroxides or carbonates it forms tungstates containing varying proportions of WO; to metallic oxide, A hexa4FewO,-+- 0.4+-4Na.CO,

=

4Na.WO,-+

2Fe.0,-+4CO,

6MnW0O.-+0,+6Na.CO; = 6Na,WO,-+2Mn,0,+-6CO3.

The soluble sodium tungstate is extracted with boiling water and on treatment with boiling hydrochloric acid an amorphous yellow

chloride and hexafluoride are known. 'The compounds [W0;C];],

K.[WOCI;], K.[W(CN).] numbers of 4, 6 and 8.

exhibit tungsten with co-ordination

Applications.—Tungsten finds wide application as a filament

TUNGSTEN

STEEL—TUNICATA

549

in electric lamps, and as it has a hardening effect on other metals , the Tung-hu of the Chinese, probably a corrupt form of fonki or with which it is alloyed it is a constituent of some of the most donki, that is, “men” or “people.” The Russian form Tungus, important industrial alloys. Tungsten steels are employed in the wrongly supposed to mean “lake people,” appears to occur first manufacture of cutting tools and permanent magnets. The stellite in the Dutch writer Massa (1612); but the race has been known alloys containing cobalt, chromium and tungsten are extremely to the Russians ever since they reached the Yenisei. The Tungus hard and are used for cutting tools and surgical instruments, as domain stretches from long. 60° E. to the Pacific ocean and from they are not affected by organic acids and ordinary antiseptics. the Arctic to the Chinese frontier. The Tunguses are known to

Other uses of the metal include X-ray targets, thermionic devices, galvanometer suspensions, electrical contacts, refractory crucibles,

the Samoyedes by the name of Aiya or “younger brothers.”

The

Oroches, Chapogir, Golds, Lamut, Manjour, Manegre and Oroke

etc. CW. Wa.) are partly in Manchuria and are Tungusic. The Tungus type is TUNGSTEN STEEL. The earliest alloy of this type is essentially Mongolic, with broad flat features, small nose, wide Mushet steel (g.v.). It contains from 5-5 to 9.0% of tungsten mouth, thin lips, small black and somewhat oblique eyes, black and

also

carries

enough

manganese

to give

it air-hardening

properties and to class it as a quaternary alloy.

This article

considers principally commercial ternary alloys of tungsten. High carbon steels containing tungsten up to 6% are essentially water-

hardening

steels.

METALLOGRAPHY.)

(See IRON

AND

STEEL

Heat

TREATMENT;

The atoms of tungsten, being so much larger

and heavier than those of iron, diffuse comparatively slowly in solid metal, so that a high temperature is required for solution

before the quench. Accumulation of carbide particles upon tempering is also slow, hence the ability of tungsten steels to hold their hardness at high temperatures. Tungsten carbide also has a very high intrinsic hardness, approaching that of the

diamond. For keen edged tools tungsten in the alloy seems to prevent small particles from being torn away during use, and thus retards dulling. Steel containing 0-9% carbon or more together with 1 to 2% tungsten is used for hack saw blades and for reamers, broaches and other tools which must show a minimum change in dimension after heat treatment. Steels with 1% carbon or more, and 3 to 7% tungsten, are much used for “fast-finishing” tools to cut hard metals or to make a fine smooth cut on softer tough metal. Dies for cold drawing wire and other shapes are made of higher carbon steels (2%) with tungsten ranging from 1 to 12%. Dies with the higher tungsten percentages are used for the harder metals or the finer wires. Chromium is often added to facilitate the diffusion of tungsten. When o-5% or more is present the alloy may crack during water hardening. An oil quench, however, will harden it through to the centre. Chromium also causes the useful hardness to be retained at higher working temperatures. For working hot metal, tools would be made of 0-3% carbon steel with 10% tungsten and

34% chromium (known as “semi-high-speed”). Permanent mag-

nets for electric meters, magnetos, radio and telephone equipment

absorb annually several thousand tons of steel containing 0.7% carbon and 5 to 6% tungsten. In tungsten-iron alloys, substantially free from carbon, tungsten has the property of lowering the temperature at which delta iron changes to gamma iron and also of raising the temperature at which gamma changes to alpha iron. Consequently the American metallurgist W. P. Sykes was able to show that no gamma iron is formed in carbon-free alloys containing more than 7% tungsten. Such an alloy is permanently austenitic, and cannot be hardened

or tempered by heat treatment.

In the alloys containing more

tungsten the compound FesW2 appears; its solubility decreases with the temperature, and it is precipitated throughout the metal at a slow rate. To harden such an alloy it Is necessary to anneal or “age” it at a moderate temperature for several hours or days. Brinell hardness numbers indicate the extent of this action: Carbon free iron

hae

Gc

tas

Bo

oat

Carbon free solid solution alloy, 80% iron, 20% tungsten Above after aging . . . . . . . . 4) Carbon free aged alloy, 78% iron, 22% molybdenum .

Ae

Brinell SO

. r60 4 330 . 530

Such aged alloys of iron and tungsten and of iron and molybdenum (tungsten and molybdenum being very similar chemically) form excellent wire drawing dies, and have given 10 to 4o times the service that can be had from best high speed steel before the edge needs re-dressing. (See Iron AND STEEL; HicH Sprep

STEEL. ) TUNGUSES,

(E. E. T.) a widespread north Asiatic people. They are

lank hair, dark olive or bronze complexion, low stature, averaging not more than 5 ft. 4 in. The square shape of the skull and the slim, wiry, well-proportioned figure are features especially of the typical Tunguses. They are classed according to their various pursuits, as Reindeer, Horse, Dog, or Sedentary, Nomadic and Wandering Tunguses. A few have become settled agriculturists; but the great bulk of the race are still essentially forest hunters, using the reindeer both as mounts and as pack animals. Nearly all lead nomad lives in pursuit of fur-bearing animals, whose skins they barter in exchange for provisions, clothing and other necessaries of life. The national costume shows in its ornamentation and general style Japanese influence, due to intercourse at some period previous to the spread of the race to Siberia. Many of the Tungus tribes are reckoned as “Greek Christians”; but most of them are still Shamanists and nature-worshippers, secretly keeping the teeth and claws of wild animals as idols or amulets, and observing Christian rites only under compulsion. Family and exogamic clan organization is relatively strong. Intercourse begins before marriage as soon as a portion of the bride price has been paid. Some practise polygamy. Exchange marriages occur. The levirate is common. A man may take his son’s widow. Cousin marriage occurs and tree-burial (g.v.) is found among them. See M. Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia (1914).

TUNICATA, a well-marked class of marine animals, normally distinguished by the possession of an external cuticle of cellulose (the tunic or test), and of two more or less prominent siphons, one inhalant, the other exhalant, leading into corresponding internal

chambers (the branchial sac and atrium), which communicate with one another by a system of ciliated gill-slits or stigmata. These maintain through the body a circulation of sea-water subservient both to food-collection and respiration. The class was instituted and named in 1816 by Lamarck, who included the fixed Solitary

Ascidians or Sea-squirts (the Tethya of Aristotle) and the Compound Ascidians, which form colonies by budding (first distinguished from Alcyonarian polyps in the previous year by Savigny), together with various pelagic free-swimming forms (Thalia, Salpa, Pyrosoma), at that time very imperfectly known. The minute tailed Appendicularians, first described in r819 by Chamisso, were added to the class thirty years later either as larval forms (Joh. Miiller, Krohn, Vogt, 1846-1854) or as a definite adult type (Huxley, 1851). “Acephalous Mollusca.”—Cuvier (1798, 1815) ranged the Ascidians alongside the bivalved Lamellibranchs as “Acephalous Mollusca,” being led to this view by the similarity of their siphons,

and by the interpretation of the combined branchial sac and atrium as a mantle-cavity containing a pair of “branchial membranes.” The opening of the oesophagus into the branchial sac was regarded as the true mouth. This view dominated zoology until 1871, when it became clear, as a result of Kowalevsky’s observations on the development, that the so-called “branchial sac? was simply a dilated pharynx, and that the real affinities of Tunicata were with the Vertebrates, owing to the larval possession of notochord, dorsal nerve-tube and gill-slits. The group is now

recognised as forming with Amphioxus (g.v.) the lowest section of the Chordata, the subphylum Protochordata of Balfour. The feature which, above all others, distinguishes this subphylum from the rest of the Chordata is the possession through-

out life of an endopharyngeal ciliary feeding mechanism of subdivided gill-slits, glandular endostyle, and ciliated peripharyngeal bands. This apparatus, beautifully adapted for straining off mi-

550

TUNICATA

nute floating particles is still represented by vestiges in Vertebrate

chia, Seeliger).

embryos (cf. development of thymus and thyroid glands, which are modified remnants of tongue-bars and endostyle). Thus the Protochordata have the unique interest of preserving some of the characters of the immediate ancestors of the Vertebrata. Apart from this the class Tunicata presents a number of special features of considerable physiological interest, such as the pres-

bars, but with transverse ciliated ridges (horizontal membranes);

Pharynx without internal longitudinal vessels or

body elongated, with distinct abdominal region, ż.e., intestinal loop always behind the pharynx; budding universal.

Families: Clavelinidae (including Distomidae = Polycitoridae), Gonads in intestinal loop, heart alongside, budding purely epi-

cardial; Didemnidae, Intestinal loop short, gonads projecting, ence in the test of “animal cellulose” (tunicin, CsHioO5), the budding epicardio-intestinal; Polyclinidae (=Synoicidae, Hart), presence in the blood-cells of the rare element Vanadium, which

Gonads and heart behind the intestinal loop, budding by post-

probably acts as a catalyst, and, with its five oxides, accounts for the diversified colouring of these animals (Henze, I9gt1-1913; Hecht, 1918); the reversibility in the direction of the heart-beat; the prevalence of gemmation of different types, whether simple or complicated by polymorphism; and, in Appendicularians, the phenomena of cell-reduction and of partial neoteny. Classification.—With the exception of a few imperfectly

abdominal (rarely abdominal) fission. Section II. Pleurogona, Perrier (= Periblastica, Garst.). Gon-

known forms, existing Tunicata fall readily into one or other of three sub-classes named by Herdman (1891) Ascidiacea, Thaliacea and Larvacea. The first includes the fixed Ascidians, both simple and compound, the second the pelagic, tailless, freeswimming types reproducing by budding (inclusive of Pyrosoma, which Herdman referred to the Ascidiacea), and the third the minute, solitary, tailed, Appendicularians. The name Larvacea, however, has not received general recognition, and is here re-

placed by Gegenbaur’s older (1878) and in other ways more acceptable term Copelata (from Kopéldtés, oarsman, sculler). The order in which these groups are here presented is believed to represent the natural, or phyletic, sequence; but the pelagic Thaliacea and Copelata, though far less rich in numbers and variety than the Ascidiacea, are treated in greater detail, both on account of thelr importance to students of evolution, and from the fact that our knowledge of them has been greatly extended by the oceanic expeditions of recent times, which renders more complete treatment desirable. The classification adopted will perhaps be more readily intelligible as a record of Tunicate evolution if it be added that the ground-plan of the Tunicate pharynx, like that of Amphioxus, consists of a median ciliated and glandular groove below (the endostyle), flanked by gill-slits of the Amphioxus pattern on either side, i.e., each U-shaped, completely bisected by a tongue-bar, and each half (or protostigma) further divided into a row of stigmata by outgrowth of processes (synapticulae) from the tongue-bar. It should also be noted that the power of budding is assumed to have been possessed by the earliest Tunicata, since in some form or other many solitary Ascidians, even Ampiioxus and Appendicularians, retain structures which are probably vestiges of the endodermal budding organ or epicardium. (See below.) Indeed loss of budding has probably been no slight factor in the evolution of the later forms, both fixed and free, by releasing energy for increased size and longer life, or more continuous muscular activity.

Class TUNICATA Unsegmented, hermaphrodite Protochordata with an atrio-cloacal cavity, a recurved intestine and a gelatinous resistant cuticle or test of cellulose.

ads parietal

(in atrial

wall),

usually

paired;

body

compact;

budding peribranchial (lateral); larval brain with otolith, but no separate eye; larval suckers reinforced by a peripheral ring of adhesive papillae.

Suborder 3. STOLIDOBRANCHIA, Lah. (=Ptychobranchia, Seeliger). Pharynx with internal longitudinal bars, not tubular vessels; its walls often folded longitudinally, or with clusters of bars representing folds; budding rare (Botryllidae, Polystyelinae): epicardium vestigial or absent. Families: Botryllidae, Styelidae (=Tethyidae, Hart), Tethyidae (Huntsman, not Hartmeyer; =Pyuridae, Hart, formerly Cynthudae), Molgulidae (= Caesiridae, Hart). Order IT, THALIACEA Pelagic, with mouth and atriopore at opposite ends; pharynx with persistent undivided protostigmata; budding from a complex ventral stolon, containing both pharyngeal and peribranchial outgrowths. Suborder r. Pyrosomata has the following characteristics: Qozooid incompletely developed. Blastozooids forming a permanent colony, each hermaphrodite and capable of budding. Proto-

stigmata numerous, and crossed by internal longitudinal bars. A cerebral eye, and a sub-neural gland, with duct and ciliated funnel, always present. Fam. Pyrosomatidae.—Colony a hollow cylinder closed at one end, the zooids imbedded in its walls, mouths outside, atriopores inside, and endostyles towards the

closed end (the starting point). Each zooid has a pair of transverse lateral muscles connected with fibres in the common test (colonial muscular system). A single egg develops in each cloaca into a ring-like primal colony of 4 zooids (tetrazooid colony). Phosphorescent. Pyrostremma, nov. gen. (from stremma—a twist or sprain; =Pyrosomata fixata). Protostigmata oblique; a cloacal languet; “colonial” muscle crossing the pharynx; also an anterior biradiate muscle-plexus, concentrated dorsally. Stolon multi-annulate, buds

not migratory. Orifice of colony guarded by 4 test-processes containing muscular test-vessels. Two species, P. Spinosum, agassizii. Pyrosoma, s. str. (=Pyrosomata ambulata). Protostigmata at right angles to endostyle. No cloacal languet or anterior muscle plexus. “Colonial” muscle crossing the cloaca. Stolon short; buds carried to their places by phorocytes. Orifice of colony with

sphincter in a test-diaphragm containing vascular processes, e.g., P. atlanticum, verticillatum, etc.

Suborder 2. Dorrora

(= Cyclomyaria) is characterized by:

Oozooid asexual, free-swimming, and budding freely. PeribranOrder I. ASCIDIACEA chial cavities shallow. Pharynx without internal longitudinal bars. Sessile, with dorsal atriopore (cloacal siphon); pharynx with Peripharyngeal bands twisted spirally at their dorsal junction transverse rows of ciliated stigmata, variously shaped, and an (ciliated spire). Protostigmata in oozooid few (4 pairs), forming a internal accessory apparatus of ciliated bars, ridges or papillae. transverse series behind the endostyle, in blastozooids more numSection I. Enterogona, Perrier, sens, lat. (= Endoblastica, erous. Oozooid with a dorsal outgrowth to which the free buds are Garstang)—~Gonads unpaired, lodged in the intestinal loop or carried from the ventral stolon by phorocytes. Blastozooids polyprojecting behind it; budding epicardial; larva with cerebral morphic, the first being nutritive and sessile (trophozooids), the eye and otolith. second sterile and locomotive (phorozooids), the last sexual Suborder 1. PHLEBOBRANCHIA, Lahille (= Dictyobranchia, See- (gonozooid s). Cloaca posterior, atriopore terminal. Intestine in liger)—Pharynx with accessory, tubular, internal longitudinal oozooid uncoiled, with posterior anus. A subneural gland, with vessels, often supporting ciliated papillae: intestinal loop usually duct and ciliated funnel. Eye absent. alongside pharynx; budding rare (Perophora, Diazona), the epiFam. I. Doliopsidae. Atria and protostigmata entirely behind cardium in other cases sterile (Ciona) or absent. endostyle. Ciliated spire behind the brain. Somatic muscles not Families: Perophoridae, Diazonidae, Cionidae, Phallusiidae forming loops. Stolon extended on to dorsal outgrowth. Blasto(=Ascidiidae), Corellidae. zooids globose, on the outgrowth in groups, not rows. Suborder 2. HAPLOBRANCHIA, Lah. emend. Garst. (= Krikobran- Doliopsis, Vogt arranged (=Anchinia, Esch.). (Qozooid known only by

TUNICATA

AE

Yi PARTLY AFTER (2) SCOPICAL SCIENCE

SEELIGER, (3) KOROTNEFF (CLARENDON PRESS)

AND

NEUMANN,

(5)

TYPES 1. Ascidiacea, Top row, Phlebobranchia; bottom row, Stolidobranchia

2. Thaliacea:

Suborder

diagrammatically

3. Thaliacea: oozooid

Suborder and

outgrowth

Ro

Tan

blastozooid,

Doliolida.

phorozooid

Suborder with

raus

right,

ae

of oozooid

4. Thaliacea: Manalata

Pyrosomata.

bisected;

,

of

embryo loft

ta

a small

Pyrosoma,

Left

colony

showing

,

Bottom,

AND

THE

row,

to right,

Doliolina.

of Doliolum,

Salpida.

OF

middle

Left,

FOL

LOHMANN;

FROM

VARIOUS

Haplobranchia;

of Pyrosoma,

a single zooid

St

Doliopsis, fragment

À

gonozooid; of dorsal

showing arrangement of buds i re Salpa fusiformis, top, cozooid; bottom,

and testis around riaht

Oibantanrs

nucleus

9 Fritillaria

(6,

8}

GARSTANG,

ORDERS

with

OF

“house”

6. Stages

In

OF

TUNICATA”

IN

THE

QUARTERLY

JOURNAL

OF

i

MICRO-

TUNICATA

tail truncated; Appendicularia,

in middle, Fritillaria with ‘‘capsule.’’ Bottom row, Oikopleura and Kowalevskia, each in relation to its

retrograde

(blastozoo:d)}.

y

evolution:

c. Doliolum

a.

m

Ascidian

orn

(Cionid).

b.

(oozooid with gonads added).

dicularian with dextral anus and rudiments of gonads

Pyrosoma

d. Appen-

7. Clavelina, a Haplobranch, showing two stages of buds &. Modes of budding in Tunicata and relation to thoracic regeneration. a. Hypothetical Protunicate with regenerative disks or pockets at base

eaarh

“MORPHOLOGY

y

ak,

of pharynx

hlactio

Accidian

and

atrial

(EP nternnana’

cavities. d_

b. Protothaliacean.

Parihlactin

Aecridian

c.

Endo-

(Plaurannna’

`

TUNICATA fragments of dorsal outgrowth.) Phorozooids and gonozooids with a praeoral and a supracloacal tentacle, lacking in the trophozooids. Somatic muscles a pair of S-shaped strands. Fam. II. Doliolidae. Oozooid and locomotive buds barrelshaped, the former with 9, the latter with 8, muscular hoops. Oozooid with an otocyst on the left side, and 4 longitudinal rows of buds on its dorsal process-——-trophozooids along the sides, phorozooids down the middle, the latter carrying gonozooid buds on their stalks of attachment. Trophozooids with gaping mouth and half-obliterated cloaca. Phorozooid and gonozooid without supra-cloacal outgrowth or otocyst. Ciliated spire before the brain. Stolon short; buds all migratory. Doliolina, Borgert. All protostigmata (>

—

9%

Lon

93 o'

EL 6269 ee

Be

Fene e 2

A




ce

6160

FILLED WITH CONCRETE

44'-0" DIAM.

|

5

25 200'

200

O

200

400

&600Ft,

100 40 80 120 160 180M bahar erat ort rtan ea a Sa eao

BY

COURTESY

OF

N.Y.

CITY

BOARD

OF

WATER

SUPPLY

FIG. 9.—CROSS-SECTION OF THE HUDSON RIVER CROSSING OF THE CATSKILL AQUEDUCT, LOOKING DOWN-STREAM, SHOWING TION OF THE TUNNEL AND THE DIAMOND-DRILL BORINGS MADE TO EXPLORE THE ROCK TO DETERMINE ITS LOCATION

resistance to the bursting pressure of the water and also watertightness, it is placed in the rock from 200 to 750 ft. below the surface of the streets beneath which it was built. It was driven from 25 shafts, averaging 4,o00 ft. apart. The work of constructing the Catskill aqueduct system, including the reservoirs, the city tunnel and the Shandaken tunnel, occupied from 1905 to 1926. In 1920, a tunnel 4-5 m. long, g ft. wide and 9-5 ft. high was begun in the Alps of Switzerland, to convey water to an hydroelectric plant. The Nevada irrigation tunnel is 4-1 m. long and has a cross-section 9 by 9 feet. It was completed in May 1928 at a cost of $1,500,000. TUNNELS FOR CANALS OR WATERCOURSES Tunnels for the diversion of streams or canals are of very early date. South of Seleucia, in Turkey in Asia, a river flows through a tunnel 20 ft. wide and 23 ft. high, excavated 1,600 years ago through rock so hard that the chisel marks are still discernible. In 1766 a tunnel g ft. wide, 12 ft. high and 1-63 m. long was begun on the Grand Trunk canal, England, and completed rx years later; and this was followed by many others. The largest of its kind is the recently completed (1927), Rove tunnel, connecting the Port of Marseilles, France, by canal with

the river Rhone.

It is 72 ft. wide (width of water 60 ft.) and 50

ft. high inside and 4.53 m. long. The cross-sectional area is about six times that of the average double track railway tunnel. Its construction occupied 15 years, and its cost was about 135,000,000 francs, paid by the French Government, the chamber of commerce and the City of Marseilles. The entire cost is to be returned by tolls. The quantity of material excavated was greater than any other tunnel in Europe, about 2,250,000 cu.yd., or 25% more

than the great Simplon tunnel. It is lined with masonry, has a tow path 6 ft. wide on each side in the form of a series of small arches and has a large masonry portal at each end. This tunnel is 1-7 m. longer than a similar canal tunnel between the Marne and the Rhine. VENTILATION

OF TUNNELS

Ventilation of Steam Railway Tunnels.—The simplest method for ventilating a railway tunnel is to have numerous wide openings to daylight at frequent intervals. If these are the full width of the tunnel, at least 20 ft. in length, and not farther apart

than about 500 ft., a tunnel can sometimes be naturally and adequately ventilated.

Such arrangements are, however, frequently

impracticable, especially in long and deep tunnels, and then re-

THE

LOCA-

course must be had to mechanical means. Not only long tunnels, but often those relatively short, require artificial ventilation when on a steep gradient, as the smoke and gases have a tendency to

travel up the grade with the locomotive, which is then working at full capacity. Natural ventilation depends for its action upon the difference of temperature within the tunnel or ventilation shaft, and the outer air. In winter the draft is upward and in summer often downward. In the spring and autumn there are often periods when there is little difference in temperature and, in consequence, little circulation of air. Most steam railway tunnels are poorly ventilated, except where the difference in elevation of the ends or the prevailing winds, creates a natural draft through them. The need for ventilation is far greater with steam locomotion than with electric motors. The trst application of mechanical or fan ventilation to railway tunnels was made in the Lime street tunnel of the London and North Western railway, at Liverpool, which has since been replaced by an open cutting. At a later date fans were applied to the Severn and Mersey railway tunnels. Where possible, the principle ordinarily

acted upon, where mechanical ventilation has been adopted, is to exhaust the vitiated air at a point midway between the portals of a tunnel, by means of a shaft with which is connected a ventilating fan of suitable power and dimensions. In the case of the tunnel under the Mersey river such kind of shaft could not be provided, owing to the river being overhead, but a ventilating heading was driven from the middle of the river (at which point entry into the tunnel was effected) to each shore, where a fan 40 ft. in diameter was placed. In this way the vitiated air is drawn from the lower point of the railway, while fresh air flows in at the stations on each side to replenish the partial vacuum. The principle was that fresh air should enter at each station and “split” each way into the tunnel, and that thus the atmosphere on the platforms should be kept pure. In the Mersey tunnel there are five fans; two are 4o ft. in diameter by 12 ft. wide and two 30 ft. in diameter by ro ft. wide, one of each size being erected at Liverpool and at Birkenhead respectively. In addition there is a high speed fan, 16 ft. in diameter, in Liverpool, which throws 300,000 cu.ft. per minute. The ventilation of this tunnel was satisfactory up to a train schedule of 300 trains per day, or one each way every five minutes. As the traffic increased the air shaft became coated with soot several inches thick and arrangements were made to instal electric power. The central point of the Severn tunnel lies toward the

TUNNEL

570

from Monmouthshire bank of the river and ventilation is effected ke Sudbroo at surface the on placed fan one of means by point that horia with ed connect is which shaft a of Monmouth, at the top which zontal heading leading to the centre of the tunnel. This fan, tunnel the from removes width, in ft. 12 by r diamete is 40 ft. in volume some 400,000 cu.ft. per minute, and draws in an equivalent ends. two the from air fresh of About 1896 an excellent system was introduced by Signor Sacthe cardo, an Italian engineer, which to a great extent minimized where -ranges mountain under tunnels long ng ventilati difficulty of

FO

Th

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ATES,

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ALIA RACER ES OEE MATES

A

UM CONSTRUCTION N = :GAUGE OF MAXIM an

: 5 A ‘

AIR CHAMBER 4

oy

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CROSS SECTION

FIG. 10.—DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE SACCARDO SYSTEM FOR VENTILATING TUNNELS shafts are not available. This system, which is not applicable to tunnels in which underground stations exist, is based upon the principle of the ejector, and is illustrated in fig. ro, which represents its application to the single-line tunnel through the Apennines at Pracchia. This tunnel is one of 52 single line tunnels, with a gradient of 1 in 40, on the main line between Florence and Bologna, built by Thomas Brassey. There was a great deal of trafic which had to be worked by heavy locomotives. Before the installation of a ventilating system, under any condition of wind,

round and round the neck and over the head.

d The Saccardo system was installed in 1899 at the St. Gotthar situis plant ing ventilat The results. al benefici most with tunnel ated at Goschenen at the two large fans operated pressed into the narrow per minute at a velocity duced as the full section

north end of the tunnel and consists of by water-power. The quantity of air mouth of the tunnel is 413,000 cu.ft. of 686 ft., this velocity being much reof the tunnel is reached. After installa-

tion, a sample of the air taken from a carriage contained only

E 10-19 parts of carbonic acid gas per 10,000 volumes. ty is the electrici where long), m. (12-3 tunnel In the Simplon motive power, mechanical ventilation was installed at the time of construction at each end of the tunnel, both for construction purposes and to serve as permanent equipment. It is based on a dif-

ferent principle than the Saccardo system. A steel sliding door is arranged at each entrance to be raised and lowered by electric

power. After the entrance of a train the door is lowered and fresh air forced into the tunnel from the same end at considerable pressure by fans. Since completion of the second tunnel following the World War an additional ventilation plant has been built at the north end of the tunnel. The Moffat tunnel in Colorado (6-1 m. long) is ventilated by a mechanical plant based on the principle of forced or induced draft

created at one end of the tunnel. A building was erected at the east portal which forms an extension of the tunnel and provides a fan chamber on each side. A vertical lift gate is provided to close the portal. Two fans are provided, which differ for experimental reasons. Each has a diameter of 9 ft. and width of 6 feet. The motors are of 7so and soo hp. with capacities of 450,000 and 350,000 cu. ft. per minute, at velocities of 14 and Io m. per hour, respectively. Only one fan is operated, the other held in reserve. The ventilation is by forced draft for east bound trains and induced draft for west bound trains, which forces the smoke back along the train. The results are very satisfactory.

Other railway tunnels partially or completely ventilated by

mechanical draft are the Giovi tunnel, in Italy; Hoosac tunnel, in Massachusetts; East Mahanoy tunnel, in Pennsylvania; Big Bend tunnel, in West Virginia; Elkhorn tunnel, in West Virginia; and the Gallitzen tunnel, in Pennsylvania. Volume of Air Required for Ventilation of Railway Tunnels.—The consumption of coal by a locomotive during the 29 cu.ft. the state of this tunnel, about 9,000 ft. in length, was bad; but passage through a tunnel having been ascertained, and consumed, when the wind was blowing in at the lower end at the same time of poisonous gas being allowed for each pound of coal of the that a heavy goods or passenger train was ascending the gradient the volume of fresh air required to maintain the atmosphere in dioxide carbon of parts 20 of purity of standard a at tunnel the condition of affairs became very much worse. The engines, working with the regulators full open, often emitted large quanti- 10,000 parts of air is ascertained as follows: The number of ties of both smoke and steam, which travelled concurrently with pounds of fuel consumed per mile, multiplied by 29, multiplied the train. The goods trains had two engines, one in front and the by soo and divided by the interval in minutes between the trains, other at the rear, and when, from the humidity in the tunnel, due will give the volume of air in cubic feet which must be introduced to the steam, the wheels slipped and possibly the train stopped, into the tunnel per minute. Ventilation of Tunnels for Electric Traction.—The introthe state of the air was indescribable. A heavy train with two engines, conveying a royal party and their suite, arrived on one duction of electric traction has simplified the problem of ventilatoccasion at the upper exit of the tunnel with both enginemen and ing intra-urban railways laid in tunnels at a greater or less dis- ' both firemen insensible; when a heavy passenger train came to a tance below the surface, since the absence of smoke and products of combustion from coal and coke renders necessary only such stop in the tunnel, all the occupants were seriously affected. In applying the Saccardo system, the tunnel was extended for a quantity of fresh air as is required by the passengers and rs or 20 ft. by a structure either of timber or brickwork, the staff. For ventilation the shallow tunnels which form the underinside line of which represented the line of maximum obstruction ground portions of the Metropolitan and District railways in Lonof the tunnel, and this was allowed to project for about 3 ft. into don, open staircases, blow-holes and sections of uncovered track the tunnel (fig. 10). The space between this line and the exterior are relied on. When the lines were worked by steam locomotives constituted the chamber into which air was blown by means of a they afforded notorious examples of bad ventilation, the proporfan. Considering the length of tunnel, it might at first be thought tion of carbonic acid gas amounting to from 15 or 20 to 60, 70 and there would be some tendency for the air to return through the even more parts in 10,000. Since the adoption of electricity as open mouth, but nothing of the kind happened. The whole of the the motive power the atmosphere of the tunnels has very much air blown by the fan, 164,000 cu.ft. per minute, was augmented improved. Samples taken from the cars in 1905 after the adopby the induced current yielding 46,000 cu.ft. per minute, making tion of electricity gave as low as 11-27 parts in 10,000. When deep level “tube” railways were first constructed in Lona total of 210,000 cu.ft.; and this volume was blown down the

gradient against the ascending train so as to free the driver and men in charge of the train from the products of combustion at the earliest possible moment. Prior to the mstallation of this system the drivers and firemen had to be clothed in thick woollen

garments, pulled on over their ordinary clothes, and wrapped

don, it was supposed that adequate ventilation would be obtained through the lift-shafts and staircases at the stations, with the aid of the piston action of the trains which, being of nearly the same cross-section as the tunnel, would, it was supposed, drive the air

In front of them out of the openings at the stations they were

TUNNY—TUNSTALL

57>

friction losses and power required to handle large quantities of air through concrete ducts. In the Holland tunnel, the transverse system of ventilation was it was found necessary to employ mechanical means. On the Central London railway, which runs from the Bank of England to adopted. The fresh air is introduced continuously along each tube, Shepherd’s Bush, a distance of 6 m., the ventilating plant installed from conduits provided for the purpose, and taken off at frequent in 1902 consists of a 300 hp. electrically driven fan, which is intervals at opposite points. The air therefore travels a course placed at Shepherd’s Bush and draws in fresh air from the Bank transverse to that of the vehicles and there is a practically equal degree of purity at all points in the tubes. Because carbon end of the line and at other intermonoxide is lighter than air and the exhaust motor gases are mediate points. The fan is 5 ft. warmer than the fresh air introduced in the tunnel and therefore wide and 20 ft. in diameter, and tend to rise, the fresh air ducts are placed beneath the roadways makes 145 revolutions a minute, and the exhaust ducts above the roadway ceiling but all in the its capacity being 100,000 cu.ft. approaching, while drawing fresh air in behind them at the stations

they had left. This expectation, however, was disappointed and

a minute.

It is operated

from

1 to 4 A.M, and, the openings at all the intermediate stations being closed, it draws fresh air in at the Bank station. The tunnel is thus cleared out each night, during the period when trains are not operated, and the air Is left in the same condition as it is outside. The fan is also worked

during the day from 11 A.M. to 5 P.M., the intermediate doors being open. In a number of BY COURTESY OF N.Y. STATE BRIDGE AND COMMISSION the later tube railways in Lon- TUNNEL BUILDING FOR THE HOUSING OF don—such as the Baker street THE MACHINERY BY WHICH FRESH and Waterloo, and the Charing AIR IS FORCED INTO THE HOLLAND Cross and Hampstead lines— TUNNEL AND USED AIR WITHDRAWN electrically driven exhaust fans are provided at about half-mile intervals; these each extract 18,500 cu.ft. of air per minute from the tunnels and discharge it from the tops of the station roofs. The Boston system of electrically operated subways and tunnels is ventilated by electric fans capable of completely changing the air in each section about every 15 minutes. Air admitted at portals and stations is withdrawn midway between stations. In the southerly 5 m. of the first rapid transit subway at New York, constructed between rgoo and 1904, which is a four track structure of rectangular section, having the area of 650 sq.ft. and built as close as possible to the surface of the streets, ventilation by natural means through the open staircases at the stations was at first relied upon. The results were satisfactory as regards the proportions of carbonic acid gas found in the air, but when intensely hot weather prevailed the tunnel air was sometimes 5° hotter still, due to the conversion of electric energy into heat. Ventilation chambers were added on each side of the subway at points between stations, and the condition became much improved. These chambers are beneath the sidewalks and covered by gratings, and they have been incorporated in the construction of all subways built later. In addition, a partition wall separates trackways for trains running in opposite directions and the piston action of the trains induces a satisfactory circulation of the air. Ventilation of Vehicular Tunnels.—The need of mechanical ventilation of vehicular tunnels is a development of the last. generation due to the advent of vehicles propelled by internal combustion engines. The exhaust from such engines contains smoke and gases, which are irritating to the eyes and also contains a considerable percentage of carbon monoxide, a highly poisonous gas. The first studies of the need of ventilation for vehicular tunnels were undertaken in connection with the construction of the Holland tunnel, at New York, because of its length and the large volume of traffic which was expected to use it. At that time (1920) natural draft was relied upon for the ventilation of all

such tunnels in operation, including the Blackwall and Rotherhithe tunnels, in London, which were by far the most important. The traffic in them, however, was only about 100 motor vehicles per hour for each tunnel, compared with an estimated traffic of 1,900 motor vehicles per hour in each tube of the Holland tunnel. Research studies and exhaustive tests were made for this tunnel with the co-operation of the U.S. Bureau of Mines to determine first, the amount and composition of exhaust gases from motor vehicles; second, the physiological effects of these gases and third, the

same tunnel tube.

The fresh air is introduced in each roadway

by continuous slots along each side above the floor, and the vitiated air is exhausted through louvers in the roof at 15 ft. intervals. The entire tunnel atmosphere is completely changed every 14 minutes or 40 times per hour, but so uniformly and gently that the current is hardly perceptible. This eliminates the fire hazard incident to a longitudinal circulation of draught. There are four ventilation shafts, one at each pierhead line and one about midway between the pierhead and portal on each side of the river. The fans are located in the shaft buildings and there are 84 in all, one-half blowers and one-half exhausters. The Liberty tunnels were the first long vehicular tunnels in which artificial ventilation was used. The method adopted is the longitudinal draft system, based on Saccardo’s, with modifications by C. S. Churchill. The flow of air in each tunnel is with the traffic, and is induced from a shaft near the centre of each tunnel. Each shaft is divided into two compartments, one of which is used to exhaust the air which enters at the portal from the first half of the tunnel, and the other to blow fresh air into the tunnel at the centre and force it forward to the exit portal, Suitably designed nozzles at the centre of the tunnels, at the shafts, prevent the mixing of the air being introduced and ejected. The flow of air is continuous in each tube in opposite directions and wind pipes are provided at the exit of each tube to prevent interference with the ventilation by adverse winds. The ventilating plant and fans are on the hilltop near the centre of the tunnels, at the shafts. The plant was designed to provide for a double line of motor cars in each tube, spaced roo ft., moving at 15 m. per hour and a proportion of carbon monoxide at 6 parts in 10,000 at the point of exit, the average, therefore, being 3 parts in 10,000. This required the supplying of 280,000 cu.ft. of air per minute in each tube at a velocity of 6 m. per hour. (See also

TRACTION, ELECTRIC; TRANSPORT; AQUEDUCTS; etc.)

(R. Ry.)

BrsriocrapHy.—F. Rziha, Lehrbuch der gesammten Tunnel-Baukunst (2 vols., 1867-72); J. B. McMaster, Tunnel Centres (N.Y. 1875); F. W. Simms, Practical Tunneling (4th ed., 1896); D. M. Stauffer, Modern Tunnel Practice (1906); W. C. Copperthwaite, Tunnel Shields and the use of compressed. air in subaqueous works (and ed. 1912) ; G. H. Gilbert, Subways and Tunnels of New York (1912) ; C. Prelini, Tunneling (6th ed., N.Y. 1912); E. Lauchli, Tunneling (N.Y. 1915); C. Dolezalek, Der Ezsenbahniunnel (1919); D. W. Brunton and J. A. Davis, Modern Tunneling (new ed., N-Y., 1922); B. H. M. Hewett and S. Johanneson, Shield and Compressed Air Tunneling (N.Y., 1922); G. E. Lucas, Tunnel Anlage und Bau (1924); D. S. Matheson, Subaqueous Tunneling in Compressed Air (Inst. of Civ. Engineers, Papers, 1927).

TUNNY (Thunnus thynnus) the largest fish of the mackerel family, reaching a length of over ro ft. and a weight of 1,500 lb. It is robust in form, bluish above, grey spotted with silver below. The tunny is found:in all warm seas, and periodically approaches the coasts; it feeds on other fishes, It is excellent as food. In the Mediterranean especially, the fishing is extensive. The sport of catching tunny or “tuna” with rod and line from motor-boats originated at Avalon, Calif., and has spread to New Zealand and Europe. At Avalon the Tuna Club regulates the weight of rod and strength of line, and the capture of a large fish may occupy several hours.

TUNSTALL

(or Tonstatt),

CUTHBERT

(1474-1559),

English prelate, natural son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland Castle, Lancashire, seems to have studied at Oxford, at Cambridge and at Padua. Having held several livings in quick succession, he

became chancellor to William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury,

572

TUNSTALL—TURA

in rrr. He was employed on diplomatic business by Henry VIII. and Wolsey, being sent to Brussels in 15315 and to Cologne in 15109, while he was at Worms during the famous Diet of 1521. In 1516

he had been made master of the rolls; in 1321 he became dean of Salisbury; in 1522 bishop of London, and in 1523 keeper of the privy seal. For Henry VIII. hbe negotiated with Charles V. after his victory at Pavia in 1525 and he helped to arrange the Peace of Cambrai in 1529.

In 1530 he succeeded Wolsey as bishop of

Durham. Tunstall adhered firmly to the traditional teaching of the Church, but after some slight hesitation he accepted Henry as its head and publicly defended this position. In 1537 the bishop was appointed president of the new council of the north, but

although he was often engaged in treating with the Scots he took part in other public business and attended parliament, where in 1539 he participated in the discussion on the bill of six articles. Although he disliked the religious policy pursued by the advisers of Edward VI. and voted against the first act of uniformity in 1549, he continued to discharge his public duties without molestation until after the fall of the protector Somerset; then in May 1551, he was placed in custody. A bill charging him with treason was introduced, but the House of Commons refused to pass it; he was, however, deprived of his bishopric in October 1552. On the accession of Mary in 1553 he was released and was again bishop of Durham, but during this reign he showed no animus against the Protestants. When Elizabeth came to the throne he refused to take the oath of supremacy, and he would not help to consecrate Matthew Parker as archbishop of Canterbury. He was placed under arrest at Lambeth, where he died on Nov. 18, 15509.

TUPPER,

SIR CHARLES,

Barr. (1821-1915), British

colonial statesman, son of the Rev. Charles Tupper, D.D., was

born at Amherst, Nova Scotia, on July 2, 1821, and was educated

at Horton Academy.

He afterwards studied for the medical pro-

fession at Edinburgh University, where he received the diplomas

of M.D. and L.R.C.S. In 1855 he was returned to the Nova Scotia Assembly for Cumberland county. In 1862 he was appointed governor of Dalhousie College, Halifax; and from 1867 till 1870 he was president of the Canadian Medical Association. Tupper was a member of the executive council and provincial secretary of Nova Scotia from 1857 to 1860, and from 1863 to 1867. He became prime minister of Nova Scotia in 1864, and held that office until the Union Act came into force on July 1, 1867, when his government retired. He was a delegate to Great Britain on public business from the Nova Scotia government in 1858 and 1865, and from the Dominion government in March 1868. Tupper was leader of the delegation from Nova Scotia to the Union conference at Charlottetown in 1864, and to that of Quebec during the same year; and to the final colonial conference in London, which assembled to complete the terms of union, in 1866-1867. He was sworn a member of the privy council of Canada, June 1870, and was president of that body from that date until July 1, 1872, when he was appointed minister of inland revenue. This office he held until February 1873, when he became minister of customs under Sir John Macdonald, resigning with the ministry at the close of 1873. On Sir John’s return to power in 1878, Tupper became minister of public works, and in the following year minister of railways and canals. Tupper was the author

of the Public Schools Act of Nova Scotia, and had been largely instrumental in moulding the Dominion Confederation Bill and other important measures. Sir Charles represented the county of Cumberland, Nova Scotia, for thirty-two years in succession— TUNSTALL, market town, in Staffordshire, England. Pop. first in the Nova Scotia Assembly, and subsequently in the (1921) 22,740. It is one of the towns which amalgamated in Dominion parliament until 1884, when he resigned his seat on 1g10 to form the municipal borough of Stoke-on-Trent (g.v.) being appointed high commissioner for Canada in London. which in 1925 became a city. The town is of modern growth. The Shortly before the Canadian Federal elections of February 1887, Victoria Institute (1889) includes a library and schools of art Tupper re-entered the Conservative cabinet as finance minister. and science. The neighbourhood is full of collieries, ironworks By his efforts the Canadian Pacific railway was enabled to float and potteries. Kidsgrove, Chatterley and Talk-o’-th’-hill are a loan of $30,000,000, on the strength of which the line was large neighbouring villages. There are brick and tile works in finished several years before the expiration of the contract time. Tunstall. He resigned the office of finance minister in May 1888, when he TUPELO, a city of north-eastern Mississippi, U.S.A., on the was reappointed high commissioner for the Dominion of Canada west fork of the Tombigbee river; the county seat of Lee county. in London. Tupper was one of the British plenipotentiaries to the It is at the intersection of Federal highways 45 and 78, and is Fisheries Convention at Washington in 1887. When the Dominion served by the Frisco and the Mobile and Ohio railways. Pop. cabinet, under Sir Mackenzie Bowell, was reconstituted in Jan(1920) 5.055 (41% negroes}, 6.361 in 1930 by the Federal census. uary 1896 Tupper accepted office, and in the following April he It is the seat of a military institute. succeeded Bowell in the premiership. On both patriotic and Among Tunstall’s writings are De veritate corporis et sanguinis domini nostri Jesu Christi in eucharistia (1554); and De arte supputandi libri quattuor (1522). The bishop’s correspondence as president of the council of the north is in the British Museum.

TUPIAN

(Turr), a group of tribes of South American

Indians, occupying at the time of the first European contact a narrow and probably continuous strip of the Brazilian coast, from the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro northward nearly to the mouth of the San Francisco river. The original home of this stock probably lay in southern Matto Grosso and Paraguay. The Tupi tribes were everywhere sedentary or semi-sedentary

commercial grounds he urged the adoption of a preferential tariff with Great Britain and the sister colonies. At the general

election in the ensuing June the Conservatives were severely

defeated, and Tupper and his colleagues resigned, Sir Wilfrid Laurier becoming premier. At the next general election, in 1900, Tupper, long the Conservative leader, sustained in his own constituency of Cape Breton his first defeat in forty years.

agriculturalists, hunters and fishermen, but on the Atlantic coast See his Recollections of Sixty Years (1914); and E. M. Saunders. fish was almost the staple food. As a rule they wore very little Life and Letters of Sir Charles Tupper (2 vols., 1916). clothing, made much use of feather ornaments and decoration, TUPPER, MARTIN FARQUHAR (1810~1889), English and wore small labrets in the lower lip. They lived in large writer, the author of Proverbial Philosophy, was born in London communal houses of light construction, although some had the on July 27, 1810, the son of a doctor of Huguenot descent. He was walls of wattle and daub, and protected their often large villages educated at Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford. He by means of palisades. Their weapons were the bow and club, but was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn, but never practised. He they made no use of poison on their arrows. They were skilled began a long career of authorship in 1832 with Sacra Poesis and canoemen, and their vessels carried as many as 60 men. The Tupi m 1838 he published Geraldine, and. other Poems, and for fifty tribes were warlike, and strongly organized for war, and commonly years was fertile in producing both verse and prose; but his name ate their prisoners. The dead had their burial in large pottery is indissolubly connected with his long series of didactic moralisurns. The language of the coastal Tupis was adopted by the ings in blank verse, the Proverbial Philosophy (1838-67) which Jesuit missions as a lingua franca throughout a large part of for about 25 years enjoyed an extraordinary popularity. The Brazil, and this in time grew into the still considerably used first part was, however, a comparative failure, and N. P. Willis, lingua geral, the American author, took it to be a forgotten work of the r7th century. He died at Albury, Surrey, on Nov. 29, 1889. See C. F. P. von Martius, Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachen-

kunde Amerikas, etc. (Leipzig, 1867); H. von Ibering, The Anthropology of the State of S. Paulo, Brazil (Sio Paulo, 1906).

TURA,

COSIMO

(1430-1498),

founder of the Ferrarese

school of painting, was born at Ferrara and in his youth appears

TURBELLARIA to have visited Padua and Venice. He spent most of his life at Ferrara, where he was court painter to the dukes Bono and Ercole. Between 1465 and 1467 he decorated the library of the

Picos of Mirandola with allegorical figures. These works, now destroyed, were described at length by Lilius Gregorius Giraldus (Ferrarensis Historiae Poetarum, Basle 1580). The decorations of Duke Borso’s chapel at Belriguardo have also perished. In 1469 he painted the organ shutters in the cathedral of Ferrara.

These two

panels,

representing

an “Annunciation”

and

a “St.

George slaying the Dragon” are still extant. The Berlin museum has one of the most important works of the master, “The Virgin and Child Enthroned and saints.” Another notable work is the “Madonna and Child enthroned surrounded by six angels playing on musical instruments” (National Gallery, London). This painting was the central panel of an altarpiece of which the lunette representing “the Pieta” is in the Louvre, and one of the

wings representing “‘a monk kneeling and two saints” is in the Colonna collection, Rome. Other notable works are the “St.

Jerome” (National Gallery, London); the “Pietà” Correr Museum, Venice, and a madonna at Bergamo.

in

the

See E. Gardner, The Painters of the school of Ferrara (xr911).

TURBELLARIA. (Planarians), a class of flat-worms or Platyhelminthes (q.v.) in which the body is unsegmented and covered with a ciliated epidermis, and an alimentary canal is generally present. Almost all the group are free-living. General Morphology.—The body is either subcylindrical or flattened and leaf-like or ribbon-like. In length the species range from a fraction of a millimetre to some 20 centimetres. In many

forms there is a flat creeping (ventral) surface. At or near the

anterior end there may be a pair or more of tentacles, and a pair of eyes, or numerous eye-spots. The margins of the body, in some CONVOLUTA of the leaf-like aquatic forms, VORTEX are very mobile and capable of MONOTUS forming fin-like membranes, with which the animals swim after the manner of a skate. The dorsal surface of the body is often pigmented, and the colours and markings, especially in terrestrial a RA RA Tiner BATER oe forms, may be very striking and ` eg arteed date a Une were S e FUE Wc In certain aquatic brilliant. oy ETE ON 04 species a green or brown colour is produced by the presence in the tissues of symbiotic green or brown algae. The epidermis consists of a single layer of ciliated, glandular cells. These cells secrete a mucoid slime and often also solid, fusiform, refringent rods known as “rhabdites.” Below the epiAFTER VON GRAFF IN PARKER AND HASWELL, dermis is a basement membrane, “TEXT-BOOK OF ZOOLOGY” (MACMILLAN) and below this various layers of FIG. 1.—EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF muscle-fibres (circular, longitud- VARIOUS TYPES OF TURBELLARIA inal and sometimes also diag- The upper three are small aquatic Rhabdoooelida. TAysanozoon is a onal). As in the other classes of marine Polyclad; the next two are fi,

pa

St" La © ty

Shie

ji y 2

ty uy OA ead

z dey

fa

Platyhelminthes, the internal or-

terrestrial

Triclads,

and

the

bottom,

gans are embedded in parenchy- a common fresh-water Triclad. All are matous tissue, though in some of shown feeding on a dead earthworm the more highly specialized forms a slight space (schizocoel) surrounds the alimentary canal. The mouth is very variable in position. In some forms it is placed anteriorly, but more often it lies towards the middle, or even behind the middle, of the ventral surface. It leads, usually through a muscular pharynx with more or less mobile and protrusible margins, into a digestive organ which, in some cases (Acoela), is a solid syncytial mass, but more often forms a hollow sac. This sac-like gut may be simple, lobate or branched, but as a rule, has no opening to the exterior except the mouth. The nervous system consists of paired anterior ganglia lying ventrally to the gut, and giving off various lateral, dorsal and

573

ventral fibres which are interconnected by other fibres. Tactile organs are generally distributed over the skin, and may take the form of special hair-like cilia. Other sensory organs also occur in the form of statocysts, ciliated cephalic pits or grooves, and eyes. The eyes may be mere groups of specialized retinal cells surrounded by pigment, or more ae EYE-SPOTS complex structures provided with a lens. An excretory system of CIUATED PITS the platyhelminth type, with fame-cells, is usually present. INTESTINE The external opening may be m single or paired, ventral or termiMOUTH OF ORIGINAL ANIMAL nal, or there may be multiple Mout OF ve Hmocn | excretory pores on the dorsal surOF THE TWO INDIVIDUALS

face.

Almost

all the

ETa WHICH T OWED | are hermaphrodite, m”

productive

organs

Turbellaria

and the reare

usually

Jaetwo Mousa | complex. The ducts of the male and female organs generally open separately, on the ventral surface and towards the posterior end of THE Four MOUTHS OF THE FOURTH GENERATION the body, the male pore being the more anterior. Classification.—To draw up EIGHT INDIVIDUALS OF THE FIFTH GENERATION a natural systematic arrangeHAVE NOT YET ment of the Turbellaria is a matACQUIRED MOUTHS ter of considerable difficulty. An FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY" arrangement based primarily on (A. & C. BLACK LTD.) the characters of the digestive FIG. 2.—-RHABDOCOELAN TURBELLARIAN (MICROSTOMA LINEARE) apparatus, and due largely to von UNDERGOING THE PROCESS OF REGraff and Lang, has for many PRODUCTION BY DIVISION years been looked upon as the standard system, and has been adopted, with slight modifications, in many well-known text-books of zoology. Recently, in consequence partly of the great increase in the number of known forms, there has been a tendency among specialists to consider this simple classification an unnatural one, and somewhat drastic changes have been proposed, notably by Poche (Arch. f. Naturg., 1926). The older classification, which, up to the present, has been generally followed, is given here. Order I. Rhabdocoelida. Intestine, when present, a simple, nue

straight

or irregular sac.

Female

gonads

compact.

Small

forms

(marine or fresh-water) with cylindrical, or more seldom flattened, body. : Tribe r. Acoela. Digestive organ consists either of scattered cells among the parenchyma or of a syncytial mass without a lumen. Excretory organs of the usual type absent. A median statocyst present above the brain. Testes follicular. Ovaries paired. Marine forms, including the families Proporidae and Convolutidae.

Tribe 2. Rhabdocoela. Digestive organ consists of a straight gut, typically with a lumen, and usually separated from the general parenchyma by a partial cavity (schizocoel). Excretory organs present. Statocyst usually absent. Testes generally paired and compact. Vitellaria may or may not be distinct from the ovaries. Sexes exceptionally separate (Microstoma). Marine and fresh-water forms, including a large number of families and genera (Prorhynchidae, Mesostomatidae, etc.). A few forms (Grafilla, Anoplodium, etc.) parasitic in marine invertebrates. Tribe 3. Alloeocoela. An irregular or branching intestine present, distinct from the parenchyma, but schizocoel greatly reduced. Excretory organs present. Testes follicular. Vitellaria and ovaries may or may not be distinct. Almost all species marine, but a few in fresh water. Includes the family Plagiostomidae. Order II. Tricladida. Intestine consists typically of three main branches, one median and anterior, two posterior, each of which gives off a series of caeca. Mouth behind middle of body. A single genital pore present. Generally elongate and flattened or subcylindrical forms, including the families Bdelluridae, Procerodidae (marine), Planariidae (fresh-water), Geoplanidae, Bipaliidae (terrestrial) and several others.

Order III. Polycladida. Intestine consists of a central sac giving

off laterally a number of branching caeca. Genital pores typically separate. Flattened and generally leaf-like marine forms. Tribe 1. Acotylea. Without a ventral sucker. Mouth at or behind middle of body. Genital pores near posterior end, Tentacles, if present, dorsal. Includes the families Planoceridae, Leptoplanidae, etc. Tribe 2. Cotylea. A sucker present behind the genital pores.

TURBERVILLE—TURBINE:

574

Mouth at or in front of middle of body, with genital pores just

behind it. Tentacles, if present, Pseudoceridae, Euryleptidae, etc.

marginal.

Includes

the families

The group Temnocephaloidea (consisting of Temnocephala and certain other peculiar genera epizoic upon fresh-water crayfish, tortoises, etc.) has sometimes been given the rank of a fourth order, and looked upon as connecting the Turbellaria with the Trematoda (g.v.). In the classification proposed by Poche, to which reference has been

made

above,

the three main

groups

are:

Acoela

(order

Proporidea}, Rhabdocoeloinei (orders Planariidea, Catenulidea, Rhabdocoela, Temnocephalidea) and Polyclada (order Planocer-

idea). The Acoela are thus removed from the Rhabdocoelida, and the remainder of the latter, with the Tricladida and Temnocephaloidea of the old system, included in one large group. Occurrence and Habits.—Most Turbellaria are aquatic. They are abundant on the seashore and in fresh water, where they lurk among weeds or under stones, and in the crannies of rock-pools. The marine forms usually emerge from their hiding-places only during high tide to feed. These worms creep with a curious gliding movement, aided by their cilia, or swim actively. Some of the small fresh-water planarians may often be seen creeping upside-down on the surface-film of the water. Many species of triclads are terrestrial. These occur in damp localities and chiefly in tropical or subtropical countries, though a few are known in temperate latitudes. They are somewhat slug-like in form and habits. A few Turbellaria are parasitic. These are marine, and are found in such animals as sea-urchins, holothurians and molluscs. The free-living forms are almost all carnivorous, feeding either on microscopic organisms or on worms, molluscs and insects. The protrusible pharynx is used either to engulf the prey whole or to pierce it and suck up its juices after it has been enveloped in a coating of mucus. Development and Life-history.—The development of most

of the Turbellaria is direct (i.e., without metamorphosis). In certain polyclads, however, the embryo develops into a swimming larva (“Miiller’s larva”) provided with eight ciliated lobes, and somewhat resembling the trochosphere larvae of certain annelids. In the Rhabdocoela the eggs are generally enclosed in shells, each being provided with a number of | separate yolk-cells. In the Acoela | VITELLINE GLANDS and Polycladida the ova themERIOR BRANCH OF THE INTESTINE selves may contain yolk-granules, and the eggs are usually laid in clumps surrounded by a gelatinous envelope. The ova of triclads are laid, several together, surrounded by amoeboid yolkcells, in a cocoon, and only a certain proportion of them develop, the others being used as food-material by the survivors. A form of asexual multiplication occurs in certain rhabdocoels (Microstomidae) and triclads. In the former

constricted

the body

becomes

in the middle

and

FIG.

3.—GENERAL

STRUCTURE

forms two complete animals, each A TRICLADID TURBELLARIAN. of which again subdivides, and so THREE-BRANCHED INTESTINE on,

until

a whole

chain

of in-

CHARACTERISTIC

oF THE

Is

OF THIS GROUP

dividuals is formed, head to tail, eventually breaking up into separate organisms. In some of the triclads spontaneous fragmentation may occur, with regeneration of the parts to form complete animals. But even forms which at one season reproduce in this manner, do so at another by means of eggs. ‘In certain rhabdocoels (e.g., Mesostoma) two distinct types of eggs are produced according to the season. During warm weather the eggs laid are thinshelled “summer eggs” which develop rapidly, while thick-shelled

“winter eggs,” whose contents remain longer in a resting condition, are laid in cold weather. In other cases the eggs are ap-

STEAM

parently similar at all seasons, but develop more rapidly in warm water than in cold. Thus in shallow pools subject to sudden and frequent changes of temperature, the population increases rapidly during warm weather, while during cold spells the survival of the race is assured. (See PLATYHELMINTHES.) (H. A. B.)

TURBERVILLE

(or Turservite),

GEORGE

(1540?—

1610?), English poet, second son of Nicholas Turberville of Whitchurch, Dorset, belonged to an old Dorsetshire family, the D’Urbervilles of Thomas Hardy’s novel, Tess. He became a scholar of Winchester college in 1554, and in 1561 was made a

fellow of New college, Oxford. In 1562 he began to study law in London, and gained a reputation, according to Anthony a Wood, as a poet and man of affairs. He accompanied Thomas Randolph in a special mission to Moscow to the court of Ivan the Terrible in 1568. Of his Poems describing the Places and Manners of the Country and People of Russia (1568) mentioned by Wood, only three metrical letters describing his adventures survive, and these were reprinted in Hakluyt’s Voyages (1589). His Epitaphs, Epigrams, Songs and Sonets appeared “newly corrected with additions” in 1567. In the same year he published

translations of the Heroycall Epistles of Ovid, and of the Eglogs of Mantuan (Gianbattista Spagnuoli, called Mantuanus), and in 1568 A Plaine Path to Perfect Vertue from Dominicus Mancinus. The Book of Falconry or Hawking and the Noble Art of Venerie (printed together in 1575) may both be assigned to Turberville.

He probably died before 1611.

TURBET I HAIDARL, a town in the province of Khurasan

in Persia, situated at an elevation of 4,400 ft., about 76 m. S. of Meshed, on the motor road to Duzdab, via Qain and Birjand, A centre of many roads, the town is surrounded by a dilapidated bastioned wall, but the better houses are found outside. In the north-east are the ruins of an old citadel, or the Ark of Ishaq Khan; but the principal feature of the town is its bazaar formed of four dome-vaulted streets radiating from a larger central dome. Before the famine of 1871, Turbet i Haidari was populous, but

the population was, it seems, reduced by 20,000. The town had recuperated before the World War owing to increased trade between Russian Turkistan and Afghanistan; since then there has been a decline and the latest estimate (1900) gives a population of 5,000 only, chiefly of Turki Qarai stock, who were settled there

by Timur in the r4th century; but many of the merchants and artisans are Yazdis. The surrounding district is very fertile and much wheat and barley are sent to other parts. The chief trading activities are wool-buying, silk production (now greatly declining), carpet buying from the Baluch nomads round about, and the making of copper utensils. The town, formerly known as Zavah, derives its name from the turbeh, or tomb, of a holy man named Qutb ud Din Haidar, the founder of the ascetic sect of dervishes known as Haidaris, who died ¢c. 1230 and is buried in a domed building just outside the town.

TURBINE:

STEAM.

A turbine

is a rotary motor in

which the shaft is rotated steadily in its bearings, not by means of cranks as for example in a reciprocating engine (g.v.), but by a current of water, air, steam or any other fluid. Thus a steam turbine is a “prime mover” which generates motive power in the same manner as the familiar country-side “wind mill,” which is | used for grinding corn or pumping water. Instead of a current of air being used to rotate the shaft by means of “sails” as in a “windmill,” a current or blast of steam issuing from a number of fixed nozzles, is employed to rotate the shaft of a steam turbine by means of “vanes,” “buckets” or “blades.” The relatively small power obtainable from the wind with a reasonable sail area, and the discontinuity of the breeze, render the windmill of comparatively little economic importance, but

with the steam turbine on the other hand, the matter is very different.

Not only is there the convenience of uniform rotary

motion applied to a shaft direct, but also the powerful and unfailing steam blast generated with coal or oil fired boilers, and the enormous power output obtainable from a turbine of very moderate dimensions. . The economic value of the steam turbine has, therefore, been

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THE

GENERAL

TURBINE of

I. Parsons’ original 10 h.p. steam turbine with top of casing removed. Built in 1884, this type, by the utilization of Parsons’ principle of “pressure compounding,” opened up an unlimited field of utility for the steam turbine. The original is in the Science Museum, London 2. De Laval’s steam turbine built in 1889, after several years of preliminary research. Sectional view reveals the single wheel, about 5 in. in diameter, which rotated at approximately 30,000 revolutions per minute 3. Model of Rateau construction

steam

turbine

built in 1896.

Section

4. Engine of S.S. “Scythia,” and the double reduction

shows

internal

geared turbine unit

with top housing removed to show turbine designed to develop 6,250 h.p. at the shaft

rotors

and

gears.

It is

5. Turbine rotors in process of assembly at a large plant 6. General Electric 94,000 kilowatt tandem compound turbo-generator set at the Long Beach station of the Southern California Edison Company, Los Angeles. This view shows the high-pressure unit in the foreground with the low-pressure unit towards the rear, connection from one to the other being effected by means of the two steam headers shown 7. The turbo-generator of fig. 6 viewed from the generator end. The space underneath the unit houses the auxiliary equipment

TURBINE: the incentive to its development to the utmost, and its evolution has been carried out in the face of all obstacles,—a story worthy of an epic of mechanical engineering—for many years almost entirely owing to the efforts of the Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons, O.M., K.C.B., etc., and his associates and in more recent years by

a host of other workers as well. General Mechanical Features.—In the steam turbine, in which a pure twist or driving torque is the only force applied io the shaft, the entire mechanism may be described under the following six headings. (x). The system of “blading” by means of which the motive power is produced. The term “blading” (as distinct from “blades’’) is used to

oe collectively

the fixed nozzles

and the rotating

“vanes”

or

aces.

(2). The rotating shaft, or “rotor,” which carries the rotating elements of the blading, and collects and transmits the driving torque. (3). The casing, which carries the nozzles or fixed elements of the “blading,” balances or provides the reaction to the driving torque

(see torque tube in a motor car), and embodies the supports or bear-

ings for the rotor. (4). The speed regulating mechanism. (x). The lubricating system for the bearings. (6). The coupling between the rotor and the apparatus intended to be driven by it.

The blading may consist of a set of fixed nozzles (see fig. 1) directing high-velocity steam jets on to “vanes” or “blades” mounted round the rim of the wheel. If there were no blades or other obstructions in front of the steam jets, the latter would travel forward in a straight line. The curved surfaces of the blades, however, forcibly deflect the Jets from the free path, the blades themselves receiving in consequence an “impulse” in the direction opposite to the deviation which they produce. Hence the name “impulse turbine” applied Fis. 1.—DE LAVAL WHEEL AND NOZZLES SHOWING DEVIATION OF to a turbine of this kind. The THE STEAM JETS BY THE BUCKETS steam jets in passing through the blade passages and doing work on the wheel, will be continuously slowed down and will leave the moving blades with a velocity much less than the initial. Special Difficulty

rangement

of the Problem.—~-Such

(the counterpart

a very

of the well-known

water

The underlying reason for the unsuitability of the simple steamwheel as compared with the water wheel is to be found from a comparison of the physical properties of steam and water. Water is an in-elastic fluid; that is, it has practically the same density (weight per cubic foot) at all pressures, and in a water turbine, the water jet velocity generated by a given fall in pressure is determined from the static head corresponding to that pressure. If h is the height of a column of water, the difference of pressure between the top and the base of the column is that due to the weight of the water in the column pressing on an area equal to the sectional area at the base. Denoting this sectional area by A then hA=the volume of the water, the weight of the column ph A, and p, the pressure per unit area at the base,=ph where p is the density or weight per unit volume. The jet velocity due to such a head of water is the same as that acquired by a body falling freely through the height h under

gravity viz., \/2gh thus V*=2gh= 2g G) Each pound of water coming in at the top of the column and discharged at the base with velocity V has lost potential energy gh and gained an equivalent amount of kinetic energy 4V*. This is the energy per pound which would be available for use in a water turbine. The static head of water corresponding to a pressure of 265 ib. per sq. inch would be 610 feet and the velocity due to this

|

With a fluid of less density, a longer column would be re-

575

quired in order to have the same pressure at the base.

In other

words the same pressure would then correspond to a greater static head. Considering steam at, say, 265 lb. per sq. inch and a temperature of 700° F, the density of the steam is yy of that of water and it would therefore require at that density a column r6o0 times the height to give the same pressure, or 160 X 610=97,600 ft. But this is not all. Steam, in contrast with water, is a highly elastic fluid, and the effective head in steam would be even greater than 97,600 ft., because of the expansion in volume which takes place as the pressure falls.

During this process, successive decrements of pressure, associated with successively decreased density, contribute increasing amounts to the static head (figure 2c.). As a consequence of the expansion the fluid cools down considerably, and the actual head is therefore the height of a column of steam at varying density (and temperature); the pressure at any point of the column is that due to the weight of the steam above it and the density at that point is the density corresponding to such pressure. Such a column of steam with a pressure at its base of 265 Ib. per sq. inch and a pressure at the top of 4 lb. per sq. inch (measured from zero pressure or an absolute vacuum) would have a height of 365,000 feet. (It should be noted that pressures measured from zero pressure [or an absolute vacuum] are designated absolute pressures. A pressure below atmospheric is expressed either as an absolute pressure or as a vacuum, by which is meant the defect below atmospheric pressure. Thus if the barometer reading is 30” of mercury then a perfect vacuum would be called a vacuum of 30% of mercury; and a vacuum of, say, 28” of mercury is less than a perfect vacuum by the pressure corresponding to 2” head of mercury.) This therefore is the value of the effecA P= Les /in ABs.

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