Encyclopaedia Britannica [2, 14R ed.]

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

The Encyclopedia Britannica is published

with the editorial advice of the faculties

of The University of Chicago

and of a

committee of members of the faculties of Oxford, Cambridge

and London

universities

and of a

committee

at The University of Toronto

KNOWLEDGE GROW FROM MORE TO MORE AND THUS BE HUMAN LIFE ENRICHED."

"LET

A New Survey of Universal Knowledge

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA Volume

2

Antarctica to Balfe

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA,

INC.

WILLIAM BENTON, PUBLISHER

CHICAGO LONDON TORONTO •

•

•

GENEVA SYDNEY TOKYO •

•

© 1966 by Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Copyright under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved under Pan American and Universal Copyright

Conventions by Encyclopedia Britannica, printed in the

u.

Library of Congress Catalog Card

s.

Inc.

a.

Number: 66-10173

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA Volume Antarctica A NTARCTICA, the continent lying concentrically about Antarctica increases in r\ the geographic south pole. / n .XL

V\

^

importance as

it

becomes better known, and

it

is

also significant as an area of large-scale international

-ijk. co-operation. is divided into the following sections: General Survey 1. Location and Description

This article I.

2.

3.

II.

Knowledge Ownership

of the

Region

Physical Characteristics 2.

Meteorology Geology

3.

Antarctic Ocean

4.

Animal Life

1.

5. Plant Life Exploration and Discovery 1. Conjecture About Antarctica 2. Crossing the Antarctic Circle 3. Discovery of the Mainland (1820-99) 4. Quest for the South Pole 5. Exploration, 1920-40 IV. National Efforts at Occupation (1943-55) 1. Conflicting Claims 2. Operation "Highjump" and Other U.S. Expeditions

A.NA.R.E.

4.

Other Events

V. International Co-operation 1. International Geophysical Year 2. Special Committee for Antarctic Research 3. Antarctic Treaty 4. Future Prospects for Antarctica I.

GENERAL SURVEY

—

Location and Description. Antarctica lies in unique isolation in the triangle formed by the southernmost extension of South America, Africa and Australia. The nearest oceanic approach to a neighbouring continent is about 600 mi. across Drake straits from Tierra del Fuego to the tip of the Graham-Palmer 1.

(Because of disputes over priority of discovery the Graham Land and Americans call it Palmer peninsula; the hyphenated form used in this article recognizes the dispute. Argentina calls it San Martin and Chile, Tierra Surrounding the continent is the Antarctic (or de O'Higgins.) Southern) ocean, which is merely the confluent portions of the

peninsula.

British call this peninsula

to

Balfe and Indian oceans;

it is notoriously the stormiest nothing to break the force of the persistent west winds. Warmer tropical waters meet with cold antarctic waters in a remarkably permanent girdling line ranging between latitude 45° and 65° S. known as the Antarctic convergence. This line, which varies considerably with longitude but generally within

Pacific, Atlantic

in the world, for there is

and not more than a degree or two of latitude per year, establishes boundary between subtemperate and subantarctic zones. South of the convergence the waters are characteristically ice-laden and abound with subpolar aquatic life. It is a feeding region for myriads of pelagic sea birds and is the location of Antarctica's principal a

—

III.

3.

2

industry whaling. The continent itself is essentially circular in form except for the Graham-Palmer peninsula and the inward bights of the Ross and Weddell seas. The great mile-thick layer of continental ice thins toward the coasts and discharges flat-topped icebergs into the surrounding seas from piedmont glaciers, ice tongues and shelf-ice systems (see also Glacier). Along the periphery of the continent

mountain peaks left bare by the skirting and receding Farther inland the rugged landscape is generally drowned by ice cover, although gentle rolling surfaces and crevassed regions in places reflect its hidden character. The continent is asymetrically divided into two parts by a high upthrusted mountain range exceeding 15,000 ft. elevation. This antarctic cordillera runs from Victoria Land on the New Zealand are rugged ice.

side

toward Coats Land on the Atlantic

side.

Its central relation-

Graham-Palmer peninsula The geological is still uncertain for lack of adequate exploration. formations of this central range seem to bear little resemblance to the Andean type, however, and its flat-lying, uplifted sedimentary ship with the

Andean type ranges

of the

rocks are in part carboniferous. Extensive low quality bituminous coal outcrops to within 200-300 mi. of the south pole yield fossils which portray an earlier age when the continent was once forested. Whether this former warmer climate was due to climatic change, polar wandering or continental drift is still a matter of intensive

conjecture and investigation. West Antarctica, the lesser of the two major subdivisions of the continent, lies almost entirely within the western hemisphere, Ice soundings have shown this facing toward the Pacific ocean. region to be largely an ice-covered archipelago. Ice thickness be-

ANTARCTICA raphy, that the bulk of the coast and. interior were first crudely mapped in the late pre-

lines

World War II period. Afterward much improved technical developments further stimulated est

in

exploring

the

inter-

continent.

Foremost was the appearance of ice-breaking vessels powerful which could shepherd cargo vessels through pack ice; the coast guard icebreaker "Norlhwihd," leading vessel of the U.S. navy's Operation "Highjump" in 1947,

was the

first

of

its

class to ap-

proach Antarctica. Advances in aircraft, aerial cameras, commuweather forecasting nications, and navigation systems and aids improved the ability to reach icebound coasts and inland areas denied to earlier expeditions. A further significant change was in personnel. Early visitors to Antarctica, except for crews of sealing and whaling vessels, were unpaid volunteers who went exIn the ploring for adventure. post-World War II period there was an abundance of available military and civil service personnel, as well as excesses of

usable

military supplies, ships, aircraft,

ANTARCTIC TERRITORIAL CLAIMS. TO REMAIN STATUS QUO UNDER THE TERMS OF A TREATY SIGNED BY 12 NATIONS ON DEC I, 1959. THE TREATY DEDICATES ANTARCTICA FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES ONLY AND IN EFFECT INTERNA(ICE SHELVES INDICATED BY LINED AREAS) TIONALIZES THE ENTIRE CONTINENT.

tween the islands ranges to 14,000 ft. with elevations 4,000-6,000 West Antarctica is bordered by the bights ft. above sea level. Its most thoroughly formed by the Ross and Weddell seas. studied regions include Marie Byrd Land and the Graham-Palmer

came

peninsula.

tions

East Antarctica is nearly twice as large as west Antarctica and It appears to be more lies mostly within the eastern hemisphere. contiguously a continental mass. The subsurface beneath the ice is extremely rugged except west of Victoria Land, where it appears to be an extensive plain close to sea level; the internal ice cover forms nearly featureless domes rising to elevations above 1,200

ft.

Taken

as a whole, with its lofty

Antarctica averages about 8,000

ft.

mountains and

ice

cover,

in elevation, the highest of all

the continents. In sharp contrast to the lushness of sea life, the continent is virtually lifeless. Seals and birds that frequent the coasts and off-lying islands of Antarctica depend upon the sea for food and

do not go farther inland than necessary to find breeding grounds. Aside from microscopic forms of life sparsely detectable in the snow and melt ponds, the only permanent life on the continent are lichens, mosses, fungi, a few grasses and one diminutive flowering plant. Tiny insectlike' creatures find shelter and livelihood in the more luxuriant clumps of these hardy plants. 2. Knowledge of the Region. Surrounding islands were discovered during the 18th century, but until 1820 sea ice prevented even the most daring navigators from seeing the continent itself, Positive recognition of a land mass of continental proportions was achieved in the mid- 19th century, but, aside from relatively insig-

—

tors

vehicles, foods

making

and instruments,

logistics less difficult.

members

All

of exploring parties be-

well-salaried employees; nominal leaders were administra-

who themselves could not

afford the time to remain in the

some cases not even in summer, became more like agencies receiving instruc-

antarctic during winter and in

Stations therefore

from outside the continent. Nevertheless, the new approach provided longer continuity, and systematic long-range surveys and programs became possible. The continent can be said to be permanently inhabited

scientific

since

1943, even though its personnel is usually exchanged annually, There was a marked increase of scientific exploration of Antarctica in the period 1955-60 associated with the International Geophysical year (q.v.) of 1957-58, and after IGY an intensive co-operative Nevertheless, of the continent's scientific program continued. 5,100,000 sq.mi., approximately one-fifth had not been seen by the

eyes of

man

as of 1960.

Ownership.

—

Declared ownership of parts of Antarctica is confused and controversial among seven claimant nations. The United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, Norway and France agree basically among themselves in laying claim to the bulk of the continent, with the notable small central portion of west Antarctica conceded to the United States. Norway's claims were the most modest, extending only to their coastal discoveries facing the Atlantic between longitude 45° E. through the Greenwich meridian westward to longitude 20° W. France's claim of Terre Adelie, which is the smallest segment of any claimant, is bounded by longitudes 136° E. and 142° E. and 3.

flanked on either side by Australian claims. France also claims the Crozet and the Kerguelen islands in the southern Indian ocean. The United Kingdom formerly made extensive claims but has

nificant landings, the first fruitful efforts to explore the interior

bequeathed large portions of them

were initiated near the beginning of the 20th century. Deep penetration by Ernest Shackleton, R. F. Scott and Roald Amundsen culminated in Amundsen's reaching the geographic south pole first in Dec. 1911, about 31 months after the north pole was reached by Robert E. Peary. It was not until the advent of new technical advances, such as aircraft, radios and aerial photog-

The New Zealand claim

to

New

Zealand and Australia,

includes the wedge-shaped segment extending from longitude 150° W. westward past the international date line to 160° E., bordering the Australian claims in Victoria

Land.

The

French-split Australian claim

is

the largest national

claim, extending from 160° E. westward to 45° E., adjoining the Norwegian claim. This region lying south of Australia and the

ANTARCTICA Indian ocean includes Wilkes Land, an important American discovery in 1847. Australia also claims the Macquarie, Heard and other islands.

The British claim retained for itself the Falkland Islands dependencies (see Falkland Islands). It incorporates the bestknown portion of Antarctica, the Graham-Palmer peninsula and the numerous islands of the South Shetland and South Orkney archipelagos. South Georgia (q.v.), the important whaling centre, is also included in the claim area, which extends in a segment to the pole lying between longitudes 20° and 80° W. Argentina and Chile make conflicting claims of most of this same area, originally and primarily on the basis of the extension of their national longitudinal boundaries south to the pole, although after World War II both nations maintained numerous small bases under military sponsorship. The Argentine claims of 1943 extend between longitudes 25° and 74° W., including the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. The Chilean claims extend southward of latitude 60° S. between longitudes 53° and 90° W. British efforts to take the conflicting claims case to the International Court of Justice in 1947 and 1955 were ignored by Argen-

and Chile. Although U.S.

tina

have laid claim to portions of Antarctica, government has never made any formal claims

citizens

the United States

nor recognized the assertion of other claimants. It has, however, conserved its rights without defining them. Other nations that have taken part in the exploration of Antarctica without laying claims include the U.S.S.R., Belgium, Japan, Germany, Sweden,

Poland and South Africa.

The bases of the various claims and the related question of the future status of Antarctica are discussed at greater length in following sections of this II. 1.

(Pl. A. S.)

article.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Meteorology.

—The weather and

climate of Antarctica are

the result of several factors: (1) its location near the south pole of the earth, with the implied astronomical influences; (2) its great elevation, which intensifies the polar climate; (3) its perpetual

snow cover with strong

and radiative characteristics that (4) its complete isolation from other continents by a completely surrounding ocean of relareflective

also intensify the polar climate; all

warm

tively

The

water.

antarctic atmosphere has the

same composition

as that of

the rest of the world, except that the principal variable gaseous

component, water vapour, has only about one-tenth the concentraExcluding tion, on the average, that it has in middle latitudes. the Graham-Palmer peninsula, the monthly mean temperature 32° month in the coastal region during the warmest is around F. and from —30° to —4° F. in the interior; the water-vapour concentration can be no higher than about 2.4 and 0.2 gr. per cubic foot, respectively. In winter the coldest monthly mean temperature is from about —22° to —4° F. in the coastal region and from — 94° to —40° F. in the interior; the water-vapour content is less than 0.4 and 0.001 gr. per cubic foot, respectively. The carbon dioxide content is between 310 and 315 parts per million, about the

same

as other parts of the world.

Ozone observations are

insuf-

complete determination, but there is an indication of a wintertime maximum. Since there is no formation of ozone in situ during the dark season, there must be a transport of ozone, as well as other properties of the atmosphere, from sunlit latitudes. Dust and other pollutants are practically unknown. Nuclear radiation, also, is at the very lowest levels observed on earth. The total of the incoming direct and diffuse solar radiation reaches values of 75%-85% of the solar constant, depending upon the altitude of the station. The high values are partly due to ficient for a

the earth's being at perihelion the sun

— during

— that

point of

the southern hemisphere

its

orbit nearest

summer, but the

clear,

dry atmosphere and high elevation of Antarctica are important factors. However, as much as 80%-90% of the incoming shortwave radiation is reflected by the snow surface. Only the upper three to five feet of the snow cover absorb appreciable amounts

and it is quickly lost again in the dark season Small because the dry atmosphere has little blanketing effect. of the solar energy,

amounts of cloud do not appreciably reduce the

total

amount

of

a high multiple reflection caused by the snow surface and the underside of the In some cases this can even raise the total of the direct clouds. and diffuse radiation reaching the surface to a value higher than that of the solar constant; i.e., the amount of radiation from the solar radiation reaching the surface, since there

is

sun reaching the top of the atmosphere. The albedo, or reflectivity of the snow surface, varies from about 75% to 90%; values tend to be lowest after periods of ablation (e.g., sublimation, melting, evaporation) and wind erosion and highest after fresh snowfall. The albedo has a seasonal as well as shorter period variation. The isotherms of mean annual temperature over Antarctica generally approximate the terrain contours; the warmer temperatures are found near the low-lying coast and the coldest temperatures are found on the high plateau in the interior of east Antarctica, which averages between 2,600 and 3,600 ft. higher than the pole elevation of 9,200 ft. The annual mean on the plateau is about — 68° F. and temperatures below —125° F. have been reported. Although it is the world's coldest continent, Antarctica is not uniformly cold. Variations in the atmospheric circulation bring about considerable differences in temperature, both in time and in space. The minimum temperatures at one place do not always occur during the same month from one year to another, and places several hundred miles apart may be under completely different temperature regimes at the same time. A rise and fall of as much as 15° F. in the monthly mean temperature can take place in successive months during the winter. Under conditions of large-scale flow of air from the oceans to the continent, increased cloudiness will inhibit the loss of heat by radiation from the snow surface as well as increase the amount of heat radiated downward to the snow surface; a rise of as much as 25° F. in one day can occur. In winter the main supply of heat to Antarctica is the warm air carried by the atmospheric currents. The first strong radiational cooling in winter causes an early winter temperature minimum, but the atmosphere reacts to this by changing its circulation so as to bring in the

warmer air;

finally, at the

end of the winter, radiational

cooling again becomes dominant and late winter minimum temperatures are noted, usually just before the return of the sun.

The cyclonic storms that move around Antarctica often pass across the west Antarctica highland, and even across the south pole, but only rarely over the higher plateau of east Antarctica. of air horizontally in the levels from about 8,000 to such that a temperature fall of only about 15° F. is noted in the monthly mean values from summer to winter. The very lowest layers of the atmosphere lose heat by radiation and by contact with the snow surface. The result in these cases is inversion that is, the temperature increases with height, and a gradient of 50° F. in 1,000 ft. is not uncommon.

The exchange 15,000

ft.

is

—

Cyclones on the polar front attain great intensity and size the air trajectory and the contrast between ocean and continental underlying surface are the principal factors in the development The great storms and blizzards of of weather at a given spot. long duration are related to deep disturbances extending in many cases from sea level to the tropopause (the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere), a height of about five miles in summer and six in winter. This seasonal variation of tropopause height is opposite to that of the arctic regions. Storms of blowing snow accompany the disturbances and even persist for some hours after the passage of the initial storm. The shallow storms tend to move quickly around the periphery of the continent and are not related to the large-scale planetary waves in the atmosphere. The ;

large storms

move

in arclike, clockwise trajectories, generally

from

the northwest to the southeast, and remain north of the coast line in

most

cases.

level of the continent, the strong gravitational outflow of the cold air in contact with the surface and the procession of storms act against the formation of large polar anticyclones,

The high

although the surface pressure

in

some

localities

has gone above

of the cold anticyclones have provided sufficient cold air, both from west Antarctica and from east Antarctica, to reach other southern hemisphere continents, although much

1,035 millibars.

Some

modified by overwater trajectories of several thousand miles.

ANTARCTICA maximum

found stream, the core of winds of below the tropopause and in regions of maximum horizontal temperature gradient, tends to broaden its latitudinal extent and strength in winter and tends to narrow and weaken in summer. Surface winds frequently attain speeds of 100 m.p.h. or

The

jet

velocity,

usually just

the passage of storms along the coast of east Antarche steep slope of the continent accentuates the geostrophic omponenl of the wind in these cases; along low-lying coast lines,

more during I

,

the

maximum

force of the

wind

is

and graywackes of the Robertson bay group, of possible Early Paleozoic Age. Basement rocks similar to those in Victoria Land are exposed in some places along the coast of Wilkes Land. From Wilkes Land to Enderby Land the basement is composed slates

of quartzite, hornfels, gneiss, aplite, pegmatite, gabbro, norite, pyroxenite and hypersthenite of Pre-Cambrian (?) Age. Large bodies of hypersthene granite, and diabase and basalt intrude part

Southeast of Mawson, flat-lying arkosic sandstones with pebble beds and coal of Permian (?) Age are tentatively correlated with the Beacon group of Victoria Land. Slates, graywackes and volcanic rocks are exposed along the coast farther of these rocks.

and

usually less.

The extension of the "effective" continent as much as six degrees of latitude farther north of its summer coast line comes about through the freezing of the surface layers of the ocean in winter. This inhibits the vertical exchange of heat between ocean and

grits

west.

West Antarctica has mountains thicker in places (over 14.000

jutting through an icecap that

but also generally lower in

longer continental trajectory for This is one the air of oceanic origin that reaches the continent. reason for lower average cloudiness in winter as compared with

is

summer.

Scotia arc and Graham-Palmer peninsula, where plutonic rocks are flanked on the west and north by a volcanic belt along the Scotia arc and on the east by sedimentary rocks. Conglomerates, sand-

atmosphere and also provides

a

and early summer great changes take place in the The circulation that was strongly cyclonic, with

In the spring

stratosphere.

much as 100 m.p.h., changes abruptly. In the free atmosphere at altitudes of about 12 mi. and higher, 70° F. takes place between late October warming of as much as and early November, and easterly winds prevail. Much of this westerly winds averaging as

wanning appears to be due to the transport of warm air from lower that is, an increase in air temlatitudes and to adiabatic heating

—

perature as a consequence of internal processes of contraction caused by sinking motions over the continent it is only partly caused by absorption of solar radiation in the atmosphere. During this period there is a sharp rise in surface pressure from the late wintertime minima that are noted almost everywhere over AntarcGreat masses of air are transtica to the summertime maxima. ported and as much as 150,000,000 tons of air are lost or gained ;

over Antarctica from one month to another. Water-vapour condensation not only adds to the snow cover but also contributes about 14% of the net heat energy transported by the atmosphere. It is estimated that between rive and eight inches of water equivalent is deposited in the form of snow over Antarctica in one year, on the average. The coastal regions have up to ten or more times If there were the two inches snowfall deposited on the interior. no outflow of this snow, or no loss in any other way, it would have taken from 9.000 to 15,000 years to deposit the 5,750,000 cubic miles of ice that is currently thought to cover the continent.

(M. J. Ru.) Geology. The geology of Antarctica is imperfectly known, would be expected in a continent not fully explored and whose exposed bedrock amounts to less than 1% of the continent's surHowever, in a general way Antarctica can be divided into face. east Antarctica, which lies south of Australia and Africa, and west Antarctica, which lies south of South America. The dividing line between these two areas lies along the west side of the Ross sea and Ross ice shelf and extends north of the Horlick mountains to the Weddell sea. East Antarctica is considered a shield area of igneous and metamorphic basement rocks of Pre-Cambrian (?) Age partly overlain by sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic to Mesozoic Age. This shield is bounded on the west side of the Ross sea and Ross ice shelf by 2.

—

as

the Antarctic horst.

In the interior ice about 9,000 ft. thick rises to altitudes of 7,000 to 12,000 ft. and caps the bedrock. The bedrock is below sea level in many places. Basement rocks in Victoria Land consist of granitic gneiss, mica

and crystalline limestone which is intruded by Overlying these rocks and extending at least to the Horlick mountains are flat-lying sedimentary rocks that consist of limestone of Cambrian (?) Age, and the Beacon group, consisting of quartz sandstone, arkose, conglomerate, shale, limestone and coal of Devonian (?) to TriasThese sedimentary rocks are intruded by diabase sic (?) Age. sills and dikes and cut by faults. Volcanic rocks at Mt. Discovery and at Mt. Erebus on Ross Island (the only continuously active volcano in Antarctica) are the youngest rocks in the area. Volcanic rocks also are found on offshore islands and in the northern part of Victoria Land in the vicinity of Cape Adare, where occur

ft.)

elevation than the plateau of east Antarctica.

Andean

folding can be traced southward

from Cape Horn

to the

stones and slates containing fossils of Jurassic Age occur on the east side of the Graham-Palmer peninsula, and similar rocks and

limestone are along the east side of Alexander I Island. Volcanic Islands at the rocks have invaded the sedimentary sequence. northeastern end of the Graham-Palmer peninsula contain con-

glomerates and sandstones of the

Snow

Hill group of Cretaceous

Age, which are overlain unconformably by conglomerates and sandstones of the Seymour Island group of Eocene to Miocene Age. In Marie Byrd Land quartzites and slates about 15,000 ft. thick in the Edsel Ford ranges and the Rockefeller mountains are intruded by granite, granodiorite, quartz monzonite and recent volcanic rocks. Samples collected in the Executive Committee range and south of the Kohler range indicate that those mountains are of volcanic origin, whereas low-grade metamorphic rocks have been found in the foothills of the Sentinel mountains. Diorite is exposed in a part of the Thurston peninsula but most of the peninsula

was unexplored in the early 1960s. Geologists have thought that a broad ice-filled channel exists between the Ross and Weddell seas. However, new data indicate that a ridge of bedrock from the Sentinel mountains to the Antarctic

horst crosses the supposed channel, and, instead, a deep trough

may

between the Bellingshausen and the Ross seas. minerals have been found in economic concentrations, but those of potential value include atacamite, azurite, beryl, bornite, cassiterite, chalcopyrite, chromite, fluorite, galena, gold, graphite, hematite, magnetite, malachite, manganese minerals, molybdenite, monazite, sphalerite, stibnite and uranium minerals. exist

No

Coal has been found near Mawson and in many places in the Beacon group from Coats Land, the Horlick mountains, Queen Maud range, Beardmore glacier region and northward into Victoria Land. The coal ranges from lignite to anthracite in grade and is generally in seams only a few inches thick, but one seam eightfeet thick was found near the top of Beardmore glacier by Shackleton's party in 1908. No petroleum has been discovered but it is conceivable that some may be in sedimentary rocks. (A. R. Ta.) 3. Antarctic Ocean. The Antarctic, or Southern, ocean forms the principal connecting link between the other major subdivisions of the world ocean (see Ocean and Oceanography). Although its northern limit has to be set quite arbitrarily and therefore has

—

been characterized

in various

ways,

it is

convenient to follow the

practice of the British admiralty and to define the Antarctic ocean

schist, granulite

as all

granite containing veins of aplite and pegmatite.

up

the waters south of latitude 55°

S.

It

thus has a total area,

an average depth is south of the Pacific ocean, 3,180,000 sq.mi. is south of the Atlantic ocean and 3,628.000 sq.mi. is south of the Indian ocean. An appreciable additional portion of the Antarctic ocean is overlain by floating ice shelves and hence is commonly included in the area assigned to antarctic land. The Ross ice shelf covers about 160,000 sq.mi. of ocean, and the Filchner ice shelf and the extensive ice shelves off Marie Byrd Land, Queen Maud Land and elsewhere bring the total to about 360,000 sq.mi. Even inland from the ice shelves, Antarctica cannot be considered wholly as to ice shelf edges, of 12,451,000 sq.mi., with

of 12,240

ft.

Of

this total area 5,643,000 sq.mi.

,

ANTARCTICA dry land, since measurements made during the International Geophysical year of 1957-58 showed that a large portion of the interior (possibly as much as a quarter) consists of ice of a thickness greater than

its

height above sea level.

Thus,

much

of the "con-

an island archipelago with glacier ice extending to the bottom of a former shallow ocean area. The great circle routes between Cape Town and Melbourne, and from Australia or New Zealand to the North Atlantic via Cape Horn, penetrate deep into the Antarctic ocean. The use of the Suez and Panama canals, however, has greatly reduced the shipping in southern waters, and many parts of the Antarctic are regularly visited now only by whalers. Seas and Islands. The narrowest part of the Antarctic ocean, the strait between South America and the Graham-Palmer penintinent"

is

—

sula,

is

known

as

Drake

strait or

Drake passage.

The

sea to the

bounded by South Georgia and the Falkland. South Sandwich, South Orkney and South Shetland islands, is the Scotia sea. The Weddell sea is the area south of the Scotia sea from the GrahamPalmer peninsula eastward to Cape Norvegia in 12° W. Cape Adare in 170° 15' E. and Cape Colbeck in 158° 10' W. mark the extremities of the Ross sea. The Amundsen sea is the bight between Cape Dart in 123° W. and Cape Flying Fish in 101° W. The Bellingshausen sea extends from Cape Flying Fish to the east,

Graham-Palmer peninsula. There are few oceanic islands in the Antarctic. The Scotia ridge trends east from Tierra del Fuego and then loops south and west to join the Graham-Palmer peninsula. Its elevated portions form South Georgia (which lies just north of 55° S.), the Clerke rocks (about 40 mi. to the southeast), the South Sandwich Islands (a chain of volcanoes, some still active) and the South Orkneys. Bishop and Clark islands are a group of rocks in 158° E.. outliers of Macquarie Island in 54° 45' S. The Balleny Islands are an icecovered volcanic chain in 67° S., 164° E. Scott Island, in 67° 24' S., 179° 55' E., is less than 100 mi. from the intersection of the Antarctic circle with the international date line. Peter I Island is a glacier-covered extinct volcano rising nearly 4,000 ft; above sea level in 68° 50' S., 90° 35' W.

The

principal islands of the continental shelf areas of the Ant-

Cape Horn and the neighbouring islands off Tierra and the South Shetlands and numerous other islands off the Graham-Palmer peninsula. Alexander I Island ( 1 6,700 sq.mi.) arctic ocean are

del Fuego,

Bellingshausen sea, is the largest island south of discovered by 1960. It is joined to the mainland by an ice shelf. Several islands have been identified beneath the Ross sea in the eastern

55°

S.

ice shelf.

Ocean Floor.

—The

continental shelves surrounding Antarctica

are to a large extent covered with ice shelves.

Seaward of the

ice

mostly at a depth of 1,200 to 1.S00 ft. They are widest in the western portion of the Weddell sea and in the southern Ross, Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas, with a maximum width of more than 300 mi. Elsewhere, as off Queen Maud Land, the continental shelf is virtually lacking. The sediments of the continental shelves are a random mixture of fine to coarse fragments of the continental rocks. The deeper waters of the Antarctic ocean are characterized by four deep basins with soundings mainly from 15,000 to 18,000 ft., separated by ridges with depths of less than 12,000 ft. The largest of these basins lies between the Scotia ridge and a ridge running north and south, through the middle of the Indian ocean (the midAtlantic ridge ends at the northern limit of the Antarctic ocean). It includes the Meteor Deep, a trench with a maximum sounding of 27,108 ft., just east of the South Sandwich chain; elsewhere its greatest depth does not exceed 19,500 ft. Between the mid-Indian ridge and a ridge running south from Tasmania is a smaller basin with a greatest depth of about 16.000 ft.; farther east a basin having a greatest depth of about 19,000 ft. about midway between New Zealand and Victoria Land is separated from the fourth basin shelf edges the continental shelves are

by a ridge that runs northeast across the Pacific from Victoria Land. North of the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas, this basin has a

maximum

The

depth of about 18,000

ft.

pelagic sediments of the Antarctic ocean are

chiefly of

diatomaceous oozes, with an admixture of

composed

glacial clays,

of the Weddell sea. These grade into the globigerina ooze of the central Pacific and into red clay closer to particularly north

South America. Tides and Currents.

—

There is a fairly uniform progression of from east to west around Antarctica. The tides are mainly diurnal, hut mixed tides exist south of the Indian ocean along the western part of Wilkes Land and on the other, side of the tidal. wave

Graham-Palmer penTidal ranges are moderate, mostly less than five feet, except at the northeastern tip of the GrahamPalmer peninsula, where they may reach eight feet. The principal surface circulation of the Antarctic is part of the west wind drift, with a current of generally less than a knot setting the continent on the northern part of the insula

and the

off-lying islands.

easterly around the continent.

South of the Antarctic divergence, Weddell and Ross seas, is about 250 mi. from the continent, there is a surface flow to the west. This current is best developed in the Weddell sea where it sweeps clockwise against which, except

in the

Graham-Palmer peninsula. Water Masses and Deep Circulation. The Antarctic divergence, which exists around most of Antarctica, marks roughly the boundthe

—

ary between the prevailing westerly winds and the easterly and northeasterly winds that blow off the continent. About 600 mi. northward is the Antarctic convergence, the position of which varies greatly with longitude, depending on the configuration of the coastal boundaries and the bottom topography. The surface waters south of the Antarctic convergence are colder than 35° F. in winter, except

where the convergence reaches

its

farthest north-

North of the Antarctic divergence there is a summer increase of about 5° F. in water surface temperature, but farther erly limits.

south most of the summer heat is used to melt pack ice, and water of 30° F. or colder still surrounds the continent. This belt of cold

water undergoes an increase in salinity and hence in density during the winter as the pack ice freezes, and it sinks to great depths all around the continent, especially off the Weddell sea. Deep water is forced to the surface by this process. At the Antarctic convergence cold surface water sinks beneath the subantarctic waters to the north. This Antarctic intermediate water can be traced as far north in the Atlantic as 20° N. The surface salinities in the Antarctic are close to 34°/oo> except in the vicinity of melting ice, where they may be as low as 32°/oo- The deep convection of the Antarctic ocean is the main mechanism preventing stagnation in the deeper waters of the oceans to the north. The Barrier. A unique phenomenon of Antarctica is the floating shelf ice, which is a derivative of the inland ice sheet. When Capt. J. Clark Ross in 1841 first penetrated the pack ice into the Ross sea. he sailed due south until he was brought up in about 77° S. by the ice front of the greatest of these shelves, from 50 to

—

200

ft.

high, barring his

way

to the south.

The Ross

ice shelf, as

it

but is typical roughly the size of France of many and consists of a sheet of ice varying from 500 to 1,000 ft. or more in thickness, the outer end being open to the ocean and the inner end held fast to the continent by the glaciers, which act as feeders, and by being anchored on shoals close to the actual coast. Its surface is smooth, and it forms the easiest approach to the pole itself, since it reaches to within 300 mi. of that spot. The tabular icebergs typical of the southern hemisphere, with their flat tops, stratified appearance and immense size (up to 90 mi. in length of side), are derived from this and similar shelf ice. The Sea Ice. The sea ice itself is comparatively temporary. It begins to form in sheltered bays as early as the end of January and by the beginning of March any ship is liable to be frozen in is

called, is the largest of these floating ice shelves

others in the Antarctic.

It is

—

unless

its

harbour

is

a

windy one.

There are large variations from

year to year in the area of sea solidly frozen over, since strong winds, and such are very frequent, will prevent sea ice from forming or will blow out any that is not of considerable thickness. In sheltered bays the ice will continue to increase in thickness until October or November, by which time it will be any thickness up This w'ill begin to break up and float northward to seven feet. from the beginning of December onward, but the innermost bays may not lose their ice until late in February, or occasionally not at all

for two years or

more

in succession.

The

belt of

pack

ice

which

ANTARCTICA rings the continent

is

made up

—

of the ice

from

this

summer breakup. (J- L.)

—

Bird life of Antarctica is essentially Birds. 4. Animal Life. marine, and, in keeping with general characteristics of the plant and animal life of cold oceans, it is poor in number of species but region relatively rich in number of individuals. The birds of the may be generally divided into those species inhabiting the islands within the subantarctic, some of which are within the Antarctic convergence, and those found on islands within the Antarctic circle and along the continent. Within the Antarctic circle the emperor penguin (Aptenodytes jorsteri), the Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae), the snow pet(Catharacta macrel (Pagodroma nivea) and the south polar skua cormicki) are circumpolar in distribution and might be considered truly indigenous to the area. The emperor penguin, following the end of its winter breeding season, spends the summer no farther north than the edge of the pack ice. Conversely, the Adelie pen-

guin nests on the islands and on the mainland of the continent during the summer and spends the winter within the pack ice. The south polar skua has the distinction of being the world's most It has been observed within southerly bird in its distribution.

80 mi. of the geographic south pole. The emperor penguin is the most truly antarctic of

birds

all

from other polar species in that it begins nesting Unlike the Adelie penguin which has a fixed nest site that it returns to annually, the emperor penguin has no nest and merely carries the egg on top of its feet. It has no territorialism, and most of the rookeries are located on sea ice adjacent to and

distinctive

is

in the winter.

the continent.

Prior to the in Antarctica.

the

McMurdo

IGY six emperor penguin

rookeries had been located These known rookeries included Cape Crozier in sound area at longitude 169° E., the first ever dis-

covered; the Dion Islet rookery off the west coast of the GrahamPalmer peninsula, south of Adelaide Island, where the British conducted the first detailed studies of the species; a rookery near Gaussberg in Kaiser Wilhelm II Land at longitude 89° E., reported by the Germans; the Point Geologie rookery in Adelie Land at longitude 140° E., which was studied by the French; the Haswell Islet rookery at longitude 92° E., discovered by Mawson in

at

and a rookery at Taylor glacier on Mac-Robertson Coast longitude 61° E., reported by the Australians in 19SS. Known 1915

;

population figures for

all

these rookeries totaled less than 40,000

birds.

The Cape Crozier rookery, found

in

British National Antarctic expedition,

1902 by

was

members

revisited

by

of the

New

Zea-

It had shifted position somewhat on the sea ice and had about 1,000 adult

land scientists in Sept. 1957.

from

its

original location

approximately

birds,

five

times the estimated population 50 years

earlier.

During the IGY five new emperor penguin rookeries were discovered by the Australians, bringing to six the known number between longitudes 55° E. and 80° E. Two other rookeries were found in the Weddell sea area at Halley bay and Gould bay, numThese discoveries bering 21,000 and 8,000 birds respectively. confirmed earlier reports of the presence of breeding birds. Another large emperor penguin nesting area was discovered from Located a helicopter by United States personnel in Dec. 1958. approximately 250 mi. N. of McMurdo sound at latitude 73° S., longitude 169° E., between Coulman Island and Lady Newnes ice shelf, the rookery contained an estimated 33,000 breeding pairs. By 1960 known emperor penguin rookeries numbered 14 with an estimated population of more than 150,000. (See also Penguin.) Additional bird species either nest on the islands and coasts of Antarctica or spend much of their time within this zone, and can be considered circumpolar in distribution. These include the giant silver-gray fulmar (Priocella petrel (Macronectes giganteus) antarctica) which except for the snow petrel is the commonest throughout the whole circumpolar belt; Cape pack ice the bird in pigeon (Daption capensis); antarctic petrel (Thalassoica antarcWilson's petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) antarctic whalebird tica) ;

,

;

;

(Pachyptila desolata); antarctic tern (Sterna vittata); antarctic blue-eyed shag (Phalacrocorax atriceps brans fieldensis) and the ;

Other species will come within kelp gull (Larus dominicanus) the zone at times but only about 32 species of birds penetrate beyond latitude 60° S. and most of these are subantarctic rather .

than polar wanderers. disea), migrates antarctic.

from

One its

of these, the arctic tern (Sterna paranesting grounds in the arctic to the

—

Mammals. Although the antarctic seas are rich in marine mammals, particularly seals and whales, whaling constitutes the only industry in the whole antarctic region. This industry is controlled, in part, through action of the International Whaling commission, About 70% of the annual world catch of organized in 1946. whales is taken in the antarctic. The species of most importance belong to two suborders, the Odontoceti (toothed whales) and the Mysticeti (whalebone whales). The whalebone, or baleen, whales, instead of having teeth, have a straining mechanism which enables them to feed on small marine organisms. The antarctic baleen whales of greatest industrial importance include the fin, sei, humpback and blue the last mentioned being the largest of all whales. The sperm whale is the most important of the toothed whales. Fin whales, which form about 50% of the world catch, constitute about

—

70% of the total antarctic catch of all species. The more common smaller whales in antarctic waters, which are not usually taken (See also Whale; commercially, include the killer whales. Whale Fisheries.) Whereas mammal life in the arctic is closely related to forms found within the adjacent temperate belt, much of the similar life This distinctive character is in the antarctic is largely endemic. exemplified in the four well-marked genera of truly antarctic seals, which are unusual in that they show remarkably diverse structure correlated with no less distinct habits. The crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) lives in the pack ice during winter and summer and is circumpolar in the antarctic but occasionally reaches subantarctic latitudes. It appears to be semimigratory, is gregarious and is the commonest seal in those waters. It lives almost exclusively on the pelagic shrimp Euphausia

superba.

The Weddell

seal

(Leptonychotes weddelli) is more southern in and its range is confined more

distribution than the crabeater seal,

to the fast ice along the coasts throughout the year. It ous, occurs in considerable numbers in parts of its range,

is

gregari-

is

circum-

and occasionally reaches subantarctic latitudes. It feeds on fish and cephalopods (squids, octopuses, etc.). The circumpolar Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossi) is the rarest of

polar,

the four polar species.

It inhabits the pack-ice belt, is solitary

and appears to feed on fish and cephalopods. The leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) has a rather broad latitudinal range and is found from the shores of the antarctic continent northward to parts of the temperate zone. It is semimigratory, solitary in its habits and relatively widespread, but scarce. This aggressive seal preys on other seals and penguins as well as on fish and cephalopods. The elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) normally breeds on the subantarctic islands but is occasionally found in antarctic waters. Two rookeries have been found on the edge of the continent in the Indian ocean waters. These largest of all seals were formerly hunted for their oil. Although once nearly extinct, their numbers are increasing. Fur seals, for nearly a century reported extinct, have been reported in small colonies on several subantarctic is-

in its habits

lands.

(See also Seal.)

—

Marine Zoology. As a result of upwelling of replacement water, bringing up plant nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates, antarctic waters are perhaps the most productive in the world for marine animals. The enriched waters produce heavy plant plankton growths, which in turn result in rich growths of animal plankton. These are fed upon by various vertebrates and invertebrates, which results in an extremely rich population of marine fauna. Representatives of most invertebrate groups are found there, one of the more important being the small shrimp Euphausia superba, whose food consists of plankton. This shrimp is a most important food for great numbers of vertebrates, particularly whales. Fishes native to the antarctic are primarily of the order Nototheniiformes, a perchlike group confined to waters of the far south

ANTARCTICA and somewhat analogous to the cod in the northern hemisphere. The order is remarkable for including several species that lack pigment in their blood. It is believed that the high solubility of oxygen at the temperature of the cold antarctic waters and the low metabolic rates required at these same near-freezing temperatures

make

it

possible for these fishes to transfer sufficient oxygen to

their tissues from their gills by simple physical solution in the blood plasma, without the necessity for the chemical linkage with hemoglobin that is required in nearly all other vertebrates. Other fishes include eelpouts (Zoarcidae), many species of which are Of the antarctic fish about 90% are of endemic circumpolar.

species and

65%

of endemic genera.

and Fresh-Water Animal

Terrestrial

Life.

—The land and

fresh-

within the Antarctic convergence is comprised primarily of primitive forms of arthropods (insects, crustaceans, etc.). which are usually found among mosses, algae and lichens, or in moist soils or fresh-water pools. The more widely distributed

water animal

life

species of insects in the antarctic appear to be parasites of birds About 44 terrestrial species are presently known and seals.

and

include biting and sucking less flies.

Other animal

lice,

life

mites, springtails, ticks and wing-

includes the tardigrades, or water

(C. R. E.) bears, and various species of fresh-water rotifers. 5. Plant Life. The plant life of Antarctica consists prepon-

—

derantly of low-growing sorts, lichens, algae and mosses being the dominant forms. No large showy fungi have been reported on

A

been collected on a grass (Deschampsia antarctica). With exception of a few specialized snow which use as a substratum, the groups of terrestrial algae plants, particularly the lichens, have been found wherever mountain peaks have breached the polar icecap, or wherever the ice sheet has receded, exposing the low shore line. Their abundance is relative and their size inconspicuous, but they exhibit a vigour which, in view of the severity of the environment, is frequently the antarctic.

rust organism has

and early 17th centuries. Men lost the fear of open oceans after the Columbian period, but they were inhibited from going far south by choice after Amerigo Vespucci, Ferdinand Magellan and Sir Francis Drake pioneered the shortest route around the tip of South America. Voyagers rounding Cape Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward, but no navigator is known Almost to have crossed the Antarctic circle before James Cook. of those

all

who encountered

the southern ice before 1750 did so

by being driven off their course and not of set purpose. An exception is the French naval officer J. B. C. Bouvet de Lozier, who during Jan. 1739 traveled through ice-encumbered sea for 48° of longitude in 55° S., a voyage that resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54° 10' S. On Feb. 12, 1772, another Frenchman, Y. J. Kerguelen-Tremarec, discovered land in 50° S. which he be-

Sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, he found it to be only the inhospitable archipelago now called Kerguelen Islands. Meanwhile, between Jan. 13-24, 1772, yet another French navigator, Marion Dufresne, had discovered the Crozet and Prince Edward lieved to be part of the southern continent.

islands. 2.

Crossing the Antarctic Circle

On

his

voyage of 1772-75

Capt. James Cook, one of the most famous British seamen of his day, boldly approached the antarctic pack ice with the sailing ships "Resolution" and "Adventure," circumnavigating Antarctica withIn the course of his voyage he crossed the out sighting land. Antarctic circle several times, reaching 71° 10' S. at 106° 54' W. on Jan. 30, 1774, a record not to be surpassed in the 18th century. He disproved connection of islands, such as New Zealand, to any southern continent, and reduced the conjectured size of Antarctica

After he discovered the South South Atlantic he concluded that if land lay farther south it was inaccessible and valueless; and his voyage suggested that there might be no antarctic land mass at to lie within the 60th parallel.

Sandwich Islands

in the

described as profuse.

all.

Lichens are the most common plants found in Antarctica and some 300 species have been found to occur there. A maximum of 75 species of mosses and hepatics have been reported from the continent and subantarctic islands. Many of these have a cosmo-

Cook's voyage ushered in a new era of antarctic hisMariners now dared to enter the cold seas up to the forbidding ice pack, and soon sealers began to visit southern waters, in the exploration of which they played an important part. Between 1790 and 1820 there entered antarctic waters about 19 voyages, one Australian and the rest half U.S. and half British. In 1790-92 Capt. Daniel F. Greene from New Haven, Conn., visited South This U.S. Georgia and took the first fur sealskins to China. sealing expedition was the first American approach to the antarctic and culminated in a circumnavigation of the globe. In 1810 Frederick Hasselborough, an Australian, discovered Macquarie

Only two species of flowering plants, a grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and a pink (Colobanthus crassijolhis), have been collected within the Antarctic circle. Approximately 160 species of fresh-water algae have been collected from areas of the Ross sea, Kaiser Wilhelm II Land and the Graham-Palmer peninsula. Those are chiefly of two families, the Myxophyceae and Chlorophyceae. During the summer season the most conspicuous fresh-water algae include Prasiola and Crista species, Nostoc commune, Phormidium autumnale, and Plectonems Nostocorum, seen most frequently in pools and ponds. In addition about 60 species of fresh-water diatoms have been reported from (See also Algae; Diatoms; the antarctic and nearby islands. Lichens; Moss.) (G. A. Ll.) politan distribution.

III.

EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY

Conjecture About Antarctica.

1.

—The

remoteness of the

antarctic regions delayed exploration until comparatively

modern

times, although the existence of climate zones similar to those in

by Greek philosofrom the Greek antarktikos, "op-

the northern hemisphere had been predicted

phers; the

name

of the region

is

posite the Bear," the northern constellation.

The

first

humans

approach the far southern frozen seas may have been PolyneAccording to Rarotongan legends, Ui-te-Rangiora and his Polynesian companions made such a voyage about a.d. 650 in the canoe Te-Ivi-o-Atea. For western civilization, however, it was not until the 15th century that exploration of the southern hemisphere began, when Prince Henry the Navigator in 1418 encouraged the penetration of the torrid zone in the effort to reach India by circumnavigating Africa, which led to Vasco da Gama's rounding of to

sians.

the

Cape

of

Good Hope

in

southern limit to the great

1497.

known

Successive explorations set a continents without approaching

the true antarctic regions, but geographers

still

believed in the

for

it

was a leading motive of explorers

—

Island.

Then suddenly the antarctic experienced an economic boom. In the period between 1819 and 1822 about 110 U.S. and British voyages were made by sealers into the area south of South America, but, because there was considerable rivalry and secrecy, discoveries became confused and lost. In Feb. 1819 William Smith of the British brig "Williams" saw land in 62° 42' S.; repeating the voyage in October, he landed on the South Shetland Islands. Within a year these islands were the haunts of many U.S. and British sealing ships. 3. Discovery of the Mainland (1820-99).—The "Williams" with Smith aboard was chartered by the British naval commander Edward Bransfield, who on Jan. 30, 1820. surveyed the South Shetlands and went as far as 64° 30' S. Bransfield and Smith may have been the first to discover and chart a portion of the antarctic mainland, which they named Trinity Land. Later in the same year, on 16, the young U.S. sealer Nathaniel B. Palmer discovered an archipelago and more of the mainland coast. In early 1821 Capt. John Davis, another U.S. sealer, made what appears to be the first landing on the mainland. Thus began the complex history A party of British of the discovery of the Palmer peninsula. sealers made the first antarctic wintering on King George Island In 1821-22 George Powell, acin the South Shetlands in 1821. companied by Palmer, discovered and surveyed the South Orkney-

Nov.

Islands.

Bellingshausen.

existence of a vast southern continent.

The search

Sealers.

tory.

in the 16th

der the

command

— In 1819 of Fabian

a

Russian expedition was sent out unin the "Vostok,"

von Bellingshausen

—

ANTARCTICA M. P. Lazarev in the "Mirny" in company, each sloop of about 500 tons. The object was to circumnavigate the antarctic area, keeping as far south as possible in those longitudes where Cook had made his northward detours. On Jan. 22, 1821, as he was completing his journey, Bellingshausen sighted the first land ever seen within the circle, the little island named for Peter I. A week later Belanother and larger island, named for Alexander I, was seen. lingshausen then made for the South Shetlands and thence returned with

to Russia.

—

Exploring Whalers. The furious slaughter of seals in the South Shetlands and South Orkneys during two seasons from 1820 through 1822 depleted the supply and came suddenly to an end. In the next IS years an average of less than two ships per year approached the antarctic, and in some years there were none. During this period, however, as the commercial emphasis turned toward whaling, ships ranged more widely and began to push their way into the ice pack. The Enderby whaling firm of London in particuIn 1823 James lar encouraged their whaling captains to explore. Weddell in command of the "Jane," a brig of 160 tons, with the cutter "Beaufoy" (65 tons), sailed into the sea which now bears his name and on Feb. 20 reached a new southing record of 74° 15' In 1830 John Biscoe, in command of another S., 34° 17' W. Enderby brig, sailed eastward from the South Sandwich Islands and crossed the circle in 1 ° E. He saw Enderby Land in 49° 18' E. but was unable to reach it. Biscoe later crossed the whole of the southern Pacific in a high latitude in Feb. 1832 and discovered the Biscoe Islands and Graham Land (now Graham Coast), a southward extension of Bransfield's Trinity Land and the Palmer peninsula; the coast

was named

for Sir

James R. G. Graham,

first

lord

of the admiralty at that time.

In 1S33 another Enderby captain, Peter Kemp, discovered Heard Island and Kemp Coast, about 10° E. of Enderby Land. Heard Island was named after the U.S. whaling captain John J. Heard, the third of the many independent discoverers of this small, out-

of-the-way island in the far south Indian ocean. In 1839 John Balleny, sailing from New Zealand, crossed the circle in 178° E. and discovered the Balleny Islands. Dumont d'Urville. About 1835 the importance of obtaining magnetic observations in the far south, and scientific interest in the antarctic, led to plans for expeditions being put forward in the U.S., France and Great Britain. The French were first in the field; J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville with the frigates "Astrolabe" and "Zelee" was instructed to surpass Weddell's latitude in the South Atlantic. This attempt failed but on Jan. 21, 1840, he discovered the area now called Adelie Coast for Mme d'Urville. Ten days later in 64° 30' S. he cruised westward along a high shelf of ice from longitude 131° E. and then returned northward. Wilkes. Charles Wilkes was appointed to command the first U.S. exploring expedition of six vessels in Aug. 1838. His instructions required him to follow Weddell's route as far as possible, to visit the most southerly point reached by Cook and to try to penetrate the southern ocean "as far west as longitude 45° E., or to Enderby Land." In following Weddell's route Wilkes in March 1839 fared no better than d'Urville in the previous year, but the "Flying Fish" (96 tons), under W. M. Walker, reached 70° S., 105° W. and reported having seen land about 100 mi. offshore

—

—

from Thurston peninsula, discovered by Richard E. Byrd a century Wilkes sailed from Sydney in the "Vincennes" on Dec. 26, 1839, accompanied by the "Peacock," the "Porpoise" and the "Flying Fish." The expedition went south to the west of the Balleny Islands and cruised west toward Enderby Land. The weather was bad, and although land was reported by each vessel at several points, it was rarely seen distinctly. Some doubt was cast upon Wilkes' discoveries and his positions were occasionally inaccurate, later.

but explorations in the 20th century revealed the coast of Wilkes essentially as he described it. He was first to see a major segment of Antarctica and the first to recognize the probability of a continental land mass. His locating of the south magnetic pole

Land

was

also creditable.

—

Ross. The British government outfitted its 1839 expedition more adequately for antarctic exploration and magnetic surveys.

There were two

ships, both strengthened for navigation in sea ice

the "Erebus" (370 tons), commanded by James Clark Ross, and the "Terror" (340 tons), commanded by F. R. M. Crozier. Ross had intended to make straight for the meridian of the magnetic pole but, finding that d'Urville and Wilkes had already made similar plans, determined to try to make a high latitude farther east. Leaving Hobart on Nov. 12, 1840, he crossed the circle on Jan. 1, 1841, and entered the pack ice on Jan. 5 in 174° E. Five days later both vessels reached open water of the Ross sea, which in later years proved the gateway to the continent for Scott, Shackleton, Amundsen and Byrd. A chain of mountains was sighted rising from a coast which ran due south in 71° S. This land was claimed and named for Queen Victoria. The ships continued southward in sight of land until twin volcanoes, named Erebus and Terror, were sighted in 78° S. on Jan. 28. From Cape Crozier, at the base of the mountains, a lofty ice front ran eastward, rising perpendicularly from the water to the height of 200 or 300 ft. After attaining S., 167° W., Ross returned to Hobart. In Nov. 1841 Ross returned to the same area but did not greatly extend his discoveries. However, he did break his own southing record by six miles in the neighbourhood of the Bay of Whales region along the Ross ice shelf. This record of. 78° 10' S. at 161° 27' W., set on Feb. 22, 1842, was to stand for another 58 years, until men grew bold enough to tramp inland across the surface of

78° 4'

Antarctica.

—

Return of U.S. Whalers and Sealers. Following the briefly awakened interest in Antarctica by the French, American and British government expeditions, antarctic waters became the almost exclusive haunt of U.S. whalers and sealers from 1839 until the mid- 1880s, when mineral oils began to supplant the high demand for animal oils. U.S. activities centred around Kerguelen, Crozet and Heard islands. In spite of the fact that the American Civil War brought great losses to the whaling fleets, some 200 American voyages were made to antarctic waters from the period of d'Urville, Wilkes and Ross until the end of the 19th century. During the same interval there were only about 18 British voyages, some of which were merchant vessels taking great circle routes to shorten the course around Africa to Australia and New Zealand; ships of other nations approaching the continent did not exceed a total of about 25. Aside from occupation and rediscovery of some of the off-lying islands, the U.S. sealing and whaling fleets did not add appreciably to the knowledge of the region. During the transit of Venus in 1874, which was best observable at Kerguelen Island, American, British, German and French expeditions converged on that isolated outpost. The first steamer to cross the circle, on Feb. 16, 1874, was the "Challenger" commanded by Capt. George S. Nares of the Royal Navy. Although the "Challenger" penetrated only to 66° 40' S., 78° 30' E., its dredgings and soundings showed a general shoaling of the ocean toward the antarctic ice and indicated the approach to (See also "Challenger" Expedition.) a continent. Between 1872 and 1888 there was a revival of the sealing industry, especially at the South Shetland Islands. In 1873 Eduard Dallmann in the German sealer "Gronland" made several discoveries on the northwest coast of the Graharh-Palmer peninsula. In 1882-83 three German vessels wintered at Royal bay, South Georgia Island, making scientific observations as their contribu-

tion to the first International Polar year.

—

Further 19th-century Developments. In 1894 the Norwegian whaler Svend Foyn sent the "Antarctic," under Capt. Leonard Kristensen, to visit the coast of Victoria Land, having on board C. E. Borchgrevink, who was to return to Antarctica four years later. A small party landed on the mainland on Jan. 23, 1895. From time to time efforts had been made by Georg von Neumayer in Germany and by Sir John Murray and others in Great Britain to inaugurate a new era of antarctic research. In 1S95 Sir Clements Markham, as president of the Royal Geographical society and of the International Geographical congress, also took the matter up, and interest in the antarctic regions became general. In 1897 Adrien de Gerlache organized and led'a Belgian expedition in the "Belgica," which crossed to the west of the Graham-Palmer peninsula and made surveys of the archipelago there. The ship finally penetrated the pack as far south as 71° 30', where it was

ANTARCTICA more than a year, making scientific collections of unique This was the first truly international antarctic expedition, with scientists and crew from many nations; Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian, was first mate and Frederick Cook, an American, was

Charcot.

beset for value.

The attention given to the arctic in the last half of the 19th century, especially stimulated by the search for the lost expedition of Sir John Franklin (q.v.), had deflected interest from the As the century ended, however, man had lost his fear was ready to begin the first serious exploration a task undertaken largely by the of the continent of Antarctica antarctic.

of the ice pack and

—

nations of northwestern Europe. 4. Quest for the South Pole.

— Borchgrevink. —The

first

ex-

pedition to winter on the continent was that of C. E. Borchgrevink, which left England in 1S9S and landed at Cape Adare. the northeast

No sledge journeys to the south were work was done. Before returning, Borchgrevink sailed south to the Ross ice shelf and discovered that the ice front was considerably farther south than it had been in 1842. His short journey inland on skis at the Bay of Whales on Feb. 16, 1900, gave a new southing record of approximately 78° 50' S., 165° W. It was from there that Amundsen 12 years later was to journey onward to the south pole; about 30 years later Byrd chose the site for the Little America bases. Scott. The British national antarctic expedition of 1901-04 was organized by a joint committee of the Royal society and the Royal Geographical society and was equipped under the superintendence of Sir Clements Markham. The "Discovery," a ship of 700 tons register, was specially built for the work. The expedition sailed under the command of Comdr. R. F. Scott of the Royal Navy. McMurdo sound at the southwest corner of the Ross sea was selected as the expedition's headquarters. This area was to become not only a major centre of Scott's and Shackleton's expeditions but a half century later the major port for U.S. and New Before laying up for the winter, Zealand scientific activities. Scott cruised eastward of the farthest point reached by Ross and discovered land of continental character which he named King Edward VII Land (later known as Edward VII peninsula). Like that of Borchgrevink, this expedition initiated a new phase of exploration by working from a settled base. The main journey was that of Scott, Ernest Shackleton and E. A. Wilson, who sledged southward to a new southing record of 82° 17' S., which they reached on Dec. 30, 1902. The second year's work was distinguished by Scott's man-hauling sledge journey to a point 300 mi. W. of the ship and more than 250 mi. inland. Simultaneously with Scott's British expedition and Drygalski. point of Victoria Land.

possible, but valuable scientific

—

—

full

scientific

co-operation with

it,

the

German government

equipped an expedition in the "Gauss," led by Erich von Drygalski. supplementary expedition set up a station in the Kerguelen IsThe "Gauss" crossed the parallel of 60° S., 92° E. early lands.

A

in

Feb. 1902, but was beset soon afterward and spent the winter Land of considerable extent was seen to the south and

in the ice.

was named Kaiser Wilhelm II Land (later called Wilhelm II Coast); the most conspicuous feature on it was a volcanic hill called Gaussberg (Mt. Gauss), in 67° S., 90° E. Nordenskjold and Bruce. -Two private expeditions were in the antarctic simultaneously with the British and German national expeditions, making synchronous meteorological and magnetic observations. Otto Nordenskjold led a Swedish party in the "Antarctic." with C. A. Larsen in command of the ship, and penetrated the Weddell sea almost to the circle in 50° W. Two winters were The "Antarctic" was spent at the base on Snow Hill Island. crushed in the ice on her way to take the shore party off, but they under Capt. gunboat "Uruguay," were rescued by the Argentine

—

Julian Irizar.

Meanwhile W. "Scotia," which

S.

B. Charcot, a scientist

and yachtsman, reached

"Pourquoi Pas?," wintering in 1909 on Petermann In the next summer he pushed farther south and west after discovering a coast later identified as Charcot Island. Shackleton. In 1908 Ernest Shackleton established an expedition at Cape Royd on Ross Island, his ship the "Nimrod" returning to New Zealand for the winter. A new departure in antarctic sledging was initiated by the use of Manchurian ponies. Before the winter set in, a party under T. W. E. David reached the summit of Mt. Erebus. In the succeeding summer David, accompanied by the geologist Douglas Mawson, sledged to the magnetic pole, situated in latitude 72° 25' S., 155° 16' E. at an altitude of more than 7,000 ft. The greatest achievement of the expedition, however, was the journey made by Shackleton, J. B. Adams, E. Marshall and F. Wild to the latitude of 88° 23' S., in the course of which they discovered a route on to the plateau by way of the Beardmore glacier and pioneered the way to the pole itself. As a member of this group and as a former member of Scott's southern party in 1903, Shackleton thus took part in the most extensive southward advance since Cook, and fell short of reaching the very pole itself by a mere 97 mi. Alarm over the change in appearance of the Bay of Whales deterred him from basing at this closer point, from which Amundin

1908

in the

Island. 65° S.

the medical officer.

in

—Jean

the antarctic in Jan. 1904 in the "Francais," cruising along the western side of the Graham-Palmer peninsula to 67° S., and aeain

Bruce equipped a Scottish expedition

in the

made

valuable oceanographical investigations in the Weddell sea in 1903 and, returning again the next summer, A sighted Coats Land, named for supporters of the expedition.

meteorological station, Orcadas, established by the expedition on Laurie Island in the South Orkneys, was handed over to the Argentine government and has been occupied ever since.

—

sen met success three years later. Captain Scott again left England in 1910 Scott and Amundsen. with an expedition in the "Terra Nova," his objectives being a journey to the south pole and scientific investigation of the Ross sea area. The main party established itself on the west side of Ross Island. The "Fram," with a Norwegian party under Roald Amundsen, was encountered shortly afterward by the "Terra Nova" in the Bay of Whales on the Ross ice shelf. With the news of Peary and Cook's discovery of the north pole this expedition, intended for the north polar regions, had changed its plans

—

and decided

to

attempt to reach the south pole instead.

After some very successful depot-laying journeys Amundsen set out on Oct. 20, 1911, for the pole, accompanied by four companions on ski with 52 dogs. They reached the polar plateau by way of the Axel Heiberg glacier in 85° S. and arrived at the pole on Dec. 14. The return journey took 38 days, and they returned a model to their winter quarters with 12 dogs and ample food of technical performance. Another sledge party visited Edward

—

VII peninsula to the east. Meanwhile Scott sent a subsidiary party

to Cape Adare, where they wintered in Borchgrevink's hut. This party later made a hazardous land journey of 300 mi. back to Cape Evans along the coast of Victoria Land, wintering on the way with improvised equipment. A winter journey to the emperor penguin rookery at Cape Crozier was made by E. A. Wilson, H. R. Bowers and A. Cherry-Garrard in severe conditions. The pole party started from Cape Evans on Oct. 24, 1911, with motor sledges, ponies and dogs. The motors soon broke down, the ponies were shot before reaching 83° 30' S., and from there also the dog teams were sent

back to the base. On Dec. 10 Scott with 11 others began the ascent of the Beardmore glacier with three man-hauled sledges. On Dec. 21 four men with one sledge were sent back from 85° 7' S., and on Dec. 31 the last supporting party of three under Lieut. E. R. G. R. Evans returned from 86° 56' S. The polar party Scott, Wilson, Bowers, L. E. G. Oates and Edgar Evans reached the pole on Jan. 17, 1912. All were tired out from their 69 days' march and bitterly disappointed to find that they had been forestalled by Amundsen. The weather on the return journey was exceptionally bad. Evans died on the Beardmore glacier on Feb. 17. Oates, at the end of his strength, sacrificed himself on March 17 in 79° 50' S. by crawling out into the blizzard. The supply of fuel oil at the last depot had been deficient and 20 mi. remained before they reached the next. The three survivors struggled on for 10 mi. but they were bound to their camp by a blizzard that lasted for nine days, and they awaited death with quiet fortitude. The tent with the frozen bodies was found by

—

—

ANTARCTICA

10

search parties on Nov. 12, 1912. Mawson. The Australian antarctic expedition which set out in the "Aurora" in Dec. 1911 was organized by Douglas Mawson.

—

The main base was established at Cape Denison at Commonwealth bay on George V Coast, where Mawson wintered with 17 comThe ship, under the command of J. K. Davis, proceeded 1,500 mi. to the west where Queen Mary Coast was discovered, and Frank Wild landed with a party of seven men and a hut to form the western base. Sledge parties started from the main base in Nov. 1912, diverging to explore inland toward the magnetic pole panions.

and eastward and westward near the coast. Mawson's two companions, B. B. S. Ninnis and X. Mertz, perished, leaving him with scant stores 100 mi. from Commonwealth bay. He reached the hut on Feb. 10, 1913, by an effort of almost superhuman endurance and found that the "Aurora" had just sailed to relieve Wild, leaving a volunteer rescue party with whom he awaited the return of the ship in Dec. 1913. Filchner and Shirase. A German expedition led by Wilhelm Filchner in the "Deutschland," under Capt. R. Vahsel, penetrated the Weddell sea to 77° 50' S. early in 1912 and delimited part of its southern boundary. The Luitpold Coast between 29° and 37° W.,

—

named for the prince regent of Bavaria, was discovered and charted. The vessel was beset in March 1912 and drifted for nearly nine months with the pack 36° 34'

ice, finally

escaping on Nov. 26 in 63° 37'

S.,

W.

Choku

Shirase led a Japanese party in the "Kainan Maru," which summers of 1910-12. A short

cruised in the Ross sea during the

sledge journey was ing on

Edward VII

—

made on

the Ross ice shelf, followed by a land-

peninsula.

Shackleton. Sir Ernest Shackleton planned the Imperial TransAntarctic expedition in 1914, intending to cross the continent from the Weddell sea to the Ross sea by way of the south pole. The "Endurance" entered the Weddell sea early in Dec. 1914 and worked southward between 15° and 20° W. Caird Coast was dis-

covered between Coats Land and Luitpold Coast on Jan. 11, 1915, but no landing place was found. The ship, beset in the ice on Jan. 18, drifted northward and was crushed and abandoned on Oct. 27 in 69° 5' S. The 28 men camped on an ice floe, which continued to move northward until April 9, 1916, when it broke up in 62° S., 54° W. after a drift of 457 days. The party took to their three small boats and landed six days later on Elephant Island. Shackleton with five men reached South Georgia, 750 mi. distant, in a 22-ft. boat and finally succeeded with the Chilean trawler "Yelcho" in rescuing the others on Aug. 30, 1916. The expedition had a companion group in the McMurdo area led by A. E. Mackintosh for the purpose of laying depots for the transcontinental party. Their ship "Aurora" was also beset in the pack ice and drifted for 315 days. The leader and two others perished. Among a series of minor activities during the pre-World War I period was the fourth cruise of the U.S. scientific ship "Carnegie" under W. J. Peters in 1915-16, which made magnetic observations on a subantarctic circumnavigation of the continent. During 1918 and 1919 Antarctica was abandoned. 5. Exploration, 1920-40.— The first party to winter in Antarctica after World War I was the smallest expedition in Antarctic history. In 1920-22 T. W. Bagshaw and M. C. Lester, two young British explorers, landed from a whaling ship and lived for a year at Waterboat point on the west coast of Graham-Palmer peninsula. Despite their primitive shelter made of an upturned lifeboat and packing boxes, they carried out creditable observations of meteorology, tides and zoology. Shackleton sailed in the "Quest" in Sept. 1921 to explore the Enderby Land area (0° to 90° E.). He died at South Georgia on Frank Wild, second in command, carried on the Jan. 5, 1922. voyage to 69° 17' S., 17° E.

During the period from 1922 to 1928 no wintering bases were established in Antarctica and activities were confined to minor scientific

investigations of off-lying islands.

Whaling

activities

southern Atlantic and Pacific were largely carried on by the Norwegians and in the southern Indian ocean by the French. "Discovery" Investigations. The Discovery committee was appointed by the British government in 1923 to undertake comprein the

—

hensive oceanographical research in antarctic waters, with a view The to regulating and perpetuating the whaling industry there. first southern cruise was made by the old "Discovery" in 1925-27. "William Scoresby" research vessel tons) In 1926 the (324 gross was commissioned and during the following 12 years made eight cruises in the waters of the southern ocean. In 1929 a new research vessel, the "Discovery II" (1,036 gross tons), replaced the "Discovery" and up to the outbreak of World War II in 1939 had undertaken five southern commissions. Christensen.— Between 1927 and 1937 a series of eight exploratory voyages in the southern ocean were promoted by the Norwegian whaling magnate Lars Christensen. During these years a large number of important geographical discoveries were made along the coasts of the antarctic mainland by expeditions led by H. Mosby, Ola Olstad, Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen, Klarius Mikkelsen and others. In the four summer seasons between 1927 and 1931 Bouvet Island and the "Norvegia" cruised in antarctic waters. Peter I Island were claimed for Norway at this time. The former island was photographed from the air during the season of 1929-30, and an air reconnaissance was made of western Enderby Land and parts of the coast of Queen Maud Land between 40° and 50° E. and 0° and 10° W. Further flights were made in 1930-31 and the coast of Queen Maud Land between 20° and 30° E. was discovered

and roughly charted. In the summer of 1933-34 a number of flights were made from the "Thorshavn," during which parts of Princess Elizabeth Land were discovered. During the following season the "Thorshavn" landed a party on the Ingrid Christensen Coast, part of Princess Elizabeth Land, in about 80° E., and topographical surveys were made in that area. During one of these cruises four women guests aboard the whaler were the first of their In 1936-37 part of Queen Maud Land sex to visit Antarctica. between 30° and 40° E. was photographed from the air. Queen Maud Land was claimed for Norway in 1939. Wilkins. In 1928-29 Australian-born Sir George Hubert Wilkins led an American-financed expedition to the Graham-Palmer peninsula region and made an air reconnaissance of the east coast. Local flights were made again the following year. These appeared

—

to confirm the erroneous impression, gained in 1928-29, that the

Graham-Palmer peninsula was an archipelago rather than part of the continent. Island.

Byrd.

—After

Wilkins discovered the insularity of Charcot

his successful flight

over the north pole (1926) and

across the Atlantic (1927), U.S. naval aviation commander Richard E. Byrd turned his energies toward antarctic exploration, believing that airplanes and aerial cameras were the answers to exploring Antarctica.

structed a

He

organized a private expedition in 1928 and constation, Little America, on shelf ice about four

42-man

miles north of the site of Amundsen's

Framheim on

the east side

On fall flights to the east he discovered the Rockefeller mountains, named for John D. Rockefeller, Jr., a patron of the expedition, and the peninsular structure of Scott's Edward VII peninsula. Farther to the east, beyond 150° W., he discovered Marie Byrd Land, named in honour of his wife, and the Edsel Ford ranges, named for another of the sponsors. During the winter night a meteorological, magnetic and auroral program was carried out. The following summer (1929) Lawrence M. Gould and a party of five sledged by dog team to the Queen Maud of the

Bay

of Whales.

On mountains due southward for geological reconnaissance. Nov. 29, 1929, Byrd as navigator, accompanied by Bernt Balchen and Harold June as pilots and Ashley McKinley as aerial photographer, flew successfully to the vicinity of the geographic south pole in a tri-motored Ford airplane "Floyd Bennett." Several new glaciers were aerially mapped and the escarpment to the east of the Queen Maud mountains could be seen for another 100 to 200 mi.

Byrd returned to Little America II in Jan. 1934 after making seaplane flights from the ice-laden seas north of Marie Byrd Land. Additional buildings were erected at Little America to house the 56 members of the expedition. Cows were taken along for fresh milk. Using a Curtis Condor biplane for his major exploratory work, Byrd discovered the trend of Ruppert Coast, the Horlick mountains extending eastward of the Queen Maud mountains to at least 115° W. and peaks as far eastward as longitude 130° W. in

ANTARCTICA

ii

(The names are for Jacob Ruppert and William who helped support the expedition.) Byrd alone occupied Advanced Weather station about 123 mi. S. of Little America on the Ross ice shelf, the first inland station in Antarctica. During his five months' winter isolation there Byrd recorded tem-

is separated from the peninsula by George VI sound. Ritscher. A German expedition in the "Schwabenland," commanded by Alfred Ritscher, spent three weeks off the coast of Queen Maud Land during the summer of 1938-39. Two aircraft made extensive flights between 14° W. and 20° E., penetrating in-

peratures to nearly —80° F. The following summer four major field parties operated out of Little America. A tractor party under E. J. Demas began sounding

land to about 74° 25' S. and photographing about 135,000 sq.mi. The area was renamed New Schwabenland and claimed for

by seismic methods; deflected eastward on a southern

1939 the U.S. government inaugucommence permanent occupation and scientific exploration of sections of Antarctica but the advent of World War II brought an untimely end to field operations in 1941. Admiral Byrd was assigned command, logistics were assigned to P. A. Siple and the science program to F. Alton Wade. Two major bases were established: West base, 55 men, at Little America III at the Bay of Whales, led by Siple; and East base, 29 men, at Marguerite bay, Stonington Island on the GrahamPalmer peninsula coast, led by Richard B. Black. The U.S.S. "Bear" and the U.S.S. "North Star" serviced the bases. Using a Barkley Grow seaplane from the "Bear," Byrd discovered the Thurston peninsula region along the icebound coast facing the Pacific ocean near 72° S., 100° W. Byrd did not winter in Antarctica; instead he initiated the system of absentee management of the affairs of an expedition from the home country used in most subsequent expeditions. Wade was in charge of a specially built overland snow cruiser designed by T. C. Poulter for inland exploration. The 35-ton machine was underpowered and remained at Little America III as a scientific laboratory. At West base major exploratory flights included gross observation of the Ross ice

Marie Byrd Land.

Horlick, Boiling

ice thickness

journey by crevasses near 81° S., the party returned over the high plateau of western Marie Byrd Land east of the 150th meridian. This expedition made the first successful use of tractors for freighting and exploring in the antarctic. Quinn Blackburn with two companions and three dog teams retraced Amundsen's and Gould's route to the Queen Maud range and made a geological cross section up Robert Scott glacier to Mt. Weaver on the plateau 230 mi. from the south pole. Coal and fossil specimens were collected. Meanwhile, a four man dog-sledging party led by Paul A. Siple traveled eastward from Little America II to make the first mapping, geological and biological surveys of the newly discovered Marie Byrd Land. They visited the Rockefeller mountains and traveled through the central Edsel Ford ranges to the Fosdick mountains, 77° 30' S., 144° W., named for Raymond B. Fosdick, president of the Rockefeller foundation. They collected 89 new species of mosses and lichens. The fourth important field party, led by Thomas C. Poulter, second in command of the expedition, made seismic soundings of the Ross ice shelf from the Bay of Whales to Discovery inlet, charting ice thicknesses and ocean depths below the shelf. An extensive scientific program was carried on at Little America II, including meteorology, cosmic radiation and magnetic studies, vertebrate and invertebrate zoology, bacteriology, auroral and meteor studies, glaciology and oceanography. Mawson.- The British-Australian-New Zealand Antarctic Research expedition led by Sir Douglas Mawson made two extensive cruises in the "Discovery" in 1929-30 and again in 1930-31. Important work was done between 45° and 75° E. and between 120° and 130° E., the caast line of these parts of Antarctica being

—

roughly charted. A number of landings on the continent were made and Princess Elizabeth Land, Mac-Robertson Coast and the Banzare coast were discovered. The sector known as the Australian Antarctic territory was formally annexed by Australia at this time. Ellsworth. In 1933-34 the U.S. explorer Lincoln Ellsworth visited the Bay of Whales in the "Wyatt Earp," but his aircraft was damaged beyond use for that season. In the following summer

—

he visited the east coast of the Graham-Palmer peninsula with the intention of

making the 2,200-mi. transantarctic

flight to the

Ross sea. This did not prove possible until his third trip at the end of 1935. With H. Hollick-Kenyon as pilot, Ellsworth set out on Nov. 23, 1935, from Dundee Island off Louis Philippe peninsula, for the Bay of Whales. He discovered the Sentinel mountains between 77° and 79° S. and 86° and 89° W., so named because of their prominent position as a landmark; the corridor over which he flew is now called the Ellsworth Highland. Three landings were made during the crossing of the continent and the aircraft finally arrived near the Bay of Whales on Dec. 5. These landings on unprepared terrains, made in bad weather, were a new departure in polar aviation. The two fliers were rescued by the "Discovery II" in mid-Jan. 1936. Ellsworth made one more antarctic voyage in the "Wyatt Earp" in the summer of 1938-39. A flight was made inland to 72° S., 79° E. in Princess Elizabeth Land. He named the plateau he discovered there the American Highland and claimed it for the United States. Rymill.

—The

Graham Land

expedition of 1934-37, led "Penola" and in successive seasons wintered at the Argentine Islands and the Debenham Islands, British

by John Rymill, went south off

the west coast of the

in the

Graham-Palmer peninsula.

In addition

comprehensive scientific investigations, flights and sledge journeys were made and the coast and off-lying islands of the western Graham-Palmer peninsula were surveyed from the Palmer archipelago to Alexander I Island. Two major discoveries were made: to

first,

that the

Graham-Palmer peninsula

is

part of the antarctic

mainland and not an archipelago; second, that Alexander

I

Island

—

'

Germany. U.S. Antarctic Service.

— In

rated the U.S. Antarctic service to

photography of the region between Beardmore and Robert Scott glaciers of the Queen Maud mountains, delineation of the eastern limits of the Ross ice shelf and extension of Ruppert Coast 76° S., 146° W. to Mt. Siple, 73° 15' S., 123° W. Inland, the Hal Flood and Executive Committee ranges were more completely investigated. Aerial photography of the Edsel Ford ranges taken in February and March 1940 were reduced to maps for several dog sledge field teams working in the area the following December. The geology party of four men to the central Edsel Ford ranges was led by Lawrence A. Warner; the biological party of three to the Fosdick mountains was led by Jack E. Perkins; the Pacific coast survey party of three to the Hal Flood range was led by Leonard M. Berlin. Two additional field parties explored Edward VII peninsula, one led by Wade for geological investigations, the other for surveys by Roy G. Fitzsimmons. Extensive science programs at the main base featured the first antarctic upper air meteorological soundings, obtaining minimum temperatures of —130° F.; glaciology of the Ross ice shelf, found to move a third of a mile per year; magnetism; aurora; biology; and radio wave propagation studies. A similar scientific program was carried on at East base. Geographic discoveries included an extension of the Graham-Palmer peninsula southward to 77° S. and reconnaissance of the peninsula northward and of Alexander I Island. A Weddell coast dog team party led by Paul Knowles did geology and surveys to 72° S., 61° W., and a second major sledge journey was made by Finn Ronne and Carl Eklund along the eastern and southern sides of Alexander I to within sight of open water along Robert English Coast. Important biological, geological and meteorological observations were made on shorter excursions near the base. East base was evacuated by air because the ice in Marguerite bay did not break up in 1941 to permit the relief ships to enter. While awaiting relief operations, scientists of the already relieved West base made surveys and collections of botanical and geological specimens at the Melchior archipelago. World War II Antarctic Activity. During World War II antKerguelen arctic waters became involved in military activities. shelf, aerial

—

became the "Alstertor" resupply point

for

German

raiders Hilfs-

kreuger 53, 16 and 45, "Pinguin," "Atlantis" and "Komet" raiding the South Pacific. The German raider "Pinguin" captured an entire Norwegian whaling fleet, including the whale factory ships "Ole Wegger" and "Pelagos," the supply ship "Solglimt" and 11 catchers. British and Australian naval vessels searched for the enemy. H.M.S. "Cornwall" sank the "Pinguin" in May 1941 after

ANTARCTICA

12

After 1941 she had captured 136,550 tons of Allied shipping. pelagic whaling ceased for the duration of the war. In 1941 the British established a meteorological forecasting station in the Falkland Islands and destroyed fuel stocks at Deception Island. On a 1943 visit to the same island they obliterated signs of sovereignty claims left there the year before by Argentina. H.M.S. "Carnavon Castle" also visited Signy bay and Laurie Is-

land in the South Orkneys. The Argentine vessel "Primera de Mayo" made voyages to Antarctica in 1942 and 1943 to take formal 60° possession of the sector between 25° and 68° 34' W. south of

On the latter S. and to remove British emblems of sovereignty. voyage the ship visited Stonington Island in Marguerite bay and East base, from the U.S. materials and removed some instruments which were

later returned to the U.S.

The winter

of 1943

was the

last

time Antarctica was without at

least a transient population.

Partly for reasons of sovereignty and partly for wartime surveil"Tabarin I" in 1943 began permanent occupation of meteorological stations along the west lance, the British naval Operation

A

was established at Port LockMarr, commander of the shore staffs, and Base B at Deception Island under the leadership of W. R. Flett. Scientific programs including geology, biology and surveys were carried on during the winter. The following year, 1944-45, the bases were relieved, and a new one, Base D, was established at Hope bay. After the war the administration of British bases became the Falkland Island Dependencies surveys.

Graham-Palmer peninsula.

Base

roy under the leadership of

J. vV. S.

See also biographies of the explorers.

gives

it

the longest record of possession of any single spot in

Antarctica south of 60° S. U.S. policy as stated by Charles E. Hughes, secretary of state in 1924, that occupation was the strongest basis for claims of a territory, had an impact on antarctic exploration. The U.S. Antarctic service, 1939-41, was intended as the first step toward oc-

cupying Antarctica on a permanent basis, but the effort had to be temporarily abandoned because of World War II. Even before the war had ended British naval forces established three bases in the Falkland Island dependencies and announced them as permanent meteorological stations. These stations opened post offices, issued postage stamps and had appointed barristers. Britain added progressively to the number of permanent stations during the next decade, as did Argentina and Chile, sometimes at the same sites and manned by military personnel. High officials, governors of provinces, and even the president of Chile and Prince Philip of

Great Britain visited their countries' respective stations. The competition for possession grew serious enough that whenever foreign stores, national emblems or unoccupied refuge huts were discovArrests and deportations occurred ered, they were destroyed. and there was one instance of armed resistance without casualties

by Argentina against a British landing party at Hope bay in 1952. British naval war vessels put in an annual appearance in the Falkland Island dependencies and during 1948 Argentina had about 15 naval vessels in the area on maneuvers, in addition to a 13-vessel Tension caused by this show of naval flotilla to establish bases. force was eased somewhat after 1949 by annual declarations between Argentina, Chile and Britain aimed at restricting the use of warships.

IV.

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT OCCUPATION

(1943-55)

—

Conflicting Claims. During the decade following World War II, attitudes toward Antarctica became singularly nationalisClaims of territory had been announced by seven countries tic. the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Norway, France, Argentina and Chile. The only remaining segments of the continent not specifically claimed lay between 90° and 150° W. in west Antarctica and between 45° E. and 20° W. in east Antarctica, southward toward the pole from the explored coast claimed by 1.

Norway. The basis of claims, varied with individual countries, although, with the exception of Norway, the claimants adhered to the "sector" principle, propounded by Pascal Poirier in the Canadian senate on Feb. 20, 1907. His concept would recognize the extended claims of any nation bordering the polar regions by extending the meridians of its extreme boundaries to the north or south pole. The concept has never been tested in a world court, and the United States has been notably among those nations which have never accepted the principle in either the arctic or antarctic. The majority of claimants in Antarctica have used this sort of convenient pie-shaped wedge claim system, but their reasons for the chosen boundaries have been devious and varied.

claim of Terre Adelie, for example, extends d'Urville's covery of 1840 to the pole, although he did not set foot and the first French return to the area was not until but the more intensive and extensive explorations of

The French coastal dis-

on the land Dec. 1949; Charcot in 1903-05 were not used as a basis of claim. Norway made no attempt to exploit the discoveries of Amundsen but claimed the Russian-discovered (1821) Peter I Island and the Frenchdiscovered (1739) Bouvet Island; the coast claimed by Norway was largely explored by Norwegian whalers, although it lies in the sector which South Africa might conceivably claim if it extended its boundaries according to Poririer's principle, as Argentina, Chile and Australia have done. The vigorous British claim to the Falkland Island dependencies is based upon some priority rights of discovery, but the region includes land and islands first explored and, in some cases, occupied by the U.S., the U.S.S.R., France, Sweden, Germany, Norway, Belgium, Argentina and Chile. Although other nations might assert justifiable formal claims in this region, only Argentina and Chile, who previously had explored it less than some of the others, have formally made such assertion. Argentina, in addition, voices Argentina's claim to the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. nearly 60 years' occupation of the Laurie Island weather station

By the outset of IGY in the 1956-57 season the British were occupying 11 permanent stations, Argentina 8 and Chile 6. Although these stations were primarily political, valuable work reThe Chileans did some sulted during the nationalistic decade. hydrographic and survey work. The Argentines did comparatively more scientific work and produced superior hydrographic charts of the regions surrounding the South Shetlands, South Orkneys and The British were still better the Graham-Palmer peninsula. equipped for biological, geological and electromagnetic reconnaissance and in addition did superior ground surveys and mapping of the land. Vertical aerial-strip surveys of the entire northern half of the Graham-Palmer peninsula have been accomplished, most detailed maps of any portion of Antarctica. At the close of the nationalistic period, the continent's periphery was mapped for the first time and U.S. personnel, with the aid of aircraft, had seen more of Antarctica than all other explorers combined. However, the U.S. continued its policy of making no official territorial claims, recognizing no one else's claims but reserving resulting in the

its

rights to

make

claims at a future time. policy, and although

announced a similar

In 1950 the U.S.S.R. had done no active

it

exploration since 1822, it had been carrying on whaling since 1946 and was preparing to take a highly active part in IGY antarctic activity. Germany and Japan were forced to surrender their rights to antarctic claims at the close of

World War

II.

The accompanying

station location table will help to clarify the sequence of activities from 1943 to 1955, which were especially

complicated in the British, Argentine and Chilean area around the South Shetland and South Orkney islands and the Graham-

Palmer peninsula.

The

station

list

includes, for the

most

part,

only bases that were occupied through one or more winter seasons. It does not include temporary summer- stations or many refuge huts built by these nations. 2. Operation "Highjump" and Other U.S. Expeditions. In 1946-47 the U.S. naval task force 68 undertook Operation

—

"Highjump," the

largest expedition

attempted

in the antarctic

up

The enterprise was under the general direction of Rear Admiral Byrd and the 13 ships taking part were commanded by Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen. The objectives were to test to that time.

equipment, to give polar experience to 4,000 men, to extend the basis for United States claims and to photograph as much of Ant-

from the air. The task force was divided into worked around most of the periphery of the conduring the summer. More than 100 men were based at Lit-

arctica as possible

three groups and tinent

ANTARCTICA

^HC Don Juan pond,

Wright valley, Victoria Land, which heating and stratification prevent deep freezing although the temperature does not exceed 0° F. is

a lake in the

so salty that chemical

Graham-Palmer peninsula

in

v.

LAND- AND SEASCAPES

Dark area at bottom

Summit crater of Mt. Erebus on Ross Island. Mt. Erebus known continuously active volcano in Antarctica

the Bellingshausen sea

IN

ANTARCTICA

I

f^A>

Wilson piedmont glacier across McMurdo sound at Marble point. is an accumulation of bands of dirt and rock mixed with ice

Snow-covered mountain peaks of volcanic rock on the west side of Brabant Island off the coast of

Plate

is

the only

Tlate

ANTARCTICA

II

The "Terra Nova." pack on

its

way

British ship

to Ross

commanded by R. 1910

F. Scott, trapped in an ice

Scientific research in Antarctica.

Leit, launching a helium-inflated balloon glaciologist measuring compressibility

into the upper atmosphere; light, sample of ice core

Island, Dec. 13,

of a

Scraping loose

w

from the walls of the main tunnel of a garage under construction at the station, Marie Byrd Land, during Operation "Deepfreeze," 1960-61

new Byrd

Sno-cat tractor transporting supplies in the icecap during the British Trans-Antarctic expedition,

1957

Installing a 40-ft. steel new Byrd station

the

main tunnel

of

the garage at the

Station at Mirny, a permanent Soviet station on Queen Mary Coast, established in

1956

EXPEDITIONS AND RESEARCH STATIONS

IN

ANTARCTICA

ANTARCTICA

Plate

III

£i»

Members

Crew

Temporary camp site set up by a team of British explore veying the mountainous interior of South Georgia Island

the

of

party in temporary camp during exploration of an ice-free region of rocky hills on Ingrid Christensen Coast

of an Australian exploratory

the Vestfold

hills,

Capt. R. F. Scott's western party pulling supplies on a sled across the ice during British expedition to the south pole

1910-12

Unloading supplies and equipment from U.S. coast guard icebreaker "Eastwind" at Hallett station for use in connection with Operation "Deepfreeze," 1960-61. Hallett station, at Cape Hallett near Cape Adare, Victoria Land, was established jointly with

New Zealand

EXPLORATION AND RESEARCH STATIONS

IN

ANTARCTICA

ANTARCTICA

Plate IV

Skua (Catharacta skua antarctica) in flight at Cape Evans, Ross the world's most southerly birds, having been observed within 80 mi.

Island.

They an

of the

geographii

south pole

t penguin (Fygoscelis adeliae) sitting on an egg at rookery on Ross Island. It is one of the few species of bird ithin the Antarctic circle considered truly native to th

.

Petrified wood found in the Horlick mountains, a discovery indicating that higher forms of plant life once existed in Antarctica, where now the main forms include only lichens, mosses and algae

Weddell

seal

Murdo sound.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE

IN

(Leptonychotes weddelli) and pup lying on the Found most often in fast ice along the coasts

ANTARCTICA

ice

ANTARCTICA tie

America IV from January

utilized six

R4D

to

March.

Operation "Highjump"

aircraft, the largest planes to take off successfully

and subsequently from the improvised snow surface first of these, Admiral Byrd flew to the base from the aircraft carrier "Philippine Sea" near Scott Island. Twentyfrom a

carrier

airstrip.

In the

nine photographic flights extending into previously unexploredterritory radiated into

Marie Byrd Land, the Horlick mountains, Stations in

A ntarctica

the polar plateau and Victoria Land.

13 Byrd made

his second flight

over the geographic south pole on Feb. 15, 1947. Some meteorology, glaciology and geophysical work was accomplished. P. A. Siple led an attached war department, army and air force observation team. The eastern group under command of Capt. George J. Dufek explored and photographed by seaplane the Pacific coast area of west Antarctica between Mt. Siple and Charcot and Alex-

Established by Various Countries

ANTARCTICA

H ander

I

islands.

One

on Thurston peninsula with This group later circumnavigated the

aircraft crashed

loss of part of its crew.

peninsula and Weddell sea to explore part of Prin-

Graham-Palmer Martha Coast. The Western group under Capt. Charles A. Bond explored and photographed by seaplane the coasts of east \m irctica from Hates Coast to the Princess Astrid Coast. Near longitude 100° E. this group discovered Bunger Hills, an extensive area of ice-free land, misleadingly called an oasis. cess

During

this nationalistic

period the superior technical capability

of the United States to explore the entire surface of Antarctica from the air was thwarted when the more ambitious "Highjump II"

has been in progress since 1900. The expedition, which was led by the Norwegian John Giaever and comprised members of all three nationalities, established a station called

A number

of flights were made over Queen photographs were taken.

V.

expedition was canceled on the eve of departure because of the

Korean war.

A

1.

smaller naval expedition, designated Operation "Windmill," Comdr. G. L. Ketchum, visited

Maudheim on

a floating

ice shelf. During the field seasons of 1950-51 and 1951-52 a number of journeys were made, using mechanical tracked vehicles and dog sledges, and an advanced base was established in 72° 17' S., 3° 48' W. An important seismic sounding journey was made inland to a point 370 mi. from Maudheim on the inland ice plateau.

Maud Land and

air

INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

International Geophysical Year.

—When

the committee

station, also at

charge began organizing the International Geophysical year, to extend from July 1, 1957, to Dec. 31, 1958, it became apparent that nearly a fifth of the world-wide data to be collected would be missing if Antarctica was not included in the effort. Of the 66 nations that eventually joined the IGY effort, 12 volunteered to use existing stations in the antarctic regions or to establish new ones. The south pole was to become the tie point of north-south lines of stations extending through the other continents. It became further obvious that inland stations would be required as well as ones on the coast. These would be both costly to build and difficult to achieve. Only the United States and the U.S.S.R. volunteered to use their resources to attain far inland goals, although France and the United Kingdom later placed small stations

of

short distances inland.

consisting of two icebreakers under

The object was to fix Antarctica during the following season. geographical points so that the air surveys of the previous expedition could be properly located. A private antarctic research expedition, heavily supported by government sources, was undertaken by Finn Ronne

The expedition reoccupied East base

in

1946^8.

of the U.S. Antarctic service

in southwest Graham-Palmer Noteworthy scientific and topographical survey work was accomplished, some of which was in co-operation with the

(1939-41) at Stonington Island

peninsula.

staff of the

Falkland Island Dependencies survey's southernmost

Stonington Island. An important summer journey SO mi. was made, using British sledging equipment and U.S. air support. The combined party reached 74° 45' on the east coast of the Graham-Palmer peninsula and returned after 105 days in the field. Mrs. Ronne and Mrs. Harry Darlington, who accompanied their husbands, were the first women to winter on the antarctic mainland. 3. A.N.A.R.E. The Australian National Antarctic Research expedition (A.N.A.R.E.) was established by the Australian government in 1947 under the direction of Stuart Campbell and later of P. G. Law. Scientific stations were set up on Heard Island in Dec. 1947 and on Macquarie Island in March 1948. The Heard Island station was closed in 1955; the Macquarie Island station has been operated continuously, annual relief parties being sent to the island each summer. In Feb. 1954 Mawson station, led the first year by R. G. Dovers, was established on the antarctic mainland and has been maintained permanently. Subsequent explorations along the coast and inland have added much to the knowledge of this region. The Prince Charles mountains were found to extend inland to about 74° 30' S. 4. Other Events. In Dec. 1947 the South African government annexed the Prince Edward Islands, which lie halfway between South Africa and Antarctica, and in Feb. 1948 a weather station was erected on Marion Island. This station has been manned by 1,1

—

—

successive relief parties since that time.

An

antarctic expedition organized

Martin

as

in Jan. 1950.

A. F.

Liotard was in command during the first year. He was succeeded by M. Barre early in 1951. During 1950 and 1951 a number of important journeys were made in mechanical tracked vehicles

along the Adelie coast line and inland toward the magnetic pole. The station at Port Martin was destroyed by. fire in Jan. 1952, but a small party led by M. Marret wintered at Pointe Geologie, about 40 mi. E. of Port Martin. In Dec. 1949 the French government established a large scienstation at Port-aux-Francais on the Kerguelen Islands. The was manned continuously after Jan. 1951 by members of an official organization known as Missions aux Terres Australes et Antarctiques Franchises, under the direction of Pierre Sicaud. tific

station

An

airfield was established on the islands, which lie midway between South Africa and Australia. An international expedition, sponsored by the Norwegian, British and Swedish governments the first of its kind worked in Queen Maud Land in 1949-52. The primary objective was to try to determine whether the antarctic icecap is waning, as is true of most northern glaciers, in response to a warming climate trend which

—

The seven claimant nations

all

played an active role but

re-

stricted their station efforts to localities within their claimed areas.

The nonclaimant nations taking

part, in addition to the U.S. and U.S.S.R., were Japan, Belgium and the Union of South Africa. Correlation was achieved by means of an International Antarctic

committee organized

in

Paris

in

The nonclaimant na-

1955.

improve spacing. however, there were more stations than were essential to the program; for example, the United Kingdom, Chile and Argentina had stations at Deception Island and Hope bay and the U.S., the United Kingdom and Argentina established new stations not far apart on the Filchner ice shelf. On the other hand, areas such as the Pacific-facing coast of west Antarctica were neglected because of the difficulty in approaching them; its protecting pack ice was first breached in 1960, well after IGY. Along the coast of Norwegian-claimed Queen Maud Land, nearly 2,000 mi. long, Norway's single station on the Princess Martha Coast was joined by a Japanese station, Showa at Prince Harald Coast on Liitzow-Holm bay, and by a Belgian station, King Baudoin station on Princess Ragnhild Coast. Australia added Davis station at Princess Elizabeth Land on Ingrid Christensen Coast to tions established their stations in gap areas to

In

some

its

existing

cases,

Mawson

station.

To

help

fill

in

gaps along this coast

Budd Coast and the U.S.S.R. Mirny on Queen Mary Coast and Oazis at Wilkes Land. The French station Dumont d'Ur-

the U.S. located Wilkes station on

by the private body known

Expeditions Polaires Franchises, under the direction of Paul-Emile Victor, established a station at Port

in

—

located two stations,

Bunger

Hills in

Point Geologie on the Adelie Coast further filled in the observing points in this region. The French also established a small, temporary inland station, Charcot, near the south magnetic pole. In its claimed Ross dependency sector New Zealand established Scott station on Ross Island, McMurdo sound, close to the ville at

air facility, a U.S. installation. The U.S. and New Zealand jointly established Hallett station at Cape Hallett near Cape Adare of Victoria Land. The U.S. main IGY station. Little America V, was established in this same sector at Kainan bay, about 20 mi. N.E. of the former Little America sites. In the Weddell sea sector claimed in part by both Britain and Argentina the latter built a politically motivated station. General Belgrano, just prior to IGY. Later, and nearby on the Filchner ice shelf, the U.S. built its Ellsworth station and Vivian E. Fuchs

Williams naval

Shackleton station for the British Trans-Antarctic expedition, only coincidentally a part of IGY. This group also built a support South Ice, inland. The only strictly new British IGY station, Halley Bay, was established about 250 mi. to the northwest on Coats Land. In the area of the Graham-Palmer peninsula and the South Shetland and South Orkney islands claimed by the his

station,

ANTARCTICA United Kingdom, Argentina and Chile, 24 of the nationalistically motivated stations took creditable part in the IGY program. Seven of these were Argentine, six were Chilean and the remainder British.

The United the

IGY

States built two major inland stations in support of Byrd station at 80° S., 120° W. was established

effort.

by tractor and air support; the geographic south pole station Amundsen-Scott was established entirely by air. The U.S.S.R. originally planned two inland stations, Vostok, to be established geomagnetic pole (where the earth's magnetic field focuses downward from outer space), and Sovietskaya, to be in the geographic centre of the continent. Because of high elevations and soft snow the mobile stations failed to reach the sites on schedule, and in consequence the intermediate stations Pionerskaya, Komsomolskaya and Vostok I were established as overwintering sites en route and Sovietskaya was established about 400 mi. short at the south

of

its

goal.

In the wide expanse of antarctic waters and far southern oceans there are few islands suitable for stations. A number, however, served as useful IGY station bridges to the surrounding continents:

Kerguelen (France); Campbell (New Zealand); Macquarie (AusMarion, Tristan and Gough islands (Union of South Africa) and Falkland and South Georgia islands (United Kingtralia)

;

;

dom).

J

5

change of foreign observers among the bases, including a U.S.S.R. observer at Little America V and a U.S. observer at Mirny. Of the inland stations Byrd station was the largest, serving as support for traverse operations. It was established by an armypioneered tractor train party from Little America V. The Russian and French inland stations were modified mobile units dragged inland. The most unusual of the stations was the U.S. AmundsenScott south pole station, established by air force parachute drops

and navy

The

ski airplane landings.

station of 18

men,

leader P. A. Siple and naval leader J. Tuck, was the either of the earth's poles to be inhabited for a year.

months

led

first

by

IGY

base at

During the

world record low temperature of F. was recorded. Average winter wind speeds were about 17 m.p.h. and the average temperature —73° F. at this 9,200 ft. elevation. A year later, Aug. 25, 1958, at the 11,220-ft. Russian Vostok station, where winds were less, a minimum temperature of — 125.3° F. was recorded. (Subsequently, on Aug. 24, 1960, a six

sunless winter

— 102

.

a

1 °

temperature of —126.9° F. was reported there.) The IGY program amassed great volumes of information which require years to fully analyze and co-ordinate. The IGY nations formed three major data centres in which the raw data and final reports were sent for processing and exchange with the other centres. Data Centre A is assigned to the United States, serving generally North and South American countries Data Centre B is assigned to the U.S.S.R., serving Asia and especially the communistic nations; and Data Centre C is in western Europe, serving

may

;

Logistic support

for

the stations

followed various patterns.

Danish iceworking ships built for Greenland commercial travel were chartered by several nations. The U.S.S.R. used its icebreaking oceanographic vessels "Ob" and the "Lena" as well as other vessels out of their Northern Sea Route administration. The U.S. logistics support was assigned to the department of defense and on to the U.S. navy, which in turn called upon the air force and the army for specialized assistance. Rear Adm. George Dufek of the United States navy was assigned command of the logistics task forces, called Operation "Deepfreeze." Naval personnel were assigned with their own command lines to furnish medical, communication, construction and station maintenance, whereas the scientific program was under a separate civilian command line responsible to the National

Academy

of Sciences.

Until his death

also Africa

and Australasia. Each data centre is by various subjects and scientific

into subcentres

in

turn divided In

disciplines.

the U.S. these centres are variously located in universities, research institutes or government departments, such as the weather bureau and the national bureau of standards, dealing nationally with meteorology and ionospheric physics. By 1960 masses of publications were already appearing in all three centres and being widely exchanged according to agreement. The antarctic data are incorporated with data from all parts of the world except in cases unique

to the region.

The IGY was all

time,

the largest international scientific undertaking of its greatest

and the intense study of Antarctica was one of

11, 1957, Admiral Byrd was responsible for the over-all administration of the U.S. Antarctic programs. The scientific programs of the IGY concentrated upon synoptic subjects which required simultaneous readings from the many scattered stations. The principal subjects included surface and upper

achievements. IGY may stand as a prototype of international undertakings in the pursuit of knowledge for the common good of the world; but whatever its full assessed value may be, its initial stimulus to the large scale study of Antarctica cannot be over-

meteorology, geomagnetism, ionospheric physics, aurora, seismology, cosmic radiation, oceanography and glaciology. The latter study was intended to determine the history of past climate variations and trends as revealed by snow accumulation rates. Although mapping and geology were not part of the pro-

Stimulated 2. Special Committee for Antarctic Research. by the success of the IGY and the recognition that the high investinternational ments in stations justified their further utilization, the effort in Antarctica was extended beyond the closing date of IGY, A Special Committee for Antarctic Research Dec. 31, 1958. (S.C.A.R.), under the International Council of Scientific Unions, replaced the IGY Antarctic committee for international scientific co-operation of the 12 nations which had carried on the antarctic IGY activity. The organizing meeting was held at The Hague in Feb. 1958; the second meeting was in Moscow in Aug. 1958 and Although most of the stations the third in Melbourne in 1959. were still active during 1959 and 1960 some began to change sponsors. The U.S. Ellsworth station on the Weddell coast was trans-

on March

atmosphere

gram, they were encouraged, as were biological studies. Glaciology traverses by cross-country tractor and aircraft included seismic ice depth determinations and earth gravity determinations. Although traverses were run out of many of the stations, those by the U.S. in west Antarctica and by the U.S.S.R. in east Antarctica were the most extensive. More spectacular was the transantarctic the crossing by a British tractor party led by Vivian E. Fuchs The trip began from first overland crossing of the continent. Shackleton station on the Weddell seacoast and ended at Scott staSupport for the journey past its midtion on the Ross seacoast. point visit at the U.S. south pole station was given by a tractor party led by Sir Edmund Hillary from the New Zealand Scott

—

station.

The

traverses of

beneath Antarctica's

ice

all

cover

stations revealed that the land

mass

The cap

aver-

is

extremely rugged.

ages a mile in thickness and in many places goes far below sea level, indicating in general that west Antarctica is mostly an island grouping and that east Antarctica is more truly continental. Coastal stations were similarly equipped but varied in size depending upon the scope of problems they were handling. Little America, McMurdo and Mirny had more than 100 inhabitants during the winter and many more during the summer season. Little America V served as the main U.S. scientific administration and communications centre under A. P. Crary. This station also served There was some exas the Weather Central for the continent.

estimated.

—

ferred on co-operative loan to Argentina with continued U.S. support to the science program the Wilkes station was transferred to Australia; the U.S.S.R. Oazis station was offered to Poland, which, however, found difficulty in gaining support; and the single ;

Norwegian station was transferred to the Union of South Africa. The U.S.S.R. opened a new station, Lazerev, on Astrid Coast of east Antarctica facing Africa.

Traverse activity, frequently of international composition, was continued at an increasing pace, and mapping and geology neglected during IGY was encouraged. U.S. traverses extended widely over west Antarctica, reaching Pacific coastal mountains in the north and the Horlick mountains in the south. A deep frozen potential water connection between the Bellingshausen and Ross seas was discovered. In 1960 the powerful icebreaker U.S.S. "Glacier" broke through the previously impenetrable pack ice of the southern Pacific area and reached the Thurston peninsula region of Marie

ANTARCTICA

i6 Byrd Land, opening a way

for stations along this coast,

and en

route repositioned mountain peaks in the Executive Committee Vinson Massif (16,863 ft.), at 78° 35' S., 85° 25' W., appeared to be Antarctica's highest known peak. A United Statesrange.

New

Zealand traverse party crossed Victoria Land into Terre

Adelie.

A U.S.S.R. traverse visited the U.S. south pole station in Jan. Resupply of I960, traveling en route from Mirny via Vostok. Byrd and the U.S. south pole stations was accomplished in part by C-130 cargo aircraft landing for the first time on ski. 3. Antarctic Treaty. Stimulated by the success of international co-operation in Antarctica during the IGY, the 12 nations that had taken part in the endeavour signed a treaty in Washington, D.C., on Dec. 1, 1959. Formal ratification of the treaty was announced two years later when the contracting nations convened in Canberra, Austr., to further the purposes and objectives of the

—

treaty.

and

The

treaty dedicates Antarctica for peaceful purposes only

restricts its use for military purposes.

It

promotes interna-

exchange of personnel, information and results. No member nation is required to renunciate its claims or pretional co-operation in scientific research,

viously asserted rights to claims.

However, there

is

to

be freedom

of operation anywhere about the continent, although no such operations shall form a basis for new or extended claims during the

time the treaty is in force. Nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive wastes in Antarctica are prohibited, although peaceful and scientific use of atomic is permitted. The treaty applies to the regions lying south of latitude 60° S. but does not restrict normal freedom of the high

devices

There are elaborate provisions for exchange of plans, observation, inspection and settlement of possible disputes. The treaty has provision for new member nations wishing to take an active part in antarctic activities and binds its members for a period of 30 years. 4. Future Prospects for Antarctica. Despite the facts that seas included in this area.

—

Antarctica had its first temporary year-round inhabitants at the turn of the 20th century, that it is still incompletely explored and that its periphery outlines were mapped only since World War II, it is

as

being so intensively studied that

most of the

it

will

soon be as well known Technological ad-

rest of the world's continents.

some food will be produced locally. On a somewhat longer time scale, but probably within

the 20th

century, industrial centres may develop for those industries requiring extensive space, safety of operation, freedom of contamination, large quantities of fresh water reserves or natural refrigeration. Extensive mining operations will depend upon discovery of minerals which can compete with lower cost sources in other parts the of world; however, some development of commercially extracted by-products of antarctic coal reserves appears possible.

The most lie in

its

significant aspect of Antarctica's future,

becoming the

first

however,

may

free region of the world, a step to

internationalizing the world of the future.

National claims of the present are so confused and basically indefensible by protective forces that they will likely weaken until they give way to a continent whose inhabitants and visitors are free from normal national restrictions of movement or commerce, and are subject only to a form of yet-to-be-defined international laws. This inter-

experimentation and co-operation may be of greater value to mankind than Antarctica's future material potential. See also Index references under "Antarctica" in the Index volume, and, for current developments, the annual summary in the Britannica Book of the Year. national

—

Bibliography. The most significant modern publications on Anthave appeared under the International Geophysical Year and Data Centres A, B arid C; see also publications by the polar centres of the 12 nations that took part in antarctic work. The best bibliographies appear in the Polar Record (1931), published by Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, Eng., and the Arctic Bibliography, published by the Arctic Institute of North America, vol. 1-9, U.S. Government Printing Office. The Polar Times (1935- ) of the American Polar Society, New York, is also a useful popular reference. For the Antarctic ocean see U.S. Hydrographic Office, Sailing Directions for Antarctica, Publication No. 138 (1943), Oceanographic Atlas of the Polar Seas: I. Antarctic, Publication No. 705 (1957), Antarctica, Chart 2562, 4th ed. (1956) Admiralty Hydrographic" Department, Antarctic Pilot (194S). See also the following: James Cook, A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World, 2 vol., 1st ed. (1777) James Weddell, A Voyage Towards the South Pole (1825) J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville, Voyage an Pole Sud et dans I'Oceanie, 29 vol. (1841-45) Charles Wilkes, Narrative of the Exploring Expedition During 1838-1842, 5 vol., 1st ed. (1844) J. C. Ross, A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions, 2 vol. (1847) W. G. Burn-Murdoch, From Edinburgh to the Antarctic, an account of the voyage of the "Balaena," 1892-93 (1894) H. J. Bull, The Cruise of the "Antarctic" to the South Polar Regions (1896) Expedition Antarctique Beige, Resultats du voyage du S.Y. "Belgica." Rapports scientifiques (1901); C. E. Borchgrevink, First on the Antarctic Continent (1901) G. Murray (ed.), The Antarctic Manual for the Use of the Expedition of 1901 (1901) A. de Gerlache, Voyage de la "Belgica." Qttinze mois dans V Antarctique (1902) British Museum, Report on the Collections of Natural History Made During the Voyages of the "Southern Cross" (1902) Georges Lecointe, Au Pays des Manchots. Recit du voyage de la "Belgica" (1904) E. von Drygalski, Zum Kontinent des eisigen Siidens, scientific results of "Gauss" expedition (1904) R. F. Scott, The Voyage of the "Discovery," 2 vol., rev. ed. (1929), Last Expedition, 2 vol., rev. ed. (1929); Otto Nordenskjbld and J. G. Andersson, Antarctica (1905); H. R. Mill, The Siege of the Smith Pole, a history of antarctic exploration with complete bibliography (1905) R. N. R. Brown, R. C. Mossman and J. H. H. Pirie, The Voyage of the "Scotia" (1906); J. B. Charcot, Le Francais au Pole Sud (1906) Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of the "Scotia," several volumes (various dates) Royal Society, National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1904 (1907- ); Sir Ernest H. Shackleton, The Heart of the Antarctic, 2 vol., rev. ed. (1932), South (1919); British Antarctic Expedition 1907-1909. Reports on the Scientific Investigations, several volumes (various dates) British Antarctic {"Terra Nova") Expedition, scientific reports (1914 et seq.) Sir Douglas Mawson, The Home of the Blizzard, 2 vol. (1915) W. Filchner, Zum sechsten Erdteil (1923); Discovery Reports (1929B. Aagaard, Fangst og jorskning i Sydishavet, 5 vol. (1930- ) ) R. E. Byrd, Little America (1930), Discovery (1935; British title Antarctic Discovery) J. G. Hayes, The Conquest of the South Pole. Antarctic Exploration 1906-31 (1932) Lars Christensen, Such Is the Antarctic (1935) B.A.N.Z. Antarctic Research Expedition, 1929-1931, Reports (various dates) W. L. G. Joerg, The Topographical Results of Ellsworth's Trans-Antarctic Flight of 1935 (1936) J. Rymill, Southern Lights (1939); R. Owen, The Antarctic Ocean (1941); E. Hermann, Deutsche Forscher in Siidpolarmeer (1942); F. Debenham (ed.), The Voyage of Captain Bellingshausen to the Antarctic Seas, 1819-21, 2 vol. (1945); Finn Ronne, Antarctic Conquest (1949); Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition Interim Reports (various dates) E. W. Hunter Christie, The Antarctic Problem (1951); F. A. Simpson (ed.), The Antarctic Today (1952) Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey Scientific Reports (1953M. Barre, Blizzard, 2 vol. (1953) J. Giae) arctica its

;

;

.

.

.

;

;

;

;

;

vances after 1940 provided a means of safe access, and the fearful shrouds of the unknown and the intense cold lost their inhibiting power. This once bleak, lifeless continent teems with hundreds of men each year, wresting out the challenging problems and answers to its hidden secrets. Man will not rest until he knows the rela-

;

;

;

;

tionships of Antarctica's physical character, history, life and phenomena to those of the rest of the world. If the Antarctic treaty proves to be a further stimulus and its restrictions are not stultifying, it is reasonable to expect that well before the close of the 20th century the continent will be fully explored and well mapped both as to surface and subglacial features; the geology of most exposed mountain areas will have been studied and the mineral resources assayed; weather forecasting will become a permanent part of a world meteorological forecasting system; electromagnetic phenomena of the region will be correlated with global phenomena as well as solar and extraterrestrial space events; the flora and fauna will have been intensively studied and their distribution well mapped; the surrounding oceans will have been systematically studied as

and biological distributions; in short, the continent will be as well, if not better, understood as regions of the world enclosed by firm national boundaries, for the exchange of new knowledge will be expedited through international channels. It is also reasonable to expect that technology of travel and living will soon permit during any month of the year access to any part of the continent from any of the surrounding continents; nuclear reactors will be furnishing heat, power and water to comfortable houses and facilities of sizable communities; space satellites will be monitored and possibly launched in Antarctica; commercial air travel in the southern hemisphere will be using great circle routes to physical character

across Antarctica; colonization of a unique sort will be initiated by families under contract manning permanent meteorological, com-

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

munication and

scientific data recording centres

and outposts; and

;

;

ANTARES—ANTELOPE ver,

The White Desert,

by E. M. Huggard (1954)

trans,

;

American

Philosophical Society, Reports on Scientific Results oj the U.S. Antarctic Service Expedition 1939-1941 (1945) William Arthur Scholes, Fourteen Men (1952) Allen W. Eden, Islands oj Despair, about the Campbell and Aukland Islands (1955) Mario Marret, Seven Men Among the Penguins (1955) Eric William Kevin Walton, Two Years in the AntAntarctic Honeymoon (1956); arctic (1955); Jennie Darlington, Norman Kemp, The Conquest oj the Antarctic (1957); Jack Bursey, Peter Lancaster Brown, Twelve Came Back Antarctic Night (1957) ;

;

;

;

My

;

(1957); George J. Dufek, Operation Deepfreeze (1957); Phillip Law and John Bechervaise, AN ARE, Australia's Antarctic Outposts (1957) Walter Sullivan, Quest for a Continent (1957) Noel Barber, The White Desert (1958); Margery and James Fisher, Shackleton and the AntSir Vivian Ernest Fuchs and Sir Edmund Hillary, The arctic (1958) Crossing of Antarctica (1958) L. P. Kirwan, The White Road (1959; Alfred Lansing, EnU.S. title A History of Polar Exploration, 1960) durance: Shackleton's Incredible Voyage (1959) Philip I. Mitterling, America in the Antarctic to 1840 (1959); Paul A. Siple, 90° South (Pl. A. S.) (1959). ;

;

;

*7

he appears to have worked of the

Romanesque

Provence, and the influence Gilles is reflected both in the

initially in

sculptures of St.

"Deposition" and in his masterpiece, the sculptures of the baptistery at Parma. Antelami's principal achievement as an 'architect, the baptistery, was begun in 1 196 and appears to have been largely

completed by 1216. In the later sculptures of the baptistery and the figures of David and Ezekiel on the fagade of the cathedral of Borgo San Donnino (Fidenza), there is evidence of contacts with the early Gothic sculptures of the Ile-de-France. These contacts assume preponderant importance in Antelami's last work, the church of S. Andrea at Vercelli (founded 1219, consecrated 1225), where the archi-

;

;

;

ANTARES, a

Scorpii (a Scorpionis), the brightest star in the

constellation Scorpio (q.v.),

is

of a reddish hue and appears at

low density, situated at a distance from the solar system of around 500 light years; its diameter is of the order of 600 times that of the sun, making it one of the largest stars known. It has a faint blue comthe heart of the Scorpion.

It is a supergiant star of

panion.

St. Ived de Braisne and the Andrew" over the portal also Despite his Gothic sculpture. contains recollections of French indebtedness to France, Antelami developed a style of great individuality and occupies an unchallenged place as the greatest

tectural

scheme derives from that of

lunette of the

Italian

"Martyrdom

Romanesque

of St.

sculptor.

See G. de Francovich, Benedetto Antelami, architetto (1952).

(J.

e

W.

scultore

P.-H.)

numerous ruminant ungulates of ANTELOPE, the superfamily Bovoidea. Antelopes range in size from that of a rabbit to that of a large ox and nearly all bear horns, at least in the

name

of

ANTEATER, a term applied to several mammals that feed mainly upon ants or termites. The giant anteater or antbear {Myrmecophaga tridactyla) is the

the males.

American family Mrymecophagidae (see Edentata: Pilosa). It measures four feet in length, exclusive of the long bushy tail, the hair of which may be 16 in. long, and reaches a height of two

very large superfamily Bovoidea, which is divided into two families, the Antilocapridae, made up of a single species, the American pronghorn; and the Bovidae (q.v.), consisting of more than 50 living genera. The name antelope, however, cannot be defined exactly in zoological terms because it is applied to animals that, although superficially similar, do not form a homogeneous group. Popularly, the animals classified as the Bovoidea consist of three groups, the antelopes, containing all the animals that cannot be included in the other two, the oxen and the sheep and goats, a classification that is not in agreement with the zoological classification based on their relationships to each other.

largest representative of the tropical

Its usual

feet at the shoulder.

colour

is

It inhabits

gray-black.

the swampy savannas and humid forests of South and Central America, but is nowhere common. Characteristic features are the long tapering snout, small mouth, absence of teeth and the strong

curved

With

claws

on

fends

the

itself

(MYRMECOPHAGA

the dwellings of ants and termites, capturing the inhabitants by means of its long sticky tongue, which it extends for about nine inches and lashes

from

The female produces a single young at a birth. on the backs of the mothers the first few months

side to side.

The young

ride

bom. The tamandua anteater (Tamandua thelittle or

Antilocapra, the only living representative of the Antilocapridae, is confined to North America, but the name

"American antelope" commonly applied to it in the United States is regarded as a misnomer in view of

its

distant zoological relation-

ship to the true antelopes

tetradactyla)

is

smaller

two-toed anteater (Cyclopes didactylus)

same region, about the size of a rat and yellowish in colour. For the Cape anteater, see Aardvark; for the scaly anteater, see Pangolin; for the banded anteater, see Marsupial; and for the spiny anteater, see Monotreme and Echidna. of the

ANTECHAPEL,

the vestibule leading into a chapel (q.v.)

Bovinae.

and bison).

In some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge the antechapel is carried north and south constituting a western transept the end of the chapel, across west

sicerotini contain the

Sometimes the transept and a short nave make up the antechapel; the antechapel may even form a portion of the main chapel itself. (J. J. Pn.)

the

to college chapels in Great Britain.

or narthex.

architecture

ing at the eaves each

row

the

vertical

blocks

terminat-

of the covering tiles of a roof in a

building and forming a crest along the cornice; sometimes also set as a crest on the ridge. They were often decorated with the anthemion (q.v.) ornament, and made of tile or marble. (active after 1178), the pre-

classic

ANTELAMI, BENEDETTO

eminent Italian architect and sculptor of his time, is named for the first time in an inscription on a relief of the "Deposition" dated 1178 in the right transept of Parma cathedral. Of Lombard origin,

— The

groups of antelopes among the Bovidae are the tribes Strepsicerotini and Boselaphini of the subfamily Bovinae, both closely related to the Bovini (oxen, buf-

first

faloes

in

(see

THE BOVIDAE Subfamily

and performing the same function for it that the narthex (q.v.) performs for a church. The term seems to be largely restricted

ANTEFIX,

form the

The pronghorn

and arboreal, inhabiting the forests of South and Central America. is

fairly closely re-

Pronghorn).

after they are

Also arboreal

all

THE ANTILOCAPRIDAE

it

holes in

tears

antelopes, sheep, goats and oxen are

forefeet.

not only de- GIANT ANTEATER effectively but also tridactyla)

the latter

The

lated to each other and, together with the pronghorn,

Strepsicerotini.

and

their allies

—The

Strep-

bushbucks

and include some

of the largest antelopes, such as

kudu and eland.

large- or

They

are

medium-sized antelopes

with spirally twisted horns present only in the males. The bush-MALE PRONGHORN ANTEbucks, including the harnessed lope (antilocapra americanaj antelope (Tragelaphus scriptus), are frequently brilliantly coloured, the body being rich chestnut or orange-brown with a white nasal chevron and longitudinal and transverse stripes on the body. They are widely distributed over forested Africa south of the Sahara and extend to the Cape. The nyala (T. angasi) is a much larger species, the male with larger

horns and a mantle of long hair on the sides. The male

is

blackish in

ANTELOPE colour, the female a dark chestnut, and both are marked with Nyala are restricted to a small like those of the bushbuck. T. buxtoni) is area in southeastern Africa. The mountain nyala the largest member of the genus, standing nearly as high as the kudu. It i> grayish-brown in colour. This tine species lives on the


OH

-CsHnO,

OH A comparison of the composition of the flavones and flavonols with that of the anthocyanidins discloses a simple relation. Cyand one CI more than anidin chloride, C 15 n 6 Cl. is just one Cyanidin chloride is not, however, luteolin luteolin. C 15 10 O 6 hydrochloride, although the relation between the substances is very close, and on treatment with hot aqueous alkali, cyanidin and .

These have the benzene if the former is based on

luteolin give identical fission products.

rings intact so that cyanidin

and

luteolin.

the flavone ring system, can differ only in the pyrone ring portion

In accordance w-ith modern conceptions, the formation of ammonium chloride from ammonia and hydrogen chloride involves the passage of the positively charged hydrogen atom (proton) to the ammonia, forming a positively of the molecular structure.

charged complex.

This leaves a negatively charged chlorine atom

(electron).

The

process

may

+

C15H10O7 HCl Quercetin

H

H

H

OH O Evidently if it were possible to remove the oxygen in position 4 in the presence of HC1 it would be possible to convert the flavonols into the anthocyanidins as shown in the example and the close

be represented by the scheme:

NH3

and HC1 -»

NH

+ 4

}

Cl

+H

2

CisHnOeCl

+ H2O

Cyanidin chloride

two groups would thus be Actually the transformation is most difficult to effect, and although numerous workers claim to have been successful, the experimental control has not always been satisfactory. An early authentic example is furnished by the work of Willstatter relationship of the individuals in the

established.

and Heinrich Mallison who converted quercetin into cyanidin chloride by means of magnesium in methyl-alcoholic aqueous hydrochloric acid solution. The yield was very poor, since most of the quercetin underwent a different transformation. It seems probable that in the living plant the anthocyanins and anthoxanthins represent end-products obtained by divergent processes from a common substance. Nevertheless, it is known that genetic factors that govern the hydroxylation pattern of the anthocyanins also exert a corresponding control on the structures of the noncyanic pigments. In the early 1960s little was known about

_

the final stages of anthocyanin formation. Similarly, the pyrone salts are formed by the proton of the acid passing to an oxygen atom, and luteolin hydrochloride can be formulated on the probable assumption that the proton combines

with oxygen in position

4.

0H

£.'

wallflowers,

y\/-°H OH OH

CI

Cyanidin chloride 1

was suggested by, has been conclusively

rather than deduced from, these facts, but it proved to be correct by the synthesis of the pigment.

—OH

similarly constructed, but lacks the group in posiwhile delphinidin chloride contains an additional group in position 5'. Pelargonidin chloride and delphinidin chloride tion

is

3',

have also been

artificially

The formulas

—OH

prepared.

of the three anthocyanidins (chlorides) are given

as follows. CI

HO-

w

~ ^— OH

CI

Ho-/y\/ CI

V-V 'I

A-OH

3

OH

Peonidin chloride

The sugar residue is frequently attached to position 3 in both anthoxanthins and anthocyanins. The second sugar residue of the dimonoglycosides usually occupies position 5, a position that is only rarely occupied by a sugar in the anthoxanthins. It is generally recognized that the diglycosides in both series contain disaccharide units. That is, the attachment involves only one OH group of the anthocyanidin. One anthocyanin, callistephin from the aster, has been artificially prepared and in this substance the sugar is beyond question in position 3.

— '-° h

V

OH

OH

HO

Pelargonidin

OCH

HO

Y H_/- OH

constitution figured for cyanidin chloride

chloride

O.CH,

OH

Luteolin hydrochloride

The

—OCH

from the peony, and isorhamnetin, the anthoxanthin from yellow may be compared. Both have been synthesized.

VVA\-

HO-

In favour of the hypothesis that anthocyanins are formed by the may be counted the circumstance that, so far as is known, the groups such as 3 and sugar groups that are attached to the fundamental chemical nuclei often occupy corresponding positions in the anthoxanthins and anthocyanins e.g., the formulas of peonidin chloride, the anthocyanidin direct reduction of flavones

OH

,o^A^-° h ;-oh

OH These may be compared with certain flavonols expressed sim-

XX);O O— HO

0H

CeHnOs

Callistephin chloride

Betanin, responsible for the red colour of beets,

is

an unusual

ANTHOLOGY nitrogenous anthocyanin, but little is known about its structure, and the way in which nitrogen is combined in the molecule is still not known. Further study is necessary to support even the supposition that betanin is antho-

27 \

It is often called a

substance.

Y

HO

CH I

V

cyanin-like in structure.

Chemical

Reactions.

Amyl

Alcohol-Dilute Hydrochloric Acid Distribution Ratio. The anthocyanidins, the monoglycosidic anthocyanins and the diglycosidic anthocyanins can be roughly distinguished by their behaviour in the presence of a mixture of amyl alcohol and very dilute hydrochloric acid. The anthocy-

—

amyl alcohol layer; the diglycosidic in the aqueous layer, unless one of

anidins pass completely to the

anthocyanins remain largely the sugar groups is rhamnose, when the behaviour tends to be monoglycosidic; and the monoglycosides distribute themselves more evenly between the two layers. Anthocyanins or anthocyanidins with Ferric Chloride Reaction. free OH groups in positions 3' and 4' (e.g., cyanidin and delphinidin) give an intense blue coloration in alcoholic solution on the addition of ferric chloride. The colour becomes violet on the addi-

—

—

tion of water.

The

from cyanidin exnot attached to posi-

fact that all the anthocyanins derived

hibit this reaction

proves that the sugar

is

and 4' in any of them. Characteristic colour reactions were developed for anthocyanins and anthoxanthins. Other metal ions, e.g., aluminum, give similar colour changes. Colour Bases and Pseudobases. In most cases the addition of sodium acetate to an aqueous solution of an anthocyanin or anthocyanidin produces a violet or purple precipitate of a colour base. Again, the addition of water to an alcoholic solution of cyanidin chloride causes the slow separation of the colour base in a form tions 3'

—

Addition of acid repro-

exhibiting a characteristic green colour.

duces the cyanidin salt. These colour bases have been more closely investigated in other They absorb water, related series and have a quinonoid nature. giving colourless compounds also convertible by acids to the anthocyanin salts, and these so-called pseudo bases are often formed on

I

OH Melacacidin

Genistein

Leucoanthocyanidins. these are of

known

be remarked that is

known.

Some

a

of

structures, while the constitution of others

I

substance.

See also Plant Coloration; Chlorophyll, Chemistry of;

Pigment, Animal.

—

Bibliography. A. G. Perkin and A. E. Everest, The Natural Organic Colouring Matters (1918) M. W. Onslow, Anthocyanin Pigments of H. Rupe and M. Schaerer, "Flavone, Flavonone, ;

Plants, 2nd ed. (1925)

;

und Xanthone,

gelbe Blutenfarbstoffe," in J. Springer, Pflanzenanalyse, III2 (1932) P. Karrer, "Anthocyane," der Pflanzenanalyse, III2 (1932) ; K. P. Link, "The Anthocyanins and the Flavones," in H. Gilman et al., Organic F. Mayer, Chemistry of Natural Chemistry, vol. ii, 2nd ed. (1943) Coloring Matters, trans, and rev. by A. H. Cook (1943) T. Geissraan in Modern Methods of Plant Analysis, ed. by K. Paech and M. Tracey, F. Blank in Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, ed. by vol. iii (1955) (R. Rob.; F. P. Z.; T. A. G.) W. Ruhland, vol. x (1958).

Isoflavone

Handbuch der

;

Handbuch

in J. Springer,

;

;

;

ANTHOLOGY, from

a collection of short pieces or extracts usu-

different authors, especially in verse,

An anthology may

and usually of most

consist of the best or the

representative work of given national groups (Edith Sitwell. ed.. The Atlantic Book of British and American Poetry, 1958; Louis Untermeyer, ed.. The Britannica Library of Great American Writ-

(Norman

ing, 1960), of a period

HO

may

1

anthocyanin

OH

it

remains to be established. It is a curious fact that the natural leucoanthocyanidins whose structures are known, such as melacacidin, give rise, upon treatment with strong acids, to anthocyanidins For instance, melacacidin gives an that do not occur naturally. isomer of cyanidin, 3,3',4',7,8-pentahydroxyflavylium chloride The leucoanthocyanins and leucoanthocyanidins that give perlargonidin, cyanidin and delphinidin are known to occur in plants, but none of these leucoanthocyanins has been isolated as a pure

literary value.

OH

— Finally

class of substances called leucoanthocyanidins

ally

Decolorization of the solutions of natural pigments and subsequent reappearance of the colour was a puzzling phenomenon encountered by some of the earlier workers in the group.

VCH

HO

the great dilution of the aqueous or alcoholic solutions of the salts.

CHOH

"%_•'-OH

Ault. ed.. Elizabethan Lyrics,

1949), of a school of poetry (Amy Lowell, ed.. Some Imagist Poets, 1915, 1916, 1917 or of a literary kind (The Best American Short Stories, annual since 1915), and occasionally of an author (Harry Levin, ed.. The Portable James Joyce, 1947); or it may )

\/° i

OH

I

HO

Y

OH

Cyanidin pseudobase

(deep violet)

(colourless)

—

Catechin. It remains to be added that anthocyanins and anthoxanthins have a close relation to certain colourless plant constitamong uents, and these catechin occupies an important position.

K. Freudenberg showed that both quercetin and cyanidin on treatment with hydrogen and a catalyst yield one of the naturally occurring catechins shown in the following structure.

HO

HO OH

(

Blair, ed.,

Cyanidin colour-base

CI

Walter all related to a given theme or subject Native American Humor, 1S00-1900, 1937) or taken from a particular periodical (Edward Weeks and Emily Flint, eds., Annual Jubilee: One Hundred Years of the Atlantic, 1957 1. publishers' lists demonstrate the enduring popularity of this longadaptable convenient and established form which serves as a framework into which can be fitted a variety of material. Some anthologies have considerable literary significance in themselves, an example being Tottel's Miscellany (1557), in which were published for the first time the major poems of Sir Thomas Wyat and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey; some are historically significant as reflecting or forming the taste of their age, as Francis Palgrave's Golden Treasury (1861), a well-known Victorian anthology; and some have preserved works that might otherwise have been lost (for examples in Arabic literature see Ham AS ah; Mu'allaqat Mufaddaliyat; and most of the Middle English lyric poetry now extant survived in collections of one kind or consist of pieces

OH

HO

OH

v\

;

HO

modern times new and unknown writers, as

another).

HO dl-Epicatechin

Cyanidin chloride

series,

In

anthologies often serve to introduce Five Young American Poets (three

in

1940, 1941, 1944) and similar works which appear

from

In the course of his experiments on catechin Freudenberg had occasion to observe the wandering of the right-hand benzene ring

time to time.

from position

noted a garland or collection of flowers (Gr. anthologia, Lat. florilegium), and hence a selection of choice pieces tastefully arranged, as in the Garland of Meleager which formed the basis This is for the best known of anthologies, the Greek Anthology.

It is

2 to position 3. therefore interestingto note that genistein, an anthoxanthin

of dyer's-broom (Genista tinctoria) the following structure:

was

definitely

proved to have

The "Greek Anthology."

—The term anthology

originally de-

ANTHOLOGY

28

in the title of a collection of Greek epigrams, mostly interest, elegiac couplet, together with some other pieces of lesser of history The later. or 1000 to a.d. B.C. from about 700

the

modem

Meleager's Garland, the Anthology is a history of anthologies. compiled in the early part of the 1st century B.C., contained, beother sides a number of his own epigrams, the work of SO or more poets from the earliest period to his own day; this is incorporated into the part.

A

modern Anthology and

in all, its most valuable was compiled by Philippus and a third, which for the first

is,

all

similar Garland of later poets

of Thessalonica (1st century a.d.),

time was called an Anthology, by Diogenianus (2nd century). The poems in each of these collections were arranged alphabetically by the initial letter of the opening line. The first collection in which the poems were arranged by subject was the Circle of Agathias (later 6th century), to which the compiler contributed some poems of his own and of others "a small portion, enough All of these anthologies were incorporated into a for a taste." larger collection by Constantinus Cephalas (late 9th century), who added to them extracts from the works of single authors. Shortly thereafter (around a.d. 980) the Cephalas version was further this revision (discovered in 1606-07 in the library of the elector palatine at Heidelberg and known as the Palatine manuscript) constitutes the first IS books of the An-

augmented and revised;

thology in modern editions. The 16th and final book in modern some additions from yet another manuscript version of Cephalas (the Planudean manuscript), compiled in 1301 and containing some epigrams not included in the Palatine editions consists of

manuscript.

The value of the Anthology lies in the distinction and charm For the rest, it preserves a of perhaps one-sixth of the whole. good deal that is of historical interest; it illustrates the continuity of Greek letters for almost 2,000 years, since the works of the latest period are in language, style and feeling not too distinct from the works of the earliest; and it has had a persist-

There are, ent and considerable influence on later literature. for example, translations and imitations in Latin from the time of Quintus Lutatius Catulus (early 1st century B.C.) to the time

and epigrams ascribed to Seneca and Petronius; in modern it is augmented by other fugitive Latin verse and titled Anthologia Latina (eds., Alexander Riese, Franz Bucheler and Lommatzsch, 1894—1926). However, anthologies similar to Stobaeus' were common throughout the middle ages and furnished the medieval author with the greater part of his learning. These florilegia consisted of extracts, usually from classical authors, of Similar collecstriking sayings, most often of an ethical nature. tions are found in the vernacular: Proverbs of Diverse Prophets and of Poets and of Other Saints (c. 1375) contains sayings in Latin, French and English attributed to Seneca and Solomon, (q.v.)

editions

among

others. The culmination of this type is the Renaissance anthology of Desiderius Erasmus, the Adagia (1500-33). Collections of later lyrics, often anonymous and belonging usually to a certain school of poetry, are represented in the middle ages by the Carmina Burana (13th century), a collection of rhymed poems in Latin by the Goliards (q.v.), or wandering scholars; and by manuscript Harley 2253 (c. 1320), an important collection of the early Middle English period, containing English, French, Latin and macaronic poems. The Renaissance was a great age for anthologies of lyric poetry. Among the best-known collections in English are the Book of Songs and Sonnets published by Richard Tottel in 1557 and usually referred to as Tottel's Miscellany; and England's Helicon (1600), containing poems by Spenser, Sidney, Greene, Lodge and Shakespeare. The anthology that explicitly presents a certain school or group of poets is represented in Germany by Julius Wilhelm Zincgref's Anhang unterschiedlicher aussgesuchter Gedichten, printed as a supplement to

Martin Opitz's poems (1624). A later example in French is the famous Le Parnasse contemporain (1866, 1871-76). Such anthologies of a contemporary school of poets are quite common and sometimes appear as special issues of a magazine. The usual anthology in the 18th century was either such a Collection of Poems by Several Hands (1748-58) as Robert Dodsley's

his edition of

of

or a selection of "beauties" or "elegant extracts," as in Oliver Goldsmith's The Beauties of English Poesy (1767). In the same century appeared the first collections of popular or folk poetry, the best known being Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English

century

Poetry (1765).

Decimus Magnus Ausonius and Claudius Claudianus (late 4th The modern influence begins with the publication a.d.). of the Planudean manuscript in 1494. For the next century and a half there were countless versions and variations of Greek epigrams in Latin; those of Hugo Grotius (1583— 1645) are generally regarded as the best. The influence on the vernacular literatures, especially on Italian and French, was most extensive in the period from 1S50 to 1610; it usually came, however, not directly from the Greek text but by way of the contemporary poetry in Latin which was based on the Anthology. Thus Joachim du Bellay's (1522-60) Voeu d'un vanneur de bles aux vents was derived from a Latin version by the Venetian Andrea Navagero (1483-1529) In the criticism of the time the vernacular sonnet and madrigal were often considered the equivalents of the epigram in Greek and Latin so that the theory of the lyric became largely a theory of the epigram. With the development in the 17th and 18th centuries of a taste for the point and wit represented by the Latin epigrammatist Martial, the influence of the Anthology declined; in fact, the expression a la grecque, with of Anthology 6:53.

to the unpointed epigram characteristic of the Anthology, became proverbial for something insipid and pointless. There was a revival of interest in the Anthology in the 19th century, but later there were a number of translations and imitations of particular poems. Modern renderings into English include those of Dudley Fitts whose Poems from the Greek Anthology in English Paraphrase (1956) incorporates two of his collections

reference

As the title indicates, the treatment is free, poems are extraordinarily effective. Later Anthologies. Other works of the nature of anthologies

published

and

many

earlier.

of the Fitts

—

existed in antiquity; a late example

is the Selections of Joannes Stobaeus (5th century a.d.), which consists of a number of exIn Latin there tracts in prose and verse, grouped under topics. is nothing quite comparable to the Greek Anthology, although the Salmasian manuscript, compiled in Africa in the 6th century, is It contains the Pervigilium Veneris of the same general type.

The poems

typical

modern anthology

in the sense of a collection of

of a given period or nation selected for their excellence

and representativeness seems to be an invention of the Latin Renaissance. The best-known examples are Jan Gruter's Delitiae of the Italian, French, German and Belgian Latin poets (1608-14). the 19th century this sort of anthology begins to be arranged on chronological principles, showing the historical scope and development of a literature, and the works often include essays of a critical or historical nature: for example, Thomas Campbell's Specimens of the British Poets (1819). The standard anthology of lyric poetry in the Victorian period, Francis Turner Palgrave's Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics (1861) (which, unlike Campbell and others, is divided into books by subject), It fixed the educated taste for the lyric for several generations. was superseded in general favour by Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch's The Oxford Book of English Verse (1900 and 1939) a companion volume, The Oxford Book of American Verse, ed. by F. O. Matthiessen (1950), is considered an excellent collection of AmerAmong other 20th-century anthologies of poetry ican poetry. The New Poetry (1917; rev. and enlarged, 1932), edited by Harriet Monroe (q.v.) and A. C. Henderson, may be mentioned for its historical importance and Robert Bridges' The Spirit of Man There are similar an(1916) for the excellence of its taste. thologies in nearly every language. In fact, the general scope and kinds of modern anthologies can be indicated by an enumeration of the standard Oxford books of verse. There are books of English, American, Australasian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Greek, Latin and medieval Latin verse, among others; books of ballads, carols, Christian verse and light verse; and, finally, books of the 16th-century verse, 17th and so on to modern verse.

With

;

Bibliography.— The Greek Anthology is edited by W. R. Paton with and a good English translation, S vol. (1916-18), and in French by Jules Maxime Pierre Waltz, incomplete (1928). The best selection text

ANTHONY—ANTHOZOA Vi kail, \\ introduction is l,\ with text, translation and Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology (1890, rev. 1907). Scholars use Stadtmuller's unfinished edition (1894-1906) and the complete edition of Fricdrich Diibner and Edme Cougy, pub. by Didot (1864-92). For the influence of the Anthology see James Hutton, The Greek I" thology in Italy to the Year 1800 (1935) and The Greek Anthology in France, and in the Latin Writers of the Netherlands to the Year 1S00 Charles Homer Haskins, The Renaissance of the Twelfth (1946). Century (1927), gives some account of medieval anthologies. Useful bibliographies are Frederic I.achere, Bibliographic des recueils collectifs dc poisies publies de 1597 a 1700 (1901), and Anthologies, Bibliography No. 1". National Book Council (1928). (J. V. C; X.)

excellent

ANTHONY the

first

I

Christian

1,

I

Antony), SAINT, of Egypt (c. a.d. 250-355), monk, was born in middle Egypt. At the age life, and after 15 years withto a mountain by the Nile, called Pispir (now

of 20 he began to practise an ascetic

drew for solitude

Memum

In the early years of the 4th century he emerged monastic life of the hermits who imitated him. After a time he again withdrew to the mountain stands the monastery that bears his where now Red sea, by the name (Der Mar Antonios). Shortly before his death he ventured to Alexandria to preach against Arianism. Anthony is noted for his combats with the hosts of evil. Athanasius says that he was first tempted by thoughts of family joys and duties and of the difficulty of his chosen life, but the Devil, finding argument of no avail and hoping to arouse in him the pride of success, appeared as a cringing black boy admitting that he had been defeated by the saint. At other times the Devil appeared under the guise of a monk bringing him bread during his fasts,

Der

al

from

)

.

his retreat to organize the

or under the form of wild beasts, women or soldiers, sometimes beating the saint and leaving him as dead. From these psychic struggles Anthony emerged as the sane and

monachism. The monastic rule that name was compiled from writings and discourses attributed to him in the Life (by Athanasius and the Apophthegmata Patrum. The rule is still observed by a number of Coptic Syrian

sensible father of Christian

bears his

1

and Armenian monks. St. Anthony's feast day is Jan. 17. See Monasticism. Bibliography. The Greek Vita Antonii is among the works of St.

—

Athanasius; for the almost contemporary Latin trans, see Rosweyd's Vitae Patrum, in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. Lxxiii; English Accounts trans, by R. T. Meyer, "Ancient Christian Writers" (1950). of St. Anthony are given by J. H. Newman, Church of the Fathers (1931), and Butler-Thurston, Lives of the Saints (1956). Discussions of the historical and critical questions will be found in E. C. Butler, Lausiac History of Palladius, part i, pp. 197, 215-228, part ii, pp. 9-12 For (1898, 1904); and Contzen, Die Regel des hi. Antonius (1S96). the modern literature, see J. Quasten, Patrology, vol. iii (1960). (E. R. Hy.)

ANTHONY

(Antony), SAINT, of Padua (1195-1231), Franciscan friar and saint, a doctor of the church, was born at At 15 he joined the Lisbon. Port., and baptized Ferdinand. Augustinian canons and probably became a priest. He joined the preach to the Saracens and Franciscan order in 1220. hoping to be martyred. Instead he taught theology at Bologna, Montpellier. Toulouse and Puy-en-Velay and won a great reputation as a preacher in southern France and Italy. After an attack of dropsy, he died June 13, 1231, at Arcella. en route to Padua, where he is buried. He was canonized by Gregory IX on May 30, 1232, his feast being kept on June 13. On Jan. 16, 1946, Pius XII declared him a doctor of the church. Padua and Portugal claim him as patron saint. In art he is shown with a book, with a heart, flame or

or with the Child Jesus.

lily,

Among his

authentic writings are sermons for Sundays and feast days, published at Padua, 1895-1913. A series of sermons on the Psalms is considered doubtful; several others are attributed to

him without foundation. Bibliography. R. M. Huber, St. Anthony of Padua: a Critical Study (104S); M. Farnum, 5/. Anthony of Padua: His Life and Miracles (1948) X. Painting and M. Dav, St. Anthony: the Man Who Found

—

;

Himself (1957) Sophronius Clasen, Eng. trans, bv I. Bradv (1961). ;

St.

Anthony, Doctor of the Gospel, (I.

ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL

C. By.)

(1820-1906), pioneer United States, was born on Feb. 15. 1820, at Adams, Mass. Her work helped to pave 1920) to the the way for the adoption of the 19th amendment federal constitution and the world-wide recognition of human

leader of the

women's

suffrage

movement

in the

(

29

She taught school, organized temperance societies and. after 1854, devoted From In life to the antislavery movement and woman's rights. 1856 to the American Civil War she served as an agent for the Elizabeth with collaboration society. In American Antislavery Cady Stanton (q.v.) she published in New York a liberal weekly, 868-70). Demanding for women the same civil The Revolution and political rights extended to male Negroes by the 14th and 15th amendments, she claimed her right to vote as a person and citizen in 1872. She was arrested, tried and convicted, but refused to pay From then on she campaigned for a federal women's the fine. suffrage amendment through the National Woman Suffrage association (1869-90 I, through the National American association C 890— 1906), and by lecturing throughout the United States. With her close associates she compiled and published a four-volume work, The History of Woman Suffrage (1881-1902). In 1888 she organized the International Council of Women and in 1904 the She died in Rochester, International Woman Suffrage alliance. rights expressed in the charter of the

United Nations.

i

i

I

1

March

N.Y.,

13, 1906.

See Alma Lutz, Susan B. Anthony, Rebel, Crusader, Humanitarian (1959) Ida Husted Harper, The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony, (A. Lu.) 1S98). 3 vol. ;

I

ANTHOZOA

(i.e.,

"flower animals"), a group of marine ani-

phylum Coelenterata. Many of them form a strong skeleton known as coral. The term "coral" refers to the hard parts of any coelenterate that secretes a firm skeletal support; most of these forms are Anthozoa, and among them the term "true coral" is applied only to the group Scleractinia. The flower-

mals belonging

to the

like shape and brilliant colouring of the soft parts of many species have attracted attention for hundreds of years, and the discovery

that they are animals instead of plants, minerals or intermediate

organizations did not gain acceptance until long after

made,

in

A

lacking in the sea anemones, and, although

present

than not, sarily

it

was

first

connection with the precious red coral of commerce, by

J. A. de Peyssonel in 1727. Not all the Anthozoa produce a skeleton.

among

it is

the other kinds of Anthozoa

form a mass

sufficiently

compact

it

hard support

is

more often

does not neces-

to retain its shape after

the death of the soft parts.

An anthozoan may a sea a

consist of a single polyp as in the case of

anemone; but more frequently

number

a colony

is

of polyps permanently united; and

formed, containing it

is

the skeletons

up by certain of these colonies that constitute coral in its For a definition of polyp see Polyp see also Coelenterata: Polyp and Medusa. The Anthozoa as a class are distinguished from all other

built

characteristic form.

(

;

Coelenterata not only by the structure of the individual polyps but also in that none of them at any time during their life history assumes the form of a medusa (jellyfish). The anthozoan individual or colony therefore corresponds to the polyp of any

medusa alternately durThe anthozoan polyps themselves, though often small, tend to be more muscular and substantial than those of other coelenterates. They are characterized by a body that in coelenterate that exhibits both polyp and ing

its life

principle

cycle.

is

a cylinder,

The upper

closed above and below by two

discs

by a corona of hollow tentacles and is perforated in the centre by a more or Leading inward from the mouth is a less slit-shaped mouth. flattened tube, the throat, which opens directly into the main cavity of the body (coelenteron). The latter cavity is partially subdivided into alcoves by a series of radially arranged membranous partitions, the mesenteries, some or all of which are inof tissue.

disc or peristome

is

encircled

serted along the upper part of their inner edge into the outer wall of the throat. The mesenteries bear along their free edge a mar-

known as the mesenterial filament; they also carry reproductive organs and muscles. The number and arrangement of the mesenteries as well as the structure of the throat, mesenteries and filaments vary from one group of Anthozoa (See Coelenterata: Structure of a Coelenterate.) to another. The symmetry of the anthozoan body presents to the casual observer an external radial appearance similar to that exhibited

ginal thickening of epithelium

by the Coelenterata

in general.

Underlying

this external

sym-

ANTHOZOA

3°

(2) the Ceriantipatharia (including cerian-

naria or Octocorals;

anemones and the Antipatharia or sea whips); and (3) the The latter include the Actiniaria (sea anemones), the Scleractinia or madreporarian corals and some obscure groups of solitary and colonial forms resembling sea anemones. In this article only the important groups of Alcyonaria, Actiniaria and thid

Zoantharia.

Scleractinia are described.

ALCYONARIA The Alcyonaria

contrast sharply with the Zoantharia.

narians almost invariably construct colonies;

their

Alcyopolyps are

usually small and extremely uniform in general structure; in this

ZOANTHID

ANTIPATHARIAN

CERIANTHID

—

TRANSVERSE SECTIONS OF VARIOUS ANTHOZOAN POLYPS SHOWING FiG THE ARRANGEMENT OF MESENTERIES AND ZONES OF GROWTH ,

Outer circle .represents the body wall; thickening on body wall indicates growth Radial 2one. Central oval is the throat, with siphonoglyphs indicated as bays. lines represent the mesenteries, the thickening on each being its retractor

an internal bilateral symmetry so well denned that it is actually possible to divide a polyp into two perfectly equivaMuch discussion has been aroused lent halves along one plane. by this fact since there is no obvious function for such symmetry. A possible explanation is that the Anthozoa were not always the There sedentary, radially arranged creatures they are today. may have been a phase in their history when they were small creeping animals with definite head and tail ends, upper and lower sides and general bilateral symmetry. When such animals adopted a sedentary life and assumed a radial symmetry, the former bilateral condition would remain as a vestige of the former state of affairs. The bilateral arrangement of parts is very prominent

metry

exists

during the early development of a polyp. An important fact in the development of many Anthozoa is that the wall of the cylindrical body appears to become marked out, after the early stages are passed, into vertical strips, in some of which active differentiation of new parts (or growth direction)

takes place; in other zones no

new

parts are added after a stated

they are unlike the polyps of either of the other large series of forms. Diversity among the Alcyonaria therefore affects not so much the individual as the colony; and the colonies constructed vary most extensively in form, structure and mode of development. A skeleton sufficiently resistant to retain its shape after the death of the colony is often developed; in other cases either part or the whole of the colony relies for support upon large

numbers of minute calcareous bodies, which abound in its tissues and are known as spicules. Thus, the Alcyonaria include a number of creatures that produce coral. They are a group of corals that in the main inhabit coastal waters down to 550 fathoms. In general, the great depths of the sea as well as temperature salinity limit their occurrence. Their centre of distribution the Indo-Pacific littoral; they form an important element in

and is

coral reefs.

A and

typical alcyonarian polyp

they are pinnate.

Down

ridges or lamellae of mesogloea.

known

as a retractor.

By

in a transverse section.

The

and consist of an

away from lie in its

the edge of the animal's base in such a

centre, the piece will in

many

way

that

cases regenerate an

animal with two heads instead of one. A similar piece containing no directives will regenerate an ordinary one-headed adult. There are three subclasses of living Anthozoa: (1) the AlcyoTENTACLES EPIDERMIS

-

MESOGLOEA GASTRODERMIS SEPTAL RETRACTOR-

MUSCLE

SEPTUM

FIG. 2.

— ALCYONARIA

(left) expanded polyp, (right) contracted polyp; cross section through the pharyngeal region, showing septal

is

The function

of these filaments

epithelial cord containing

many

is

cir-

glandular cells;

The six last-mentioned filaments are digestive organs. mesenteries also contain concentrations of sex cells (gonads). The eggs of Alcyonaria usually develop into free-swimming larvae called planulae, which in due course settle down either upon a hard support or in sand or mud, become transformed into polyps and by budding begin to construct a colony. The process of budding is peculiar, however, in that no bud is produced directly from a polyp itself; the polyps give off hollow rootlike these

by endoderm and are known as solenia, and from these the new buds arise. The Alcyonaria offer almost the only examples to be found among the Anthozoa of the phenomenon known as polymorphism (see Hydrozoa: Polymorphism) In certain alcyonarian colonies there are two kinds of polyps: the nutritive ones such as those already described and another kind known as a siphonozooid. These latter are polyps whose parts structures that are lined

more or less reduced, with the exception of the siphonoglyph, which is large and strongly ciliated. These individuals create water currents that circulate through the system of solenial canals penetrating the colony. In cases where a single original polyp becomes transformed into the axis of a colony this constitutes a

SIPHONOGLYPH

(A) Clavularia,

muscle

are

PHARYNX

nium,

strip of

filaments of the other six mesenteries are shorter

culatory.

cut

The whole

their contraction these muscles pull the

upper parts of the polyp downward and inward. Each mesentery also possesses a filament, but the filaments of all the mesenteries Those that belong to the two mesenteries farthest from the siphonoglyph are long. Each has a groove along its free edge; the groove is lined by cells with long cilia; it is Y-shaped

The axis of symmetry sometimes possesses a distinct significance with regard to the regeneration of parts of an adult polyp.

axis

one angle of the flattened throat runs

possesses a special strip of muscle down one side; the fibres in the strip run in a longitudinal direction and are supported by

prevails.

the lower ends of the two directive mesenteries that flank the

simpler in structure

by strongly ciliated epithelium. This is the siphonoglyph, and it creates a downward current of water into the There are eight mesenteries, which coelenteron of the polyp. alternate in position with the eight tentacles. Each mesentery

in which only a certain amount of differentiation In other cases no new growth takes place after the early stages, and here a simpler plan of structure consequently

In the sea anemone this axis coincides with a nongrowing zone; and if in a suitable anemone a fragment of reasonable size is

is

a groove lined

are not alike.

will take place.

2)

less variable

amount of structure has been formed (fig. 1). In various groups of Anthozoa the arrangement of the mesenteries in the adult polyp depends on the relationship between the zones of active growth and those

(fig.

from one genus to another than most other Anthozoa. It possesses eight, and only eight, tentacles, and these are feathered by a paired series of lateral branches on each; i.e., is

further differentiation of individuals. (B) Alcyoarrangement

The

living Alcyonaria are divided into six orders,

structure and

mode

and since the

of formation of the colonies are different in

ANTHOZOA

3

the Gorgonacea and Pennatulacea, these are described separately from the other four orders.

Orders Alcyonacea, Stolonifera, Telestacea and CoenoThe numerous Alcyonaria that belong t6 these orders possess this in common: although the colonies that they form are thecalia.

1

polyps and on the external surface of the mass connecting these; the inner parts consist of

—

extremely various, there is never an axial skeleton forming a central support. A conception of the colony-forming activities of

mesogloea with solenia ramifying through it and connecting the deeper parts the of polyps with each other. New polyps

the polyps can be gained only by the study of a series of

arise

colonies.

Fig.

3-5

will serve to illustrate the following

ai

tual

remarks.

the

(solenia) arising

laria.

from

tirely of scattered spicules; these

occur not only in the mesogloea of the massive portion of the colony but also in the projecting upper ends of the polyps, which

their bases.

exists in

Somewhat more

Cornu-

elaborate

are retractile into the solid part.

are colonies such as those of cer-

which the meshes of the network of solenia have been filled up by solid mesogloea, and the network of rootlets has been converted into a continuous mat with ramifying endodermal tubes inside it and a cover of ectoderm outside it both above and below. In tain species of Clavularia in

PORTION OF SKELETON OF FIG. 3. PIPE CORAL (TUBIPORA HUSICAl (ABOUT NATURAL SIZE)

ORGAN

neither of these colonies

is

there

any firm skeleton; the support

simply of an external horny layer covering the rootlets and the lower parts of the polyps consists

(Cornularia) or spicules (Clavularia). A different grade of organization appears in certain genera whose polyps tend to grow very tall and not unduly close to one another. In such a case bridges containing solenia may grow across from one polyp to another well above the level of the This process goes a stage bases of the polyps (Clavularia). further in Tubipora.

In this the polyps become inordinately long

and narrow and diverge from one another as they grow up; and instead of throwing out isolated bridges across the gaps between them, they develop a series of platelike horizontal platforms that run at intervals one above the other across the colony. These platforms consist of mesogloea containing solenia and are covered externally by ectoderm. From each successive platform new polyps arise. The original polyps grow upward until a considerable number of platforms have been formed; they then stop, the polyps continuing the colony. Tubipora, while it is living, produces a skeleton composed of firmly compacted spicules in the mesogloea of the polyps and platforms. The tentacles of the polyps are sometimes bright green, while the skeleton is crimson; after the death of the soft parts the skeleton remains as a brightly coloured mass of tubes, often of considerable

size,

and

is

known

as organ-pipe coral.

Colonies of different types are

colony grows.

In this instance the skeleton consists en-

tached to a foreign surface and connected with one another simply by a few creeping rootlets

Such a condition

from solenia at various between the old ones, as

levels

In the simplest colonies (order Stolonifera) the polyps are at-

COLONY OF TELESTO SANGUINEA GROWING ON A PEBBLE. (HEIGHT OF AXIAL POLYP ABOUT

FIG. 5.

The common British Alcyonium is known as "dead men's fingers" from the suggestive appearance

colony when water or stranded by the tide on the undersides of overhanging rocks. Its appearance when under water with the transparent glassy polyps presented by

4.5 CM.)

removed

fully

expanded

is

as delicate

and beautiful

the

from

the

as its retracted state is

repulsive.

Treelike branching colonies (order Telestacea) of other Alcyo-

nacea may be produced in more than one way. In Telesto, for example, lateral polyps are budded off from solenia lying in the walls of single original polyps, which become extremely elongated (fig. 5). Since each secondary polyp grows out at an angle from its parent and itself produces further lateral polyps, it constitutes in time a branch of the main stem formed by the original polyp. A number of such branching systems may be connected with one another by basal stolons. Lastly in Heliopora (order Coenothecalia ), the blue coral of tropical Indo-Pacific shores, a massive blue calcareous skeleton is produced. Order Gorgonacea. In these animals, except in a few unusual genera that appear to be transitional between a matlike colony

—

and a treelike one, the skeleton forms a definite axis running up the centre of a treelike colony.

The

soft tissues by which the axis surrounded contain spicules. typical example of the Gorgonacea is Eunicella verrucosa, one of the sea fans (fig. 6). This forms a treelike colony attached by a narrow base and with slender twiglike branches. Each branch has an axis of blackish horny skeleton clothed on all sides by is

A

bright pink flesh

containing so-

FIG. 6.

PORTION OF A COLONY OF

SEA FAN (EUNICELLA VERRUCOSA) (ENLARGED). POLYPS IN LOWER RIGHT CORNER ARE CONTRACTED

formed by other genera possess-

lenia

ing long polyps (order Alcyona-

small translucent pink polyps. In certain related gorgonians the horny skeleton contains calcareous

In Alcyonium, for instance, there is formed a massive colony with a small number of stout, unwieldy lobes. Each lobe consists of a number of polyps that are inordinately elongated vertically; but here, instead of producing platforms, the polyps have filled in the whole space between them with solid mesogloea so that only cea).

inclusions.

In Corallium, the well-known precious coral of commerce, the

"coral"

beyond the general mass. Consequently ectoderm occurs only on the exposed parts of the

is

this case

an

it is

axial skeleton similar to that of Gorgonia, but in

stouter and less twiglike and

is

formed by the fusion

of innumerable spicules into a solid calcareous mass.

In Corallium rubrum the flesh of the colony as well as the axis is scarlet, but the polyps are white. The skeleton of the Gorgonacea, although it varies considerably in structure from one form to another, is secreted by cells of ectodermal origin that are either embedded in the mesogloea or

the head end of each polyp projects

and studded with numerous

—

4. 'DEAD MEN'S FINGERS" (ALCYONIUM D1GITATUM) (REduced>

FIG.

form a

around the axis itself; this is a communal and does not represent an elongated axial polyp. started by a polyp that gives rise to solenia in

distinct layer

internal skeleton

The colony

is

ANTHOZOA the basal part of

its

body; from

new polyps arise. Pennatulacea. The

these solenia

Order

—

This axis

single

is

complicated

in struc-

and contains a supporting rod of calcified horny material. ture It

each consisting of a row of

close-set polyps,

and

is

itself

pro-

The vided with siphonozooids. latter occur in a number of cases ,

a colony, so that the

An anemone is rarely completely sedentary, spends periods of varying length attached by its support, it can readily creep away. No other terata, taken as a whole, offers a parallel to this the anemones. The

bears laterally arranged leaf-

lets,

(PENNATULA PHOSPHOREA) LARGE SPECIMENS OF WHICH MAY ATTAIN A FOOT OR MORE IN LENGTH

among the Alcyonacea and rarely among Gorgonacea; but among

Pennatulacea they are universal. Moreover, the Pennatulacea are not attached at the base to a firm support but possess a contractile lower portion that anchors the colony in sand or mud. These animals exist at extreme depths; Umbellula leptocautis has been taken at 4.440 m. others have been taken at even greater depths. In other Pennatulids the form of the colony varies. In Kophobelemnon, instead of lateral leaflets the stem bears large isolated polyps; in Virgularia leaflets are present but reduced in size; in Umbellula a few large polyps occur in a rosette at the top of a long stem that is otherwise bare; in Rcnilla the basal peduncle is replaced by a flat kidney-shaped expansion bearing radially arranged polyps on its upper side. General Note on the Skeleton; Alcyonaria as a whole provide an extremely good example of the diversity that may exist in the skeleton within a single group. Instances have been quoted of both internal and external skeletons; of horny covering skeletons, horny axial skeletons; tubular skeletons and solid ones;

—

skeletons formed of diffused spicules, of interlocked spicules and of fused spicules; cases in which spicules

and

and

a solid skeleton co-

which horny and limy material coexist in the skelemention the massive calcareous support of Heliopora. Whatever the nature of the skeleton, however, it is formed either by the ectoderm (Cornularia) or by cells of ectodermal origin that have penetrated the mesogloea. in

ton, not to

general build of

many anemones

is

and, although it base to a foreign series of Coelencreeping habit of

stronger and

more mus-

cular than that of most other Anthozoan polyps; the retractor muscles of the mesenteries and the circular muscle of the body margin (sphincter) frequently attain a high degree of development. The variation in the external form of the polyp is very wide; but even greater is that of the internal organs. The number of mesenteries, their arrangement, their relation to one another with respect to size and to the degree of specialization of their musculature vary to such an extent that within limits imposed by certain fundamental principles almost any combination may be

No anemone

represented.

possesses the characters of alcyonarian

polyps, however.

The

;

exist,

them in a numanemone forms any skeleton; none produces

ence.

body of a

greatly attenuated original polyp.

PEN

sea

sesses a straight central axis de-

I

SEA

No

ber of ways.

those animals popularly known as In a typical form sea pens. (Pennatula, tig. 7 the colony pos-

veloped from the

7.

and varied group of Anthozoa that are closely related to

the true corals (Scleractinia) but contrast with

polyp that results from the development of an egg remains a single individual all its life except when it undergoes fission (see below). The polyps are of very variable dimensions, but the average order of size is relatively large, and in giant species (Stoichactis) an individual may exceed two feet in diameter; these are the largest anthozoan polyps in exist-

colonies included in this group are

of a nature very unlike anything hitherto described and include

FIG.

large

distribution of

anemones

They occur

world wide.

is

at

varying levels from the tidal zone to the greatest depths (10,190 m.) at which living animals have been taken in the sea. None occurs in fresh water, but a few are able to colonize brackish areas. Little

is

known

of their geological

range except that they must be of very great antiquity. Since sea anemones do not form colonies,

the

habit

so prevalent in

Coelenterata,

is

budding,

of

some groups of not

much

in

evidence here.

Asexual reproduction of other kinds, however, is frequent

of

In

some

occurrence. species

rapid

longi-

(fission) of the -SEA ANEMONE METRIDIUM whole anemone into two more or senile dividing

tudinal division

equal parts is a regular habit; the animal literally tears itself in two, the throat being cleft as less

ZOANTHARIA The two important orders in this subclass are the Actiniaria and the Scleractinia (Madreporaria). Order Actiniaria. The sea anemones (fig. 8) constitute a

—

well as the other parts;

and by the regeneration

of tissue at the

new individual is formed from each half. In other species fission of another kind takes place.

torn edge a

Here a

small fragment becomes separated from the edge of the parent's

base (sometimes as a result of an actual tear, sometimes as the product of a process of constriction and this fragment, although it contains no tentacles, peristome or throat, develops into a perfect, new anemone (fig. 9). In a few species the direction of )

fission is transverse.

(For a classification of anemones see Sea Anemone.) Order Scleractinia. The Scleractinia, or Madreporaria, known zoologically as true corals, form a large group of Anthozoa characterized by their ability to secrete a limy skeleton that often is massive. The Madrepores differ from the other Coelenterata

—

that secrete such a skeleton in that, although the size of individual polyps varies greatly, the average polyp size

is

large.

The Moreover, the structure of the polyps is distinctive. Scleractinia tend to form colonies containing few or many polyps but in addition to the colonial species there is a large number of solitary forms in which a single polyp produces a single coral skeleton. -SEA

The polyps

ANEMONE METRIDIUM

ons (B) through gullet;

(C) belo

in

anemones in general build; but Morethey are recognizably different.

are similar to sea

their finer structure

ANTHOZOA over,

their

life

is

purely sedentary one since after they have once secreted a skeleton

—

^w^

variation

colony grows; by the presence or absence of a secretion of skeleton

THI

structure

of

coral polyps

is

wide; but

™ development of madre-

hardly parallels the extraordinary diversity found among the

fig. 10.

anemones.

(A) Youna stage of solitary coral; (B) (C) a ry |° (D) n ia

it

In the latter, diver-

sity of the individual reaches its

porarian skeleton '

|

height,

whereas

in

the

colonial

corals equally great diversity

(

i

colonial

is

reached in the relations of the polyps to one another and consequently in the form of the colony that they build up. Corals are widely distributed in the seas of the world, and both solitary and colonial forms may occur in either shallow or deep water. The true reef-building corals, however, which are mainly colonial forms, are restricted to the tropical and subtropical zones; they flourish best in shallow water, and their depth limit is about 50 m. The Scleractinia are an ancient group geologically, dating from Triassic times (about 200.000,000 years ago), and vast numbers Many other corals that may or may of fossil forms are known. not have been ancestral

to

them (the

Tetracorallia, etc.)

are

known from much

earlier times. Corals form the largest bulk of belonging to the Coelenterata, and some limestones are composed almost entirely of their remains. In certain past epochs reef corals had a far wider distribution than in modern times, fossils

their remains being plentiful in latitudes at

which they cannot

now maintain themselves. The skeleton of a solitary

coral polyp such as Caryophyllia (a genus represented in Great Britain by C. smithii, the devonshire cup coral) is illustrated in fig. 10. It consists of a number of parts that together build up a shape definitely related to the soft parts that have secreted it. There is a basal plate attaching the whole structure to the substratum, a circular wall theca arising from this and a number of radially arranged vertical partitions (septal that project inward from the inner surface of the theca toward the centre and partially subdivide its cavity. The septa are not all equal but belong to definite grades of size, which al(

)

ternate regularly.

The polyp is seated in the cup of skeleton, and during life its body may extend well above and beyond the latter, overlapping also down the outside of the theca. If the polyp swallows a considerable

mass of food,

it

number of factors affecting the which new polyps arise with relation to

dictated by a

between the polyps, and similar considerations. (For accounts of the formation of coral reefs see Coral Reef; Islands: Coral Islands.) also Pacific Each species of coral has inherent within its polyps the ability to develop in a given manner, and the form of the colony is also affected by the degree of its exposure to wave action. Something is known about the details of colony formation from actual obThe older acservation and measurements of the growth rate. counts concerning the processes by which the polyps increase in number should be read with reserve, since the ideas in vogue on this subject have until recently been largely speculative, and theories of colony formation have been too frequently based on the study of the skeleton. It is obvious that the skeleton is an imperfect even though permanent record of the activities of the polyps studies of polyps reveal that in some cases conclusions as to the manner of growth may be entirely erroneous if based on

in the intervals

retractor muscles.

The among

is

polyps by the way in those already in existence; by their rate of formation and growth; by the relation between growth in height and growth in width; by the angle and plane of divergence between the polyps as the

A

they are permanently anchored to it, and in correlation with this

and their other characteristics, they are less muscular than anemones and exhibit in particular a less marked development of the

33

skeleton assumes

necessarily a basal plate

must necessarily extend

make room

itself

;

the skeleton.

A study by G. Matthai of the soft parts of a number of corals from which the calcareous matter has been dissolved away leads to the conclusion that in the cases investigated (and probably in

the group in general) polyps are formed in two ways. since been confirmed by direct observation.

This has

—

Intratentacular Budding. By intratentacular budding a polyp becomes compound. It has originally one mouth and throat surcirclet of tentacles, and within the peristome and a rounded by a ring of tentacles, at given points on the peristome, one or more new mouths and throats arise. The form of a polyp with two or more mouths will become modified, and this process may reach an extraordinary degree of development, ending up in one or several branching polyps each with a number of mouths arranged in a

The result is a colony of the type The skeleton in such a case consists of

row.

illustrated in

fig.

11.

a series of winding ridges

alternating with valleys containing septa, and is known as a meandriform coral. In other colonies formed by intratentacular budding, portions of the growing polyps, each containing a newly formed mouth, become separated from the rest of the polyp as

growth proceeds; but this process is to be distinguished from true fission, which involves the cleavage of a polyp through its original mouth and throat and not the gradual separation of a portion of its tissues associated with a newly developed throat. Extra-tentacular Budding. By this method a new polyp is formed from tissues lying entirely outside the circlet of tentacles of any pre-existing polyp. The polyps in such colonies each have

—

above

coelenteron for the food. The tissues of its column and base form a lining in the skeletal cup, and its mesenteries alternate with the septa; the septa push the polyp's column wall inward; they nowhere penetrate into the coelenteron and are entirely external to the tissues of the animal. Thus, although there is deep interpenetration between the skeleton and the soft parts, morphologically speaking the

the skeleton in order to

in its

The skeleton is prois entirely an external structure. duced as a secretion of cells that are formed by the ectoderm of the base and sides of the polyp. The eggs of corals develop into planulae that attach themselves after a time to a foreign surface, assume the form of miniature polyps and begin to build up a skeleton, which first appears between the base of the polyp and its support. Most corals are viviparous, that is, the planulae develop inside the parent polyp and are liberated as larvae. A few corals lie unattached and are

skeleton

anchored by the weight of their skeleton. It must be understood that the growth of a continued deposition of calcareous material as more and more is added the skeleton must in size, growing upward or outward or both.

colony

is

due to the

by the polyps, and necessarily increase

The form

that

any

FIG.

11,

— YOUNG COLONY OF STAR CORAL

MAY REACH

A

(ASTRANG1A DANAE) HEIGHT OF ABOUT ONE-HALF AN INCH

.

EACH POLYP

ANTHRACENE— ANTHRAX one mouth and arc therefore relatively easily recognized as enExtratentacular budding sometimes take place at the tities. periphery of colonies in which intratentacular budding is characteristic: in colonies formed by extratentacular budding, polyps with two throats may occasionally arise by the opposite method.

The classification of Scleractinia is a vexed question. The vital parts of the organisms are the polyps, and as yet too little is known of the structure and the potentialities of these throughout the group to make possible the construction of a satisfactory system. Bibliography. For general accounts see bibliography to article rata and tor lists of literature see W. G. Kiikenthal, Handbuck der Zoologie (1923-25). For general accounts of Alcyonaria and Scleractinia see R. C. Moore (ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontolfor budding in Madreporaria see G Matthai, Phil. Trans., 1956) Also see T. A. Stephenson, The British Sea (1926). B, 214, p Anemones (1928 and 1935); W. Saville-Kent, The Great Barrier Reef

—

;

1

1

;

;

i

alia

;

1

(1893).

For the natural history of corals and coral

reefs

hiding feeding, growth, breeding, budding, etc.) see Scientific Reports of the Great Barrier Reef Expedition (British Museum, 1930 et (T. A. S.; W. J. R.) seq.). in.

i

'

ANTHRACENE,

hydrocarbon obtained from the fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between 2 70° C. and 400° C. (from the Greek anthrax, "coal"). This high-boiling fraction is allowed a

some days, whereupon it partially solidifies. It is then separated in a centrifuge, the more fusible impurities are removed by means of hot water, and the residue is finally hotto stand for

The crude anthracene cake

purified

is

by treatment with the

higher pyridine bases, the operation being carried out in large The whole mass dissolves on heating, steam-jacketed boilers.

The crystallized crystallizes out on cooling. then removed by a centrifugal separator and the Finally the is repeated.

and the anthracene anthracene

is

process of solution in the pyridine bases

anthracene

is

purified

by sublimation.

synthetic processes for preparation of anthracene and

derivatives are known. It is formed by the condensation of acetylene tetrabromide with benzene in the presence of aluminum chloride and similarly from methylene dibromide and benzene, its

and also when benzyl chloride is heated with aluminum chloride to 200° C. Anthracene (C 14 H 10 ) crystallizes in colourless monoIt melts at clinic tables which show a fine blue fluorescence. 213° C. and boils at 351° C. It is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether, but readily soluble in hot benzene. It unites with picric acid to form a picrate, C 14 H 10 .C 6 H 2 (NOo) 3 .OH, which crystallizes in needles, melting at 138° C. Anthracene and

some

of

this

property: Colour lemon yellow

Substance 1 1

anthraquinone

hydroxy amino mtthylamino

1

" (alizarin)

1,2-dihydroxy 1,4-dihydroxy 1,4-diamino 1.4-dimethvlamino

"

"

1,4-di-para-toIuido 1,4,5,8-tetraamino

reddish orange bluish red deep yellow red violet

blue green deep blue

"

Anthraquinone can be made by the oxidation of anthracene or by synthesis from phthalic anhydride (q.v.). Commercially it is made by both methods in most of the countries of Europe, Britain included; in the U.S., however, it is made by synthesis only. Anthraquinone first became commercially important about 1870. In 1S6S Karl Graebe and Karl Liebermann had established the chemical constitution of alizarin (q.v.). the base for very imdyestuffs and pigments, and had made it from 1,2Then in 1869 these investigators in dibromoanthraquinone. Germany and W. H. Perkin in England simultaneously developed a commercially feasible process for making alizarin from sodium With anthraquinone available comanthraquinone-2-sulfonate. Within the mercially, much work was done on its derivatives. next 30 years a whole line of dyestuffs, mostly for wool, was made from it. Then in 1901, R. Bohn discovered the first vat dyestuff derived from anthraquinone by fusing 2-aminoanthraquinone in

portant

pressed.

Many

Auguste Laurent. The most important physical property of anthraquinone (C ]4 H 8 2 ) is that it is coloured, although but lightly so. It is By the addition of groups such as hyin itself a chromophore. droxy, amino, or substituted amino the colour of the substance is deepened to such an extent that derivatives can be made which cover every shade of the spectrum. The following table illustrates

its

derivatives are used in scintillation counters for the

measurement of ionizing radiation. Instruments: Scintillation Counters.)

detection and

(See

Nuclear

The product,

molten caustic potash.

proved

intensely blue in colour, was

be N,N'-dihydro-1.2:2':l'Chemically, this was a development of the first order, for over the next half century vat dyestuffs derived from anthraquinone became the most important class of the Like many other vat dyes, the synthetic colouring matters. anthraquinone derivatives are characterized by great fastness. Several substituted anthraquinones, the 2-chloro and the 2methyl, are also used for the manufacture of vat dyestuffs. They are prepared commercially by substituting chlorobenzene and toluene respectively for benzene in the above synthesis. Anthraquinone crystallizes in yellow prisms, sublimes in yellow needles and melts in the neighbourhood of 285° C. It is extremely indanthrene. anthraquinoneazine. called

It

to

stable toward further oxidation but may be easily reduced under either acid or alkaline conditions to form a variety of products.

OH

most important chemical properties of the substance ready reduction in alkaline solutions by means of sodium hydrosulfite, Na 2 S 2 4 to anthrahydroquinone, the alkali metal

One

of the

is its

,

salts

of which are soluble in water.

With

the derivatives of

anthraquinone, corresponding reactions are used in the dyeing process. Another important chemical property is that it is readily sulfonated, nitrated and halogenated. (J. H. Ss.) (Splenic Fever, Malignant Pustule. Woolsorters' Disease; French charbon, German Mikbrand) is an acute, specific, infectious, febrile disease of animals including man caused by Bacillus anthracis, an organism which under certain

ANTHRAX

H

2

IV

The a- and /3-hydroxyanthracenes

(anthrols)

with structures

and II, respectively, resemble the phenols. On the other hand, g-hydroxyanthracene III reverts spontaneously to the ketonic anthrone form IV. from which it is made by the action of first a strong base and then an acid. Anthrone itself is made by the reI

duction of anthraquinone (q.v.). Oxidizing agents convert anthracene into anthraquinone; the production of this substance by oxidizing anthracene in glacial acetic acid solution with chromic acid is the usual method em-

ployed for the estimation of anthracene.

ANTHRACITE:

see

Coal and Coal Mining.

ANTHRAQUINONE,

a

tant derivative of anthracene.

paraquinone, It

was

first

is

the most impor-

prepared

in

1834 by

conditions forms highly resistant spores that may persist and retain their virulence in contaminated soil or other material for many years. Primarily a disease of animals, chiefly Herbivora, the infection

may

be acquired by persons handling wool, hair, hides,

bones or the carcasses of affected animals. History. Anthrax is one of the oldest recorded diseases of animals; it is mentioned by Moses in Ex. ix. 9, and by Homer, Hippocrates, Ovid, Galen and Pliny. Virgil in his Georgics describes it in epizootic form. Devastating epizootics of the disease are recorded by many medieval and modern writers. In the 1 8th and 19th centuries it sometimes spread like a plague over the southern part of Europe, taking a heavy toll of human and animal life. Anthrax was the first disease of man and animals

—

ANTHROPOID— ANTHROPOLOGY which the causative agent was definitely demonstrated as a specific microorganism by C. J. Davaine in 1863, and in 1876 by Robert Koch, who isolated the organism in pure culture. It was also the first infectious disease against which a bacterial vaccine was found to be effective, by Louis Pasteur in 1881. These discoveries led to the origin and development of the modern sciences of bacteriology and immunology. Anthrax occurs throughout the world. Repeated epizootics of the disease resulted in heavy contamination of the soil, especially in southern Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and North and South America. Districts of periodic contagion exist in Arabia, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, Egypt, France, Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Morocco, Poland, Thailand, the U.S.S.R. (including Siberia), the United States and Uruguay. The Disease in Animals. Practically all animals are susin

—

—

ceptible to anthrax. Cattle, sheep, goats, horses

and mules, the most commonly afby grazing on contaminated pastures. Outbreaks in swine, dogs, cats and wild animals held in captivity generally result from consumption of contaminated fected, usually acquire the disease

food.

The

disease

may

occur in a peracute, acute, subacute form (in-

form (external ancattle, sheep and goats, occurs at the beginning of an outbreak and is characterized sudden onset and rapidly fatal course. Victims by its may show trembling, difficult breathing and convulsions but are frequently found dead without showing premonitory symptoms. In the acute and subacute forms, most common in cattle, horses and sheep, there is excitement and a rise in body temperature followed by ternal anthrax)

thrax).

or in a chronic or localized

The peracute form, most common

depression,

spasms,

respiratory

or

in

cardiac

distress,

trembling,

staggering, convulsions and death.

Bloody discharges sometimes emanate from the natural body openings, and edematous swellings may appear on different parts of the body. During the course of the disease pregnant animals may abort, rumination ceases and the milk secretion is reduced. Horses show severe colic, fever, chills, a bloody diarrhea and swellings in the region of the neck, lower abdomen and external genitals. The acute form usually terminates in death within a day or two; the subacute form may lead to death in three to five days or longer, or to complete recovery after several days.

swine and dogs and is chardifficult breathing and a blood-stained frothy discharge from the mouth. Affected animals sometimes die of suffocation. Carcasses of animals dead There is of anthrax present a general picture of septicemia. usually rapid bloating and decomposition, dark-coloured blood that fails to clot rapidly, incomplete rigor mortis, oozing of blood from nostrils and anus, and a greatly enlarged spleen. Prophylactic vaccination is extensively used in preventing anthrax in livestock. Excellent results are obtained when affected animals are treated in early stages with specific antiserum or penicillin. During outbreaks strict quarantine measures, proper dispo-

Chronic anthrax occurs mostly

acterized

by marked swelling

in

of the throat,

sition of diseased carcasses, fly control

and good sanitation are

essential in controlling the disease.

—

Anthrax in Man. Anthrax in humans occurs as a cutaneous, pulmonary or intestinal infection; the most common type occurs as a primary localized infection of the skin in the form of a carbuncle. It usually results from handling infected material, lesions occurring mostly on the hands, arms or neck as a small pimple which develops rapidly into a large vesicle with black necrotic centre (the malignant pustule). Should this condition become generalized a fatal septicemia

may

nearest approach to a

35

human epidemic

the 20th century occurred during

World War

bers of British and U.S. troops and

many

of anthrax during I

when

persons

num-

large

in the civilian

population of England and the United States were infected by the use of shaving brushes imported from Japan. Prompt diagnosis and early treatment are of great importance.

Antianthrax serum, arsenicals and antibiotics such as penicillin, aureomycin, Chloromycetin and terramycin are used with exThe treatment of choice is penicillin or neoarscellent results. phenamine. The hazard of infection to industrial workers can be reduced by sterilization of potentially contaminated material before handling, protective clothing, use of respirators and good sani-

tary facilities, and in agricultural workers by avoiding the skinning or opening of animals dead of the disease.

See also references under "Anthrax" APE: see Ape.

in the

Index. (C. D. Sn.)

ANTHROPOID ANTHROPOLOGY (ARTICLES ON).

Anthropologists In the 1960s, more than ever before, they were sharing in a search for systematic understanding of human nature (q.v.) with fellow scientists from other disciplines as well as with philosophers and theologians (see Ethics, Comparative). The interests of anthropologists, as described in Anthropology, spill over into a wide spectrum of specialties in the physical, biological, behavioural, and social sciences. Anthropologists have made considerable use of information provided by archaeologists in their attempt to understand the origins Atomic of modern customs, art, and social and political life. physics has contributed such techniques as radiocarbon dating for Efforts to estimating the relative ages of archaeological finds. establish the geographic origins of the different peoples have been biological scientists, supported with methods developed by particularly those concerned with the study of human heredity. In applying the techniques of genetics to the inheritance of blood types, for example, it has been possible to verify the conclusion that European gypsies originally came from India. Psychological principles, especially those from psychoanalytic theory, have been employed by anthropologists in an effort to understand family re-

study

human

lationships,

beings.

prohibitions against

incest,

and

religious

and

legal

among different peoples. Discussions of topics closely involved in modern anthropological practice may be found in such articles as Archaeology; Radiocarbon Dating; Psychoanalypractices

Psychology; Sociology; and Genetics, Human. Thus far, anthropologists have made their most distinctive con-

sis;

tributions to an understanding of people as biological organisms (as studied in physical anthropology) that generate unique culEfforts in physical (covered in cultural anthropology). anthropology are summarized in Races of Mankind; Man, Evo-

tures

lution of; Negro; Mongoloid; Caucasoid; Anthropometry; Hair; Blood Groups; and Skull: The Skull in Anthropology. However, anthropology has contributed most heavily to an understanding of human cultures; much of this work is presented in overview as Social Anthropology; and Civilization and Culture. Since most professionally trained anthropologists come from technologically sophisticated societies, they have tended to concentrate on lesser-known cultures of more primitive techMaterial aspects of such societies are discussed in DwellAgriculture, Primitive; Hunting and Fishing, Primitive; Economic Anthropology; Material Culture; Weapons, Primitive; Trade, Primitive; Currency, Primitive; and are considered in such articles as Transport; Music, Priminology.

ings, Primitive;

tive;

Musical Instruments; Primitive Art; Wood Carving;

and Bark Cloth. Cultural variations involving family and group relationships

ensue.

The pulmonary form ("woolsorters' disease")

affects

princi-

and pleura and results from inhaling anthrax spores where hair and wool are processed. This form of the disease usually runs a rapid course and terminates fatally. The intestinal form of the disease which sometimes follows the consumption of contaminated meat is characterized by an acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, vomiting and severe diarrhea. Anthrax is occasionally transmitted to man by spore-contaminated shaving brushes or by wearing apparel such as furs and leather goods. pally the lungs

The

Kinship; Kinship Terminology; Descent, Systems of; Clan; Matriliny; Marriage, Primitive; Exchange Marriage; Cousin Marriage; Polygyny; Polyandry; receive attention in

and

Dual Organization,

legal status are

covered

in

while additional questions of social and

such articles as Caste (Indian)

;

Law.

Primitive; Communism, Primitive; Land Tenure, Primitive; and Age Set. The reader who seeks to learn of unusual practices and beliefs in many cultures may be attracted to Head-Hunting;

Mutilations and Deformations; Infanticide; Cannibalism;

ANTHROPOLOGY

36

Religion, Sacrifice; Ordeal; Scalping; Primitive; Magic, Primitive; Totemism; Tabu; Animal Worship; Animism; Lycanthropy; Metempsychosis; Secret Societies. Primitive; Peyotism; Funerary Rites and Customs; Mana; Lightning; Dance. Primitive; Mythology, Primitive; Folklore (American Indian); Tattooing; Rites and Cere-

Superstition;

and Circi mcision. The raw materials on which the generalizations of anthropology are based come from empirical study of many specific cultures. padia Britannica abounds in reports of the history and modern status of these groups of people, including Indian, North American; Indian. Latin-American; Eskimo; Iroquois; Navaho; Arab; Australian Aborigines; Ainu; Basque; Berber; Gypsy; Malay: Mongol; and Papuan. The Index supIn addition, the anthropology of plies references to many more. particular geographic areas is discussed under such titles as Oceania; Melanesia: Micronesia; Polynesia; Caucasus, Peoples of: as well as in articles dealing with the continents (Africa and Asia, for example) and with more limited geographic or political units (New Guinea or Japan, for example). Clearly, the concerns of anthropology range widely, and are faithfully reflected in these volumes from Abipon to Zutuhil,

E.

III.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

in its

development and

branches, can be characterized as the naturalistic description and interpretation of the diverse features of mankind. Its approach to the manifold variations among peoples is at once universal and

comparative.

It

cannot be effectively defined in terms of an ex-

method of study. It differs from commonly understood, not by excluding historical studies of peoples, institutions, beliefs or customs, but by using as far as possible direct observation of human beings, their acclusive subject matter or a single

history,

as

and their products rather than documentary accounts; and by viewing the results of any such study as part of the total human record and as a contribution to the better understanding of the complex processes involved in the biological and cultural development of man. Similarly, it differs in approach from physiology or psychology in concerning itself with variations and collective differences in human physique and mentality. Thus, anthropologists seek to study and interpret the special characteristics of any particular population or activity in terms of its time and place in the total history of mankind; but any claim that anthropology encompassed the study of man in its entirety including research and description concerning all human characteristics and activities would, of course, be both presumptuous and futile. tivities

also

The I.

present article

1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Historical

Background

Evolution and Racial Variation in Man Ethnology Archaeology- and the Cultural Record Analysis of Culture and Society Cultural and Social Typologies

and Personality and Society and History in Anthropology

9.

Culture Culture Science

10.

Human

11.

Cultural and Social Evolution

12.

Linguistics in

7.

8.

II.

divided into the following sections:

is

General Survey

Ecology

Anthropology

Physical Anthropology A. Identification of Skeletal Remains B. Old and New Concepts in Physical Anthropology 1. Early Investigations 2. Great Chain of Being and the "Missing Link" 3.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

4.

New

5.

Statistical

Approach Methods

C. Problems of Trait Definition and Evaluation 1. Introduction 2.

Measurements

Experimental Methods Evaluation D. Fossil Record of Man's Evolution 1. South African Australopithecinae 2. Java and North China Finds 3. Neanderthal Man 3.

4.

4.

Modern Man

5.

Generic Relationships of Fossil

Men

Race Formation and

of

1.

Breeding Populations

2.

Single Species

3.

Phenotype and Genotype

Classification

Applied Anthropology 1. The Need for Applied Anthropology 2.

A.

\i..\m s;

and from Acculturation to Zuni. Anthropology,

The Rationale

Division of Responsibility

The Growth 1.

2. 3.

of Applied Anthropology Early Beginnings Wdr'ld War II Developments After World War II

B. Scope of Research 1. Political Organization and Land 2. Culture Contact and Planned Change C. Results and Prospects

I.

GENERAL SURVEY

—

Historical Background. It was through attempts to describe and explain physical types, customs, beliefs and forms of social organization that lay outside the more familiar world of earlier western knowledge and yet were held to be ultimately related to it that anthropology developed its generalizing tendency and its assumption that any particular people was, whether in physique or custom, to be viewed as a variation on a common human theme and to be described and explained in terms of characters and processes relevant to all mankind. This conception was developed in the 10th century, in an effort to integrate knowledge of all periods of human history and from all relevant branches of science. It was especially stimulated by the impact of the doctrine of biological evolution on ideas concerning human progress already developed by philosophers in the 18th century. The greatly lengthened perspective of the age of the earth and of the antiquity of mankind, which was opened up by the 19th-century geologists and naturalists, gave a new importance to speculations on cultural and social development, while the successes of 19th-century technology in bringing the whole world into view also encouraged attempts at reformulating man's place in nature. The variety of behaviour and belief among the many peoples of the world, on which travelers and scholars had been reporting and speculating since the Age of Discovery, challenged inquiry into both the causes of such diversity and the manifold connections between various 1.

aspects of human life. The philosophers of the Enlightenment, both on the continent and in England, had sought to formulate general schemes of social and cultural advance whereby, as Hume expressed it, there had

been a gradual "improvement of human society from rude beginnings to a state of greater perfection" through successive stages, later schematized by Lewis H. Morgan as savagery, barbarism and The great explanatory value of the evolutionary civilization. principle with regard to the complexity and diversity of organic life lent strong support to concepts whereby the diversity of human cultures in such fields as economy, government and religion could be interpreted in terms of progressive developments from simpler forms. The weight of Christian cosmology had been inimical to the general acceptance of these ideas until the geologists and naturalists undermined the dogmatic authority of the biblical story of creation. But the way was then opened for more objective study and comparison of the peoples of the world both past and present. The recognition in the late 19th century of an increasing number of fossil remains as those of human beings differing markedly from any living peoples demonstrated the great antiquity of Charles Darwin's hypothesis of natural selec"diluvial'' man. tion as a mechanism of organic change heightened scientific interest in the relations between biological and cultural conditions and there was much early speculation as to the effects of environment on physical and cultural types and of biological factors on technical

and

social advances.

Herbert Spencer viewed the high level of organic complexity reached in man in the course of biological evolution as the foundation of what he called superorganic development. This he regarded as molded in part by the primary factors of biological inheritance and of the physical environment, but also by secondary factors which emerged in the social process itself, such as the tendency of society to increase in size and density; the internal reciprocal action of groups within any society; the action and reaction be-

ANTHROPOLOGY tween societies; and finally the accumulation of "superorganic products,'' such as language, knowledge, morals and aesthetics, or what anthropologists would now call culture. Stressing the importance of elucidating all the factors determining the qualities of a particular people or form of society, he emphasized the significance of comparative methods and of studying the widest range of peoples in seeking to understand the genesis and raison d'etre of customs and institutions, paying special attention to primitive societies which were small in scale so that the totality of their way of life could more readily be grasped and analyzed.

Spencer's interests were essentially sociological, and while he recognized that social processes and systems could only be perceived and formulated by abstraction from actual manners and customs, he did not focus attention on the needs and difficulties of their objective and systematic examination. It was Sir Edward Burnett Tylor who, following Otto Klemm, provided the modern anthropological connotation of the term culture, opening his fa-

mous book. Primitive Culture (1871), with

a descriptive definition

of culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habits

acquired by

man

of culture,

its

as a

member

of society."

For Tylor the content

organization and variability were of direct and

He placed greater stress than Spencer on the complexity of the long historical processes of cultural change,

intrinsic interest.

and also on the effects of specific environmental conditions, migrations and contacts in stimulating particular developments, and thus of the need for their detailed study. His empiricism and his interest in the character and determinants of cultural forms justify his title as the father of

modern

cultural anthropology.

He

ac-

cordingly stressed the need to tread the slow road of detailed ethnographic inquiry and of meticulous comparison of attendant

circumstances before proceeding to the more abstract levels volved in generalizing about society and its evolution.

The

in-

biological, cultural and sociological development of anthropology followed from the life as a whole was the complex result of a series of interconnected fields of development. Since their views were evolutionary, the early anthropologists were as interested in paleontological evidence concerning the physique of extinct peoples, and archaeological evidence concerning extinct cultures, as in racial variations and cultural differences among living peoples. All were recognized as contributing to the general interpretation of human development and activity. The primitive and ancient, then as now, were not emphasized exclusively or for their own

close association of

interests in the belief that

human

sake, but because of the contribution that the study of early

man

and of the simpler living societies could make to a general understanding of man's place in nature. However, the wide range of problems that emerged required investigation of different kinds of evidence by a variety of methods. It accordingly stimulated inquiry in many areas of knowledge that were developing during the later part of the 19th century and fostered the exchange of information and ideas among workers in diverse fields. Comparative anatomists, geologists and archaeologists began to co-operate in the study of early man as revealed in fossil remains and the stone tools of the Ice Age. Ethnographers recording the ways of life of living primitive peoples co-operated with ancient historians, folklorists and philologists in the study of early customs and social institutions. Inevitably, too, as knowledge further increased, elaboration of

still

encouraged concentration

The body of material

greater specialization developed.

new methods and

the growing

in limited fields

and on

specific prob-

lems, so that anthropological research itself divided into a

number

There was an early divergence between those concerned with the biological and with the sociocultural aspects of human development, which led to the recognition of the distinct branches of physical and cultural (or social) anthropology. In continental Europe this has long been recognized by restricting the term "anthropologic" to physical anthropology and by using the term "ethnologic" for cultural studies. Within these branches further distinctions have developed. In the former the study of the biological evolution of man has been advanced by paleontoof specialties.

logical

37

and anatomical researches

of the primates, the

as an integral part of the study

mammalian order

to

which man belongs, while

the analysis and interpretation of the variations in physique

among

the peoples of the world have depended mainly for their advance on the application of statistical methods and later of genetical theory. In the sociocultural field, interests have also tended to main concern has been, on the one hand, with the sequences of cultural development in particular regions or, on the other hand, in the elucidation of underlying processes involved in certain general aspects of human culture and These have given rise, respectively, to spesocial organization. cialized researches in ethnology and into the functioning of culThe widely varying nature of the maand social systems. tures terial available for study has again led to further specialization in By increasingly systematic excavation of prehistoric methods. sites and the comparative study of relics and their contexts it has been possible in the few regions that have been intensively studied by archaeological methods to recover at least in outline a continuous record of the cultures of the peoples that succeeded one another from the Stone Age down to the present. The prehistorians have increasingly specialized on particular periods or geographical areas, and their problems and techniques have differed according to whether they dealt with relic-bearing caves, beaches and peat bogs, with the dwelling sites and graves of primitive cultivators or with the deep deposits and elaborate constructions preserved in ruined prehistoric cities. In regions beyond the range of modern archaeological knowledge, notably over much of Africa, Australasia, Oceania and the new world, attempts have been made to reconstruct cultural sequences by comparative studies of the ethnography of their living peoples. Tentative as the results have often been, they have afforded valuable guides for the planning of later ethnographic and archaeological research. Thus anthropology as a subject of study in English-speaking universities generally includes teaching and research in both the physical (biological) and the sociocultural fields, and in both of In these there have been further specializations of approach. physical anthropology, continuing discovery and examination of fossil remains provides material for the systematic morphological study of human evolution (human paleontology and primatology). Investigations of living populations are directed to defining and interpreting their variation; i.e., to the study both of the gross differences in the predominant characters between populations from different major regions of the world (e.g., Mongols of eastern Asia as compared with African Negroes) and of the variability of Within this physical characteristics within a given population. branch of the physical anthropology of living peoples, in addition to the earlier developed morphological and statistical studies,

divide according to whether the

new

studies in physiological variation

and genetic analysis of

variability are being developed.

In cultural and social anthropology, also, there are several perhaps less sharply defined specializations, not all of which are everywhere included in general teaching or equally emphasized, and some of which may be pursued in association with other disciplines such as psychology and sociology. The need remains for a broad presentation in general ethnography and culture history of the varieties, long-term development and processes of diversification of human cultures as well as for an evaluation of the influence of the many underlying factors. But intensive study can no longer embrace the broader phases of development, and simple schemes of cultural evolution are no longer of heuristic value.

Prehistoric archaeology, in the discovery and the analysis of surviving relics of extinct cultures and their environment, has become a highly specialized discipline of field excavation and laboratory study, the techniques of which vary according to the nature of the sites and the character of the cultural and other remains. In some regions, such as Europe, the intensity of research, the wealth and complexity of the material and the growing precision of chronological studies have required further specialization on particular phases e.g., the Paleolithic. In other parts of the world, notably North America, much archaeological research is concerned, in its later chronological phases, with the immediate ancestors of ;

the living aboriginal populations available for study.

Thus, for

ANTHROPOLOGY example,

in California or in the

southwest of the United States

there can be a direct continuity and community of interest between archaeological and ethnographical research in the study of the ethnology of particular peoples or areas.

Ethnography carried out by field research among an existing population provides the essential data for various more specialized sociocultural studies, whether topical or comparative. The study of general ethnography, which surveys the primitive world descriptively, and of ethnographic monographs, provides, as already mentioned, an essential background for appreciating the variations and problems which have given rise to different approaches Within ethnography there is the specialized primitive technology, in which the development,

in specialized studies.

but basic

field of

context and significance of crafts and art are studied. The term "ethnology" is now generally applied to studies chiefly concerned

with the historical reconstruction of the cultural development of particular peoples or regions. Social anthropology concentrates on the analysis and explanation of the whole range of social relations as parts of a system of social organization or social structure. It is concerned with the func-

both in relation to the social system as a whole and as contributing to human needs. Both social organization and particular social institutions are analyzed, according to their relevance, with reference to the various fields, e.g., political, Religious legal and economic, of human interest and interaction. beliefs and ritual are considered within this framework, especially for their significance in maintaining and sanctioning social norms. A further specialization in the collection and study of ethnographic data which has become a main focus of interest for some American anthropologists is to be found in what are variously tion of institutions,

as "configurational" or "culture and personality" studies. These are concerned with the analysis of differing basic values and underlying assumptions in the view of life of various cultures and their expression in the personalities of those who share in them. Such studies seek on the one hand to discover and portray the measure of unity and coherence in thought and judgment which

known

provides the common understandings of a cultural group. They also often apply psychological principles and hypotheses of personality development to the explanation of the genesis and persistence of particular patterns and values. Linguistics also has been considerably developed within the

framework of anthropological studies. The recording and systemand comparison from several points of view of the innumerable speech forms of peoples outside the historic civilizations have been undertaken largely by anthropologists specializing

atic analysis

in linguistics.

Their attention is directed not only to the philostudy of the historical development of particular

logical or genetic

languages, but often to the detailed analysis of the phonetic and grammatical structure of a language considered as a system of

sound signals governed by implicit principles which maintain its unity and the direction of its changes. Languages are also studied and presented semantically as systems of meanings which deeply affect modes of thought and behaviour, and can thus provide an important key to the study of cultural values. 2. Evolution and Racial Variation in Man Physical anthropology (see below) is concerned with the related problems of tracing the emergence of man as an animal form and the nature, causes and significance of past and present variations in the biological characters of the various human species and breeds. Much research continues to be directed to the study of primate, and in particular, human, variation in time and space and to the determination of the mechanisms which have brought it about. But the focus of interest, in harmony with a trend throughout much of biology, has tended to shift from morphological comparisons to considerations of function. An outstanding feature of the primate order is the high development of the central nervous system, and especially of the brain. The importance for the emergence of man of a number of evolutionary changes in the organization of the primate brain has long been recognized, but a simple concept of increasing morphological complexity from lemurs, monkeys and apes culminating in man. accompanied by a corresponding change in mental complexity, does not do justice to the facts. It may be

conjectured that physiological work, using electrical and other methods, on the functioning of the brain will eventually allow a reinterpretation of primate cerebral evolution on a more exact and critical foundation. Although some other physiological work, particularly on the primate sexual cycle, has been done, and there is a growing body of laboratory and field studies on primate behaviour, much remains to be done before a comprehensive view can be gained. There is also a tendency, again reflecting general trends in the biological sciences, to attempt a more quantitative treatment of anatomical problems. Very useful metrical work has, for example, been done on the varying bodily proportions of primates, so that the range of variation within a species can be appreciated and so that comparisons obtained by statistical methods can replace subjective impressions. The study of fossil remains of man and other primates is dependent for its advances on the discovery of new material, which is often as much a matter of chance as of planned research. Human fossils have always excited public interest and often, unfortunately, an unreasonable partisanship in scientific circles. The fragmentary character and rarity of most kinds of primate fossils have tended to encourage wild speculation and premature judgments on the basis of a small amount of evidence. Since 1930, however, finds have been made which are very important because of the number of individuals of the species represented and because the parts of the skeleton are more complete and extensive than those available before. A remarkable abundance of finds in south Africa of a

group of species of apelike form known as the in an earlier stage of human evolution. Although many features of the skull, including the small brain, appear to be closer to the range in apes rather than in man, there is strong evidence that these creatures, which were not arboreal forest dwellers, may have been capable of erect locomotion. It may be remarked in this connection that, as intermediate forms become known in increasing numbers, the decision as to what is to be regarded as human will become arbitrary, depending on the criteria adopted. Fortunately, the controversies concerning the interpretation of these remains have every prospect of being cleared up by the discovery of more material. Meanwhile, the earlier history of the anthropoid apes has also been illuminated by rich discoveries of Miocene Age in Kenya. Previously, fossil anthropoid remains have been very rare and fragmentary and the newer finds tend to indicate a more complex variety of early forms than was previously envisaged, and that these early apes lacked the specialization of structure connected with arm-swinging arboreal locomotion, which characterizes modern anthropoids. As Europeans after the Age of Discovery became better acquainted with the peoples of many outlying parts of the world, naturalists began to make classifications of human types. For this purpose J. F. Blumenbach at the end of the 18th century developed a method that included cranial measurement and confossil species or

Australopithecinae has renewed interest

mankind into white, yellow, black, Malayan and Amerindian races to correspond with what was then known about predominant differences in physical appearances of structed a five-fold division of

the peoples of the several great regions of the world. Since measurement had great prestige and evolutionary theories in biology had not yet developed, anthropology inherited from this pioneer work an oversimple theory of racial divisions which assumed a fixity of separately created species. For the broad classification of mankind into a few types based on selected combinations of skin colour, hair form and head shape does not necessarily correspond to any over-all genetic unity within, or division between, the so-called "races" that are thus defined.

The modern study

of living population has been increasingly inmuch advanced in scope and For the purpose of tracing ancestral relationships it is the demonstrably inherited features of the organism which count. Variations within or between human populations may, in large measure, be determined by genetic contribution but they may also

fluenced by Mendelian genetics, subtlety.

be the results of differences in conditions of life. A bald division into genetic and environmental factors is, it must also be remembered, an oversimplification, since the action of genes

may

itself

be modified by environmental conditions, and one sometimes has to

ANTHROPOLOGY deal with complex interactions between the two.

Nevertheless,

human blood groups appear to be very by change in environment, while others, such as stature or, still more, intelligence, appear to be susceptible to extensive modification by environmental factors such as nutrition in the former instance and education and other cultural factors some features such little, if

at

all,

in the latter.

as the

affected

It is

generally accepted that the ultimate source of

gene mutation. By the processes of Mendegene combinations can thus become available to be acted upon by natural selection. The work of genetical statisticians has provided a powerful theoretical background for evolutionary study by indicating the rate at which evolutionary change may be expected to occur under given particular mutation and selection rates. The existence of physical differences between populations of different geographical areas and between individuals within any given population is an obvious fact. One task of physical anthropology has been to give an objective and thorough description of these differences as a preliminary step in determining how they have come about. Populations are never homogeneous with rebiological variation

is

lian inheritance a great variety of

spect to a particular characteristic, and the variations

in, for ex-

ample, body measurements or skin pigmentation within any population are continuous; i.e., given individuals may have any measure or degree of pigmentation within a certain range. The essentially statistical character of population differences is thus evident. The variability within populations and the gradual character of geographical differences being what they are, the distortion involved in attempting to classify mankind into sharply distinguished and mutually exclusive groups is apparent. At the same time, the substantially continuous predominance over wide geographical areas of particular combinations of skeletal, skin and hair features, such as characterize the Mongoloid, African Negroid and Caucasoid (white) populations in the old world, does suggest that there was an early differentiation of Homo sapiens into a number of populations each having some particular and stable combinations of characters, and that

some

of these

came

to

predominate

ferent regions, affording a basis for the division of "great races'' of the earlier anthropologists.

An observed

physical character

is

mankind

in dif-

into the

the end product of the ac-

tivity of a few or of many genes. Even if the end result is not modified by environmental factors, it may still not give a precise clue to the genetic constitution. Characters which look alike by all available means of observation may not have the same genetic basis and may therefore be misleading in evolutionary studies. It seems that populations are seldom distinguished by the unique possession or complete absence of particular genes, though frequency differences may be large. For example, the curious inherited anomaly of the red blood cells known as sickle-cell trait, which has a frequency of 25% or more in some African tribes, has an incidence of only one in many thousands in western Europe. These facts emphasize the essential biological unity of the human species. The notion of "pure races" is seen to be fallacious and classification into sharp categories cannot be achieved without doing violence to the statistical nature of the observed variation,

which

The

is

one of degree.

historical antecedents of these variations are likely to be

determine. Although some may be plausibly explained as results of population hybridization which can be observed in progress, it is likely that extinct populations also must be postulated, whose genetic composition cannot be known. There are in addition some hints of the way gene frequencies may change under difficult to

Rh

blood group system it is known, for example, that certain matings may give rise to incompatibility between the antigens of the fetus and the antibodies of the mother, resulting in the death of a certain proportion of children and thereby the elimination of certain genes. It is probable that further examples will be found for other genetic characters. The gene frequency in a population tends, it would seem, to be held in equilibrium by opposing selective forces. The adaptive nature of some of the more obvious physical variations in man, such as skin colour, has long been surmised, but it cannot be said that there is much direct evidence on the matter. selective influences; in the

39

Suggestive correlations between body proportions and the climatic situation of populations have been presented, but physiological work on the comparative performance of tropical peoples and Europeans has been inconclusive or has tended to show that any differences are slight. The prevalence of various nutritional and

many non-European populations may affect characters and so be an obstacle to valid comparisons. Thus, although it might ultimately make contributions of great significance to the understanding of cultural variations between peoples, and although differences in the intensity and balance of physiological processes might prove to be factors in many differences in beparasitic diseases in

haviour and temperament, the comparative physiology of man was only beginning to be explored in the 1950s. Much progress had to be made in psychophysiology before it would become possible from the study of comparative data at both the physiological and cultural levels to determine not only the range and the morphological associations of variations of bodily function in different populations but also the extent to which cultural dispositions are affected by such differences.

Meanwhile, the question whether populations

differ

with respect

to inherited capacities in mental functioning is apt to be prejudged in the political sphere, for the basis of "racist" doctrines is the

quite illogical supposition that if two populations exhibit certain physical differences which are inherited and also show differences in mentality, then the latter are inherited in the same biological

sense as the former and, by implication, cannot be changed very The scientific study of psychological differences between

much.

populations is beset with grave difficulties. It is no longer generally believed that the intelligence tests so widely used in European populations are a measure of genetically determined ability uninfluenced by educational or other environmental features, and therefore applicable to other cultural groups.

Insofar as tests as

from cultural bias have been used in comparative appear to favour the view that differences between populations are relatively slight and that the same kind of free as possible

studies, the results

overlapping

range occurs that is characteristic of physical traits. As indicated above, most early anthropologists, encouraged by the success of evolutionary doctrines in biology, at3.

in

Ethnology.

—

tempted to outline schemes of cultural and social evolution for mankind. They were handicapped by the fragmentary and restricted character of the material then available, but

serious

was

still

more

their frequent misconception of evolutionary principles

as developed in biology.

Despite the stress placed on diversifica-

and social evolution was usually postulated, and difand present were conceived as having reached

tion in the latter, a single pattern of cultural

applicable to

all

human

ferent peoples past

societies

various stages in this common process of development. This notion of unilinear evolution was applied both separately to particular aspects of human life such as modes of production, social organization, art, religion

and law, and also

to sociocultural

development

In consequence, ethnography, i.e., descriptive accounts of particular peoples, was apt to be regarded as a source of illustration of preconceived schemes, and the evidence it could afford of the divergence of cultural forms and of a consequent multilinear evolution of cultural patterns tended to be neglected. The

as a whole.

monumental

James Frazer, in which a vast body of was compiled to illustrate the supposed evolution of certain cosmological beliefs and some primitive social studies of Sir

earlier ethnographic data

institutions, represented the culmination of this approach.

As more detailed knowledge of nonwestern peoples accumulated was, however, increasingly recognized not only that a priori schemes of evolution in such fields as technology, economy, religion, art and social organization failed to account for the facts, but also that any given cultural pattern or form of social organization had to be examined minutely and comprehensively as a functioning system if the nature of its various features was to be elucidated to afford an adequate basis for comparative and developmental studies. This has encouraged not only much more intensive it

ethnographic study in the field, but also, according to the particular aspect of culture and society concerned, a wider knowledge of the relevant branches of cognate sciences such as psychology and sociology. On these foundations, ethnology, the study of the his-

ANTHROPOLOGY

+°

tory of peoples and cultures, made great progress in the first half Ethnologists have not only been concerned of the 20th century. with marshaling evidence to disprove the older schemes of unilinear evolution, as was so effectively done by R. H. Lowie. but have also sought, notably in the work of A. L. Kroeber, to work out by more

many

empirical methods phases of cultural development in particular regions. Others have, however, sought to replace the earlier views by equally world-wide schemes based on other criteria. Influential

and eastern North America, the ultimate objective being to describe and analyze the entire culture history of the new world from the still unknown time when the first human communities reached it. Considerable advances have been made and it is only in parts of Europe and the middle east that a comparable completeness of the total cultural record of man has been obtained. These studies of ethnohistory in the new world have at the same time maintained contact with the more theoretical interests developing in cultural anthropology, and significant contributions of data and hypotheses in connection with such problems have been made. 4. Archaeology and the Cultural Record. Prehistoric archaeology- the recovery and study of the artifacts of extinct cultures for which there are few written records or for which such records are not contemporary had its systematic beginnings in the later 19th century in an anthropological context, and prehistorians, although now necessarily specialists on a limited area or period, have continued to interest themselves in the relation of their findings to the general problems of cultural development.

among

these was the Kulturkreislehre, the doctrine of primitive first formulated by F. Graebner, which held that

culture spheres

more primitive peoples of the world could be classified into a limited series of distinct and ancient culture types, each characterized by a particular mode of livelihood, pattern of descent, form of religious beliefs, etc. These various types, it was held, had the

developed, spread widely and later intermingled, at successive periods in the early history of man. The task of the ethnologist was, accordingly, to unravel from the tangled skein of living primitive cultures the elements contributed in any given case by one or more of these ancient "spheres."

Formal

similarities in

way

of

life,

of descent, ceremonial, etc., among peoples as widely separated as, for example, the natives of west Africa, Melanesia and California, were held to show that their cultures had all in sub-

mode

stantial

measure stemmed from a

Graebnerian scheme secured speaking world where, indeed,

little

single

archaic

recognition in

type.

the

This

English-

its artificialities were severely critBut in continental Europe it not only exerted considerable influence on ethnological theory but also stimulated ethnographic field research, more particularly as its principles and methods were adopted and developed by the Anthropos school of ethnology under Father W. Schmidt and formed part of the training

icized.

Roman

Catholic missionaries posted in all parts of the world. North America great stress has been laid on the comprehensive description of the many primitive cultures that

of

In England and

have been fast disappearing or extensively modified under western From the early years of the 20th century, under the influence. influence of A. C. Haddon in England and F. Boas in the United States, a considerable body of systematic ethnographical data has been accumulated for certain regions of the world, notably North America, Australia and parts of Africa and Oceania. Comparative work based on such studies has, among other things, strengthened the evidence of the importance of migrations and mingling of peoples and still more of widespread diffusions of cultural elements,

mythology and modifying one or another aspect of culture over considerable areas. Attempts have been made to reconstruct such processes in detail for particular regions such as North America, Melanesia and Polynesia. The far-reaching effects of diffusion on cultural developments among all peoples thus became generally recognized. Its role and the processes involved were, however, exaggerated and oversimplified in the claims, which were generally rejected, of Sir Grafton Elliot Smith and William Perry, who attempted to account for the salient features of the more advanced primitive cultures of the world in terms of a single world-wide diffusion of their elements from one early centre of discovery and invention in ancient Egypt. Many of the assumptions underlying this scheme, and notably that of the inherent conservatism and uninventiveness of man, have been contradicted by the growing body of ethnographic and archaeological evidence pointing to the ubiquity of innovation under favourable conditions. In the special conditions of the new world, where the historic record is less than five centuries old and a direct continuity was often to be found between prehistoric remains and surviving Indian cultures, American anthropologists have found a favourable opportunity for the study of cultural development by the integration or close co-ordination of ethnographic, documentary and archaeological research in the intensive study of the culture history of several major regions, notably in the southwest of the United States, meso-America (from central Mexico to Central America) and the Andean region of South America. During the second quarter of the 20th century regional specialists such as VV. C. Bennett, G. Willey, A. Caso and E. J. Thompson succeeded in charting the main phases of indigenous cultural development and in elucidating

in spheres as diverse as handicrafts, art styles, ritual patterns, in

of the environmental factors and the processes of diffusion and integration involved. Historical and contextual problems have continued to multiply as this work has proceeded and been extended by F. Rainey, I. Rouse, J. B. Griffin. R. Heizer and others to further areas including the arctic, the Caribbean, California

—

—

—

The conspectus

available,

when

the results of this archaeological

research are combined with those of ethnology over a given period, makes it possible to grasp the broad outlines of the cultural history of

mankind and

more effectively some of the main procand social development. Archaeological documentary or ethnographic ones, can only

to assess

esses involved in cultural

materials, unlike

rarely afford direct information concerning ideas or social relations.

But despite the fragmentary and selective character of the

material, significant,

if

limited, inferences can be reached in these

when it is appraised thoroughly and critically. For the reconstruction of culture history, the date of archaeological material is vitally important and systems of relative chronology have been worked out by various methods such as those based on correlations with geological horizons (for the more remote periods i, the stratification of occupied sites and the associations and overlaps of typological sequences of artifacts. Absolute fields

dating has presented greater difficulties, but in the ancient east it has been possible to estimate the chronology of the Neolithic and later prehistoric phases by working back from the oldest written

documents including calendrical records, and the main phases of the prehistory of Europe back to c. 3000 B.C. have also been dated through correlations with these. In the arid areas of the southwestern United States it has been found possible, by matching the overlapping annual growth rings on tree trunks cut for building in prehistoric sites, to establish an absolute dendrochronology extending back to the beginning of the Christian era. But the development by W. F. Libby and others since 1950 of a method of dating organic archaeological remains by the measurement of the radioactivity of their carbon-14 promised to provide a means for securing an absolute chronology within a definable margin of error for prehistoric cultures as far back as 25,000 years. The widespread existence of human populations in the old world during the Pleistocene Ice Age has long been established by the geological dating of the chipped stone tools that afforded cutting instruments for early man. For the earlier periods, however, fossil remains of man are generally few and isolated, so that attempts at correlation of the early Stone Age cultures with particular species of Homo remain speculative. Before and during the earlypart of the last glaciation, the Neanderthal species of Homo occupied Europe and parts of southwest Asia with a culture which included tool forms derived from several older traditions. But it appears to have been completely displaced in Europe during that glaciation by populations of Homo sapiens, precursors of which may have already existed there but which now appeared equipped with stone tools of new types. These Upper Paleolithic industries indicate a very great technical advance, as shown in the greater specialization of stone tools, many of which were intended not for direct use but for the manufacture of other implements in bone,

ANTHROPOLOGY ivory and wood, and in the importance of missile weapons, especially the use of the spear thrower and bow, for neither of which is there any evidence in Lower Paleolithic remains. Advance in skill and organization in hunting and the addition of fishing to the economy permitted larger communities and more prolonged

occupation of sites. The Lower Paleolithic phase in Europe had been immensely long and on a conservative geological estimate endured for approximately 400,000 years. The Upper Paleolithic and the immediately postglacial Mesolithic food-gathering cultures of Neanthropic man in Europe, although they cover by far the greater part of the known history of Homo Sapiens, were by comparison short-lived, for they began to be supplemented after less than 100,000 years by the cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals.

The foraging, hunting and fishing economies to which all known human communities had hitherto been confined were then effectively supplemented in the old world for the first time by the development of grain cultivation and stock breeding in the warm, open and seasonally watered uplands of the middle east about 6,000 years ago. This momentous innovation, which made still larger and more stable human communities possible, spread widely during the next 1,000 years and, as it was generally associated with the manufacture and use of polished (as distinct from

chipped) stone tools, has become known as the Neolithic phase. Early Neolithic communities were small populations of from 20 to 30 households generally dependent on shifting cultivation, but, contrary to what prevailed in the hunting economies of Paleolithic man, a food surplus was increasingly possible in most environ-

ments to foster the development of other crafts. Handmade pottery and the weaving of simple textiles were generally adopted. Despite the clear evidence of the widespread diffusion of Neolithic crafts from early centres in the middle east, it is by no means definitively established that this was the only region of the old world in which men independently developed primitive cultivation and a settled life. But it was in this region again that greater technical advances followed in comparatively rapid succession over the next 2,000 years, facilitated it would seem by the devising of a more productive system of irrigation agriculture. New crafts, including the smelting of copper and the still

manufacture of bronze and

tian era,

4i

when there developed

a complex series of

sea which appear to have originated

movements by

from culturally advanced

peoples of Indonesia. Subsequent and diverse but sporadic contacts between Polynesia and the new world remain a possibility. Man first reached the new world late in geological time. Paleo-

geographical conditions suggest that any early route of entry was through the region of the Bering strait. But both the antiquity and the number of such movements into the western hemisphere now appear likely to be greater than was formerly thought. In the second quarter of the 20th century, evidence of the widespread existence of man in the new world as early as the late Pleistocene era accumulated. These earlier groups were hunters using chipped-

They probably used the spear thrower but were ignorant of the bow. Much later, from some time after c. 5000 B.C., a considerable range of new equipment spread widely in North America and by its character and distribution suggests further migrations from northern Eurasia. On these foundations more complex cultures developed later in Middle America between central Mexico and Peru. Sedentary life in small agricultural communities appears to have become widespread well before 1000 B.C. and was based nearly everywhere on the cultivation of primitive forms of maize, beans and cotton, to which many other plants were added later in different areas. Pottery also soon became general. Although there are many uncertainties as to the location and character of successive cultural advances, this wide Middle American region is generally accepted as a single cultural continuum within which, by processes of diffusion and of adaptation of discoveries and crafts, a Neolithic village economy of basically similar type was established. It would appear, however, that transmissions over wide areas were largely confined to knowledge of basic techniques and materials, for styles and emphases varied widely in different regions, providing the foundations for distinctive later developments whereby, more than 2,000 years later than in the old world, several complex civilizations were gradually built up after 1000 B.C., with their main centres in central and southern Mexico and in western Peru. There are no clear indications of cultural connections with the old world in the earlier development of the older Middle American agricultural peoples, but the question of cultural effects of stone spear points.

later of iron for cutting tools, led to

an

sporadic transmissions from Asia across the Pacific in the later

more extensive system

of

phases

increasing specialization of labour, a

exchange and an increase in the scale and centralization of society. This gave rise to a succession of city-states and later of empires from about 3000 B.C. in various parts of the wide region from the Nile to the Indus. Deriving their food supplies from plow cultivation, and equipped with increasingly specialized artisanmade tools, utensils and ornaments, they developed complex systems of exchange and written records under systems of centralized government. Some of the crafts of these urban civilizations of the ancient east were progressively introduced to the surrounding Neolithic peoples, whose cultures were thereby elaborated and specialized in various ways. On these foundations, the classical civilizations of the Mediterranean were later developed, while the influence of the ancient east was probably a crucial stimulus in eastern Asia. In tropical Africa archaeological research is in its infancy and the ethnographic record is very incomplete. It appears unlikely that the early Neolithic complex of the ancient east was able to breach the Sahara toward the west and there is so far no evidence of an early Bronze Age phase there. However, in the Ethiopian highland zone millet cultivation with the rearing of small stock and later of cattle, all probably derived from the north, appear to have afforded an early basis for sedentary and expanding populations. Together with ironworking, these occupa-

expanded westward and southward over the tropical South Asiatic root and fruit crops were also introduced and may have afforded the initial basis for cultivation and

tions later

grasslands.

an open one. and ceremonial

claimed that certain elements Maya resemble contemporary southeast Asiatic forms, while there is also evidence to suggest that food plants spread west across the Pacific from the new world in pre-Columbian times. On the other hand, the significant and widespread effects of the diffusion of crafts and other cultural elements from Middle America over surrounding regions within the new world is undisputed. Thus in both the old world and the new, a succession of discoveries, inventions and adaptations to new conditions made in different centres through the millennia and diffused to other peoples over wide areas gave human populations a progressively greater control over natural resources and resulted both in a growing complexity of cultural apparatus and an increasing scale and differentiation of social organization. Despite the setbacks or stagnation of some peoples there were always centres of development, and the cultures of the multiplying human societies were continually diversifying. The archaeological record thus confirms the 19th-century hypothesis that savagery (food-gathering), baris

still

of art style

It is

in the late

barism (nonliterate primitive cultivators) and civilization (literate societies organized in states with specialized occupations and class structure) have been consecutive phases in the history of mankind, but it equally refutes any idea that there has been an inevitable tendency for all peoples to pass autonomously and successively through such stages. The growth of human culture has clearly been an immensely complex process of discovery, innova(See also Archaeology; Geotion, diffusion and adaptation.

sedentary

life in the forest zone. Although Australia had been colonized much earlier by hunting peoples with Paleolithic equipment, the outer archipelagoes of

CHRONOLOGY.) 5. Analysis of Culture and Society. Parallel with the advances in ethnology and prehistoric archaeology, a distinct field

Oceania, in Micronesia and Polynesia, may not have been effectively colonized by man much before the beginning of the Chris-

of interest in anthropology has been greatly developed.

—

stemmed from

the desire to reach

This has

by more intensive and systematic

ANTHROPOLOGY

42

study, and as part of the general scientific study of the nature of culture and society, a clearer grasp of the inner workings of nonwestern societies and of the raison d'etre of their customs

and institutions. This could not be attained from the study and comparison of outer forms and led to a functional analysis of A few fortunately situsociocultural systems as viable entities. ated and gifted observers had already made intensive studies of the lives of

some primitive peoples, not

in order to

provide data

for ethnologists or to illustrate evolutionary schemes, but with the object of discovering the internal processes and conditions

and the inherent values which sustained and mutually adjusted the different aspects of their way of life. Robert H. Codrington's 7"/;i' Melonesians, Frank H. Cushing's Zuni Breadstuffs and Henri P. Junod's Life of a South African Tribe are early classics of this kind. The theoretical aspects of such an approach had hitherto received but little attention within anthropology itself mainly on account of the evolutionary or historical preoccupations of ethnolBut within the framework of evolutionary anthropology there had been considerable achievement in analyzing and classiAfter J. J. fying the forms of primitive social organization. Bachofen and Sir Henry Maine, whose main work was published in

ogists.

the 1860s. the great American pioneer Lewis H. Morgan, in his Systems of Consanguineity (1871), laid the foundation for a Fifty years later, R. H. scientific analysis of kinship systems. Lowie. in his Primitive Society, published a masterly critique of older theories which also surveyed and classified in the light of more recent ethnographic knowledge the whole range of primitive social groupings and the conditions which gave rise to them. Meanwhile, in considering theoretical problems concerning the structure and function of human societies, a number of sociologists, notably Max Weber, Georg Simmel, Emile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, had turned to the ethnographic literature on primitive peoples for material.

Under

their influence the application

of such a functional approach to the study of primitive people

was developed in England by W. H. Rivers. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown and B. Malinowski. But they stressed a new and essential point of method, namely, that the field study and the theoretical analysis of the ethnographic material should be carried out by the same investigator,

who should go

ings according to a

more or

others but to investigate at

into the field not to record his findless routine first

schedule for the use of

hand the

living situation

among

a particular people and elucidate particular problems concerning the nature of culture and social organization.

Brown

in his first

studies on the

Andaman

A. R. Radcliffe-

Islanders (1906-08)

analyzed the interrelations between their ecology, social organization, religious practices and symbolism. The Melanesian field work of B. Malinowski (1914-18) provided the basis for a detailed demonstration of the intricate interdependence of cultural norms and for an analysis of the social processes whereby patterns of customary activity were maintained and restored among the Trobriand Islanders. These studies laid the foundations of what is generally known as functional anthropology, which, while it has considerably developed its range of theoretical interests, has continued to stress the importance of intensive and comprehensive field work as the chief means of formulating and testing hypotheses concerning cultural and social processes and the roles of institutions. While Malinowski himself devoted his main attention

to the

ways

in

which the cultural system integrated the activities molded the outlook of the individual, providing

of a people and

and co-ordinating the wide range of human needs which he traced back to their biological and psychological foundations, later work under Radcliffe-Brown's influence was more sociological in the sense that it sought to analyze various sectors of the complex system of social relations and compare them over a wide range of societies. It examined the functions and interrelations of institutions, constructed models of social structure and, through the comparative study of these structural features in different societies, sought to show both the interdependence of their elements and the conditions sustaining them. As was shown in later studies, such as those of R. Firth and E. E. Evans-Pritchard, the for

close observation of social relations in the field afforded a more adequate basis for the analysis of economic processes, social con-

trol

and

ritual activities

and

belief.

In the course of these developments

new methods

of field in-

vestigation have been elaborated and systematized to provide the

data required for tackling these problems, which are concerned only initially with the externals of any cultural feature, be it

complex

and are mainly system of which it forms a part. While the study and description of cultural forms is always essential and may suffice to establish the occurrence of technical and stylistic changes and connections between patterns in different cultures, a functional approach of this kind is indispensable in attempting to isolate and analyze the processes involved in the integration and internal development of cultures and social systems. It has, in turn, raised many problems of theory and method which have loomed large in anthropological discussions, for the concept of function has itself been given various connotations. While Malinowski conceived it primarily in terms of the needs and motivations of the individual members of society by whom modes of satisfaction were elaborated in cultural terms, Radcliffe-Brown insisted on a more strictly sociological connotation directed toward the analysis of social structure and the function of institutions and beliefs as contributing to the maintenance of a given social system. While the approach in particular studies has often varied according to the material or the special problems in hand, and both motivational and structural analyses have sometimes been combined, the distinction in the two trends has been marked. The former has predominated in the United States, while structural studies of systems of ideas and social organization have predominated in the re(See also Social Ansearches of British social anthropologists. thropology.) 6. Cultural and Social Typologies. The need for comparaa technical operation or a

directed toward an analysis of

its

institution,

role in the sociocultural

—

study of functional relations, in order to define recurrent social and, as evidenced in the work of J. Steward and R. Redfield, cultural types and the conditions on which they depend, has also received growing recognition. Although systematic work is only beginning in this field, it has long been apparent that there are significant functional homologies between diverse societies which are manifested not so much in concrete cultural forms of behaviour as in more abstract qualities such as levels of material productivity and social aggregation, degrees and patterns of occutive

pational specialization and of horizontal and vertical social differentiation. Typologies of this kind have long been recognized in the implicit classifications of

types of social organization such

as those distinguishing kin-based from various types of state sys-

tems, recognizing

among

the former such recurrent subtypes as

the localized bilateral band, the polysegmentary lineage system

and,

among

varieties. a

more

the latter, feudal and bureaucratically centralized

Further comparative study promises to yield not only

precise formulation of types but a

more

exact knowledge

of the ecological, technical and demographic conditions to which they are related. Such typological studies are necessarily based

on selected and abstract features. They seek to determine not the genetic and historical relations between peoples or cultures but the ways in which features common to certain societies are functionally related, through regular psychocultural processes, to particular kinds of external conditions and the nature of the cultural adaptation that is demonstrated by the recurrence of particular types in diverse places and periods. Theoretical interests in Ameri7. Culture and Personality. can anthropology, following up the early leads of A. L. Kroeber, C. Wissler and E. Sapir, included the pursuit of more comprehensive and explicit analyses of cultural phenomena and the study of the relations between different aspects of culture. This has led to a concern with the ways in which the personality and outlook

—

of the individual are modified by the cultural system.

This approach, which

first

became widely known through Ruth

Benedict's Patterns of Culture (1934), has been developed in scope and refined in technique in the works of Margaret Mead,

Irving Hallowell, Clyde Kluckhohn and others, which have led to fusion of interests between anthropologists and personality psychologists. Primitive peoples, distinctive and diverse in their

a

ANTHROPOLOGY ways of

and comparatively isolated from the western world, not only show marked variations in their predominant patterns of emotional expression but have also afforded smaller-scale and more homogeneous units for the study of the cultural aspects of such problems as compared with those available in western societies. Anthropologists have accordingly sought by systematic field observation to discover the underlying and pervasive attitudes characteristic of particular peoples and to analyze the ways and conditions in which these differ. This has involved attempts life

more objective criteria for defining the differences in temperament that have long been recognized by ethnographers, historians and others at the common-sense level. Besides directto devise

ing attention to hitherto neglected cultural minutiae and so to formulating more precisely the "covert culture," it has led to the adaptation for anthropological use of projective tests devised by psychologists to reveal traits of personality; and also to a detailed

examination of modes and emphases

in child training

among

different peoples in connection with psychological hypotheses con-

cerning the profound effects of the cultural setting and relations in infancy on the adult personality. all

derive from the view that the

members

of

human

These approaches any persisting group

of people will not only exhibit distinctive cultural features but

manifest certain predominant traits of personality. The nexus between these is sought in the fact that the integration of experience by the individual and the maintenance and transmission of a cultural pattern involve the same psychological mechanisms whereby particular forms of apprehension and behaviour acquire an emotional and symbolic significance as part of a meaningful world of experience. This approach has directed the attention of anthropologists to the symbolic meanings and emotional significance of cultural features hitherto only formally described and, on the other hand, has led psychologists to recognize the existence of an inevitable cultural component which, equally with biological endowment, immewill also

and neurological mechanisms, affects all processes of perception, motivation and learning. A human being, therefore, always perceives, feels, thinks and acts as a person sharing diate stimuli

culturally derived characteristics with his group. 8.

Culture and Society.

—The

and sociological analysis, which

distinction

is

more recent developments,

is

refers to the standardized patterns of activity

are learned and manifested

by people

and

belief

that

in their collective life.

It

includes categories as diverse and various in form and in range of

craftsmanship, games, rituals, empirical knowledge and metaphysical beliefs. It consists essentially of certain kinds of regularity which are abstracted by the observer from the continuous flow of human activity, and from which he can infer a range of recurrent emotional attitudes or established significance as speech,

Such cultural patterning

values. nized.

The anthropologist

differs

is,

43 the other hand, be isolated in order to

discover the degree of interdependence among them and between them and selected extracultural conditions. Sociological analysis, on the other hand, is essentially concerned, not with cultural forms, but with relations between categories of persons and the structure of the groupings they form. It operates with concepts such as social status, dominance and subordination, opposition and solidarity as applied to persons and groups. These

concepts are also derived from the observation of a multitude of recurrent items of behaviour between individuals, certain aspects

summarized in terms of such kinds of relationThus the formulation of social relations is derived from observation of the same concrete collective activities in human of which can be ship.

populations as are cultural patterns, but they are abstracted in a different frame of reference. Since categories of social relations are often abstracted from certain recurrent patterns of behaviour

they can be regarded as derived from, and more abstract than, cultural patterns. Furthermore, for their analysis attention is restricted to particular kinds of cultural patterns and to limited aspects of these, namely, those from which the relations between

persons in a social system can be derived. 9.

Science and History in Anthropology.

—These

various

attempts to isolate and analyze the different factors underlying any given cultural or social feature and its changes through time critical interest in the problem of universal processes which, in differing combinations in particular situations, might account for the distinctive features of actual sociocultural patterns and for the differences among them. The variety of human cultures recorded by ethnography provides a laboratory in which, through the analysis of differing forms with their varying functions and contexts, such processes can, at least in part, be isolated by comparative study. This is the more strictly scientific or analytic approach in anthropology. It seeks to abstract

have sustained

from a given range of phenomena certain properties or attributes between which definite relations can be discovered. It does not seek to account in any one analysis for all the features of any concrete sociocultural situation or development. Selected propstudy in relation to others that may thus be the preconditions of the first, or functionally interdependent with them. At the same time, the direct and comprehensive interest in the concrete human situation, whether it concerns a general pattern of culture, a mode of social organization, particular forms of belief and ritual practice or techniques whereby artifacts are produced and employed, leads to explanation through integrated erties are isolated for

between cultural

important in connection with one on which there has been much confusion. Both these terms have been taken from common speech and are often loosely used, but the distinction between their central meanings corresponds closely to significant differences of objective in much anthropological work, and there is an advantage to be gained from stricter usage. The term culture these

They may, on

lations.

of course, universally recog-

from the layman only

in

more

fully appreciating the fact that this recognition involves abstrac-

and conceptualization, and in consciously attempting to formuand analyze such patterns systematically in order to study their interrelations and implications. Among any given people the number and variety of cultural features that may be isolated tion late

for consideration are indefinitely great. It is, indeed, because the data and the corresponding problems are so diverse, ranging as they may from concern with the technical aspects of a produc-

be found

to

description or historical interpretation.

Particular configurations

are appraised and interpreted with regard to their contexts and

But integrated descriptions, which are the stuff of dependent on analytical hypotheses, for no explanatory account of how things have come to be as they are among a given people is possible without postulating more general properties and regularities with regard to human culture or social life. Thus, descriptive studies, whether they are what are commonly regarded as historical, tracing particular cultural and social developments over a considerable period of time, or whether they are ethnographic descriptions of very limited time depth, and, whether the range of activities and relations considered is wide, or is confined to the portrayal of a particular institution, always depend for the interpretation of the particular forms and their interconnections on the application of general principles posited as underlying the sociocultural behaviour of man. In this sense antecedents.

history, are themselves

historical or descriptive studies are a species of applied science;

tive activity or the

for, just as the various branches of engineering depend on the postulated uniformities of the physical sciences, or as modern medicine depends for diagnosis and therapy on the application

of ideas implicit in actions

of biological concepts and principles, so the analysis and inter-

belief or

pretation of particular cultural situations presuppose principles concerning human behaviour. The concepts and theories em-

formal analysis of an art style to the study and statements concerning religious moral judgment, that anthropological studies of different aspects or fields of culture are so diverse and link up with problems in so many other recognized fields of knowledge. The kinds of inquiry that can be made about such patterns are, accordingly, quite various. Cultural features may be studied in sequence to determine changes through time in one or more continuing popu-

be vaguely formulated; they may not be explicitly Their verification may be weak and some may be shown But conceptually they are of the to be irrelevant or fallacious. same kind as the hypotheses and theories of natural science, for

ployed stated.

may

ANTHROPOLOGY

44

is the most satisfactory hypothesis available given time, in respect of verification and comprehensiveness, concerning the properties of a certain range of phenomena and

a scientific theory at a

their interrelations.

The

reasons

why hypotheses concerning

processes in

and

ciety differ in degree of explicitness, precision

human

so-

verification

from the theories of physical science, and are correspondingly limited in their analytic and predictive value, are not far For in passing from the inorganic to the organic, and to seek. from the organic to the cultural field, the complexity and variability of the phenomena, i.e., the number of variables involved

more

determining their properties, multiply progressively. So, too, do the difficulties of achieving systematic observation in requisite Where, as in the study of the collecvarieties of circumstance. tive activities of man. the range and relative independence of the variables that determine any section of the pattern are so great, it is not surprising that hypotheses are, as compared with those They in physical science, difficult to formulate, verify and apply. are nevertheless of crucial importance. For every people has its in

own hypotheses

as to various processes controlling its cultural

and its social relations. Everywhere these beliefs are employed in explanation of the events that befall a people and in its judgments regarding the practical courses it should pursue. Hypotheses are also extended to other peoples, past and present. That such beliefs can often be shown to be inadequate or fallaactivities

cious only serves to underline the fact that the particular cultural

and

social conditions in

which men

find themselves will be inter-

preted, and indeed can only have meaning, in terms of theories of culture and of society. From this follows the paramount importance of applying to sociocultural phenomena the inductive analysis and the critical testing of hypotheses which are the canons of science. In attempting such analyses anthropology has emphasized the need to consider particular problems within a framework that embraces the human species as a whole. Whether concerning the elaboration of particular crafts, the character of an art style, the pattern of economic or political organization or the foundations of religious beliefs and practices, the anthropologist eschews hypotheses of special creation. 10.

Human Ecology.— Beyond

the analysis and comparison of

cultural patterns or social systems themselves there lies a further

range of problems concerning the relations of such patterns to The recognition of culture as, in significant measure, an instrumental apparatus for the satisfaction of psychoexternal conditions.

man accounts for the universality of several broad categories from which any given culture can be viewed, such as the technical, economic, political or magico-religious, and for the common attributes of any social system in providing means of training, control and replacement of its personnel in various social roles. But the great variability in the content and context of this instrumentality remains a major problem of the student of culture and society and points to the need for closer analysis of the wide range of external conditions in which the cultural and social adjustments of any community are made. The physiological and psychological qualities of individuals, and thus of the groups they comprise, are variable; hence special characteristics in this field may prove to be significant determinants. The understanding of the significance for culture of physiological and psychological processes and of their variable incidence is obviously dependent on the advances made in these sciences by their own methods. This is but another instance of the familiar interdependence between different fields of science whereby one branch employs concepts and inferences whose validity depends on findbiological drives in

The pervasive influence of the habitat and of past and present relations with other communities on the way of life, social institutions and outlook of any people has also ings in other fields.

long been recognized and often effectively presented in descriptive accounts. Although the subcultural or biopsychological foundations

from which any cultural pattern must develop

may

account

for certain universal qualities or categories, in the sociocultural field differences in habitat, resources and relations with other

groups continually tend to produce great variety

ment

of cultural patterns

and

social relations.

in the

Any

developexplanation

of cultural variation

and of

specific cultural

and

social features

must, therefore, include an ecological approach in which these are comprehensively related to the biological and demographic character of the particular population, to the available material resources, to the techniques commanded and to the connections with other groups. Cultural adaptation and social change are, however, profoundly affected by the inertia of the previously existing pattern. For the various elements of any cultural system inevitably acquire a symbolic value over and above their more direct instrumental significance.

status

Emotional satisfactions and recognitions of

become attached

to

them

in

such a

way

social

that the possibilities

of modification and innovation are restricted and channeled by the already existing configuration. Thus the adaptive processes

may

be slowed down and biased and there may be not only a marked discrepancy between potentiality and achievement in any cultural sphere but also discordance between one part of the field and another under conditions of cultural change. Such maladjustment or discrepancy is equally apparent at the social level and has been the subject of close study in connection with the effects of the impact of western civilization on primitive societies. (See Applied Anthropology, below.) An ecological approach of this kind views the biological, environmental, demographic and technical conditions of the life of any people and its previous patterning as an interrelated series of determinants of form and function in human cultures and social systems. It recognizes that a pattern of group behaviour is dependent for its maintenance upon the persistence of a specific range of resources and associated skills and upon a body of emotionally charged beliefs; these together give rise to a system of social relations that can be analyzed as a series of social struc-

All of these are implemented by learning, or enculturaon the part of the many human beings who participate in the sociocultural system and so maintain it. As such a system is at the same time a field for the release of human energies the level of which is likely to be significantly dependent on biological factors "racial," nutritional and immunity differences tures. tion,

'

among

—

peoples are likely to feature

among

the ultimate deter-

minants of cultural and social differentiation. Human ecology, therefore, deals with a very complex series of interconnected systems in which the resultants in one are partial determinants in the others. As in the physical sciences, therefore, knowledge of relations and intensities in one system is needed to provide data Although the anthrofor analysis and interpretation in others. pologist, in investigating a particular problem or constructing a model of any one system, may neglect the many variables arising from others, it is in the recognition of this wide field of interdependence and of the need to integrate them in the final analysis that the outlook of anthropology, as distinct from that of any of the more limited approaches to human behaviour, essentially consists. (See also Ecology. Human.) 11. Cultural and Social Evolution. Although the common 19th-century misconception of a unilineal and progressive development of all human societies has long been discredited, the validity The culof the basic concepts of evolution has been confirmed. tures and social systems of mankind have shown the same general differentiation through trend toward increasing complexity and time as that found in organic evolution. There are accordinglymany analogies with organic evolution in cultural development. Cultural innovation as one emergent manifestation of the most elaborate life form shows the same propensities found in life itself for the development of new forms and functions, for the radiation of forms that are more successfully adjusted to a given range of environment and for the reduction or extinction of other forms with which these compete successfully. But the processes involved differ basically from those in organic evolution, for they are psychological and not genetic, the units of modification are social groups and not individual organisms, and they include processes of assimilation which are not matched at the organic level. For whereas organic evolution depends on the transmission, perpetuation and recombination of new biological features or mutations through the processes of reproduction, cultural mutations

—

ANTHROPOLOGY

45

work of the Neo-Humboldtians). A review of these problems in 1959 came to the conclusion that an understanding of the systemic conception of language presented by linguistic science was essential to the solution of many important problems The language a people speak may well influence of psychology. their thinking, but the problem of determining the precise nature

arise

especially the

thought can be transmitted to all appropriate members of the succeeding generation and will furthermore not be restricted to that population but can be extended by diffusion to all the other Cultural entities again receptive populations in contact with it. appear to be more complex and fluid than genetic ones; the patterns of behaviour and mentality in which they are manifest can be subtly modified in the process of transmission and incorporation

of this influence remained to be solved.

from the inventiveness of socially stimulated individuals and are established by precept and learning. If a cultural innovation is accepted in a population, the new patterns of activity and

See also Linguistics. Harold Basilius, "Neo-Humboldtian EthnolinguisWord, vol. 8, pp. 95-105 (1952) Franz Boas, Introduction, Handbook of American Indian Language!,, Part 1, Bulletin 40, Bureau of American Ethnology H911 Roccr Brown, Words and Things (1959) Harry Hoijer (ed.). Language in Culture (1954) Edward Sapir, Selected Writings in Language, Culture, and Personality, ed. by David G. Mandelbaum, pp. 7-32, 160-166, 389-462 (1949) Benjamin L. Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality (1956) D. H. Hymes, "Lexicostatistics So Far," Current Anthropology (Jan. 1960), a discussion of glottochronology and its applications. (H. Hr.) Bibliography.

—

tics,"

;

)

Thus

into a wider cultural system.

can proceed

much more

cultural

and

social evolution

rapidly to produce a wide range of varia-

on the other hand, a successful cultural pattern can The result, morefaster than a biological species. over, is to produce not new species composed of many members closely resembling one another, but a new source of diversity in the many communities that come under the influence of a radiating (D. F.) diffusion. 12. Linguistics in Anthropology. Although European linguistics developed from earlier philological studies, American linguistics began primarily as an anthropological discipline and has developed in close conjunction with ethnology, the science of Nearly all of the early students of anthropology in the culture. United States engaged in linguistic studies and regarded these as essential to a thorough knowledge of culture. tions and,

much

radiate

—

American linguists paid especial attention to the languages of American Indians. In this field the major problem was to

the

way to describe accurately a large number of highly diverse languages which had neither a written literature nor a documented Under the leadership of Franz Boas, American anthropological linguists concentrated on descriptive rather than historifind a

history.

Their aim was to analyze and describe languages, studies. not in terms of their historical antecedents (which were unknown) cal

or in terms of traditional grammatical categories (which were inapplicable), but solely in terms of the structural and semantic categories evidenced in the languages under study.

required

more than simply

Such research

the Americanist

linguistic analysis;

needed a sound knowledge of the culture to which the language belonged. As a result there developed an interest in the relations between language and culture and in the role that language might play in Boas (in the habitual behaviour and thought of its speakers. 1911) suggested that linguistic inquiry is necessary to a thorough investigation of the psychology of the peoples of the world and especially important to an understanding of fundamental ethnic also

ideas.

Edward

Sapir, in 1916, investigated the contributions

made

by historical linguistics to the reconstruction of cultural history. But Sapir went further when he proposed (1931 that a thorough description of a linguistic structure and the ways in which it functioned in speech might throw considerable light on the perceptive and cognitive faculties of men and help in understanding )

among peoples of different culAnthropological linguistics, as contrasted with linguistics per se, became concerned not only with the scientific study of language but also with language as an important influence in the molding of cultures and in the orientation of human

;

;

II.

been necessary

the great expansion of the brain in human evolution. Many of the processes responsible for the differentiation of

man

into

species,

tion

Some

of these centre about the role of

language in its cultural matrix. How do the patterns of a language (grammatical and semantic) relate to other cultural patterns? Does language exert a shaping influence on culture, and vice versa? The study of these problems (often called ethnolinguistics has only begun^ and much research is needed even to determine whether or not the questions raised are genuinely valid. )

A second

set of questions relates to the influence

exerted by

language on perception, cognition and thought. Here the terrain well explored, even though the problems have long been studied by linguists, psychologists, philosophers and others (see

is less

races,

different

Homo

although he

still

remained a

single

known: selection, genetic drift, migraObjective methods of isolating various kinds

sapiens, are

and mutation.

of traits and dealing mathematically with their frequencies, as well as their functional or phylogenetic significance, make it pos-

understand the composition of human populations and to formulate hypotheses concerning their future. The resulting information accumulated by physical anthropologists makes available facts about the groups inhabiting the world as well as the Thus, it is possible for a individuals composing these groups. person to learn about his own genetic constitution with reference sible to

to traits ranging

from blood types

molar teeth and

to

traits in the

secure

know

to the fissural patterns of his

the frequency and distribution of these

various races about the world. He is also able to of the probability with which his children

some estimate

will inherit these features.

Insight into the field of physical anthropology may be obtained fields of investigation in which particular

by reviewing the general

researchers are actively engaged. 1. The relationship of the human organism to its environment, or human ecology, is a bridge between the biological and social

Problems of population, size and A very immediate aspect change which may occur in populations of in

difficult questions.

meaning of these differences by

lemurs. Much light has been thrown upon man's relation to other primates and upon the nature of the transformation of his skeleton in the course of evolution from early man 4o modern man, a span Discovery of the South African man of at least 500,000 years. apes, the first in 1924, and of a similar form (Zinjanthropus boisei) in east Africa in 1959, has revealed unanticipated data concerning the diverse combinations of traits which can coexist and the singularly illuminating fact that erect posture preceded

sciences.

and

to search for the

including as objects of study past races of fossil man as well as the nonhuman primates: anthropoid apes, monkeys, tarsiers and

Benjamin L. Whorf, took up this problem in a series of brilliant essays written from 1939 to 1941. This work, cut short by Whorf's death, led to further investigation of a problem which turned out to be bristling with complex of Sapir's students,

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Physical anthropology is that branch of natural science which Both the is concerned with the origin and evolution of man. course which human evolution has taken and the causes or processes which have brought it about are of equal concern. In order to interpret the diversity within races and between races it has

thinking.

One

;

;

the wide diversity in behaviour tural backgrounds.

;

many

ways.

retically, a small

population

tions than a large one.

economy of a particular Population Ecology.) 2.

Human

for research.

important

the varying rate of

different sizes.

Theo-

susceptible to chance fluctua-

Both the natural environment and the (See society affect the population size.

is

essential

description of fossil

of particular traits.

more

is

another area which serves as a focus problems are not only the complete forms but the evaluation of the significance Old concepts of orthogenesis, or evolution

evolution

The

is

stability are

have had to be abandoned, and radiant and have come to the fore. It is clear that the course of human evolution may swing about so that what were formerly considered relatively modern forms may actually precede

in a straight

line,

parallel evolution

morphologically earlier ones, as in the case of the more modern

ANTHROPOLOGY

46

kind of Neanderthal man who apparently preceded the more primitive or early form. Fossil man of considerable antiquity has been found in Europe. Asia and Africa. No area in the world is without skeletal remains, so that researchers may everywhere engage (See Man. Evolution of.) in skeletal studies. 3. Primatology is an area in which man's place in nature is no longer the major point of focus. Researchers are concerned with experimental, medical and ecological aspects of primates and

areas of interest referred to above are, of course, not mutually exclusive; ideally they should all form part of the training of researchers in the origin and evolution of man. (See also

from these studies that much of the functional significance

may be derived from a skeleton, and the method by which they are secured, provides an index of the usefulness of skeletons. Under optimum conditions, seven categories of information may be derived from the examination of a complete skeleton, or one which is at least represented by the skull and mandible, the two hipbones, and some long bones such as those of the thigh and upper arm. With varying degrees of precision esti-

it

is

The monkeys have made

of various bone and muscle complexes has been derived. different kinds of adaptations

to life in the trees or to life

which groups of on the ground have had many con-

sequences in the proportions of their limbs or in the elaboration of various groups of muscles.

Similarly, the

mode

of progression

through trees by the use of the arms, known as brachiation, is accompanied by the elongation of the arms, reduced size of the thumb and many other structural arrangements in the anthropoid Thus the primates provide a natural laboratory of many apes. kinds of experiments in physical adaptation to fundamentally (See Primates.) different ways of life or adaptive zones. The study of 4. Genetics is a fourth major area of research. inherited traits in individuals and the behaviour of the genes responsible for these traits in populations is essential to understanding human variability. Although the blood groups have provided the bulk of the data, many other traits are being analyzed

Growth.) A. Identification of Skeletal

Remains

Law enforcement

agencies frequently call upon physical anthropologists to identify skeletal remains. A summary of the kinds of information which

mates

may

be made of the sex, age, stature, race, bone diseases,

individual structural peculiarities, such as right- or left-handedness, and the major blood type, 0, A, B or AB. These determinations are based upon measurements and observations of the morphological characters. The 20 or 30 measurements commonly used indicate the absolute size of the various portions of the skull and other bones. Indices expressing the proportion of one diameter to another may be derived from these. The cranial index, the proportion of the breadth of the head expressed as a percentage

quencies and to calculate amounts of race mixture. (See Genetics of Populations.) 5. Growth studies, both of humans and other primates, engage the attention of many physical anthropologists in medical and dental schools as well as in independent clinics and universities.

is often useful when distinguishing Negro crania, which are often relatively narrow and long, from American Indian crania which, in many groups, are broader. Morphological observations may be made of a great number of characters, though about 30 are usually adequate for most purposes. These observations are of two kinds: (1) form or conformation (e.g., the foreheads of Negro crania are often bulbous whereas the foreheads of Australian aborigines are more often flatter and more sloping); (2)

Methods

the presence or absence of discrete traits or configurations

and theories of in this area

it

their inheritance tested.

is

As

a result of research

possible to describe races in terms of gene fre-

of assessing rates of growth, skeletal age

compared with

chronological age and the genetic, endocrinological and nutritional

some

factors are relation

of the aspects involved in these studies.

between growth and socioeconomic status and other

tural features receives considerable attention.

the posterior or lingual surface,

cul-

lower molars of Eskimo crania most often have five cusps). Combinations of traits based on size, proportion, presence or absence of particular items, are distinctive of different populations, and thus an individual skeleton may be classified as a member of a particular group. Age of the individual skeleton is estimated primarily from five principal characteristics: (1) appearance of epiphyseal centres; (2) formation and emergence of deciduous, then permanent teeth; (3) union of the end of the long bones with their shafts, many of which unite between ages 13 and 19; (4) changes in the surface conformation and texture of the faces of the pubic symphysis; (5) closure and obliteration of the cranial sutures separating the bones, many of which gradually

been frequently studied, often because the emergence of the teeth of great practical importance and serves as an index of development. As a result of research in this area it is possible to describe

and

to calculate

amounts of

race mixture. 6.

Measurement

or anthropometry (q. v.) has been a mainstay

of anthropological research for well over a century.

More

atten-

being given to the judicious selection of measurements than to the simple techniques with which calipers are handled. tion

is

Many

traditional

measurements cannot be analyzed and the addimake them any more in-

tion of multivariate statistics does not telligible.

Statistical considerations are especially

(e.g.,

the upper front teeth of Mongoloids often have a depression on

The

Dentitions have

is

races in terms of gene frequencies

of the length,

important

in

known

as "shoveling," and the

first

unite between the ages of 21 and 65. It should be kept clearly in mind that identification of a single

genetic and anthropometric research, and part of the history of statistics is identical with the history of the development of these two research interests. Quite certainly the end results of growth

skeleton

can only be studied by measurement. Newer growth studies have followed children through their morphological and biochemical changes with the aim of discerning why children grow.

that each specimen is unique, this application of research does not contribute to generalization. In the same way, a single, specimen of fossil man is of limited utility in constructing a body of

7. Many of the applications of physical anthropology lie in the field of measurement. Thus, the problems involved in providing military and civilian clothing for large numbers of people

is

an application of the data concerning combinations

of characters which are secured from large series of skeletons

The

knowledge about a population. tification

The

or

relatively

squat body build through a relatively

muscular to a linear body build. The components of body build, the different tissues and dimensions, were being studied in the early 1960s by means. of factor analysis and comparisons of siblings and twins, and their actual mode of inheritance and response to environmental conditions were slowly being specified. The various

fundamental

to the iden-

find in

Human

lateral

fact

its relation to other fossil men is that a single not a race. A race is a population and is always variable in its physical characteristics. Some skeletons may be more easily identified with reference to the population from which they were drawn owing in part to the fact that the population is

fossil

population and the population

constitution is another area of research interest. Several descriptive systems exist for classifying persons who vary from

other studies of a In the sense

of a single skeleton or the attempt to place a single

depend on measurement and statistical treatment. Substantial savings have been made possible by measuring the people of a particular area and adjusting the clothing tariffs to these known distributions of body sizes. There is sufficient variation within most countries so that the geographical variations in size of the body and intermembral proportions are of practical importance.

a

many

from known populations.

individual

relatively

is

homogeneous, the range of variability

Eskimo

is

is

known

relatively distinct

for that

from others.

comparatively easy to reca high frequency of nine or ten traits: (1) the skull is relatively long and narrow; (2) along the top from front to back; extends ridgelike elevation a (3) there is a marked protuberance of the occipital or rear portion of the skull; (4) the face is extremely broad; (5) cheekbones are prominent and form a sharp angle at the turn from the face to the side of the skull; (6) the nasal bones are narrow; (7) eastern or arctic

ognize because

it

is

skull

characterized

is

by

ANTHROPOLOGY the tympanic plate

often thick;

is

(8) a dehiscence or aperture

beauty.

47

Blumenbach anticipated 20th-century analyses his critical observation that the chimpanzee was

of locomo-

may

tion in

torus or

quadrupedal in spite of occasionally erect posture, and cited as evidence the receding heel bones and the elongated pelvis. 2. Great Chain of Being and the "Missing Link." -A basic concept that constituted the organizing assumption of primate taxonomy, from its inception to well after the formal appearance

be present; (9) the mandible, which is large, often has a bony reinforcement on the inside; and (10) a bony ridge may also occur on the palate. Combinations of sorting criteria such as these are assembled for each skeletal population and they enable the anthropologist to estimate the likelihood that an individual specimen belongs to such a population. In many groups there is so much overlap that an individual cannot be assigned to one or the other. Thus, there are some American Indian crania which resemble those of Australian aborigines on the basis of the sorting criteria commonly employed, and this similarity has given rise to fallacious theories of Australoid migrations to the new world.

The major blood type of the skeleton may be determined because blood group substance is present in several tissues and fluids of the body, including the spongy tissue found inside the vertebrae and the heads of the long bones. This group substance is also situated on the red blood cells and responds to the typing serum containing the antibodies by agglutinating or clumping the red cells together. Although it is not possible to agglutinate the bone cells, an absorption technique can be employed which will indicate the presence of the group substance for A or B in the bone by reducing the titre of the serum specific to it when the two are placed together in a test tube. The group substance may be extracted from the bone and tested separately. This technique might prove to have great future significance in that it makes possible the tracing of the genetic composition of various skeletal races back in time, since the group substance is very stable and resistant to alteration.

Another kind of

which

may

be applied to skeletal material This is a chemical test which measures the amount of fluorine present in the specimen. This amount may then be checked with that found in other bones from the same deposits and their contemporaneity established. In addition, the relative amount of fluorine varies with geological antiquity, though it must always be related to the amounts found in specimens from a particular site. Thus it is possible to secure a reliable estimate of the antiquity of skeletons. This method enabled the British museum to announce in 1953 the relatively recent age of the Piltdown skull and to demonstrate that the mandible associated with it, an object of much dispute because of its simian appearance, did not belong with the skull. test

that of the fluorine-dating method.

is

B. 1.

Old and

New

Concepts in Physical Anthropology

Early Investigations.

— Inasmuch

as the history of physi-

anthropology is, in large part, a history of man's attempt to determine his place in nature, to compare himself with other primates and to interpret the physical differences, more is to be gained from examining the kinds of problems which have been studied and the nature of the evidence that has been used than from reviewing the succession of great names. Twentieth-century familiarity with primates tends to obscure the fact that the precise distinction between man and the apes, based on evidence secured from actual dissection, had not been made before 1699. At that time Edward Tyson published the comparative anatomy of a chimpanzee and correctly deduced that the chimpanzee was not a human being. Succeeding Tyson is a distinguished series of men who launched into the formidable task of describing and classifying human beings as well as the other primates. Georges L. Buffon, Immanuel Kant, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Jean B. Lamarck and Georges Cuvier in the 18th century all made notable contributions. Of these, Blumenbach (1752-1840) is recognized as the father of physical anthropology. Although many early classifications of human races failed to distinguish between physical and cultural characteristics and leaned heavily upon the concept of primordial types with a corresponding minimization of variability, it is noteworthy that Blumenbach as early as 1775 observed that the ''innumerable varieties of mankind run into each other by insensible degrees." He also initiated use of the term Caucasian to describe members of the white race, basing the choice of this term upon the race of men of Georgia on the southern slope of the Caucasus mountains who enjoyed a remarkable reputation for cal

essentially

—

of a theory of evolution in 1859,

is

the idea of the "great chain

of being" or the hierarchical arrangement of nature.

This great explanatory theory made necessary a correlative concept, that of the famous "missing link." The missing link proved to be of less value to scientists than to P. T. Barnum, who entertained the public with specimens of every conceivable link between groups of animals, including for good measure a mermaid. One useful result of this belief in unilinear gradation was the search for previously unknown forms which would complete man's knowledge of the chain of being. With this inclusive charter, the scientists of western Europe were ordained to take an inventory of nature

and

to determine the appropriate place of each newly described form. In practice, it of course supplied the theory for understanding not only man's place in nature but that of all other organisms and was extended to cultures as well. In the absence

of genetics and a concept of culture, personality traits as well as skin colour were used for classification. The period between

by Thomas Huxley, Man's Place in with works devoted to the positioning of the anthropoid apes, monkeys and newly discovered "races." While some persons investigated the anthropoids others were impressed with the possibility that various groups of unknown aborigines might be the missing link or links. Thus, the "savage Hottentot" or the "stupid native of Nova Zembla" (Novaya Zemlya was pressed into service to fill the gap between anthropoid apes and man. Two important misleading research practices came into being in this period and remained in effect long after the formal recognition of a theory of evolution as expressed by Charles Darwin, and even after the development of genetics in the 20th century. First is the habit of ranking existing human races in a

Tyson and

the later study

Nature (1863),

is filled

l

hierarchical order, and second, the practice of comparing

human

races with the contemporary apes for purposes of ranking rather

than for functional or behavioural equivalents.

That both these

practices pose real obstacles to contemporary research

may

be

seen in a statement by S. L. Washburn. The practice of comparing individual races directly to the apes should be abandoned. It is usually done with the best intent to show that, although the White is more like the ape in one character, the Negro But what this practice actually does is to keep alive the is in another. idea that it is reasonable and scientifically defensible to compare living men with living apes for the purposes of arranging races in some hierarchical order. What meaning have these comparisons when the races have nearly all their ancestry in common? (S. L. Washburn, "Thinking About Race," Smithsonian Report, publication 3833, pp. 371-372 [1945].) 3.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution.

— Publication

of

The

Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1859 provided the outstanding theoretical contribution of the 19th century. The essen-

concept for the evolution of man was that of natural selection, though many more decades were to pass before its implications were either appreciated or employed. Darwin not only showed that evolution took place in the different organisms but he also provided an explanation which was sound in its major outline and which subsequently was given more precise meaning. The idea that nature selects those forms which are better adapted to a particular geographic zone and way of life laid the basis for undertial

standing the adaptive radiations of the primates. Anthropologists were slow to appreciate the implications of adaptation and continued to measure and to observe traits which were

felt to be nonLinnaean species, the hypothetical prototypes of which individual specimens were copies in varying degrees of perfection, continued to be described. The weight of attention remained on classification rather than on processes of evolution, and research continued to focus on description without a corresponding

adaptive.

concern for understanding the functional significance of traits or the role they might play in the adaptation of a species to its ecological zone.

ANTHROPOLOGY

48 The

idea of evolution was slowly accepted, accompanied

by

variability, correlation

many

certain aspects of

past.

rancorous disputes. The chief accomplishment of the period between 1859 and 1900 lay in the recognition of a considerable time depth for man. The system of arranging the primates remained unilinear, but it was extended far back into the geological

and regression.

human

heredity.

Galton also investigated Karl Pearson (1857-1936)

races were ar-

classified the types of distribution, perfected the coefficient of correlation, developed chi-square and was a founder of the journal Biometrika. Not the least of his many contributions consisted in separating the sample from the population it represented and in-

assumed degree of morphological primitiveness. The findings of extinct forms of animals by paleontologists, the excavation of older cultures by archaeologists and

dicating the necessary restrictions for interpreting a population in the light of information drawn from the sample. R. A. Fisher, continuing the development of modern statistical theory initiated

the discovery of Neanderthal skulls

by Pearson, made extensive contributions in the design of experiments and to the field of genetics. One of the trends in the anthropological use of statistics is toward those kinds that preserve the description of the organism as a whole. Analysis of variance,

Both

ranged

fossil races of

according

man and contemporary

their

to

all

contributed to questioning

the scriptural authorities who< credited the world with being only

approximately 6,000 years

old.

Combined researches

of geologists,

and physical anthropologists finally as well as of other forms of orand thus the evolutionary sequence became of foremost

paleontologists, archaeologists

established the antiquity of

ganic

life

The

man

recognized discovery of the extinct race of Neanderthal man was made in 1856 in northwestern Germany and was disputed by many persons, including the great German pathologist and physical anthropologist Rudolf Virchow. An earlier discovery of a Neanderthal skull in Gibraltar in 1848 had been largely interest.

ignored.

The continuing search

man was

fossil

first

richly

more primitive specimens of rewarded when in 1891-92 Eugene Dubois

New Approach.— By

useful classifications of pleted.

Many

all

statistical

the end of the 19th century several the races of the world had been com-

of the differences between the races were quite

known. Similarly, differences between man and the anthropoid apes had been inventoried and also between modem man and fossil man. A great deal of attention was paid to the number of differences and it was assumed that the degree of relatedness was adequately indicated by the degree of morphological similarity. The year 1900 may be taken as a turning point in the development of a new conceptual approach, although no single date can fully comprehend a shift in such an exceedingly complex continuum. Two major events took place which were to have far-reaching consequences: (1) the rediscovery of G. J. Mendel's two genetic prinwell

by several investigators and (2) K. Landsteiner's discovery ABO blood groups. Mendel had formulated the basic prinhad passed unnoticed. The inheritance of the blood groups was not at first appreciated, but within ten years became a focus of research and thus a building ciples

of the

ciples of heredity in 1865 but these

stone in modern racial studies. Many new concepts came into use with the increasing influence of genetic theory, such as the breeding population, genetic equilibrium, genetic drift and the gene frequency method of differentiating populations or races. Attention

was immediately directed to the processes of change, those ways in which gene frequencies are modified. At the same time increasing attention was paid to the significance of traits and to the ways in which they were interrelated. Experimental studies were devised to demonstrate the functional significance of differences in morphology. The concept of straight-line evolution (orthogenesis) was qualified and examples of reversals or major shifts in the direction of evolution were objectively examined. The concept of the missing link went into discard. The realization that a change in way of life which introduced a species to a new "adaptive plateau" and brought about many radical changes in its structure obviated the need for a belief in so-called missing links. The techniques of anthropometry were reinforced by many other techniques, such as blood typing, so that the physical anthropologists had a much more versatile set of research tools. 5. Statistical

Methods.— Spanning both the pre-evolutionary and the evolutionary periods of physical anthropology was the development of statistics and their application to the measurement of man, included under biometry. As early as 1835, L. A. J. Quetelet (1796-1874) had applied the statistical concept of the normal probability curve to human beings. He demonstrated that most of the statures in a population will cluster about a mean and that the frequency of both taller and shorter statures will diminish in frequency at opposite ends of the curve. Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) succeeded in constructing new measures of

treatment will not compensate for poorly selected units

of observation or measurement. C.

for

discovered the Java ape man, now classified as Pithecanthropus erectus, considered one of the earliest known races of man. 4.

multiple regressions, discriminate functions, generalized distance and factor analysis all share the criterion of treating different variates as a single coherent vector. Unfortunately, the finest

is

Problems of Trait Definition and Evaluation

Introduction.

—

A major problem in physical anthropology that of the trait or unit of observation to be employed. Dif-

1.

ferent inferences are based on the

ferent evaluation of them.

same

traits as a result of a dif-

Also, different traits are cited for the

same specimens evaluated by

The essential difference between the anthropoid ape theory of human origin and the catarrhine monkey theory rests in the different evaluation of traits. The old method of simply enumerating differences did not different researchers.

contribute to the meaning of the differences or indicate the way in which they came into being. The realization that not all traits are of equal taxonomic value made necessary the development of systems, compatible with genetic theory, that would provide an objective basis for the evaluation of traits.

Traits

commonly

may be categorized into relatively few classes: (1) items which are present or absent, such as an eighth bone in the wrist, a muscle or a particular blood group; (2) proportions such as the relatively greater length of forearm and lower leg in the Negroes as contrasted with Mongoloids; (3) sequence in growth, such as the order of tooth emergency or suture closure; (4) growth used

such as differences in the attainment of maturity; (5) conformations such as the jutting cheekbones of the Mongoloids; (6) such as the differences in stature between Pygmies and Bantu rates,

size,

Negroes or differences between sexes and races in cranial capacity. A functional complex constitutes a trait in the sense that the complex as a whole is the object of selection. The above kinds of traits are often compared by frequency. Thus the gibbons have ischial callosities whereas only 36% of chimpanzees show the same denuded areas of thickened skin on the posterior. 2. Measurements. The problem of what to measure or, perhaps more commonly, what a series of measurements means after In many cases it has been assiduously collected, is omnipresent. it has been found that what was formerly treated as a single unit

—

is

actually

meaning

is

composed of

discrete, isolable elements.

that an over-all observation or a single

The practical measurement

may

conceal important differences and, conversely, that several observations or measurements may actually be different aspects of the same phenomenon. An example of the former is provided in various measurements of the head. The same proportion of head length to head breadth (cephalic index) may result from different

Thus, roundheaded persons may be so because of a head length or of a great head breadth and great head length. (Pygmies of New Guinea have a cephalic index of 83.4 and the Aleuts have a similar ratio of length to breadth, yet the actual dimensions are considerably less in the Pygmies.) Again, cranial length will often be the same but the different bones

measurements.

relatively short

of the vault will contribute different

amounts

to the total length.

has been shown that an over-all measurement of iliac height does not portray the difference between male and female as sensitively as the separate measurements of lower and upper iliac height. The upper iliac height is greater in males whereas the lower iliac It

height

is

greater in females.

Examination of research into methods of distinguishing sex

in

ANTHROPOLOGY the pelvis provides examples of the fact that

many

traditional

observations have been treated as independent observations when in fact they were simply different aspects of the same things. It

had been common practice to distinguish male from female pelves by observing approximately 17 characters. S. L. Washburn demonstrated the interdependence of many of these characters and analyzed the sex differences into three separate and relatively independent systems. Several characters are dependent on the growth of one of the three elements of the pelvis, the pubic bone.

This

responsive to female hormone and consequently grows longer in females than in males. The lengthening of this element

bone

is

articular facets on the heel bone.

49 The

significance of the short

broad ilium (upper portion oi the hipbone) of man, compared with the high narrow ilium of the apes, lies in the fact that the muscles have been rearranged so that man can extend his leg with considerable power and finish his -tip with drive. The ape must walk with a bent-knee gait and cannot push forward or complete extension of the leg with real power. The principal muscle involved is the gluteus maximus. In the apes this is a small muscle and in a position where it cannot exercise the same leverage as in man. Thus, the differences between man and the apes may be viewed in terms of primary adaptation to different

subpubic angle, height of the pubic symphysis and shape of the obturator foramen. An index based on the length of the pubic bone and one other element of the pelvis, the ischium, will determine the sex of more than 90^

adaptive plateaus. Once man entered a new adaptive zone, characterized by bipedalism or erect posture, selection for this new

To this ischium-pubic index may be added the sciatic notch, a character of independent development and evolutionary

icance

alters three other characters, the

of skeletons.

broader in females than in males. This difference represents an adjustment to erect posture that was necessarily different in females for obstetrical reasons. A third kind of charhistory.

It is

acter is the size of the socket which receives the head of the thigh bone. It is larger in males than in females. The absolute size difference between male and female may also be observed in the

manner

of locomotion brought about

many

ancillary or secondary

The differences, then, take on an interpretable signifwhen they are related to a complex, and such a complex has

changes.

evolutionary meaning. On the basis of erect posture and bipedal walking man has become a distinctive genus. Thus we have the evolution of a new genera in a relatively short period of approximately 1.000.000 years. Each of the other major primate groups may be distinguished on the bases of the distinctive complexes which contributed to its branching off as an adaptive radiation. Thus, the anthropoid apes

The

use of these three fundamentally

are adapted for brachiation, a complex which

different kinds of characters will

determine the sex of pelves ac-

large part.

ischial

element of the pelvis.

curately and economically.

The

use of the 17 or

more

traditional

characteristics includes many unnecessary observations which are simply aspects of these three basic characters. 3. Experimental Methods. Attention to the definition of traits and their significance for both evolutionary and racial studies has led to a more general use of experimental techniques and this constitutes one of the trends in the newer physical anthropology. These experimental methods include use of the split-line technique, a way of showing the mechanical arrangement of the bone, the stress-coat technique, alizarin vital stain, removal of bone or teeth, excision of muscles, inactivation of muscles, etc. Other methods of factoring the complexes of interdependent traits are: (1) comparison of contemporary forms and of fossil forms; (2) individual development including embryology; (3) observation of the variations normally occurring in populations, and the variations which occur in disease. 4. Evaluation. Traits have been evaluated in many different ways. They have been assessed as generalized or primitive as opposed to specialized. An example is the hand, which has remained similar to the earliest known primate hands, whereas the foot has become specialized for walking and has lost its former mobility. Traits have also been divided into those that are adaptive as opposed to nonadaptive. This division is recognized as being difficult to demonstrate. Further, nonadaptive traits would be of limited theoretical value if evolution were dependent on the selection of forms which were adapted to a particular ecological zone. One of the useful approaches to this problem rests on the explicit premise that the "major force in evolution is selection of functional complexes." (S. L. Washburn. "The New Physical Anthropology,'' Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, series ii, vol. 13. no. 7. p. 300 [1951].) Adaptation of a group of animals to a particular way of life, an adaptive zone, has been achieved by alterations in a complex of skeletal and muscular traits. Primary characters are the most important characters: i.e.-, those which have made an evolutionary radiation possible. The primary character or adaptation responsible for the origin of man appears to have been a new kind of pelvis. Bipedal locomotion depends on a pelvis which provides the necessary points of origin for muscles in positions which enable them to operate efficiently in standing position and in walking rather than the inefficient shuffling seen in the apes. Secondary characters are a consequence of the new selection and are based on the primary characters. These are composed of such changes as the enlargement of the anterior muscles of the thigh, stabilization of the knee and ankle joints and a broadening of the heel bone. A third category of

—

—

is the relatively minor associated differences which have few or no functional implications; e.g., the number of

incidental characters

is

still

retained in

The monkeys and the lemurs do not. how-ever, share complex. The development of stereoscopic vision

this functional

and the enlargement of the corresponding areas of the brain characterizes a complex which was the basis for the development of the monkeys. This is shared with the apes and man but not with the lemurs. The lemurs in turn have a complex characterized by a prehensile hand which is also possessed by the monkey, apes and man. Knowing the fossil record of primates and the major functional complexes which characterize the living primates, it can be seen that man's body has been dissected by evolution and that these four areas have evolved at different times and are shared only with those primates that underwent the same radiations. The Four Adaptive Radiations Leading Major functional complex

to the

Contemporary Primates

ANTHROPOLOGY

5° in the

morphology of the

skull.

The

discoverers of the

first fossil

unenviable position of having to generalize and interpret on the basis of the smallest possible sample hostile scientific world. if not before a skeptical One of the chance happenings which shaped much subsequent interpretation of fossil man was the discovery of Neanderthal man before the discovery of older forms of man. Neanderthal man became a kind of benchmark from which surveys of other fossil men were sighted. In addition the generally primitive character of Neanderthal man preadapted scientific minds to expect a corresponding uniformity of primitive characters in other finds. Thus, the idea of a modern femur associated with Pithecanthropus or of a modern pelvis with an apelike skull appeared incongruous or disharmonic. In 1924 Raymond Dart discovered a portion of skull and cast of the inside of the skull of an immature apelike individual. The cave deposit from which it was removed was located at Taungs, Bechuanaland, U. of S.Af. He applied the name Australopithecus, or southern ape, and this name is now used to designate the subfamily Australopithecinae into which the several subsequent and related finds are commonly grouped. The australopithecines, usually treated as a genus with two major subgeneric forms, Australopithecus and Paranthropus, are well known from five sites at

remains were placed

three localities.

in the

The Paranthropus group

and occurs somewhat

is

larger in

body size Mid-

later, possibly persisting into the early

The other appears to begin as early as the Pleistocene-Pliocene boundary approximately 1,000,000 years ago. Simple stone tools have been found which suggest that the austradle Pleistocene period.

lopithecines were actually tool-making and

tool-using animals.

Another form similar to Paranthropus was found at Olduvai gorge, Tanganyika, in 1959 by L. S. B. Leakey and named Zinjanthropus boisei. The massive skull appears to have been well balanced in spite of exceptionally large teeth. A sagittal crest of bone provided additional area for the temporalis muscle. His diet included rodents, birds, snakes and immature large animals. Pebble tools of the Oldowan, pre-Chelles-Acheul, culture are said to testify to

human status. The combination

his

forms demonstrates be drawn dependbrain is comparable in size to that of the modern large apes, about 600 c.c, but as their body size is smaller the brains are relatively larger than in contemporary apes. The face protrudes but in many specimens the muscular ridges are not as prominent as in modern apes. The forehead is much more rounded and there is not the continuous bar of bone across the brows. The spinal cord enters the base of the skull at a point further forward than in modern apes. This indicates a better balanced skull, commonly associated with erect posture, though not as well balanced as in modern man. Flat crowns indicate that the teeth were worn down by the rotary of characters in these

quite neatly the different inferences which ing on the evaluative premises employed.

may

The

movement

characteristic of human mastication. The canine teeth, ordinarily large in the great apes, are not as robust in the Australopithecinae. The hipbone is of essentially modern human type

and bears clear evidence that these beings stood and walked erect. This combination of characters demonstrates that the evolution of the lower limbs preceded that of the brain. The same precedence of limb development preceding brain expansion has been noted in

some Eocene lemurs.

The

Australopithecinae clearly are well-

qualified candidates for the position of

human

being.

If their

emphasized, then they constitute the most manlike apes known. If the bipedal complex, the pelvis, lower limbs, skull structure and dental anatomy are emphasized, then they constitute one of the most apelike forms of man. Special mention should be made of the diversity within this subfamily. Paranthropus crassidens presents one of the largest mandibles found and a cranial capacity that may be as much as 980 c.c. It is possible lagging brain size

is

that the final studies will indicate cranial capacities well in excess of those of the apes. If the Australopithecinae are too late to be an ancestral population of modern man, they nevertheless remain models of the kind of adaptive radiation specialized for walking which led to man.

The

Australopithecinae illustrate the notable fact that different

parts of the body evolved at different rates. These forms had entered a completely different adaptive zone with erect posture. Selective pressure was apparently directed toward the locomotor complex, and the other characters of the body necessarily lagged behind. The idea of a missing link which would be halfway be-

tween

man and

the apes is clearly illusory. Such a generalized anan unnecessary postulate. Ancestral forms must be specialized for a particular time and place and this means a morphological commitment to a means of locomotion prior to the later elaboration of the brain. (See also Australopithecine.) cestor

2.

is

Java and North China Finds.—The

mains of

man

first indubitable reare those of the pithecanthropoid and sinanthropoid

groups of Java and north China. Geological evidence places them Middle Pleistocene. Pithecanthropus erectus, first discovered by Eugene Dubois in 1891-92, is known from the further finds of G. H. R. von Koenigswald. Pithecanthropus possessed a cranial capacity of about 900 c.c. The first, and the succeeding skulls, are characterized by a large, continuous brow ridge, a low vault with sloping forehead, thick bones and a heavy reinforcement system in general. One unusually massive skull, Pithecanthropus robustus, skull iv, found in 1939, displays an interesting keel-like ridge running over the top of the skull. As with the others the greatest breadth is at the base of the skull rather than above the level of the ears as in modern man. Homo modjokertensis belonging to the Lower Pleistocene, is a baby Pithecanthropus, possibly of the robust type. The possibility of giant forms preceding Pithecanthropus could not be judiciously dealt with until more evidence became available. A massive lower jaw fragment, Meganthropus palaeojavanicus, was found by Von Koenigswald. This and the finds of three enormous molar teeth of Gigantopithecus blacki and a mandible have been construed as possible giant forms of early man preceding Pithecanthropus. A similarity to African australopithecines in the

,

has also been noted.

Additional evidence must be presented be-

fore a reliable hypothesis can be constructed.

Of the long list of comparable characters in Sinanthropus the most noteworthy is the greater average cranial capacity of 1,043 c.c.

This

is

a significant advance over Pithecanthropus,

The

who

aver-

total range of

both the Javanese one of the Javanese and the Chinese capacities is from 775 This is a high skulls to 1,300 c.c. in one of the Chinese skulls. degree of variability and constitutes one of the reminders that Considerable fossil men were no less variable than modern men. age 860

c.c.

for three skulls.

c.c. in

prognathism or forward protrusion of the jaws is characteristic of these forms. At the same time, the limb bones indicate that the erect posture and gait of modern man had been achieved, though the stature was short. Both these groups can easily be accommodated within one taxonomic category such as PithecanTwo Middle Pleistocene mandibles (Atlanthropus), thropus. associated with handaxes, from Temifine, Algeria, may also belong in the Pithecanthropus group.

The next major Solo

man from

human crania The presence of 11 skulls

collection of

Java.

in

Asia

is

that of

gives a rather fair

idea of the range and variability in this group of Upper Pleistocene man. Unfortunately, none of the faces are present and there is

evidence that the skull bases have been artificially removed, posIf so, a rather generous meal sibly an evidence of cannibalism. was provided, for the cranial capacities of these men range from The bony reinforcement system has begun 1,150 to 1,300 c.c. to disintegrate, though the vaults are low with long sloping foreThey have the distinction of being among the longest heads. human skulls of either fossil or modern man. Solo man is considered by

some

race of Europe.

as an Asiatic representative of the Neanderthal The Saldanha and Rhodesian skulls of Africa

similarly be considered variants of the Neanderthal race. Another single but clearly ancient skull is that of Mapa. Kwangtung province, south China, found in 1958. It is Middle Pleistocene in age and may help fill the gap between Sinanthropus and Solo. Other fossil finds such as those of two large skulls from Wadjak, Java, and the Keilor skull of Australia have been used to construct a lineage for the modern Australian aborigines, leading back

may

through Solo

man

to Pithecanthropus.

ANTHROPOLOGY —

Neanderthal Man. The Neanderthal fossil remains fall two major divisions which have been variously designated as extreme, classic or conservative as opposed to the generalized, early or progressive. They differ in morphology, time and geoThe classic Neanderthal man belonged graphical distribution. to the fourth glaciation and has been found in Europe associated with the Mousterian phase of Old Stone Age culture. The skull is characterized by a heavy, bi-arched shelf of bone over the orbits; low, retreating forehead and a flattened-down vault; long face, without the hollow area below the cheekbones found in modern man; large orbits; small cheekbones; large palate and teeth; receding chin; and rounded angles where the horizontal body of the jaw meets the vertical body. The cranial capacity is remarkable for its absolute size, averaging about 1,450 ex., which is approximately 100 c.c. above that of modern man. The skeleton is characterized by robust development except for the collarbones; curved bones of the leg and forearm, in contrast to the straighter ones of modern man; a round barrel chest; large hands and feet; 3.

into

large condyles at the ends of the long bones; long, straight spinous processes of the neck vertebrae to provide attachment for the powerful neck muscles; a rounded heel bone; oval, nonprismatic

cross sections of the bones;

and short stature. form is the early or generalized form, third interglacial in time and is more

In contrast to this classic which for the most part is modern in appearance. The frontal brow ridges are divided into three parts, the vault is higher, the face is shorter, the forehead is steeper and higher, the cheekbones are more strongly developed, the bones of the skull are lighter and thinner, the skull base is is better balanced, and there is more chin deAnalysis of these differences into basic functional

shorter and the skull

velopment. complexes characters.

portion of also

indicate the interdependence

will

of

many

of

these

The weak development of the skull over the outer the orbit, the weak development of the cheekbone and

the corner of the mandible appear to belong to a lateral

facial

One

complex possibly related result of the large

fundamentally

to a small

number

different kinds

is

masseter muscle.

of Neanderthal remains of

two

the greater difficulty of distin-

of what has

happened to various characters and does not separate out those traits which are independent from those that belong to

same functional complex: (1) the brain case has increased in and the face has been correspondingly reduced; (2) the forehead rose; (i) the face and jaws withdrew; (4) the skull increased its height further hack, behind the coronal suture, thus creating the "hominid hump"; (5) the area where the neck muscles attach at the back of the skull moved down, and the condyles on which the skull rests moved forward; (6) the jaws were reduced in size, and the area of muscle attachment was also reduced; (7) the base of the skull was flexed, thus rotating several landmarks on the skull; (8) the greatest breadth of the skull shifted upward from the

size

the base; (9) the recession of the face contributed to the definition of a nose and chin and to the creation of the fossae or hollows underneath the cheekbones; and (10) the bony reinforcement In addition all the bones became thinsystem disintegrated. ner. Whether the increase in brain size is the cause of these changes, or whether they are caused by some other object of selection such as the greater efficiency in balancing a more globular head, could not be determined on the basis of information available in the early 1960s.

often have historical significance but indicate

little about the no evidence that any groups of foswere incapable of exchanging genes, and there is consider-

ancestral to both. Neanderthal men have also been Mousterian deposits of only 43,000 years ago at Shanidar, Neanderthal remains provide a substantial reminder that Iraq. there is not an inexorable sequence in skeletal development leading continuously from primitive to modern. 4. Modern Man. Modern forms of man are generously represented in Europe and north Africa at least as early as 25,000 years B.C. Among the more famous of these is Cro-Magnon man Possibly Middle Pleistocene remains of modern man of Europe. Unfortunately constitute an important point for investigation. the contenders in the early 1960s, such as Swanscombe man of England, were not complete skulls, nor were they represented by more than one individual at a particular place. This imposes the usual limitations of reconstruction from a single sample. The Fontechevade skull fragments of France were found in a stratigraphic context older than the deposits associated with Neanderthal man. Such fragments cannot be positively identified as those of modern man rather than of the early Neanderthals who are noted for their resemblances to modern man. Three crania of modern man were recovered from the Upper Paleolithic of China in the same hill from which the Sinanthropus remains were found. These skulls have been labeled as those of an old man, displaying similarities to the Upper Paleolithic men of Europe, a Melanesoid woman and an Eskimoid woman. It is highly improbable that three individuals of these diverse races met there. This is a splendid example of the variability which may be found inside a single population, or the existence of "types" within is

in

—

a race.

The

man

principal trends in the transformation of the skull of early

modern man may be summarized in ten descripshould be noted that these points are descriptions

into that of

tive points.

It

There

generic relationships. sil

man

able

evidence

in

the

is

morphology that the course of human

evolution was reticulate with many interchanges between contiguous populations. Man speciated only once when he branched off from the anthropoid stock. The history of fossil man reveals the development of many local or geographic races. There has been no development of genuine species, however, in the sense that a discontinuity, resulting from reproductive isolation either

—

in

time or space, has ever occurred.

modern man from Neanderthal man. In Palestine a skeletal population from Mt. Carmel presents individuals that combine varying degrees of Neanderthal with modern traits. Such which found

—

5. Generic Relationships of Fossil Men. It is probable that not more than one species ever existed at one time. The scientific names of fossil men do not often accord with the rules of nomenclature. In addition many names were assigned before the similarities to other forms could be appreciated, so that the names

guishing

a population can be interpreted as hybrid, intermediate or one

5i

E.

The Rationale

Accompanying the sode

new

of Race Formation and Classification

realization that a race

is

essentially an epi-

evolutionary history of a population, there have been genetic concepts and techniques for analyzing race formation in the

Consequently the concept of race became and classification. even more useful than it was at the end of the 19th century when a number of workable classifications of the world's populations had been formulated. Greater precision in the definition of traits and their mode of inheritance permits more accurate mathematical manipulation of the component elements of races. The concept comparatively simple; calculation of the effects of some is quite complex. 1. Breeding Populations. Although no two persons are identical, neither are all the people of the world infinitely different. Knowing the world distribution of various characters such as skin colour and stature, it is possible to assign an individual to a geographic area from which he or his ancestors came, with varying degrees of accuracy, in precisely the same way that an individual skull can often be classified into the population from which it was drawn. This can be done because there are differences between populations as well as between individuals. All scientific definitions of race concur on the fundamental point that a race is a population. A race may be defined as a population which differs significantly from other human populations in the frequency of one or more genes. These populations are known as breeding populations, and their subdivisions are known as breeding isolates. Populations are of varying degrees of magnitude. All the peoples of Africa south of the Sahara may be treated as a single population when compared with all the peoples of Europe. Descending in magnitude, the people of northern Europe may be considered racially distinct from the people of southern Europe. The Basquespeaking people of the Pyrenees mountains may similarly be considered a race, for they constitute a breeding population and are of race

is

of the processes of race formation

—

ANTHROPOLOGY

52

distinctive in the high frequency of the blood factor

Rh

negative

The term "continental race" for the major conti''local race" for the component populations has

and group 0.

nental groups and

come into The outlines

general use.

also

of a breeding population are delimited by cul-

cases. Those people speaking a common language and sharing a common cultural heritage naturally mate with each other, at least more frequently than they do with people of another culture area. The castes of India provide a splendid example of the cultural compartments which reduce the exchange of genes. The Eskimo and Indians of North America contact each other in part of their geographic distribution, yet they seldom mate with each other. They are separated by mutually unintelligible languages and by cultures which have different value systems. The Pygmies of Africa and the adjoining Bantu Negroes speak the same language but have different economies and social Geographical features may also separate populaorganizations. tions, as the Sahara desert which separates Negro Africa from northern Africa, the latter being occupied by members of the Mediterranean race. The task of distinguishing the outlines of a breeding area is essentially ethnological; such an area is defined by noting who marries whom and not by the physical traits which The close relation beare shared by the resulting population. tween the distribution of culturally denned groups, whether by

most

tural factors in

economy or some other aspect of culture, and the distribution of races has led some persons to infer a causal relation-

language,

There are no biologically inherited and the relationship is purely one of correlation or historical association. As a particular culture enhances the interaction between its members and reduces the interaction with outsiders a breeding group is denned. In the event of social ship between race and culture. cultural features as such

stratification or of geographic dispersion, breeding isolates within

the over-all population

come

into

being.

Growth

studies and

anthropometry have demonstrated that upper classes, clasupper either in terms of social or economic criteria, are invariably taller than the lower strata of the same society. Geographic differences occur similarly within over-all breeding populations, as, for example, the Aleut-Eskimo population or stock. Eastern Eskimos of Greenland are significantly different in some characters from the western Eskimos of Alaska; and the eastern Aleuts are significantly different in a few characters from the racial

determine the genotype of parents by Thus, two parents may have a child of blood type 0. It is obvious then that each of the parents also had a gene for blood type O (not detected by conventional tests) and that the child received the genes for type rather than for A or B. When the number of genes responsible for phenotypic traits is known, as in the case of the blood groups, it is possible to compare races on the frequencies of those genes. The gene frequency method of describing races is one of the major accomplishments in race studies. A racial classification based on gene frequencies has been formulated by W. C. Boyd: It

2.

Single Species.

differences

it

—

Although cultures serve to maintain group should be noted that one of the over-all effects of

human

Darwin culture is the maintenance of a single species. observed that races are incipient species. Interestingly, in human beings these subdivisions of the one species have always remained as subdivisions and have never differentiated into separate species.

Man

able to successfully occupy

is

all

the

known

ecological niches

that are accessible to such a creature and thus he cannot speciate.

He

able to occupy these diverse zones largely as a result of his

is

culture,

which

the ability to

tailored clothing in the Arctic.

specialized in despecialization. 3.

such as has thus

in each place enables a specific adaptation,

make

Man

—

Phenotype and Genotype. Races represent combinaThe visible manifestations of traits are

tions of discrete traits.

referred to as the phenotype; the genetic constitution of an indi-

vidual

is

known

as the genotype.

Individuals inherit the genes or

Each person receives 23 chromosomes from each of his parents. Each of these chromosomes contains or is composed of several hundred genes. Mendel capacities for traits in their

germ plasm.

demonstrated that traits are not fused in inheritance but remain distinct and segregate out in various ratios. Mendel's law of segregation is also the basis for the concept of genetic equilibrium which illustrates the way in which traits remain in a population whether they are dominant or recessive. Thus, brown-eyed parents may have a child with blue eyes if they each carried a gene for blue eyes. The old blood theory of inheritance is clearly invalid. It implied that a population with members mixing at random would, in time, become uniform. This rested on the false assumption that the variability would decline with each generation because children of the same parents must inherit the same traits.

in fact, possible to

of blood types

1.

A

and B

Early European group (over

incidence

30%)

Rh

of

(hypothetical). Possessing the highest negative type (gene frequency rh 0.6)

and probably no group B. A relatively high incidence of the gene Rhi and A2. Gene N possibly somewhat higher than in present-dayEuropeans. Represented by their modern descendants, the Basques. Possessing the next highest inci2. European (Caucasoid) group. dence of rh (the Rh negative gene) and relatively high incidence of the genes Rhi and Az, with moderate frequencies of other blood-group genes. "Normal" frequencies of and N; i.e., = c. 30%, = c. 49%, N = c. 21%. (The italicized symbols stand for the genes, as opposed to the groups.)

M

M

MN

Possessing a tremendously high inci3. African (Negroid) group. dence of the gene Rh°, a moderate frequency of rh, relatively high incidence of genes At and the rare intermediate A {A\, Ai, etc.) and Rh genes, rather high incidence of gene B. Probably normal and N. 4. Asiatic (Mongoloid) group. Possessing high frequencies of genes A\ and B, and the highest known incidence of the rare gene Rh', but little, if any, of the genes A2 and rh (the Rh negative gene). Normal and N. (It is possible that the inhabitants of India will prove to belong to an Asiatic subrace, or even a separate race, serologically, but information is still lacking.) 5. American Indian group. Possessing varying (sometimes high, sometimes zero) incidence of gene .4i, no Ai and probably no B or rh; high incidence of gene Possessing Rh'. 6. Australoid group. Possessing high incidence of gene Ai, no Ai, no rh, high incidence of gene (and consequently a low incidence of gene M). Possessing Rh'.

M

M

M

.

N

One

sified as

western Aleuts.

is,

seeing the traits which appear in their children.

of the most important antigens for which sufficient popula-

have been made to permit generalization is the Diego found in highest frequency in South American Indians, in varying frequency in other American Indians, and in Asiatic Mongoloids. It is not found in Negroes, Europeans, Oceanic peoples nor, oddly, in Eskimos. Abnormal hemoglobins, haptoglobins and other biochemical The sickle-cell traits show great variations between populations. trait (Hemoglobin S) is found in highest frequency in east Africa, less in west Africa, India and about the Mediterranean. It confers an advantage to the possessor of one gene (thus a heterozygous individual) in resisting the effects of malaria. Persons with two genes (homozygous) are more likely to die of anemia early In in life, and those with no gene have least resistance to malaria. this case, and probably in many more, selection favors the heterozygous individuals, who would not exist without maintenance of the other two genotypes. For particular environmental stresses evolution must proceed with the production of "unfit" individuals in order to produce the more "fit." It should be kept clearly in mind that a blood type is a phenotypic trait, even though it is under the skin. It happens that the number of genes responsible for the blood groups can be acHuman races can be differentiated by using curately inferred. the percentage of the blood types, rather than the gene frequention studies factor.

It is

same way that the percentage of black hair be used to differentiate populations. It is still common practice to cite the percentage differences in the Rh types. Thus, the early racial classifications which cited the varying percentages of hair colour or eye colour, etc., were adequate cies, in precisely the

or blue eyes

in

many

may

respects.

However, much greater

precision, especially

in calculating the effects of selection of mixture, is possible

the exact

number

of genes

is

known.

By

when

using the frequencies of

genes in various populations it is possible to find gradients or Thus, the probplaces where the frequencies change quickly. lem of intergradation between populations may be dealt with. Where the frequency of one kind of gene will not distinguish between two races, other unrelated genes will do so. Egyptians are similar to Micronesians in the frequencies of the three genes

ANTHROPOLOGY ABO

blood groups, yet they are different in the frequency of the Rh genes. This simply points up the fact that a number of criteria must be used for differentiating races. Chance similarities are not likely to occur in many different systems of unrelated traits. It must be noted that the constituent elements of races are discrete traits and not genotypes or types. A single population contains within it many different combinations, each of which may be called a type. There is no gene for a type. Any combination of traits may occur, and the likelihood of occurrence is dependent solely on the number of constituent genes in the population. We may note that an individual is of blood type AB or of the Nordic morphological type. These are not units of inheritance and cannot be treated in the same way. The combination of blue eyes, light brown hair, long head and tall, linear body is a chance combination depending on the frequency of the individual characters in the population for its appearance. There is no inheritance of a Nordic type and children of the same parents may belong to quite different types. In the same way a child does not inherit its genotype as such but inherits the genes, from both parents, which then responsible for the

compose

The

its

genotype.

idea of racial types

original or ideal

is

essentially pre-Darwinian.

It implies

forms which became mixed or from which

individuals deviated.

many

Actually, the fossil record provides ample

evidence that populations have always been characterized by varA iability in many traits; no ancestral types have ever appeared. concept related to type is that of a "primary" race. A necessary corollary is the idea of secondary races which presumably arose

from the primary ones, with tertiary and quaternary races cally following.

From

logi-

the standpoint of population genetics such

postulates are superfluous.

The basic concept of gene equilibrium explains how genes behave in a population which is not in a process of change; i.e., not Recessive and dominant genes will be undergoing evolution. maintained in the same proportion with which the population started; in other words, the variability of the population will be indefinitely perpetuated from one generation to the next. This assumes random mating and equal survival of all kinds of offAssuming that eye colour is controlled by a single pair of brown eyes, which are dominant, and one for blue eyes, which are recessive, those children who receive a gene for brown eyes, indicated here by A, from one parent and a gene for blue eyes, indicated here by a, from the other parent, will have brown eyes since brown is dominant. This may be placed in the Hardy-Weinberg formula by letting q stand for the sex cells with gene A, and (l-q) for the sex cells with gene a. This formula illustrates the way in which the frequencies of q and (\-q) remain constant generation after generation and in which the proportions of persons with brown and blue eyes then remains the same: spring.

genes, one for

2

q

AA

(brown eyes)

:

2g{l-q)

Aa (brown

eyes)

2

:

(\-q) aa (blue eyes)

There are four major processes which alter gene frequencies: mutation, genetic drift, selection and hybridization. A mutation is a sudden change in the genetic materials, and thus mutations are the raw materials of evolution. A new mutation, such as a new Rh factor in the blood, may be increased in frequency by selection, or it may be lost. Random genetic drift, the Sewall Wright effect, refers to the chance loss of genes in a small population. A small migrant group may branch off a larger group and by chance have no individuals with a particular gene. Or such a small isolate might have only a few carriers of the gene and by chance none of those genes would be passed on to succeeding generations. It is likely that blood group B was lost by the small The great isolated group of Arctic Eskimo of north Greenland. variability of the American Indians in their blood groups may posPrimitive sibly be the result of the operation of genetic drift. peoples who live in small groups with uncertain economic foundations are more likely to display chance fluctuations in gene frequencies than are large and stable populations. Genetic drift may have been of much more importance in the past when most of the world's populations lived in small, isolated groups. Selection, best defined as differential fertility, is the favouring of certain genes

whereby

53

frequency is increased. With even a very slight selective advantage gene frequencies may be considerably altered.

Though

their

often considered as a screening agency which it may equally well be considered a creative force as it provides direction by favouring or disfavouring certain genes. The general increase of roundheads in Europe may be an example of selection operating in favour of better balanced heads, though this hypothesis could not, as of the early 1960s, be demonstrated. The long-term tendency for heads to beselection

is

removes deleterious genes

come more tion,

may

globular, as noted in the review of cranial transformaprovide evidence for this speculation. Hybridization is

one of the most common ways in which gene frequencies are altered, though this may not have always been the case. Race mixture obliterates the differences between the participating groups and enhances the differences between individuals within the new hybrid population. Adaptation in traits whose mode of inheritance is not yet known is as important for the survival of populations as for the single gene traits. Comparative racial physiology has accumulated much valuable data on body size, tissue distribution, pigmentation, nutrition and climate. True physiological adaptation to cold climate has been found among the central Australian aborigines. They permit greater body cooling without metabolic compensation, while sleeping in the cold, than do other peoples tested. Human races are constantly changing, though at different rates, and the boundaries are constantly shifting. Natural selection continues to operate;

genotypes.

i.e.,

there

is

differential survival of different

It is quite likely that natural selection

favours the

maintenance of a range of mental capacities in all different races. There is clearly the need for considerable innovative ability on Selection for educability the part of any society in the world. places a premium upon diversity of individuals as well as cultures.

Many

of the traits

commonly used

for racial classification such

as stature, pigmentation, cephalic index, are expressions of several

interacting genes, each one contributing only a small effect.

These

polygenic traits vary continuously and as a consequence have been described in terms of averages or arithmetic means with certain

Certain limitations are imposed by the use of these kinds of traits in that phenotypically similar individ-

measures of dispersion.

and populations may not be genotypically similar. Another disadvantage is that they cannot be manipulated as conveniently for analysis. Thus, we cannot predict how tall a hybrid population will be which is the result of crossing a population with a mean stature of 168 cm. (66.14 in.) with a population averaging 161 cm. uals

(63.39

in.).

The degree

of morphological similarity between groups is an adequate measure, when sufficient numbers of traits are used, of the degree of actual genetic relatedness. Various coefficients of divergence can be used for comparing three or more groups. If only a few features are used the results may be misleading. It is not, for example, possible to establish the relationship of Oceanic Negroids of Melanesia to the Negroes of Africa even though they bear a number of phenotypic similarities. The Bushmen of south Africa were formerly thought to show traces of Mongoloid parentage on the bases of their yellowish skin colour, broad cheekbones and eyelid fold covering the inner corner of the eyes. However, there is nothing in the blood group systems which confirms such a parentage nor is there any skeletal evidence that would sup-

port such a view.

There

is

method and

a substantial correlation

the morphological

between the gene-frequency

method

of evaluating the biological

between populations. This is to be expected inasmuch as these are two methods of describing a population which is defined by independent ethnological criteria; e.g., mating patterns Such a study has been done for five laid down by the culture. In studying the caste groups of India (L. D. Sanghvi, 1953). causes and processes of race formation the interpretation of human evolution in the remote past becomes infinitely more meandifferences

ingful.

—

Bibliography. F. Weidenreich, The Skull of Sinanthropus PeComparative Study on a Primitive Hominid Skull (1943),

kinensis: a

ANTHROPOLOGY

54

Giant Early Man From Java and South China (1946) and Apes, Giants Man "(1946); S. L. Washburn, "Thinking About Race," Smithsonian Report for 1945. "Sex Differences in the Pubic Bone," Amer. E. A. Hooton, Up From the J. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 6, no. 2 (1948) Ape, rev. ed. (1946); R. Broom and G. W. H. Schepers, The South African Fos\il Apt-Man, the Australopithecinae (1946); W. E. Le Gros Clark. History of the Primates (1949); E. Count (ed.), This Is Race (1950); T. Dobzhansky, "The Genetic Nature of Differences Among Men," Evolutionary Thought in America (1950) VV. C. Boyd, a and the Races of Man (1950) Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, Origin and Evolution of Man, vol. xv, S. L. Washburn, "The Analysis of Primate Evolution With Particular Reference to the Origin of Man," E. Mayr. "Taxonomic Categories in Fossil Hominids," T. Dobzhansky, "Human Diversity and Adaptation" (1950); W. S. Laughlin and S. L. Washburn, The Physical Anthropology of the American Indian (1951); F. C. Howell, "The Place of Neanderthal Man in Human Evolution," Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., M. F. Ashley-Montagu, An Introduction to Physivol. 9, no. 4 (1951) cal Anthropology (1960); R. Broom and J. T. Robinson, Swartkrans Apt-Man: Parantkropus Crassidens (1952); A. L. Kroeber (ed.), Anthropologv Today, W. L. Straus, Jr., "Primates," P. T. de Chardin, "The Idea of Fossil Man," W. C. Boyd, "The Contributions of Genetics to Anthropologv," S. L. Washburn, "The Strategy of Physical Anthropology" (1953) "T. D. Stewart, Hrdlicka's Practical Anthropometry (1953) L. D. Sanghvi, "Comparison of Genetical and

tion of more specialized problems. It seemed common sense to expect colonial administrators to possess a similar knowledge of the peoples and problems they were dealing with, and to rely on

Morphological Methods for a Study of Biological Differences," Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 11, no. 3 (1953); "Blood Groups," Brit. Med. Bull., "vol. 15, no. 2 (1959); W. Howells, Mankind in the Making (1959); W. S. Laughlin, "Aspects of Current Physical Anthropology: Method and Theorv," Sthivest. J. Anthrop., vol. 16, no. 1 (I960); L. S. B. Leakey, "A New Fossil Skull From Olduvai," Nature, vol. 1S4 A. E. Mourant, A. C. Kopec and K. Domaniewska-Sobczk, (1959) The ABO Blood Groups (comprehensive tables and maps of world distribution), Occasional Publications of the Royal Anthropological Institute, No. 13 (1958) M. T. Newman, "The Application of Ecological Rules to the Racial Anthropology of the Aboriginal New World," Amer. Anthrop., vol. 55, no. 3 (1955) R. H. Osborne and F. V. DeGeorge, Genetic Basis of Morphological Variation (1959); J. N. Spuhler (ed.), The Evolution of Man's Capacity for Culture (1959); H. T. Hammel el al., "Thermal and Metabolic Responses of the Australian Aborigine Exposed to Moderate Cold in Summer," /. Appl. Physiol., vol. 14, no. 4 (1959) D. F. Roberts and J. S. Weiner (eds.), The Scope of Physical Anthropology and Its Place in Academic Studies (1958) T. D. Stewart, "The Restored Shanidar I Skull," Smithsonian Report for 195S (1959); Ju-Kang Woo and Peng Ru-ce, "Fossil Human Skull of Early Paleoanthropic Stage Found at Mapa, Shaoquan,

American Indians,

and

;

;

;

;

;

anthropology as the scientific discipline providing it. Nor would this knowledge prove less useful to others missionaries, educators, doctors and the like working among "primitive" and exotic

—

—

peoples.

Many

examples could be quoted of

political

measures

failing in

their purpose, or even leading to disastrous results, because they

were taken

ignorance of native custom and the factors underlying it. The Ashanti War of 1900 is a classical case. It was provoked by the ill-advised demand of the British governor for the surrender of the golden stool of the tribe, which he took to be a symbol of sovereignty while in reality it was a sacred relic, not to be exposed to profane eyes. Other misunderstandings had less spectacular though still serious effects, such as the efforts of administrators and missionaries to suppress the African custom of bride wealth, paid by a man for his future wife, on the grounds that it reduced women to mere chattels, or the attempt of the Canadian government to abolish the potlatch feasts of the northwest in

;

;

;

;

;

;

Kwangtung Province," Vertebrata

III.

The term

Palasiatica, vol.

iii,

no. 4

(1959).

(W.

Ln.)

S.

APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY

applied anthropology (and

forerunner "practical anthropology") came into use between the late 1920s and middle 1930s. It indicated, and in a sense proclaimed, the new interest of social (or cultural) anthropologists in research meant to give practical aid and guidance to governments and other bodies controlling public life. It should be emphasized that the term marked off an area of interest rather than a separate branch of social anthropology. Many anthropologists worked in both fields. Nor its

was there any difference in the methods employed; even in its applied form anthropology involved the systematic study, at first hand, of societies as yet unknown or inadequately known. The difference lay in the scope studies, centered

commitment

of

the research, which, in applied

upon problems of practical importance, and

of the research worker,

and knowledge man."

who expected

in the

to place his skill

at the disposal of the nonscientist

and "practical

Applied anthropology thus came to mean essentially employed anthropology, if the term is understood sufficiently widely to include, besides salaried employment, also the mere encouragement and sponsorship of particular investigations. Since the anthropologist studied primarily "primitive" and exotic peoples, it was natural that his researches should be of special interest to colonial governments and that these should have become his principal employers. Though this took time and was not accomplished without considerable pleading on the part of leading anthropologists such as Bronislaw Malinowski, A. R. Radcliffe-Brown and C. G. Seligman, the case for applied anthropology seemed convincing. 1. The Need for Applied Anthropology. In our own society the men entrusted with public affairs are, as a matter of course, familiar with the general social situation and ready to rely on such

—

disciplines as history,

economics or

political science for the solu-

in

which

it

saw merely a wasteful, wanton de-

struction of property.

The anthropologist could have shown that the bride wealth corresponded, in these societies, to a contract of marriage and, far from lowering the dignity of women, gave them full legal status; and that the "wastefulness" of the potlatch enabled men to achieve prestige and display social prominence. Above all, the anthropologist could have predicted that the disregard of customs playing so crucial a part was bound to disrupt the native society and undermine its morale. If the understanding of the indigenous way of life could have prevented the more disastrous consequences, it would also have helped to dispel many of the popular prejudices about native races that they are "by nature" lazy, dishonest, improvident, mentally backward, or hopelessly conservative. The helpfulness of anthropology must not, however, be exaggerThe discovery of the true significance of a custom did not ated. necessarily dispose of the difficulties of government created by it.

—

In coping with these the administrator had to claim a free hand, And to the extent of radically interfering with tradition. clearly, no modern, humanitarian government could permit the

even

continuance of tribal wars or blood feuds, countenance practices endangering human life or recognize sorcery and witchcraft. But Even native ways of life wholly there were other factors also. justifiable and inoffensive were sacrificed when they conflicted with "higher policy": indigenous land titles were overruled by a policy encouraging white settlement; the disruption of community life counted for less than the need of recruiting able-bodied men for labour or service in colonial armies.

Even

anthropological information was not reduced to futilleast, it enabled the administrator to calculate the consequences of his actions; often, it would suggest to him the best course in the circumstances a policy of judicious transition, a workable compromise or safeguards of some kind. For example,

ity.

so,

At the

—

the anthropological study of labour migration in Bechuanaland,

by the South African anthropologist I. Schapera, esits most disruptive effects were the result, not of the numbers of migrants, but of their prolonged absence from home, and that in the case of young men, especially those better educated, migration even proved to be a beneficial influence. These were clearly findings which opened the way for a useful policy of compromise. 2. Division of Responsibility. All this indicated a division of responsibility whereby the anthropologist was to provide the carried out

tablished that

—

relevant information while

its

actual utilization,

its

application in

the strict sense of the word, lay with the administrator. It did not seem feasible to advocate a fuller merging of the two roles by

giving the anthropologist administrative powers or turning the administrator into a professional anthropologist. The qualities required of the good anthropologist did not necessarily

make

a successful administrator; only in exceptional cases or, for that matter, find it

would the same individual possess both

easy to reconcile the divergent viewpoints of the scientific student

ANTHROPOLOGY of society and the

man

responsible for efficient government.

Furthermore, once the anthropologist was identified with the regime he risked losing the vantage point of the impartial observer the chance of winning the confidence of the people he studied or that of gaining an unbiased picture of their lives and interests. Finally, it became increasingly difficult to combine competent anthropologThough the semiprofesical work with other professional duties. sional. part-time anthropologist had in the past made valuable contributions to ethnographic knowledge, his work fell seriously short of the more exacting standards of modern research. But some familiarity with anthropological thought and methods could only be of profit to the administrator, and similarly to the missionary or educator. The first steps in this direction were taken in Belgium. France and the Netherlands, where the normal train-

—

many years included instruction in indigenous languages and cultures, offered at universities and similar institutions (such as the Universite coloniale in Brussels and the Ecole coloniale in Paris). In Great Britain studies of this kind were optional until 1946, when social anthropology was made a regular subject in the training courses for colonial officials (given Allowing for at Oxford, Cambridge and London universities). somewhat different interests, the U.S. Foreign Service institute in Washington, D.C., founded in 1947 for the training of foreign service personnel, similarly included cultural anthropology among ing of colonial officials for

was not the object of this instruction, which was mostly on an elementary level, to produce competent research workers; it served its purpose best in teaching the future administrator to look at certain problems with the anthropologist's eyes and to recognize where anthropological investigations were needed. In It

J. Herskovits pointed out, to an "indirect" form of applied anthropology.

sense his training corresponded, as Melville

A.

The Growth

of Applied Anthropology

—

1. Early Beginnings Even before World War I colonial governments, especially the British, Dutch and German, in various ways encouraged anthropological investigations in their territories. In most cases no sharp distinction was drawn between studies by professional anthropologists and the amateur observations of officials, missionaries or explorers; but there were also significant exceptions, such as the expeditions, sponsored by the respective governments, of R. Thurnwald to German New Guinea (1912-14) and of C. G. and Brenda Seligman to the pagan tribes of the AngloEgyptian Sudan (1909 and 1911). In the United States the Bureau of American Ethnology, founded as early as 1879 for the study of the Indian tribes, at least laid the foundations for applied anthropological research, though this was slow in coming. There was little development until 1933 when John Collier, a keen supporter of anthropology, was appointed as commissioner of Indian

affairs.

Generally speaking, applied anthropology began to come into its 1930. It was then that several British col-

own between 1920 and

onies and dominions seconded political officers for anthropological

work or appointed

planning.

identified with, studies of culture contact

special

government anthropologists, among

—

whom

were R. S. Rattray (in the Gold Coast now Ghana), P. A. Talbot and C. K. Meek (in Nigeria), J. H. Hutton (in India), F. E. Williams and E. W. Chinnery (in Papua and New Guinea). In 1926 the foundation of the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures (later renamed International African institute marked a further important advance. Its five-year plan of research, inaugurated in 1932, was explicitly intended to "bring scientific knowledge and political affairs into closer association" and to provide "a scientific basis for dealing with the practical questions of administration and education." The following years saw a great deal of applied research, mainly in British African ter)

ritories, as well as, in 1938, the setting

tre located in colonial Africa, the

up of the

first

research cen-

Rhodes-Livingstone institute in

Northern Rhodesia.

The concentration of research in British Africa was no accident. For there the policy of indirect rule, envisaging the government of native peoples through their own leaders and political institutions, made accurate knowledge of their societies a prerequisite of polit-

and change.

World War II.— Though World War

II temporarily interrupted most studies of this kind, anthropology also found a place in the wartime organization of the allied countries. Several anthropologists were attached to government departments or appointed to advisory committees; others, who had joined the services, were assigned to special duties requiring their particular skills and expert knowledge. Their duties were in the main concerned with military government in conquered or liberated territories, with intelligence work and with the planning of psychological warfare. Thus, in the British military administration of Italian east and north Africa anthropologists were given charge of 2.

native affairs.

A team

of anthropologists joined the Australian

New Guinea. In the United States, anthropologists taught at civil-affairs training schools, served in the military government set up by the navy in Micronesia or worked

military government of

for the Office of Strategic Services.

The U.S. wartime

the subjects taught.

this

55

Furthermore, the native peoples of Africa had been exposed to far-reaching contacts with western civilization, which were rapidly changing their way of life; the need to assess and guide the changes thus added to the problems requiring anthropological study. This latter reason held, of course, also for territories outside Africa; in consequence, research in applied anthropology tended to be increasingly focused upon, and in fact ical

researches extended far beyond colonial or

A

team of anthropologists worked in the relocation centres set up for Japanese, both of U.S. citizenship and aliens; others, including Ruth Benedict and John Embree, underprimitive peoples.

took studies of the "national character" and morale of enemy countries, especially of Japan. In the latter studies the conventional anthropological approach, through the direct observation of a peoits environment, was of necessity replaced by the use of published sources, historical or contemporary, and by interviews with individuals exiled from their countries; also, parallel investigations were carried out by psychologists and psychiatrists, so that

ple in

the contribution expected of the anthropologist consisted in his viewpoint, in his manner of interpreting the data, rather than in any particular research technique.

Developments After World War II After the war, apexpanded widely and rapidly. In Great Britwhere the program of colonial development offered a wide scope for applied research, the Colonial Social Science Research council, set up in 1944, commissioned numerous anthropological investigations in Africa, the West Indies, Borneo and elsewhere; the colonial office appointed anthropologists as consultants and es3.

plied anthropology ain,

tablished research centres in the

new

colonial university colleges in

Uganda, Nigeria and the Gold Coast. In Australia the School of Pacific Administration, itself a postwar creation, had anthropologists on its staff and anthropology in its syllabus. In South Africa, the department of native affairs employed a team of anthropoloIndia and Malaya were beginning to utilize anthropological gists. research in the solution of their political and social problems. The government of French Equatorial Africa created a Commission d'£tudes Sociologiques, other French territories taking similar International bodies like the Trusteeship council of the United Nations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization and the South Pacific commission appointed anthropologists to their research divisions and on occasion spon-

steps.

sored investigations in the field. In the United States, government agencies and private research foundations alike were keenly interested in applied anthropological

work, which found a place

in the administration of the U.S. trust

and in several of the postwar projects of technical asbackward countries, especially in southeast Asia and the middle east. One American university, Cornell (Ithaca, N.Y.), territories

sistance to

The Society for Applied Anthropology, founded in 1941, aimed at encouraging and co-ordinating such research, and also published its own specialized in the training of applied anthropologists.

renamed in 1949 Human OrLargely stimulated by the North American example,

periodical (Applied Anthropology,

ganization).

scholars and government agencies in the Philippines, in

and South America began

to think

on similar

lines, of

Mexico

anthropology

ANTHROPOLOGY

56

applied to the problems of economic and political development. As social anthropologists in general had come to extend their researches to advanced cultures and western societies, so applied

scope in the same sense. Two new types here be mentioned, though both were subFirst, the combined anthroject to considerable controversy. pological and psychological studies started during the war, of

anthropology widened

of applied research

its

may

national trends or ''national character," were continued in various

European countries under U.S. auspices and the leadership esMargaret Mead. Secondly, a group of U.S. anthropologists, headed by Eliot D. Chappie, turned their attention to the problems of social and human relations in industry, accepting Anthropologists in contracts for research from private firms. Great Britain were moving more cautiously in the same direction. The interest in mental health, finally, which had developed strongly since the war, opened up a further field for the application of anthropological knowledge and techniques and for the collaboration between anthropologists, psychiatrists and those pecially of

concerned with social welfare. B. Scope of

Research

were rarely localized but tended to spread widely through the social fabric; wherever the change might start, ultimately it was likely to affect family structure, the relationship between the generations, group morality, even religious beliefs. It was chiefly these remote, and uncalculated, effects which gave culture contact its

potentially disruptive character.

The lessons here learned had a direct bearing on policies of development and reconstruction. For whatever their specific objective political reforms, economic advancement, education, health they were essentially experiments in calculated social change. The anthropologist, by his analysis of the situation, had to provide the relevant social data needed for any reliable prediction of results. Often his responsibilities extended further, to giving advice on the most appropriate method of implementing a particular policy or even, if more rarely, on the wisdom of the

— —

policy

itself.

This wider responsibility, however, placed the anthropologist in a genuine dilemma for while it enabled him to act as a sympathetic intermediary between rulers and ruled, it also meant that his role was radically changed, ceasing to be that of the strictly scientific, disinterested student of society. ;

Regarding the more conventional type of applied anthropology,

among

primitive or exotic societies, three

main

be distinguished, though in practice they tended to overlap: (1) general ethnographic studies, meant to provide information about a certain society or group of societies in a region; (2) specialized investigations of particular practices or institutions; (3) predictive analyses, needed for policies of political reconstruction,

economic development, etc. The first kind of study was also the earliest, and hardly differed from the descriptive studies of ordinary or general social anthropology. Colonial governments simply desired to have full reports on the people they governed, on their customs and institutions, even in the absence of any definite plans for utilizing the information. 1.

Political Organization

and Land.

vestigations were usually suggested

— The

by some

difficulty or

weakness

One such difficulty, widely encountered, concerned the location of effective authority. Chiefs and other political functionaries appointed by the government often proved ineffectual, either because the men in question were without traditional authority or because the latter was much more rigidly circumscribed than were the powers thrust upon these men under modern conditions. Sometimes no centralized authority existed at all which could provide the kind of leadership governments wished to see established. The religious sanctions behind chieftainship posed a special problem for they might both buttress the secular office and restrict the freedom of action necessary for its efficient performance, as when a chief also had priestly functions or was invested with semidivinity. The investigation of indigenous political systems in consequence became one of the recurrent subjects of applied anthropological research. Other problems demanding continuous research were land and land tenure. A great deal of research was devoted to the customary law of indigenous societies, so that it might be utilized or at least reckoned with by the government of the country. The principles of land tenure in turn had to furnish the legal basis for land litigation, for any registration of land titles and for land policy at large. Here the anthropologist could show that the modern concept of individual property, implying the right of free disposal by the owner, was largely inapplicable to primitive societies. Nor was land communally owned as many administrators thought. Rather, individual usufruct was combined with corporate titles giving kin groups or communities reversionary rights or rights of disposal. Religious factors again entered since land was often bound up with the worship of ancestors or otherwise associated with supernatural conceptions. 2. Culture Contact and Planned Change. There were, further, the many instances of culture contact the impact, upon primitive societies, of western technology and economy, of Christianity and western moral standards, and of other factors equally ;

— —

The

lesson that

emerged most

clearly

From

was that

their effects

Results and Prospects

the anthropologist's point of view the applied studies

in many ways been an undoubted gain. Concerned as they so often were with the effects of social change, they offered the

have

nearest approach to the controlled experiment in the social sciences. The specialized inquiries greatly deepened our knowledge of particular aspects of primitive society and culture, especially of

economic and entific

and law.

Sci-

field also offered to

many

political organization, land tenure

value apart, work in the applied

anthropologists the purely

human

satisfaction of aiding

backward

peoples in their struggle to meet and master the forces of western civilization.

The concrete

specialized in-

of administration.

alien.

C.

lines of research

may

by colonial governments were more bound to act upon the anthropological findings and partly because the value of the latter was not always wholeheartedly accepted. Sometimes, it is true, the anthropologist found himself embarrassed by the excessive confidence of his employers that he had the key to all probMore often, they were inclined to question whether lems. anthropology was in fact as helpful and the information it provided as indispensable as enthusiasts would make it out to be. Some impatience was felt with the "academic" anthropologist who would insist on comprehensive studies when only some specific information was asked for, or who seemed to deal in a complicated fashion, using complicated language, with issues which to the pracgains derived

difficult to assess,

partly because these were not

man appeared straightforward. To all this anthropologists could reply that, though the knowledge they stood for was not intical

dispensable to government,

it

facilitated

informed and smooth

government. also had to face another, more disturbing they overemphasized the importance of tradition and were hostile to modern development. Nor was this view limited to colonial administrators; educated Africans and Indo-

But anthropologists

criticism

— that

nesians openly expressed their distrust of a science whose primary interest was in "primitive" peoples and which might play into the

hands of reactionaries and upholders of "colonialism." If these objections did not promise too well for the future of applied anthropology, anthropologists themselves had grown more cautious. They came to fear that the applied work might entice too many of the younger anthropologists away from general and theoretical research, so that the very progress of the discipline might be endangered. Conversely, the man fully committed to applied work, like the permanent government anthropologist, would be in danger of losing touch with universities and academic cenHe tres, and hence with the advances achieved in his discipline. would turn into a mere technician, perhaps still useful to his employers but no longer truly representing anthropological knowledge.

There were graver problems that were of an ethical nature. of roles forced upon the anthropologist when he is

The change

ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY way

implement government policies has been mentioned previously. To be sure, he might see no cause for disagreeing with the policy, and the best way of imposing it might well be understood to be the one best serving the interests of the Even so, the anthropologist would abandon the native peoples. standpoint of the scientist; he must pronounce upon the merits and demerits of particular courses of action, and thus introduce Nor value judgments into the objective pursuit of knowledge. will the issues always be as clear-cut and uncontroversial, so that the anthropologist might have to take sides and argue from his own political and moral convictions. And if these had little chance consulted on the best

to

against administrative considerations or the dictates of "higher

would be added

policy," personal frustrations

to the dubiousness

of his position.

Yet

if,

apparently avoiding this ethical involvement, the an-

thropologist presented his facts in the strictly objective manner of the scientist, without adding recommendations or warnings, he

would furnish his employers with information to use as they see fit; and he might find it put to uses with which he could not in good conscience agree. Or again, he might be tempted (or expected) to restrict his advice to the most efficient means for achieving certain ends, dismissing the ends themselves, the policy which to be implemented with his aid, as not of his concern

—

would hardly diminish his ethical commitment. All these issues were widely and on occasion heatedly debated among U.S. and British anthropologists. In an attempt to clear the air the Society for Applied Anthropology published in 1951 a It appealed to the social concarefully worded Code of Ethics. science of the individual research worker and to his responsibility respect tenets of our civilization moral uphold the at all times to for the individual and for human rights, and the promotion of human and social well-being. Not all anthropologists were prepared to endorse this assumption of a moral mission on the part of the ''disinterested" scientist. The dilemma, then, though vital for the future of applied anthropology, remained unresolved. See also Index references under "Anthropology" in the Index

—

volume.

—

cieties composed of representatives from several other societies, intergovernmental organizations, international nongovernmental

organizations and international nongovernmental regional organizations with regional headquarters. Membership in many of these is institutional only, appointive, or otherwise restricted, and such

groups are therefore not enumerated in the following selective list which includes place and date of organization as well as publications of the societies. A convenient source of more detailed information on anthropological societies of all kinds is the International Directory of Anthropological Institutions, edited by William L.

Thomas,

Jr.,

and Anna M. Pikelis (1953).

International: International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences; International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences.

Regional: Conference Internationale des Africanistes de l'Ouest; Congres International des Americanistes; Far-Eastern Prehistory association; Pacific Science association; Pan-African Congress of Prehistory Royal Central Asian society. ;

Argentina:

Sociedad Argentina de Americanistas

(Buenos

Aires,

1946), Boletin; Sociedad Argentina de Antropologia (Buenos Aires, 1936), Relaciones. Australia: Anthropological Society of New South Wales (Sydney, 1928), Mankind. Austria: Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Wien (Vienna, 1870), Mitteilungen, Anthropologische Forschungen, Prdhistorische Forschungen; Verein fur Volkskunde in Wien (Vienna, 1894), Osterreichische Zeitschrifl fiir Volkskunde, Osterreichische Volkskultur Forschungen zur Volkskunde; Wiener Sprachgesellschaft (Vienna, 1947), Die Sprache. Belgium: Societe Royale Beige d'Anthropologie et de Prehistoire (Brussels, 1882), Bulletin. Brazil: Associacao Brasileira de Antropologia (Rio de Janeiro, 1955), Revista de Antropologia. Burma: Burma Research society (Rangoon, 1910), Journal. Congo, Republic of the: Societe d'Etudes Juridique du Katanga Bulletin des Juridictions Indigenes et du Droit ( Elisabeth ville), Coulumier Congolais, Revue Juridique du Congo Beige. Cuba: Asociacion de Arqueologos del Caribe (Havana, 1950). Denmark: Dansk Etnografisk Forening (Copenhagen, 1952). England: Association of Social Anthropologists (Manchester, 1946) Folk-Lore society (London, 1878), Folk-Lore; Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (London, 1843), Journal, Man; The Prehistoric society (Liverpool, 1935 formerly Prehistoric Society of East Anglia, Oxford, 190S), Proceedings; Royal Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (London, 1843), Archaeological Journal; Society of Antiquaries of London (London, 1707), Archaeologia, Antiquaries Journal; Society for the Study of Human Biology (London, 1958), annual symposia. Finland: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura (Helsinki, 1831), Suomi; Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura-Finsk-Ugriska Sallskapet (Helsinki, 1883), Journal de la Societe Finno-Ougrienne, Memoires, Travaux ethnographiques, Lexica. France: Societe dAnthropologia a Paris (Paris, 1858), Bulletin, Memoires, Bulletins et Memoires; Societe Prehistorique Francaise (Paris, 1904), Bulletin, Congres Prehistorique de France, Memoires; Societe des Africanistes (Paris, 1931), Journal; Societe des Americanistes (Paris, 1895), Journal; Societe Asiatique (Paris, 1822), Journal Asiatique, Cahiers; Societe des Oceanistes (Paris, 1937), Journal. Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Kulturmorphologie (Frankfurton-Main, 1938), Paideuma, Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde; Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Volkerkunde (Cologne, 1929), Zeitschrift fiir Eth;

;

Bibliography. General: Bronislaw Malinowski, "Practical Anthropology," Africa, vol. ii (1929); Melville J. Herskovits, "Applied Anthropology and the American Anthropologists" (containing biblio.), Science, vol. 83 (1936) R. W. Firth, "Anthropology in Modern Life," Human Types (1938); Felix M. Keesing, "Applied Anthropology in Colonial Administration" (containing biblio.), The Science of Man in the World Crisis, ed. by Ralph Linton (1945) E. E. Evans-Pritchard, "Applied Anthropology," Social Anthropology (1951); "Problems of Application" (various authors, with biblio.), Anthropology Today, ed. by A. L. Kroeber (1953). Examples of Applied Studies: G. Gordon Brown and A. B. Hutt, Anthropology in Action (193S) C. K. Meek, Law and Authority in a Nigerian Tribe (1937) H. Ian Hogbin, Experiments in Civilization Audrey I. Richards, Land, Labour and Diet in Northern (1939) Rhodesia (1939) Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword S. F. (1946) Alexander H. Leighton, The Governing of Men (1945) Nadel, The Nuba (1947) I. Schapera, Migrant Labour and Tribal Life (1947); David Rodnick, Postwar Germans: an Anthropologist's Account (1948). (S. F. N.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIAL: see Social Anthropology. ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, SOCIETIES OF.

There are in the world approximately 350 anthropological societies. These vary greatly in size of membership and in geographical breadth of interest. The vast majority of them are nongovernmental, devoted exclusively to anthropology or to a subdiscipline thereof, and have as their major purpose the exchange and dissemination of scientific information, notably via Most of these societies, inregular publications and meetings. cluding the oldest ones still active, are found in the United States, in Europe and in former European dependencies in Asia, and in More recent societies have originated in Africa and in Japan. Oceania, predominantly at the instance of Europeans. In most of Latin America, anthropological societies are still small and with local purposes, and individuals of broader interests follow the activities of their national scientific bodies.

Nations throughout the world often have some sort of national body wherein anthropology is one subject for attention or even the focus for a special "section." There exist, also, relescientific

57

vant national committees of anthropologists, national liaison so-

nologic.

Greece: Archaeological society (Athens, 1837), Journal of Archaeology, Minutes, Bibliotheque; Greek Folklore society (Athens, 1909) Hellenic Anthropological society (Athens, 1925), Praktika; Linguistic society (Athens, 1890). Hungary: Magyar Neprajzi Tarsasag (Budapest, 1889), Ethno;

Ethnographia Fuzetei; Magyar Nyelvtudomanyi graphia-N epelet Tarsasag (Budapest, 1903) Orszagos Magyar Regeszeti es MiiveszetTorteneti Tarsulat (Budapest, 1878), Archaeologiai Ertesito; Orszagos Neptanulmanyi Egyesiilet (Budapest, 1913), Magyar Nyelvor. Iceland: Hid islenzka Fornleifafelag (Reykjavik, 1879), Arbok. India: Anthropological Society of Bombay (Bombay, 1887), Journal; Ethnographic and Folk Culture society, Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow, ,

;

1945), The Eastern Anthropologist, monograph series, folk culture Kamarupa Anusandhan Samity (Gauhati, 1912), Journal of the Assam Research Society; The Mythic society (Bangalore, 1909), series;

Quarterly Journal; Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta, 1784), Journal, Year Book, Memoirs, Biblioteca Indica, Catalogue of Manuscripts, Introducing India, monograph series; Royal Asiatic society, Bombay branch (Bombay, 1804), Journal, Annual Report. Indonesia: Lembaga Kebudajaan Indonesia "Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen" (Jakarta, 1778), Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde. Ireland, Republic of: Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, (Dublin, 1849), Journal.

ANTHROPOMETRY

58

Israel: Israel Exploration society (Jerusalem, 1913), Bulletin, Journal, Eratz-Yisroel, Library of Palestinology, monographs; Yeda-'Am (Tel Aviv, 1940), Yeda-'Am, Journal, occasional publications in English.

Italy: Societa' Italiana di Antropologia Archivio per I' Antropologia e I' Etnologia.

e

Etnologia (Florence, 1S71),

Bulletin.

Sociedade

de Estudos

made with

de

Mozambique (Lourenco

By selecting reliable measuring and standardizing the techniques, such

familiar equipment.

points, or "landmarks,"

Nippon Gengo Gakkai (Tokyo, 1898), Gengo Kenkyu; Nippon Jinrui Gakkai (Tokyo, 1SS4), Jinruigaki Zassi, Jinruigaku Sokan; Nippon Koko Gakkai (Tokyo, 1S96), Kokogaku Zassi; Nippon Minzoku Gakkai (Tokyo, 1935), Minkandensho ; Nippon Minzoku Gaku Kyokai (Tokyo, 1934), Minzokugahu Kenkyu. Mu \va: Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic society (Singapore, 1877), Journal of the Malayan Branch. Mexico: Sociedad Mexicana de Antropologia (Mexico, D.F., 1937), Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropologicos. Morocco: Societe de Prehistoire du Maroc (Casablanca, 1926), Japan:

Mozambique:

construction. In space travel, the techniques of anthropometry are necessary to assure man both comfort and protection. The simplest anthropometric measurements, such as stature, are

measurements can be made with great accuracy. Where these measurements are to be used as norms, or standards (as for height or weight), the primary problems are those of sampling. The sample used for comparison must be large enough to provide static

an idea of the total range of measurements, and it must be representative of the population the anthropometrist intends to describe.

Modern anthropometry, however, has gone beyond the limits of Equipment now reads directly

meter-sticks, calipers and tapes.

Marques).

on counters or

Netherlands: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (The Hague, 1851), Bijdragen, V erhandelingen ; Nederlands Genootschap voor Anthropologic (Amsterdam, 1951). New Caledonia: Societe des Etudes Melanesiennes (Noumea, 1938),

of the measuring devices are designed to determine the thickness of the fat layer beneath the skin, and others meter the percentage

Etudes Melanesiennes. New Zealand: The Polynesian Society, Inc.

(Wellington,

1892),

Journal, Memoirs.

Norway: Norsk Etnologisk Samfunn (Bygddy, 1946), semipopular books on ethnological subjects. Poland: Polskie Towarzystwo Antropologiczne, Przeglad Antropologiczny.

Portugal: Associacao dos Arqueologos Portugueses (Lisbon, 1863), publication series; Sociedade Martins Sarmento (Guimaraes), Revista de Guimaraes (1884).

dials, can be adjusted for constant tension and can feed measurements directly to punch cards or computers. Some

reflectance of the exposed or unexposed skin. Anthropometric measurements of bone, fat and muscle are made directly on X-ray films, and ultrasonics is used to determine the depth of fat and muscle in living human beings. Often, anthropometric measurements are made directly on photographs. A variety of techniques have proved useful in measuring the component tissues of the body. Underwater weighing, using

Archimedes' principle, yields the

Dyes or

being.

specific gravity of the

human

trace substances injected into the blood indicate,

Rhodesia. Northern: The Northern Rhodesia society (Livingstone), Northern Rhodesia Journal. Spain: Sociedad Espaiiola de Antropologia, Etnografia y Prehistoria (Madrid, 1921), Adas y Memorias. Sweden: Svenska SSIlskapet for Antropologi och Geografi (Stockholm, 1872), Ymer, Geografiska Annaler. Switzerland: Geographisch-Ethnologische Gesellschaft Basel (Basel, 1923), Mitteilungen, Korrespondenzblatt ; Geographisch-Ethnographische Gesellschaft Zurich (Zurich, 1888), Geographica Helvetica; Schweizerische Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic und Ethnologie (Zurich, 1923), Bulletin; Schweizerische Gesellschaft fiir Volkskunde (Basel, 1896), Schweizerisches Archiv fiir Volkskunde, Korrespondenzblatt der Schweizer Volkskunde, Bulletin de Folklore Suisse, Volkstum der

by the extent of dilution, the size of the fat-free volume. Through measurements of the density of X-rays of the fingers, the mineral mass of the entire body can be estimated. Anthropometric measurements can be summarized by averages or means, as for stature or weight. Frequently, proportions or ratios are used, as when relating limb length to body length, or comparing the length of the upper and lower limbs. In reporting data on body composition the amount of fat is usually expressed as a percentage of gross body weight. Thus in adults, those whose

Schweiz. Tahiti: Societe

25%

d' Etudes

Oceaniennes (Papeete, 1917), Bulletin. Tanganyika: The Tanganyika society (Dar-es-Salaam), Tanganyika Notes and Records. Thailand: The Siam society (Bangkok, 1904), Journal, Natural History Bulletins. Tunisia: Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes (Tunis, 1931), Revue Trimestrielle,

monographs.

Turkey: Turk Tarih Kurumu (Ankara, 1931), Belleten, monographs. Uganda: The Uganda society (Kampala), The Uganda Journal. Union of South Africa: African Music society (Johannesburg, 1946), journal; South African Archaeological society '(Claremont, Cape Province, 1944), Quarterly Bulletin, handbooks, monographs. United States: American Anthropological association (Beloit, Wis., 1879), American Anthropologist, Memoirs, Neivs Bulletin; American Association of Physical Anthropologists (Philadelphia, Pa., 1928), American Journal of Physical Anthropology, The Wenner-Gren Foundation Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, Studies in Physical Anthropology; American Ethnological Society, Inc. (Flushing, NY., 1842), monograph series, publication series; The American Folklore Society, Inc. (Philadelphia, Pa., 1888), Journal of American Folklore, Memoir's; Archaeological Institute of America (Cincinnati, O., 1879), American Journal of Archaeology, Archaeology, Archaeological Newsletter, Bulletin; The Society for American Archaeologv (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1934), American Antiquity, Memoirs; Linguistic "Society of America (Charlottesville, Va., 1924), Language, Language Monographs, Language Dissertations, Special Publications; Society for Applied Anthropology (New York city, 1941), Human Organization, Clearinghouse Bulletin. Vietnam: Societe des Etudes Indochinoises (Saigon, 1883), Bultetm. (A.M. P.; F. R. E.)

ANTHROPOMETRY,

fat

is

less

than

5%

of total weight are lean, while those with over

Such quantitative information

fat are obese.

is

more mean-

There are underweight individuals and lean overweight individuals. Stature, weight, percentage of fat and the reflectance of the skin are static measurements, and they are one- or two-dimensional at best. It is also possible to provide true three-dimensional anthropometric data, using the Cartesian system of co-ordinates. The field of "dynamic" anthropometry, moreover, measures man in motion, or the effective body size of an individual engaged in a particular task. For the volume of a seated man quietly engaged in reading a book, this effective body size is approximately 54 in. high, 30 in. wide and 36 in. deep. The living human being engaged in any particular occupation occupies a space-envelope far larger than his minimum corporeal dimensions. Thus, time-lapse photography has become an adjunct to direct anthropometry. The design of ready-made clothing involves complicated uses Any system of sizes must be keyed to of anthropometric data. simple body measurements such as stature, chest girth and leg length. But for each combination of measurements used to define a size (such as 36-long) as many as one hundred supplementary measurements must also be incorporated into the patterns or model-forms. Similar complexities relate to automobile seats, ingful than expressions of underweight or overweight. fat

airplane cockpits and space capsules.

must be

close

enough

Controls, levers and switches

to grasp or operate, but not so close as to

coined by the naturalist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), means the measurement of man, and is derived from the Greek roots for "man" and "measure-

In such applications, designs based on anthropometric measurements must be subjected to actual fitting tests. Such tests combined with anthropometric data help

ment." Long used by physical anthropologists for the comparison of man to other primates, and for the comparison of different racial groups, anthropometric measurements are now employed in a variety of disciplines. Anthropometry assists in the diagnosis of

to eliminate driver or pilot error.

a

term

endocrine disorders, in the assessment of growth and development and in the evaluation of nutritional status. Anthropometric meas-

urements are employed in the design of equipment, in the sizing of clothing, shoes and sunglasses, and in automotive and air-frame

invite accidental operation.

Anthropometry, as

in Cuvier's time, is the

man

measurement of man,

even four-dimenmeasurements, apportioning of the tissue components of the human body, and measurements of strength, reaction time and fatigue. Man in space must be protected against heat, cold, radiation and acceleration (g force), yet his protective clothing must not become an encumbrance in itself. Spaceman must be able to but today sional

it

involves

in motion, three- or

ANTHROPOMORPHISM—ANTIBIOTICS operate controls, read dials and receive and transmit information within the limitations set by man, under stress, and enveloped in protective gear. See also Cephalic Index; Anthropology: Physical Anthropology. Bibliography. K. Sailer, Lehrbuch der Anthropologic (1957) S. M. Garn, "Physical Anthropology, Methods" in O. Glasser, Medical Physics (1960); E. Count (ed.), "Dynamic Anthropometry," Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 63, art. 4 (19SS) A. Hrdlicka, Practical Anthropometry, cd. by T. D. Stewart (1947)-. (S. M. G.) the ascribing of human form, or the characteristics of humanity, to deity; in a wider sense, the

—

;

;

ANTHROPOMORPHISM,

ascribing of ject.

human form

The term

is

or characteristics to any

most properly applied

to

any

nonhuman

ob-

religious state-

ment, with either literal or symbolic intent, that depicts deity as subsisting wholly or partially in bodily form resembling that of a man, or as possessing qualities of thought, will or feeling that are continuous with those experienced by men. Thus, expressions such as the "hand of God" and the "wrath of God" are equally illustrative of anthropomorphism. In the wider sense of the word, anthropomorphism may be illustrated by any analogical transfer of human qualities to the lower animals, as when referring to their reasoning powers or ascribing to them such traits as courage or cowardice. The word may be applied even to descriptions of inanimate levels of reality in metaphors taken from human experience, as in speaking of the anger

59

The view that the idea of God is merely an illusory projection of the human self, argued by such thinkers as Ludwig Feuerbach and Sigmund Freud, has been an influential is

invalid

and

example of

false.

this general position.

Others, equally convinced that anthropomorphism

is inescapable language about God, have argued as plausibly that there is no logical connection between this fact and the question of the validity and truth of theistic belief as such; the presumption that our thought and speech about God are subjectively coloured by our human experience is not a proper argument against the obIt is often urged that the alternative to jective reality of God. anthropomorphism in any form is either agnosticism (.q.v.) or a view of God so abstract as to be religiously neutral. Bibliography. Exposition of the idea of God as illusory is given in L. Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity, trans, by George Eliot, particularly ch. i-iii, and in S. Freud, The Future oj an Illusion, trans, by W. D. Robson-Scott (1949). A typical defense of anthropomorphic theism is given in B. H. Streeter, Reality, ch. iv and v (1926). Additional information and bibliography are available in standard works on the philosophy of religion and on the history of religions; see A. K. Wright, A Student's Philosophy of Religion, ch. ix, x, xix (1943) P. A. Bertocci, Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, pp. 306 ff (1951) A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, The Idea of God in the Light oj Recent Philosophy, ch. viii (1920). For extended technical discussions of religious language bearing on the subject see P. Tillich, Biblical Religion and the Search for Ultimate Reality (1955) J. Wach, The Comparative Study of Religion, ch. iii (1958) J. Wisdom, "Gods," in Logic and Language, ed. by A. Flew (1955) A. Flew et al., "Theology and Falsification," in New Essays in Philosophical Theology, ed. bv A. Flew and A. Maclntyre (1955). (K. M. T.)

in

—

;

;

;

;

of a storm.

;

Throughout the history of religious thought various attitudes have been taken with respect to the propriety of anthropomorphism in statements purporting to describe God or the gods. One of the earliest in western thought to take explicit and critical note of religious anthropomorphism was Xenophanes (c. 580—485 B.C.),

who perceived

the provincialism in

for example, that the Ethiopians

much

theistic belief, observing,

and the Thracians fancied

gods, respectively, as black-skinned and as blue-eyed. it

unfitting that

Homer and Hesiod "have

He

their

thought

ascribed to the gods

all

shame and a disgrace among men: thieving, (Fragments). Similarly, Plato repudiated the crass anthropomorphism of the popular Homeric mythology, enforcing the idea, in accord with Xenophanes, that God is one, and beyond human powers of comprehension. It is to be noted, though, that Plato defended the didactic value of anthropomorphic myth, if only God were assigned the highest virtues and not the lowest vices of men. The classical Hebrew prophets, such as Amos and Isaiah, were vigorous critics of the gross forms of anthropomorphism popular in their times, reminding their hearers, for example, that the moral judgments of God were not based upon the tribal preferences that influence human judgments. The prophets did not entirely abandon anthropomorphism, however, but freely employed refined anthropomorphic symbols as indispensable to their concept of God as personal. The author of Ecclesiastes carried the critique of anthropomorphism further, approaching the idea of an impersonal cosmic force in place of the Hebraic personal God. It should be remarked that while many of the anthropomorphisms in the Hebrew scriptures are undoubtedly taken literally by their authors, many more are recognized and intended as poetic metaphors. In this regard, there is evidently a real difference between the intention of the relatively early statement that "the Lord used to speak to Moses face to face, as a man speaks to his friend" (Ex. xxxiii. 11), and that of the consciously poetic question directed by the Psalmist to God: "How long wilt thou hide thy face from me?" (Ps. xiii, deeds that are

a

adultery, fraud"

1).

While many thinkers have believed it possible to purge theism anthropomorphism, many others have regarded anthropomorphism as not only inevitable, in some degree, but as essential to theistic knowledge and language. The latter judgment has been premised upon the observation that human knowledge and language in general are necessarily conditioned by man's experience of himself; if this is true, then the human subject invariably interprets nonhuman reality after analogies drawn from human experience. There are those who have concluded from this apparent inevitability of anthropomorphism in human thought that theism as such (q.v.) of all traces of

ANTIAIRCRAFT:

see Artillery;

Rockets and Guided

Missiles.

ANTIARCHA,

a

group of

fish

with armourlike covering that and became extinct about

flourished about 300,000,000 years ago

See Placoderm. in southeastern France in the departement on the eastern side of the Garoupe peninsula across the bay from Nice, from which it is 13 mi. by road. Pop. (1962) 24,370. The town is a holiday resort and a port for pleasure craft. Juan-les-Pins, close by, has a casino and long sandy beaches. The Grimaldi museum contains a collection of paintings, including works by Pablo Picasso. The Cape of Antibes, 230,000,000 years ago.

ANTIBES,

a

town

of Alpes-Maritimes,

is

surmounted by its lighthouse, is a favourite place for walks. Antibes is on the main coastal railway from Marseilles to Nice and Genoa. Flowers (chiefly carnations and roses) are grown. Formerly called Antipolis, from its position facing Nice, Antibes was supposed to have been founded by colonists from MarIt was the seat seilles, and remained important in Roman times. of a bishopric from the 5th century, but this was transferred to Grasse in 1244 as a result of continuous attacks from the sea. Antibes was formerly in the departement of Var, but in 1860, when Nice was ceded to France, it was put in the newly created' departement of Alpes-Maritimes. The 17th-century fortifications were removed in 1896, and the new quarter of the town built on their site.

ANTIBIOTICS organisms that, of or

kill

in

are organic substances produced by living very low concentrations, inhibit the growth

sensitive microorganisms;

i.e.,

or lethal effect on the growth of other

they exert an inhibitory cells.

Most

authorities

produced by microorganisms, but others include products of higher plants and animals as they also produce antimicrobial substances. This definition limits the term to naturally occurring substances and excludes synthetic compounds developed by chemotherapeutic research. Antibiosis (literally "against life") is the situation in which an organism lives in opposition to the life of another. If both organisms are in opposition, the antibiosis is reciprocal; if only one limit the

is

term

inhibited,

it is

—

to substances

unilateral.

History. Although practical use of antibiotics is a recent development, antibiosis among microorganisms has been frequently reported since the time of Louis Pasteur. Methods of measuring antibiotic activity and even of producing a crude preparation of an antibiotic called pyocyanase were developed early in this century. Pyocyanase was used in the treatment of diphtheria but was soon abandoned because it gave erratic and conflicting results.

.

ANTIBIOTICS

6o

Reports on the inhibiting action of fungi, and even of the isolacompounds having antibiotic activity, appeared before and after the turn of the century, but systematic study of this phenomenon did not follow. Even the announcement in 1929 of the discovery of the antibacterial powers of penicillin (q.v.) by Sir Alexander Fleming was neglected because of inadequate co-operation between bacteriologists, biochemSeveral years later a team of investigators ists and medical men. headed by Sir Howard Florey and E. B. Chain began intensive study of penicillin and achieved its successful use. The discovery of practical antibiotics has been recognized by Nobel prize awards to Fleming, Florey and Chain for penicillin and to S. A. Waksman tion of crystalline

in scientific literature

for streptomycin.

The burst

following the successful clinical use of hundreds of antibiotics. Of these about 500 have been studied sufficiently to learn enough of

effort

penicillin revealed the existence of

about their biological and chemical properties to warrant naming them. The vast majority of these are too toxic or have other undesirable properties that prevent their clinical use. Classification. Antibiotics are classified according to the microorganisms or agents that they counteract: antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and antitumorous. Some have activity in two

—

areas;

e.g.,

antibacterial

and antifungal.

Of the named

complete list: Albomycin, amphomycin. amphotericin, aureothricin, bacitracin, blastmycin, candicidin, carbomycin, Carzinophilin, chloramphenicol,

chlortetracycline, Circulin, colistin, cycloheximide, erythromycin, fumagillin, gramicidin, griseofulvin, hygromycin, kanamycin, leucomycin, mitomycin, neomycin, nisin, novobiocin, nystatin, oleandomycin, oxy tetracycline, penicillin, polymyxin, ristocetin, sarkomycin, spiramycin, streptomycin, dihydrostreptomycin, tetracycline, thiostrepton, cabimicina, tyrothricin, usnic

vancomycin, viomycin and xanthocillin. No one country produces all of these, but most of them are produced in the United

acid,

—

Origin. Two-thirds of the antibiotics in the above list are produced by streptomyces microorganisms; others come from bacteria, molds, nocardia and lichen. Among these producers of antibiotics, streptomyces and nocardia are variously classified but are generally considered to be microorganisms that are intermediate The Most Widely Used Antibiotics Generic

name

G

(or 1)

Penicillins

Active

mainly against*

Chemical nature

GaH^CmNiS

(G)

CieHisOaNsS (V) peptide-like

Streptomyces griseus

Streptomyces

Chlortetracycline

.

species and dechlorination of chlortetracycline Streptomyces

G+, G-

bacteria, tuberculosis bacteria bacteria, G+, rickettsiae, large viruses, certain protozoa

G—

CsiHssOuNt base-sugar-

complex

G^OsN; forms stable salts

with bases

and acids

C 33 H2 3

8

N

2 C1

tetracycline

Oxytetracycline

.

Streptomyces

CttH^OgNj same as

.

Streptomyces

CnHisCbNaOs

.

synthesis Streptom vccs

tetracycline

Chloramphenicol

neutral also

Erythromycin

A

by

erythreus

Neomycin B

G+, some G-

C37H67NO13

bacteria, some rickettsiae and large viruses G-{-, bacteria tuberculosis bacteria fungi and some

GsHisNsOis

G—

.

Nystatin

amoeba Bacitracin

A

.

Bacillus

G+

lichenifoi

Tyrothricin (mixture of gramicidin and tyrocidine)

*G+ and

G—

CULTURES OF MOLD FROM SOIL SAMPLES [N LABORATORY CULTURES SUCH AS THESE ARE USED IN ANTIBIOTIC RESEARCH

between the bacteria and fungi. No commercial antibeen obtained from the hundreds of species of yeast. The accompanying table lists information about the most widely used antibiotics. Generic names are used rather than trade names. Every producer has his own trade-mark name, and so if an antibiotic is made by several companies there may be many names for the product. The many trade names are very confusing to medical men, scientists and the general public. To avoid this confusion, generic names are used in scientific writing. The infections against which antibiotics are active are largely The so-called broad spectrum antibiotics, of bacterial origin. e.g., tetracycline, also counteract rickettsiae and certain large viruses. Among the 500 named antibiotics are many antifungal and some antiviral compounds. In recent years an immense effort has been directed toward finding antitumorous antibiotics. A considerable number have been discovered and a few have been tried clinically, but by the early 1960s none had been cleared by the Food and Drug administration for medical use. Chemical Nature. Antibiotics, as can be seen from the table, are usually large molecules, and their structural formulas are complex. Many have unusual configurations related to peptides, glycosides, sugar-fatty acid complexes, nucleosides, polyenes and in character

biotic has

—

tetracyclines.

Some

neutral compounds.

and

Streptomycin and dihydrostreptomycin

DISHES.

antibiotics

only about 50 were produced commercially in the early 1960s. New ones were constantly appearing, but the following is a fairly

States.

GROWING

denotes bacteria that are stained by Gra those that are not {e.g., Escherichia coli).

bacteria

base-sugar-

complex

base-sugar-

complex

CmHmXOi, (formula uncertain)

CeaHwiOi.

NnS

cyclic

polypeptide basic polypeptides

are bases, others are acids and

Among

some are num-

their hydrolytic products are a

ber of unusual bases, sugars, amino acids and fatty acids. Commercial Production. Production of one or more antibiotics is carried on in all the large countries of the world and in many smaller ones. The United States, England, continental Eu-

—

rope (including Russia) and Japan are large producers, but there are many other countries that have one or more plants producing them. Although many antibiotics or modifications of the natural substances have been chemically synthesized, large-scale commercial

production in the early 1960s was limited to 'cycloserine and chloramphenicol. In general, commercial antibiotics are produced aseptically by fermentation in large tanks; e.g., 10.000 gal. capacity. Suitable media are sterilized, inoculated and continuously aerated and stirred vigorously during fermentation. Widely used ingredients in such media are corn steep liquor, soybean meal, After four to five days, ferlactose, glucose and inorganic salts. mentation is complete and the medium is then processed. This involves such steps as extraction, precipitation, decolourization and finally crystallization. Typical yields are several grams of crystalline product per litre of

medium.

Production of antibiotics in the United States in the early 1960s as reported by the U.S. Tariff commission w'as more than 3.500,000 lb. per year with a sales value of nearly $350,000,000. About three-fourths of the production went into human and veterinary use and the other one-fourth into animal feeds, agricultural sprays

ANTICATHODE—ANTICHRIST and

and poultry preservatives. The most important antibased on tonnage and market value were the first six named

fish

biotics

in the table.

Theory

of Action.

—With

How

The answer probably possess antibiotic activity? Growth and metablies in the diversity of their modes of action. olism of microbial cells involve so many different processes that the cell is vulnerable at many points of attack. Interference with can they

Some

such a large number of antibiotics

of different chemical structure the question naturally arises: all

nucleic acid synthesis, blocking of phosphorylation processes

and

rendering essential nutrients unavailable to the cell are examples of the modes of action of different antibiotics. However, diseaseproducing microorganisms are not without their own means of defense, and resistance to antibiotics by pathogens became a growing problem, particularly in hospitals. In such cases uptake of antimay be blocked by the cell wall, or the microorganisms may develop new pathways of metabolism that circumvent the interAs old antibiotics become less efference in the old circuits. fective, new ones must be discovered in the unending battle beman and disease-producing microbes. In addition, man tween may develop an immunological hypersensitivity to the antibiotic that may result in severe allergic reactions and, sometimes, in death. The careless and at times unwarranted use of antibiotics cannot be condoned inasmuch as it may lead to resistant strains of organisms that may be difficult or impossible to treat and to sensitized individuals who cannot tolerate the antibiotic. See Bacteriology: Antibiotics; Chloramphenicol; Chlor-

biotics

tetracycline; Streptomycin; Terramycin; Tetracycline. For use of antibiotics against specific diseases, see articles on each disease. See also Index references under "Antibiotics'' in the Index volume. Bibliography. H. W. Florey et al., Antibiotics, 2 vol. (1949) L. A. Underkofler and R. J. Hickey (eds.), Industrial Fermentations, vol. ii

—

;

(1954); W. S. Spector, Handbook of Toxicology, vol. ii (1957); U.S. Federal Trade Commission, Economic Report on Antibiotics Manufacture (June 1959). (W. H. Pn.; W. H. T.) the target inserted in an X-ray tube on

ANTICATHODE,

which the high-speed electrons, or cathode rays (q.v.), are directed. In tubes with a separate anode the anticathode is generally connected electrically, and outside the tube, to the anode. In a Coolidge tube the anticathode acts also as the anode. On the impact of a sufficiently swift electron, the anticathode gives forth an X-radiation characteristic of the material of which it is composed. See X-Rays: Excitation of X-Rays; Electricity: The Coolidge X-Ray Tube. ANTICHRIST, the chief of the enemies of Christ. The earliest mention of the name Antichrist, which was probably first coined in Christian eschatological literature,

is in

the Epistles of

John (I John ii, 18, 22; iv, 3; II John, 7). The conception of mighty ruler who will appear at the end of time, and whose essence will be enmity to God, however, is older, and traceable to

Dan.

would destroy three

rulers (the three horns,

24), persecute the saints (vii, 25) and devastate the of God. In later times the tyrant who was God's enemy

vii, 8,

Temple became a figure of prophecy, applied Thus for the author of the Psalms

to various situations of crisis.

of

Solomon

(c.

60 b.c.) the

Roman general Pompey was the Adversary of God; whom the Assumption of Moses (c. a.d. 30) expects at

the tyrant

the end of things possesses, besides the traits of Antiochus IV, those of Herod the Great. The eschatological imagination of the Jews was

all

later influenced

who

by the

figure of the

emperor Caligula

(a.d.

37-

is known to have given the order, never carried out, to 41), erect his statue in the Temple of Jerusalem. The so-called "little apocalypse" of Mark xiii (Matt, xxiv) may have been influenced

more probably, by

the

purely mythological and speculative expectation God and the Devil, which

in a

upon the conflict between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman (qq.v.) and its consummation at the end of the world. This Iranian dualism entered late Jewish eschatology in the 2nd century before Christ, as is shown by the Dead sea scrolls. In this literature the name of the Devil often appears as Belial, a name which also played a part

The conception of the strife of God with the Devil was further interwoven, before its introduction into the Antichrist myth, with another idea of different origin, namely, the myth derived from the Babylonian religion of the battle, of the supreme God (Marduk) with the dragon of chaos (Tiamat). This was originally a myth of the origin of things, which, later perhaps, was changed into an eschatological one, again under Iranian influence {see Babylonia and Assyria: Religion). Thus

in the Antichrist tradition.

the Devil, the opponent of God, appeared in the end often also

form of a terrible dragon-monster; this appears most Rev. xii. This myth that the mighty Adversary of God was but the equivalent in human form of the Devil or of the dragon of chaos exercised a formative influence on the conception of Antichrist. Only thus can it be explained how his figure acquired numerous superhuman and ghostly traits, which cannot be explained by any particular historical phenomenon. Thus the figure of Antiochus IV had already become superhuman when, in Dan. viii, 10, it is said that the little horn "grew great, even to the host of heaven; and some of the host of the stars it cast down to the ground." Similarly Pompey, in the second psalm of Solomon, was obviously represented as the dragon of chaos, and his figure exalted into myth. Finally, Antichrist received,

in

the

—

clearly in

—

at least in the later sources, the

Early Church. idea.

— From

name

originally proper to the Devil.

the Jews, Christianity took over the

It is present in certain

passages specifically traceable to

A

fundamental change of the whole idea from the view is signified by II Thess. ii. Antichrist here appears as a tempter who works by signs and wonders and seeks to obtain divine honours; it is further signified

Judaism.

specifically Christian point of

that this "man of lawlessness" will obtain credence, more espeamong the Jews because they have not accepted the truth. The conception, moreover, has become almost more superhuman than ever (cf. ii, 4, "proclaiming himself to be God"). The destruction of the Adversary is drawn from Isa. xi, 4, where it is cially

said of the Messiah: "with the breath of his lips he shall slay the

Temple

gigantic armies, that he

or,

has no reference whatever to historical occurrences. This idea had its original source in the apocalypses of Iran, for these are based

wicked."

—

event

of a battle at the end of days between

St.

Jewish Conception. The origin of the conception is to be sought in the first place in the prophecy of Daniel, written at the beginning of the Maccabaean period. The historical figure who served as a model for the Antichrist was Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the persecutor of the Jews, and he impressed indelible traits upon the conception. Since then ever-recurring characteristics of this figure are that he would appear as a mighty ruler at the head of

this

of the roots of this eschatological fancy probably are to

be sought

a

Jewish eschatology.

61

book of Daniel. Later Jewish and Christian writers of apocalypses saw in Nero the tyrant of the end of time.

by

in transmission

The

idea that Antichrist

of Jerusalem

(II Thess.

was ii,

4)

to establish himself in the is

very enigmatical, and

has not been explained. The "abomination (q.v.) of desolation" has naturally had its influence upon it, and possibly also the experience of the time of Caligula. Remarkable also is the allusion to a power that still retards the revelation of Antichrist (ii, 6, etc.), an allusion that, in the tradition of the Fathers, came to be universally, and probably correctly, referred to the Roman empire.

This version of the figure of Antichrist, who may now really by this name, appears to have been at once widely accepted in Christendom. The idea that the Jews would believe in Antichrist, as punishment for not having believed in the true Christ, seems to be expressed by the author of the fourth gospel (John v, 43). The conception of Antichrist as a perverter of men led naturally to his connection with false docFinally the author of trine (I John ii, 18, 22; iv, 3; II John 7). Revelation also made use of the new conception of Antichrist as a worker of wonders and seducer, and set his figure beside that of the "first" beast, which was for him the actual embodiment of for the first time be described

Antichrist

As

(xiii,

11, etc.).

the figure of

Nero ceased

to dominate Christian imagination, and anti-Jewish conception of Antion II Thess. ii, gained the upper hand, hav-

the unhistorical, unpolitical christ, based especially

ing usually

become associated with the description

of the universal

ANTICLERICALISM

62

In Bohemia where, from the 14th cenwas associated with strong

conflagration of the world which had also originated in the Iranian eschatology. In this form it is in great part present in the eschato-

most

Against the Heresies (2nd century) Hippolytus' de Antichristo and commentary on Daniel (early 3rd century). In times of political excitement, during the following centuries, men appealed again and again to the prophecy of Then special prophecies, having reference to conAntichrist. temporary events, were pushed to the front, but in the background remained standing, with scarcely a change, the prophecy of Anti-

opposition to the evils in the church and in political and social life, Matthias of Janow, the forerunner of John Huss, also declared Antichrist to be present within the church, at its very head,

logical portions of Irenaeus'

and

in

bound up with no particular time. In and Gallienus with its of Romans and Persians, and of Roman pretenders other, seemed especially to have aroused the spirit christ that

is

tury, the period of Aurelian

the 3rd cenwild warfare one with anof prophecy.

Antichrist prophecies also flourished during the period of the rise of Islam and of the crusaders. Middle Ages. In the middle ages the whole complex of these

—

dramatic eschatological conceptions developed into a most powerful historical and political factor, especially in times of crisis. the 11th century Antichrist, "the mystery of iniquity," bethe predominant element. The tradition was chiefly based on the Pseudo-Methodius (in a Latin version) and the letter, De ortu ct tempore Antichristi, in which the monk Adso allayed

From

effective

tury,

a

argument.

great cultural development

and placed hopes of a reformation on the pope's destruction. This idea that evil was embodied in the head of the church itself, with the clergy as the "body of Antichrist," became the most powerful weapon to discredit and denigrate the see in Rome. In similar terms Huss contrasted Christ with his vicar, the pope, who, when given to the vices of pride, avarice, etc., blasphemously called himself papa. All these ideas became the dynamic force which drove Luther on in his contest with the papacy. He even incorporated them in the Articles of Schmalkalden. He did not attack the person of the pope as Antichrist, but the institution of the papacy, which in his view placed itself above the Word of God. After the Reformation, emphasis on the Antichrist figure gradually diminished; for German pietists any church that was spiritually dead could be regarded as its equivalent. Among some mod-

came

ern Protestant theologians the "Antichrist" can be interpreted as whatever resists or denies the Lordship of Christ and tends to deify a political power, within either the church or the state. The

the anxieties of Queen Gerberga, wife of Louis IV (d. 954). Theoretically canonical teaching remained stable on the whole; there was, however, much elaboration in commentaries on the Apocalypse and in the Sibylline prophecies, especially the TiAt the end of the 12th century the burtine and Erythrean.

Antichrist, however,

apocalyptic writings of the abbot Joachim of Floris gave an exceedingly strong and optimistic impulse to the anxious eschatological expectations by predicting, for 1260, a third age of the Holy Spirit. But while Joachim only indicated to Richard I (Coeur-de-Lion) in 11 90 that Antichrist was already born in Rome

(which he often identified with Babylon), his fanatical followers, the Joachites among the Franciscan Spirituals, were nearly the first to brand as Antichrist a Christian emperor, Frederick II, whose cruelty and doubtful faith, whose oriental pomp and great

Thus the idea of stature fitted their conceptions of Antichrist. incarnate evil was transferred into the midst of Christianity itbut later others saw Antichrist also at the head of the church, imperious Boniface VIII and the wealthy John XXII. It became quite common for opponents, popes and emperors, Guelphs and Ghibellines, etc., to hurl this name at each other. Thus the conception of Antichrist was somewhat trivialized. In the 13th

self;

in the

must be specifically related to the Gospel in such a way as to provide a pseudo-Christian imitation of Christ. It has been argued that the very spread of Christianity means that Generally the possibility of rebellion against God has grown. speaking, the Antichrist figure is less significant in churches of a more Catholic or Orthodox nature, where there has been less concern about the details of apocalyptic predictions.

See also Apocalyptic Literature; Eschatology; Revelation,

Book

of.

—

Bibliocraphy. W. Bousset, trans, by A. H. Keane, The Antichrist Legend (1896), and Die Religion des Judentums im spdthellenistischen Zeitalter, 3rd ed. (1926); E. Sackur, Sibylliniscke Texte und H. Preuss, Die Vorstelhtngen vom Antichrist Forschungen (1898) am Ausgange des Mittelalters, etc. (1906) E. Bernheim, Mittelalterliche Zeitanschauungen in ihrem Einfluss auf Politik und Ceschichtsschreibung (1918); L. A. Paton (ed.), Les Prophecies de Merlin, vol. ii (1926); J. Taubes, Abendlandische Eschatologie (1947); F. Pelster, Die Quaestio Heinrichs von Harclay iiber die zweite Ankunft Christi und die Erwartung des baldigen Weltendes zu Anjang des XIV Jahrhunderts in Archivio italiano per la storia della pietd, vol. i, and offprint (1951) R. Schutz, W. Maurer and E. Schlink in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, vol. i, 3rd ed. (1957). (B. M. H.-R.; R. McQ. G.) ;

;

;

century the tradition of Antichrist had been summarized in the great encyclopaedias (Vincent of Beauvais) and systematized by Equally special tracts the great scholastics (Thomas Aquinas).

a term applied to public opinion hostile to the influence of the clergy in political and social affairs, has been used in Europe since the time of the Cathari (q.v.) but

his advent increased on a considerable scale, especially at the University of Paris. But some prophets of Antichrist who followed reformatory purposes came into conflict with the inquisition; e.g., the famous Catalan physician and lay theologian Arnaldus

is

on

de Villa Nova (1297). Scholastic refutation of all eschatological conjectures was intensified and (for instance) presented in a most comprehensive survey by Henry of Harclay, chancellor of Oxford university (1313). But immense interest continued to be focused on the person and the date of the coming of Antichrist and "the signs of the times" preceding it upheavals in nature, wars, pestilence, famine and other disasters. All those calculations survived :

failure after failure. Preachers spread warnings of the coming of Antichrist in order to call the people to repentance throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. But the resulting anxieties seem to have

so aggravated that at the fifth Lateran council (1516) preachers were prohibited from presenting the coming of Anti-

become

christ as

imminent.

The imagination

of the laity had been also

deeply stirred by representations of Antichrist in paintings, sculpture and poetry. Miracle plays popularized the fearful figure of Antichrist, the earliest being the German Liidus de Antichristo (12th century) which had a Ghibelline bias. The conceptions of Antichrist took yet another turn when used as a terrifying weapon in the violent controversy of the great reformatory movements. Reformist leaders did not attack individual popes but the papacy itself as being Antichrist. In England John Wycliffe, his follower John Purvey and others used it as a

ANTICLERICALISM,

associated in more recent history with the French Revolution Becoming a political movement, it first sought its aftermath. to separate religious authority from civil government but later attempted also when possible to subordinate the church to state

and

In

control.

countries,

Latin

became numerous and clerical influence also

particularly

France,

influential as early as 1650.

grew

in

anticlericals

Opposition to

Austria-Hungary and Germany after

1800, and gradually took root throughout Europe as well as in Central and South America. (For anticlericalism in the U.S., see

Party.) Three principal forms may be identified. developing during the 18th century, was based on opposition to clerical privilege, often corrupt, as established by feudalism. The second is associated with the rise of liberalism, which

Know-Nothing

The

first,

general deemed the clergy servile to the throne, or outmoded from the point of view of science. The third, endorsed by totali-

in

tarian systems of the right or left, considered religion the "opiate of the people," administered by a clergy chronically opposed to

the "race," the "nation," or "democracy."

—

Protestantism was seldom a major target of antisentiment until after the rise of Communist, Fascist or National Socialist governments. But the Catholic ideal of a uni-

France.

clerical

versal church transcending national allegiances, committed to accepting the supremacy of the papacy in the realms of morals and and sharing with the monarchies over a long period the belief,

rule of

the

1

human

society,

8th century.

was strongly under attack in France during fed to some extent by the tradition of

Though

ANTICLERICALISM Gallicanism, skeptical inquiry, ably represented by Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, was above all the concern of men who chafed

under royal censorship and the influence of a clergy they thought medieval and obscurantist. They inveighed against I'infdme, by which Voltaire meant not religion but a priestly caste he termed hidebound, illiterate and absolutist. The plight of peasant and urban worker alike then aided the rapid growth of anticlericalism in the cities and some countrysides. The culmination was the French Revolution's bloody and uncompromising assault on the Catholic Church. The Revolution began by abolishing privileges and confiscating property; it ended in violent persecution, the mutilation of churches and civil war. In 1801 Napoleon ended the Revolution, signed a concordat with the papacy, and "established" the church as a religious agency supported by and subservient to the emperor. The manner in which all this was done, by making a virtual satrap of the pope, aroused sympathy with the church.

The Holy

Alliance that liquidated the era of Napoleon reflected

mood of a Europe appalled by the consequence of political passion and therefore at least in part eager to restore older politithe

Romantic admiration for the middle ages and monasticism won many writers and intellectuals over to concal

institutions.

servatism.

New

religious orders

were established, having educa-

tional or caritative (rather than contemplative) objectives.

Not

Catholics supported the "reunion of throne and altar," but in France the majority of them did. In reality the Revolution had profoundly changed the social order. The bourgeois had become the hub the economic and intellectual activity turned round, and the bourgeois was nationalistic and emancipated. When he reacted against Bourbon rule, he gave a once more emerging anticlericalism an opportunity to ally itself with liberalism and constitutionalism. The new anticlerical was normally a rationalist, or freethinker, who considered the church outmoded, indifferent to life in this world, superstitious and unable to evaluate modern scientific progress. Anticlericals advocated a "lay state," neutral to all faiths and restricting each to the purely spiritual realm. Catholicism was to become one of the varieties of religious opinion, competing with other opinions in a free market of ideas, and not a privileged creed. Anticlericals were also motivated by nationalism, which had emerged as an ideal during the Revolution. (See also Roman Catholic Church: The Church After 1815.) all

The program

of the anticlerical liberals included the suppres-

and state, civil marand divorce, secular education, and complete freedom to profess a religion or none. Because of restrictions imposed by the proclerical governments then in power, anticlericalism was often forced underground. Secret societies, notably the Freemasons, became centres of anticlerical activity. For their part supporters of the Bourbons were dubbed the parti pretre, and as their opponents grew in number they also enlisted prominent Catholics. The Revolution of 1830, which brought the Orleanist Louis Phillipe to the throne, was a setback to clericalism and absolutism alike. Italy. Spreading from France, anticlerical ideas and methods were adopted, in varying ways, in Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium and Central and South America. In Italy anticlericalism was fused with nationalism and liberalism. Pope Pius IX, defending his position as temporal ruler of the Papal States, opposed Italian unity. When Camillo Cavour embarked on his career as architect of a united Italy, he put through the Piedmontese parliament sion of religious orders, separation of church riage

—

a series of anticlerical laws, abolishing the civil jurisdiction of canonical courts and suppressing many monasteries. Cavour's slogan, "a free church in a free state," was adopted by the anticlerical liberals of Italy.

Spain.

—

The Napoleonic invasion (1808) started an anticlerimovement in Spain. The constitution of 181 2 abolished the Inquisition and restricted the number of religious orders but recog-

cal

nized Catholicism as the established church. This constitution was in turn abrogated when Ferdinand VII was restored to the Anticlericals reacted bitterly, and from that time 1939 the struggle between the right and left in Spain was far more a conflict between clericals and anticlericals than elsewhere in Latin Europe. Carlos, brother of Ferdinand, revolted

throne in 1S14. until

63

Queen Isabel II. The wars (1872-1876) which attended these uprisings saw many atrocities committed by clericals and their foes alike. Then the growth of the socialist movement against

1870 increased the truculence of anticlericalism. The soi put the church in the position of being the chief defender of the established social and economic order. But by 1848 many bourgeois liberals, fearing that socialism would overthrow that order, had begun to desert anticlericalism. This trend was reversed when, in 1864, Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors, the more advanced liberals viewing this Syllabus as a declaration of war on

modern progress. France. The creation of the Third Republic in France C1870) was followed by constant conflict between clericals and anticlericals. First came the struggle of the years between 187 1 and 1879, when royalist-clerical parties opposed republican-anticlerical parties. Leon Gambetta phrased the slogan, "le clericalisme, voila Vennemi." The victorious republicans enacted a good deal of anticlerical legislation. The Jesuits were suppressed (1880),

—

and the Ferry laws (1881-1882) established free, secular education, compulsory civil marriage, and the opportunity for divorce. The second conflict took place as a result of the bid of Georges Boulanger (q.v.) for dictatorial powers, and ended with a re-

The third took place during the Alfred Dreyfus (q.v.) affair (1894-1906), when an anticlerical republican bloc was formed, consisting of all republican groups in the chamber of deputies, determined to oust royalists, militarists and clericals from public life. Further anticlerical legislation resulted. The Law of Associations (T901) suppressed nearly all of the religious orders in France and confiscated their property, and the separation law (1905) sundered church and state. publican, anticlerical triumph.

War I clericals and anticlericals joined in the deAnticlericalism subsided, despite minor During the following three decades, some reconciliation was effected. Pope Pius XI condemned the antirepublican movement, l' Action francaise, and the popular front government formed by Leon Blum (1936-1937) fostered cordial relations with the church. After the fall of France during World War II, many Catholics joined in the underground struggle against the forces of Hitler. When hostilities had ended, a new prodemocratic Catholic party emerged. While anticlericalism had not disappeared in liberal circles, it was now identified with Communism. Italy. In Italy, after the unification, the struggle between clericals and anticlericals continued, though in a milder form than in France. The designation of Rome as the capital city ended the temporal power of the popes. A series of anticlerical laws were passed, decreasing the number of monastic foundations, suppressing university theological faculties, and establishing civil marriage. But no divorce law was enacted, nor was religious instruction banned from the schools. The Law of Guarantees accorded the pope full power to exercise his spiritual functions. Pius IX did not, however, recognize the Italian government and in During World

fense of the country. incidents.

—

1874 forbade Catholics to participate in political activities. This caveat was not ended until 19 19. The advent to power of Benito Mussolini in 1922 for a time intensified anticlericalism in Italy, Fascism claiming absolute control by the state. But despite some In continuing papal opposition, no serious conflict occurred. 1929, the Lateran treaty was signed, ending the dispute over the

temporal power by making the pope ruler of the small state of Vatican City. A subsequent concordat made religion obligatory Bishops were required in elementary and secondary instruction. These actions angered to take an oath of loyalty to the state. anti-Fascists and there were signs that Cavour's policy would again dominate if the regime fell. But when World War II ended, the ominous strength of Communism in Italy evoked strong support for the Christian Democratic party. Spain. In Spain the conflict between church and state was Barcelona, traditionally a centre of antiintensified after 1870.

—

Catholic feeling, now witnessed the formation of powerful syndiThe first Spanish republic (1873) calist and anarchist groups. enacted some anticlerical laws but these were repealed or disregarded when the monarchy was restored in 1873. During an anticlerical outbreak in 1909,

mobs burned churches and attacked

ANTICLERICALISM

64 As a

pacification measure, religious orders

were restricted taxes were levied on their industrial enterprises. was made compulsory. The revolution of 1931 which established the second republic brought to power an antiThe legislation adopted resembled that of clerical government. France. The government was, however, unable to curb mob atand monasteries, during which priests and nuns tacks on churches Catholics mustered their forces in opposition. were slain. Counterrevolutionaries led by Gen. Francisco Franco Bahamonde declared war on the republic, and were reinforced by troops from Morocco. Hitler and Mussolini aided Franco; Stalin aided the republic, which in its death struggle fell under Communist domination. A Falangist dictatorship w as established which repealed or ignored the anticlerical laws, though conflict between church and state did not cease. Central and South America. The struggle for independence from Spain and Portugal, which characterized the history of Central and South America during the 19th century, was often strongly influenced by ideas associated with the French Revolution, among them anticlericalism. Educated citizens, including upon numerous occasions some of the lower clergy, were attracted by currents of thought that seemed novel and vital by contrast with a generally stagnant ecclesiastical culture. The Freemasons in particular were respected as spokesmen for freedom, toleration and the scientific outlook. But it is difficult, in view of turbulent political events that led almost everywhere to a succession of dictators, to determine whether the recurring patterns of anticlerical activity the priests. in

number and

Civil marriage

T

—

—

suppression of religious orders, primarily the Jesuits; the confiscation of ecclesiastical property; the fostering of secular education,

sometimes with a caveat against religious instruction; and the introduction of civil marriage and divorce were due to an intellectual ferment caused by the French Revolution or whether they were primarily incidents in the constant tussle between factions for political control. The situation varied considerably from country to country. Though Colombia, for example, witnessed the enactment of anticlerical legislation and its enforcement during more than three decades (1849-1884), it soon restored "full liberty and independence from the civil power" to the Catholic Church (1888). In Venezuela on the other hand the government of Antonio Guzman Blanco (1870-1888) virtually crushed the institutional life of the Church, even attempting to legalize the marriage of priests. Some of the restrictions were later relaxed, but on the whole anticlericalism remained dominant. Developments elsewhere were comparable either for rigour or eventual moderation. Not merely the impoverishment and enfeeblement of the church resulted, but a mounting reluctance on the part of the hierarchy to become embroiled in any controversy. As the lines between the wealthy, whether landholders or industrialists, and the indigent masses were drawn more sharply, the leaders of labour unions and other agencies struggling for social improvement were likely to repeat the dictum that "religion is the opiate of the people," or to seek affiliation with totalitarian movements, whether of the right or the left. Upon occasion there were strong outbursts of anticlerical resentment, one of the most noteworthy being that which took place in Mexico (1924-1938). Suppressive anticlerical legislation accompanied social reform. There were sanguinary uprisings by Catholics. Meanwhile the Papacy had manifested an increasingly liberal outlook, as evidenced by a series of concordats signed with Central and South American states after 1919; and subsequent to World War II efforts to form a Christian Democratic movement were begun. Austria-Hungary and Germany. In Austria-Hungary anticlericalism marked the reign of Joseph II (1 765-1790). Strongly influenced by the ideas of the French Encyclopaedists and those of a kindred group in southwest Germany, Joseph held that the state must control all religious activities not identified with the "inner life" of the Church. Monasteries were secularized, the education of priests was regulated, and a number of provisions governing religious cult and practice were adopted. Most of these regulations were rescinded by later emperors, and for a time anticlericalism could be identified with opposition to the Habsburgs. But toward the close of the 19th century Socialism became the effec-

—

—

tive

advocate of the lay state, and was opposed by the peasants, of the middle class and the aristocracy. After the dissolu-

much

monarchy

1918 anticlericalism was rampant in some by 1925 the struggle had abated. After the formation of a one-party, clerical Volksfront government in 1934 anticlerical sentiment waxed strong in Austria proper. But it lost its virulence during the period of Nazi rule. Anticlericalism was not novel in Germany but it was strengthened intellectually by ideas generally accepted during the French Revolution. Free thought, with its principle of the "lay state," made headway particularly in southern Germany, and played a part in the revolutionary incidents of 1848. The rise of Marxian Socialism likewise brought large segments of the working population into the anticlerical camp. But Catholics in the populous tion of the

in

of the succession states but

Rhenish areas were prevailingly constitutionalists,

in

sympathy

with some tenets of liberalism, and vigorous in support of social and electoral reform. Their political program, which led to the formation of the Centre party, included the defense of the rights of all

religious minorities.

Shortly after the unification of Germany in 187 1 Otto von Bismarck, adopting part of the liberal program, began the series

Church known as the Kulturkampf. was enacted, applicable in part to the empire as a whole and in part to the kingdom of Prussia. The number of religious orders was restricted, the Jesuits were banned, civil marriage was sanctioned, unco-operative priests were removed from their parishes, and a variety of measures were adopted to curb the freedom of the clergy. Resistance was punished, and some bishops were deposed. But by 1878 a desire to end the Kulturkampf was manifest, and during the next decade most of the anticlerical legislation was removed from the statute books. (See also Leo: Leo XIII.) The prohibition of the Jesuits remained in force, however, until 19 17. The period of the Weimar Republic (1919-1933) was characterized by the grant of complete freedom to Catholics, though as a result of the activity of the Centre party some anticlerical comment was engendered. The Nazi dictatorship (1933-1945) enforced its own anticleriHitler attempted cal program on Catholics and Protestants alike.

of attacks on the Catholic Anticlerical legislation

with the Vatican through a concordat, signed in 1933, but this was honoured in the breach rather than Protestants were united, by ruse or force, in a in the observance. German Christian Church. The ablest Protestant clergymen dissented, forming the heroic Confessional Church upon which heavy blows fell. Catholics opposed, often with genuine courage, a series of decrees affecting the liberty of preaching, the treatment of minorities, the control of education and the silencing of the press. Hundreds of clergymen, both Catholic and Protestant, were to regulate his relations

brought to trial, imprisoned or executed. Rigour was even greater conquered lands. Hitler planned, in the event of final victory, to reduce the Christian religion in his dominions to impotence. A decade after the end of World War II it appeared that the Nazi and Fascist ideologies had lost all but minor vestiges of in the

their influence.

Anticlericalism in

Europe became

a

normal con-

sequence of the support given by the Catholic Church to the Chris-

Democratic parties, or part of Communist doctrine. Soviet Anticlericalism. After the seizure by the U.S.S.R. of the Baltic states and of eastern Poland in 1939, repression fell heavily on the Catholic and Protestant Churches of Estonia, LatOccupation and eventual subjection via, Lithuania and Poland. of the satellite countries and eastern Germany after the war were followed by usually less violent but nonetheless implacable actions tian

—

in the area of religious activity.

At the conclusion of notorious

the foremost prelates of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Rumania were imprisoned. Many thousands of bishops, clergymen and faithful layfolk were sent to prisons or slave labour camps. Religious education and publishing were forbidden, only a handful of convents and monasteries were suffered to remain, and hospitals were secularized. The Catholic clergy in Albania was decimated, and the Uniate Churches in Rumania and Bulgaria were destroyed. During 1956 some amelioration of the Russian (Communist) antisituation was permitted in Poland. clericalism is characterized by unrelenting hostility to religion in trials,

ANTICOSTI—ANTIDOTES any form save that of complete subservience to the Kremlin. Its watchword is not the "lay state," but the "classless society." See Ultramontanism. Bibliography. Alphonse Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution, trans. 1>\ Lady Frazer (1927) A. Debidour, Histoire des rapports de I'igtise et Vital en France de 1780 a 1870 (1898) and L'eglise

—

;

Vital sous la troisieme republique, 2 vol. (1907-1910) E. Faguet, L'anticliricalisme (1906) Carlton J. H. Hayes, A Generation of Materialism, 1871 1^00 (1941); Salo W. Baron, Modern Nationalism and Religion 1947) J. Schmidlin, Papstgeschichte der neuesten Zeit, 3 vol. (1933); Friedrich Heer, Europdische Ceistesgeschichte (1953); Benedetto Croce, .1 History of Italy, 1871-101;, trans, by C. M. Ady (1929); Herman Finer, Mussolini's Italy (1935); Joseph N. Moody et al. (eds.) Church and Society; Catholic Social and Political Thought and Movements, 1780-195° (1953); Claude Bowers, Mission to Spain (1954) Emmet J. Hughes, The Church and the Liberal Society D. W. Brogan, The Price of Revolution (1951) Camille M. (1944) Franz Borkenau, Cianfarra, The Vatican and the Kremlin (1950) European Communism (1954) Walter Schubart, Europa und die Seele Ernest Gruening, Mexico and Its Heritage (1928) des Ostens (1951) J. Llovd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America (1934). (J. S. So.; G. N. S.) calholiqitr

et

;

;

1

;

My

;

;

;

;

;

;

ANTICOSTI,

an island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a part Saguenay county, in the province of Quebec, Can., about 400 mi. downstream from Quebec. It is 135 mi. long, and its greatest breadth is 30 mi. With a total area of 3.043 sq.mi., it contains an estimated 500,000,000 spruce, balsam and pine trees and some species of hardwood. It was first sighted by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and named Assomption Island. Its present name, derived from an Indian dialect, was already used in the 17th century; it means "where bears are hunted." The island was ceded by France to Great Britain in 1763 and annexed to New Brunswick; under the terms of the Quebec act (q.v. it became part of the Province of Quebec in 1774. Uninhabited for more than two centuries, the island was leased in 1S95 by Henri Menier, French chocolate manufacturer, who developed the local resources and built a chateau at Port Menier. near the west end of the island. In 1926 ownership of Anticosti was transferred to the Consolidated Paper corporation of Montreal which has since administered the island, conducting lumbering operations and shipping pulpwood to its plants in the vicinity of Trois-Rivieres on the St. Lawrence. The population 1

is less

than 1.000.

(P. Ca.)

ANTICYCLONE,

a feature of

weather maps and climatic

charts appearing as a region in which the pressure

is higher than meteorological parlance, anticyclones often are simply referred to as "highs." The name anticyclone was introduced by Sir Francis Galton in 1861 to denote an atmospheric system opposite to a cyclone (q.v.). Whereas in a cyclone or low-pressure area the winds circulate in a counterclockwise sense in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere, the anticyclonic circulation is clockwise in the northern and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. In

in

the surroundings;

in

common

contrast with cyclones, which are usually areas of strong winds and bad weather, anticyclones ordinarily are characterized by fine

weather and weak winds. The most prominent anticyclones of the earth are the more or less permanent ones found over the oceans of both hemispheres at about latitude 30°. (See Wind.) They are oblong in shape, covering nearly the entire breadth of the oceans in these latitudes with the highest pressure centre somewhat to the east of the geometric centre. Their position and strength are important factors in forecasting

weather for

all

latitudes,

and

for this reason they

are referred to as the "centres of action" for the general circulation. In winter, anticyclones are found more or less regularly over the cold, high-latitude continents, notably in eastern Siberia, where

they are the principal feature of the Asiatic winter monsoon (see Monsoon). These are called thermal anticyclones, since their formation is caused by cooling in the lower atmosphere, and they disappear or are displaced equatorward at upper levels. The oceanic anticyclones contain warm air. except possibly in a shallowlayer next to the surface of the earth, and are called dynamic anticyclones. They maintain or even increase their intensity aloft. See also Index references under "Anticyclone" in the Index

volume.

remedies for counteracting poisons. The following antidotes for special poisons are sometimes given in case of emergency, usually following and followed by an emetic, and whenever possible under the supervision of a physician. In general, antidotes for acid poisons are: ammonia fa teaspoonful to one-half pint of water) or limewater, plaster, magnesia or chalk. For alkali poisons, antidotes are vinegar, dilute acetic acid or

lemon juice. For an unidentified poison, the general rule is to give eggs, salad oil (except in phosphorus poisoning), flour and water or limewater (except for alkaline poisons), preceded by large drafts of water or milk, and to induce vomiting by placing the finger in the throat or by an emetic. Kitchen soap and water may be used The antidote is only one part of the several times repeated. treatment, which may include first an emetic, often followed by stimulants such as strong black coffee.

;

of

(H R.

B.)

65

ANTIDOTES,

ANTIDOTES FOR SPECIAL POISONINGS Alkalies: Dilute acids; vinegar, one glass to one quart of water;

2%~3%; lemon juice; soothing fluid; oils; cream. (No emetic.) Alkaloids (aconite, belladonna, strychnine, etc.): Gastric lavage with tannic acid or potassium permanganate; artificial Control excitement with barbirespiration or oxygen therapy.

dilute acetic

melted

acid,

fat; milk;

turates.

(tartar emetic, wine of antimony) : Same as for merStrong coffee or tea; one teaspoonful of tannic acid in onehalf glass of water followed by eggs or milk. Arsenic (Fowler's solution, parts green, Scheele's green, Schweinfurt green, arsenical dyes in papers and candies): Gastric lavage with sodium thiosulfate: sodium thiosulfate intravenously. Prevent dehydration with parenteral fluids.

Antimony

cury.

Carbolic acid (creosote, guaiacol, creosol) : Soluble sulfates, such as magnesium sulfate, sodium sulfate (epsom and Glauber's salts), dilute alcohol,

sweet

oil.

(No

Copper (blue flour and water.

raw

eggs, flour

and water, milk, castor or

emetic.) vitriol or bluestone, verdigris):

Milk; eggs; soap;

Depressants (chloral, barbiturates, etc.): Gastric lavage. Stimulants such as picrotoxin or metrazol; artificial respiration. Formaldehyde: Bland drinks; milk; and oils. Hydrochloric (muriatic), nitric (aqua fortis), oxalic, acetic, sulfuric (vitriol) acids: Weak alkaline drinks at once; ammonia (eight teaspoonfuls in one-half pint of water) baking soda; mag(No nesia; chalk; lime; soap and water; or tooth powder. ;

emetic.) Iodine: Starch and water.

Lead: Gastric lavage and epsom If

symptoms

salts

are acute, demobilize the lead

to hasten elimination.

by

diet rich in

calcium

and phosphorus.

Mercury (corrosive sublimate or bichloride of mercury, blue ointment, oxide of mercury, black wash, yellow wash, cinnabar vermilion): Gastric lavage with sodium formaldehyde sulfoxySodium lactate for acidosis; parenteral late; raw eggs; or milk. Treatfluids and sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate intravenously. ment for shock. Opium: No antidote (emetics and stimulants used).

Artificial

if breathing stops. Repeated doses of central-nervoussystem stimulants. Do not exhaust the patient by making him walk the floor. Phosphorus: Magnesia in water; potassium permanganate, 1 to 1,000 solution in water; copper sulfate (bluestone in water); repeated five-grain doses to cause vomiting; turpentine; one-half teaspoonful in a glass of milk or water. Do not give oils or fats. Plant poisoning: Plant poisons in general do not require an antidote, being treated by induced vomiting, stimulants and brisk

respiration

purging, as with castor

oil.

Prussic acid: Gastric lavage; amyl nitrite by inhalation followed Methylnitrite and sodium thiosulfate intravenously.

by sodium

ene blue intravenously. Ptomaine (poison from decayed meats, fish, vegetables, contaminated canned foods): (After emetic) castor oil, epsom salts

ANTIENZYMES—ANTIGONE

66

or other rapidly acting cathartic; enema of warm soapsuds with one teaspoonful of turpentine to the pint or two teaspoons of

See Douglas S. Freeman, Biography of Robert E. Lee, vol.- ii, ch. 25-28 (1934-35). (Fr. H. H.)

ANTIFEDERALISTS, the name given to those who opposed

glycerine.

Silver preparations (silver nitrate, lunar caustic): Large drinks of salt water; soap; drafts of milk; baking soda. see Antimetabolites.

ANTIENZYMES:

ANTIETAM, BATTLE OF, one of the more important engagements of the American Civil War. It was fought on Sept. 17, 1862. and took its name from Antietam creek that has its source near Gettysburg, Pa., and flows almost due south to the Potomac It is sometimes referred to as river near Harpers Ferry, W.Va. the battle of Sharpsburg because the main fighting took place near the town of that name. Following Gen. John Pope's defeat at the second battle of Bull Run (g.v.). Gen. Robert E. Lee advanced into Maryland as far as Frederick, northwest of Washington, D.C., with some assurance that he might capture the city. When he learned that Gen. George B. McClellan, again in command of the reorganized Federal army, was opposing his further advance, he withdrew toward the southwest. His plan was to hold McClellan at a possible stronghold at South mountain, which paralleled Antietam creek. Meanwhile. "Stonewall" Jackson was ordered to capture Harpers Ferry and rejoin Lee.

With

his forces thus

Lee was unable to hold South mountain and therefore took up positions due west of it along Antietam creek. Here the battle of Antietam was fought as McClellan moved divided,

by

corps.

religious qualifications for office-holding included in the constitu-

the distrust of human nature expressed in The and feared that their liberties and interests would be jeopardized by a national government which would be beyond the control of the people of any particular state, and which many believed would have an aristocratic bias. The Antifederalists were strong in the key states of Massachusetts, New York and Virginia; in North Carolina and Rhode Island they prevented ratification until after the new government had been established. Their advocacy of a Bill of Rights led to its adoption, and their opposition to a strong central government has not been without adherents in the subsequent history of the United

They shared

tion.

Federalist,

the Constitution (1958); C. M. Kenyon, "Men of Little Faith: the Anti-Federalists on the Nature of Representative Government," William and Mary Quarterly, third series, vol. xii, no. 1 (1955).

(CM.

ANTIFREEZE,

H

by a counterJames LongThe battle pro- greensm"™"

Gen.

MAP showing attacks from early morning forces at antietam.

by union sept. 17.

McClellan's next 1862 move was to send Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside's corps against the Confederate right, succeeding at first. Burnside had almost captured Sharpsburg, when the remainder of Jackson's corps, freshly armed from the capture of Harpers Ferry, drove him back to the Antietam. This ended the fighting in one of the bloodiest battles of history. The Confederate forces, variously estimated at from 40,000 to 60.000, had lost between 9,000 and 10,000 killed and wounded; McClellan's force of from 70,000 to 90,000 (a portion of whom were not actively engaged lost about 12,000. McClellan's orders for the day after the battle and following indicate that he expected another attack by Lee and he )

antifreeze in solutions and their freezing points, employing the

methanol makes the solution lighter and glymakes it heavier than water. Permanent antifreeze solutions should not be left in the cooling

fact that addition of col

system after the danger of freezing ends. ders

may

cause serious lubrication

inhibitors

and other

compounds rust

will

and corrosion.

freezing temperatures.

is regarded as one of the decisive battles of the Civil because it stopped one of the greatest threats to Washington during the war. McClellan blocked Lee's advance but failed to win a victory over him. The battle is sometimes cited as influencing Great Britain not to recognize the Confederacy, but this

The outcome

of the battle led Pres.

Abraham

Lincoln to issue a proclamation (Sept. 22, 1862) stating that he would, on the opening day of the new year, declare all slaves in the seceding states "forever free." See also American Civil War.

Antifreeze solu-

commercial antifreeze not continue to protect the cooling system from stabilizing additives in

two types of antifreezes

Antietam

Seepage into the cylin-

difficulties.

tions should be discarded after a season's use because corrosion

battle.

War

,

methanol, CH 3 OH, which boils at about 150 F. The boiling point of water is reduced by adding methanol. A solution that is onethird methanol and two-thirds water boils at about 180 F., a temperature that is not attained in normal operation with a thermostat set to open at 160 F. When stronger solutions are necessary, they must be tested periodically and replenished because of evaporation of the methanol. Test hydrometers indicate the percentages of

was therefore relieved when Lee retired into Virginia. Most military historians have strongly criticized McClellan's conduct of the

largely conjecture.

Ke.)

a liquid used in cooling systems, particularly

those of automobiles, to prevent freezing. The various commercial brands of so-called permanent antifreezes are basically ethylene glycol, C 2 4 (OH) 2 a synthetic dihydroxy alcohol. Its boiling point of about 375 ° F. is well above the maximum cooling-system temperature and prevents loss by evaporation. Most other commercial antifreezes are basically

until afternoon.

is

:

;

ceeded without notable success on either side

and that the electoral system would operate to the advantage of the upper classes. They believed the proposed constitution violated the principle of separation of powers, and that it was drafted so loosely as to leave congress a dangerous latitude of discretion. They criticized the lack of a Bill of Rights, but were also opposed to the prohibition of interests in the country to be represented

See also Federalist Party United States (of America) Government. See Forrest McDonald, We the People: the Economic Origins of

the battle, followed

attack

successfully over the entire nation, that the small size of the lower house of the legislature would make it impossible for all

States.

Gen. his army west against Lee. Joseph Hooker's corps attacked Jackson on Lee's left at 5 a.m. on Sept. 17. Hooker's advance promised well but met stubborn resistance and had to be supported by Gen. Joseph Mansfield's corps. Confederate counterattacks stopped and drove back the Federal forces, and then Gen. Edwin Sumner's corps was thrown into

street's

United States constitution of 1787. Though a mixed group with diverse reasons for opposition, they were united by fear of the proposed increase in the authority of the national government and in the powers to be exercised by the congress. They believed that one republican government could not operate ratification of the

The following

Temp.

(° F.)

Glycol

(%)

Methanol (%)

tabulation shows the percentages of either of the in water solutions corresponding to several

10 5 24 28 32 21 24 27

— 5 —10 3S 30

38 32

—15 —20 —25 —30 41 35

43 37

45 39

4« 42

— 35 —40 50 44

52

4&

(O. C. C.)

ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS:

see

Bearing

Metals;

Bearings.

ANTIGONE,

the name of two figures in Greek legend. Antigone was the daughter born of the incestuous union of Oedipus (q.V. and his mother. Jocasta. After her father's blinding. Antigone and her sister Ismene served as Oedipus' guides. 1.

)

ANTIGONUS I—ANTIGUA following him from Thebes into exile until his death near Athens related by Sophocles Thebes they attempted

Oedipus

in

1

at

Returning to

Colonus).

to reconcile their quarreling brothers, but

afterward suffering the siege of the Seven Against Thebes which both brothers were killed, Eteocles defending the and his crown, Polyneices attacking. Their uncle Creon thereupon became king, and having visited the body of Eteocles with elaborate obsequies, forbad the removal of the corpse of Polyneices, condemning it to lie unburied to rot on the argument that he was a traitor. Antigone, moved by love of her brother and convinced of the injustice of the command, which violated divine law and normal usage, buried Polyneices secretly and performed For this she was ordered executed by Creon his funeral service. and was interred in a cave, where she hanged herself. Her beThis according loved, Haemon, son of Creon, committed suicide. to Sophocles' Antigone; but in Euripides, Antigone escaped and failed,

(q.v.), in

city

I

lived happily with

Haemon,

at least for several years.)

Antigone, sister of Priam, boasted to Hera of her beautiful hair, which the goddess then transformed to a mass of snakes. The gods took pity on her and turned her into a stork (Ovid, (T. V. B.) Metamorphoses). I Cyclops or Monophthalmus ("the OneEyed'') (382-301 B.C.), Macedonian general and, after the death 2.

ANTIGONUS

of Alexander III the Great (323 B.C.), ruler of a

major part of the

In 333 Alexander made him satrap of Greater Phrygia with the duty of protecting the communications of the invading army in this recently conquered area. After Alexander's

Macedonian empire.

death he was driven out by Perdiccas (q.v.), but was restored by Antipater {q.v.). At the settlement at Triparadisus in Syria (321), when Antipater became regent of the Macedonian empire, Antigonus was appointed commander of the royal army in the war against Eumenes (q.v.), whom he defeated in Asia Minor (320) and later, in a hard-fought campaign (318-316), in Mesopotamia

and Media. Antigonus revealed his ambition to reunite the divided Macedonian empire under himself when, after the final defeat and death of Eumenes at Gabiene in Persis (316), he claimed authority over the whole of Asia, dismissed and appointed satraps at will and seized royal treasure for his

own

use.

The other

leading generals

Ptolemy (see Ptolemies). Antipater's son Cassander, Lysimachus and Seleucus (qq.v.). formed a coalition against him, and a long war began. The first period of this war brought no decision; Antigonus had won over much of Greece, but he had lost a battle at Gaza in southern Palestine (312 1. as a result of which Seleucus conquered Babylonia and the eastern In 311 Antigonus made peace satrapies of Media and Susiana. of the empire,

with the other

allies in

order to concentrate his forces against

During the next four years Antigonus failed to dislodge Seleucus from the eastern regions of the empire. In 306, after his son Demetrius, who had seized Athens from Cassander in 307, defeated Ptolemy's forces on Cyprus, Antigonus took the title of king for himself and his son, at last explicitly claiming the succession to Alexander. Both his attempt to invade Egypt winter 306305) and his siege of Rhodes, conducted by Demetrius (304), failed. But a new campaign by Demetrius in Greece (303-302) was brilliantly successful. In 301, however, the allies Cassander. Lysimachus and Seleucus brought about the defeat and death of Antigonus in the battle of Ipsus (q.v.) in Phrygia. Antigonus was an excellent general and a vigorous and capable ruler. His support of the right of Greek cities to enjoy autonomy was essentially a weapon for use against his enemies (as was his of Philip II revival of the Greek league the League of Corinth of Macedonia and Alexander); but his policy was a sensible one, and it won him the friendship of the Greek states, notably Athens. See also Index references under "Antigonus I" in the Index Seleucus.

(

—

—

volume. See R. H. Simpson, "Antigonus the viii (1959).

Historia, vol.

ANTIGONUS

Gonatas

One-Eyed and

the Greeks," (R. H. Si.)

319-239 b.c), king of Macedonia from 276, was the son of Demetrius I Poliorcetes (q.v.). Left in charge of Greece when his father set out upon his final campaign in Asia (287), he at first had great difficulty in holding his II

(c.

own

67

wars against Pyrrhus, king of Epirus; Lysimachus; Antiochus I (qq.v.); Ptolemy Ceraunus (see Ptolemies; and some of the Greek cities. He assumed the title of king on his father's death in 2X3, but it was not until 276 that he gained control of Macedonia. In 2 79 he had concluded peace with Antiochus, whose sister Phila he married, and thereafter his foreign policy was marked by friendship with the Seleucids. However, he had Ptolemy II as a dangerous enemy in Greece and the Aegean. When Pyrrhus returned from Italy in 274 after the battle of Beneventum he attacked Macedonia and deprived Antigonus of large tracts of territory before passing on to southern Greece where he was killed at Argos in 272. Antigonus thereupon recovered his position in Macedonia and Greece. Sparta and Athens, supported by Egypt, fought against him (unsuccessfully) in the Chremonidean War (267-262); later, by defeating the Egyptian fleet in an important battle off Cos (258), he won control of the Aegean sea. Between 250 and 245 a disloyal lieutenant called Alexander deprived him of control of Corinth and Chalcis in Euboea, the two bases from which he dominated southern Greece; but he won a second victory at sea over Ptolemy off Andros (246) and once more secured his position on the mainland. The end of his reign saw Corinth again lost (243) and an inconclusive struggle with the Achaean league under Aratus (q.v.) of Sicyon. Antigonus was a moderate man with many admirable qualities. He rebuilt the power of Macedonia, seriously weakened since the death of Cassander (q.v.) in 297 B.C., and safeguarded Macedonian interests by keeping Greece divided without attempting to conquer the whole country. He encouraged the arts; in his literary circle poetry, history and philosophy were represented. He himself was considerably influenced by personal contact with the philosophers Menedemus of Eretria and Zeno, the founder of Stoicism. See W. W. Tarn, Anligonos Gonatas (1913). (R. H. Si.) ANTIGUA, an island of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. With Barbuda and Redonda it forms a British colony and was one of the 12 territories comprising The West Indies federation (q.v.). Antigua lies at the southern end of the Leeward Islands chain, and has an area of 108 sq.mi. The coast line is intricate with many bays and headlands fringed with reefs and shoals; several inlets, including St. Johns, Parham and English Harbour, afford anchorage for shipping. The island is low and undulating but in the south a range of hills rises to 1,319 ft. at Boggy Peak. An absence of mountains and thorough deforestation distinguish Antigua from the other Leeward Islands. As there are no rivers and few springs, prolonged droughts occur despite a mean annual * rainfall of about 44 in. The Leeward Islands colony was defederated in 1956, and in 1958 Antigua joined The West Indies federation. The system of in

;

government

is ministerial, and the executive council consists of four elected, one nominated and one official member, presided over by the administrator. In the federal parliament Antigua is represented by two members in the lower house and two in the

senate.

The population of Antigua (1960) was 54,354 (including Barbuda), of which 21,396 lived in St. Johns, the capital city. There is chronic unemployment and underemployment, and, of a total of 9,500 wage earners about 4,000 are employed in the sugar industry, though numbers are higher during the harvesting season. The main products are sugar, cotton and molasses; in the late 1950s sugar constituted about 45% of the value of exports, with cotton, in second place, furnishing 20%. Exports in this period totaled about B.W.I. $7,000,000 and imports between B.W.I. and $11,000,000 $13,000,000. Tourism is an important industry, and Antigua has good hotels. The former naval base at English Harbour has been restored and is a favoured berth for yachts. Main imports consist of food, clothes, timber and nonedible oils. A number of shipping lines call at St. Johns and airlines provide regular services to Coolidge field in the north of the island. In the late 1950s government revenues and expenditures balanced out at slightly less than B.W.I. $9,000,000. Provisions for grant-in-aid are made by the British government. By the end of the development planning period in 1960, Antigua had received B.W.I. $6,123,200 since 1945.

ANTIGUA—ANTILLES

68

Primary and post-primary education is compulsory at 34 government and 11 private schools. There are 7 secondary schools attended by 2,000 children, and a teachers' training college. Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Christopher Columbus who named it after the church of Santa Maria la Antigua in Seville, Spain. It was colonized by English settlers in 1632 and remained a British possession, although raided

by the French

in 1666.

In

1941 the United States obtained a base on a 99-year lease under the lend-lease agreement. This base was partially reactivated in 1955 in connection with the firing of long-range missiles.

Barbuda, formerly Dulcina, lies 25 mi. N. of Antigua. It is 62 sq.mi. in area and had a population of 1,145 in 1960. Barbuda is a coral island, flat and well-wooded, with highlands rising to 200

ft.

in the northeast.

Codrington, the only settlement,

lies

physiologically inactive form, and only under certain conditions in which it is released from the bound form does it exhibit toxicity. Therefore, in various allergic conditions, the symptoms which are relieved by the antihistamines are believed to be due to histamine which has been released from its bound form in the tissues. The first specific antihistamine drug to be used therapeutically was Antergan (dimethylaminoethylbenzoyl-aniline), which was introduced in 1942 in France. Soon afterward a similar compound with lower toxicity, called Neo-Antergan, was developed in the same country. In 1945 Diphenhydramine, an ethanolamine derivative, was introduced in the United States, and thereafter numerous antihistamine drugs were developed. All of them have the same basic structure, which may be represented as follows:

on

The River, The inhabit-

R-X-C-C-

a lagoon on the west of the island; an anchorage at

favoured by sloops. farmers and charcoal burners. a government stock farm and the island has long been

the nearest point to Antigua,

ants

are

There

is

is

n;

I

I

smugglers,

fishermen,

used as a game reserve.

Barbuda was colonized in 1628 and granted to the Codrington family in 1680. It reverted to the crown in the late 19th century. There is an Anglican church and primary school, and several chapels.

Redonda, an uninhabited rock, lies 34 mi. W.S.W. of Antigua. It rises sheer to a height of 1,000 ft. and is ^ sq.mi. in area. Phosphate of alumina (discovered in 1865) was worked there until 1916 with an annual output of about 7,000 tons. See Colonial Office List (H.M.S.O., annually).

(R. To.)

ANTIGUA

(Antigua Guatemala), a city in Sacatepequez department, Guatemala, was capital of the former captaincy general and once the most important seat of Spanish colonial government between Mexico City and Lima, Peru. Pop. (1957 est.) 13,367. Founded as Santiago de los Caballeros (Ciudad Vieja) in 1527, it was destroyed by a torrent that swept down from the Antigua, which was constructed in slopes of the volcano Agua. 1542 near the site of Ciudad Vieja following this disaster, was demolished by an earthquake in 1773 and the capital was moved 15 mi. to the site of modern Guatemala City in the hope of avoiding further disasters; the previous seat of government became known as la antigua capital (the old capital), or Antigua. The present city is noted chiefly for the ruins of colonial edifices that make it a museum of Spanish colonial history. On or near

The commonly used antihistamine drugs are derivatives of ethylenediamine, ethanolamine and propylamine, which have nitrogen, oxygen and carbon respectively for the in the type formula shown above. Each has its special virtue: ethylenediamines generally are effective in lower doses; ethanolamines have the most powerful sedative actions; and propylamines exhibit lower toxicity and fewer side effects. The antihistamine drugs inhibit or abolish many of the actions of histamine, including histamine-induced intestinal spasm, fall in blood pressure and increased capillary permeability. They are used most widely in the treatment of hay fever and other allergies. In general, they have been disappointing for the treatment of asthma, although in some cases they afford partial relief. Some but not all of the antihistamine drugs relieve the nausea and vertigo which occur in such conditions as motion sickness, early pregnancy

X

and radiation sickness. All the antihistamines

have some toxic

effects that are unrelated

The commonest untoward

to their ability to antagonize histamine.

reactions are due to central nervous system depression; they in-

clude drowsiness, delirium and coma.

Neuropsychiatric manifes-

and mental depression may occur as well as headache, dryness of the mouth, dilated pupils failure, and blurred vision. Respiratory sometimes preceded by tations such as nightmares, confusion

convulsions, follows the administration of a lethal dose.

See also Allergy and Anaphylaxis;

Hay

the central plaza, several of the principal buildings of the colonial capital

still

serve public functions:

the palace of the captains

general, the cathedral, the municipal palace

and the University of

Among the larger ruins of religious structures that dot the city are the churches and convents of San Francisco, Capuchinas, Compania de Jesus and La Recoleccion. The church of La Merced survived the earthquake and is still in use. Several San Carlos.

private dwellings of the colonial period have been restored, the is the Wilson Popenoe house. In the environs are San Juan del Obispo, restored countryseat

most famous of which

of colonial churchmen; Ciudad Vieja; Indian villages such as San its quality weaving; and Santa town of palisaded compounds high on the slopes

Antonio Aguas Calientes, noted for

Maria de

Jesus, a

of Agua.

Antigua has several modern hotels situated in quiet, picturesque surroundings. The grandeur of its setting, at the base of towering volcanoes, and its benign climate make the city a favourite resort

A paved highway

Guatemala City. (W. J. G.) ANTIHISTAMINES are a group of drugs which reduce or prevent the physiological action of histamine (q.v.~) by competing with it at the places in the body where it normally acts. True

and

residential site.

leads to

antihistamine drugs are competitive inhibitors of the action of histamine and have no clear-cut action in its absence. They act

from drugs such as epinephrine (see Adrenaline and Noradrenaline) which tend to act as antidotes to histamine by

differently

producing opposite physiological actions. Medicinal use of antihistamines is based upon evidence that histamine causes many of the symptoms of various allergic disNormally histamine is present in tissues in a bound. orders.

ANTILEGOMENA

(Gr.

Fever. (K. P. Du.)

"contradicted,"

"disputed"),

an

by early Christian writers to denote books whose be included in the New Testament canon was in doubt.

epithet used

claim to

As examples, Eusebius of Caesarea (4th century) lists the epistles of James and Jude, II Peter and II— III John. ANTILIA (Antilla or Island of the Seven Cities; Port. Ilha Das Sete Cidades), a legendary island in the Atlantic ocean. It is marked in several 15th-century maps, being accompanied in most of them by smaller insulae de novo repertae, "newly The discovered islands," Royllo, St. Atanagio and Tanmar. Florentine Paolo Toscanelli, in letters to Columbus and the Portuguese court (1474), takes Antilia as the principal landmark for measuring the distance between Lisbon and the island of Cipango or Zipangu (Japan).

According to Portuguese tradition, after the

Moors had conquered Spain and Portugal, the island of Antilia or Septe Cidades was colonized by Christian refugees under the archbishop of Oporto and six bishops. Each leader founded and ruled a city, free

from the disorders of

less

Utopian

states.

Later tradi-

tion localized Antilia in the largest of the Azores, St. Michael's.

The legend may commemorate some imperfectly recorded discovery or may embody the idea of a western elysium like the Isles of the Blest, or Fortunate Islands.

ANTILLES

comprise all the islands of the West Indies (q.v.) except the Bahamas. They are distinguished according to size, being divided into two major groups: the Greater Antilles include Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), Jamaica and Puerto Rico; the Lesser Antilles are the rest of the islands. The chain of islands curves for about 2,500 mi. in a broad arc from Florida to the northern coast of Venezuela. In general, the islands

ANTILOCHUS— ANTIMATTER are mountainous with tropical climate and vegetation.

century.

The term dates traditionally from a period before the discovery new world, when it was called Antilia and referred to semi-

of the

mythical lands located somewhere west of Europe across the AtOn medieval charts it was sometimes indicated as a continent or large island and sometimes as an archipelago. After discovery of the West Indies by Columbus, the Spanish term Antillas was commonly assigned to the new lands. (D. R. D.) in Greek legend, son of Nestor, king of Pylos. One of the suitors of Helen, he accompanied his father to the Trojan War and distinguished himself as acting commander lantic.

ANTILOCHUS,

He was a friend of Achilles, to whom he was commissioned to announce the death of Patroclus. When Nestor was attacked by Memnon, he saved his father's life at the sacrifice of his own, thus fulfilling the oracle that had bidden him "beware of an Ethiopian." According to late accounts, he was slain by Hector or by Paris in the temple of the Thymbraean Apollo toof the Pylians.

400 B.C.), of Colophon or Claros, Greek poet and grammarian, wrote a lengthy epic Thebais, an account of the expedition of the Seven Against Thebes and the war of the Epigoni. He thus became the founder of "learned" epic poetry and the forerunner of the Alexandrian school, whose canon He also wrote an elegiac allotted him the next place to Homer. poem Lyde, so called after his mistress. These poems, though not also prepared a critical recenpopular, were praised by Plato. He sion of the Homeric poems (mentioned 12 times in the Venetian scholia

(ft

c.

).

See C. B. Wyss, Antimachi Colophonii Reliquiae (1936) Poetae Lyrici Graeci, various editions (1843-1915).

ANTIMASONIC PARTY,

;

T. Bergk,

a U.S. political organization in-

between 1827 and 1836. The Antimasonic movement was touched off in western New York state by the mysterious disappearance of William Morgan of Batavia, N.Y., a Freemason and itinerant worker with some intellectual doubts concerning the Order of the Masons. Morgan had prepared for publication a book, Illustrations of Masonry, revealing the order's secrets. Charged with stealing and indebtedness, apparently as a pretext for seizing and arraigning him, Morgan was committed in Sept. 1826 to an Ontario county, N.Y., jail and was reportedly kidnapped shortly after his release. His ultimate fate was never known the opinion was widely held that he had been murdered. fluential

;

When Masonic

leaders refused to co-operate in the excited and prolonged search for clues and culprits, the press, churches, temperance and antislavery elements joined in condemning all Free-

masonry

James Monroe and John Quincy Adams, was nominated

under

for presi-

dent, although substantial elements in the convention

favoured endorsing Henry Clay, about to become the National Republican nominee. The Antimasonry issue had by this time, however, become secondary to internal improvement and the protective tariff; Wirt himself was a Freemason.

The Antimasonic party's achievements in national elections were few. In the presidential contest of 1832 it carried only Vermont. The party at the same time won a large number of seats in the 23rd congress (1833-1835), but few thereafter. Nonetheless, its influence lingered on in other ways. Its national convention system was followed in 1831 and 1832 by the National Republicans and the Jacksonian Democrats, and subsequently by the present major U.S. political parties. Further, several of the party's prominent leaders became founders of the national Whig and Democratic parties. See also Freemasonry.

—

gether with Achilles.

ANTIMACHUS

69

William Wirt of Maryland, attorney general

as responsible for the

"murder."

The democratic and

libertarian spirit uniting these elements attracted the support of

many farmers and

workers, a political fact not lost upon the leaders of the declining National Republican party in the state. Although not yet openly identified with the National Republicans,

Thurlow Weed (q.v.), publisher of the Rochester (NY.) Telegraph and subsequently of the Anti-Masonic Enquirer led the press assault on Freemasonry, editorially endorsing Antimasonic candifall campaign of 1827. When 15 of these candidates were elected to the state assembly, the Anti-

dates for state offices in the

masonic party came into being. During 1828 New York members held their first state party convention and in Feb. 1829 held a second. National conventions met at Philadelphia on Sept. n, 1830, and at Baltimore Sept. 1831. the latter to nominate candidates for president and vice-president. Between 1828 and 1831 the Antimasonic movement had spread across the middle Atlantic states into New England, usually through church, temperance and antislavery channels. As it developed, however. New England Antimasonic collaboration in elections was with Jacksonian Democrats, rather than National Republicans as in New York. The Antimasonic national nominating convention of 1831 in Baltimore was the first of its kind in U.S. political history. Thirteen states were represented by 116 Antimasons. The convention required a special three-fourths majority to nominate, establishing the precedent for the two-thirds rule used by the Democrats in subsequent national conventions for more than a

Bibliography. J. D. Hammond, History of Political Parties in the State of New York (1842); the Autobiography of Thurlow Weed A. G. Mackey and W. R. Singleton, The History of Free(1884) masonry, vol. vi (1898) Charles McCarthy, The Anti-Masonic Party: A Study of Political Anti-Masonry in the United States, 1827-1840, in the Report of the American Historical Association for IQ02 (1903) Glyndon G. Van Deusen, Thurlow Weed: Wizard of the Lobby (1947). (R. M. G.) ;

;

;

ANTIMATTER.

An atom of ordinary matter is composed and uncharged neutrons surrounded by a cloud of orbiting, negatively charged electrons (see Atom"). In 1928, the existence of an elementary of a nucleus of positively charged protons that

is

mass to the electron but bearing a positive eleccharge was foreseen by P. A. M. Dirac in his relativistic quantum theory (see Electron; Quantum Mechanics). This particle, called a positron, was discovered by C. D. Anderson in 1932 in studies of cosmic-ray interactions observed in a Wilson cloud chamber. In 1955 Emilio Segre, Owen Chamberlain and their co-workers at the University of California discovered the antiproton, an elementary particle having the same mass as the proton (q.v.) but carrying a negative charge. In 1956 these men and others at the University of California confirmed the existence of the antineutron, a particle identical to the neutron except that its magnetic properties are reversed in sign. Atoms composed of nuclei of antiprotons and antineutrons with orbiting positrons surrounding these nuclei would constitute antimatter. Antimatter would be completely stable if isolated from ordinary matter; however, if an atom of antimatter were to collide with an atom of ordinary matter, the two would immediately undergo mutual and complete annihilation, with ir mesons and other unstable particles being created. Within a fraction of a second, all of these unstable particles would be spontaneously transformed into radiant energy gamma rays (high-frequency electromagnetic radiation) and stable, massless particles called neutrinos. For comparison, it may be noted that in the processes of nuclear fission, used in the so-called atomic bomb, and nuclear fusion, used in the hydrogen bomb, only a small percentage of the reacting mass is converted into energy (see Atomic Energy). Although antimatter does not exist in a stable form on earth, it has been speculated that distant galaxies in the universe are particle equal in tric

—

composed entirely of antimatter. A careful search for indications of positrons and antimatter nuclei in the primary cosmic rays entering the earth's atmosphere from outer space has been made, but as of the early 1960s this search had been unsuccessful; it has been proved that if antimatter is indeed contained in primary cosmic rays, it exists only in extremely small amounts (see Cosmic Rays). The principal argument against it lies in the absence in cosmic rays of the expected gamma radiation that would be produced in profusion by the mutual annihilation of matter and antimatter.

The

idea that antimatter exists in profuse

the universe has

more than an

amounts elsewhere

aesthetic appeal.

A

in

corresponding antiparticle has been discovered for most of the known types of "ordinary" particles, as explained in Particles, Elementary. Furthermore, material particles (electrons and positrons) have been created from electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays) in the

ANTIMETABOLITES— ANTIMONY

o

presence of matter in terrestrial laboratories. This process, known as "pair production," also results naturally from certain cosmic-ray

same

substrate to form an enzyme-inhibitor comincapable of forming the normal product of the

site as the

interactions.

However, whenever an electron

is created from i.e., the positron, is simultaneously not illogical concept of symmetry in creation is assumed, then for every elementary particle that has been created there must exist somewhere in the universe its antiparticle, so that in the universe as a whole the total amounts of ordinary matter and antimatter are equal. Segre has stated: "When God

plex which

radiation,

antiparticle,

enzyme system.

made

If the substrate

created.

its

If the

—

the universe

if

you assume he did

—

is

there any reason to

believe he preferred matter to antimatter?"

world were suddenly replaced by antimatter, such a world would be essentially undistinguishable from the present world. All the laws of physics would remain the same except for certain laws governing the so-called "weak" interactions of the elementary particles, which do not observe sym-

is

This

most antimetabolites enzyme

mode

is

enzyme

to

-(-

of action which represents that of

indicated by the following equations:

enzyme-substrate

substrate

-f-

enzyme

the

If all material matter in the

enzyme

related to the substrate, can frequently interact with the at the

?^

+ enzyme

product

complex

inhibitor

enzyme-inhibitor complex

and inhibitor both compete for the same form a complex in a reversible manner, the

site

on

inhibi-

competitive, and the ratio of the concentration of inhibitor to that of the substrate determines approximately the degree of tion

is

inhibition

rather than the absolute

concentration of inhibitor.

The 30-Bev particle accelerator in the CERN laboratory near Geneva. Switzerland, has produced beams of antiprotons, but whether antimatter will someday be created in profusion, and whether it can ever be utilized to provide useful energy or to produce an "antimatter bomb," remain challenging questions for

termed the inhibition index for a defined degree of inhibition. An example of an inhibitor structurally related to the substrate is malonic acid (HOOC—CH 2 COOH), which interacts with the enzyme succinic acid dehydrogenase to prevent succinic acid (HOOC— CH 2 CH 2 COOH) from complexing with the enzyme and undergoing dehydrogenation to fumaric acid COOH). Such examples were known before (HOOC— it was generally realized that analogues of metabolites could exert

the future.

inhibitory effects of this type within living organisms.

metry.

ANTIMETABOLITES.

An antimetabolite is a specific antagonist of a particular substance in metabolic reactions of living organisms. Various food substances (nutrients) or essential substances produced from nutrients (essential metabolites) can be

prevented from performing their biochemical roles by their specific antagonists. Substances for which such metabolic antagonists are

known

include vitamins,

essential for protein synthesis), certain

amino acids (which are hormones, purines (qq.v.)

and pyrimidines (which among other functions are also essential for the synthesis of the genetic material of cells and certain carbo)

hydrates (q.v.).

Often a compound structurally related to a nutrient or essential metabolite is one of its specific metabolic antagonists. For example, the sulfa drugs (see Sulfonamides) are metabolic antagonists of para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a vitaminlike nutrient, or essential metabolite, for

many

bacteria.

The

similarities

of the chemical structures are demonstrated below:

H

2

N— /~v -S0 NH 2

2

Sulfanilamide

H

2

N-^ V- COOH

Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA)

The sulfa drugs are effective chemotherapeutically in the treatment of certain bacterial infections because they disrupt bacterial metabolism. tion of

Specifically, the sulfa drugs prevent bacterial utiliza-

PABA

for folic acid synthesis. It appears that the bacteria cannot "discriminate" between these structural analogues, and the is "mistaken" for the essential PABA molecule. The functions of the animal host, which does not synthesize its own folic acid, are not affected by sulfa drugs. The requirements of a growing cell differ from those of a nongrowing cell hence, certain antimetabolites can affect the growth of rapidly dividing cells without appreciably damaging nongrowing cells, and some antimetabolites have thus found limited use as antitumour agents. Antagonisms are of prime importance in pharmacological drugs such as the antihistamines (q.v.). Certain natural antibiotics are known to be antimetabolites; in fact, most antibiotics may ultimately be found to exert their biological effects in this manner. Antimetabolites are also useful in the study of the biochemistry of living organisms. An antimetabolite exerts its effect by interacting with a particular biological catalyst (an enzyme, q.v.) in such a manner as to prevent the enzyme from promoting a specific biochemical reaction. This mode of action is known as enzyme inhibition, and the antimetabolite is an inhibitor of enzymic catalysis. An enzyme exerts its catalytic effect by interacting with a specific substance, which is called its substrate, to form a complex; the complex undergoes further chemical change so that it finally dissociates into a specific product and the free enzyme which can again transform more of the substrate. An analogous compound, structurally-

antagonistic sulfa molecule

;

This ratio

is

—

—

—

CH=CH—

An inhibitor may interact at a site different from that of the substrate so that an inactive complex of enzyme-substrate-inhibitor is formed. Such an inhibition is noncompetitive, and the is capable of preventing enzyme activity regardless of Occasionally an inhibitor may interact only with the enzyme-substrate complex and not with free enzyme, resulting in an inhibition which is termed uncompetitive. By specifically blocking the utilization of a particular nutrient or essential metabolite with an antimetabolite and studying the effects of other nutrients and essential metabolites upon the inhibition, one can determine the sequences of biochemical reactions This method, termed inhibition analysis, has in living organisms. been particularly useful with microorganisms in developing assay methods for the detection necessary for the isolation of new vitamins and growth-promoting factors, in elucidating the metabolic roles of vitamins and vitaminlike substances and in discovering new metabolic interrelationships and intermediates. See D. Woolley, A Study of Antimetabolites (1952). (W. Sh.)

inhibitor

substrate concentration.

ANTIMONY

is

a bright, silvery-white, metallic element hav-

ing a hard, brittle crystalline structure.

It occurs in nature primarily as the mineral stibnite (q.v.), and is employed chiefly to impart hardness to lead alloys used in storage batteries and other products. Its many peculiar characteristics make it valuable as a component of flameproofing chemicals, ceramic enamels, compound semiconductors, smoke generators, explosives and medicines. This article deals with the history of antimony, and its physical and chemical properties, uses, occurrence and production.

HISTORY Man's use of antimony predates the Christian era by many thousand years. A Chaldean vase dated approximately 4000 B.C. attests that these ancient people knew the art of winning antimony from its ores. In St. Jerome's translation of the Bible, Jezebel, the wicked wife of Ahab. is reported to have painted her eyes with stibium, a name that has given antimony its chemical symbol, Sb. Egyptian women used cosmetics of antimony to beautify their faces, and water from Egyptian wells was often borne in antimony Pliny the Elder (1st century, a.d.) gave an interesting de". There are two kinds of it, male and female, the female being most desirable, vessels.

scription of a stibnite occurrence in a silver mine.

more

radiant,

smoother and brighter."

With

his

.

.

gift

for pic-

turesque inaccuracy, Pliny also described a process for reduction of the ore. He cautioned that improper care in roasting the stibnite with manure and quenching it with milk would result in its turning to lead.

In The Triumphant Chariot of Antimony (1604; Eng. trans., 1660; 1661; ed. by E. A. Waite, 1893), attributed to Basil Valentine (in alchemy signifying "valiant king") who was supposed to have been a 15th century German monk, the author (Johann

ANTIMONY Tholde), an earlj and enthusiastic investigator of the properties of antimony, noted the ability of

impurities and concluded

men know

it

antimony

that antimony purgeth gold and frees

eign matter, but also

by an innate power

from

to free gold

had a similar effect on

man: it

effects the

".

.

.

its

Let

from

all

for-

same

in

men

and beasts." According to this belief cattle were often fed antimony to fatten them. Monks reportedly used the same method

name "antimony"

—

a

who

dwells

A

probably more accurate interpretation suglexicographer is antimonos, "a metal seldom found

monk.

gested by a alone."

com-

to the

bination of the Greek anti, "against," and monos, "one

alone"

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES The atomic weight ber

is

51.

of

antimony

is

121.76,

Stable isotopes are 121 and 123; radioactive ones are

and 132. Antimony is above bismuth and below arsenic in main Group V of the periodic table (set Periodic L aw )- It has principal valences of 3 and 5. Antimony forms many binary intermetallic compounds, some of which have useful electrical semiconducting qualities. Combinations of elements in Group III and Group V in many instances exhibit characteristics quite similar to single elements of

For example, aluminum-antimony responds

Some

Properties of

electrically

Group IV. very

Sb hexagonal 6.62

1560

3-3.5

Hardness (Mohs'

10. 9 10 -8 630.5° C. 1380° C. 4,780

X

C

Boiling point Heat of fusion, cal./g. atom Heat of vaporization, cal./g. atom Specific heat, cal./g. ,°C. Vapour pressure of liquid, at 1,075° C Thermal conductivity, cal cm.- cm. C. /sec Electrical resistivity, microhm-cm. at 20° C Specific magnetic susceptibility, at 20° C

45.400 0.0493 54 mm.

.

f

metal highly valued for

41.7 0.82

transistor

and

X

10"«

rectifier

Aluminum, gallium, and indium unite with antimony to form compound face-centred cubic crystals that resemble the simple structures of diamond, silicon, and germanium (qq.v.). The energy gaps between saturated and conducting bands of these III-V compounds range from 0.40 electron volts for indiumantimony to 1.55 ev for aluminum-antimony, a range of values qualities.

that

encompasses the activation energies of

all

its

A Hardening Agent. Even added in small quantities, antimony imparts strength and hardness to other metals, particularly The

antimony

manufacture of antimony added to lead corrosive resistant grids and terminals. Other items in which antimony is used to harden alloys and/or inhibit chemical decay are pumps, tank linings, roofing sheets, plumbing fixtures and pipes, cable sheaths, foil and bullets. Antifriction Bearings. A series of alloys called babbitt or "white metal" that are indispensable to a machine-age civilization contain 5% to iS% antimony as an essential component. Other lead.

largest single use of

automobile storage batteries. yields

From

4%

is

to

in the

n

c

c

strong,

—

tin,

lead,

In the tin-base group, SnSb is present as hard discrete cubes in a matrix of SnCu 3 needle-shaped, relatively soft crystals. The antifriction quality of the alloy is obtained from the forceabsorbing features of such a hard-soft binary combination. (See ,

Bearing Metals.) obtained in lead.

in the

popular semicon-

ductors.

A

similar,

10%

exists in many allotropic forms, gray antimony being common and stable one. The properties of gray anti-

less

pronounced,

18%

SnSb

is

effect is

imbedded

of lead-base antifriction alloys

Metal). Type Metal. Lead containing 13% to 30% antimony and minor amounts of tin is used in linotype and stereotype machines to produce accurate cast printing type. (See Type Metal.) to

—

(see also Babbitt's

Antimony increases the hardness, lowers the melting point of the and imparts sharp definition to the type. Maximum fusibility

lead,

obtained from the near eutectic mixture (that is, having the lowest melting point possible for the constituents) of 13 Sb, 85 Pb, 2 Sn, whereas maximum precision in duplication of type requires large portions of antimony at the expense of the lead is

content.

Decorative Castings.

— Low

melting point, precision duplica-

and economy make antimonial from which statuettes, candlesticks and

tion, durability, metallic beauty,

alloys desirable materials

Antimony

though

lead-base babbitt wherein hard

The antimony content

ranges from

0444

its

pure state has essentially no uses; yet, in physical and chemical combination with other substances it is one of man's most useful metals. Approximately one-half of the yearly world supply is consumed in alloy fabrication. Chemical uses in fireworks, pottery, glass, paints, plastics, rubber and fabrics account for one-half the industrial consumption of antimony. in

and copper.

C

scale Coefficient of linear expansion at 20°

USES Antimony

constituents of these so-called antifriction alloys are

Melting point

like silicon, a

much

A ntimony

Chemical symbol Crystal system Specific gravity at 20° Tensile strength, p.s.i

.

.

:;

—

and the atomic num-

122. 124, 125, 127, 129,

120.

in yellow ammonium sulfide produces a soluble ammonium tliioantimonate solution that, when treated with acid, yields an orange precipitate of antimony pentasulfide, Sb 2 S 5 Antimony combines directly with the halogens (q.v.) to form compounds of type V 1>X and M>X S Like other salts of antimony, halides are partly hydrolyzed by water, forming basic salts.

Some

to avoid the effects of fasting, often being fatally poisoned.

speculators, therefore, attribute the

7i

are shown in the accompanying table. Electrolysis of an antimony trichloride solution produces an explosive form of the metal on a platinum foil cathode at the expense of a gray antimony

Britannia metal other useful and decorative objects are cast. (q.v.), a silvery white alloy from which hollow ware and tableware are made, contains 5% to 10% antimony dissolved in tin. Varieties of pewter contain a maximum of 7% antimony. Solder. The ability of antimony to form low-melting-point

anode.

eutectics

the most

mony

Friction causes the cathode metal to detonate loudly,

evolving light and heat.

Black antimony, another unstable form, is produced by rapid cooling of the metal vapour. The resulting black powder is quite active chemically and is subject to spontaneous combustion. It slowly reverts to gray antimony, but if heated to 400 C. the change is instantaneous. Antimony is oxidized but slightly under atmospheric conditions. When heated in air. however, it burns with a bright bluish flame yielding

Sbo0 3

(or

Sb 2

4 ).

Nitric acid also oxidizes the metal,

forming the trioxide. Antimony is amphoteric: that is. its hydroxide acts either as a base. SblOH 3 or as an acid, 3 Sb0 3 Solution of the trioxide in hydrochloric acid yields a trichloride of large soft crystals known as butter of antimony that hydrolyzes and reacts with water to form the insoluble oxychloride. Antimony trisulfide, Sb 2 S 3 is readily prepared by heating stoichiometric proportions (i.e., the combining weights of the two powdered ingredients in a mortar. The beautiful orange-red sulfide pigment is precipitated from an antimony trichloride solution by addition of hydrogen sulfide gas. Dissolving the trisulfide i

H

.

.

,

)

—

and increase the hardness of alloys makes

solders.

it

useful in

—

Semiconductors. Aluminum-antimony, though having an energy gap too great for ordinary rectifier and transistor applications, has a redeeming feature its electrical properties vary widely with even minute changes in the amount of atomic imperfections within the crystal lattice. Control processing produces both P- and N-type crystals (see Transistor) whose electrical resistivity, in experimental tests, has been varied by a factor of 500,000 and rectification ratios near 10,000 have been achieved. Its behaviour at elevated temperatures has suggested possible uses in high-temperature electronic devices. Aluminum-antimony has attracted interest to its photoconductive and photogenerative effects. Contact devices can be produced to act as electrical switches on exposure to light and can directly convert light to

—

electrical energy.

indium-antimony are extremely When an indiumantimony current-carrying conductor is placed in a properly oriented magnetic field it is polarized transverse to the current flow. Electrical resistance elements of

sensitive to changes in an applied magnetic field.

ANTIN

72

By suitable electrocoupling a transverse secondary current is generated, giving rise to a tiux field that opposes current flow in the primary circuit. The resulting effective resistance is proporSensitivity and tional to the applied magnetic field intensity. Strength of the response are such that many uses are possible in control circuits. Flameproofing. Fabrics are made fire resistant by treatment with a solution of antimony trioxide or trichloride in an organic

—

initial combustion are extinguished by chemical reactants released as the impregnating solution is heated. Antimony oxide (Sb 2 3 is used in the paint and plastics industries both as a pigment and fire-retarding agent. In wartime the premium placed on fire prevention and control greatly expands

solvent.

Flames accompanying

)

the use of antimonial flame retardants. Paints.— Finely powdered antimony trioxide

is

a dense white

pigment used as a constituent of paints. It is also used as an opacifying agent in white ceramic enamels imparting a blisterfree,

brilliant

finish.

"Antimony black"

is

precipitated, finely

subdivided, metallic antimony used as a bronzing agent for metals Antimony vermilion is a pigment of red tricasts.

and plaster

sulfide precipitated fide gas.

from an antimonial solution by hydrogen sulis produced by controlled oxidaOranges, blues and greens are produced by

The "antimony yellow"

tion of the sulfide.

blending with other mineral pigments.

Ammunition.

— Antimony

in the form of liquated component of ammunition primers and of military pyrotechnics such as smoke generators, visual range-finding shells and tracer bullets. A small amount of

crudum

sulfide

sulfide

(see Production, below)

is

is

a

also used in friction matches.

Rubber Industry. vulcanizing agent.

Textile Industry.

— Antimony pentasulfide — In the dyeing of

is

a

commonly used

emetic and antimonine are used as mordants. Chlorinated paraffin, antimony oxide and calcium carbonate are combined as a "finishing" adfabrics, tartar

The role of antimony oxide is filtering ditive to textile fibres. out fibre-destroying, ultraviolet wave lengths of normal light. Glass Industry. Antimony oxide, like silica, is a glass-forming

—

substance.

Mixed with

suitable stabilizers, antimony-oxide glass

exhibits superior light transmitting ability near the infrared end of the spectrum. With sufficient colouring additives glass can be to all visible light except long wave infrared rays. Medicine. Though a number of organic antimony compounds have been used successfully in the treatment of parasitic diseases, antimony is highly toxic to the human body giving rise to symptoms similar to those produced by arsenic. It is an irritant internally and externally and affects the heartbeat, respiration and

made opaque

—

nervous systems. Tartar emetic (potassium antimonyl tartrate) has been used as a nauseant and expectorant.

OCCURRENCE The mineral stibnite, Sb 2 S 3 is the primary ore mineral of antimony. It (with its oxidized equivalents) is found in fissure veins ,

western United States, Mexico, Bolivia, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Morocco, Union of South Africa and China. The deposits are hydrothermal in origin; that is, the mineralizing fluids were generated during the process of emplacement of igneous intrusive rock masses. The more common genetic associations are with The mineralogy of the granites, granodiorites and monzonites. veins and their almost invariable shallow depth suggest a low in the

Algeria.

temperature of formation at near-surface positions, possibly related to configuration of the water table at time of deposition. Typically, stibnite (q.v.) deposits are small and discontinuous.

fore are necessarily based on known correlative data, such as and geologic patterns of occurrence. China is the dominant possessor of ore reserves. Estimates range from 2,000,000 to 5,700.000 tons of contained antimony a quantity that dwarfs the reserves of any other country. In the second half of the 20th century the bureau of mines and the geological interior, survey, U.S. department of the estimated world reserves, excluding China, at approximately 2,000,000 tons. Bolivia was estimated to have 400.000 tons; Mexico, U. of S.Af., U.S.S.R., each 250,000 tons; U.S., Yugoslavia, Australia, Algeria-Morocco, 100,000 tons each. Canada, Peru, Turkey, Czechoslovakia (collectively) had 225,000 tons.

historical production levels

—

PRODUCTION Metallurgy.

— Antimony

may

be separated from the ore is heated above the fusion point, and maintained below the boiling temperature, of stibnite. The resulting molten sulfide seeps by gravity through the hot mass of ore and is collected and cooled in a lower container. The rather pure liquated sulfide is referred to as crudum or needle antimony and is used directly in many industrial processes. That which is not sold as crudum is roasted to produce the volatile antimony trioxide which is recovered from the condensed roaster gases. The portion of the oxide that is not directly marketed is reduced to metal (regulus) by smelting in small reverberatory furnaces with ground charcoal and suitable fluxes. Antimony sulfide may be roasted and smelted directly to metal in a blast furnace by a method quite similar to lead smelting. Antimony metal, antimony oxide and antimonial lead are often recovered as a byproduct at lead refineries in processing lead In the method bullion that contains antimony as an impurity. called softening, air is bubbled into a bath of molten lead at about 850° C; antimony and arsenic impurities are selectively oxidized in preference to the lead and form oxides that float to the surface In the less widely used of the bath and can be skimmed off. electrolytic method, lead anodes are electrolyzed in a fluosilicic acid bath to yield high purity lead cathodes. The anode residue contains the metallic impurities with which the lead was associated. Often the antimony content is sufficiently high to permit economic recovery. World supply of antimony is augmented by a large secondary production of antimonial alloys from antimony-conOld automobile battery grids is the major taining scrap metal. source material on which secondary plants depend. Mine Production. World mine output of antimony is quite responsive to fluctuations in the business cycle. In 1931, at the depth of the worldwide economic depression, mine production fell to 17.000 short tons. The war-stimulated industrial level of 1943 evoked a mine output of nearly 60.000 short tons. The highest production was in 1951 during the Korean conflict when recorded sulfide

associated rock gangue by liquation.

The

—

world mine output rose to 70,000 short tons. Prior to 1935 China supplied two-thirds of the annual world total antimony production, but with progress of the Chinese-Japanese War the centre of principal production shifted to the Americas. The United States, Mexico and Bolivia were leading world suppliers of antimony durIn the years immediing and immediately after World War II. ately following the Korean war, the mines of China and the Republic of South Africa became the dominant contributors of antimony. See also Index references under "Antimony" in the Index volume.

—

Bibliography. U.S. department of the interior, bureau of mines and geological survey, Materials Survey, Antimony (1950) J. B. DeMille, Strategic Minerals (1947) U.S. department of the interior, bureau of mines, Minerals Yearbook, Antimony Chapter (annual) J. L. Bray, (H. M. Cy.) Non-jerrous Production Metallurgy, 2nd ed. (1947). ;

;

;

Antimony also occurs as a minor constituent of other metalliferous ores. In the process of refining the major metal values, an antimony-enriched product is segregated. Often it appears in the bullion at lead refineries

and

is

redeemed

as

antimony metal,

anti-

monial lead or commercial grade antimony oxide. Because the antimony thus redeemed has no economic value until it is incidently concentrated by many intermediate processes, the antimony content of the ores from which the bullion was derived is obscured. There are few deposits of antimony wherein ore is developed in advance of current mining requirements. World reserves there-

ANTIN,

MARY

(18S1-1949), Russian-born U.S. author of the autobiography The Promised Land (191 2). an account of the experiences of European Jews and the contrast with life in the United States. Born in Polotzk, Russia, in 1881. Mary Antin emigrated to the United States in 1894 and attended Teachers college of Columbia university and Barnard college, New York city,

1901-04.

She wrote about her voyage to the United States in her first From Polotzk to Boston (Eng. trans., 1899), originally writ-

book,

ANTINOMIANISM—ANTIOCH After the publication of The Promised Land, which first appeared as a serial in the Atlantic Monthly and won wide acclaim, she toured the United States for a number of years ten in Yiddish.

as a lecturer.

Her third book on immigrants, They Who Knock at Our Gates, was published in 1914. She was later a resident worker at Gould farm, a social service community at Great Barrington, Mass. In 1901 she was married to Amadeus Grabau (q.v.), U.S. paleontologist and professor at Columbia university. She died at Suffern, N.Y., on May IS, 1949. ANTINOMIANISM (anti, "against," and nomos, "law"), first attributed to Martin Luther's collaborator Johann Agricola (q.v.), a doctrine according to which Christians are freed by grace from the necessity of obeying the Mosaic Law. The Antinomians rejected the very notion of obedience as legalistic to them the good life flowed from the inner working of the Holy Spirit. In this they could and did appeal not only to Luther but also to Paul and Augustine. Antinomianism appeared also in the Reformed branch of Protestantism. John Calvin wrote against "the sect of Libertines who call themselves Spiritual." The left-wing Anabaptists (q.v.) were accused of Antinomianism, not only for theological reasons but also because they opposed the co-operation of church and state, which was considered necessary for law and order. For similar reasons, in the first half of the 17th century. Separatists, Familists, Ranters and Independents in England were called Antinomians by theo;

logians of the established churches. In New England, Anne Hutchinson was accused of Antinomianism when she said that the churches were preaching "the covenant of works." The Wesleyan movement at the end of the 18th century produced its own Antinomians who claimed an inner experience and a "new life" which they considered as the true source of good works. Since in Jesus Christ and by the working of the Spirit in their hearts they were saved from sin, they sought to live in purity without the benefit of the Law. However, they fell into legalisms of their own. Antinomianism grew out of Protestant controversies on the Law and the Gospel, but it was not unknown previously. In the early church there were those who said, "Let us sin that grace may abound" (see Rom. vi, IS ff.). To some Gnostic heretics, freedom from the Law meant freedom for licence. "The spiritual," being above vulgar morality, were prone to indulge the flesh and its lusts. However, Antinomianism in the ancient and medieval church, as represented by Montanists and Marcionites (q.v.), and later by the Spiritual Franciscans and sundry popular pietistic movements, frequently was a protest against worldliness, legalism and clericalism in Christendom.

—

Bibliography. Gertrude Huehns, Antinomianism in English History (1952); William Haller, The Rise of Puritanism (1938); Herbert W. Schneider, The Puritan Mind (1930). (Jo. Ha.)

ANTINOMY,

a contradiction, real or apparent, between

principles or conclusions, both of

An approximate synonym

which seem equally

two

justified.

Kant used the word in paradox. elaborating his doctrine that "pure Reason" generates contradictions in seeking to grasp the "unconditioned." He offered "proofs" of the proposition: (1) that the universe had a beginning and is of finite

extent

(the

(the antithesis).

thesis)

is

—and

also

of a

contrary proposition

Similarly for the three propositions:

(2) that every complex substance consists of simple parts; (3) that not every phenomenon has a sufficient "natural" cause, i.e., that there is freedom in the universe; (4) that there exists a necessary Being, either within or outside the universe. Kant used the first two of

these antinomies to infer that space

resolved

all

and time are subjective. He phenomena and noumena

four by a distinction between

(intelligible things).

A series of logical antinomies (also known as logical paradoxes) have played an important part in the development of modern logic. One of the best known and least technical of these is the paradox of the class of all classes that are not members of themselves (published by Bertrand Russell in 1903). The line of argument runs: Given any class of things, c for example, either c is a member of itself, or else not one or the other, but not both. (Thus if c is the class of men, c is not a

—

member

73

men member of

of c, since the class of

not a man; while

the is a c, since the class of all classes a class.) Let a class that is not a member of itself be called an exclusive class. Consider the class of all exclusive classes, for example. The object is to determine whether itself is exclusive or not. If is exclusive, it has to be a member of (since was defined as the class of all exclusive classes). But exclusive means: not a member of itself. So has to be not exclass of all classes, c

is

if c is

itself

is

K

K

K

K

K

K

K

Suppose, then, that is not exclusive. This means it of itself. But all the members of are exclusive classes. Hence, is exclusive. It would seem, then, that can be neither exclusive nor nonexclusive, though every class must be one or the other. In this way Russell's paradox derives a contradiction from definitions and modes of reasoning previously accepted as correct in both logic and mathematics. Much ingenuity has been expended in finding flaws in the argument, or in making compensatory revisions in logical doctrine. Among the best-known methods are the so-called simple theory of types (a modification of Russell's own solution) and certain types of axiomatic set theory (introduced by Ernst Zermelo, and subsequently improved by many writers). Many similar logical paradoxes have been formulated. Among those having direct bearing upon the foundations of mathematics are Cesare Burali-Forti's paradox of the greatest ordinal number (published 1897) and the paradox of the greatest cardinal number (published by Russell, 1903). See also Semantics in Logic, and Logic, History of, for the closely related semantical paradoxes. Bibliography. W. Windelband, History of Philosophy, Eng. trans. by J. H. Tufts, 2nd ed. (1910) A. N. Whitehead and B. Russell, Principia mathematica, 2nd ed., vol. i (1925). (M. Bk.) clusive.

a

is

K

member

K

K

—

;

ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, whom he accompanied on his journeys. During one of these he was drowned in the Nile (a.d. 130) near Besa. Hadrian said his death was accidental, but rumour had it that he had voluntarily sacrificed his life to fulfill a prophecy that death was soon to affect the emperor closely. Hadrian deified him after his death, and temples were built for his at

worship

all

Mantinea

in

over the Roman world, particularly in Bithynia, Arcadia (which claimed to be the mother city of The city of Antinoopolis was

the Bithynians) and at Athens.

founded (Oct. 30, 130) at the place of his death, partly in his honour, but probably with the further object of strengthening Hellenism in Middle Egypt.

A great number of statues, busts, gems and coins survive depicting Antinoiis as an ideal type of youthful beauty, often with the attributes of some appropriate god. Notable examples are in the Vatican, the Louvre and the Villa Albani at

Rome.

—

Bibliography. B. W. Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Hadrian, ch. viii, section 3 (1923) E. Strong, Roman Sculpture, pp. 249-253 (1907) M. Yourcenar, Memoirs of Hadrian (or Hadrian's Memoirs), Eng. trans. (1954 ff.). ;

;

ANTIOCH

(Antakya in southeastern Turkey), sometimes Daphne" or "Antioch on the Orontes" to dis-

called "Antioch near

tinguish

it

from other Antiochs, was once considered the third Roman empire in size and importance. It left bank of the virtually unnavigable Orontes

city (Antiochia) of the

was disposed on the

made a sharp bend, breaks out of the Syrian rift valley toward the Mediterranean through a defile about 16 mi. in length. The route down the valley

river (Asi Nehri) at the point where, having it

no farther than the river's mouth, movement along the coast being blocked by the spurs of Mt. Pieria and Mt. Cassius. But Antioch also controlled the passage of the coastal ranges 20 mi. to the north through the Syrian Gates (the Belen or Bailan pass). From there a highway went westward through Cilicia and across led

Asia Minor, while to the east the commercial and military route (through Aleppo) turned the flank of the Syrian desert and was the regular approach to the Mediterranean from the direction of Mesopotamia. To the south extended the populous valley of Coele-Syria (Lebanon), rich in cereals and fruit. A continuation

same depression to the northeast opened access to the high valleys of the upper Euphrates and the plateaus of Armenia. of the

ANTIOCH

74 Classical Antioch.

—

HISTORY

Antioch was founded at the end of the by Seleucus I Nicator together with the coastal town of Seleucia Pieria, which served as its port. He named it after his father, the Macedonian general Antiochus, and laid it out on a simple squared plan between the river and the slopes of Mt. Silpius. All settlers of whatever race were given equal privileges of citizenship, and the population was divided into 18 constituencies which elected a common council. A new walled quarter, containing many fine temples, was added on the east side by the founder's son Antiochus I Soter. Seleucus II Callinicus constructed a third section on an island in the river; theie the intersection of the two main streets was marked by a magnificent four-faced arch, and the extension was connected with the main city to the south by five bridges. About 170 B.C. Antiochus IV Epiphanes constructed a fourth quarter of Antioch, which thus 4th century

B.C.

gained the title of "Tetrapolis" (the "four-citied"). In 64 B.C. Syria became a Roman province, and more temples, theatres, baths and aqueducts were added to Antioch. Unlike Rome, Constantinople, Athens and Alexandria, cities of comparable size under the Roman empire, Antioch has contracted appreciably since the time of its early prosperity. Despite this,

remarkably little of the ancient metropolis can now be seen. The and architecture of the bastions and wall-walks on the summit and slopes of Mt. Silpius can still be appreciated, and the superstructure of the famous Iron Gate, where the perimeter wall crossed a ravine of the mountain, and parts of an aqueduct leading from the direction of Daphne are still substantially intact. But between the lower hill slopes and the river the ancient city has been buried beneath a thick deposit of alluvium, probably occasioned by some change in the slope of the river bed following an earthquake. The topography of the lower part of the city has been altered, and no trace of the island where Seleucus II Callinicus added his suburb can now be descried. Excavations in the olive groves on the lower slopes of the citadel, where the overlying deposit is only moderately thick, yielded numerous mosaic pavescale

ments. In imperial Roman times Antioch was the military base for operations against the Persians in Mesopotamia. From Antioch many orientals migrated to Rome, so that the satirist Juvenal complained that the Orontes had become a tributary of the Tiber. The city was famous at an early date as a centre of Christianity, but at the same time notorious for the profligacy of its pagan population. It underwent several substantial reconstructions after being devastated by earthquakes or overrun by invaders. The Persian king Shapur I took the place by surprise in a.d. 260, and it was severely shaken by an earthquake during the reign of Constantine I. Even so. St. John Chrysostom estimated the number of its inhabitants in the 4th century a.d. as 200,000, without reckoning children and slaves. The city, however, never fully recovered

from the double disaster of the great earthquake of 526, which is have killed 250,000 people, and its sack by Khosrau I in 540. Medieval Antioch.— Arab armies took Antioch in a.d. 636, and though the Byzantines recaptured it in 969, it fell once more into Muslim hands when the Seljuk Turks overran it in 1084. After an ineffectual siege of more than seven months, a force of 300.000 crusaders stormed the city with the help of a traitor in 1098. Though in possession, they were quickly overtaken by disease and famine, and were only inspired to drive off a relieving Muslim force by the timely discovery of the Holy Lance. The Latin principality of Antioch, under Bohemund I (g.v.) and his successors, was administered in virtual independence of the kings of Jerusalem, though these retained their claim to it as a fief. It finally fell to Baybars I, sultan of Egypt and Syria, in 1268, when 17,000 of its inhabitants are said to have been killed and 100.000 taken captive. In 1401 it was further scourged by Timur, so that 31 years later the traveler Bertrandon de la Brocquiere found no more than 300 houses occupied in Antioch, and they almost all by Turkmen and Arab herdsmen. (Wm. C. B.) Modern Antioch (Antakya).— In 1516 Antioch was captured by the Turkish sultan Selim I. Under Ottoman rule it lost its importance owing to the competition of Damascus. It was part of the Turkish empire until after World War I, when it was transferred to Syria under French mandate. A Turko-French agreesaid to

ment of July 1938 gave the Turkish army the right to take part in the administration of Hatay il (province), and later the town shared in the independence of the il which became the Republic of Hatay. On June 23, 1939, this territory voted to join Turkey. Antioch (1960 pop. 45.S4S) is the capital of Hatay il. The larger part of the town is on the eastern bank of the Orontes and climbs the slopes of Mt. Habib-Necar, which is crowned by considerable remains of the ancient citadel. The newer quarters are on the western bank and a bridge (partly ancient) links the two parts. The town is irregular in plan and consists of narrow, winding streets and a mass of crowded houses, usually stone-built in Roman or old Persian style with a single story enclosing a courtyard with a fountain. It is surrounded by extensive orchards. The archaeological museum contains collections of mosaics, coins and other items. The climate is healthy; winters are rainy and mild, and summers dry and hot, but a steady cool breeze mitigates the heat.

The town stands

at the junction of important roads, one eastAleppo and the other north-south from Syria to Adana and The importance of the town has varied with the economic and political significance of these roads. Today its activities are based mainly on the agricultural produce

ward

to

the southern Turkish coast.

of the adjacent area, including the intensively cultivated plain.

The

Amik

chief crops are wheat, cotton, grapes, rice, olives, vege-

the town possesses soap and olive-oil factories and cotton ginning and other processing industries. Silk, shoes and knives are also manufactured. To the south are the cascades tables

of

and

fruit

;

Daphne (Harbiye

).

a popular resort.

See also references under "Antioch" in the Index volume. See G. Downey, A Historv of Antioch in Svria (1961). (X. Tu.; S. Er.; E. Ttj.)

ANTIOCH, GREEK ORTHODOX PATRIARCHATE patriarch of Antioch and all the east, who is in communion with the Greek and other Eastern Orthodox Churches, is generally called the Greek Orthodox patriarch. He is regarded as the successor of St. Peter in the see of Antioch and the third in rank of the Orthodox patriarchs, after the ecumenical patriarch

OF. The

(of Constantinople) and the patriarch of Alexandria. In the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, after the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the christological conflicts which arose in Syria and in regions east of Syria caused the authority of the patriarch of Antioch to be limited, for practical purposes, to the community of

known as "Romans" or "Melkites" (i.e., emperor's men) because they were in communion with the Byzantine (east Roman) emperor. The literary language of this community was Greek; Syriac was associated with the people who were not in communion with the Greeks. There is, however, much evidence of the use of a Syriac translation of the services of the Greek Church in various people

ANTIOCH, SITUATED ON THE LEFT BANK OF THE ORONTES RIVER

ANTIOCH—ANTIOCHUS parts of Syria after the separations just mentioned, so that

not be said that

it

can-

was only the Greeks who remained Orthodox and

communion with Constantinople.

in

it

From

the 9th century on-

ward there were parishes where Arabic was the only language generally known, and therefore parts of the church services were translated into Arabic. In modern times the growth of nationalism, the breakup of the Ottoman empire and the disappearance of the Greeks from Asia Minor have caused the Greek Orthodox patriarchate of Antioch to assume the character of an Arab Eastern Orthodox Christian institution. Since the 14th century the patriarch has resided in Damascus. There are metropolitans under his jurisdiction in Syria (Horns, Hama. Aleppo, Latakia and Suweida), Lebanon (Beirut, Tripoli, Hadeth, Halba, Zahle and Merj'Uyun), Baghdad and New York. This

and

last

metropolitan, together with an archbishop in Toledo, 0., Buenos Aires, take charge of the Arab

a patriarchal delegate in

Eastern Orthodox in the Americas. The principal liturgical language of the patriarchate is now Arabic, but Greek is still used, and English in the United States. The number of members of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the patriarch's jurisdiction is variously estimated, but there are probably at least 400,000. In Syria they form the largest ChrisIn Lebanon they are the second largest church tian community. In both countries they are Arab in after the Maronites (g.v.). their conception of their nationality, whereas the Maronites and the "Syrian Orthodox" are inclined to think of themselves as surThey call themselves Greek or vivals of pre-Arab nations.

"Roum"

for historical reasons

and

in

order to distinguish them-

selves from other churches using the word Orthodox in their names, but they are nevertheless an indigenous community, with an indigenous hierarchy, although there are naturally a few parishes of Greek residents. See also Orthodox Eastern Church.

See C. Karalevsky, "Antioche," in A. Baudrillart, Dictionnaire d'kistoire et de geographic ecclesiastique, vol. Hi, col. 563-703 (1924). (E. E.)

ANTIOCH, SYRIAN ORTHODOX PATRIARCHATE OF.

This patriarchate administers the

affairs of a

body

of Syrian

In the Sth and 6th cenChristians frequently called Jacobites. turies a.d. a large body of Christians in Syria and beyond its borders repudiated as heretics the patriarchs of Antioch

who were

supporters of the Council of Chalcedon (451) and set up their own patriarchs of Antioch in opposition to the Chalcedonian patriLike the archs, whom they called Melkites (emperor's men). Copts, Ethiopians and Armenians, they held the doctrine called

"monophysite," that Christ is not "in two natures," but is "one nature out of two natures" (see Coptic Church; Monophysites). They were called Jacobites because of the important part played by the celebrated Jacob Baradaeus, bishop of Edessa

community. They were also called the Syriani when their doctrine had been extinguished among Greek-speaking people and was associated with the use of Syriac. The Chalcedonians of Syria were known as Roumi (see Antioch, Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of). After the Arab conquest of Syria each church in the Arab caliphate and in Muslim states generally was treated as a millet (religious community), being governed by its own laws and law courts under the leadership of its own clergy. The Syriani were recog(d. 578), in organizing their

West Syrian millet (the East Syrian millet being the Assyrians or Nestorians, q.v.). Since the 17th century, when a minority of them were united with Rome and became the Syrian Catholics, the rest of the West Syrians have been known as Syrian Orthodox. Their liturgical language is the literary Syriac of Edessa. which they preserve as a living tongue; it is closely akin to nized as the

the

Aramaic spoken by Jesus Christ and

The Syrian Orthodox in al

his apostles.

patriarch of Antioch has very seldom lived

usual residence was'the monastery of Deir Zapharan near Mardin. near Diyarbakir in eastern Asia Minor.

Antioch

itself; his

The Syrian Orthodox had villages in the mountains in that region and also near Mosul and in the districts of Aleppo and Horns. During World War I most of them left Turkey and their patriarch

moved live in

Horns (1921) and then to Damascus (1959). They now Lebanon, Iraq, Turkey and Syria and in smaller numbers

to

75

Jordan, Egypt and the United States. Since the 17th century those Syrian Christians on the Malabar coast of southern India who have not been united with Rome have been, for the most part, in

under the ecclesiastical authority of the Syrian Orthodox patriarch of Antioch (see Malabar Christians). See W. A. Wigram, The Separation of the Monophysites (1960). (E. E.)

ANTIOCH COLLEGE,

Yellow Springs, 0., founded in 1852 as an interracial, coeducational college, was also a pioneer in the co-operative work-study plan. See Yellow Springs. IN PISIDIA, an ancient city, the remains of which lie close to the modern Yalvac, in the il of Isparta in Turkey. It was situated on the slopes of the Sultan Daglari range on the more southerly of the two great highways which led from the Maeander valley to the Cilician Gates. Founded by Seleucus I on the territory of a Phrygian sanctuary, it became a Greek-speaking centre in a Phrygian area, with a mixed population, including many Jews. The Romans made it a free city in 189 b.c. Before 1 1 B.C., however, the emperor Augustus made it a colony, with the title Caesarea, and confiscated the temple lands as imperial estates. It became the centre of civil and military administration in southern Galatia, the romanization of which was progressing rapidly when, in the time of the emperor Claudius, St. Paul made it one of in

ANTIOCH

In 1097 the crusaders ruins include those of fortifications, of a theatre, a temple, a church, an aqueduct and also of a rock cutting which may have held the temple of Men Ascaenus. the local Phrygian deity. (Wm. C. B.) the name of 13 kings and of several other princes of the Seleucid dynasty (q.v.), and also of four kings of Commagene (69 b.c.-a.d. 72), where the dynasty was related to the centres of his mission in that province.

found

rest

and shelter within

its

walls.

The

ANTIOCHUS,

the Seleucids.

The more important Seleucids of that name are described below. Antiochus I Soter (324-262 or 261 b.c), the son of Seleucus I Nicator and the Iranian princess Apama, from c. 293 ruled the eastern regions of his father's kingdom from Seleucia on the Tigris, having the royal title and an equal share of power. At his accession to the rest of his father's kingdom (280) there was a serious revolt in Syria and movements toward local independence in Asia Minor; consequently he did not attempt the occupation of Thrace and Macedonia envisaged by his father. At first he fought with Antigonus II Gonatas, but came to terms with him in 279. About 275 he won a victory over the Celts in Asia Minor and took the name Soter ("saviour"). The First Syrian War with Egypt (276-

272) caused the loss of

much

Seleucid territory along the southern

and western coasts of Asia Minor and in the Aegean, and a war with Eumenes I of Pergamum ended in the defeat of Antiochus near Sardis (262). Antiochus I spent

He

died soon afterward.

much

eastern provinces, where his He founded new Greek setMinor. tlements, chiefly in Iran and Asia He was an able successor to his father, whose work he consolidated in the face of great

time

in his

half-Iranian origin was an advantage.

difficulties.

Antiochus

Theos

(c. 287-c. 247 B.C.) was the second son he succeeded c. 261. He fought a war with Egypt (c. 260-255), the Second Syrian War, of which few details are preserved; probably he recovered much ground lost by his father in Asia Minor. He married a cousin, Laodice, but repudiated her c. 252 and married Berenice (q.v.), daughter of the Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus. It is not clear why he should have fallen under Ptolemy's influence after opposing him vigorously earlier in his reign. The designation of Antiochus II as Theos ("the God") in public documents indicates that the Seleucid kingdom had by this time

of Antiochus

II

I,

whom

adopted the cult of the living

ruler.

Hawk" (c. 263-226 B.C.) was a son and the younger brother of Seleucus II Callinicus. mother Laodice's influence and his brother's difficulties in the Third Syrian War (246-241) against Ptolemy III Euergetes I, he became independent ruler of the Seleucid domains in Asia Minor north of Mt. Taurus, a position he maintained by means of alliances with Galatia, Bithynia and Pontus until his Antiochus Hierax

of Antiochus II

Thanks

to his

or "the

ANTIOCHUS

76 exile (227)

and death

Antiochus

III

in

Thrace.

the Great

(c.

242-187

B.C.)

was the younger

son of Seleucus II and the brother of Seleucus III Soter whom he succeeded as king in 223. Still quite young, he had to rely at first upon the leading men in the state; his cousin Achaeus was entrusted with Asia Minor and the conduct of the war against Attalus I of Pergamum; control over the eastern provinces was given to Molon and his brother Alexander, governors of Media and Persis respectively; at the centre of the kingdom the guidance

Hermias was all-important. up as independent ruler of the central regions of the empire, after the manner of the Bactrian and Parthian kings. Antiochus on the advice of Hermias had begun a campaign against the Ptolemaic forces in southern Syria, but Molon's secession was so grave a threat to the empire that he abandoned the campaign in Syria, marched eastward and defeated Molon in a battle beyond the Tigris (220). Shortly afterward Antiochus killed Hermias and thus came to exercise full power. In the Fourth Syrian War with Egypt Antiochus won victories in Palestine and Phoenicia in the years 219 and 218, and in 217 he marched to the frontier of Egypt itself and engaged Ptolemy IV Philopator in a major battle at Raphia (Rafa), with 68,000 men He himself was victorious against the enemy's against 55,000. left, but in the centre his phalanx was defeated by the newly formed Egyptian phalanx. Unable to retrieve the situation, Anti-

of the chief minister

In 221

Molon

set himself

ochus fled north to Antioch on the Orontes. Coele-Syria (Lebanon), Palestine and Phoenicia reverted to Ptolemy's control, but the latter did not exploit his advantage. Antiochus was granted a peace and left a free hand against Achaeus, who had assumed the royal title in Asia Minor (220) and whom he eventually captured and executed (214). Antiochus now turned to the formidable task of rebuilding his empire in the east. In 212 he brought Armenia back to its tributary status; the next two years he spent in preparing a great expedition against the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms, which had absorbed large tracts of Seleucid territory since their formation in the middle of the century (see Bactria; Parthia). In the following years (209-205) Antiochus defeated the Parthian and This imBactrian kings and recovered the eastern provinces. mense achievement justified the king's assumption, on his return

Babylon, of the ancient Achaemenid title of "great king." Henceforth he is known to the world as Antiochus the Great. About 203 Antiochus formed a secret pact with Philip V of Macedonia for the partition of the Ptolemaic empire outside Egypt. The events of the next five years are obscure, but it appears that Antiochus overran Coele-Syria, Palestine and Phoenicia to

and confirmed

his conquest of these territories later

by a decisive

victory over the Ptolemaic general Scopas at Panion near the He did not, however, attack source of the Jordan (c. 200). Egypt itself, and eventually he made peace with the young

Ptolemy

V

Epiphanes, giving him his daughter Cleopatra

in

mar-

riage (c. 195).

After the victory of Panion Antiochus tried to strengthen his position in western Asia Minor, apparently by exploiting the weaknesses of both Egypt and

Macedonia

so as to

make easy conquests

He was resisted by Pergamum and persuaded Rome to send him messages

for himself.

Rhodes, and these

states

of warning.

Un-

and the Achaean league joined hands with Rome to frustrate him. Routed by the Romans at Thermopylae (191), he withdrew to Asia. At sea the Seleucid fleet was beaten in several engagements by the Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian forces; the Roman army crossed unopposed into Asia. The final battle was fought at MagAntiochus' nesia ad Sipylum west of Sardis (winter 190-189). army (70,000) heavily outnumbered that of the Romans and their allies (30,000), and Antiochus fought bravely but was in the end completely defeated. By the treaty of Apamea (188) he was obliged to renounce all Seleucid claims in Europe and north of Mt. Taurus, to pay an indemnity of 15,000 talents over a period of several years, to hand over 20 selected hostages and to surrender In the next year Antiochus was the fleet and the elephants. killed in Elymai's (Elam) while engaged in plundering a temple. III combined personal bravery with prudent judgAntiochus ment and a strict devotion to his duties as a king. His achievements in the east and against Egypt greatly strengthened his kingdom, and in spite of his failure against Rome (caused by a pardonable miscalculation of the chances) he may be ranked as the most successful of the Seleucid kings after Seleucus I. Antiochus IV Epiphanes (c. 215-163 B.C.), ruler of the Seleucid kingdom from 175, was the third son of Antiochus III. After the battle of Magnesia he was one of the hostages sent to Rome, where he received kind treatment and learned to admire Roman institutions and policies. After the assassination of his brother Seleucus IV Philopator he seized the throne from the usurper Heliodorus (175), being aided by Eumenes II of Pergamum with whom he subsequently concluded an alliance. Antiochus In 170 Egypt attempted to reconquer Palestine. easily defeated this attempt and in his turn invaded and occupied Philometor. Egypt, where he set up a protectorate over Ptolemy VI When he withdrew, however, his political system in Egypt colRome then interlapsed, and he returned to besiege Alexandria. vened, ordering Antiochus to evacuate both Egypt and Cyprus, which he had already seized. He complied after undergoing public humiliation in a scene with the Roman envoy Gaius Popilius Laenas at Alexandria (168), for he realized that to challenge Rome would be a hopeless venture. Within his empire Antiochus encouraged city life and the difa policy that he carried out with especial fusion of Greek culture fervour (his passionate attachment to Hellenism had first been revealed before his accession, when he was living in Athens). Enthusiastic for republican forms, he ignored his kingly rank and His general mingled familiarly with the citizens of Antioch. policy, however, was to unify and strengthen his empire by means

—

of a

common

his religious policy

application of his general policy; to the stricter kind of Jew they were an intolerable provocation that could be answered only by

armed

In 196 he crossed into Europe and made conquests in Thrace, where he claimed sovereignty over territory won by Seleucus I on the death of Lysimachus (281). Roman orders to withdraw from these and the earlier conquests he rejected. About 195 Hannibal (q.v.) took refuge at the Seleucid court, a happening which increased Roman fears and suspicion. Antiochus, exasperated both by the encouragement given to his enemies by Roman ambassadors and by the Roman senate's refusal to grant

volved

a treaty of friendship under which his territorial rights would be secured, decided to intervene in Greece, where he could embarrass Rome by posing as a liberator. The Aetolians offered to join him, and he landed in Greece in the autumn of 192. He accomplished little: his expedition had been badly prepared, his army was too small, Aetolian help was inadequate and Philip

Noteworthy marks of

his

deterred, he pressed on, winning several cities in Aeolis and Ionia.

him

culture.

assumption of the title Epiphanes ("god manifest") and his identification with Zeus, perhaps in deliberate imitation of Alexander III the Great. Antiochus IV's contact with the Jews is known chiefly from Jewish writers hostile to him, and the documents that they cite are perhaps not authentic (in particular a supposed letter of his to the Jews). It seems certain, however, that he placed a permanent garrison in Jerusalem in 167 and set up the worship of Olympian Zeus in the Temple. To him these actions were merely the local were

As a result the Seleucid government became inlong and difficult war with a large part of the Jewish

defiance. in a

people.

(See Jews.)

Under Antiochus IV strength

it

had

lost

the Seleucid empire recovered

through the

Roman

much

of the

victory over Antiochus III;

probably many new Greek settlers were brought in, The great review of the army Cilicia and the eastern provinces. at Daphne near Antioch in 166 was intended as a political demonstration to impress the Greek world, and it may also have been a triumph to celebrate the success of Eucratides in overthrowing Demetrius, the king of Bactria, if it is true that Eucratides had especially to

acted as an agent or ally of Antiochus. The final years of the reign saw the start of an attempt to move against Parthia, perhaps with the collaboration of Eucratides. But after traversing the central districts of the empire, and be-

ANTIOCHUS—ANTIOXIDANTS fore he could engage the at

Gabae (Isfahan)

enemy, Antiochus died

of

consumption

in Persis in 163.

Some

aspects of Antiochus IV's behaviour seemed eccentric to his contemporaries, but in the main he was well regarded and his abilities were considerable.

Antiochus VII Sidetes

(c. 159-129 B.C.) was the second son Soter and succeeded his brother Demetrius II Nicator as ruler of the Seleucid empire in 139. After subduing Judaea (134) he drove the Parthians out of Babylonia and recovered much of the territory they had overrun (130). The next year he was defeated and killed by the Parthians in Media, and the last hope of saving the eastern provinces of the empire died with him. He was the last Seleucid king of importance. The name Sidetes refers

of Demetrius

to his

I

having been brought up

in the

Greek

city of Side in

Pam-

phylia.

See Seleucid

Dynasty for bibliography. of Ascalon (? d. 68

ANTIOCHUS

(R. H. Si.) B.C.),

Greek philosopher,

succeeded Philo of Larissa as head of the Academy (see Academy, Greek). He redirected the main stream of Platonism from the skepticism of Arcesilaus and Carneades to positive philosophy. His view that Platonism, Peripateticism and Stoicism differed more in terminology than in fact influenced many who did not entirely accept it, including Cicero, who heard his lectures in 7978 and leaned heavily on his writings (now entirely lost) for the composition of his Academica, his De Finibus and, probably, others of his philosophical works. Antiochus' own philosophy was eclectic in the sense that he tried to construct a consistent body of doctrine from the material offered by the three schools, but its (F. H. Sh.) form was largely determined by Stoicism.

ANTIOPE,

77

manufacturing industries of the valley of Medellin, especially textiles, have made Antioquia the leading industrial department of Colombia despite its relative geographical isolation. After 1800 Antioqueno colonists began moving onto the empty volcanic-ash slopes to the south in a wave of colonization that has continued to the present day. More than one-half of the people who call themselves Antioquenos live outside Antioquia. Long isolation has made the Antioquenos noteworthy for their cultural conservatism, reflected in dress, diet and speech. Their aggresThe rural society sive individualism is legendary in Colombia. is

composed

(Js. J. P.)

largely of small holders.

ANTIOXIDANTS,

chemical compounds sometimes added to and synthetic rubbers, gasolines and other substances to retard autoxidation, the process in which these substances combine with oxygen in the air at room temperature. Retarding autoxidation delays the appearance of such undesirable qualities as rancidity in foods, loss of elasticity in rubbers and formation of gum in gasolines. The activity of most antioxidants They are effecis due to their ability to donate hydrogen atoms. tive at very low concentrations, sometimes as low as 0.001%. The efficient antioxidants are organic compounds, such as aromatic amines, phenols and aminophenols. certain foods, natural

This article does not deal with oxidation at high temperatures (see Combustion), biological oxidation (see Respiration) or oxidation of metals (see Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals). The Four Stages of Autoxidation. The general course of

—

autoxidation usually can be divided into four successive stages in regard to the rate of reaction with oxygen: (1) the initial period of negligible rate; (2) the period of accelerating rate; (3) the

the name of two figures in Greek legend. Antiope, the mother by Zeus of Amphion and Zethus. Her beauty attracted Zeus, who, assuming the form of a satyr, took her by force. Pregnant, she escaped the threats of her father by running away and marrying Epopeus, king of Sicyon. Thereupon

period of nearly constant rate; and (4) the final period of declining rate. The duration of the first stage plus the slow portion of the second is termed the induction period and, in most cases, indicates the useful lifetime of the autoxidizable substances. These facts are consistent with a mechanism of oxidation based

first bidding his brother Lycus punish Lycus killed Epopeus, brought Antiope back, and imprisoned and tormented her. (In another account Antiope had been married to Lycus, but was rejected by him after an affair with Epopeus. Lycus' second wife, Dirce, daughter of Helios, captured and tortured Antiope out of jealousy.) On the way back from Sicyon, or after escaping from prison, Antiope bore twins, Amphion and Zethus, who were brought up by herdsmen. Long afterward, she escaped and joined her sons; they recognized her, killed Lycus, and bound Dirce to the horns of a wild bull, in which posture she died. After Dirce's death her body was cast into a spring near Thebes, later called by her name. Because of her murder, Dionysus, to whose worship Dirce had been devoted, visited Antiope with madness, which caused her to wander restlessly all over Greece until she was cured and married by Phocus of Tithorea, on Mt. Parnassus, where both were buried in one grave. 2. Antiope, daughter of Ares, sister of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. Theseus (q.v.) stole her for his wife. (T. V. B.) ANTIOQUIA, a mountainous interior department in the northernmost Andes of Colombia, bounded by Bolivar and Cordoba on the north, the Magdalena river (q.v.) on the east and Choco and Caldas on the west and south. A narrow corridor reaches to the Caribbean sea at Turbo. Area 24,324 sq.mi.; pop. (1961 est.) 1,931,690. Its rugged mountain mass is bisected by the deep gorge of the Cauca river (q.v.). Most of the eastern half, between the Cauca and the Magdalena, is an ancient granitic batholith (average elevation 8,000 ft.), the northernmost extension of the Central Cordillera. Unlike the country to the south, Antioquia has been little affected by recent volcanic activity, and its upland soils are for the most part deeply weathered and rather infertile. The Antioquia highland is diagonally pierced by the deep canyon of the Porce river, a Cauca tributary, which widens out in its upper reaches into the lovely, mile-high valley where the capital city of Medellin (q.v.) is situated. The surrounding uplands are laced with gold-bearing quartz and calcite veins. The colonial economy of Antioquia was based on mining, but as the mines gave out agriculture became increasingly important.

on the theory of chain reactions, the modern form of which was developed through the works of many investigators beginning with Walther Nernst (1911), Max Bodenstein (1913) and J. A. Christiansen and H. A. Kramers (1923).

1.

her father killed himself, her.

Coffee, introduced in the 1880s,

is

the principal export crop.

The

A chain reaction consists of a series of successive reactions occurring in repetitive cycles, in each of w'hich intermediate prodSuch a reaction will ucts called chain carriers are regenerated. continue as long as the chain carriers persist. In autoxidation the They are electrically neutral chain carriers are free radicals. molecular fragments resulting from the rupture of covalent bonds The and always containing one or more unpaired electrons. covalent bond is the ordinary chemical bond in organic compounds and is formed by the union of a pair of electrons. When this bond is broken the two fragments divide the pair of electrons, thus giving rise to two free radicals, each with an unpaired electron. Although different kinds of free radicals vary greatly in reactivity they all combine, two by two, to form stable molecules containing a new covalent bond. The carriers that propagate chain reactions, however, are always very reactive free radicals. In most cases the bond that breaks is one of the weakest carbon-

hydrogen bonds

in the autoxidizable molecule.

The

different re-

actions involved in autoxidation can be represented as follows:

H

Let R:H be the autoxidizable compound, the be the hydrogen of the weak C:H bond, the be the electron pair of the covalent bond, and be the unpaired electron of an atom or a

atom

:

.

free radical. 1.

Chain

2.

Chain propagation

initiation

R:H—> R. +

3.

+

(H. removed by the initiating agent)

2 —> R:0:0.

a.

R.

b.

R:0:0.

(hydroperoxide

+ R:H^R. +

R:0:0:H

free

radical)

(hydroperoxide)

Chain termination

Elimination of R. and R:0:0. in different ways. initiated by thermally excited molecules, free metal catalysts or light, but in any case this requires a greater input of energy than any of the other steps. The number of times the propagation reactions are repeated determines the chain length; a short chain consists of a few cycles while a

The chain can be

radicals,

ANTIPAROS—ANTIPATER

78

Hence, the destruction of the

long one goes into the thousands.

R:0:0. right after its formation will prevent the number of chain-propagating free radicals which

original R. or

creation of that

would have been formed

if

the chain reactions had been permitted

to proceed.

Most hydroperoxides any great extent

are not stable enough to accumulate to

in the autoxidizing

oxygen-containing products. free radicals are

In

formed which

system, but are converted into course of this conversion

the

initiate additional chain reactions

This process is called degenerabranching because it is dependent upon the decomposition of the hydroperoxides and causes the chains to branch or

up the rate of oxidation.

to speed

tive chain

multiply.

Antioxidants Inhibit Deterioration. acting with chain carriers from

all

—Antioxidants, by

re-

sources, prolong the induction

period and thereby retard the oxidative deterioration of the products. They, in turn, become free radicals of low energy content that change into stable compounds. Antioxidants can react with a free radical R. (or 1.

2.

R. R.

R:0:0.)

in

two

different ways.

+ antioxidant —> R.H + stable products + antioxidant —» stable products containing

In the

first

R: must contain an easily available the second it must have a double bond to

case the antioxidant

hydrogen atom, and in which R. can be added. oxidant

is first

It is also conceivable that the anticonverted by partial oxidation into relatively stable

Within practical induction period for a given system tends to

free radicals that capture the chain carriers. limits the increase in

be directly proportional to the concentration of a particular antiThe response of autoxidizable substances to antioxidants varies greatly, and the efficiencies of different antioxidants in a specific product cover a wide range. Examples of commercial antioxidants are given below. Antioxidants that are destroyed while performing their function are referred to as sacrificial antioxidants. They can also be destroyed in the autoxidizable system: (1) by reacting with hydroperoxides, but this can happen to a significant extent only if hydroperoxides had been formed during active autoxidation before the addition of the antioxidants; and (2) by reacting directly with molecular oxygen, in which case they are wasted. Antioxidants, therefore, should be added to the products to be protected as soon as possible after recovery or production, and they should not react too easily with oxygen. Autoxidation is greatly influenced by the presence of acidic and basic compounds, heavy metal catalysts, divalent sulfur compounds and by light. The choice of antioxidant will depend to some extent upon these factors, but it is better to counter the catalysts with anticatalysts that render them ineffective. Metal catalysts can be deactivated with compounds that convert them into inert metal complexes, such as N,N'-disalicylidene-l,2diaminopropane for copper salts. Acids and bases can be neutralized. Most of the common antioxidants are not suited for use in products exposed to direct sunlight because they tend to initiate photo-reactions, unless opacity minimizes this danger. Finally, before an antioxidant can be considered satisfactory for practical use it must meet certain subsidiary requirements depending upon the particular use: (1) it must be sufficiently soluble in the product; (2) its volatility must be relatively low; (3) it must not be extracted by water; (4) it must not be coloured; (5) it must be odourless and tasteless; (6) it must not be toxic or irritating to the skin; and (7) it must not cost too much. Many products, such as rubber latex, wheat germ oil, thermally cracked gasoline and lubricating oil, contain natural antioxidants, but they are frequently lost during refining or are not effective enough when the products are put to human use. oxidant.

—

Acrolein. Although some efforts were made to control autoxidation by chemical means prior to the work of Charles Moureu and Charles Dufraisse on acrolein beginning in 1917, these investigators must be given the credit for having started the modern developments in commercial antioxidants. Thereafter antioxidants helped to improve many critically important materials, including rubber, gasoline, lubricants and vinyl compounds and foods. On aging, rubber darkens and loses its elasticity and tensile

strength. N-Phenyl-beta-napthylamine, 4,4'-dimethoxydiphenylamine, N,N'-diphenyl-para-phenylenediamine and 2,2'-methlenebis-(4-methyl-6-tertiary-butylphenol) are good antioxidants, the last being considered a light stable one. They are used at about 0.5% to 3% by weight on the rubber. The autoxidation of cracked gasoline results in the formation of gums that foul the engine. N-Butyl-para-aminophenol and N,N'-di- (secondary butyl )-para-phenylenediamine are effective antioxidants at 0.001% to 0.01% by weight. Phenols with alkyl

substituents in the ring are also used.

Nordihydroguaiaretic acid, ring-alkylated para-hydroxyanisole, propyl gallate and tocopherol are added to fats and oils to retard the development of rancidity. The dosage ranges from 0.005% They are frequently used in combination to 0.1% by weight. with lecithin, citric acid or ascorbic acid. In this case efficiency must be made secondary to edibility because compounds put into foods for human consumption must meet stringent government specifications.

Although antioxidants are not necessarily inhibitors of polymerization, they are used to prevent the formation of peroxides

monomers because the peroxides are sometimes dangerous and usually cause polymerization. Hydroquinone, catechol, alphanaphthol and phenothiazine are examples of such antioxidants. in vinyl

Many

aldehydes autoxidize rapidly to give high yields of carBenzaldehyde, for example, goes to benzoic acid.

boxylic acids.

Most of the antioxidants mentioned above protect aldehydes. The mechanism of antioxidant action has been studied by means of the deuterium isotope effect, but by the early 1960s the mechanism had not been fully elucidated.

—

Bibliography. Faraday Society, Oxidation (1946) Institute International de Chimie Solvay, Le Mechanisms de I'oxydation (1951) Cosmo G. Mackenzie (ed.), Biological Antioxidants, transactions of conferences held under auspices of the Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation (1946-50) S. M. Bose and V. Subrahmanyan, "Antioxidants in Science and Industry," J. Sci. Industr. Res., 9:122-127, 159:164 (1950) "Antioxidants," Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2:69-75 (1948); G. Reinsmith, "Aging and Preservation of Vulcanized Rubber," India Rubb. World, 117:65-68, 212-215 (1947); C. J. Pedersen, "Inhibition of Deterioration of Cracked Gasoline During Storage," Industr. Engng Chem., 41:924-928 (1949) and "Mechanism of Antioxidant Action in Gasoline," Industr. Engng Chem., 48:1881 (1956); J. H. Mahon and R. A. Chapman, "Estimation of Antioxidants in Lard and Shortening," Analyt. Chem., 23:1116-20 (1951) C. E. Boozer and G. S. Hammond, "Molecular Complex Formation in Free Radical Reactions," /. Amer. ;

;

;

;

;

Chem. Soc, 76:3861 (1954); G. S. Hammond et al., "Mechanism of Inhibitor Action in Benzene and Chlorobenzene Solutions," J. Amer. Chem. Soc, 77:3239 (1955) J. R. Shelton, E. T. McDonel and J. C. ;

Crano, "A Study of the Deuterium Isotope Effect in Antioxidant Activity," J. Polym. Sci., 42:289 (1960). (C. J. Pn.) (mod. Gr., Andiparos), a Greek island, one

ANTIPAROS

of the Cyclades, lies in the

Aegean

Naxos, separated by a narrow It is 7 mi. long

by

sea, in the

modern eparchy

of

from the west coast of Paros.

strait

3.4 mi. broad.

The two

about half The population

islands

way between

lie

the Greek and Turkish coasts. (1951) of 680, mostly in Kastro on the north coast, is employed in agriculture and fishing. Its ancient name was Oliaros. It shared the Early Bronze Age culture of the Cyclades, but little is heard of it in the classical period, when its fortunes were bound with those of Paros. In later times piracy was common. The only remarkable feature in the island is a stalactite cavern on the south coast, reached by a dangerous descent. The grotto is about 150 by 100 ft. and 50 ft. high, and was visited in antiquity. The island is well cultivated and fertile. (J. Bo.)

ANTIPATER

(c.

397-319

B.C.),

Macedonian general and

regent of Macedonia from 334 to 323 B.C. and of the Macedonian empire from 321 to 319. He was entrusted with high responsibilities

by Philip

II of

Macedonia, such as the negotiation of the peace

One of the leading men in the state at Philip's death in 336, he helped to secure the succesof Philocrates with Athens in 346.

sion for Alexander III the Great (q.v.), who, on his departure

Macedonia with the His main tasks were to hold the northern frontiers against barbarian tribes and to keep order among He ruled Greece by co-operating with the the Greek states. League of Corinth, but was unpopular because he restored tyrants expelled from their cities and favoured oligarchic governments. for Asia (334), appointed Antipater regent in title

of general in Europe.

ANTIPHANES—ANTIPHONARY In 331 at Megalopolis he defeated the Spartan king Agis III. The settlement of the satrapies of the Macedonian empire by Perdiccas (q.v.) at Babylon in 323, immediately after Alexander's death, left Antipater as general in control of Macedonia and Greece, though his status in relation to that of Perdiccas was not clearly defined. From 323 to 322 he had to fight a difficult campaign against the Athenians, Aetolians and Thessalians, the so-called Lamian War, which he eventually won at Crannon after receiving reinforcements from Asia.

He

took the side of the

Macedonian generals Antigonus, Seleucus (qq.v.) and Ptolemy {see Ptolemies) who were opposed to the claims of Perdiccas, and in the settlement at Triparadisus in Syria (321) he became regent of the Macedonian empire for the two kings Philip III Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV, until his death in 319 which was the signal for the regional governors to throw off allegiance to central authority. (fl. early 4th century B.C.),

ANTIPHANES

(R. H. Si.) Greek poet, was

most important writer of Middle Attic Comedy with the exception of Alexis. He was apparently a foreigner who settled in Athens and may have been producing by 387 B.C. About 120 of the many comedies attributed to him are known from their titles and considerable fragments are preserved in Athenaeus' Deipnosophistai. In all over 300 fragments survive. For the fragments see T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta, vol. ii (1884). the

See T. B. L. Webster, Studies in Later Greek

Comedy

(1953).

ANTIPHON

of Rhamnus in Attica {c. 480-411 B.C.), was one of the earliest professional speech-writers in Greece. An extreme oligarch, he played a leading part in overthrowing the democratic system at Athens in 411 B.C. When later in the same year the oligarchic government was deposed he was accused of treason, condemned and executed. The speech he made in his own defense, of which papyrus fragments have survived, was highly praised by Thucydides. There is little reliable information about his earlier life. He wrote speeches for public and private litigants and probably taught rhetoric. According to Thucydides he was reluctant to speak in public himself as his reputation for rhetorical skill made the people suspect him. All Three speeches written for actual lawsuits are extant. deal with cases of homicide. In Kategoria Pharmakeias Kata tes Metruias ("Charge of Poisoning Against the Stepmother") a man accuses his stepmother of murdering his father by inducing a slavewoman to poison his wine. Some scholars have held that Antiphon was not the author or that he wrote it merely as an illustrative model for his pupils, but it is now generally believed to be a real speech by Antiphon. Peri tou Heroidou Phonou ("The Murder of Herodes") is the defense of a man accused of murdering Peri his companion when they had put ashore during a voyage. tou Choreutou ("On the Choreutes") defends a choregus, or chorus trainer, alleged to have been responsible for the death of a chorister who had been given a drug to improve his voice. The Tetralogies ascribed to Antiphon by antiquity concern three imaginary cases of homicide. In each case there are two speeches for the prosecution and two for the defense after the usual Athenian procedure. They were evidently written to showstudents of rhetoric how real cases should be handled. Although they deal with processes which might have arisen in everyday life at Athens, they do not aim to be realistic imitations of genuine speeches.

They

principles,

and one

case.

No

are rather outline-speeches inculcating general said about the details of each particular

little is

in

ancient times seems

to

have doubted their

authenticity, but this has aroused considerable controversy

modern

among

Objections to Antiphon 's authorship are based The speakers do not both on the matter and the language. recognize the distinction between different types of homicide which was well established in Athenian law by Antiphon's time, and there are striking divergences in grammar and vocabulary from his three real speeches. The controversy has not been resolved, but the difficulty of comparing fictitious speeches with those written for actual processes has probably inclined scholars to accept Antiphon's authorship. Fragments of other speeches attributed to Antiphon survive; these come from speeches written for public as well as private suits. He was also said to have written a handscholars.

79

book of rhetoric, and a collection of prefaces and perorations. Antiphon is the author of the earliest extant legal speeches; it is even stated by some ancient authorities that he was the first to commit legal speeches to writing. Oratory had for long been a highly developed art at Athens, but in Antiphon's day two new factors combined to shape its growth. The first was the theoretical study of forensic speaking, which began in Sicily after the fall of the tyrants. The second was the increased importance of prose literature generally and the desire -to give it a beauty of form analogous to that of verse. Both these factors had their effect on Antiphon's work. The influence of Sicilian rhetoric is seen in the formal structure of his speeches and the character of his

arguments.

The

real speeches are divided into five sections:

(1) a preface; (2) an introduction describing the circumstances of the case; (3) a narrative of facts; (4) proofs and arguments; (5) a peroration. The Tetralogies omit the introduction and narrative of facts.

In

all

the speeches the arguments depend

more on

abstract probabilities than on close reasoning from factual evidence. Rhetorical chicanery is not infrequent.

Antiphon's prose reflects stylistic experiments which were being in the last part of the 5th century B.C. By comparison with Gorgias he is economical in the use of pretentious embellishments, but even in the speeches written for delivery in court carefully balanced clauses and forced antitheses show a self-conscious artistry. In the Tetralogies this is still more evident. After Antiphon practical oratory tended to avoid such ornament. A jury might appreciate it, but would suspect that it concealed a weak case. Antiphon lacked Lysias' talent for adapting his style and language to the character of the client by whom the speech was The general tone is one of dignity, even of granto be delivered. deur. He avoids colloquial expressions and does not descend to the personal invective which was common among later orators, notably

made

Demosthenes. Editions of Antiphon include F. Blass and T. Thalheim, Teubner (1914); L. Gernet, with French translation, Bude series (1923); K. J. Maidment in Minor Attic Orators, vol. i, with

series

English translation, Loeb series (1954). Bibliography. Index: F. L. Van Cleef (1895). General: F. Blass, Die Attische Beredsamkeit, vol. i, 2nd ed. (1887) R. C. Jebb, The Attic F- Solmsen, Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, vol. i, 2nd ed. (1893) Antiphonstudien (1931). For two articles expressing opposite views on the authenticity of the Tetralogies, see P. van der Miihll, "Zur Unechtheit der antiphontischen Tetralogien," Museum Helveticum, vol. v (1948) and G. Zuntz, "Once Again the Antiphontean Tetralogies," (H. L. H.-W.) Museum Helveticum, vol. vi (1949). a chant sung by two alternating choirs. The earliest reference to this method of singing occurs in De vita contemplativa by the Jewish chronicler Philo, writing in the first

—

;

i

ANTIPHON,

half of the 1st century a.d.,

where two choirs of men and women

near Alexandria sing in a manner compared by Philo to that mentioned in connection with Moses' "Hymn of Victory" (Ex. xv, 20-21). The Syrian Church developed the practice of antiphonal singing and the liturgical chants sung in that manner were called antiphons. Their place in the church service is in the hours of the office {see Hours, Canonical) before and after a psalm or canticle. There are in the repertory of the Roman Catholic Church several thousand antiphons, which can be reduced to a small number of melodic types of a simple in a religious sect

See Plainsong; Antiphonary. (E. J. Wz.) term first used c. a.d. 760 by Pope Paul I in a letter sent with some liturgical books to the Frankish king Pepin III. The term was then used to mean the repertory of chants for the choir: the soloists sang from the cantatorium. Later, it came to mean the collection of melodies used for the office, while those for the mass were collected in the gradual. The first compilation of an antiphonary is attributed to Pope Gregory the Great, in c. 600. The most important work in compiling a standard antiphonary, however, was done in 831-832 by Amalarius of Metz {c. 780-850), a pupil of Alcuin, who explained In his task in a famous treatise, Liber de ordine antiphonarii. present liturgical practice the term antiphonary is used for the collection of melodies sung during hours of the office {see Hours, Canonical). See also Plainsong. structure.

ANTIPHONARY, a

—

ANTIPHON SOPHISTA—ANTIQUE

8o

—

Bibliocraphy. P. Wagner, Introduction to the Gregorian Melodies, Eng. trans, of Vrsprung und Entwicklung der liturgischen Gesangsjormen, I (1895; 2nd ed. 1901) (1901); A. Gastoue, Les origines du chant romain (1907) W. Apel, Gregorian Chant (19S8). (E. J. Wz.) ;

ANTIPHON SOPHISTA,

an Athenian sophist of the 5th B.C., usually regarded as distinct from his contemporary Antiphon the orator, though possibly identical with him. He wrote treatises On Truth, On Concord, The Statesman and On the Interpretation of Dreams. He was not regarded as a thinker of importance until the publication in 1915 and 1922 of fragments of his On Truth found at Oxyrhynchus. These compelled a revision of opinion, but no agreement as to his doctrines was reached. v On one view, his appeal to nature as against convention in morals and in politics was almost wholly nihilistic in character and destructive of the state. On another and probably better view, he believed that nature found full expression only in concord and harmony. He also discussed problems in ontology and attempted to square the circle by a method of inscribed polygons. century

For fragments and testimonia see H. Diels and W. Kranz, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, vol. ii, 7th ed. (1954). See also E. Bignone, Studi sul pensiero antico, ch. 1-3 (1938) and M. Untersteiner, The Sophists, Eng. trans. (1954). (G. B. Kd.) ;

ANTIPOPE,

one who opposes the legitimately elected bishop of Rome, endeavours to secure the papal throne and, in an extreme instance, succeeds materially in the attempt. This abstract definition is necessarily broad and does not reckon with the complexity of individual cases.

The

elections of several antipopes

by incomplete or biased records.

Indeed, even their contemporaries at times could not decide who was the One cannot claim, therefore, to formulate a definitrue pope. tively accurate list of antipopes. This article emphasizes the type of historical situation that occasioned the rise of antipopes. Doctrinal Disagreement. During the reign of Pope Zephyrinus (c. 199-217), the Roman priest Hippolytus vigorously opposed the spread of Monarchianism (q.v.), a Trinitarian heresy brought to Rome by Sabellius, which identified the Father and the Son. Hippolytus considered Pope Zephyrinus and his deacon Calixtus culpable for being unwilling to enter the theological debate. When, at the death of Zephyrinus, Calixtus became pope. Hippolytus tried to supplant him. This first antipope was later reconciled to Pope Pontianus during the persecution of Maximinus and died a martyr's death (235). Deportation' of the Pope. The Arian emperor Constantius II, having exiled Pope Liberius for his orthodoxy (357), imposed the archdeacon Felix on the Roman clergy. He became Felix II. Later Liberius was allowed to return to Rome, the emperor contemplating some form of coexistence. The faithful, however, found the compromise intolerable, and Felix had to leave the city. Having later returned to threaten Liberius' position, he was once more rejected. Felix lived in retirement until his death (365). Double Election Arbitrated by the Secular Authority. are greatly obscured

—

—

In 418 the archdeacon Eulalius was elected by a faction partial to him. In protest the rest of the clergy chose the priest Boniface. Eulalius enjoyed the support of the imperial prefect and the

Byzantine court. At this juncture the empress began to take an interest in Boniface's cause and asked that the case be reopened. Until a council could be held to decide the issue, the emperor ordered both claimants to leave Rome. Eulalius imprudently returned to perform the Holy Week services at the Lateran, and for this "revolt" official recognition was given to Boniface instead. Double Election and Subsequent Recourse to a Third

Candidate.

— On the

V

(686) no agreement could be reached about his successor. The army favoured the priest Theodore; the clergy, the archpriest Peter. Various attempts at arbitration brought no solution. Finally the clergy set aside Peter His reign to elect Conon, who was also accepted by the army. death of John

was short, however, and

at his death division reasserted itself. This time Paschal and, once again, Theodore, were rivals for the papal throne. Both were unwilling to renounce their claims.

Finally a part of the community more inclined to moderation put forward Sergius and, in the end, obtained the papacy for him. Political Instability at Rome. The years 936-973 were

—

marred by continued turbulence as the Theophylact family nominated and deposed popes at will. In 955 the temporal ruler of Rome, Octavian, a boy still in his teens, was elected pope. He became John XII, whose life and court were to be a scandal to Christendom. To consolidate his position John XII appealed for aid to the German emperor, Otto I, giving him in return certain prerogatives in future papal elections. When John later joined an armed conspiracy against Otto, the emperor with his armies descended upon Rome and there presided over a council that gladly deposed the pope and chose in his place Leo VIII (963). When Otto left, John and his partisans returned to expel Leo. At John's death the Romans ignored the emperor's candidate and elected Benedict V. Otto again came to Rome, there to reinstate Leo. Unfortunately peace did not come to Rome and the papacy, even with the eventual triumph of Otto's family. Change in the Manner of Choosing the Pope. In 1059 Nicholas II promulgated a decree fixing a new procedure for papal elections. This juridical coup d'etat deprived the German emperors of the leading role they had played in previous elections. The legates sent by Nicholas to the German court with the decree were refused a hearing; and Nicholas himself was condemned by a council of German bishops and his acts declared null. On his death (1061) the cardinal bishops elected Alexander II in accord with the decree of 1059. Alexander was unacceptable to the German bishops, who resented the limitation put upon their sovereign's power, and to the Roman nobility, likewise deprived of a role in the election. At this point Honorius II was put forward as the candidate of the German court and enjoyed its armed support. When, for a number of reasons, circumstances began to favour In 1063 St. Peter Alexander, this patronage was withdrawn. Damian was instrumental in persuading a diet of German bishops Soon thereafter, at Augsburg to give its allegiance to Alexander. at a council presided over by the imperial legate, the Germans gave loyalty. See also Papacy. Alexander their undivided

—

Tentative List of Antipopes

Hippolytus (217 218-235) Novatian (251) Felix II (355-365) Ursinus (366-367) Eulalius (418-419) Laurentius (498-c. 505) Dioscorus (530)

Theoderic (1100) Albert (1102) Silvester IV (1105-11) Gregory VIII (1118-21)

Celestine II (1124)

Theodore (687) Paschal (687) Constantine II (767-768) Philip (768) John (844) Anastasius (855) Christopher (903-904) Boniface VII (974 and 984-985) John XVI (997-998) Gregory (1012) Benedict (1058-59) Honorius II (1061-72) Clement III (1080, 1084-1100)

X

Anacletus II (1130-38) Victor IV (Gregory) (1138) Victor IV (Octavian) (1159-64) Paschal III (1164-68) Calixtus III (1168-78) Innocent III (1179-80) Nicholas V (1328-30) Clement VII (1378-94) Benedict XIII (1394-1423) Alexander V (1409-10) John XXIII (1410-15) Clement VIII (1423-29) Benedict XIV (1425-30) Felix V (1439-49)

—

Bibliography. G. Jacquemet, "Antipape" in Catholicisme ; A. Amanieu, "Antipapes" in Dictionnaire de Droit Canonique ; Philip Hughes, .4 History of the Church, 3 vol. (1934-47); Fliche-Martin, Histoire de I'Eglise (1934); Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages; also, under the names of particular antipopes, articles in The Catholic Encyclopedia and Ca(F. B. N.)

tholicisme.

ANTIPYRETICS in fever.

antipyrine,

The most

are agents used to lower the temperature widely used group includes such drugs as

acetanilid.

which increase heat

phenacetin,

loss

quinine

by blood dilution and

and the

salicylates

dilation of the skin

an increase in perspiration. Drugs may in body temperature by dilation of the skin vessels (nitrites) or by slowing the circulation (aconite and veratrum). Heat loss may also be effected by such physical means as cold baths and ice packs. ANTIQUE, a term meaning "old," but also carrying connotaFormerly it retions of aesthetic, historic and financial value. ferred only to the remains of the classical cultures of Greece and Rome; gradually decorative arts, courtly, bourgeois and peasant, capillaries, thus causing

also

produce a lowering

ANTI-SEMITISM of

past eras

all

came

to be considered antique.

Antiques have been variously denned by law for tariff purposes. Great Britain's customs and excise tariff law of 1959 specified: "To qualify for admission without payment of duty as an antique, an article must have been manufactured or produced as a whole, and in the form as imported, more than one hundred years before The same standard was set by most the date of importation." European countries. The Canadian customs tariff act in 1948 defined as antiquities "all objects for the adornment of mankind and his dwelling and all objects of educational value and museum interest, if produced prior to 1st January 1847." The United States tariff act of 1930 exempted from duty "Artistic antiquities, collections in illustration of the progress of the arts, objects of art of which shall have educational value or ornamental character ..." a year widely acbeen produced prior to the year 1830 cepted as proper because it marks approximately the end of Intraditional handicrafts and the beginning of industrialization. dustrial products at first were poor in design and in quality; at.

.

.

.

tempting to recover earlier standards people became more and

more interested in the products of ages past. The collecting of antiques goes back almost

as far as history,

beginning with preservation of temple treasures. In England concern for the historical as well as aesthetic significance of antiques led, as early as the 16th century, to collections illustrating the national past; in subsequent centuries such collecting notably increased, stimulated by the rise of Romanticism and the start of archaeology. In 1857 the museum now called the Victoria and Albert

opened

in

London

as a repository

for decorative arts, in-

tended to stimulate designers as well as collectors. It was followed in 1863 by a great public collection in Vienna, in 1882 by the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris and in 1897 by the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration in New York. Antique collecting in the United States was given its first strong impetus by the Philadelphia Centennial exhibition, 1876, which

awakened interest in the national past. Collecting antiques became a truly popular pursuit in the 20th century. Private collecting also influenced

museum

displays and stimulated the preservation,

restoration and furnishing of historic buildings.

The design and construction of furniture, including that which would now be called "antique," is discussed in Furniture Design and in articles about pieces of furniture. Similarly, other antique

lived often brought down upon them the wrath of revolutionary groups, just as, conversely, in modern times the prominence of many Jewish leaders in leftist movements aroused the ire of many conservative elements and vested interests against the whole

Jewish people. With the rise jof modern nationalism, moreover, Jewish separatism and "unassimilability," as well as Jewish internationalism and "cosmopolitanism," became major targets for anti-Semitism. Racial anti-Semitism reached its climax during the period of Nazi domination over Germany, but it has continued since the downfall of Hitler despite the fairly unanimous repudiation by experts of the underlying biological theories.

EARLY MANIFESTATIONS Anti-Jewish feeling appeared in ancient times. Sometimes this antagonism, shared by other minorities, assumed a specific character owing to the extraordinary situation and outlook of the Jewish people. In the book of Esther, Haman is reported to have underscored the Jews' unique distinctiveness among all the ethnic and religious groups inhabiting the Persian empire. This theme was taken up by a chorus of anti-Jewish writers in the Greco-

Roman

world, including the rhetorician Apollonius Molon, the rabble rouser Apion of Alexandria and even such Roman intel-

and Tacitus. Seneca not only resented Jewish "separatism" but also the great influence of Judaism on own compatriots. Juvenal actually attributed to Jews an unwavering hostility toward the whole outside world. Some of these concepts grew out of the clash between Hellenism and Judaism during the reign of Antiochus IV of Seleucid Syria, which led to the violent suppression of Jewish worship in Jerusalem and the ensuing Maccabaean revolt (165-140 B.C.; see Maccabees). To lectuals as Cicero, Seneca

his

Temple. Seleucid propagandists invented stories about Jewish donkey worship and other allegedly barbaric Jewish rituals. These fables also laid the foundations for recurrent ritual murder accusations against both Jews and justify the violation of the Jewish

Above all, the Jewish imageless worship found understanding in the classical world. "They adore only clouds," exclaimed Juvenal, while others saw in the Jewish refusal to participate in the imperial worship, that main symbol of the unity of empire, utter lack of patriotism and, to use a modern term, a sign of divided loyalties. The frequently contradictory nature of these accusations, a permanent feature of anti-Semitic

early Christians. little

objects are discussed in various articles about the decorative arts,

literature of all ages,

such as Lacquer; Pottery and Porcelain; Glass; and others. See also Art Forgery. (A. Wi.)

a.d.)

ANTI-SEMITISM,

consisting of hostile expressions or actions against Jews, has been a more or less constant feature of Jewish life in the Diaspora (q.v.). The term, apparently first

coined by Wilhelm

Marr

or Ernest

Renan

connoted the new forms of Jew-baiting generated during the era of Jewish emancipation, which stressed racial and socio-economic antagonisms above the religious issues which earlier had dominated Jewish-gentile controversies.

and medieval

hostilities

in the 1870s,

Nevertheless, the heritage of ancient

remained and coloured

many arguments

as

well as legislative enactments.

The

persistence of anti-Semitic feelings under various civiliza-

tions has been explained ciological motivations.

among groups

—

by a variety

The

of psychological

and

so-

general factors creating antagonisms

such as dislike of the different, the search for scapegoats in periods of crisis and the tendency to generalize the shortcomings or transgressions of individuals and attribute

—

them to the entire group have been aggravated in the case of Jews by the heritage of religious hatreds and folkloristic superstitions. Jewish involvement in the crucifixion of Jesus and "stubborn" refusal to join the ranks of the majority were easily combined in the popular mind wjth an alleged Jewish alliance with the devil. Such alliance and the use of magic arts seemed also to explain the frequent successes in business and medicine by members of the "synagogue of Satan." These successes, moreover, often were an independent source of anti-Jewish feeling, especially among economic competitors and classes adversely affected by major economic changes. The frequent alliance of the Jewish communities with the ruling classes under whose protection they

was pointed out by Josephus

(1st century

when he described Apollonius' Diatribe Against

as "reviling us in one place as atheists

and misanthropes,

the in

Jews

another

reproaching us as cowards, whereas elsewhere, on the contrary, he accuses us of temerity and reckless madness" (Against Apion, 14, 148).

ii:

These

were aggravated by frequent attempt to divide and rule, the Roman empire often protected the Jewish minority against the local majorities and even insisted upon a measure of equality of rights religio-cultural controversies

political clashes.

In

its

for the former.

Particularly in Alexandria, the commercial and cultural metropolis of the eastern Mediterranean, the ruling classes contested the claim of the local Jewish community, probably the largest in

the world,

to

Alexandrian citizenship.

The ensuing

controversies led to bloody outbreaks, sometimes followed by execution of the anti-Semitic ringleaders by the Roman authorities. They generated a Jewish apologetical literature culminating in Josephus' Against Apion.

Many arguments of the classical anti-Semites were taken over by the apologists of the nascent Christian church, although during the

first

three centuries

by pagan

it,

too, felt the force of similar accusations

and writers, and was often more sharply persecuted than the Jews. Now, however, these denunciations were overshadowed by those relating to the specific Jewish "sin" of having crucified Christ and the assertion that Jews misinterpreted materialistically (i.e., literally) the Old Testament passages foretelling the coming of the Messiah. Jews were also often accused of informing on their Christian compatriots to the Roman or Persian oppressors, as well as of undermining the faith of orthodox Christians by their own teachings and rituals. Out of this array of accusations grew the demand for sharp rulers

— ANTI-SEMITISM

82

When after 313 the segregation between Jews and Christians. Christian faith became dominant in the Roman empire, ecclesiastileaders inspired a long series of legislative enactments by Roman emperors designed to lower the status of the synagogue and its worshipers, to segregate Jews from believing Christians cal

and to curtail Jewish religious self-determination where it might become a dangerous rival to ecclesiastical domination. In the laws of the Christian Roman empire and the contemporary patristic letters were laid down the principles of the Christian outlook on Jews and Judaism which were to colour the entire relationship bet ween the two faiths in the middle ages and early modern times. For the first time the Jew was declared a permanent alien and wanderer who, because of his repudiation of Christ, had lost his home and was condemned to perpetual migration. While he was to be protected against total extinction to the end of days, when the second coming of Christ would be ushered in by the full conversion of Jews to Christianity, he was to be maintained in a status of legal and social inferiority and removed from close social contact with believers.

At times leading churchmen, such as St. John Chrysostom in the 5th century and Agobard, archbishop of Lyons, in the 9th, stressed the anti-Jewish more than the tolerant aspects of church doctrine. Agobard fulminated especially against the Jewish "superstitions" and the Jews' "insolent" domination of the economic and political The distinguished medieval philoslife of the Carolingian empire. opher John Duns Scotus, admitting the necessity of preserving a Jewish remnant to the messianic era, suggested that a certain number of Jews be deported to a distant island and maintained In view there at Christianity's expense to the end of days. of the changed economic situation, in the later medieval period when Christians increasingly participated in commerce, and money lending became a major Jewish enterprise Jews were accused (c. 1140) by Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, and others of usury and parasitic exploitation of the Christian population. The masses went further. Envious of Jewish economic and cultural successes, they accused Jews of using magic arts as the willing associates of Satan. Not prepared to understand or accept the fine nuances of church doctrine, oscillating as it did between basic toleration and the lowering of Jewry's social standing, the masses often reacted violently by massacring Jews or by demanding their expulsion. Wherever total exclusion proved impracticable, Jews were often sharply segregated from the Christian population in quarters of their own and forced to wear the yellow badge (see Ghetto). From the 12th century (Norwich in 1144, Blois in 1171, etc.) the ancient ritual murder accusation reappeared with ever greater frequency (see Human Sacrifice: Ritual Murder). These and other arguments, by constant reiteration, sank deeply into the minds of the Christian nations. In those countries which, like Germany and Poland, had not gone through the total expulsion of Jews and hence carried the ancient traditions of hostility in unbroken historic continuity, this was a particularly fateful heritage. Much of that heritage merely needed to be translated into

—

modern

secular terms to serve as incendiary material in the

new

secular environment of the emancipation era.

18TH

AND

19TH CENTURIES

After the peace of Westphalia freedom of religion began to be increasingly accepted as a dominant principle of public law, and from that time the anti-Semites shifted their emphasis from the religious to the political and socio-economic issues. Most spokesmen of the Enlightenment era extolled the idea of mutual toleration. They began viewing Jews principally as individuals and members of humanity at large, and as such entitled to the rights of man. During the protracted debates on the Jewish question at the French national assembly in 1790-91 the opposition to Jewish equality of rights stressed either the social-cultural unassimilabil-

Jews and their forever forming a "state within the state" (Abbe J. S. Maury and the conservative faction) or the Jewish economic "exploitation" of the peasantry (J. F. Reubell and other Alsatian radicals). Although repudiated by the French majority, these slogans influenced Napoleon's "Infamous Decree" of 180S.

ity of the

(See Jews Modern Period: Period of Emancipation.) They soon were echoed especially in Germany, where anti-Semitism achieved a new respectability and gained much popular support as part of the rising tide of German nationalism after the wars of liberation. Formulated by reputable academicians such as Friedrich Ruhs and J. F. Fries, the idea that, despite emancipation, Jews could never :

become

full-fledged

members

of the

German

nation eventually led

to popular outbreaks in 1819.

In the following decades the various clerical parties used these to rationalize their old religious antagonisms without

arguments

of religious intolerance. The newly arising on the other hand, effectively employed them Viewing the Jews of western Europe as leading representatives of capitalist society, Charles Fourier and his disciple Alphonse Toussenel attacked Jewish economic domination (Toussenel's Les Juifs, rois de I'epoque, published in 1846, strongly argued that point), while the then youthful Karl Marx, although himself born a Jew and descendant of a long line of rabbis, contended in 1843 that the Jews were but exponents of "civil society" (burgerliche Gesellschajt) and, with the disappearance of the latter after the forthcoming victory of socialism, they, too, would vanish from the world scene. New German Empire. These anti-Semitic utterances and actions, however, did not crystallize into regular movements or into political parties with anti-Semitic programs. These emerged in Germany only after unification, very largely as a consequence of the ruin brought about by the financial crisis of 1873. In that year a Hamburg journalist, Wilhelm Marr, published Der Sieg Judenthums iiber Germanenthum ("The Victory des das of Judaism Over Germanism"; frequently reissued), which applied to the ancient prejudices a theory of nationality that, under the sponsorship of G. W. F. Hegel, had seized the minds of the German youth and to which the stirring events of 1S70 had given practical significance. It also provided a welcome scapegoat for sufThe conservative and ultramontane ferers from the depression. press rang with the sins of the Jews, and in Oct. 1880 an antiSemitic league was founded in Berlin and Dresden. Leadership of the German agitation was assumed by Adolf Stbcker, one of the court preachers who had embraced the doctrines of Christian socialism and had formed a society called the Christian Social Workingman's union. He was also a Conserva-

incurring the

odium

socialist parties,

in their agitation against the established order.

—

tive

member

of the Prussian diet.

Under

his leadership the years

1880-81 became a period of bitter conflict with the Jews. The Conservatives supported him, partly because Christian socialism was likely to weaken the hold of the Social Democrats on the lower classes. Violent debates took place in the Prussian diet. A petition to exclude the Jews from the national schools and universities and to disqualify them from holding public appointments was presented to Bismarck. Jews were boycotted and insulted. Duels between Jews and anti-Semites, many of them fatal, became daily occurrences.

On

their side the

Jews did not lack

friends.

The crown prince (afterward Emperor Frederick) and crown princess boldly set themselves at the head of the party of protest, the prince publicly declaring that the agitation was "a

shame and manifesto denouncing the movement as a blot on German culture, a danger to German unity and a flagrant injustice to the Jews themselves was signed by a long a disgrace to

list

Germany."

A

of illustrious men.

first severe blow suffered by the German anti-Semites was struck in 1881, when, to the indignation of the whole civilized world, the riots against the Jews in Russia and the revival of the medieval blood accusation in Hungary illustrated the incendi-

The

Some of the extremists ary nature of the new anti-Semitism. among the racial anti-Semites began to extend their campaign In 1879 Johann against Judaism to its offspring, Christianity. Sepp, arguing that Jesus was of no human race, had proposed that Christianity should reject the Hebrew Scriptures and seek a fresh historical basis in the cuneiform inscriptions. Later Eugen Diihring in several brochures attacked Christianity as a manifestation of the Semitic spirit which was not compatible with the theological and ethical conceptions of the Germanic peoples. With these tendencies the Christian Socialists could have no sympathy, and

ANTI-SEMITISM the consequence was that when in March 18S1 a political organization of anti-Semitism was attempted, two rival bodies were created, the Deutsche Volksverein, under the conservative auspices of Liebermann von Sonnenberg, later author of the much-

quoted Beitrdge zur Geschichte der antisemitischen Bewegung ("Contributions to History of the Anti-Semitic Movement"), and the Soziale Reichsverein, led by the racial and radical anti-Semites Ernst Henrici and Otto Bockel. In 1886, at an anti-Semitic congress held at Kassel, a reunion was effected, but this lasted only In June 1889 the anti-Semitic Christian Socialists three years. under Stocker again seceded. During the subsequent ten years the movement became more and more discredited. Financial and other scandals covered the party with the very obloquy which it had attempted to attach to the Jews. At the same time, the Christian Socialists who had remained with the Conservative party also suffered. After the elections of 1S93 Stocker was dismissed from his post of court The following year the emperor publicly condemned preacher. Christian socialism and the "political pastors." Another blow to anti-Semitism came from the Roman Catholics. They had become alarmed by the unbridled violence of the demagogues, and in 1894 the ultramontane Germania publicly washed its hands of Thus gradually German anti-Semitism became the Jew-baiters. At the general election stripped of every adventitious alliance. of 1903 it managed to return only nine members to the Reichstag. Although in those years (1899 J appeared Houston Stewart Chamberlain's Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Foundations of the 19th Century), which subsequently became a classic of racial anti-Semitism (see Chamberlain, Houston Stewart), the fury of anti-Jewish agitation had spent itself without producing a single legislative enactment against the Jews, and that at a time when the second Reich was readily promulgating special legislation against Socialists, Catholics and Poles. Austria-Hungary Understandably, the German-speaking areas in the neighbouring Habsburg empire were most immediately affected. Austrian anti-Semitism found influential spokesmen par-

—

among

pan-German

nationalists and the Christian was the maverick deputy Georg von Schbnerer who declared anti-Semitism as "the mainstay of our national ideology" and an integral part of the program of the newly formed German National party (beginning with the parliamentary elections of 1885). Stressing above all the racial ticularly

issue, a

the

Among

Socialists.

member

the former

it

of that party. Josef Herzog, presented in parlia-

amending the constitution of 1S67 by withdrawing from "all members of the Jewish race, irrespective of their religion, whose descent from a Jew or Jewess could be proved either from the paternal or maternal side in the

ment

a bill

the equality of rights

second, or third generation"

(May

1903). By broadening its attacks to include also the Roman Catholic Church and the Habsburg monarchy, however, this vocal and much-publicized movement antagonized the masses of the Austrian Germans, who preferred the more moderate brand of anti-Semitism as preached by the Christian Socialist party. Aided by the debate on the Talmudjude, published by the Prague theologian August Rohling in 1S74. the clerical Jew-baiters concentrated their assaults on the Jewish religion and way of life. Supported by the

first,

1,

paper the Vaterland, the Christian Socialist party celeelectoral victories. In 1S9S its leader, Karl Lueger, a gifted demagogue, was elected mayor of Vienna, over the emperor's opposition. The party subsequently became the largest in the Austrian parliament. Although it thus became the first political party to achieve power with the aid of an avowedly antiSemitic program, the Christian Socialist faction greatly moderated its policies with respect to both legislation and administrative practice. Its inconsistencies were well illustrated by Lueger's reputed declaration: "I decide who is or is not a Jew." Russia. The practical effects of the German anti-Semitic teachings on the political and social life of Russia were more serious. Medieval anti-Semitism was still an integral part of the polity of the Russian empire. The Jews were confined to one huge ghetto in the western provinces (see Pale). Their activity or exploitation, as it was called, was exaggerated and resented by the clerical

brated

many

—

83

landowners who had been hurt by the emancipation nationalist and reactionary agitation emanated particularly from the Slavophil party, which, under N. P. Ignatiev and K. P. Pobedonostsev, became paramount in the government, with a policy based on absolutism, orthodoxy and the racial unity of the Russian people. The blood accusation also made sporadic appearances and even found an eloquent defender in the priest Hippolyte Liutostansky. This was the situation on the eve of Easter 1881. The hardening nationalism above, the increasing discontent below, Jewish economic activity and echoes of anti-Semitism from over the western border were combining for an explosion. A scuffle in a tavern at Yelisavetgrad (Kirovograd) sufficed to ignite this combustible material. Within a few weeks the whole of western Russia from the Black sea to the Baltic was smoking with the ruins of Jewish homes. Murderous riots and incendiary outrages took place in no fewer than 167 towns and villages, including Warsaw, Odessa and Kiev. Instead of curbing these outbreaks, the police often disarmed Jews trying to organize in self-defense, of the serfs.

A

while the courts later meted out light sentences to the ringleaders. tsar's ministers, ardent Slavophils, were not slow to recognize

The

endorsement of the nationalist teaching of which they were the apostles, and, while condemning the acts the conclusion that the most reasonable violence, came to of solution was to aggravate the legal disabilities of the persecuted

in the outbreak an

"heretics."

To this view the tsar was won over, partly by the clamorous indignation of western Europe, which had wounded his national amour propre, and partly by the strongly partisan report of a commission appointed to inquire into the exploitation alleged against the Jews. Its report resulted in the drafting of a "temporary order concerning the Jews" by the minister of the interior, which received the assent of the tsar on May 3. 1S82. This order had the effect of creating a number of fresh ghettos within the pale of Jewish settlement. The Jews were driven into the towns and their rural holdings arbitrarily confiscated, with the result that their activities were completely paralyzed, and they fell into a condition of unparalleled misery. By stimulating Jewish emigration into the western countries, moreover, the new legislation played into the hands of anti-Semitic agitators there, who effectively exploited the xenophobic sentiments among the masses. The Russian May laws were the most conspicuous legislative monument achieved by the new anti-Semitism up to that time. Their immediate result was, however, a commercial depression

which was

felt all

the national credit.

over the empire and which profoundly affected Negotiations for a large loan had been entered a preliminary contract had

upon with the house of Rothschild, and

been signed, when the finance minister was informed that unless the persecution of the Jews was stopped the great banking house would be compelled to withdraw from the operation. Deeply mortified by this attempt to deal with him de puissance a puissance, the tsar peremptorily broke off the negotiations and ordered that overtures be made to a non-Jewish French syndicate. In this way anti-Semitism, which had already profoundly influenced the domestic politics of Europe, set its mark on the international relations of the powers, for it was the urgent need of the Russian treasury quite as much as the termination of Bismarck's secret treaty of mutual neutrality which brought about the FrancoRussian alliance. A new era of conflict dawned with the great constitutional strugBy confining the Jews gle toward the end of the 19th century. to the towns at the very moment when Count S. Y. Witte's policy of protection was creating an enormous industrial proletariat, the May laws placed at the disposal of the disaffected masses an ally powerful in numbers and intelligence. As early as 1885 Jewish workmen, assisted by Jewish university students, led the way They also became the colin the formation of trade unions. porteurs of western European socialism, and they played an important part in the organization of the Russian Social Democratic federation which their Arbeiter Bund joined in 1S97. The latter ultimately counted 30,000 members. The Jewish element in the new democratic movement excited the resentment of the government, and the persecuting laws were once more rigorously en-

ANTI-SEMITISM

84

They were not abolished until the Revolution of Other Countries. The only other country in Europe

forced.

—

1917.

which there had been legalized anti-Semitism was Rumania, where the struggle against Ottoman domination assumed the form of a crusade against Islam. Rumanian politicians preached a nationalism limited exclusively to indigenous Christians. Thus, although the Jews had been settled in the land for many centuries, they were by law declared aliens. This was done in defiance of the treaty of Paris of 1856 and the convention of 1858, which declared all Rumanians to be equal before the law, and also in violation of the treaty of Berlin of 1878 under which Rumania agreed to abolish religious disabilities. Despite reiterated interventions of the western powers, including Britain and the United States, it was not until 1 9 19 that these violations were finally swept away. The last country in Europe to make use of the teachings of German anti-Semitism in party politics was France. The movement became serious in 1882 when the failure of a prominent financial enterprise was blamed on Jews. In 1886 violent expression was given to that feeling in a book, La France juive devant I'opinion, by Edouard Drumont, which appeared in a hundred editions within in

a year and was speedily translated into English, Spanish, German and Polish. Before long all disaffected elements, especially in the army, joined the Boulangist movement, led by Gen. Georges Boulanger (q.v.). In 1894 a prominent Jewish officer, Capt. Alfred Dreyfus (q.v.), was arrested on a charge of treason, and though the case against Dreyfus was proved false, public agitation continued long after his vindication, leaving permanent scars on French public life.

1901

THROUGH WORLD WAR

11

At the turn of the century anti-Semitism increasingly assumed international aspects. Stocker and his associates had tried in the to organize international congresses of the various Jew1 880s These efforts were facilitated by the problems baiting groups. created by the Jewish mass migrations from eastern to western Europe and America, which reached a peak in 1890-1914. In the debates which preceded the enactment of the Anti-Alien laws in England (1903) and those accompanying the numerous hearings At the in the U.S. congress from 1891 on, the Jewish issue arose. same time the United States government insisted upon equal treatment of its Jewish and non-Jewish citizens in foreign countries. As a result of a long drawn-out controversy with the Russian regime, which discriminated against foreign Jews as it did against its own, Pres. William Howard Taft abrogated in 1912 the 80-yearold commercial treaty with Russia. More generally, however, the ever-strengthening imperialist tensions which ultimately led to World War I helped the antiSemites.

Nationalist agitators in

many

countries increasingly at-

tacked Jewish "internationalism" and the alleged alliance between In 1906 the Jews and the internationally minded Freemasons. Count Lamsdorf, the Russian foreign minister, actually suggested

an alliance between the tsar, the German emperor and the pope to combat the Jewish "foe of the Christian and monarchical order in Europe." German nationalists, on the other hand, often viewed Christianity itself as a serious impediment to the realization of their imperialistic dreams.

In the meantime conditions in eastern Europe went from bad The regime of Nicholas II (1895-1917) not only intensified Russian legislative and administrative measures against

to worse.

the Jews but also actively promoted the spread of anti-Semitic propaganda. The tsar spent large sums from his personal funds to subsidize anti-Semitic publications, thus, ironically, indirectly inciting the populace to breaches of order.

The

militant League popularly called the

of the Russian People, formed in 1904 and Black Hundreds, enjoyed the full backing of the government. The latter did nothing to prevent the recurrent violent outbreaks

against Jews, culminating in the Kishinev massacre of 1903 and numerous pogroms in reprisal for the Jewish share in the revolution of 1905. Riots in Bialystok, Congress Poland, in 1906 simul-

taneously attested the effectiveness of the tsarist policies to divide opponents. The growing tension between the nationalistic Poles and the Jews reached a peak in 191 2, when the former pro-

its

claimed a sharp economic boycott on their Jewish compatriots. All this was but a prelude, however, to World War I, which brought with it a series of political and economic changes that were bound to have their effect upon the attitude of the peoples of Europe toward the Jew. The war had marked the breakup of two great empires, tsarist Russia and Austria-Hungary. It was in

number of Jews was concentrated, and more than anywhere else that they maintained their dis-

this area that the largest

there

tinctive Jewish

way

of

life.

Mob

violence, arising from economic

rivalry and religious bigotry, thus found in these areas an unpro-

tected minority upon which to expend

itself.

There

also

were out-

breaks against Jews during the postwar period in Algiers, Syria, Iraq and other Muslim areas. One of the first phases of postwar anti-Semitism developed out of the Communist Revolution in Russia in 1917 and its aftermath The presence among Communist leaders of in central Europe. persons of Jewish extraction such as Trotski, L. B. Kamenev, Grigori Zinoviev, Karl Radek and others in Russia, Kurt Eisner provided anti-Jewish groups in Bavaria and Bela Kun in Hungary throughout the world with a new basis for their anti-Semitism. wars between the Comapparent in the civil This was first made munists and the various White Russian armies that sought to overthrow the Red dictatorship. Wherever the White armies

—

—

penetrated a wave of violence against Jews followed. The most serious excesses occurred in the Ukraine and White Russia, where the number of Jewish victims in 1918-19 far exceeded that of all the earlier pogroms since 1881. Reactionary forces in Europe and the United States, apprehensive of the spread of communist ideas from Russia, likewise identified communism with the Jews. This charge of "Jewish bolshevism" was later to be taken up by the German Nazis and made the cornerstone of their international propaganda. It mattered little that not only the vast Jewish middle class but also the Jewish-Socialist Bund sharply opposed communism. For every Jewish Communist leader could be counted several prominent Jewish Socialists who suffered imprisonment and In fact, many Comexile as Russian "counter-revolutionaries." munist agitators were appealing to the working classes and lower and plutocracy. capitalism with middle classes by identifying Jews Manifestations of anti-Semitism spread to the Anglo-Saxon countries. Books such as Lothrop Stoddard's The Rising Tide of orld-Supremacy (1920) and Racial RealiColor Against White ties in Europe (1924) and Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race (19 16) revived and popularized Nordic racial theories.

W

against Jews by anti-Semitic writers and agiaround three main points: (1) the claim that Jews were a disintegrating force in the political, moral and cultural life of the countries in which they resided; (2) charges of Jewish economic domination and monopoly; and (3) a claim of Jewish world

The charges made tators revolved

conspiracy.

(Paradoxically, the Nazis later sought to liquidate spiritual values and its vision of the

Jews because of Judaism's

universal relatedness of all human beings.) Anti-Semitic writers concocted weird fantasies concerning the The most notorious of these alleged Jewish world conspiracy. fabrications is known as the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, which purports to be a report of a series of 24 (in other versions, 27) meetings held at Basel, Switz., in 1897, at the time of There plans were said to have been the first Zionist congress. worked out whereby Jews, together with Freemasons, were to disrupt the entire Christian civilization, and on the ruins of Christen-

dom

erect a world state ruled over

Protocols were

first

by Jews and Freemasons.

The

printed in Russia in abbreviated form in 1903

newspaper Znamia ("the Banner"), and subsequently in book form in 1905. They were translated into German, French, English and other languages of the western world and soon came to be the sacred book of anti-Semitic literature. The spurious character of the Protocols was first revealed in by Philip Graves, Constantinople correspondent of the 1 92 1 Times (London), who showed their obvious resemblance to a satire by Maurice Joly on Napoleon III published in 1864 and entitled Dialogues aux enfers entre Machiavel et Montesquieu. Subsequent investigation, particularly by Vladimir Burtseff the historian of the Russian revolutionary movement, revealed that these Protoin the

,

ANTI-SEMITISM were forgeries, compounded by

the Russian secret police out of the satire of Joly, a fantastic novel Biarritz by Hermann Goedsche (1868), and other sources. John S. Curtiss, sup-

cols

officials of

ported by a committee of prominent U.S. historians, published An Appraisal of the Protocols of Zion (1942) in which the documents are subjected to a thorough and critical analysis and pronounced to have no claim to authenticity. National Socialism. The storm of anti-Semitic violence let loose by the triumph of Adolf Hitler in 1933 not only reached a terrifying degree in Germany but inspired a world-wide anti-Jewish movement unequaled in modern history. Anti-Semitism ceased to be merely a local and internal problem it became an instrument of German foreign policy and thus a problem of international concern. The German revolution of 1918 had eliminated all forms of legal anti-Semitism under which the 500,000 Jews of Germany had lived in the second Reich. It was not until the rise of the National-

—

;

sozialistische

Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), led by Hitler, was made a major national issue by a political

that anti-Semitism

The novelty of this (See also National Socialism.) brand of anti-Semitism was that it appealed both to the underprivileged masses and to the elite of aristocrats, former army ofBy stressing ficers and bureaucrats displaced by the revolution. the pseudoscientific race theories of Count J. A. de Gobineau, Chamberlain, Duhring and Paul de Lagarde, it painted the "eternal" Jew as the permanent devilish enemy of the German nation. It combined these doctrines with elements in the philosophy of Nietzsche directed against the ethical and moral teachings of ancient Judaism and Christianity and with the neopaganism of Richard Wagner and others. The anthropological bases for these theories were developed by Ludwig Woltman, Ludwig Schemann and above all by the Nazi race theorist H. F. K. von Gunther. The political and cultural applications found their supreme expression in Hitler's Mein Kampf and in Alfred Rosenberg's The Myth of the 20th Century. A crude and .pornographic form of anti-Semitic propaganda was carried on by Julius Streicher, through his Der Stkrmer founded in 1922), whose vulgar cartoons and illustrations incited its readers to violent actions against Jews and their non-Jewish friends. The maintenance of "Aryan" racial purity was asserted to be the main function of the state, since this was the only truly creative race in history and interbreeding tended to lead to its corruption. Of this Aryan race the Germans were said to be the purest examples, although scientists pointed out that "Aryan" refers to a family of languages used by many peoples and that there is no such thing as an Aryan race. Anti-Semitism in Germany also derived from other sources. The Communist Revolution brought German free corps soldiers fighting side by side with the White armies, and a great deal of

party.

(

anti-Semitism filtered into Germany by this route. Hitler's views, too, were coloured by his contact with anti-Semitic currents in Vienna before World War I. Finally, the pacifist activities of such German Jews as Kurt Eisner infuriated the German nationalists and enabled them to identify Judaism with pacifism.

With the coming to power of the Nazis, a flood of anti-Semitic propaganda was loosed. A boycott of Jewish shops was organized on April 1, 1933, and carried out chiefly by the SA (Sturmabteilungen). This was to serve as the symbol of popular pressure

A

decree of April 7, 1933, forbade non-Aryans to occupy public posts, except those who had been in office before Aug. 1, 1914, or who had served in World War I. for legal action against Jews.

These exceptions were revoked in 1935. A non-Aryan was defined as a person having at least one Jewish grandparent. This

Aryan paragraph was soon applied to the fields of culture and the liberal professions. Jews were dismissed from their posts in universities and technical schools; Jewish artists, musicians, actors and screen and radio stars (with special exceptions) were banned from appearances before German audiences, and Jews were eliminated from the field of journalism. The denial to Jews of German citizenship was accomplished by the Nurnberg laws on citizenship and race of Sept. 15, 1935, art. is

of

ii

declaring:

German

that he

is

"A

only that subject who his conduct, shows to serve faithfully the German peo-

citizen of the reich

or kindred blood

both desirous and

fit

is

and who, through

85

and the reich." In the first supplementary decree of Nov. 14, 1935, this was made specific by defining who was a Jew and by

ple

Jew cannot be a citizen of the reich. cannot exercise the right to vote; he cannot occupy public office." Together with this law came another designed to complete the process of Jewish segregation. Marriages and extra-

declaring explicitly that "a

He

marital relations between Jews and "Aryans" were prohibited. Jews were also forbidden "to employ in domestic service female subjects of German or kindred blood who are under the age of 45 Before long Jewish passports were stamped with a red years." "J" (J tide), and Jews were compelled to adopt Jewish names. Jewish communities were deprived of their legal status by the decree of March 28, 1938, and steps were taken to exclude Jews completely from the practice of medicine. A high point in Nazi anti-Semitic activity in Germany was reached in the pogroms of Nov. 1938. On Nov. 7 a 17-year-old Polish Jewish boy, Herschel Grynszpan, assassinated one of the junior counsellors to the German embassy in Paris, Ernst vom Rath. This act set off, on the night of Nov. 9, a systematic series of violent reprisal actions by the Nazis. Jewish homes and shops More than 30,000 arrests were in Germany were plundered. made and thousands of Jews sent to concentration camps. Synagogues in Germany and Austria (about 600) were methodically set on fire and the holy scrolls desecrated. Jewish orphanages, homes for the aged and hospitals were not spared. These acts were carried out by the SA, SS (Sckutzstafjel), Hitler Youth and the gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei) without the participation or sympathy of the general populace. The decrees of Nov. 12 and Nov. 23, 1938, completed the total elimination of Jews from German economic life, while imposing upon them the enormous fine of 1,000,000,000 marks ($400,000,000). The triumph of national socialism in Germany and the adoption of anti-Semitism as the official government policy brought about a tragic deterioration of the position of Jews far beyond the German frontiers. The main centres for the international dissemination of anti-Semitism, utilizing all the varied arts of propaganda,

were Fichte-Bund in Hamburg, Reich Institute for the Study of the Jewish Question and, above all, Welt-Dienst in Erfurt. The dumping of many German and Austrian refugees into the western countries, which had just begun to recuperate from the great depression of the early 1930s, and the deportation of thousands of Polish Jews to Poland in 1939 likewise helped to increase anti-Jewish feelings. A foreign office circular sent to all German legations and consulates on Jan. 23, 1939, emphasized that "the poorer and therefore the more burdensome the immigrant Jews are to the country absorbing them, the stronger that country will react and the more favourable will the effect be in the interest of German propaganda." In 1933 the Nazi regime also began spon-

(Copenhagen

soring international congresses of anti-Semites

in

1933, Budapest in 1934 and Erfurt in 1937). Most significantly, anti-Semitism became an integral part of German foreign policy. Anti-Semitic propaganda, by increasing domestic unrest and parti-

san

strife,

weakened the powers

of resistance of

Germany's neigh-

bours and prepared them for Nazi conquest. The Nurnberg war crimes trials and many publications issued after 1945 recalled the appalling extent of anti-Semitic activities during World War II. By 1943 Hitler's Festung Europa was

dotted with concentration and labour camps, and mass deportations to these centres were being carried out from all the occupied countries (see Concentration Camps). Wherever there was any was marked by mass pogroms and organized murder on a scale previously unheard of. Lwow (Lvov), Pol., for example, had 160,000 Jewish residents when it was captured on June 29, 1941; only about 82 7 came out Of the of hiding after the Russians returned three years later. 3,300,000 Jews in Poland at the outbreak of the war, not more than the Soviet Union including the refugees to alive in were 1944, 10% and other countries. Despite the enormous number of documents available, it is difsizable Jewish population, the entry of the Nazis

exactly the date of the Nazi decision to speed the process of population extermination. Gas vans, gas chambers and lethal injections were already in wide use in Europe at the end ficult to fix

—

ANTI-SEMITISM

86

built its large death instalAuschwitz (Oswiecim; g.v.), Chelm, Belzec, BergenMaidanek and Treblinka. A Dachau (q.v.), Belsen, Buchenwald, major decision using veiled language was taken in the GrossWannsee conference of Jan. 20, 1942. In March 1943 the first crematorium was opened at Maidanek. At several death centres, notably Auschwitz and Buchenwald. finely equipped hospital laboratories were maintained in which medical experiments were

of 1941,

when the Nazi administration

lations at

conducted upon

living

atrocities in France,

men and women.

The record

of

German

compiled by the supreme Allied headquarters'

psychological warfare section, filled 13 volumes. Perhaps six out of every seven European Jews found in the oc-

cupied areas were killed by the Nazis. This figure must be viewed in the context of the wholesale extermination of "undesirable" It is estimated that from ethnic, national and religious groups. 18,000,000 to 26,000,000 persons prisoners of war, political prisoners, men, women, children of all ages and all nationalities were "put to death by the Germans through hunger, cold, pestilence, torture, medical experimentation, and other means of extermination in all the camps of Germany and the occupied

—

—

territories"

(Documents pour servir a

I'histoire

de

la guerre, vol. iv,

"Camps de concentration," Office Francois d'Edition, Paris, 1945 ). Not all opposition to Nazi anti- Jewish excesses was crushed, however. Even in Germany, many Jews owed their lives to their Christian neighbours, who sheltered them or their children. Some Protestants and Roman Catholics in Germany consistently opposed Nazism, and such opposition was stronger in the occupied In the spring of 1943, for example, the Bratislava countries. Gardista grumbled that "anti-Jewish action in Slovakia is not meeting with the expected success," and the Grenzbote accused Slovaks Louis d'Arquier de Pelof widespread collusion with the Jews. lepoix, French commissar for Jewish affairs, admitted that resistance to anti-Semitic measures in France continued strong Because thousands of Jewish despite threats of punishment. children were being hidden by non-Jews that spring, the gestapo was extending its raids into the homes of peasants in French areas In Denmark, eight bishops protested formerly unoccupied. against anti-Semitic propaganda to Minister of Justice Thune Jacobsen, and clergymen everywhere, though forbidden to refer to the political aspects of the "Jewish problem," were outspokenly denouncing anti-Semitism. In Greece 600 priests were sent to concentration camps for refusing to preach anti-Jewish sermons and for urging their congregations to help Jews. Thirty-four Budapest residents were sent to prison for sheltering Jews, and some Christian Hungarian women openly wore yellow badges in

contempt of the regime's anti-Jewish decrees. The Protestant and Catholic churches of the Netherlands protested the persecution of Jews and the deportation of Dutch citizens. Swedish condemnation of Hitler's "barbaric and systematic extermination of the Jews" continued, and the director of the Swedish Red Cross resigned in protest against the refusal of the Nazis to allow the organization to send aid to Jewish women and children in Poland or to permit the emigration to Sweden of Norwegian Jewish fami-

whose men had been deported. Among the Jewish victims themselves, resistance was sporadic, desperate and futile. There were many tragic gestures of heroic defiance, notably the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto. At its most crowded stage this ghetto, a slum area of Warsaw which had originally housed about 50,000, contained more than 450.000 Jews from lies

parts of conquered Europe. By April 1943 their numbers had been reduced to 35,000 by mass executions, pestilence, starvation and deportation to the death camps. On April 18, the eve of Passover, armed with a few rifles, hand grenades and machine guns obtained from the Polish underground, the Jews of the Warsaw ghetto gave battle to the German army, and 25,000 perished. United States. After the colonial period, religious freedom, reflecting the need for unity among the various groups in the population, became a dominant principle of American public life. Jews w'ere accorded the same dignity and rights as persons of other religions. To be sure, events in Europe awoke echoes: the Dreyfus case caused talk; the faked Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion were published in Henry Ford's Dearborn Independent and all

—

elsewhere; and the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s included anti-Jewish with its stronger anti-Roman Catholic and anti-Negro phobias. But anti-Semitism was not virulent in the United States before Hitler's

triumph

in

Germany, when Nazi propaganda found

a de-

pression-born climate of opinion favourable to intergroup hostilities.

The German-American Bunds, directed from Germany, although their total membership amounted to only 8,300 in 1939, possessed more than 80 active cells, including 22 youth camps located near important military centres. The Nazis embraced other organizers who appealed for membership with an anti-Semitic line: William Dudley Pelley started the Silver Shirts in North Carolina in the early 1930s; the Reverend Gerald B. Winrod began operations for Defenders of the Christian Faith in Kansas about the same time, with anti-Semitism as the core; George Deatherage brought the Knights of the White Camellia into action; the Black legion, the Sentinels of the Republic, the American Vigilant Intelligence federation and the Christian Front were other units carrying the Nazi philosophy. The last organization centred around Father C. E. Coughlin of Royal Oak, Mich., and his publication Social Justice; in radio talks he used familiar anti-Semitic phrases. A new element, however, served as a check to anti-Semitism the National Conference of Christians and Jews, founded in 1928

by Charles Evans Hughes, Newton D. Baker, S. Parkes Cadman, Roger W. Straus and Carlton J. H. Hayes. More importantly, apart from being shocked by the Nazi atrocities, American public opinion increasingly resented Hitler's expansionist policies. Ultimately the United States was drawn into the anti-axis alliance, which made pro-Nazi propaganda of any kind extremely suspect. Canada. In Canada, too, organized anti-Semitism began to flourish only after Hitler's seizure of power. More than 20 antiSemitic organizations sprang up between 1933 and 1935. In Quebec the Parti National Social Chretien, modeled after the German NSDAP, was organized by Adrien Arcand, the fiihrer of Canadian fascism. There also were Blue Shirts, White Shirts and other Jew-baiting groups. Anti-Semitism was frequently condemned by powerful voluntary organizations, however, and anti-Jewish manifestations were relatively quiescent during World War II. Great Britain. In England Sir Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists carried on a wide variety of anti-Jewish activities, from demonstrations in the Jewish districts of London to the dissemination of the Protocols and other pamphlets and leaflets. Even more extreme was the National Socialist league, formed by John Becket and William Joyce the notorious Lord Haw-Haw of the German broadcasts during World War II), and the Imperial

—

—

(

Fascist league, headed

by Arnold Leese.

These

activities

met

with strong opposition, however, from government spokesmen and leaders of British public opinion.

—

Western Europe. Italy, although totalitarian before Germany, was practically free from anti-Semitism until it became enmeshed in German foreign policy. The first legal measures against Jews were initiated in Sept. 1938. and the basic anti-Jewish legislation was incorporated in the racial laws, patterned on the Niirnberg laws, of Nov. 17, 1938. These measures found little support among the Italian people and, aided by Christian neighbours, three-quarters of Italian Jewry survived the Nazi ordeal. In France the coming to power of a popular front government headed by a Jew, Leon Blum, was utilized by the anti-Semitic groups to raise a cry of Jewish domination and Jewish communism. With the heightening of the international crisis, particularly after the pact of Munich in 1938, anti-Semitic agitation in France became closely identified with a pro-Nazi orientation of French foreign policy and came to be considered a serious menace After the German conquest the formal up to Nov. 1942 between the occupied and unoccupied zones w as reflected in the attitude toward the Jews. In the occupied zone confiscations and "Aryanization" of Jewish property, anti-Jewish legislation and physical assault upon Jews followed the regular pattern of Nazi Germany proper. In the unoccupied zone the status of the Jews depended largely on the deAs the Vichy regime gree of Franco-German collaboration. became more and more committed to a policy of collaboration, the to the safety of the state.

distinction existing

7

ANTI-SEMITISM severity of the measures against the Jews increased, and were extended to the colonial empire. In all the territories adhering to Gen. Charles de Gaulle and the Fighting French and, after the

Anglo-U.S. occupation', also in north Africa, these anti-Semitic measures, together with all Vichy legislation, were declared null and void. This administrative division helped some two-thirds of the Jews of metropolitan France to survive, whereas neighbouring Belgium lost more than half and the Netherlands more than three-quarters of their Jewish inhabitants. In Norway the clergy of the state church, under the leadership of the courageous Bishop Eivind Berggrav, opposed the Nazi

propaganda, and a pastoral letter was read in many churches denouncing the racial legislation. From its office in London, the Norwegian government in exile opposed the agitation against Jews In Denmark the adamant stand of King Christian in Norway. succeeded in preventing special anti-Jewish measures demanded

by the Nazis during the occupation. Many Danish Jews fled to Sweden, assisted by Christian Danes. In Sw-eden the activities of the anti-Semitic editor Einar Aberg were of minor importance. In Switzerland, too, there were many expressions of disapproval of Hitler's anti-Jewish policy throughout the whole Nazi era, although there appeared numerous publications which attempted to justify the

Nazi party

Eastern Europe.

— In

line.

sharp contrast with the policies of the other states of eastern and central Europe was the original public Lenin stand against anti-Semitism taken by the Soviet Union. and his associates included the Soviet Jews among the national minorities to which the law of Nov. 1917 promised full govern-

mental support in the preservation of their cultural autonomy; they also outlawed anti-Semitism and declared it to be a counterrevolutionary crime (July 1918). To reinforce this prohibition Lenin himself broadcast to the Soviet peoples a major message explaining that anyone urging discrimination against Jews unwittingly promoted the restoration of the tsarist regime. This policy was more or less strictly adhered to, although the simultaneous prohibition of Zionism, the elimination of public instruction in Hebrew and the agitation against Jewish religion w-ere sapping the vitality of the Russian Jewish community, which became increasMoreover, Stalin ingly isolated from the rest of world Jewry. constantly reiterated his view that the recognition of national minority rights was intended only for the period of transition from the capitalist to the truly communist society. In the 1930s, owing to the rising wave of Russian nationalism and imperialism, this friendly attitude toward the Jewish community underwent a change. It reached its nadir after the conclusion of the GermanSoviet treaty of nonaggression in 1939. followed by the incorporation of some 2.500,000 Jews in the newly occupied territories of Poland and the Baltic states. However, after the German invasion of Russia the Soviet regime again professed its friendliness toward the Jewish people and through the Anti-Fascist league tried to collaborate with the Jews of other countries.

World War I, the lead in the anti-Semitic movement was taken by the old National Democratic party (known as Endeks). The economic crisis helped to create a favourable environment for anti-Semitism, which took the form of physical attacks upon Jews and student riots in the universities, In Poland, after

and above all in the economic boycott of Jewish business enterThe period of violent assaults prises and Jewish professionals. upon Jews came to an end in 1926 with the coup d'etat of Marshal Jozef Pilsudski, and until his death in 1935 Pilsudski's dictatorial The economic regime protected the Jews from mob violence. strangulation continued, however, and increased nationalization of the Polish economy resulted in the elimination of thousands of Jewish workers from industry. The death of Marshal Pilsudski opened the way for a new wave of anti-Semitism. The worsening economic conditions, the coming to power of the clique of Polish colonels, and the flirtation of Foreign Minister Jozef Beck with Nazi Germany all helped to aggravate the situation. Extremist parties, such as the National Democrats and the Nara (National Radicals), began to emulate Nazi policies toward the Jews. JewUniversities pracish ritual slaughtering was outlawed in 1936. tised an informal Humerus clausus; many established special

87

Violence once more be"ghetto benches" for Jewish students. came widespread, the economic boycott was extended and there was agitation for the emigration of "superfluous" Jews. Elimination of Jews from the economic and professional life of Poland continued. Within a few weeks after Hitler's armies had moved

and large numbers of Jews were deported or sent into forced labour and concentration camps. Terrorism became the official policy. Before World War I, Hungary was relatively free of radical anti-Semitism, and for the most part the Jews were accepted as loyal citizens of the realm. The economic dislocation of the postwar period, however, and also the fact that the Hungarian Communist revolution of 1919 was led by Bela Kun, who was born a Jew, resulted in the growth of animosity which, ushered in by the White Terror and propagated by the Awakening Magyars, placed Hungary with Poland and Rumania as the three countries in which anti-Semitism was widespread before the advent of Nazism. Acts of violence were committed, a silent effective boycott was instituted against all Jews, particularly in the smaller towns and villages, and Hungary was the first country in postwar Europe to pass a Humerus clausus law, restricting the number of Jewish students This law was in violation of in the universities to 5% (1920). Hungary's obligation assumed in the postwar treaties, and aroused into Poland, ghettos were established

it was not modified until 1928. Hitler's triumph in Germany led to the rapid spread of Nazi agitation in Hungary, and only the fact that occupation of Hungary by German troops was delayed enabled about half the Jewish population (in the 1937 boundaries) to escape the Nazi extermination squads. In Rumania anti-Semitism was widespread during the period

considerable opposition in international circles, but

1918-35. There were practically no Jews in the civil service, and Both the they were discouraged from entering the professions. National Christian party and the Liberal party were anti-Semitic, and the National Peasant party, coming into power in 1928 after a record of disavowal of anti-Semitism, did nothing to change the situation. As Rumania came into the political orbit of Nazi Germany the condition of the Jews worsened, and Nazi officials established close connections with the native anti-Semitic groups, especially the Iron Guard. Nevertheless, because of greater laxity

more than half of Rumanian Jewry either survived war in the homeland or returned there from the concentration camps in Transnistria. (K. S. P. E. R. Cy. B. Y. L. S. W. B.)

in execution,

the

;

;

;

AFTER WORLD WAR

II

After the Nazi defeat in World War II the anti-Semitic movelost ground in western Europe and America, but as a result of

ment

international developments it assumed new significance in the Soviet Union, eastern Europe and the middle east. Its new manifestations were partly the aftermath of the Nazi regime and partly the result of the new enmities generated by the rise of the state of Israel.

Germany and Western Europe. —In

the

first

years after the

was kept alive in Germany and throughout formerly Nazi-occupied Europe by the recurrent war crimes trials, the denazification procedures, property restitution problems and

war the Jewish

issue

the attempts at rehabilitating the survivors of the Nazi concentraThe International Military tribunal at Niirnberg in tion camps. 1945-46 tried 22 "major war criminals." By dealing with such

Hermann Goring and Joachim von Ribbentrop, by defining the nature of crimes against humanity as well as war crimes and crimes against peace, and by accumulating an enormous mass of written and oral testimony, it established a standard for similar trials by other tribunals, both national and international. By its detailed account of the persecution of the Jews and its finding that half the defendants were guilty of crimes against humanity leading Nazis as

for participating in these atrocities, it brought to public attention the enormity of the mass murder of Jews committed during the

war.

When

the United Nations

War Crimes commission came

to

over these offenses was transferred to the individual countries, where public opinion veered toward in(See War Crimes.) creasing leniency. The denazification proceedings aimed at removing confirmed

an end

in 1948, jurisdiction

ANTI-SEMITISM Nazis from administrative and teaching posts in Germany faced the difficulty of distinguishing ideological from prudential Nazis

and of conducting administration without the services of many of the latter class. By 1955 most denazification courts had altogether suspended their activities. The problem of former Nazis in political and administrative offices became, indeed, one of the outstanding issues in West German public life in the 1950s and 1960s. As an indication of the number of these, by Sept. 1962, 149 of West Germany's 11,500 judges and prosecutors had taken advantage of a law of June 1961 permitting early retirement for those who had been in office during the Nazi period. Various attempts to re-establish formal neo-Nazi parties in West in part because of their outlawry by the courts

Germany

failed,

and in part beCertain crypto-Nazi groups

cause of lack of popular support. and parties could claim some members, but they were politically negligible.

In East Germany many former Nazis became Communists. In Nov. 1951 some 900 former Nazis in East Berlin were allowed to establish the People's Freedom party. The rehabilitation of the survivors of the concentration camps and efforts at restitution of confiscated Jewish property were at-

tacked by neo-Nazi agitators in the West German republic. Many Germans who had acquired from the Nazis confiscated Jewish houses, factories and other businesses were reluctant to return them to their rightful owners, and formed protective associations Within a decade after the war, however, all to resist restitution. the camps for displaced persons had been emptied of their Jewish inmates by emigration to Israel, the United States and other countries.

The

last

camp, at Fohrenbach, was closed in 1956.

Resti-

tution and reparation proceedings likewise proceeded with respect to individual claimants as well as to the vast property to which there were no heirs. They culminated in the Luxembourg agree-

between Germany, on the one hand, and the state of Israel and the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany, representing the leading Jewish organizations in the free world, on the other hand, whereby Germany promised to deliver to Israel in the course of 12 to 14 years goods valued at $822,000,000 (of which $107,000,000 was to be used for the indemnification of Jewish victims residing outside Israel). This agreement as well as internationally supported attempts at re-

ment

of Sept. 10, 1952,

storing Jewish property in other formerly Nazi-occupied countries were cited by anti-Semitic agitators as proofs of Jewish world

Incidents affecting Jewish war orphans served to Foster embitter relations between Jews and their neighbours. parents who had saved Jewish children whose parents had been deported, and raised them in the Christian faith, on several occasions defied court orders to restore the children to their Jewish All through these years anti-Semitic propaganda conrelatives.

machinations.

tinued.

The most persistent Jew-baiting French periodicals, the weekly Aspects de France, Rivarol and La Nation jrancaise, in the early 1960s had a combined circulation of only 105,000. The monthly Defense de I'Occident and Europe Action (the latter launched in Politically, antihad much smaller circulations. Jan. 1963 Semitism was ineffective in France after World War II, in spite of the possibilities opened up by the powerful right-wing surge during the Algerian war and by the brief prominence of Pierre Poujade's tax-protest movement (he won 12.1% of the vote in 1

the parliamentary elections of Jan. 1956). Apart from local anti-Semitic publications there was a considerable interterritorial exchange of Jew-baiting literature. The Swedish pro-Nazi Einar Aberg attracted particular attention in

Europe and America, although his influence in the Scandinavian countries was negligible, particularly after he was condemned to A Russian emigre group in Munich, the prison in June 1954. St. George's Brotherhood for National and Patriotic Enlightenment (RONDD), likewise had an extensive mailing list in many

The Malmo, Swed., countries.

international congress of anti-Semites meeting in in 1951, attracted more notice because of its

disavowal of Nazi

affiliations

than because of

character.

Behind the "Iron Curtain."

its

representative

Semitism occurred in the Soviet Union and its European satellites beginning in 1948. With the progressive deterioration of interAllied relations and the outbreak of the Korean War, the Soviet Union began to view the Jewish population as a potentially subversive group. Journalistic spokesmen for the regime, including the Jew Ilya Ehrenburg, began attacking the Jews for their "cosmopolitanism" and their connections with western co-religionists. Although in Nov. 1947 the Soviet Union joined the United States and other powers in voting at the United Nations for the partition of Palestine and the establishment of the state of Israel (Soviet main interest being to remove British influence from the middle east), the U.S.S.R. distrusted Russian Jewry's "nationalistic" attachment to the new state. These accusations were followed by the deportation of thousands of Jews, including most Yiddish writers and other intellectuals, to Siberian labour camps. All organs of Jewish opinion and almost all Jewish cultural institutions were In 1952 Jews were withdrawn from the Soviet army of closed. occupation in East Germany, and the Soviet Encyclopaedia dropped the names of Jewish scientists, writers and artists listed Finally, a number of leading Jewish doctors in the 1947 edition. in Moscow were accused of plotting to poison Stalin and other The evidently intended large-scale persecution of Jews leaders. was interrupted, however, by Stalin's death (1953). The new regime thereupon declared the doctors to have been victims of charges falsified by L. P. Beria, head of the secret police. The ensuing relaxation of anti-Jewish agitation, however, was neither all-embracing nor enduring. Though the Soviet government has been consistently hostile to all religions, it seemed clear during the late 1950s and 1960s that policy to obliterate not only the practice of Judaism but also a Jewish congregations were Jewish culture was in operation. not permitted to form regional or national associations; necessary religious articles could not be manufactured; facilities for rabbinical training were practically eliminated; and the Hebrew language, essential for understanding and participating in religious

had not been since 1917). was being curtailed. In May 1961 the death penalty was extended to "economic crimes"; by March 1963, 58 trials had been held for such crimes, more than half of them involving Jews. Newspaper reports of the trials made a point of emphasizing defendants' Jewishness by dwelling on Jewish-sounding names, etc. Among the satellite countries, Poland and Rumania maintained their deep-rooted anti-Semitic heritage. Although the Jewish population of Poland had dwindled to some 90,000 (in the new geographic boundaries) in 1945, the animosities, strengthened by resentment of claims for restitution of property made by the few Jews who returned from the Soviet Union, led to numerous riots, culminating in the Kielce pogrom of July 1946. More than S00 Jews lost their lives in the first two years after the liberation. The government, in which the Communists played an increasingly dominant role, at first opposed anti-Semitism and supported the newly formed League to Combat Racism. But this very attitude, combined with the presence of a number of Jews in the highest

services, could not be taught

(as

Participation by Jews in public

it

life

Communist

echelons of the Polish

likewise

party, intensified

the

anti-

Jewish agitation among rightist groups. By 1948, however, when the Communists secured full control, the Soviet attitude was fully adopted, leading to persecution of Zionists and suppression of most Jewish cultural activities. Jewish "nationalism" was now equated with "anti-gentilism." This policy of suppression was

moderated slightly upon the return of Wladyslaw Gomulka to power in 1956 and the adoption of a somewhat more independent policy toward the Soviet regime, although this upheaval had also resulted in the demotion of several influential Jewish Stalinists. The 20th anniversary of the uprising of the Warsaw ghetto was celebrated solemnly throughout Poland in 1963, with the government participating. In Rumania, too, the progressive seizure of power by the Communists was accompanied by the persecution of "Zionists" and the suppression of

all

Jewish cultural activity. The early rush was checked, and thousands of Zionist

of Jewish emigres to Israel

—A

sharp

turn

toward

anti-

leaders were

condemned

to long prison terms.

Ultimately, leading

ANTI-SEMITISM

89 and made pronouncements against

Jewish Communists, among them the foreign minister, Ana But in Rumania, too, the Pauker, were removed from office. death of Stalin led to some moderation of the anti-Jewish policies. Soviet policies were those changing Equally reflective of the pursued by Czechoslovakia and Hungary. In Slovakia the heritage of the Tiso regime led to many assaults on Jews in Bratislava and elsewhere in the first postwar years. In Bohemia and Moravia, on the other hand, the Jews were often accused of having been agents The restitution of Jewish property was opof Germanization. posed not only by the new owners but also by labour unions and the bureaucracy, which wished to maintain state ownership of ex-

the

Under the influence of the Soviet policies, numerous Jews serving in the Communist party leadership, diplomatic posts, etc., lost their positions, and some even The trial and execution in Nov. 1952 of Rudolf their lives. Slansky, the former secretary of the party, and several of his Jewish associates had overtly anti-Semitic aspects. In Hungary similar developments were aggravated by numerous deportations of citizens from Budapest and provincial cities to labour camps in the Soviet Union in 1951-52. These exiles included a disproportionate number of Jews (in Dec. 1951 the Vatican radio estimated that there had been 14,000 Jews among the 38,000 deportees from Budapest alone). Jews also comprised a

most persistently those of Gerald L. K. Smith and Conde McGinley, leader of the Common Sense group of Union, N.J., both of

propriated holdings. finally the

very large proportion of victims of the successive Communist purges and of the repression of the Hungarian revolt of 1956, although many thousands succeeded in escaping. A similar exodus had taken place from East Germany, especially the eastern sector of Berlin, in 1953, when anti-Jewish purges had revealed that that country, too, had subscribed to policies of the U.S.S.R. Middle East. Since the Arabs regard themselves as Semites,

—

Arab torial

hostility to Israel is primarily political, a result of the terri-

and refugee problems, and not

racial.

It resulted,

however,

not only in a world-wide anti-Zionist propaganda but also in many anti-Jewish measures because of the assumption that Jews generally support Zionism. Under the guise of suppressing illegal Zionism the Iraqi and Syrian governments instituted a persecution of all Jews. As a result of the ensuing mass migrations, the Jewish population in Iraq dwindled from 130,000 to 6,000 and that of Syria from 25,000 to 3,000 in the

first

four years after the rise of

new state. In Egypt, where even the revolutionary regime of Gamal Abd-al-Nasser professed to distinguish sharply between Jews and Zionists, all restraints were removed during the Sinai campaign in the autumn of 1956. Confiscations of Jewish property and more or less enforced emigration further reduced the number of Jewish inhabitants, which had already dwindled from the

75,000 in 1946 to 35,000 in 1953; by 1963 Jews in Egypt were estimated to number no more than 4,000. At the same time the various propaganda services of the Arab league in the western countries often indulged in accusations

Jews and Judaism generally and in many cases worked Some Arab nationalists felt that by thus undermining the power and influence of the local Jewish communities they might weaken the support extended to Israel by the western powers. The member states of the Arab league also proclaimed an economic boycott of Israel and even boycotted

against

with local anti-Semites.

firms trading with the

—

new

state.

South Africa. In South Africa the Jewish population was menaced, many leaders of the dominant Nationalist party having made anti-Jewish and pro-Nazi statements before and during the war. However, the government of Daniel Malan, soon after coming to power 1948), reassured the Jewish citizens that it intended (

adhere scrupulously to the principle of constitutional equality. An official list of 2,300 prohibited publications issued in July 1956 included the Protocols and several other anti-Semitic tracts. The government's growing friendship with Israel, since both countries felt threatened by the African and pan-Arab propaganda emanating from Egypt, also benefited the local Jewish population. But in 1961 Israel joined the Afro-Asian states and the Soviet bloc in a General Assembly motion to censure South Africa for its apartheid policy, and thereafter relations between the two countries deteriorated. Though the South African government made a firm distinction between the country's Jewish community and to

UN

state

of

Israel,

anti-

Semitism that were generally supported, anti-Semitic groups increased their activities, especially through circulation of Einar Aberg pamphlets. Western Hemisphere and British Commonwealth. In the United States anti-Semitic agitation by what Pres. Franklin D.

—

Roosevelt had called the "lunatic fringe" greatly diminished after the war. William Dudley Pelley was sentenced to a prison term of IS years. The German Bund disintegrated, although there were However, there still a few attempts to revive its Nazi program. was a fairly steady flow of anti-Jewish periodicals and pamphlets,

whom

supplied hate literature to other organizations. intensification of the movement for Negro civil rights in the late 1950s and 1960s created tensions and disturbances that provided good ground for a resurgence of anti-Semitic activity.

The

Especially prominent was the American Nazi party, whose antiSemitic publications were numerous and virulent. But U.S. antiSemitism more typically expressed itself under guises of patriotism or religiosity, or both, and these were seen in the activities of the

Klan; the National States Rights party, with its monthly Thunderbolt and reprints of such classical anti-Semitic literature as Arnold Leese's Jewish Ritual Murder and the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion; and the National Renaissance party, headed by James H. Madole, with its bimonthly National Renais-

Ku Klux

sance Bulletin. Native Argentinian anti-Semitism received a new impetus from the immigration of numerous Nazis, for whom the country became haven of refuge and who propagated their violent brand major a

Der Weg. They found a few However, even the Peron administration refrained from enacting any discriminatory legislation against Jews, and the later of anti-Semitism in a periodical,

listeners.

more

liberal regimes adhered to the principle of Jewish equality. In the 1960s, however, a strong wave of anti-Semitism swept Argentina, the result of several factors chief of which was undoubtedly the kidnapping of Adolf Eichmann by Israeli authorThis created ities, in violation of Argentinian territorial integrity. resentment, and a number of anti-Semitic outrages followed. In execution (May 31, 1962) ten serious the week after Eichmann's incidents occurred. Most of these could be traced to adolescent members of two neo-Fascist organizations, Tacuara and Guardia Restauradora Nacionalista, which in May 1963 were banned. Elsewhere in Latin America, anti-Semitism has never been prominent, even in such countries as Uruguay, Brazil and Mexico, which have sizable Jewish populations. The 1962 incidents in Argentina touched off a few minor outrages in Brazil and Uruguay against which measures were promptly taken. The Jewish populations of the British Commonwealth suffered relatively little from anti-Semitism, despite tension in regard to the Palestine situation in 1946^48. Occasional outrages, such as damage to several synagogues in and around London on the night of the Day of Atonement, 1948, were generally condemned by public opinion. In the summer of 1962 disorders took place in Trafalgar square, London, during meetings of Colin Jordan's National Socialist movement, Sir Oswald Mosley's Union movement and Andrew Fountaine's British National party, the three main As a result of a police raid on fascist organizations in Britain. the National Socialist movement headquarters thereafter, Jordan and three supporters were convicted of violating the Public Order act and sentenced to prison terms. The conviction, on appeal, was sustained by the High court in March 1963, the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Parker, declaring that guarantees of free speech do not include the right to "threaten, be abusive or insult [others] in the sense of hitting them by words." His decision led to debate over the desirability of further legislation to curb hate groups. In Canada, notwithstanding the dissemination of much antiJewish literature, both native and imported, several provincial legislatures passed laws prohibiting discrimination in employment, and generously responded to appeals for immigration of Hungarian In Australia the earlier opposition to refugees, including Jews. Jewish immigration gave way to a friendly attitude that found

;

ANTISEPTICS

9°

expression in the rejection by the vast majority of the occasional anti-Jewish publications, chief among which were those of Eric Butler's Social Credit movement and the New Times magazine. See also references under "Anti-Semitism" in the Index.

— For

trol infection in the

W

The America)! Jewish Year Book (1899 to date) Bernard (1952-58) Lazare, L'Antisemitisme, son histoire el ses causes, 2nd ed., 2 vol. Eng. trans., 1903); A. Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel Among the Na(1934; tions, Eng. trans. (1S95); Hugo Valentin, Antisemitism Historically and Critically Examined, Eng. trans. (1936); Koppel S. Pinson (ed.), Essays on Antisemitism (1942), 2nd ed. rev. (1946) J. W. Parkes, The Jewish Question (1941), The Jew and His Neighbour (1931) J. Graeber and S. H. Britt (eds.), Jews in a Gentile World (1942) M. Samuel, The Great Hatred (1940); Count Heinrich von CoudenhoveKalergi, Anti-Semitism Throughout the Ages, Eng. trans. (1935); F. Bernstein, Jew-Hate as a Sociological Problem, Eng. trans. (1951) Constantin Brunner, Der Judenhass und die Juden, 3rd ed. (1919); Gordon Willard Allport, The Nature oj Prejudice (1954); Eva G. Reichmann, Hostages oj Civilization: the Social Sources oj National Socialist Anti-Semitism (1951) Jules Isaac, Genese de I'antisimitisme; Malcolm Hay, The Foot of Pride: the Pressure essai historique (1956) Joshua oj Christendom on the People oj Israel for 1900 Years (1950) Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews (1943) Adolf Leschnitzer, The Magic Background oj Modern Anti-Semitism (1956) Jacques Maritain, A Christian Looks at the Jewish Question (1939) The Church and the Jews, a memorial issued by Catholic European scholars (1937) C. E. Silcox and G. M. Fischer, Catholics, Jews and Protestants: a Study oj Relationships in the United States and Canada (1934); Ralph Lord Roy, Apostles of Discord (1953) Committee of Jewish Delegations, The Pogroms in the Ukraine Under the Ukrainian Governments (1927) Leo Motzkin, La Campagne antisemitique en Pologne (1932); Simon Joshua Starr, "Jewish Segal, The New Poland and the Jews (1938) Citizenship in Rumania," Jewish Social Studies, vol. iii, pp. 57-80 (1941), "Italy's Antisemites," Jewish Social Studies, vol. i, pp. 105-124 (1939); H. Strack, The Jew and Human Sacrifice (1909); Abraham Heller, Die Lage der Juden in Russland von der M'drzr evolution 1917 bis zur Gegenwart (1935) A. Yarmolinsky, The Jews and Other Minor Nationalities Under the Soviets (1928); Otto Heller, Der Untergang des Judentums: Die Judenfrage, ihre Kritik, ihre Losung durch den Sozialismus (1931); I. Schapira, Der Antisemitismus in der franzbsischen Litcratur (1927); R. F. Byrnes, Antisemitism in Modern France, vol. i (1950) L. J. Levinger, The Causes of Anti-Semitism in the United States (1925); Donald S. Strong, Organized Anti-Semitism in America: the Rise of Group Prejudice During the Decade 1910—10 General Jewish Editors of Fortune, Jews in America (1936) (1941) Council, Father Coughlin, His Facts and Arguments (1939); John R. Carlson, Under Cover (1943) South African Jewish Board of Deputies, The Anti-Jewish Movements in South Africa (1936) Kurt Wawrzinek, Die Entstehung der deutschen Antisemitenparteien, 1873-1890 (1927) Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963); O. I. Janowsky and M. M. Fagen, International Aspects of German Racial Policies (1937); Boris Shub (ed.), Hitler's Ten-Year War on the Jews (1943) A. Folkmann and S. Szende, The Promise Hitler Kept (1945); Leon Poliakov, Harvest of Hate, Eng. Leon Poliakov trans. (1954), Histoire de I'antisemitisme, vol. i (1955) and Josef Wulf, Das dritte Reich und die Juden: Dokumente und Aufsdtze (1955) Gerald Reitlinger, The Final Solution (1953) Philip Friedman (ed.), Martyrs and Fighters: the Epic of the Warsaw Ghetto (1954) Leo VV. Schwarz, The Redeemers: a Saga of the Years 19451952 (1953) Solomon M. Schwarz, Jews in the Soviet Union (1951) Peter Meyer et al., The Jews in the Soviet Satellites (1953), Studies in Prejudice, 5 vol. (1949-50); American Jewish Committee, Neo-Nazi and Nationalist Movements in East Germany (1952), Current AntiSemitic Activities Abroad (pamphlet, 1963) Anglo-Jewish Association, Germany's New Nazis (1952); R. Hilberg, The Destruction of the ;

;

human body occurred when Joseph

Lister

Lister), following the demonstrations

or yeasts, conceived the idea of interposing an antiseptic barrier

more

detailed bibliographies and also for the vast literature of anti-Semitic writings consult the article "AntisemitisJudaica, vol. ii, pp. 956-1104; S. M. Dubnow, mus," in Encyclopaedia eltgeschichte des jiidischen Volkes von seinen Uranfangen bis zur Salo 10 vol. (1925-29); W. Baron, A Social and Religious Gegenwart, History oj the Jews, 3 vol. (1937), 2nd ed. rev. and enlarged, vol. i-viii

Bibliography.

Lord

by Louis Pasteur that fermentation and putrefaction were caused by living bacteria (later

;

;

;

between injured

tissues

and the germs that might gain access from

an outside source. Lister employed carbolic acid in various forms both to control infection of intentional or accidental wounds and to sterilize surgical instruments. He thereby greatly reduced the risks and deaths from hospital sepsis. In hospital practice this principle of antisepsis was modified in favour of asepsis, in which potentially dangerous germs are denied access to susceptible tissues by the sterilization, usually by heat, of all instruments and dressings, the wearing of sterile gowns, masks and rubber gloves, and the disinfecting by chemical antiseptics of the skin around the site of operation.

—A very

Properties of Antiseptics. the power of

compounds possess also

exhibit properties

that

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

large

number but

killing bacteria,

may

of chemical

many

of

them

profoundly affect or entirely

Most antiseptics are general protoplasmic poisons and if used in sufficient concentration are harmful Thus an the body's cells and tissues as well as to bacteria. to antiseptic is most valuable in the disinfection of contaminated wounds or skin surfaces when there is a wide margin between When, however, an its bactericidal and toxic concentrations. prohibit their practical use.

be used to disinfect contaminated articles or and so chemical substances (usually called disinfectants) may be used for this latter purpose that cannot be applied to living tissues. Again, the activity of antiseptics, with the possible exception of the acridine dyes, is adversely affected by the presence of organic matter such as blood or serum. The degree of inactivation varies with different compounds and with the quantity of such material that is present. It is perhaps the most important factor

antiseptic excreta,

is

to

toxic properties are not important,

its

contributing to the difficulty of controlling the application of antiseptics.

wound

infection

by

;

Another difficulty is that different species of bacteria show great variation in their sensitivity to antiseptics in general or to any particular antiseptic; among the more resistant are the tubercle bacillus, bacterial spores and the blue pus bacillus, Pseu-

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

European Jews (1961).

(S.

W.B.; X.)

ANTISEPTICS.

Antiseptics are a group of widely differing chemical compounds possessing the property of either killing bacteria (bactericidal) or of preventing their multiplication (bacteriostatic). They are employed in medical practice with the ob-

combating bacterial infection of superficial instruments and infected material. A distinction is drawn in modern usage between antiseptics and chemotherapeutic agents, such as the antibiotics, sulfonamides and organic arsenical drugs, which are administered by mouth or by injection for the treatment of deep-seated or generalized infecject of preventing or tissues,

and

tions but

in the sterilization of

may

also be applied locally in the treatment or preven-

tion of superficial infections.

The

first rational

use of a chemical substance to prevent or con-

domonas pyocyanea, which prove very troublesome in superficial wounds and burns. Evaluation and Comparison of Antiseptics. The efficiency of an antiseptic must be measured in relation to three main

—

and temperature. It is desirable to know the minimum concentration at which an antiseptic will be factors: concentration, time

effective.

beyond

Some

antiseptics like phenol lose their activity sharply

a certain dilution, whereas mercurial preparations are

still

inhibitory to bacterial growth at very high dilutions. The time that an antiseptic takes to act will depend to some extent on its concentration, but the speed at which antiseptics kill bacteria varies considerably; thus the halogens (e.g., iodine and chlorine salts act quickly while the mercurials, the compounds of heavy )

metals and the antiseptic dyes are slowly acting antiseptics. Most antiseptics act more quickly with increase of temperature; e.g., the activity of the coal tar derivatives is doubled by a rise in Hypotemperature from that of a cool room to body heat. chlorites, on the other hand, are best used cold since they become more unstable at higher temperatures. Many attempts have been made to produce a satisfactory standard

method

None of these is enof comparison of antiseptics. owing to the impossibility of selecting a single

tirely satisfactory

yardstick by which the performance of an antiseptic under widely The best-known comparadiffering conditions may be judged. tive tests are the classical methods developed by S. Rideal and modified test introduced by Walker and the (1903) J. T. A. H. Chick and C. J. Martin (190S; see Bibliography). The principle employed in the Rideal-Walker method is the determination of the concentration of antiseptic that will kill a suspension of the typhoid bacillus in a given time, compared with the killing effi-

ciency

of

phenol

The bactericidal under similar conditions. may then be expressed as a etc. (the phenol coefficient), relative to the

activity of the antiseptic under test figure

of

2,5,10,

ANTISEPTICS efficiency of phenol,

which

represented as unity. The ChickMartin test employs a similar technique but is modified by the addition of known quantities of organic material. The inherent disadvantage of any such tests is that efficiency is only measured is

against one organism under a single set of conditions. Results show considerable variation if these conditions are altered and the test gives little guidance about how an antiseptic may be

expected to act under practical conditions.

The more modern approach

to the

the skin.

Use and Choice of Antiseptics.— If the antiseptic is to be used to disinfect instruments or infected material its toxicity is of minor importance and high concentrations may be used. Speed and efficiency of action and cost are the main considerations.

On

the other hand, for the disinfecting of skin and in the treatment or prophylaxis of wound infection, the degree of inactivation by organic material, the duration of effective action, the powers

and activity against a wide range of bacteria are major importance. Certain antiseptics, for example, 2% iodine and 70% ethyl alcohol, are particularly useful for the rapid and of penetration,

of

effective disinfection of the intact skin surfaces before operation

or injection; the antiseptic dyes such as the flavines

may

be used

wounds and minor injuries to prevent the infection. Once infection has occurred in an open

effectively in surgical

establishing of

wound

antiseptics are

the

fall in

much

for though they

less effective,

number

may

of bacteria, they usually lack the

ability to penetrate into the depths of the

by organic matter. Iodine, though toxic to living tissue, provides the most efficient form of skin disinfection, particularly when combined with 70% ethyl alcohol. Iodoform has been used for

wound

disinfection but

The Heavy Metals.

wound where

bacterial

growth is taking place. Besides, by inactivating the phagocytes and young tissue cells, antiseptics may interfere with the body's natural defenses and repair processes. It is because they have the properties of diffusion and lack of toxicity to living tissues and are not inactivated by organic matter that penicillin and sulfonamide preparations have yielded such excellent results when applied directly in the prevention and

is

ineffective.

—The

salts of

mercury,

silver,

copper and

have been used as antiseptics.

zinc

are unsuitable for use in

they are toxic

problem makes use of in vivo tests, in addition to test-tube methods, and thus tries to imitate the natural conditions that may be met in practice. For example, several antiseptics may be compared for their efficiency as skin disinfectants by tests on the skin of volunteers for such qualities as lethal effect against a wide range of organisms, speed and reliability of action and the absence of irritant effects on

produce a

91

if

used

The simple salts of mercury wound prophylaxis or therapy because

in bactericidal

concentration and are only

bacteriostatic in lower concentrations.

Complex organic mercury salts are more effective bactericides than the simple salts, are less affected by organic material, are less and may have some prophylactic value when applied to wounds. Ethyl alcohol is an excellent skin antiseptic, used in a 70% concentration with water. Industrial methylated spirit is 90%95% alcohol and should therefore be diluted to 70% for most effective use; its use as an antiseptic for the storage of insulin or other hypodermic syringes is not recommended, since sterilization cannot be guaranteed. The Coal Tar Derivatives. This group contains a large number of common antiseptics and disinfectants varying considerably in toxicity and efficiency. Phenol, or carbolic acid, is the least efficient and is highly toxic to tissues. The cresols, which are various forms of methylated phenol, are poorly soluble in water but toxic

—

they are somewhat stronger bactericides than phenol but only slightly less toxic. The black and white fluids are cresols, dissolved respectively in oils or gums, and are used mostly for the disinfection of excreta or contaminated materials. Xylenol, especially when combined with chlorine, is an effective general bactericide and is relatively nontoxic but is considerably affected by organic matter. The Dyes. The aniline dyes (e.g., brilliant green, gentian and crystal violet) are slow-acting antiseptics with considerable penetrative power but are rather selective in their activity and are are dissolved in soap;

—

toxic to tissues.

The are

acridine dyes {e.g., the flavines) also act slowly but they nontoxic and are inactivated very slightly by

practically

organic material.

They have been proved effective against infecwounds and have enjoyed considerable popuwound infection.

tion of experimental

larity in the control of

Soaps and Detergents. The soaps possess both a bactericidal and cleansing action and are of considerable value when used to prevent superficial infection, since thorough washing of the skin

Formalin (40% formaldehyde), sulfur dioxide and chlorine employed in gaseous form for the fumigation of sick rooms, the so-called terminal disinfection. Formalin vapour is a very efficient surface disinfectant for bedding, books and other articles and materials that may be deleteriously affected by heat sterilization. Care must be taken to maintain a sufficient concentration of the gas for a sufficient length of time by sealing all air outlets in the room or chamber where the materials or articles are being disinfected. A moist atmosphere and higher temperatures enhance its disinfectant action. Sulfur dioxide is less effective, and chlorine may tarnish or

results in a great diminution of the bacterial flora.

bleach.

treatment of wound infection. Types of Antiseptics. Antiseptics in

—

nine

main

are

common

use

fall

into

classes.

Acids and alkalis are of

little

practical importance because they

are either too caustic to tissues or are relatively inefficient bactericides.

Acetic acid

dressing wounds,

is

(vinegar), used for

many

centuries for

a possible exception.

—

Certain antihexachlorophene, may be incorporated in soaps. Detergents are of three types, the anionic, cationic and nonionic. The cationic detergents exhibit powerful antiseptic properties and are active against most types of bacteria, particularly the pyogenic cocci. They are relatively nontoxic when applied superficially, but a minority of people develop skin sensitivity to them. These cationic detergents combine cleansing with bactericidal activity but have the disadvantage that they are inactivated by soap and are partially inactivated by organic material. Oxidizing Agents. This group, of which the more important members are potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide, owe their activity to the liberation of oxygen. Their chief disadvantage is the high degree of inactivation by organic material. Because of this and its instability in weak solution, hydrogen peroxide is a relatively poor antiseptic. The halogens, chlorine and iodine, are both extremely effective agents and may be used in high dilution in the absence of organic septics, e.g.,

—

material. The hypochlorites, which are marketed in many proprietary preparations, owe their activity to the liberation of chlorine,

which acts as an oxidizing agent; they are quickly inactivated

Disinfection of polluted air by the administration in gaseous

form of certain chemical substances (e.g., hypochlorite, resorcinol or hexyl-resorcinol, glycols, lactic acid and its analogues) has not proved

to

be a practical proposition.

—

Bibliography. H. Chick and C. J. Martin, "The Principles Involved in the Standardisation of Disinfectants and the Influence of Organic Matter Upon the Germicidal Value," J. Hyg., 8:654 (1908) L. P. Garrod, "Antiseptics in Wound Infection," Lancet (1940) E. C. McCulloch, Disinfection and Sterilisation, 2nd ed. (1945); S. Rideal and J. T. A. Walker, "The Standardisation of Disinfectants." /. R. sanit. Inst., 21:424 (1903) A. D. Gardner, "Rapid Disinfection of Clean Unwashed Skin," Lancet, 2:760 (1948). (R. Ck.; C. R. K.) ;

;

;

Germicidal and Fungicidal Lamps.

—The

most suitable

electromagnetic radiation for use in germicidal and fungicidal lamps is ultraviolet in the region of 2650 A. The most practical sources are low-pressure mercury vapour lamps, made of glasses capable of transmitting ultraviolet, which have a peak emission (about 95%)

2537 A wave band. Quartz glass may also be used but requires screening with other types of glass or a jacket of acetic acid solution to prevent the emission of ozone-producing wavein the

lengths shorter than 2000 A.

ANTISTHENES—ANT LION

92 Hot cathode lamps

are of a construction similar to standard

fluorescent lamps and require the

same

electrical circuits for their

Their life is dependent on the life of the electrodes and the transparency of the glass. Cold cathode lamps require high voltages for starting and operating and, as the electrodes do not operation.

require heating, their life is long. High intensity lamps combine the characteristics of the other two, requiring high voltages for Their starting and subsequently operating with hot cathodes. is their high ultraviolet output per rated lamp almost double that of the hot cathode tube; however, they share the same tendency to deteriorate. The germicidal properties of ultraviolet Clinical Application. lamps help to control cross-infection by the sterilization of air, the aim being to administer a lethal dose of radiation to the maximum number of air-borne organisms without endangering human skin or eyes. This cannot be achieved satisfactorily by total irradiation of a room or part of a room, but some success has been obtained by placing high-intensity ultraviolet sources at points of maximum air movement. The most popular application is the "ultraviolet curtain" across passages and doors, while organisms within the room are affected by the rapid recirculation of the room

principal advantage

watt, which

is

—

air past a shielded ultraviolet source.

See also references under "Antiseptics"

in the Index.

(H. M. D.) an advanced age), Greek philosopher, of Athens, seems to have been converted from the study of rhetoric to that of philosophy by the influence of his friend Socrates. Tradition affirmed that Antisthenes taught in an exercise place called Cynosarges, being debarred as the son of a Thracian mother from other Athenian gymnasiums; and that for this reason his philosophy was called Cynicism (see Cynics). The real inventor of the Cynic way of life was Diogenes, but he acknowledged an indebtedness to Antisthenes, whose views on morality he presumably learned from his numerous writings. Antisthenes was a true Socratic in maintaining the supreme value of virtue and that it could be taught, but he was more individual in welcoming his own poverty as giving freedom and in condemning all pleasure but the satisfaction of hard work. That he held up Hercules and Cyrus as models is an example of his custom of turning mythology to edification, some of which

ANTISTHENES

(d. c.

365

b.c. at

found its way into the commentaries on Homer. As a Socratic, he became interested in the nature of definition and, more widely, The grounds for his in the possibility of significant predication. extreme views ("it is not possible to contradict") can only be guessed at modern writers have called in aid various passages in Plato which they suppose to allude to him. (F. H. Sh.) ANTISTROPHE. The ancient Greek choral ode (q.v.), which has been imitated in modern European languages, is composed of one or more sets of three "stanzas" named strophe, antistrophe and epode. The strophe and antistrophe are of identical ;

metrical structure.

ANTITOXIN, a substance present in the bloodstream which combats and neutralizes the toxins (poisons) produced by microThe inoculation of man. and a variety of experimental animals, with toxin or toxoid (a toxin in which toxicity has been destroyed but which still retains its antigenic properties) results in the appearance, three to five weeks later, of a capacity of the blood serum specifically to neutralize the toxin (q.v.). This capacity is demonstrable in the living animal as an immunity to the effects of an amount of toxin lethal to the normal animal; it is also demonstrable by mixing a lethal dose of toxin with immune serum in a test tube and then inoculating an animal with the mixture to show that it is no longer toxic (see Immunity organisms.

(toxin-antitoxin flocculation) fied

serum globulin

is

and

antitoxin.

is

usually associated with the

gamma

no longer

toxic.

This modi-

of the appropriate

body tissues results in an effecimmunity to the toxemias caused by bacteria, especially diphtheria and tetanus (qq.v.). Man may form his own antitoxin in response to inoculation antitoxin in the blood and other tive

with toxoid (active immunity), or he may be made temporarily passively immune by inoculation with antitoxic serum taken from an immunized animal. See Immunity and Immunization; Serum Therapy; Toxin;

Vaccination; Vaccine Therapy; Venom; see also references under "Antitoxin" in the Index. see Anzio.

ANTIUM: ANTLER, the name given to the solid bony outgrowths on

heads of deer, which are shed and renewed each year. see

For

the

details

Deer.

ANT

LION,

the

name

given to insects (order Neuroptera)

of the family Myrmeleonidae, with relatively short and clubbed

antennae and four narrow, densely net-veined wings which are usually marked with brown or black. The adult insects are mostly nocturnal and are believed to be carnivorous. In the United States, where the ant lion is locally known as doodlebug, about 65 species occur. The best-known species, Myrmeleon jormicarius, which matures in the late summer, occurs in many European countries, though like the rest of this group it does not occur in England. Strictly speaking, however, the term "ant lion" applies to the larval form because of its peculiar and forbidding appearance and its skilful and unique manner of trapping prey by means of a pitfall. The sandy-gray abdomen is oval and covered with warts and bristles; the prothorax forms a mobile neck for the large square head, which carries a pair of long and powerful toothed mandibles. The ant lion lays its trap in dry and sandy soil. Having marked out the chosen site by a circular groove, it starts to crawl backward, using its abdomen as a plow to shovel up the soil. By the aid of one front leg it places consecutive heaps of loosened particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws each little pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus, it gradually works When this is its way from the circumference toward the centre. reached and the pit completed, the larva settles down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface. Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand they afford an insecure foothold to any small insect that ventures over the edge. Slipping to the bottom, the prey is immediately seized by the lurking ant lion; or if it gains a hold and attempts to scramble up the treacherous walls of the pit, it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are tossed By means of similar head jerks at it from below by the larva. the skins of insects sucked dry of their contents are thrown out of the pit. A full-grown larva digs a pit about two inches deep and three inches wide at the edge. The larva makes a globular case of sand stuck together with fine silk, spun, it is said, from a slender spinneret at the posterior end of the body. It remains in this cocoon until the completion of the transformation into the sexually mature insect, which then

and Immunization). The ability of the serum to neutralize toxin is attributable to the presence of a new substance, antitoxin. Antitoxin, like other antibodies,

is

The presence

>

*

globulin frac-

serum protein and is produced in response to the antigenic stimulus provided by the inoculation of toxin or toxoid. This stimulus alters the normal processes of synthesis of globulin; the globulin is modified in such a way that it combines specifically with the toxin to give a complex that precipitates in the test tube tion of

ANT LION (MYRMELEON FORMICARIUS) IN TWO STAGES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT: (LEFT) THE LARVAL STAGE; (RIGHT) THE PUPAL STAGE DURING A BALL OF SAND OF ITS OWN MAKING

WHICH THE PUPA MATURES WITHIN

ANTOFAGASTA—ANTONELLO pupal skin behind. In certain species of Myrmeleonidae, such as Dendroleon panthernis, the larva, although resembling that of Myrmeleon structurally, makes no pitfall, but seizes passing prey from any

emerges from the

nook or crevice

in

case, leaving the

which

it

was occupied by Chilean forces at the outset of the War of the Pacific (1879-82), ceded by Bolivia in 1884 and created a Chilean province four years later. Present boundaries were fixed in 1938. Pop. (1960) 214,090 with about It

a third concentrated in the capital city of Antofagasta.

Lesser administrative and urban centres are Tocopilla (pop. [1959 est.] 24,555), Calama ([1952] 13.000) and Taltal (5.247). The province leads Chile in mining, production in the early 1960s being

35% of national output. Copper from Chuquiand nitrates and iodine from Maria Elena and Pedro de Valdivia represent major portions of Chilean production, as does the production of sulfur, guano, gold and silver. The Inter-American highway, air service and railways link the province with the rest of Chile. Railways also enter Bolivia and valued at about

camata

(q.v.)

Argentina.

See also Atacama Desert. (J. T.) capital of the northern province and department of the same name, and a major Pacific port. Pop. (1959 est. 79,017. Prior to 1879 it was in Bolivian territory. The city occupies a terrace at the base of bleak coastal mountains. Early growth resulted from the nitrate boom that began in 1S68 and from the Caracoles silver strike of 1870, the year in which Supplying the mines and Antofagasta's name became official. embarking copper and sulfur continue to be major functions of the city. Besides foundries and shops, ore concentrating and sulfuric acid manufacturing facilities, the city's industry is concerned with food and beverage processing and fish-meal producRail communications with the mines date from 1873. Extion. tension of the service to Oruro, Bol., occurred in 1879. I n 1910 the railway was linked to the main Chilean system; in 1948 a line was opened into the Argentinian northwest with the hope of drawing food supplies and transit freight to the port city. One of Antofagasta's best-known institutions is the school of mines, founded in 1918. A turf club, modern hotel, municipal beach and various public gardens are tourist attractions. (J. T.)

ANTOFAGASTA, )

ANDRE

ANTOINE, (1858-1943), French actor, manager and critic, was born at Limoges and in his early years was a clerk. But he was an enthusiastic amateur actor, and in 1887 he founded in Paris the Theatre Libre ("free theatre") in order to realize his ideas as to the proper development of dramatic art. In this undertaking he had the support of Emile Zola, who championed Antoine's efforts for the replacement on the Parisian stage of the "well-made play" by something nearer the actualities of life. Many other writers backed the campaign, and Antoine began to produce the great series of naturalistic plays by Eugene Brieux, Francois de Curel, Georges de Porto-Riche and Ibsen that made his theatre famous.

Great as was the Theatre Libre's importance in Paris and in France, it was perhaps still greater in other countries. The Freie Biihne of Berlin, the Independent theatre in London and other such institutions descended from it. For an account of his work see

Drama: The Modern National Drama: French Drama.

In 1894 Antoine gave up the direction of the Theatre Libre to become connected with the Gymnase. Later, after a season (1896) with the Odeon, he opened his own theatre, the Theatre Antoine, in 1897. He again became associated with the Odeon in 1906, but in 1913 resigned to become a drama critic. He died in Brestin, Brittany. Oct. 21, 1943. See S. M. VVaxman, Antoine and the Theatre Libre (1926).

ANTONELLI, GIACOMO

fallen

93

and the revolutionary situation

at

Rome had

led

showed much courage in remaining with Pius IX at the Quirinal and in planning the pope's flight to Gaeta, where Antonelli was made acting secreto the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi in 1848, he

tary of state.

shelters.

ANTOFAGASTA, a province in the desert of northern Chile. Area: 47.515 sq.mi.

ments had

(1806-1876), Italian cardinal,

secretary of state to Pope Pius IX (q.v.), was born at Sonnino on April 2, 1806. He entered public affairs and held various offices in the papal states. Though never ordained priest, he was created cardinal by Pius IX in 1847, and became in 1848 premier of the papal states, which were then for the first time governed by a democratic constitution. After his own and succeeding govern-

After the pope's return to Rome in 1850, Antonelli was appointed officially to the post of secretary of state, which he re-

He remained in general control of the government of the papal states until their elimination in 1870, and he was in charge of the pope's relations with other governments until 1876. His policy was to avoid further attempts to introduce constitutional government into the papal states, because it was impossible either to distinguish the pope's spiritual from his temporal power or to subject the former to a lay assembly. As an able diplomatic opportunist Antonelli knew that his only hope of tained until his death.

preserving the pope's temporal sovereignty over central Italy during the growing movement for Italian unity was to retain the

French government of Napoleon III, which had Rome after 1850. He was therefore opposed to the raising of a papal army which took place in i860, and to When the all quarrels, even of a religious character, with Paris. Piedmontese forces entered Rome in Sept. 1870 he requested them to extend their occupation to the "Leonine city" around the Vatican, to preserve order, and the papal army was disbanded. He died in the Vatican on Nov. 6, 1876. Though he served the pope with great loyalty for nearly 30 years, and foreign diplomats paid tribute to his courtesy and good sense, Antonelli was little mourned by the better men at Rome. The pope himself had come to dislike him because of the frequent reports of the impurity of his life, while the wealth which he had accumulated, especially in his collection of precious stones, had caused offense (E. E. Y. H.) to many. MESSINA (c. 1430-1479), Italian school of the early Venetian influenced the painter, who greatly Renaissance, partly by his use of Flemish technique, was born

good

will of the

retained a garrison in

ANTONELLO DA

probably about 1430 in Messina, Sicily. He received his training in Naples from Colantonio, whose art was based on Flemish and Provencal models, and studied Flemish works (notably of Jan van Eyck), of whose presence in Naples at that time there is documentary evidence; the influence of Jean Fouquet, Piero On della Francesca and Spanish painting may also be assumed. the other hand, the Netherlands visit affirmed by G. Vasari and the suggested encounter with Petrus Christus in Milan in 1456 may be ruled out. The earliest known works, a "Crucifixion" (Sibiu) and "St. Jerome in His Study" (National gallery, London), already show Antonello's

combination of Flemish technique and realism with clarity and simplicity of spatial arrangement and modeling in the Italian manner. From 1457 to 1474 Antonello is known to have been in Messina. In his earliest dated and signed work, the "Salvator Mundi" of 1465 (National gallery, London), characteristic

his style is fully developed.

A

"Ecce Homo," the "Madonna and Child" in Washington, D.C., the "Virgin of the Annunciation" in Munich and in Palermo and several vigorous male portraits date from between 1470 and 1474. The chief works of this period are

number

of renderings of

polyptych of 1473 for S. Gregorio (Messina) and the "Annunciation" of 1474 (Syracuse). .. St sebastian .. by antonello da Of two "Crucifixions," both with messina. in the gemaldegalerie. backgrounds, dated Dresden. Germany landscape the

ANTONESCU— ANTONINUS

9+

London, was probably and that in the Antwerp museum, in Venice. From 1475 to 147b Antonello was in Venice and Milan. His altarpiece for S. Cassiano in Venice, fragments of which are in the Vienna museum, clearly influenced Venetian painters. The "Dead Christ With Angels" (Venice), some portraits and the full-length "St. Sebastian" (Dresden) were done in Venice. In the "St. Sebastian," his most mature work, Antonello achieved a synthesis of clearly defined space, monumental, plastic form and luminous colour, which was one of the most decisive influences on the evolution of Venetian painting down to Giorgione's day. In 1477 he was again in Messina, where he died between Feb. 14 and 25, 1479. 1475,

the one in

painted

the National

gallery,

in Sicily

—

Bibliography. J. Lauts, "Antonello da Messina," Jahrb. d.. KunstG. hist. Slgen. in Wien, NS. vii (1933), Antonello da Messina (1941) St. Bottari, Vigni, Tutta la Pittura di Antonello da Messina (1952) Antonello da Messina (1953). (J. Ls.) ;

;

ANTONESCU, ION (1882-1946), Rumanian army officer and statesman, head of the pro-German government during World War II, was born at Pitesti on June 15, 1882. After service in World War I, he was military attache in Paris and later in London. He returned to Rumania in 1930 and for a year (1934) was chief His nationalist and anti-Communist sentiof the general staff. ments led him to sympathy with the anti-Semitic National Christian party of Octavian Goga and even with the Iron Guard of Appointed minister of defense in the Goga C. Zelea Codreanu. cabinet in Dec. 1937, he retained the post in Miron Cristea's government (Feb. 1938), but was dropped a month later because of his Guardist leanings. The territorial losses imposed on Rumania in 1940 by the U.S.S.R., Germany and Italy, before Rumania's entry into World War II, led to disorders and undermined the position of King Carol, who appointed Antonescu prime minister on Sept. 4, 1940, as a known patriot who was yet acceptable to the Germans. Antonescu agreed on condition that Carol abdicate in favour of his son Michael, and Antonescu became conducator of Rumania. At first he worked with the Guardists, but their excesses roused indignation, and in Jan. 1941 he crushed them (with the help of the German troops that he had allowed into Rumania Having signed the Tripartite pact in Nov. as "instructors"). 1940, he declared war on the U.S.S.R. as Germany's ally in June 1941, becoming himself generalissimo. The country supported his campaign for the recovery of Bessarabia, but there was opposition to his creation of a Rumanian province (Transnistria) on Ukrainian territory. In Aug. 1941 he was made marshal. With the success of the Soviet counter offensive in 1944, Rumanian circles opposed to Antonescu started secret negotiations with the Allies.

King Michael had him arrested during his coup d'etat of Aug. 23, 1944. Sentenced to death as a war criminal by the Rumanian Communist people's court, Antonescu was executed near Ft. Jilava on June 1, 1946. (B. Br.)

ANTONINE WALL,

a

Roman

frontier barrier in Britain,

extending for 36^ mi. across Scotland from Bridgeness on the Firth of Forth to Old Kilpatrick on the river Clyde, was built in ad. 142 for the emperor Antoninus Pius by Lollius Urbicus, governor of Britain. Built of coursed turfwork on a kerbed rubble bottoming, it was 14-16 ft. wide and probably 10 ft. high, exclusive of any timber crenelation. A ditch 40 ft. wide and over 12 ft. deep ran 20 ft. or more in front, and about 50 yd. to the rear

was

The

a military road.

was controlled from a series of 19 forts placed at intwo miles; also from fortlets, four of which are now known. Two pairs of stances for fire signals faced north toward Stirling, one pair south toward mid-Clydesdale. The flanks of the wall were guarded by forts at Cramond and Inveresk on the Forth, and at Bishopton, north of Paisley, on the Clyde, while at Lurg moor, south of Gourock, there was a signal station. A road ran northward as far as Perth equipped with signal stations and forts; the wall was thus the base of a line of penetration which secured Fife and watched Strathmore. The wall was built by the 2nd, 6th and 20th legions. It was garrisoned by auxiliary units, sometimes part mounted and sometimes subdivided among the smaller forts, from which combined sallies could trap attackers against the barrier. Occupation was wall

tervals of roughly

interrupted during the northern revolt of 155-158; and the wall by Dio Cassius (Historia Romana, lxxii, 8) to have been broken by enemy attack in 184 was probably this one. It was systematically evacuated not later than 196. Archaeologists have said

found evidence of one complete reconstruction, and occasional signs of a second; but historical correlation has yet been achieved

only at Mumrills, linking the of 155-158.

BIBUOCRAPHY.

—

Sir

first

reconstruction with the events

George Macdonald, The

Roman

Wall

in Scot-

land, 2nd ed. (1934) R. G. Collingwood and J. N. L. Myres, Roman Britain and the English Settlements, 2nd ed. (1937) I. A. Richmond, Roman Britain (1955); Anne S. Robertson, An Antonine Fort (1957). (I. A. Rd.) ;

;

.

.

.

ANTONINUS,

SAINT (Antonio Plerozzi or de' Forciglioni) (1389-1459), archbishop of Florence, theologian and economist, is regarded as one of the founders of modern moral theology and Christian social ethics. Born in Florence, he there joined the Dominican order (1405), in which he became a leader movement, especially at Fiesole. As vicar of the Observants he founded the convent of San Marco, Florence, of the Observant

1436 and was prior (1439-44) while Fta Angelico painted. He attended the Council of Florence (1439-45) and became archbishop in 1446. He died at Montughi, Florence, on May 2, 1459, much beloved for his charity. His principal work is the Summa moralis. He was canonized in 1523, and his feast day is May 10. See the standard biography, R. Morcay, S. Antonin (1914) B. Jarrett, St. Antonino and Mediaeval Economics (1914). (S. Bh.) in

;

ANTONINUS PIUS

(Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus) (a.d. 86-161), Roman emperor a.d. 138-161, was born on Sept. 19, a.d. 86. He was grandson on the father's side of Aurelius Fulvus (twice consul, and urban prefect), on the mother's side of Arrius Antoninus (also twice consul) his wife was a daughter of Annius Verus (three times consul). By further ties he was linked to most of the new governing class of Rome, the nobility who had been brought to the fore by the Flavian emperors. Antoninus had a distinguished public career: he was consul in 120, and later one of the former consuls charged by Hadrian with judicial administration in Italy; he governed the province of Asia, and after his governorship he was a frequent adviser of the emperor. In view of this it is surprising that he was not Hadrian's first choice as successor to the principate. Only in 138, faute de niieux, was he adopted by Hadrian and indicated as successor, and then only as a place-warmer for the youths Annius Verus and Ceionius Commodus (the future emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus respectively), whom he in his turn adopted. Shortly afterward Hadrian died and Antoninus became emperor. He persuaded a reluctant senate to offer the usual divine honours to his predecessor, though it is probably not solely for this dutiful act ;

that he received the

Though

name

Pius.

the literary authorities for Antoninus' principate are it need not be doubted that few striking Tendencies of a general kind were at work,

exceptionally scanty,

events happened.

and the decline of local initiaIn the first decade of Antoninus' reign there was a major rebellion in north Britain. Hadrian's wall had proved inadequate, and in 141 the situation was serious. The revolt was especially the growth of bureaucracy tive in the provinces.

overcome by Lollius Urbicus, the governor, who then built the turf wall known as the Antonine wall (q.v.) between the Firths of Clyde and Forth. In the second decade there was more trouble in Mauretania, Germany, Dacia and Egypt; but the barbarian invasions had not yet begun, and the standing army was still adequate to its tasks. Parthia was kept at peace by negotiation, as in Hadrian's time. When Antoninus' wife Faustina died in 140, she received divine honours, and an institution for bringing up the daughters of poor citizens, the puellae Fausti?iianae, was founded to her memory. Unlike Hadrian, Antoninus did not travel. He stayed in Rome and governed with the advice of those best qualified to give it. His personal contribution to Rome's development was not negligible it consisted of a wide-ranging program of legislation, not original in conception but covering the whole field of law, softening its harshness and removing its anomalies. Antoninus was a careful financial administrator and left the treasury in a sound

—

ANTONIO—ANTONIUS condition in spite of lavish largesses to the Roman plebs. In 143 or 144 the orator Aelius Aristides delivered his panegyric on

Roman peace, and celebrated the 900th anniversary of its traditional foundation. Antoninus died peacefully on March 7, 161, at Lorium just outside Rome, after giving to the tribune of the watch for Rome, 147

in

a notable tribute to the blessings of the

Rome

the day the password aequanimitas ("peace of mind").

He was

accorded divine honours. Bibliography. Life of Antoninus Pius in Scriptores Historiae Augustae ; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, i, 16 and vi, 30; M. Fronto, Letters, ed. by M. P. J. van den Hout (1954) P. von Rohden, "Aurelius," no. 138 in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie der classischen Altrrtitmswissenschaft, vol. ii (1896) E. Groag and A. Stein, Prosopographia imperii Romani, A 1513, 2nd ed. (1933) W. Hiittl, Antoninus Pius, 2 vol. (1933, 1936) P. Strack, Vntersuchungen zur rbmischen Reichsprdgung des 2. Jahrhunderts, iii (1937) J. H. Oliver, "The Ruling Power," Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc, new series xliii (1953) J. Beaujeu, La Religion romaine a Vapogee de I'empire (1955) M. Hammond, The Antonine Monarchy (1959). (J. A. Cr.) later

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

ANTONIO, Dom

(1531-1595), generally known as the Prior of Crato, claimant of the throne of Portugal, was the illegitimate son of Luis, duke of Beja, brother of John III of Portugal. He became head of the Order of St. John in Portugal and was endowed with the wealthy priory of Crato (1555). He accompanied John Ill's grandson and successor Sebastian to North Africa, where in the battle of the Three Kings near Alcazarquivir (1578) On his return to Sebastian was killed and Antonio captured. Portugal, his claim to be heir presumptive was not supported by Sebastian's successor Henry, the last surviving brother -of John III (see Portugal: History), nor by the council which governed Portugal for some months after Henry's death (Jan. 1580). Antonio was acclaimed king by his supporters in June 1580, but his possession of the crown was contested by Philip II of Spain whose army, under the duque de Alba, defeated Antonio outside Lisbon August.

in

Antonio then went to Paris. With French help he sent naval expeditions to the Azores, where he was still recognized as king, in 1582 and 1583, but they were defeated by Spanish squadrons. He next went to England where he enlisted the help of Elizabeth I. An English fleet effected a landing near Lisbon in support of AnImtonio in 1589, but the expedition proved a costly failure. poverished and in ill-health, Antonio returned to Paris, where he continued to make plans for further expeditions until his death on (Da. A. P.) Aug. 26, 1595. , ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684), bibliographer and first systematic historian of Spanish literature, was born in Seville on July 28 or 31, 1617, and died in Madrid on April 13, 1684. His Bibliotheca Hispana, in two parts (Nova, 1672; Vetus, 1696), a vast Latin bibliographical index of Peninsular and Spanish colonial

by a history from the reign of Augustus to 1500, marks the emergence of modern bibliography and the transformation of literary history from a branch of belles-lettres into a scholarly discipline. The division of the work at 1500 anticipates the establishment of the terminus ad quern for incunabula (q.v.). A second edition (1788; vol. i of the Nova wrongly dated 1783), with important additions from Antonio's manuscripts, is regularly consulted by scholars. The manuscript of the unpublished Bibliotheca Hispano-rabbinica is in the National library in Madrid. In his Censura de historias fabulosas (1742), Antonio applied writers after 1500, with critical evaluations, followed of Peninsular literature

his

special

skills

to

discrediting

certain

celebrated

historical

(F. S. R.)

forgeries.

ANTONIUS,

the

name

of an old plebeian family in ancient

Rome.

Marcus Antonius (143-87 B.C.), a great orator, vividly portrayed as a speaker in Cicero's De Ofatore. None of his speeches survives. Consul in 99 and censor in 97, he was a confirmed member of the optimates (families owing their prestige to wealth and repeated tenure of office in successive generations) and perished in the reign of terror that followed the capture of Rome by Marius and Cinna

in 87.

Marcus Antonius, in 74 b.c.

derisively

surnamed Creticus

son of the first-mentioned Marcus Antonius. and an inept naval commander, he was defeated

B.C.), elder

(d.

c.

72

Praetor in battle

95

by the Cretan pirates in 72 and died soon after. Gaius Antonius, derisively surnamed Hybrida (d. after 42 B.C.), younger son of the first-mentioned. Though expelled from the senate by the censors of 70 b.c, he was elected with Cicero to and commanded an army in Etruria against Catihe was thought by Cicero to be not unsympathetic. On his return to Rome after governing Macedonia he was prosecuted for extortion in 59, defended by Cicero, but condemned. He was later recalled from exile by Caesar, and was censor in 42. Gaius Antonius (d. 42 b.c), second son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, was legatus of Caesar in 49. In 43 he was captured in Apollonia by M. Junius Brutus, who had him executed in 42. Lucius Antonius (d. after 40 b.c), third son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, quaestor in Asia 50 B.C., tribune in 44 and consul in 41. He was defeated by Octavian in the Perusine War (41^0 be consul

in 63

with

whom

line,

B.C.).

Marcus Antonius (c. 82-30 b.c), Mark Antony, eldest son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, was, with Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, defeated by Octavian (later the emperor Augustus) in 31 B.C. in lic.

the last of the civil wars that destroyed the Roman repubthat is unfavourable in the historical tradition about

Much

him must be discounted as based on intemperate abuse by Cicero (q.v.) and on Octavian's propaganda during the war and his patronage of historical writing after it. Antony was on Caesar's staff in Gaul from 54 (in 52, as quaesand in 50 was elected augur and tribune for 49. He was one of the two obstructive tribunes who, after warning from the contor)

suls, fled to Caesar on Jan. 7, 49. Left in charge of Italy as propraetor in 49, he brought troops across to Caesar in Illyricum that winter and commanded the left wing at Pharsalus in 48. He was

master of the horse to Caesar as dictator in 48/47 but not after 46, when he and Caesar quarreled. In 44, when they were joint consuls, they were again at variance. He was detained at the door of the senate house when Caesar was murdered on March 15, 44, and Cicero never tired of saying that he should have been murdered too. In the hours and days that followed he controlled events with brilliant skill, securing Caesar's papers from his widow, taking possession of the treasure left by Caesar, preventing M. Aemilius Lepidus from bringing in his troops to attack Caesar's assassins on the capitol and, as presiding consul, engineering the compromise by which on March 17 the senate granted an amnesty to the assassins and at the same time confirmed Caesar's acts. His funeral oration over Caesar's body, probably on March 20, following the publication of Caesar's

won him immense popularity with the Roman populace, and he acquired a dangerous power when the senate made him sole judge of the authenticity of alleged "acts" of Caesar. will,

The return to Italy at the age of 18 of young Octavian, Caesar's great-nephew, whom he had adopted in his will and named as heir to his property, was a warning, for Octavian inherited the loyalty and astutely ingratiated himself with the senate. 2 by a popular bill Antony secured the government of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul for five years, with the legions then in Macedonia. With two of the four legions brought across to Brundisium that were loyal to him, he moved north to evict of Caesar's troops

On June

Decimus Junius Brutus, one of the assassins, from Cisalpine Gaul. On April 14, 43, he was defeated at the battle of Forum Gallorum by a Roman army that had come to Brutus' relief, commanded by the two consuls, with Octavian in subordinate command. Antony escaped across the Alps, where the three proconsuls Gaius Asinius Pollio, Lepidus and Lucius Munatius Plancus, with their armies, joined him, and in late October Octavian, then consul, met him at Bononia (Bologna) and the triumvirate of Antony, Lepidus and Octavian was formed. It was later regularized by a law (the lex Titia) at

Rome.

command and provinces for which Cicero was a victim, fol42 the defeat of Brutus and Cassius (qq.v.) at Philippi, the whole credit for the victory resting with Antony. Octavian returned to Italy to supervise the demobilization of troops; to fight an army commanded by Antony's third wife, Fulvia, daughter of M. Fulvius Bambalio and his brother Lucius The

triumvirs were granted military

five years.

The

lowed, as did

in

proscriptions, of

ANTONOMASIA— ANTRIM

96

(the Perusine War); and to face a corn shortage at Rome occasioned by the piracy of Sextus Pompeius. Antony remained to settle problems in the east, summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus in 41, fell in love with her and lived with her through the winter in

The Parthians then invaded Roman territory. Threatening rifts were closed when Antony returned to Italy and met Octavian in 40 at Brundisium, where he received command of the eastern provinces of the empire and, Fulvia having died, married Octavian's sister Octavia; in 39 at Misenum, where and in a short-lived agreement was made with Sextus Pompeius 37 at Tarentum, where the triumvirate was renewed to the end of 3i, and Antony promised Octavian 130 ships for use against Sextus Pompeius in exchange for four legions (which were never sent) for the Parthian war. Antony's treatment of Octavia could not easily be tolerated by Octavian, for in late 37 or early 36 Antony married Cleopatra (though, as she was not a Roman, it was not valid in Roman law) and in 35 he severed relations with OcAntony's campaign against Parthia in 36 ended in distavia. aster, though he conquered Armenia in 34 and celebrated a Roman triumph in Alexandria, which was the occasion of extravagant honours and territorial gifts to Cleopatra and her children. Reports of his unrestrained assumption in public of the character of a Hellenistic divine king were seized on avidly by Octavian for None the less, Antony was joined in skilful propaganda in Italy. 32 by the two consuls and by numerous senators from Rome. In Rome Octavian secured and published, whether it was genuine or forged, Antony's will, in favour of Cleopatra and his children by Alexandria.

;

her.

Antony's mobilization of a

was now financed and

fleet started in

winter 3i-i2.

He

by Cleopatra, yet aware and troops wanted him to break with her. After his defeat at Actium (q.v.) in 31 by Octavian he fled with Cleopatra to Alexandria and there, after Octavian's arrival, on the false news of Cleopatra's death he committed suicide on Aug. 1, 30 b.c. (See also Augustus.) Antony was personally attractive, a good soldier, capable of brilthat his

Roman

politically impelled

officers

but incapable of the cold far-sighted scheming by which Octavian outmaneuvered him. Before his marriage to Fulvia he was married first to Fadia and second to Antonia, daughter of Gaius Antonius Hybrida. His elder son by Fulvia, Marcus Antonius Antyllus, was put to death by Octavian in 30; his younger son by Fulvia, Iullus Antonius, married to Octavian's niece and consul in 10 B.C., was forced to suicide in 2 B.C.; through his two daughters by Octavia, Antonia maior and Antonia minor, married to Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Nero Claudius Drusus (qq.v.) respectively, the emperors Gaius, Claudius and Nero were By Cleopatra he had two sons and a daughter. his descendants. His love for her inspired Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra and Dryden's All for Love. Bibliography. Contemporary evidence in Caesar, Gallic War viii (the last book, added by Hirtius), Civil War; Cicero, Philippics (4443 b.c.) and Letters written in 50 B.C. and later, especially from March 44 onward (To Atticus xiv, 13 B is from Cicero to Antony, x, 8A, x, 10, Modern works include 2 and xiv, 13 A are from Antony to Cicero). T. Rice Holmes, T. Mommsen, History of Rome, Eng. trans. (1911) The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Empire, vol. iii (1923) The Architect of the Roman Empire, vol. i (1928) H. Frisch, Cicero's Fight tor the Republic (1946) R. Syme, The Roman Revolution, 2nd (J.P.V. D. B.) ed. (1951). in rhetoric the Greek term for a substitution of any epithet or phrase for a proper name, such as the "Maiden Queen" for Queen Elizabeth I, and in sports, the "Great Bambino" for Babe Ruth, "Galloping Ghost" for Red Grange; or a proper name to describe a typical characteristic, such as "Solomon" for any wise man. See Figures of Speech: Figures of Re(G. W. A.) lationship.

liant political improvisation,

—

;

;

;

;

ANTONOMASIA,

ANTONY, MARK:

see

Antonius.

ANTRIM, RANDAL MacDONNELL,

1639, he planned an attack on Argyll in Scotland, which came to From that time onward he was engaged in various schemes for the assistance of Charles I against parliament all of them abortive. He was at various times arrested as a suspect. The papers found on him at his capture in 1643 informed the parliamentary leaders of a plan for a rising by the earl of Montrose in Scotland to be supported from Ireland. On Jan. 26, 1644, MacDonnell was created a marquess on Montrose's recommendation. He was employed on various missions in Ireland and on the continent until 1647, when he ceased to support the king's cause. Annoyed when the marquess' of Ormonde was reappointed lord lieutenant, he entered into communication (1649) with Cromwell, for whom he performed various services, though there appears no authority to support the story that Antrim was the author of a forged agreement for the betrayal of the king's army by Lord Inchiquin. Subsequently he joined Henry Ireton and was present at the siege of Carlow. He returned to England in Dec. 1650, and in lieu of his confiscated estate received a pension of £500, later increased to £800, together with lands in Mayo. At the Restoration, Antrim was excluded from the Act of Oblivion because of his religion and, on presenting himself at court, was imprisoned in the Tower of London, subsequently being called before the lords justices in Ireland. In 1663 through the influence of the queen mother he obtained a pardon, his estates being restored to him by a proviso in the Irish Act of Explanation in 1665. Antrim died at Ballymagarry, County Antrim, on Feb. 3, 1683. He is described by Clarendon as of handsome appearance but "of excessive pride and vanity and of a marvellous weak and narrow unnothing.

1st Marquess of (1609-1683), Irish royalist, played a minor part in politics during the English Civil War and is remembered chiefly for abandoning the king's cause in 1647. He was born on June 9, 1609, the son of the 1st earl of Antrim, and educated as a Roman CathIn 1635 he married Katherine, widow of George Villiers, olic. 1st duke of Buckingham. On the outbreak of the Bishops' Wars in

—

derstanding."

ANTRIM,

a county of

Northern Ireland, occupies the north-

corner of Ireland, being separated from the Mull of in Scotland, less than 13 mi. away, by the North channel. It is bounded north and east by the Atlantic ocean and the Irish sea, south by Belfast lough and the river Lagan, dividing it from

eastern

Kintyre

Down and Armagh, and west by Lough Neagh and the lower river Bann, separating it from the counties of Tyrone and Londonderry. The land area is 1,098 sq.mi. Physical Features. The northern and eastern part of the county is occupied by a Tertiary basalt plateau which is cut by deep glens. Glens and hills follow the same trend, northeastsouthwest, as the mountains of Scotland. The Antrim plateau ends at its northeastern corner in Fair head (626 ft.), a perpenMuch of the plateau consists of rolling moorlands dicular cliff. and peat bogs. The collapse of the basalt at its southwestern corner caused the depression which is occupied by Lough Neagh (q.v.), the largest inland lake in the British Isles. There are also some outstanding peaks of older or of intrusive rock. Mountains include Trostan (1,817 ft.), Knocklayd (1,687 ft.), Slieveanorra (1,676 ft.) and Slemish (1,437 ft.). Of the Belfast hills, south of the main Antrim plateau, the highest is Divis (1,560 ft.). the counties of

—

The

basalt reaches the sea along the north coast in steep

At the Giant's Causeway

(q.v.)

it

cliffs.

makes a curious formation

of

perpendicular columns, mostly six-sided. A narrow zone of Jurassic, Triassic and Cretaceous rocks separates the basalt from the east coast. Triassic and Cretaceous rocks also bound the basalt on the southeast, and Triassic sandstone is extensive in the Lagan

(Hu. S.) History. It seems that man first came to Ireland through Anearly particumany traces of life, trim from Scotland. There are larly in the Lough Neagh district where quantities of flint implements have been discovered, thought to date from about 6000 B.C. The county abounds in cromlechs and other monuments and there are also remains of ancient man in the form of kitchen midden deposits in the sand dunes of White Park bay. St. Patrick is depicted as a swineherd in the county coat of arms, for it was on the western slopes of the mountain of Slemish, near Ballymena, that the national saint is reputed to have tended swine when brought as a boy prisoner to Ireland following an Irish raid on the coast of Great Britain. There have been many invasions and counterinvasions between Antrim and Scotland. The original "Scots" came from Ulster. Early in the 6th century there was a migration of Scots from the Ulster kingdom of Dalvalley.

—

ANTRIM -ANT THRUSH Dalriada came to ern portion,

Antrim over to Scotland, so that on both sides of the North channel, its east-

in northeastern

(q.v.)

riada

lie

known

as Argyll, developing later into the nucleus of

kingdom of Scotland. Scandinavian invaders came up the Bann into Lough Neagh, but made no permanent settlements. Antrim was partially penetrated by Anglo-Norman adventurers from the 12th century and formed the

part of the earldom of Ulster. The disorders of the later middle ages and the invasion of Edward Bruce from Scotland in 1315 brought about the decline of the English power, and the only setin Tudor times was the town and fortress During Tudor times a number of adventurers to colonize Antrim and many Scots success attempted with varying settled there. Among towns founded then was Belfast. Although Antrim was not part of the territory involved in the scheme for the plantation of Ulster, it continued to attract many immigrants

tlement which remained

of Carrickfergus.

from

Britain.

The Presbyterian Church predominates in the county. In 1861 Presbyterians represented 53% of the total population and the It was no doubt because figure was still as high as 45% in 1951. of this strong Presbyterian influence that Antrim men played such The hill country from a leading part in the rebellion of 1798. Cavehill to the ancient town of Antrim was a training ground for the rebels, whose leader Henry Joy McCracken was tried and pubIn an earlier campaign, carried out licly executed in Belfast. place, for William landed at

County Antrim had

had its Carrickfergus and traveled from there

by William III against James

II,

Boyne (1690). Population and Administration.

to the battle of the

—In

also

1961 the population

At one time Carrickfergus was the county town but with the Industrial Revolution the small town of Belfast began to expand rapidly and in 1847 a new county courthouse was built in Belfast and the grand jury moved from CarHowever, Belfast became a county borough in 1898 rickfergus. and, while the county courthouse remains legally in County An-

of the county

was 272,873.

trim, the county lacks a county town.

House building round

the northern boundaries of Belfast in-

creased rapidly after World War II and one result of this was the establishment in 1958 of a new urban district, Newtownabbey. The population of Newtownabbey (37,301) makes it by far the largest town in the county. The next in order of size are Lisburn (17,688), Lame (16,313), Ballymena (14,735) and Carrickfergus

(10,187) (qq.v.).

County Antrim returns seven members to the parliament of Northern Ireland and two members to the United Kingdom parliament.

—

Agriculture, Industry and Communications. AgriculAntrim is a rich county. Oats, potatoes and seed hay are the chief crops. There is extensive beef production together with sheep farming, poultry and pig rearing. The land in the valley of the Six-Mile-Water, particularly around Ballyclare, is probably among the richest in Northern Ireland, and other important agricultural districts are centred around Ballymena and Ballymoney. There is considerable salmon fishing off the north coast and the eel fisheries on the river Bann are of some importance. turally

The county mined

is

not particularly rich in minerals, but coal

is still

There were

at one

in small quantities

around Ballycastle.

time bauxite mines in the Parkmore district and mined on a considerable scale at Carrickfergus.

The government main

is

building factories at

salt

used to be

Newtownabbey, but the

town is Larne which has a large turbine factory, and a sizable port. Nearby, cement is produced on Ballymena has a fair-sized linen at Magheramorne.

industrial

a radio factory a large scale

some

works, while CarrickLisburn is noted for its furniture and linen industries, the latter having been established by Huguenot refugees from France in the 17th century. With its long coastline and excellent beaches County Antrim has an extensive tourist trade. Two fine beaches at White Park bay on the north coast and Cushendun on the east coast are owned by the National Trust, while the county council is carrying out tourist development schemes at several places to preserve the natindustry as well as

light engineering

fergus has a large textile factory.

The towns

ural beauty.

Whitehead and the

97

villages

and Cushendun and

Portrush, Ballycastle

of

Portballintrae,

of

(qq.v.)

Cushendall are noted holiday resorts, all on or near the coast. There is a direct passenger-steamer service between Larne and Stranraer, Scot., while Belfast airport at Nutts Corner in County the civil airport for Northern Ireland. The main railfrom Belfast to Londonderry runs through the length of County Antrim and the main line from Belfast to Dublin runs through its southern part. Several branch lines of former importance were closed, but there are adequate bus services throughTwo motorway approaches to Belfast were constructed in out. the early 1960s, one from the north and the other from the south. There is also one of the finest systems of trunk and other roads It was the building of the coast road in to be found in Ireland. the first half of the 19th century which opened up the glens in the northeastern corner of the county; before that time they were relatively inaccessible and backward. In the 1960s Irish was still (W. J. Jo.) spoken in some parts. Bibliography. John Dubourdieu, Statistical Survey of County

Antrim

way

is

line

—

Antrim (1812) George Hill, An Historical Account of the MacDonnells E. R. R. Green, The Lagan Valley, 1800-50 (1949) of Antrim (1873) G. Camblin, The Town in Ulster (1951). ;

;

ANTRIM,

a

;

town of County Antrim, N.

Ire., lies in

the val-

ley of the Six-Mile-Water rivulet at the northeastern corner of

N.W. of Belfast by road. Pop. (1951) 1,662. Antrim is an important road junction and much traffic passes through it between Belfast and the towns of northern and northwestern Ulster. As a market town it serves a populous countryside and it is the site of several small industries, including sawmilling and the production of linen and woolen goods. There are naval and air force establishments in the district. Less than 1 mi. N. of the town is one of the most perfect of the round towers Dating from the 10th century or earlier, it is 93 ft. of Ireland. high and about 17 ft. in diameter at the base. Antrim castle, built in the 17th century, also testifies to the strategic advantage which the site had in earlier times. In 1798 the town was the scene of a battle in which several thousand insurgents, led by Henry Joy (Hu. S.) McCracken, were defeated by the military. Lough Neagh,

Area

17 mi.

0.3 sq.mi.

ANTRUSTION,

name

the general

for a

member

of the per-

The free sonal guard of the Merovingian sovereigns in France. man who wished to enter the royal guard presented himself, armed, before the king, swore the trustis (a special oath of fealty) to him and engaged himself to defend him. In return he enjoyed the king's special protection, could only be tried in a royal tribunal and had a wergild ("man-price" paid for homicide) three times that of the ordinary Frank. The king employed him on confidential missions and might reward him with grants of land to be held

The antrustions formed a body whose members had mutual obligations; they were not able to give evidence against one another, and litigation between them was governed by intriThey seem to have been the only permanent cate formalities. military force under the Merovingians. The antrustions were the successors of the body of "companan instiions" of the Germanic chieftains described by Tacitus tution appropriated to himself by the Merovingian king in the 6th century. They were of great importance under Clovis, but with the accelerating decay of royal power in the 7th and 8th centuries they declined. At the beginning of the reign of Charlemagne they were of no importance and they disappeared entirely on the rise of a new institution, vassalage. Bibliography. M. Deloche, La "Trustis" et I'antrustion royal sous outright.

—

—

deux premieres races (1873) P. noblesse au moyen age (1902) formation des liens de dependance France (1948) A. Bergengruen, Adel

les

de

;

la

;

;

gerreich (1958).

ANT

Guilhermoz, Essai sur

les origines

M. Bloch, La Societe jeodale. La F. Lot, Naissance de la (1939) ;

und Grundherrschaft im Merowin(Je. H.)

THRUSH, the name given to a large group of small and medium-sized passerine birds comprising the family Formicariidae and occurring in the American tropics. The name is in reference to their habit of accompanying ant armies to prey on Most of the 222 recognized species insects flushed by the ants. have loose-webbed plumage that is predominantly black, gray or brown. The colours may be solid, barred or streaked; the sexes

;

ANTUNG—ANTWERP

98

Many species are crested, and in most the feathers of the lower back are notably long and dense, with a concealed white or rufous patch. The bill is strong and hooked. Ant thrushes, which also are known as ant birds, ant shrikes and bush birds, inhabit forests or brushlands and may be either arboreal usually differ in colour.

or essentially terrestrial. They are weak fliers and do not migrate. They utter harsh calls, whistling notes and occasionally melodious

(E. R. Be.)

songs.

ANTUNG Yalu river

in

(An-Tung),

a Chinese city near the

mouth

of the

the southeastern part of Liaoning province

(39°

Pop. 360,000 (1953). It was opened as a treaty port in 1907 and developed into an important centre of and Korea. The harbour accommodates China trade between Its staple export items include ships with a draft of about 9 ft. soybean oil, soybeans, timber, and light industrial products such as matches, flour and wild cocoon silk. The port is icebound four 59' N., 124° 30' E.).

months in a year. Antung increased

its importance after the construction of a railway in 1907 linking Mukden (Shen-yang) with Korea; the railway spans a half-mile-long bridge over the Yalu between Antung and the Korean city of Hsinyichou (Sinuiju). A number of modern industries have sprung up at Antung. These include a

chemical fibre plant, completed in April 1958, with an annual capacity of 400 tons; flour and soybean mills; an aluminum plant; and paper factories. Power is supplied by the Shuifeng hydroelectric station,

upstream on the Yalu

pacity of over 600,000 kw.

Antung

river,

which has a total caan airport on the

also has

Dairen-Antung-Mukden air route. Between 1932 and 1945. Manchuria was divided under the puppet Manchoukuo regime into many provinces of which Antung was one. The census of Oct. 1, 1940. described Antung province as consisting of six counties and one municipality with a total population of 1,170,787 (including 182, 2S3 for Antung city).

(Kn. C.) (Flem. Antwerpen; Fr. Anvers), the most adjoins the Dutch Belgium, nine provinces of northerly of the After the French occupation of 1795, it was made part frontier. of the French departement of Deux-Nethes, and in 1815 its present boundaries were established, though subsequently modified in detail. The province is divided into three arrondissements (Antwerp, Malines and Turnhout), subdivided into 19 cantons and

ANTWERP

Area 1,104 sq.mi. Pop. (1961) 1,443,355. 151 communes. Most of the area is covered with Pliocene sands and gravels, with a smaller extent of Miocene and Oligocene deposits in the southwest. Superficial sheets of sand overlie much of the centre and east, forming part of the Kempen heathlands. Much of this exceeds 75 ft. in altitude forming a tongue of low plateau projecting westward, from which rise gently swelling eminences (bergen) to about 115 ft. In the southwest, near Herentals, an outcrop of soft Lower Pliocene (Diestian) sandstone forms a more diversified relief than the sands and gravels, because of its resistance to erosion; a line of hills, culminating in the Langenberg (131 ft.), extends from northeast to southwest near the valley Other hills occur farther south; Heist-opof the Kleine-Nethe. den-Berg rises from an eminence at 148 ft. The land slopes away gently northward into the Netherlands and westward into the Numerous clay-covered polderlands of the Scheldt estuary. streams (notably the Mark) flow northward to the Maas (Meuse) the headstreams of the Nethe; the many south drainage is by the to watershed is very indeterminate. The heathland is characterized by areas of sand dunes, with marshy depressions containing small lakes, areas of ling and broom, and poor pasture. There are extensive blocks of coniferThe landscape changes gradually westward ous plantations.

toward the Scheldt; there is progressively less heathland, more market gardening and dairy farming and more numerous villages and small towns. Much of the polderland along the Scheldt is intensively farmed to supply the demands of the city of Antwerp. Apart from Antwerp (q.v.). the chief town is Malines (in Flemish Mechelen; q.v.), situated on the banks of the tidal Dyle. It is a market centre for the surrounding agricultural land and has a wide range of industries: furniture, textiles, clothing, lace, paper,

leather and food processing.

Turnhout (q.v.) is a prosperous market, industrial and administrative town in the north of the province, and a centre of road, rail and canal communications. Its industries are varied: the making of paper, stationery, playing cards, sacking and canvas, cigars, pottery, leather and lace. Around the canal basin in the northwest are timber yards, sawmills, cement works and flour mills, and 29 brickyards are along the canal banks. Mol is on the railway from Antwerp, and makes cigars, leather, pottery, textiles, clothing and blankets. Herentals has similar small-scale industries, including also the manufacture of copper and bronze articles, and a large factory makes industrial explosives and cartridges. Several large factories are located in

Mol-Gompel

glass works, two zinc Oolen (2 mi. E. of Herentals) which produces radium, uranium, cobalt, copper and arsenic. Baarle-Hertog (Fr. Baerle-Duc) is a small Belgian enclave in the

the heathlands; including the refineries,

and a huge refinery

at

Netherlands, the Dutch part being called Baarle-Nassau. The frontier is so confusing that neighbouring houses, or even parts

same house, may find themselves on different sides of it. Apart from the towns, the heathlands are thinly inhabited. Villages are situated at road junctions, at rail-canal intersections, and on low eminences away from the marshes. The heathlands were for long poorly served with communications. A mainline railway runs from Brussels via Mechelen and Antwerp into the Netherlands; another line runs southeast from Antwerp via Lier and Hasselt; and a third east from Lier across the centre of the heathland via Herentals-Geel-Mol into the Netherlands. A north-south line from the Netherlands passes through Turnhout and Herentals. There is a considerable mileage of light railway (tramway) serving the small towns and villages; six lines focus upon Oostmalle to the northeast of Antwerp and five lines upon Turnhout. A small waterway (Desschel-TurnhoutSchoten canal) curves around the northern part of the province, but much more important is the Albert canal which crosses the southern part on its way from Antwerp to Liege. (F. J. M.) (Flem. Antwerpen; Fr. Anvers), capital of the province of the same name, the second largest town in Belgium and chief port and commercial centre of the country, lies on the Scheldt (q.v. (Flem. Schelde) in the centre of a vast alluvial plain about 55 mi. from the North sea. Pop. (1961) 253,295. Antwerp is situated on both banks of the river, the city proper being on the east bank. There are no bridges, but after 1933 the banks were connected by tunnels one for pedestrians and one for vehicles. The oldest part of the city extends from the river to a line of broad avenues, which were laid out on the site of the 16th-century ramparts when these were demolished in 1859. The walls built around the city in the 13th century have completely disappeared. The town was extended, chiefly toward the north, and large public gardens were laid out. The most striking building is the Cathedral of the Holy Virgin, begun in the 14th century and not completed until nearly 200 years later; a thorough restoraIt is the tion was carried out in the 19th and 20th centuries. biggest church and one of the finest Gothic buildings in the country, and has a tower more than 400 ft. high; a second tower, begun in the 15th century, was never finished. The cathedral contains, among other paintings, three of Rubens' masterpieces, "The Descent from the Cross," "The Elevation of the Cross," and "The Assumption" (above the high altar). St. James's church, in flamboyant Gothic style, was founded in 1491 but not finished until 1656. The Rubens chapel contains the tomb of the artist whose "Virgin and Child With Saints" is the altarpiece. St. Paul's, a 16th-century Dominican church (with a bell tower dating from the 17th century), and St. Augustine's both possess works by Rubens, Van Dyck, JordaenS, P. Verbruggen and other artists. The former Jesuit church of St. Charles Borromeo, originally dating from 1615-21 but partly rebuilt in the 18th and 19th centuries after destruction by fire, has a splendid baroque facade and contains a of the

ANTWERP )

—

small

museum

of old lace.

The early medieval town grew up around a fortress called the Steen which lies on the river bank. The present castle, whose stone foundations are of the 9th century, dates largely from 1520 but

ANTWERP

99

navigation and diamond working, commercial and colonial universities, a music academy, institutes of fine arts and of architecture and a university foundation for tropical medicine. Commerce. Antwerp has three railway stations and is con-

—

nected directly by rail to Paris, Amsterdam, Brussels and Basel. There is an international airport at Deurne, 3 mi. S.E. of the city. The Albert canal links Antwerp with Liege. The port began its rapid growth after 1863 when Dutch rights to levy toll were redeemed by purchase. It is the greatest Belgian port and one of the four biggest European ports. It consists of two parts a roadstead, or outer harbour, facing the city, and an inner harbour with ex:

tensive installations, lying to the north of the city. There are 19 maritime docks, 10 municipal dry docks and 6 private dry docks. The harbour is connected with the Scheldt by means of six locks, the most recent and largest being the Baudouin lock with a length of 1,180 ft., a width of 147 ft. and a depth at average high tide of more than 50 ft. Because of a vast expansion program, a large territory, including three rural villages north of the city, was in the late 1950s incorporated in the port's area, increasing the

from 3,460

total area

ac. to 13,200

ac, including the water area of

The ac. by the 1960s. was increased to 50 mi. More than 16,000 seagoing ships of above 34,000,000 net register tons enter Antwerp yearly, discharging an average 20,000,000 tons of cargo and loading about 15,000,000 tons. Antwerp is not merely of importance for Belgian imports and exports but also has a considerable transit traffic, chiefly to and from the German Federal Republic, especially 1,325 ac. which reached

more than 2,000

total berthage space

the

Ruhr

area.

Established in the harbour area are shipyards, sawassembly plants for U.S. automobile's, and Other industries in Antwerp include food and

mills, scrap-iron plants, oil

CATHEDRAL OF THE HOLY VIRGIN. ANTWERP; BEGUN

was greatly restored

in

1889 and

now houses

IN 14TH

CENTURY

the national maritime

the stadhuis or townhall (1561-65), a Renaissance structure combining both northern and Italianate elements in its architecture and with frescoes by H. Leys, a native artist.

museum.

Nearby

is

refineries.

chemical industries.

Rubber, ivory and radium are imported from

the Congo and marketed at Antwerp. The most important local industry, established in the 16th century, is diamond cutting. History. Legend has it that the name Antwerp was derived from hand werpen ("to throw the hand"'), based on the mythological Roman giant, Druon Antigonus, who supposedly cut off the

—

stands in the Grote Markt (market square) which also contains the Brabo fountain and typical Renaissance buildings. The Meir, a short wide road running west-east, is now the centre

hands of those mariners who sailed past his castle without paying Another derivation is from tolls and threw them in the Scheldt.

and also the royal palace. In the Rubens Straat, off the Meir, is the house which the famous painter built and in which he lived from 1615 until his death in 1640. Once almost demolished, it has now been carefully restored. The Bourse or Exchange 1531 was destroyed by fire in 1858 and rebuilt in 1872. Fire has also destroyed several other old buildings in the city, notably in 1891 the house of the Han-

wharfs").

It

of the city, with big shops,

banks and

(

offices,

)

seatic league near the northern quays.

Of

several

museum

museums

are the

the cathedral,

is

the Plantin-Moretus and the Fine Arts

The former, to the southwest of home of the great 16thPlantin, Christophe and of his successors,

most important.

the old Plantin house, the

century printer (see

)

Moretus family. In it, the pressroom, foundry, proofreaders' room and bookshop are still in their original state. The house also contains an exceptional collection of manuscripts, books, woodblocks, copper plates, etc., as well as paintings by Rubens and others, tapestries and furniture. The Royal Museum of Fine Arts (1880-90), to the south, has a superb collection of paintings by the great masters of the Flemish and Dutch schools, and also 15thcentury Flemish primitives and many modern European works. In 1950 the Museum Knight Smidt van Gelder was opened; it is a the

richly furnished 18th-century patrician's house. hall (c.

1500)

history.

is

a

museum

The

old Butchers

of arts and crafts, archaeology and

The Mayer van den Bergh museum

possesses masterpieces

and ivories. There are a Royal Opera house and a Royal theatre. Antwerp has several large parks, a botanical garden and a well-known zoological garden, with a natural history museum and aquarium, near the central station. In the grounds of the former chateau of Middelheim adjacent to Nachtegalen park is an open air museum where, in odd-numbered years, a biennial international exhibition of of the Flemish school, old embroidery, lace, sculptures

sculpture

is

held.

Antwerp's educational institutes include schools of engineering,

the

name

given to the

first

settlement

Aen

de

Werpen

("at the

In the 11th century, when the city was first walled. Antwerp was a marquisate, for some years under the famous Godfrey of Bouillon (q.v.). It was the headquarters of Edward III during his early negotiations with Jacob van Artevelde, and After his son Lionel, duke of Clarence, was born there in 1338. the death of Duke John HI (1355), Antwerp, which had been under the authority of the dukes of Brabant since the 13th century, came under the domination of the count of Flanders and later of Toward the end of the 15th century, the dukes of Burgundy. with the silting up of the Zwyn and the consequent decline of

Bruges, and the enlargement of the western Scheldt by floods, the foreign trading guilds and banks (the first real bourse in Europe was founded in Antwerp in 1460) were transferred from Bruges to Antwerp, and the latter became the chief port and commercial centre of the Netherlands and of western Europe. At the beginning of the 16th century there were at least 1.000 foreign business in the city and by 1560, the highest point of its Antwerp had superseded Venice in its first place in European commerce. It was not only in trade that Antwerp had become great, but

houses established prosperity.

also in the arts.

It

Flemish art and

its

had taken the place of Bruges as the centre of school of painting, of which Quentin Massys

Van (q.v.) was a founder, exercised a far-reaching influence. Dyck, David Teniers. A. Brouwer, F. Snyders and J. Jordaens were all natives or citizens of Antwerp and members of its guild Pieter Bruegel of painting, and Rubens lived and died there. was another great member of the Antwerp school. The religious troubles that marked the second half of the 16th centurv broke out in Antwerp as in every other part of what is now Belgium excepting Liege. In 1576, following upon disturbances, the Spanish garrison plundered the town during what was called "the Spanish Fury," and thousands of citizens were massacred and many houses destroyed. In the following year,

—

—

ANU—ANVARI

IOO having thrown

off

the Spanish oppressors, the people destroyed the

and Antwerp came under Calvinist rule. In 1585, after a long siege. Antwerp was recaptured by the Spanish and its Protestant citizens sent into exile. Under Albert and Isabella, citadel,

who made

their state entry into Antwerp in 1599, the city experienced a period of peace and splendour. The recognition of the independence of the United Provinces by the treaty of Miinster in 164S carried'with it a severe blow for Antwerp, for it stipulated that the Scheldt should be closed to navigation. The city's prosperity had already begun to decline, and its port was now ruined. In 1795, under French rule, the provisions of the treaty were relaxed, and the Scheldt was reopened to shipping. The port began to develop again rapidly when Napoleon built docks and a naval arsenal in order to make Antwerp the chief military harbour in his empire. In 1830 the city was captured by the Belgian insurgents, but the citadel continued to be held by a Dutch garrison under Gen. David Chasse. For a time this officer subjected the town to a periodical bombardment which inflicted much damage, and at the end of 1832 the citadel itself was besieged by a French army under Marechal Etienne Gerard until, after a gallant defense, Chasse made an honourable surrender. At the end of the 19th century Antwerp was converted from a fortress to a fortified city by the construction of an outer line of forts 5 mi. to 11 mi. from the city. After the beginning of World War I the Belgian government left Brussels for Antwerp on Aug. 18, 1914; and three days later the Belgian army took up a position behind the fortified lines. The siege of Antwerp began on Sept. 28, and after an intensive bombardment the city surrendered on Oct. 9. most of the population having already fled into Holland. On May 18, 1940, during World War II, the Germans again occupied Antwerp in their drive toward the channel ports. The fall of the city endangered the whole Belgian army, which surrendered ten days later after a heroic battle on the banks of the river Lys. Antwerp was later subjected to several severe bombardments, the worst taking place after its liberation by British troops in Sept. 1944. The harbour installations did not suffer severe damage. See also Index references under "Antwerp" in the Index volume. (E. F. B.;L. C. V.) ANU, a Babylonian deity, who, as the first figure in the triad Anu. Enlil and Ea (q.v.). came to be regarded as the father and king of the gods. Anu is prominently associated with the city of Erech in southern Babylonia, but the cult was transferred there in prehistoric times from Der east of the Tigris. At Erech he was closely associated with the worship of his daughter, the heaven goddess Innini-Ishtar. The name signifies the "high one" and he was probably a god of the atmospheric region above the earth perhaps a storm god like Adad (q.v.). In the old Babylonian period i.e., before Hammurabi Anu was regarded as the god of the heavens and his name became in fact synonymous with the heavens, so that in some cases it is doubtful whether, under the term, the god or the heavens is meant. To Anu was assigned the control of the heavens, to Enlil the earth and to Ea the waters. The summing up of divine powers manifested in the universe in a threefold division represents an outcome of speculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia, but the selection of Anu, Enlil and Ea for the three representatives of the three spheres recognized shows that each of the three must have been regarded in his centre as the most important member in a larger or smaller group, so that their union in a triad marks also the combination of the three pantheons into a harmonious whole. In the astral theology of Babylonia and Assyria, Anu. Enlil and Ea became the three zones of the ecliptic, the northern, middle and southern zones, respectively. The purely theoretical character of Anu is thus still further emphasized, and in the annals and votive inscriptions as well as in the incantations and hymns he is rarely introduced as an active force to whom a personal appeal can be made. His name becomes little more than a synonym for the heavens in general, and even his title as king or father of the gods has little of the personal element in it. A consort. Antum (or as some scholars prefer to read. Anatum), is assigned to him, on the theory that every deity must have a female associate, but Antum is a purely artificial product and is really a title of Ishtar

—

queen of heaven. Anatum became the special name of Ishtar as "lady of battle." She was identified with the western Asian Ashratum. Anu and A-an-tum occur in the Hittite treaties of the 1 6th— 1 4th centuries, but it is not certain that the Syrian-Canaanite war goddess Anat was borrowed from Babylonian Antum or Anatum. The Egyptian war goddess Anat is an Asian importation. See Babylonia and Assyria: Religion: Herding Regions. ANUBIS, an ancient Egyptian god of the dead, represented in art by the figure of a man with the head of a jackal (or dog). In the early dynasties of the Old Kingdom he enjoyed a preeminent (though not exclusive) position as lord of the dead, but as

was

later

overshadowed by

Osiris.

His particular concern was with the funeral cult and the care of the dead: hence he was reputed to be the inventor of embalming, an art he first employed on the corpse of Osiris. In his later role as the "conductor of souls," the Greco-Roman world sometimes identified him with the Greek Hermes, naming the composite divinity

Hermanubis.

Wn.)

(F. R.

ANURADHAPURA, a

town of Ceylon and the administraNorth Central province and the name of a Pop. (1953) town, 18,390; district, 229,282. The town district. is on the main railway from Colombo to the north. Nearby are two huge tanks, the ancient irrigation reservoirs of Tissa Wewa and Nuwara Wewa. Anuradhapura was established in the 5th century b.c. and became the second and most famous capital of the ancient Sinhalese kings. It w'as the seat of government at the time of the conversion of its king and his people to Buddhism by Mahinda, a son of Asoka. It suffered much during the earlier Tamil invasions, and was evacuated by the Sinhalese in a.d. 760 in favour of Polonnaruwa. Of its archaeological remains the most tive capital of the

remarkable are

its

huge pyramidal dagobas

(

Buddhist

or stupas), constructed of small sun-dried bricks;

relic shrines its

pokunas,

or bathing pools; and the foundations of monastic buildings and palaces.

Many

of these

least to the time of

monuments have

King Dutthagamini

contains the famous

Bo

histories going

(c.

100 b.c).

back

The

at

city

tree (pipal), believed to be originally a

branch of the sacred tree at Buddh Gaya {q.v. under the shade of which Gautama attained to Buddhahood, miraculously transported from India in 245 B.C. It is the oldest tree in existence of which there is any historical record. The city was completely abandoned to the jungle until it was rediscovered and opened up by the British in the middle of the 19th century; it has become the resort of many Buddhist pilgrims. It was decided in the mid20th century to move the commercial, residential and administra)

tive buildings of the

town

to a

new

position near the railway

station, so that the site of the ancient capital could be turned into

an archaeological park and place of pilgrimage. 8 mi. E., there are

many

At Mihintale,

other important monuments. (B. H. F.)

ANUS, man

it is

the terminal aperture of the gastrointestinal tract. In encircled by muscle fibres, the anal sphincter, which con-

evacuation of feces. When contracted they throw the skin and mucous membrane into folds, giving a wrinkled appearance. Hemorrhoids or piles are due to dilated veins which project from the anus and often bleed. See Gastrointestinal Tract; see also Index references under "Anus" in the Index volume. (Auhad al-Din Ali) (d. c. 1190), Persian poet, accounted among the greatest panegyrists, was born in Abivard to the west of Merv early in the 12th century, studied at Tus and trol the

ANVARI

of the Seljuk sultan Sanjar whom he attended constantly in Merv (the capital) and in the field of battle. Sanjar died in 1157, Anvari fell out of favour and was hard put to it to find a patron. A prolific writer, his poems, which run to 770 pages in the Lucknow edition (1880), are marked by great technical skill and varied erudition, so that the Persian critic Daulatshah said of his verses that "they are difficult and require a commentary." His virtuosity is fully displayed in his formal odes. His lyrics, which are comparatively simple, exhibit tenderness and charm. He passed his last years in scholarly retirement, and died about 1190, probably at Balkh. His longest piece, a lament on the devastation wrought in northeastern Persia by in-

became the court poet

When

ANVIL—ANZIKA vading Ghuzz tribesmen, was translated into English in 1 785 by William Kirkpatrick under the title The Tears of Khorassan. Another version was published in 1877 by E. H. Palmer in his Song of the Reed; he also translated Anvari's "Palinodia," a bitter satire of disillusioned old age.

See E. G. Browne, A reprinted 192S) A. J. 119 (1958). ;

Literary History of Persia, vol. ii, 365 ff. (1906; Arberry, Classical Persian Literature, pp. 1 13— (A. J. Av.)

ANVIL, a mass of iron on which material is placed while being shaped under the hammer. The blacksmith's common anvil is made of wrought iron, often in the U.S. of cast iron, with a smooth working face of hardened

steel.

ing conical beak or bick for use in

At one end

is

hammering curved

a project-

pieces of

metal; occasionally the other end is also provided with a bick, which is then partly rectangular in section. There is also a square hole in the face, into which tools, such as the anvil cutter or chisel,

For power hammers can be dropped, cutting edge uppermost. the anvil proper is supported on an anvil block of great massiveness, and the block in turn rests on a strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete. See Forging.

ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON

D'

(1697-1782), distinguished French geographer and cartographer, was born in Paris on July 11, 1697. From an early age he continued, with greater effect, the reformation of cartography begun by G. Delisle, but he was also a classical scholar of repute and many of his memoirs and maps relate to ancient and medieval geography. He displayed exceptional judgment in the choice and use of his authorities and a detailed knowledge of measures of length, and he adjusted the results where possible to astronomically determined positions. His first important map was that of China, prepared from the surveys of the Jesuits. First issued with Du Halde's Description de I 'empire de la Chine in 1735, it later appeared as the Nouvel atlas de la Chine in 1737. His map of Italy (1743) revealed numerous errors in the accepted maps of that country. Other important maps were of Africa (1749), Asia (1751), India (1752) and the world in hemispheres (1761). From the contemporary map of Africa, D'Anville removed many of the conventional and largely fictitious features of the interior, and his representation stood until the great explorations of the 19th century. His Atlas general, first published in 1743, was frequently revised. As well as being more accurate than those of earlier cartographers, the maps produced in his office were distinguished their clarity and good lettering, while some were accompanied by by valuable memoirs on the sources employed. His pre-eminence was recognized by his appointment as premier geographe du Roi in 1773. His published memoirs amounted to 78 and his maps to 211. Shortly before his death in Jan. 1782, his extensive geographical collection was acquired by the government and theque Nationale.

is in

the Biblio-

—

Bibliography. J. F. and L. G. Michaud (ed.), Biographie univer2nd ed., vol. ii, pp. 97-98 (1843) W. Wolkenhauer, "J. B. Bourguignon d'Anville," Dtsch. Rdsch. Geogr., vol. 19 (1897) G. R. Crone, Maps and Their Makers (1953). (G. R. Ce.)

selle

.

.

.

,

;

;

AN- YANG

(or Chang-te), important archaeological site in province where the Peking-Canton railway crosses (36° 05' N., 114° 20' E.). Long known as the capital of the legendary Shang dynasty, both the site and the dynasty emerged into historical fact with the excavations by Chinese archaeologists of the Academia Sinica working from 1928 to 1937 under the leadership of Li Chi. Hsiao-t'un, about 10 mi. W. of present An-yang, was the actual palace site of the Yin or later Shang dynasty, c. 1401-c. 1123 B.C. A royal burial ground nearby has yielded many Shang bronzes, chariots, inscribed oracle bones, pottery and evidence of human and animal sacrifice. After 1950 further digging in this and other sections of north China enlarged the map of Shang influence and led to answers about the origins and development of the early Shangs and relations with their predecessors. Chinese scholars working in the area interpret the Shang as a period of urban growth with large workshops indicating occupational specialization, of use of imported materials like ivory and tin, and of slavery or human servitude in some form. An-yang declined when the succeeding Chou capital arose at Lo-yang. See

Honan Huan river

ANYTE

"Garland" composed by Meleager (early 1st century B.C.) the "lilies of Anyte" are the first poems to be entwined in the "wreath Her fame persisted, and Antipater of Thessalonica, writing during the reign of Augustus (27 b.c-a.d. 14), places Anyte, whom he calls "a woman Homer," in a list of nine lyric poetesses. Of 24 extant epigrams assigned to her 20 are believed to be genuine. In her dedicatory epigrams her verse is akin to that of Theocritus and Leonidas, her contemporaries. Her dedications for fountains and to the nymphs of the springs show the Greek

of poets."

feeling for a quiet landscape that

is

so often illustrated in the

Greek Anthology.

She wrote epitaphs, perhaps literary rather than for actual use, on various animals. Unlike her contemporary, Nossis, she gives no suggestion of herself in her poems and never has love for a theme. Her love of nature and interest in animals mark her as thoroughly typical of the early years of the Hellenistic period.

—

Bibliography. U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Hellenistische Dichtung, i., 136 ff. (1924) J. W. Mackail, Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology, pp. 311 ff. (1911); A. Kbrte, Hellenistic Poetry, trans, by Jacob Hammer and Moses Hadas, pp. 389-392 (1929). ;

ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG

(1839-89), Austrian playwright and novelist, most of whose works deal realistically with peasant life, was born in Vienna, Nov. 29, 1839. In 1870 his anticlerical play, Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld, was widely acclaimed. Anzengruber won his greatest successes with plays of Austrian peasant life. Der Meineidbauer (1S72) presents a gloomy picture, but Die Kreuzelschreiber (1872), Der G'lvissenswurm (1874) and

Doppelselbstmord (1876) are gay and witty comedies. Das vierte Gebot (1878) is a problem play which has affinities with Ibsen's Anzengruber also wrote a novel, Der Schandfleck (1877; revised 1884) and various other tales of village life. He died in Vienna on Dec. 10, 18S9.

A Doll House.

—

Bibliography. A critical edition of Anzengruber's works by R. Latzke and O. Rommel was published in Vienna, 1921-28. His correspondence was edited by A. Bettelheim (1902). See also A. Bettelheim, L. Anzengruber, 2nd ed. (1898); A. Kleinberg, L. Anzengruber (1921); K. Ermisch, Anzengruber und der Naturalismus (1927); F. Weber, L. Anzengruber's Naturalismus (1929) K. Klement, Beitrage zur Weltanschauung Ludwig Anzengruber's (1946) E. Hauke, L. Anzengruber's Kalendergeschichten (1949). (A. Gs.) ;

;

ANZHERO-SUDZHENSK,

a

town of Kemerovo oblast

(province) of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., lies on the Trans-Siberian railway at the northern limit of the Kuznetsk basin coal-mining area. Pop. (1959) 116,000.

The urban districts of Anzherka and Sudzhenka were amalgamated became in 1931 the town of Anzhero-Sudzhensk and grew

in 192S,

with the development of the coal field which includes the mining of the high-quality sapropelite type of coal. Apart from mining, there are chemical industries using coal by-products for pharmaceutical manufactures, and factories for mining machinery. In the vicinity, quartzites and limestone, used in the Kuzbass metallurgical plants, and marble are also quarried. (R. A. F.)

ANZIKA,

northern the

101

China: History.

(Te. H.) (early 3rd century B.C.), a poet of Tegea in the Peloponnesus, was so highly esteemed in antiquity that in the famous also

a former

kingdom

of central Africa, situated to the

northeast of the kingdom of the Congo, whose province of Nsundi adjoined. Portuguese travelers of the 15th and 16th centuries

it

called its people A?iguicos (Anziques).

The name

referred either

Bateke people of the area ruled by the paramount chief Makoko, within the limits of the present Congo republic (former French territory) and Stanley pool as a whole, or to one of the tributary chiefdoms of the Makoko or, more generally, to the pagan cannibals north of the Congo river and the Christianized Congo kingdom. Anzika is said to have had a despotic king to whom many chiefs were subject. It was never subordinate to the Congo kingdom, being larger and more powerful according to Confalonieri, who based his descriptions on those of D. Lopez, F. Pigafetta and early Portuguese missionaries. Between 1568 and 1587 the Congo kingdom, under Alvare I, was defeated by hordes of Yaga and Anzika invaders. The Anzika traded with the people of the Loango chiefdom, a vassal of the Congo kings. The country was famous for its copper to the

ANZILOTTI— APACHE

102

and red sandalwood and Anzika copper was sold to the earliest European traders by the Bavili tribe of Loango. The Anzika also exchanged slaves for cloth, ivory, salt and cowries. They used small arrows and bows covered with snakeskin and practised tattooing and circumcision. Bibliography. F. Pigafetta, Relatione del Reame di Congo (1591)

—

;

G. A. Cavazzi, Istorica descrizione de'tre regni, Congo, Matamba et Angola (16S7); J. Cuvelier and L. Jadin, L'ancien Congo d'apres les archives romaines, 1518-1640 (1954). (D. P. Bi.)

ANZILOTTI, DIONISIO (1867-1950), Italian jurist, cofounder with Heinrich Triepel of the so-called positive school of international law, was born at Pescia, on Feb. 20, 1867. Professor of law at the universities of Palermo, Bologna, and finally Rome, 191 1-37, he was appointed in 19:1 a judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice of The Hague, where he presided from 1928 to 1930. In 1906 he founded in Rome with Ricci Busatti the Rivista di diritto internazionale ("International Law Review"). Anzilotti was one of the foremost representatives of modern international jurisprudence and, with Triepel, advocated a strictly legal approach to international law, based on a sharp distinction between the legal and the political and moral aspects of international relations. He died at Pescia on Aug. 23, 1950. (A. P. Si.) ANZIO, a town of central Italy in the region of Lazio and province of Rome, lies on a peninsula jutting into the Tyrrhenian sea 38 mi. by road south of Rome. Pop. (1957 est.) 15,217. Anzio is a seaside resort with long sandy beaches and a small port for yachts and fishing boats. The Casino, known as the "Paradise on the Sea," was built in 1924. The Villa Spigarelli was reconstructed from a Roman villa and has frescoes, mosaic floors, statues and a grotto known as Coriolanus' tomb. Opposite is a Roman theatre and nearby a Volscian defense wall. At the end of the western beach are the ruins of the Roman port (a.d. 59) and Nero's magnificent villa. The medieval castle overlooks the port. The resorts of Nettuno and Lavinio are close by. Anzio and Nettuno are on the end of a branch line from Campoleone on the main Rome-Naples railway. In the summer months boats ply to the Ponza islands. large

There

The

Fishing is the chief industry; there is also a soap and detergent factory and a sardine-canning plant. is

a thriving tourist trade.

origins of Anzio are uncertain, legend declaring that

was founded by Antias, son of Odysseus and Circe. Known as Antium, it was the Volscian capital and traded with the near east. It was older than Rome, which conquered it in 341 B.C. It became an allseason resort, most wealthy Romans having villas there. Augustus was proclaimed "father of the Roman nation" while there Caligula and Nero were born in Anzio. There are extensive Roman remains, and valuable works of art, including the famous statue of Apollo Belvedere, were found. After the fall of the western Roman empire, Anzio passed in turn under Gothic, Frankish, and papal rule, becoming part of the Italian kingdom in 1870. In World War II Allied forces landed at Anzio on Jan. 22, 1944, and formed it

;

a bridgehead, which, because of

up with the main front

ANZOATEGUI,

until

German

May

resistance, did not link

25, 1944.

a state in northeastern

(En.

S.

;

F. Fe.)

Venezuela between

the Caribbean sea and the Orinoco river, a typical llanos plains

few outliers of the northeastern highArea 16,718 sq.mi.; pop. (1961) 369,993. Anzoategui

state containing, however, a lands.

contains

some of Venezuela's

cattle-raising state,

it

oldest settlements.

also has important oil fields.

Essentially a

Particularly

outstanding among the latter is the Great Oficina area, composed of El Tigre, San Tome, Campo Oficina and Campo La Leona fields and notable for light oils. Other fields in the state are Campo El Roble, Campo Santa Rosa, Campo San Joaquin and Campo El Guarico. Important pipelines connect these fields, along with small fields in the states of Monagas and Guarico, with Puerto La Cruz which exports crude oil and refines petroleum. There is coal at Naricual. Barcelona (q.v.) is the principal city and state capital. Important ports are Guanta and Puerto La Cruz (q.v.). (L.

AOMORI,

We.)

northernmost prefecture {ken) of Honshu, Japan. Area 3,711 sq.mi. Pop. (1960) 1,426,606. Aomori has a relatively poor, unstable agricultural economy that is handicapped by

snowy winters and poor drainage. Low-yielding rice and Japan's largest apple-producing area are features of western Aomori, while its eastern part specializes in dry grains and horses. Large-scale manufacturing is found only in Hachinohe, which produces chemical fertilizer and pig iron. In the mountainous interior are some of Japan's finest timber stands, mostly in national forests. Coastal and deep-sea fishing operations centre on Hachinohe, the leading fishing port, and Aomori. The city of Aomori, located on Aomori bay, is the capital and largest city of Aomori prefecture. Pop. (1960) 202,211. One of Japan's most important transportation centres, it is the terminal for both northern Honshu rail lines and railroad ferry services across Tsugaru straits to Hakodate in Hokkaido. Although founded in the late 16th century, Aomori remained a local port until the opening of the Hokkaido ferry service (60 nautical miles long) in 1908. Strong winter winds make extensive breakwaters long, cold,

fields

necessary in

its artificial

of lumber and fish and

harbour. its

Its port is

noted for shipments

coastal trade, mostlv with Hokkaido.

AORTA AND AORTIC VALVES.

(J.

The

D. Ee.)

aorta

is

the

main systemic artery arising from the left ventricle of the heart. The blood passes through it to all parts of the body though the capillary and venous systems intervene between the systemic and

pulmonic circulations. Its orifice is guarded by three semicircular pocket-shaped valves with their convexities toward the heart. The back pressure of the blood distends the pockets and closes the valves thus preventing regurgitation of blood into the left ventricle. The valve leaflets may become distorted by inflammation

and permit leakage.

Rheumatic fever may cause such valvular

disease.

See Arteries; Blood Vessels, Surgery of; Circulation of Blood; Circulatory System; Heart, Anatomy of. (F. L. A.) AOSTA: see Valle D'Aosta. APACHE, the general term used to denote six culturally related, Athapaskan-speaking Indian tribes of southwestern North America. Their ancestors probably entered the area from the north about a.d. 1100 as a unit, and tribal and linguistic differ-

The tribes encountered at the time of the first white contact were the Western Apache, the Chiricahua, the Mescalero, the Jicarilla, the Lipan and the Kiowa Apache. The process of differentiation was apparently still continuing at the time of first contact, for the Western Apache were found to be divided into five groups that were something less than separate tribes, yet more autonomous than bands. The Navaho (q.v.) have differentiated sufficiently to be considered a separate tribe. At the time of the North American occupation by the white man, the Apache ranged over what is now east-central and southeastern Arizona, southeastern Colorado, southwestern and eastern New Mexico, western Texas and northern Mexico. In physical type the Apache tends to be short, stocky, roundheaded and broadfaced. The social organization of the Apache has a common core, but there are some interesting tribal variations. The family is uniformly a strong social and economic unit. At marriage the man entiation occurred after arrival.

and wife make their home at the encampment of the wife's relatives, and the husband is expected to work for them and show them deference in speech and behaviour. The Western Apache, doubtless influenced by their Navaho and Pueblo neighbours, are divided into a large number of named clans. A child automatically belongs to the clan of his mother. The Jicarilla tribe is divided into two bands or sections w-hich have some reciprocal ceremonial functions. This moiety arrangement probably was stimulated by the example of nearby eastern Pueblo peoples.

The Apache were basically hunters and gatherers. Those on the western edge of the central plains hunted buffaloes. The reintroduction of the horse into the new world by the Spaniards and the rapid multiplication of this animal gave mobility to the Apache for the chase and for raiding. When first encountered, the Western Apache and the Jicarilla were supplementing their food supply of game and wild plants by cultivating corn and other vegetables on a modest scale. The Kiowa Apache, perhaps because of small numbers and military reverses, threw in their lot with the Kiowa In-

APALACHEE—APARTHEID moving and camping with them. The Jicarilla, though they retained their separate territory, formed an alliance with the Southern Ute to counterbalance the Navaho threat. After the American Civil War a determined attempt was made to limit the territories and movements of the Apache. Efforts, which failed miserably, were made to concentrate the Mescalero with the Navaho at Bosque Redondo on the Pecos river. Then there was an attempt, which also had to be abandoned, to station the Jicarilla with the Mescalero on a reservation farther to the south. Serious troubles arose when the Chiricahua were forced to relinquish their territories and were housed with the Western Groups of Chiricahua repeatedly left the reserve in Apache. fright or protest and were promptly pursued by army units. The last Indian war of this kind ended in 18S6 with the surrender of Geronimo and his few remaining followers. This time the entire Chiricahua tribe was evacuated from the west and held as prisoners of war successively in Florida, Alabama, and at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, for a total of 27 years. In 1913 the members of the tribe were allowed to choose between taking allotments of land in Oklahoma or returning to the west to live in New Mexico on the MesApproximately one-third chose the former calero reservation. course and two-thirds, the latter. The Apache population in 1959 totaled about 9.600. The Western Apache live on the Fort Apache and San Carlos reservations dians of the plains,

The Chiricahua, except those still living near Apache, Oklahoma, the Mescalero, and the Lipan live on the Mescalero reservation in southern New Mexico. The Jicarilla have a reservation in north-central New Mexico. The Kiowa Apache live on allotments of land in southwestern Oklahoma. in east-central Arizona.

Bibliography. Western Apache

— Grenville

Goodwin, The Social Organization of the (1942); Harry Hoijer, Chiricahua and Mescalero Charles R. Kaut, The Western Apache Clan Sys-

Apache Texts (1938)

;

tem (1957) Morris E. Opler, Myths and Legends of the Lipan Apache Indians (1940) Morris E. Opler, An Apache Life-Way (1941) Morris E. Opler, Childhood and Youth in Jicarilla Apache Society (1946). (M. E. O.) ;

;

;

APALACHEE, a to the

Muskogian

tribe of

North American Indians belonging

linguistic stock.

They have been known

since

the 16th century, and formerly ranged the country around Apa-

The name

apparently Choctaw, meaning "people on the other side." About 1600 the Spanish Franciscans founded a successful mission among them, but early in the ISth century the tribe suffered defeat at the hands of the British; the mission churches were burned, the priests killed, and the tribe practically annihilated, more than 1,000 of them being sold as slaves. See Muskogean Indians. See F. W. Hodge (ed.). Handbook of American Indians North

lachee bay, Fla.

of

is

Mexico (1959). (Apameia), the ancient name of several towns

APAMEA

Apamea Cibotus (Apamea ad Maeandrum), was

in

a city of

it being partly occupied by the Founded by in Turkey. Antiochus I Soter in the 3rd century B.C. and named after his mother, it superseded the ancient Celaenae, which stood at the source of the Marsyas. Apamea held a commanding position at

Hellenistic Phrygia, the site of

modern Dinar, south of Afyonkarahisar

the point where the great east-west trade route of the Seleucid empire left the Maeander valley for the Anatolian plateau. The name Cibotus (Gr. kibotos, "coffer," "ark") may have referred to its wealth or to some feature of its topography. It is possible that this name gave rise to the early Christian legend that the ark of Noah rested on the hill above the town. Having passed from Seleucid to Attalid and thence, in the 2nd century A.D., to Roman rule, it became a great centre for Italian and Jewish traders; it long claimed primacy among Phrygian cities. Disorganization in the 3rd century a.d. and the diversion of trade to Constantinople led to its decline. It was captured by the Turks in 1070 and finally destroyed by an earthquake. The older sections of Dinar are largely constructed from the remains of Apamea. 2. Apamea ad Orontem (in the valley of the middle Orontes in western Syria was a treasure city and stud depot of the Seleucid kings, founded by Seleucus I Nicator. It was destroyed by Khosrau II of Persia in the 7th century a.d. and again by an earth)

quake in 1152. At the time of the crusades the site was known under the corrupted name of Famia. Extensive remains of streets and buildings may still be traced. 3. Apamea Zeugma (the modern Birecik in southeastern Turkey was a town refounded by Seleucus Nicator on the site of the Til-Barsip mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions. On the high left bank of the Euphrates, it was approached by a bridge of boats (zeugma >. 4. Apamea Myrlea (the modern Turkish Mudanya on the sea of Marmara was so named when Prusias I of Bithynia rebuilt )

)

the earlier city of Myrlea. 5. Apamea in Babylonia is mentioned by Stephanus Byzantinus and by Pliny as having stood near the Tigris in the district of Mesene. but the identification of the site is uncertain. 6. Apamea Rhagiana was a Greek city in western Parthia, near (Wm. C. B.) Rhagae (the modern Rai or Rayy, in Iran). APARRI, a municipality of the province of Cagayan, Luzon, of the Cagayan river near its mouth, about Phil., on the east bank 55 mi. N. of Tuguegarao (q.v.). Pop. (1960) 33,424. It was visited in 1572 by Gov. Guido de Lavezares and somewhat In 1898 Filipino insurgents later by Luis Perez Dasmarinas. under Col. Daniel Tirona landed at the port; but in 1901 civil government under the United States was established. Aparri is the northernmost of the larger Philippine municipaliOcean ties and is the port for much of northeastern Luzon.

vessels cannot cross the bar at the

mouth

of the river, but inter-

island ships anchor in the river opposite Aparri.

Principal products

shipped from Aparri are palay (rice), corn, copra, logs and fish products. Both fishing and cattle raising are significant industries. The Christian inhabitants are mainly Ilocanos and Ibanags. Aparri was invaded by the Japanese on Dec. 10, 1941. U.S. forces oc(An. C.) cupied it in June 1945. an Afrikaans w-ord denoting, in general, a state of "apartness," separateness or divorcement, designating the official policy followed by the Union of South Africa regarding the relations between the whites and the various nonwhite groups living in the country. It became widely used after the National party

APARTHEID,

was returned to power in 1948, but the term is of much earlier origin. It was originally conceived as a substitute for the word "segregation," which had become unpopular due to its more or less negative content and unsavoury associations. Fundamentally the policy of apartheid was a continuation of the traditional race relations policy followed in the Union of South Africa which was applied soon after the white settlement in that country in the mid- 17th century and subsequently became permawas, historically, a product of the differences way of life, numerical strength and racial features and of the sustained military conflict between white

nently established.

It

in religion, culture, general

western Asia: 1.

103

and black. In general two forms of apartheid might be distinguished. The first, more moderate form was the idealistic policy of "separate development" as advocated by the Dutch Reformed churches and organizations such as the South African Bureau of Racial Affairs (SABRA), among others. The advocates of this policy were opposed to any policy based on racial superiority and racial domination. They believed that the nonwhite peoples are not inherently inferior to the whites and that a permanent policy of racial domination is impracticable and immoral. They also believed that the white group would never be prepared voluntarily to grant to the African people equal political rights in an integrated society, because of the disparity in numbers (blacks outnumbering whites by more than three to one) and that the w^hite nation had a just claim It was their contention that the to political self-determination. process of economic and territorial integration of black and white would lead to increased racial tension and strife and make the They were peaceful coexistence of the two groups impossible. convinced, therefore, that the only way of reducing, and of possibly solving, the conflict, was to provide for the geographical division The black states of South Africa into black and white states. would eventually govern themselves. The National party government intimated that it accepted the policy of geographical division as its long-term objective.

—

APARTMENT—APATITE

104

The other, extreme form of apartheid accepted a policy of discrimination as being essential to the survival of the white group. The adherents of this line of thought did not think in terms of the eventual geographical division of the country into black and white states, but believed that discriminatory action and legislation could effectively safeguard the interests of the white group and that the differences in culture, level of development, etc., between the two groups justified such a policy. In practice the official governmental policy of apartheid was based on both these principles. Some of the measures adopted

were mainly

in the interests of

the Bantu (reservation of Bantu Others tended to reconcile the

areas; recognition of African law).

two groups in one way or another, while still others aimed chiefly at preserving the privileged position of the white group and resisting the increasing demands of the African population. The policy was applied in a modified form to other nonwhite (N. J. 0.) groups the coloured and Indian groups). Criticism of the apartheid policy by other member nations of the British commonwealth led to South Africa's withdrawing from interests of the

i

the

commonwealth

(X.)

in 1961.

APARTMENT HOUSE.

In the United States an apartmore than one dwelling unit, each designed for housekeeping. In Great Britain a similar type of building is known as a block of flats, and each unit therein is called a flat. These units may be grouped in many ways and vary in size, appointments and facilities, providing a wide variety of living accommodations capable of satisfying the requirements of

ment house

many

is

a building containing

In the United States there was apartment building during the first quarter of

different types of families.

a steady increase in

the 20th century. Communal dwellings and apartment buildings have existed for Among the North American Indians the most noted centuries.

were the long houses of the Iroquois. These buildings ranged in depth from about 18 to 20 ft. and in length from 60 to 100 ft. They were divided into separate bays, one for each family. The primitive buildings in the American southwest consisted of one-room houses built to form one continuous structure. Because of their locations on heights or in narrow river gorges, for ease New of defense, the only possibility of expansion was upward. houses would rise above the old, tier on tier, until heights of several stories were reached, each story of dwellings stepped back to give a terrace at each floor. In the great cities of the Roman empire, because of urban congestion, the individual house had given way in early imperial times

communal dwelling or apartment house, except for the residences of the very wealthy. Four stories were common, and six-, seven- or eight-story buildings were occasionally used. Later, tall apartment buildings were erected in walled cities such as Paris and Edinburgh to hold increasing populations within inflexible boundaries; some of these buildings still standing in modern times in Edinburgh date from the end of the 16th century. In England houses were often converted from upper-middle-class residences to boardinghouses and finally to small flats. The only to the

dwellings in England similar to the tall buildings in Edinburgh and on the continent were the chambers in the Inns of Court and the universities, until, in 1804, York house (the Albany), Pic-

was converted and extended to form bachelor apartments. There was no real development of the apartment building in Engcadilly,

land until the 1850s. Early in the 19th century the Industrial Revolution enormously increased the populations of all the great industrial centres of Populations doubled, tripled and quintupled in apthe world. proximately 100 years. The result of this increase was a tremendous overcrowding, unaccompanied as yet by new conceptions of People were simply crowded city planning or of dwelling design. more and more closely into rooms, houses or blocks of tenements. In the middle of the 19th century a new building type arose the slum dwelling conceived and built as such, erected under municipal codes and accepted as standard practice. The typical New York "old-law" tenement, for instance a type which started in the 1830s and consisted of apartments popularly known as railroad probably holds flats, the rooms placed in a row like railroad cars

—

—

a record for intensive use of space in the worst possible way.

It

perhaps significant that sections of the cities that contained apartments for the rich were almost as densely covered and as poorly planned as those in the sections characterized by poverty. Much so-called model housing of this period was only slightly better. The Peabody foundation built five- and six-story tenements in London in 1864. In Paris a seven-story walk-up group which consisted of three buildings erected one behind the other on an interior lot received first prize in a competition in 1901. In Berlin Huber's society built an apartment building five stories high, Few low-cost apartment buildings with its toilets in the yard. erected anywhere before 1918 show any signs of good design according to 20th-century standards. In many continental cities, however, the second half of the 19th century witnessed great progress in the design of apartments is

for the upper-middle class and the rich. Particularly in Paris and Vienna this period produced a flood of apartment buildings which were excellently arranged for their purpose despite their cramped and difficult sites, although their standards of light, air and sanitation were still primitive. From 1919 to about 1934 many large housing projects were constructed in Europe, a majority of them built either by the government or by public-utility societies with government aid. These projects included about 4,500,000 dwellings and showed tremendous advances in planning. In the United States a subsidized public housing program was started under the United States Housing act of 1937, by which the federal government made loans and subsidy grants to cities and other local governments to provide housing for low-income families. Much of this housing was in apartment buildings. From about 1930 to the beginning of World War II many welldesigned apartment buildings were erected, all over the world, and though these form only a small fraction of the total of apartment buildings existing, they established new standards, developed new methods and techniques and gave form to new and creative ideas.

The demand for rental housing after World War II was greater than ever before as the result of increased building costs, shifts It was met in part by a vast in population and other causes. amount of construction of multistory buildings in urban areas and by enormous developments of houses and apartments in suburban The construction of apartment buildings in suburbs was areas. almost entirely a 20th-century development, a result primarily of lack of adequate urban sites at economically feasible prices. Because of the availability of large tracts of comparatively inexpensive ground, suburban sites made possible the provision of many amenities not possible in costly urban centres, such as large open areas, providing views and privacy, outdoor sitting and play spaces and adequate parking facilities. These benefits, however, frequently were offset by longer travel time to and from work places and shopping districts. See also City Planning; Housing; Residential Architecture.

—

Bibliography. F. R. S. Yorke and F. Gibberd, The Modern Flat (1937) John B. Pierce Foundation, Family Behaviour ; Attitudes and Possessions (1944) J. H. Abel and F. N. Severud, Apartment Houses (1947) J. H. Abel, "The Apartment House," Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century Architecture, ed. by T. F. Hamlin, vol. 3, pp. 50-93 See various is(1952) Eugene Henry Klaber, Housing Design (1954) sues of Architectural Forum; Architectural Record; Progressive Architecture. (J. H. Al.) ;

;

;

;

APATITE

.

is the name applied to a group of closely related phosphate-bearing minerals that are widely distributed in nature. Economically, the most important is the carbonate-bearing apatite of rock phosphate deposits, such as those of Florida, the Rocky mountain region, North Africa, the Ukraine and certain oceanic islands (see Mineral Phosphates). Low-grade phosphate rocks are of interest because of their content of uranium and vanadium. Apatite is the hardness standard 5 in Mohs' scale. Its crystalline symmetry is limited to a sixfold axis and a plane perpendicular to it. The specific gravity is about 3.2, depending upon the chemical composition. The crystals may be brown, yellow, green, blue,

.

APATURIA—APELLICON violet,

Chemically,

are

apatites

cal-

cium phosphates having the type formula Ca 10 X 2 (PO 4 ) 6 where X ,

is

fluorine, chlorine or hydroxyl.

Strontium and manganese may substitute for calcium within the crystal structure, thus giving rise

Caradditional varieties. to bonate-containing apatites related

and

fluorapatite

to

apatite are

and

known

as

hydroxy-

—

francolite

respectively.

dahllite,

Bibliocraphy. Charles Darwin, Descent of Man (1871) R. M. and A. Yerkes, The Great Apes (1929) S. Zuckermann, Functional Affinities of Man, Monkeys and Apes (1933) I. T. Sanderson, The Monkey Kingdom (1957) (N. C. Ta.)

The

A

mineral,

ellestadite,

tally the

silicate-sulfate

rare,

same

has

essen-

crystal structure,

;

;

term collophane is applied to seemingly noncrystalline substances with similar compoindefinite

sitions.

105

Apes are similar both to men and old world monkeys in basic structure of the head and neck; to men only in the shoulder girdle and arms and in the lack of a tail. Their hip structure does not allow the characteristic human bipedal locomotion on the ground, although all apes can walk upright briefly. The apes are tropical forest dwellers of the eastern hemisphere. Gibbons and orangutans are arboreal brachiators, i.e., they move through trees by swinging from branches by their arms. Chimpanzees and gorillas stay on the ground much of the time, and perhaps consequently have feet more similar to man. See Man, Evolution of: Comparative Anatomy.

white, or colourless.

;

APELDOORN, a B

SHAUB

"

bl *ck apatite crystal, showing FROM ON. TAR10. (ABOUT NATURAL H!

town

in the province of Gelderland, Neth.,

situated east of the sand hills of

is

off

into the

flat

Pop. (1960)

Het Veluwe where they level by road east of Utrecht.

IJssel valley, 39 mi.

The town, with

103,595.

its

brightly painted red

The term anthropoid ape

mainly residential and industrial and has few buildings of historic interest. Het Loo, a royal palace built as a hunting lodge in 16S6 by Jacob Roman for William III, is \.\ mi. N. It is surrounded by fine gardens. Apeldoorn is a tourist centre for exploring Het Veluwe, a 15-mi.-wide area of heath and sand dune running southward for 25 mi. from the southeastern part of the IJsselmeer. The town is also a centre of road and rail communications and the canal from Dieren to Hattem runs through it. The chief industry is paper making, but the town is being developed as a general industrial centre. In World War II Apeldoorn was occupied by the Germans from May 1940 to May 1945. APELLES (4th century B.C.), probably the greatest painter of antiquity. He lived in the time of Philip of Macedon and his son Alexander. He was of Ionian origin but became a student at the celebrated school of Sicyon, where he worked under Pamphilus. He thus combined the Dorian thoroughness with the Ionic grace. He became the recognized court painter of Macedon, and his picture of Alexander holding a thunderbolt ranked with the Alexander with the spear of the sculptor Lysippus. Other works of Apelles had a great reputation, among them the portraits of the Macedonians Clitus, Archelaus and Antigonus, the procession of the high priest of Artemis at Ephesus, Artemis amid a chorus of maidens, a great allegorical picture representing Calumny and the painting representing Aphrodite rising out of the sea. Of these works no copies survive, unless a painting of Alexander as Zeus in the house of the Vettii at Pompeii be considered as a reminiscence of his work. It is said that he attached great value to the drawing of outlines, practising every day. The tale is well known of his visit to Protogenes, and the rivalry of the two masters as to which could draw the finest and steadiest line. The power of drawing such lines is conspicuous in the decoration of the red-

closely

figured vases of Athens.

as does a mineral of intermediate

SIZE)

composition, wilkeite. Fluorapatite occurs as an accessory mineral throughout the compositional range in igneous rocks, frequently as small or microscopic crystals with hexagonal cross sections. Fluorapatite or hydroxyapatite occurs in many varieties of metamorphic rocks. Dark coloured crystals, sometimes exceeding a foot in length, occur in a matrix of coloured calcite in eastern Canada, for example. rarer, chJorapatite may be locally abundant, as it is in southern Norway. The hard substance of vertebrate teeth and bones is chemically similar to carbonate hydroxyapatite and produces a similar X-ray diffraction pattern. During the process of fossilization the fluorine content tends to increase. (D. McC.) an ancient Greek festival that was held annually by nearly all the Ionian towns. At Athens it took place in the month of Pyanopsion (Oct.-Nov. ) and lasted three days, on which occasion the various phratries (clans) of Attica met to discuss their affairs. The name probably means the festival of "com-

Though

APATURIA,

mon relationship." On the first day,

called Dorpia, banquets were held toward evening at the meeting place of the phratries or in the private houses of members. On the second day, Anarrhysis, a sacrifice of oxen was offered at the public cost to Zeus Phratrios and Athena. On the third day, Koureotis, children born since the last festival were presented by their fathers or guardians to the assembled phrators, and, after an oath had been taken as to their

legitimacy, their

APAYAO:

names were inscribed

in the register.

see Isneg.

APE,

the general term for primates of the family Pongidae. is generally used for those that most resemble man in appearance, anatomical features and probably genetic functions. The apes include the gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan and gibbon (qq.v.).

The

first

three are sometimes referred to as great apes

and are frequently classified together as the subfamily Ponginae. The gibbons and the closely related but much larger siamangs are placed in the subfamily Hylobatinae. ship of anthropoid apes to inclusion

man and

The implied

relation-

his ancestors leads to their

together in the superfamily Hominoidea.

(See Pri-

mates: Manlike Primates [Anthropoidea]: Apes and Men.) In addition to the living apes, numerous fossil forms have been Many of these remains are extremely fragmentary, the majority being represented by little more than teeth. The earliest date from the Oligocene. A number show affinities with the gibdiscovered.

bons; the majority of the others are placed in the extinct subfamily Dryopithecinae. Of these, one group shows possible affinities with human ancestors and may eventually be grouped with the subfamily Australopithecinae of the family Hominidae. These man-apes have been traced back to the early Pliocene, indicating that the separation of the human line of descent from that of living anthropoid apes goes back at least 12,000,000 years. (See Anthropology: Evolution and Racial Variation in Man.)

brick houses,

is

Apelles allowed the superiority of

some

of his contemporaries in particular matters: according to Pliny he

admired the way Melanthius spaced his figures, and Asclepiodorus' mastery of symmetry and proportion. He probably used only a small variety of colours and avoided elaborate perspective. Simplicity of design, beauty of line and charm of expression were his chief merits.

—

When the naturalism of some of his works is praised for example, the hand of his Alexander is said to have stood out from the picture it must be remembered that this is the merit always In ascribed by untutored critics to works which they admire. fact the age of Alexander was one of notable idealism, and probably Apelles succeeded in a marked degree in imparting to his Apelles was also noted for imfigures a beauty beyond nature. provements which he introduced in technique. He had a dark atramentum, which served both to preserve Pliny glaze, called by There is little doubt his paintings and to soften their colour. that he was one of the most bold and progressive of artists.

—

APELLICON was born

at

(d. c.

Teos and

84 B.C.), a wealthy Greek book collector, became an Athenian citizen. During

later

the First Mithridatic War,

when Athens

in revolt set

up the

patetic philosopher Athenion as tyrant, Apellicon supported

peri-

him

APENNINES

io6

and was disastrously defeated by a Roman commander when in charge of a force in Delos. He had previously bought from the descendants of Neleus of Scepsis in the Troad the libraries of Aristotle and Theophrastus which were in a damaged condition and may have contained the only copies of the Aristotelian treatises to survive, although this is uncertain. Apellicon was said to have published them with corrections and supplements. After his death, when Sulla captured Athens, the books were carried off to Rome where eventually they formed the basis of the famous edition by Andronicus of Rhodes. A keen bibliographer, who had once been found surreptitiously removing the originals of ancient decrees from the archive-depository in the Metroon at Athens, he owned a copy of the Iliad with the first line differing from that in the present text. See I. During, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, pp. 382-395 (1957), for sources and references. (G. B. Kd.)

APENNINES

(Appennino),

a

series

of

mountain ranges

traversing peninsular Italy and forming the "backbone" of the

The name probably derives from Celtic pen, a mountain it originally denoted only the northern section, from the Maritime Alps to Ancona. Polybius (q.v.) probably first applied it to the whole chain, extending the name as far as Marseilles. The total length is about 838 mi. and the width 25 to 80 mi. Divisions. The Apennines may be divided into three parts, northern, central and southern. 1. The Northern Apennines or Appennino Settentrionale extend from the western end of the Maritime Alps. The first section is called the Ligurian Apennines (Appennino Ligure), bordering the coast of the Gulf of Genoa. The rocks consist of limestones and country.

top;

—

Flysch (sandstones, marls, clays). The highest point is Monte Bue (5,840 ft.). The southern slopes rise steeply from the sea, their lower parts terraced for the cultivation of vines, olives, fruit and vegetables. The rugged coast has numerous resorts {see Riviera). The ranges are crossed by several passes, one of which (the Giovi) carries the main road and railway between Genoa and Milan. Numerous hydroelectric plants have been built, linked into the Italian grid-system.

The ranges then trend Apennines

in a southeasterly direction as the

(Appennino Tosco-Emiliano).

Monte Cimone draining to the

(7,103

ft.).

The ranges

Tuscan

They culminate

in

are dissected by valleys

Po and the Mediterranean, and are in places thickly woods and on the lower slopes with sweet chest-

Rome via Avezzano to Pescara. 3. The southern Apennines or Appennino Meridionale extend southward as the Neapolitan Apennines (Appennino Napoletano) from the Sangro valley in a series of isolated blocks separated by broad depressions, rather than continuous chains. Most consist of rugged limestone, with bare rock where the winter torrents have gashed the hillsides. In the north the Montagna del Matese course from

culminate in

coasts.

Character. winter, which

nut.

The rocks

are of limestone, sandstone and clay, and in places

The clays give rise to landat Massa-Carrara. slides during the winter rains, which can do much damage to roads and villages. Tuscany, however, is taken up by lower hills, divided from the Apennines by the Arno, Chiana and Paglia rivers. The Tuscan hills are rich in minerals and chemicals toward the west, which are not found in the Apennines proper. Railways cross from Pistoia to Bologna, from Florence to Faenza, and from Prato to Bologna through a long tunnel. The Umbrian Apennines (Appennino Umbro) extend south to the Scheggia pass. They are lower, rising to 5,007 ft. in Monte Nerone. and are much dissected by the headstreams of the Tiber. A railway from Terni and Foligno crosses the mountains to Ancona on the east coast. 2. The central Apennines or Appennino Centrale extend southward as far as the valley of the Sangro as a series of broadly parallel ranges comprising the Roman Apennines (Appennino Umbro Marchigiano) and the Abruzzi Apennines (Appennino Abruzzese). The main summits are in the east, the Gran Sasso d'ltalia (q.v. culminating in Monte Corno (9,560 ft. the highest point in the Apennines. There are extensive limestone plateaus, rugged and deeply dissected. From the easterly ranges, short )

)

,

rivers flow directly to the Adriatic.

Between the

,

parallel ridges

lie long narrow valleys, mainly draining to the Tiber. The western margins of the central Apennines show signs of volcanic activity, with peaks such as Monte Amiato and the Alban hills (q.v.), and

numerous

crater-lakes;

large geothermic activity.

power

The ranges

e.g.,

Lake Bolsena.

station utilizes

are not easily

Near Lardarello a steam produced by volcanic crossed by railways, which

follow the longitudinal valleys, but one line pursues a circuitous

(6,726

ft.)

;

farther south are the

— Many parts of the Apennines are snow-covered is

cold and bleak, though in

summer

the landscape

in is

parched and arid. Winter torrents degenerate into strings of pools or dry courses in summer. Much was once thickly forested with pine, oak and beech, but a large proportion has been cleared during past centuries, so that the slopes, deprived of their protective tree cover, have been denuded of soil. Large areas are covered with poor evergreen scrub (macchie), and the higher parts, particularly in the central Apennines, carry summer pastures for sheep and goats. In recent years hillsides were terraced, pastures improved, and plantations of sweet chestnuts established on the lower slopes and of pines higher up. The eastern slopes overlooking the Adriatic sea are more gentle and fertile, but their disis the lack of water, since they are on the leeward side

advantage

and receive

than the west. For the most Settlements consist of villages of tall stone houses, either huddled in the valleys and dethe pressions or perched on hilltops. The people practise a poor type of agriculture. After World War II, the Italian government carried out several land-improvement schemes, particularly in the south of the peninsula, to create farms for landless peasantry. of the peninsula

less rain

part the Apennines are thinly populated.

forested with pine

marble occurs, as

Monte Miletto

Lucanian Apennines or Appennino Lucano (Monte Pollino, 7,375 ft.). Beyond the isthmus between the Tyrrhenian sea and the Gulf of Taranto are the Calabrian Apennines (Appennino Calabrese), made chiefly of granite, and the La Sila mountains which project into the "toe" of Italy toward the Straits of Messina. Numerous reservoirs have been constructed in the high valleys for irrigation and hydroelectricity. Volcanic activity is again evident around the Bay of Naples, notably Vesuvius (q.v.) and the Campi Flegrei. Further south this activity is represented in the Lipari Islands, with Stromboli and Vulcano. Numerous short rivers flow to the southern coasts. Several railways link the west and east

—

(F. J.

M.)

Geology. The Apennines form a part of the Alpine-Himalayan group of mountains (see Alps). They consist almost entirely of Triassic, Jurassic. Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene beds, like Remnants of older rocks may be the outer zones of the Alps. seen in the Calabrian peninsula, Capo Circeo and the Island of Zannone, in the Apuane Alps, in the islands off the Tuscan coast and

in the Colline Metallifere. In the south the deposits from the Trias to middle Eocene conmainly of limestones and were laid down, with a few interruptions, upon a quietly subsiding sea floor. Toward the end of the Eocene, the folding which gave rise to the existing chain be-

sist

came marked. The sea grew shallow; the deposits became conglomeratic and shaly; and volcanic eruptions began. Folding and elevation went on until the close of the Miocene period, when a considerable subsidence took place and the Pliocene sea overSubsequent elevation, spread the lower portions of the range. without folding, has raised the Pliocene beds in some cases to more than 3,000 ft., and they now lie almost undisturbed upon the older folded beds. The last elevation led to the formation of numerous lakes, now filled by Pleistocene deposits. Both volcanic eruptions and of elevation continue to the present day around the In the northern Apennines the shores of the Tyrrhenian sea. elevation appears to have begun earlier, for there the Upper sandstones and conglomerates. In of Cretaceous consists largely

movements

Calabria the chain consists chiefly of crystalline and schistose it is the Mesozoic and Tertiary zone which has been sunk Similar rocks are found beneath the Trias beneath the sea. Glaciers farther north in some of the valleys of the Basilicata. rocks;

no longer

exist in the

Apennines, but post-Pliocene moraines have

,

APEX—APHID been observed

107 sect

(J. I. P.)

in Basilicata.

—

Iberian peninsulas.

The

greater part of the area

is

Olives, vines and vegetables are cultivated.

maquis and Between 1,000 and 4,000 garigue.

ft.

there are deciduous oaks (Quercus

pubescens, Q. cerris, Q. petraea and Q. farnetto in the south) and many other deciduous trees especially hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinijolia) manna ash (Fraxinus ornus) and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa). The sweet chestnut is cultivated over extenThe dominant plant cover of the uninhabited subsive areas. ,

ft.) is beech with woods of beech and damper parts. Wide areas are covered with brushwood and pastures. Between the last two zones coniferous woods

alpine zone (4,000-7,000 silver

fir

in the

of black pine (Pinus nigra) occur especially in the southern part of the peninsula. At the highest level, such as the peaks of the

Abruzzi and other peaks to the north and south, there alpine pasture. Animal Life.

—The

is

treeless

(We. L.)

mammals

are similar to those in other

mountainous areas of Europe. They include red deer, red fox, wildcat, otters in the rivers and mountain hares. There are also The brown bear is wild pigs and wolves except in the north. found in the Abruzzi National park, chamois in the central Apennines and the common porcupine in the south. Birds of prey include the golden eagle and, only in the south, Bonnelli's eagle.

(Ma. Bu.) the point of the heavens toward which the motion relative to the mean of the stars is directed. Its position was indicated approximately by Sir William Herschel in

APEX, SOLAR,

sun's

17S3.

near right ascension 18 h declination +30°, not far from Vega, but the position varies considerably according to the class The speed of the sun's motion is of stars chosen for reference. approximately 12.4 mi. (20 km.) per second. a name given to certain igneous rocks which are so fine-grained that their component minerals are not deIt is

,

APHANITE,

tected by the unaided eye. Although a few authorities still recogmost systematic petrologists have now discarded it and regard these rocks as merely fine-grained examples of other species. Any compact, crystalline and fine-grained rock is frequently said to be aphanitic. APHASIA: see Speech Disorders: Inadequate Function of the Central Nervous System. APHELION, in astronomy, the point in the orbit of a planet When the earth is at its or comet most distant from the sun. aphelion in early July, it is about 3.000,000 mi. farther from the nize the aphanites as a distinct class,

Corsun than when at its perihelion (q.v.) in early January. responding terms for describing the most distant orbital point of bodies moving around centres of force other than the sun include apogee, apocenter and aposaturnium. The apogee of the earth's moon, for instance, is about 31,250 mi. more distant from the earth than its closest orbital point. See Moon Constants of Moon's Size and Motion. APHID, a plant louse, any of the minute insects belonging to the family Aphidae (formerly Aphididae) of the suborder Homoptera (order Hemiptera). They are among the most common in:

is

hardly a species of plant, cultivated or wild, that escapes aphid

geologically

Recent and, the range being cut off in Tertiary times by the sea on the east and west, plant immigration in more recent times must have taken place from the north either over the Alps or along their southern fringes. The low-lying areas have a Mediterranean type of vegetation and often form the boundary zones between eastern and western European types. The middle slopes carry types of vegetation ranging from Mediterranean to central European Only in the south are strongly influenced by Alpine conditions. there similarities to the true Mediterranean high mountain flora. The Apennines are naturally wooded but the middle and lower slopes have for the most part been cleared of forests. Up to 1 ,000 ft. and, in favourable situations where the slopes are dry and sunny and there is chalk in the soil, even higher up, the dominant types of tree are the holm oak (Quercus ilex) and Mediterranean pine. Where deforestation took place the trees were often replaced by

pests of plants throughout

the growing season, and there

Vegetation. The Apennines are not generally rich in flora and have few endemic species by comparison with the Balkan or

infestation.

Aphids (sometimes

aphides) are soft-bodied insects

measuring usually from one-sixteenth to not much more than one-eighth of an inch, although a few species may reach a quarter of an inch or slightly more. Because of their small size and coloration, resembling foliage, they are often difficult to detect and usually pass unnoticed.

PLANT APHIDS (HACROS1PHUM AM BROSIAE) FEEDING ON STEM OF RAG

WEED

Many

of

them are beautifully coloured, ranging from white and creamygray through delicate shades of

green, yellow and pink to deep red, various hues of

brown and even

black; they are variously marked and speckled with other and sometimes with white tufts or powdery wax. These tiny insects can do a tremendous amount of damage to heavily in-

jet

colors

fested plants by constantly sucking up the plant sap needed for the vital functions and growth of plants. Instances are known in which beds of ornamental plants or large areas of field and truck crops were entirely ruined by aphids in a few weeks or even

days.

Description.

—Aphids

are characterized

by

a

pear-shaped body

divided into a head, thorax and abdomen. Winged (alatae) and wingless (apterae) adults occur. The head in the winged forms is provided with three simple eyes (ocelli) and a pair of compound eyes. Aphids have two slender antennae, consisting of that

is

three to usually six segments. The last segment ends in a narrow process, the length of which, along with the number, shape, size and distribution of special sense organs (sensoria or rhinaria) over

the antennal segments, is very useful in classification. The rostrum, or beak, is usually four-jointed, ensheathing four hairlike mouth parts that are capable of piercing plant tissue and penetrating intercellularly the food conducting channels (phloem) of The beak itself does not penetrate the plant vascular plants. tissue. In feeding, aphids inject a poisonous saliva into the plants, thereby producing various types of discoloration and malformaCertain species (Pemphigus and Eriosoma) are notorious tions. for a specific gall formation on poplars, elms and other plants.

Several species act as vectors of different virus diseases of plants: all species provide avenues for bacterial infection via

moreover,

their feeding punctures.

The thorax consists of three segments. The winged aphids are provided with two pairs of delicate transparent wings, the hind ones much reduced, attached to the thorax. The wings are usually held in a gable roof like position when the insect is at rest; however, some species keep them flat over the body. The thorax also has three pairs of jointed legs; each leg has a two-jointed end process (tarsus) fitted with paired claws. In the egg-laying (oviparous) females the long hind leg segment farthest from the body (the tibia) is usually swollen and studded with circular sensory porelike organs.

The abdomen is clearly eight-segmented (a ninth rudimentary segment is often concealed) and terminates in a tail-like cauda and an anal plate of significance in taxonomy. Each of the first seven abdominal segments has a pair of breathing pores (spiracles) one on either side. The abdomen may have dorsal and lateral tubercles of various shapes and sizes. The sixth abdominal segment, on its dorso-lateral margins, usually has a pair of special tubelike organs, possessed by no other insects; these organs, known as cornicles or siphunculi, emit gasses or sometimes a waxlike material. The cornicles were formerly often called honey-tubes because it was believed that the sticky, sweetish fluid known as honeydew of aphids was secreted through these tubes. Actually honeydew is a by-product of digestion, containing modified plant sap and sugars in excess of the aphid's needs, that is eliminated through the anus.

APHID

io8 Natural History. and

flies

and

is

— Aphid honeydew

is

fed upon by bees, wasps

eagerly sought by several species of ants.

Certain

ants care for flocks of aphids for the sake of this sweet fluid and Some will protect the aphids against predators and parasites. species of ants

may

build covering shelters

from

bits of plant

ma-

terial to safeguard the aphid colonies from rain and enemies, may transfer aphids from wilted plants to healthy ones to perpetuate

and away.

colonies, flying

Some

may chew

off

the wings of aphids to keep

them from

species of aphid, for example, the corn-root aphid (Anura-

phis maidi-radicis), are actually overwintered in ant nests;

the

(Lasius americanus) store eggs of the corn-root aphid and care for them throughout the winter. In the spring the young aphids hatch and are carried by the ants to the roots of weeds, where the aphids feed; later in the season, when corn is planted, the ants transfer their charges to the roots of corn. There are other interesting relations between aphids and ants, and the very existence of some species of aphids with incomplete life cycles, as in Paracletus, depends on protection by ants. Ant-aphid relationships are set up only with aphids secreting the honeydew; those producing only a waxy secretion are ignored cornfield ants

by

ants.

In their biology,

life

cycles,

method of reproduction, poly-

form among members of a species) and have no equals in the insect world. The life span of an aphid is rather short, two to four weeks, but amazingly complex in the seasonal life cycle of certain species. Aphids are known for a remarkable cyclic reproduction known as heterogamy, characterized by an alternation of several parthenogenetic generations, produced without mating during the growing season, with true sexual generation

morphism (variation

in

instinctive heteroecy (migration to alternate hosts) aphids

in the fall.

Life Cycle.

—The

life

cycle typically begins with the fertilized

They are laid singly or in small clusters late in fall about the bases of dormant buds and in crotches and crevices of plants, on primary hosts or egg-overwintering plants on which life history begins in the spring. The minute eggs (less than -jj- in. in length) eggs.

when freshly laid but soon become black. Early in spring young aphids hatch from overwintered eggs, feed, grow by molting four times and reach maturity on the primary host in two or three weeks, depending on temperature. These forms, known as stem-mothers, are considered to be the first generation (fundatrix). Usually they are wingless, but stemmothers of certain species of the subfamily Panaphinae are winged. The stem-mothers and the following generations reproduce parthenogenetically and ovoviviparously (eggs hatch in the parent's body and young are born live) until fall. Each female may give birth to three to seven living young nymphs daily for three or more weeks. Twelve to 20 generations may occur through the plant growing season, thus giving rise to enormous populations. The progeny feed either singly, in scattered groups or in dense colonies on stems, foliage or roots, depending on the species. The second generation may be of winged or wingless forms. The winged forms of nonmigratory species in this and successive genare yellowish or greenish

erations

may

disperse to plants of the

same or

related species for

further propagation. In the case of the migratory species spring migrants (exules) are produced; these forms undertake with precise regularity a migration from the original primary host to oftentimes botanically strikingly different alternate or secondary hosts, usually annual plants or herbaceous perennials. (It is of interest to note that the primary hosts are perennial and evolutionarily older plants.) There may be from a few to usually ten or more wingless generations on secondary hosts. In late summer or early fall, with the advent of cooler temperatures and shorter days, a special generation of winged individuals is produced on the secondary host. These aphids, known as fall migrants, disperse in search of primary hosts, where they may establish colonies. The progeny of the fall migrants may be wingless sexual oviparous females; these wingless females are joined by winged males that are produced on the secondary host. After mating, the sexual females lay their fertilized eggs, thus starting a new cycle. The foregoing account is the typical life cycle for the

green peach aphid,

{Macrosiphum

Myzus

persicae and

solanifolii).

primary hosts give birth to

for

the potato

In other cases the

fall

aphid migrants on

a wingless generation of parthenogenetic

females known as sexuparae, as in the foxglove aphid (Myzus These sexuparae in turn produce sexual males and females for further continuation of the life cycle. The oviparous females in the majority of cases are wingless, though in some species (e.g., Tamalia) winged oviparous females are known. Most of the oviparous species lay several eggs, but in the subfamily Eriosomatinae only a single egg is laid by a beakless, nonfeeding female. Males are small and may be winged or wingless. In some instances both kinds of males may occur in the same species, as in Cepegillettea betulifoliae and others. A few species have anolocyclic reproduction in which the sexual part of the cycle is absent. Definite sexes may be lacking in their life history presumably because of some geoclimatic changes that occurred in the history of the earth and perhaps destroyed the primary hosts of these species. Also, when aphid species are newly introduced into a country not having the species of plant necessary for sexual reproduction of the particular aphids, an anolocyclic reproduction may develop. Such a case is that of the woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum); this North American species after introduction into Europe began propagating only parthenogenetically on apples in the absence of its original primary solani).

host, the

American elm.

Instinctive migration with the heteroeceous habit of feeding is distinctly advantageous to aphids in utilizing the more suitable plant sap of herbaceous plants during the summer, at a time when

feeding conditions on primary hosts tion also provides a

means

become unfavourable. Migrafrom predators and parasites.

of escape

Continuous parthenogenetic reproduction without sexual forms common in the tropics and is known to occur without interruption for several years in greenhouses, where uniform environmental conditions favour such reproduction. Classification and Distribution. The family Aphidae, di-

is

—

vided into several subfamilies, belongs to the superfamily Aphidoidea, which also includes the family Phylloxeridae (see Phylloxera). The Aphidae is represented by about 1,750 known species, and new ones are added to this number annually. The relative abundance and diversity of aphids in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere and the absence or very poor representation of native species in tropics and in the southern hemisphere indicate that aphids probably originated in the northNorth ern zoogeographic zones, the Nearctic and Palaearctic. America, Europe and eastern Asia are rich in aphid fauna. Phylogenetic (race history) studies suggest that the most ancient aphids inhabited evergreen trees, feeding on bark, young shoots and needles. Later they established themselves on broad-

—mainly willows, poplars, — and eventually adapted themselves

leaf plants

others

birches, oaks, hickories and to perennials and anand roots. During this evolution marvelous adaptations, habits and com-

nuals, infesting stems, leaves

aphids developed their plicated

life cycle.

past and present distribution of aphids is mainly governed by the parallel evolutionary development of plants and aphids, the presence or absence of suitable hosts and the complexity of ecological conditions, especially temperature and humidity, to

The

which most of the aphid species are very sensitive. The majority of aphids depend on plants that grow in a moderate climate; a considerable fauna of specialized aphids, however, does exist in arid plant communities. Economic Importance. Aphids usually do not kill their host plants, but they frequently do reduce plant vigour, distort leaves and cause other malformations. These insects, in many stages of development, can often be found clustered in large numbers on new plant growth, on buds and on the undersides of leaves. Damage wrought to crop plants by aphids is considerable: annual losses charged to the pea aphid (Macrosiphum pisi) run to about $4,000,000, and to the potato aphid (M. solanifolii) about Heavy infestations often occur on many orna$66,500,000. mental plants, among them roses, asters and many flowering bulbs.

—

;

APHONIA—APHRODISIAC Among other common economic species of aphids are: corn-leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis I, spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maadata), green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), apple aphid (Aphis pomi), melon aphid {Aphis gossypii), woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) cabbage aphid (Brevicorine brassicae) and

in Latin, is that

at cal

(

Control.

Toxoptera graminum

—Among the most

1.

efficient natural controls of

aphids are the insect-eating species of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) that in their larval and adult stages may completely destroy large aphid colonies. Next in importance are the larvae (aphid lions) and adults of green lacewings (Chrysopidae ), brown lacewings (Hemerobiidae and the larvae of flower flies Syrphidae ). Parasites of aphids are found among small wasps of the families Braconidae, Chalcidae and Ichneumonidae. A fungus. Entomophthora aphidis, at the right combination of temperature and humidity may wipe out enormous populations of the pea aphid and other species 1

I

in

two or three days' time.

Aphids can also be controlled by chemical methods; insecticides and others, either as dusts or such as Malathion, Rotenone, sprays, are effective. In many countries more detailed information on control may be obtained from governmental departments of agriculture and from local experimental stations. See also Index references under "Aphid" in the Index volume.

DDT

—

Bibliography. A. K. Mordvilko, "The Evolution of Cycles and Origin of Heteroecv (Migration) in Plant-lice," Annual and Magazine F. V. Theobald, The Plant Lice or Aphiof \atural History (1928) didae of Great Britain, 3 vol. (1926-29) Theo. Pergande, The Life History 0) Two Species of Plant-lice, U.S.D.A. Division of Entomology, Tech. Ser. No. 9 (1901) C. Borner, Europae centralis Aphides 1952 j P. N. Annan, "A Contribution Toward a Monograph of the Adelginae (Phyllo\eridae) of North America," Stan. Univ. Biological Sciences vol. vi, No. 1 (1928) J. H. Comstock, An Introduction to Entomology (1933); V. O. Mamontova, "Zlakovi Popelytzi Ukrainy" ("Cereal Plant Lice of Ukraine") Ukranian Academy of Science of Kiev (1959). (A. A. G.) ;

;

;

(

;

APHONIA, symptom

or loss of voice, not due to a brain lesion,

of disease of the larynx or interference with the

anism which controls

muscles.

Of causes

is

a

mech-

larynx itself, the commonest is acute catarrhal laryngitis, in the course of a cold, or after overuse of the voice. More serious diseases of the its

in the

larynx are diphtheria, tuberculosis, syphilis, and cancer, each of

which

may produce

hoarseness or loss of voice

when

it

attacks the

Causes outside the larynx are masses pressing on the laryngeal nerves, such as tumours of the thyroid gland and aneurysms of the aorta, and brain disorders giving rise to spasm or paralysis of the laryngeal muscles. Aphonia may be a manifestation of hysteria. See also Laryngitis Throat, Diseases of. APHORISM, a principle expressed tersely in a few telling words or any general truth conveyed in a short and pithy sentence, in such a way that when once heard it is unlikely to pass from the memory. The name was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, a long series of propositions concerning the symptoms and diagnosis of disease and the art of healing and medicine. The term came to be applied later to other sententious statements of physical science, and later still to statements of all kinds

vocal cords.

APHRAATES

Aphorisms have been especially used in dealing with subjects to which no methodical or scientific treatment was applied till late, such as art, agriculture, medicine, jurisprudence and politics. The Aphorisms of Hippocrates form far the most celebrated as well as the earliest collection of the kind. The first aphorism, perhaps the best known of all, which serves as a kind of introduction to the book, runs as follows: "Life is short, art is long, opportunity fugitive, experimenting dangerous, reasoning difficult: it is necessary not only to do oneself what is right, but also to be seconded by the patient, by those who attend him, by external circumstances.''

Another famous collection of aphorisms is that of the school of Salerno in Latin verse, in which Joannes de Meditano, one of the most celebrated doctors of the school of medicine of Salerno, summed up the precepts of this school. The book was dedicated to a king of England. It is a disputed point as to which king, some authorities dating the publication at 1066, others assigning a later date. Another collection of aphorisms, also medical and also

(Syriac

Afrahat; Persian Farhad)

(fl.

in the

2nd quarter of the 4th century), commonly known as the Persian Sage, was a Syriac homilist and one of the earliest fathers of the Syriac church. The few certain facts about his life are gleaned from his Homilies. A convert from paganism, he became a monk, probably also a bishop, for he speaks of the laying on of his hands, and he had a seat at the council of Seleucia and Ctesiphon (344), where he drew up the encyclical letter (Homily 14). A marginal note in a 14th-century manuscript in the British museum, London, calls him bishop or head of the convent of Mar Matthew near Mosul. Probably at some ecclesiastical advancement, he seems to have adopted the name Jacob, which as early as 496 led Gennadius of Marseilles to attribute the Homilies to Jacob of Nisibis (d. 338), and explains the attribution to the latter of the Armenian version published by Antonelli (1756). Aphraates lived during the persecutions of Shapur II (q.v.), which are alluded to in the Homilies. There are 23 Homilies, each beginning with a successive letter of the Syriac alphabet. Ten were produced in 337, 12 in 344, and as appendix a Homily, beginning with the first Syriac letter, was added in 345. They are treatises on the Faith, an ordered exposition furnished to an enquirer, orthodox as later Jacobites and Nestorians attested, but free from Greek theological influence. "To him Christianity was the revelation of a Divine Spirit dwelling in man and fighting against moral evil, not first and foremost a tissue of philosophical speculation about the nature of the Divinity in itself." (F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity,- John Murray Publishers Ltd [1904].) Several Homilies are directed against the Jews and show knowledge of Jewish exegesis. His works are important for the light they throw on 4th-century Christianity in Persia; even their obscurities may His practice of reflect the need for caution amid persecution. full biblical quotation affords valuable evidence for the form of Burkitt held that Aphraates quoted from the text used then. Diatessaron, but A. Vodbus, Studies in the History of the Gospel Text in Syriac (1951) indicates that it was from a tetraevangelion (four Gospels) of the Old Syriac type.

—

Bibliocraphv. Homilies ed. by J. Parisot in Patrologia Syriaca (1894-1907) see also A. Baumstark, Geschichte der syrischen Lileratur, pp. 30-31 (1922) F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, (W. D. McH.) pp. 81-95 (1904).

vol. 1-2

;

;

APHRODISIAC,

;

of principles.

Dutchman Hermann Boerhaave, published

Leyden in the year 1709; it gives a terse summary of the mediknowledge prevailing at the time and is of great interest to the

student of the history of medicine.

,

green bug

of the

109

any of various forms of stimulation used Aphrodisiacs

chiefly to arouse sexual excitement.

may

be classified

two principal groups: (1) psychophysiological (visual, tactile, olfactory, aural and (2 internal (foods, alcoholic drinks, drugs, in

1

:

)

love potions, medical preparations).

By

far the

more important

is

the second group, as the prepara-

tion of erotic dishes has played a

tremendous

role in the sexual

In spite of their vast popularity, almost no scientific studies have been written about them; most writings on the subject are little more than unscientific compilations of traditional history of man.

material. Of the various foods to which aphrodisiac powers are traditionally attributed, fish, vegetables and spices have been the most popular throughout history. None of these foods, however, contains any chemical agents that could effect a direct physiological reaction upon the genitourinary tract, and it must be concluded

that the reputation of various supposedly erotic foods

is

based not

fact but upon folklore. Since food cannot produce sexual desire biochemically, the question at once arises of how it has happened that man has, for centuries, in all parts of the world, attributed such powers to foods. It should be remembered that a large number of the plants, vegetables, spices, etc., that are supposed to be aphrodisiacs acquired

upon

their reputation

many

centuries ago,

when

there was

no

scientific

information available. In those early times the guiding principle that determined the attributes of plants and other foods was the This refers to an ancient belief in the doctrine of signatures. therapeutic efficacy of resemblances. Thus if a plant resembled possessed, so it was reasoned, sexual characteristics the genitalia, it

—

no

APHRODITE

The best example of this visual identification is the of vanilla, which originally meant vagina (from the Spanish vaitiila, the diminutive form of vaina, "pod," "sheath," "vagina,"

and powers.

name

from the Latin vagina, "sheath." "vagina").

One

of the subtlest aspects of the question of foods as aphro-

which has been practically ignored by all writers on the subject except the German nutritionist H. Balzli, is the psychophysiological reaction that a well-prepared meal of subtly seasoned foods can have upon the human organism. The combination of disiacs,

various sensuous reactions

—the

visual satisfaction of the sight of

appetizing food, the olfactory stimulation of their pleasing smells

and the tactile savoury dishes

gratification afforded the oral

— tend

to bring

on

mechanism by

rich,

a state of general euphoria con-

ducive to sexual expression. In this connection might be cited the famous French cabinets particidiers luxurious private dining room-boudoir suites featured by many Parisian restaurants of the igth century. With the exception of alcoholic drinks and certain narcotics such as marijuana, which may lead to sexual excitation through depression of inhibitory centres, modern medical science recognizes These are, principally, a very limited number of aphrodisiacs. cantharides and yohimbine. Yohimbine is a crystalline alkaloid substance derived from the bark of the yohimbe tree (Corynanthe yohimbe) found in central Africa, where it has been used for centuries by Africans to increase sexual powers. Although it has been promoted as an aphrodisiac, most investigators feel that any clinical

—

change

in sexual

powers after

its

use

is

probably due to suggestion,

since stimulatory effects are elicited only with toxic doses.

—

Bibliography. By far the most authoritative survey is M. Hirschand R. Linsert, Liebesmittel (1930), a unique discussion of the question from a modern medical viewpoint. Informative studies, not treating the subject from the all-important physiological viewpoint, are: H. S. Denninger, "A History of Substances Known as Aphrodisiacs," Annals of Medical History, vol. ii, pp. 383-393 (1930) A. Costler and R. Willy, Encyclopaedia of Sexual Knowledge,- ed. by Norman Haire, H. Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, vol. iii pp. 355-386 (1936) (1936) G. R. Scott, Encyclopedia of Sex, pp. 22-23 (1939) A. F. Niemoeller. Aphrodisiacs and Anti-Aphrodisiacs (1945). Important studies for various regions are: R. Schmidt, Beitrage zur indischen Erotik, pp. 833-855 (1902) E. Malone, The Plays of William Shakespeare, vol. viii, T. Hopfner, Das Sexualleben der Griechen und Rbmer (1938) H. Licht, Sexual Life in Ancient Greece (1934); B. Stern, Medizin, Aberglaube und Geschlechtsleben in der Tiirkei, vol. 2 (1903). See also H. Balzli, G'astro so phie : Ein Brevier fur Gaumen und Geist (1931), an extraordinarily sensitive evaluation of the subtle yet profound relationship between food and sex; and C. F. Heartmann, Cuisine de I'amour (1942). (D. Md.; F. O. K.) feld

;

;

;

;

;

;

APHRODITE,

known

as the Greek goddess of sexual by the Romans with Venus (q.v.). The familiar picture of the goddess who "overcomes all mortal men and immortal gods with desire" occurs first in book 14 of the Iliad and provides the archetype for most later Greek poetry. To her

best

love and beauty, identified

sphere of influence Hesiod assigns "girlish dalliance, smiles, deceits: sweet pleasure, love, and gentleness" (Theogony, 205-206).

The Homeric Hymn

to

Aphrodite extends her power to

things save three virgin goddesses.

came

Among

all

living

the early lyric poets

devoted to youthful beauty and love: Sappho, ardent and sensitive, honours her above all others, while Mimnermus asks. "What is life without golden Aphrodite?" From the very first her own person was the paradigm of female beauty; Achilles in book 9 of the Iliad says that he would not marry Agamemnon's daughter, "even if she rivaled golden Aphrodite in beauty." The statue of Aphrodite at Cnidos, considered by Pliny the Elder the finest statue ever made, is The Venus Praxiteles' attempt to capture this vision in marble. de Milo continues the tradition; in fact, most of Aphrodite's sculptural types are devoted to one or another aspect, lofty or sensual, of her beauty. As goddess of beauty Aphrodite was associated with the Charites (usually translated Graces); in the eighth book of the Odyssey they bathe, dress and anoint her. Hesiod and later epic poets connected Aphrodite with the Horae (Seasons), suggesting her power over natural as well as human beauty. Homer and Hesiod, according to Herodotus, fixed for the Greeks the nature and duties of their gods; they must have exerted considerable influence over the mind of the average worshiper. In she

to stand for a cultural ideal, the life

very few cult shrines, however, is there found evidence that Aphrodite was primarily the love goddess in the Homeric sense. This suggests that some of her cults may reflect conceptions that antedate Homer that Homer made her the love goddess. Certain forms she took have nothing to do with love: she is sometimes the protectress of sailors, sometimes armed, occasionally bearded. Of most of her local cults little is known directly, but what evidence there is indicates that her sphere was the act of love rather than the passion. We should expect the function of such a goddess to be the promotion of human, perhaps vegetative, fertility, and we are not entirely disappointed. In Hymettus, near a temple of Aphrodite, there was a spring where women drank who wished to conceive or who wanted an easy childbirth. In Hermione, women sacrificed to her before marriage, perhaps for satisfactory sexual relations but more reasonably for their own fecundity. Spartan mothers upon the betrothal of their daughters sacrificed to Aphrodite Hera a fusion of Aphrodite with the marriage goddess doubtless for similar reasons. In Attica, Aphrodite was associated with the Moirai (Fates) and the Genetyllides. goddesses who presided over birth. Phallic symbols, appropriate to fertility worship, have been found dedicated to her. In Corinth, Cyprus and Eryx in Sicily, she was worshiped by religious prostitution: either all women gave themselves once to a stranger before marriage, or certain women devoted themselves continually to her service. Aphrodite's religious prostitutes were probably intended to promote fertility, as they were in other ancient cults; in Eryx the goddess probably presided over vegetative growth. Clearly the gulf between sexual desire and human fertility is not vast, and it may be supposed that worshipers at Aphrodite's shrines in later days felt little conflict between Homer's conception But to early poets, probably voicing courtly and their own. opinion, the cult seems to have had a somewhat different appearance. In mythology Aphrodite is often found associated not with human love in general but with its darker side: rape (in the myths of Paris and Helen, of Theseus and Ariadne), adultery (in Aphrodite's own affair with Ares while married to Hephaestus) and incest (in the myths of Hippolytus and Phaedra, of Cinyras and Mvrrha) the list could be considerably extended. Only one mortal couple in Homer knows Aphrodite's favour, Paris and Helen; she has no influence over Achilles and Briseis, Hector and Andromache or Odysseus and Penelope, In most of the Iliad she is the goddess of seduction and rape. It may be reasonably supposed that Homer inherited, along with the obviously pre-Homeric myth of Helen's rape, this concept of Aphrodite, and that in book 14, modifying tradition, he made her the goddess of love. Even here she aids in Hera's deceit and seduction of Zeus, but her sphere of influence is extended and the nature of that influence treated far In one line of book 5 Homer even less harshly than elsewhere. associates her with marriage. The pre-Homeric goddess of rape, toward whom we sense much antagonism in the Iliad, may well represent the Greek nobility's estimate of the cult goddess of sexual

—

—

;

intercourse.

Ritual prostitution,

for instance,

is

not likely to

have aroused much enthusiasm among those who professed heroic values. It is not from Greek cult and myth alone that scholars have sought clues as to the early nature of Aphrodite. Most are inclined to think that her worship came from the east after the Greeks had made their home on the peninsula to which they later gave their name. The cult of Aphrodite in the Cyprian town of Paphos was of considerable prominence in pre-Homeric times, since the Odyssey speaks of Paphos as if it were her native city. In Hesiod's Theogony, though literally born from the sea, she comes to land

She was called Cypris (Lady of Cyprus) and Cyfirst on Cyprus. progeneia (Cyprus-born) very early. The Greeks probably first met her there during their penetration of the eastern Mediterranean As her worship was in the latter half of the 2nd millennium B.C. carried westward she may have absorbed features of deities already This seems certainly to have occurred on Mt. Ida in the Troad (the northwest corner of Asia Minor, flanking the Hellespont), for the goddess there bears many resemblances to the Great Mother of Asia Minor, best known under the name Cybele. established.

If

we attempt

to venture

beyond the Cyprian

cult in the search

.

APHTHOUS— APION becomes much darker. It was formerly felt that Aphrodite was only another form of a mother goddess common to the Semitic near east generally but worshiped under varying names in different places: Ishtar in Mesopotamia, Astarte and Asherah Ashtoreth in Syria, and so forth. The Phoenicians were said to have brought this goddess to Cyprus, Cythera (where there was an ancient cult of Aphrodite and Corinth. This theory cannot be right, though it must not be rejected entirely. Aphrodite's presence on Cyprus almost certainly antedates the Phoenician colonization, and many features of her cult there may have received Anatolian rather than Semitic influence. Her Paphian worship was carried on by Cinvradae. whose ancestor Cinyras was said to have founded the cult there. Later myths make Cinyras a Syrian and father of Adonis, a Syrian vegetation god these myths have been used as evidence for Aphrodite's Syrian origin. But the only for origins the path

i

I

)

;

provenience to Cilicia in southern Anatolia. Adonis and Aphrodite were indeed often associated, but Adonis may be a late Phoenician replacement for earlier native Cyprian deities; the evidence is slight, moreover, for Adonis' worship at Paphos. The Paphians themselves were said by Herodotus to have derived their temple type from Ascalon in Phoenicia. The type was known in the Minoan-Mycenaean culture, long before the Phoenicians were active; but the Mycenaeans may well have derived this type from Syria. The fact that Aphrodite's "statue" at Paphos was a stone in the shape of a pointless cone has been adduced to show Semitic influence, but actually the aniconic representation, rare among the Greeks, who of course preferred anthropomorphic forms, was common all over the pre-Greek Aegean. reliable tradition assigns Cinyras'

Certain of Aphrodite's features must be considered Semitic. Her unusual epithet Urania (heavenly, daughter of Uranus) points to the Semitic goddess of the heavens, actually called Urania by Herodotus. The maritime Aphrodite, protectress of sailors, may derive this function from the Syrian Asherah. called Asherah "of the sea." Some scholars derive Aphrodite's name from Asherah, the Greeks assimilating the foreign word to a Greek root aphro("foam") and later calling her the foam-born goddess. Aphrodite's familiar symbol, the dove, seems near eastern in origin. In the town of Amathus, near Paphos, a bisexual form of Aphrodite was worshiped. A terra-cotta figurine dating from the early 7th century and showing the bearded goddess rising from what seem to be testicles was found near Corinth. Hesiod tells a myth clearly related to this figurine. Cronus, having castrated his father Uranus, cast the genitals into the sea. and from the foam that flowed from and surrounded them Aphrodite was born. When she first stepped ashore on Cyprus grass sprang up under her feet, suggesting that she possessed power over the life of vegetation. Though Hesiod's concept of Aphrodite's character is Homeric, his myth is not in Homer Zeus and Dione. rather than Uranus and the sea. are Aphrodite's parents. Hesiod's birth storv appears invented for the fertility goddess. There are many indications that the Amathusian bisexual deity represented by the terra-cotta figurine was a vegetation deity: it is the role played by most other ancient eastern bisexual divinities: the vegetation god Adonis was worshiped at Amathus: an inscription refers to sacrifices to Aphrodite to secure the fertility of the crops. There was a grove of Aphrodite Ariadne there. Ariadne (q.v. being originally an Aegean vegetation goddess: the cults appear to have fused at an early date, before Ariadne became a mere mortal In honour of Aphrodite Ariadne, a young man dressed in women's clothes and imitated the cries of :

I

a

woman

in childbirth;

though the exact significance of

is unknown, it surely points to a fertility was shown at Amathus. and a dying deity

with

:

i

quite inappropriate to the spot, of "in the gardens."

This

title

and the presence of

phallic symbols have suggested that Aphrodite here retained her vegetative character. Eros seems to be the god of divine procreation in the Theogony, but his Hesiodic associations are not with vegetation, and in Athens above all we must be con-

The title "in the gardens" may merely sway over natural beauty; the phallic symbols

scious of poetic influence. stress Aphrodite's

may

indicate

myth

human

fertility.

This

is

apparently the significance

Aegeus founded the Athenian cult of Aphrodite Urania in the belief that she was responsible for his childlessness. The Athenians also had a temple of Aphrodite Pandemos ("of all the people" I, whose temple was purified by the sacrifice of a dove. The dove attribute is probably eastern, but we may well wonder whether anything more than the symbol has here migrated to of the

that

Greece. The imagination discernible in the Cyprian cult apparently failed to persist in Aphrodite's cults in Greece, which are generally uninteresting. But poetry and art were not bound to the ritual tradition; Plato could use the terms Pandemos and Urania to dis-

common and

heavenly love in utter despite of Aphrodite was very seldom a cult goddess of beauty; Greek poets and sculptors made her the ideal feminine type. Eastern features, though modified, do not always disappear: the bisexual fertility deity becomes Hesiod's foam-born goddess, then the artistic type of Aphrodite Anadyomene ("rising from the waves" ). while traces of the vegetation goddess may persist in such symbols as the apple in the hand of the Venus Genetrix Mother) in the Louvre. To Euripides. Aphrodite represented human pastinguish between

their cult significance.

l

sion,

was

overwhelming also "she

in intensity

who from

and potential destructiveness, yet

the streams of Cephissus breathes fra-

grant breezes over Attica."

by the throne of wisdom,

who sends "the

loves that are seated

fellow workers in

all virtue" (Medea). her part-cause of the love between heaven and earth, the universal power of procreation, and such she remains in the poem of Lucretius, "sole ruler of all the world." without whom

Aeschylus

calls

"no thing can win to the shores of light, to joy and love." See articles on the related figures Astarte; Atargatis; Great Mother of the Gods; Ishtar; Venus; see also references under "Aphrodite'' in the Index.

—

Bibliography. Martin P. Nilsson, Geschichte der Griechischen Reliii, 2nd ed. (1955) Ulrich von Wilamowitz Moellendorff, Der Glaube der Hellenen, vol. i (1931) Lewis Richard Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, vol. ii 1S96) (W. M. Se.) gion, vol.

;

;

(

this rite

APHTHOUS FEVER: sec Foot-axd-Mouth Disease. APHTHOUS STOMATITIS: see Thrush (disease).

Aphrodite's tomb almost always a vege-

APICULTURE: see Beekeeping. Greek grammarian ist century a.d. APION

tation god.

The time of Aphrodite's movement westward is uncertain. Her name has not yet been read on the Mycenaean tablets. A naked dove-goddess found on ornaments at Mycenae has been called Aphrodite,

in

rich sensuousness, its vision of the goddess' great splendour,

and especially the train of wild animals accompanying her, draws heavily upon Aphrodite's predecessor. A much-disputed pi whether Aphrodite preserved her function as a vegetation goddess when she came to the Greek mainland. Her bearded form and ritual prostitutes occur at or near Corinth, when- also there was a cult of Aphrodite the Dark, an earth goddess who was pi" associated with vegetation. But these may be ritual survivals from the eastern cult her domain may be no more than human fertility. Simonides praised certain Corinthian women, probably Pindar's "hospitable young ladies." the ritual prostitutes, for their efforts during the Persian invasion. Aphrodite seems thus to have had a wide range of duties there, and in fact her statue on Acrocorinth showed the goddess armed. This attribute is recorded for the early cult on Cythera, and may be an oriental feature; the fact that Aphrodite was called Urania at Corinth also points eastward. Aphrodite was worshiped together with Eros (the Roman Cupid on the north slope of the Athenian acropolis, with the designation,

cult. is

its

and her nudity points to eastern influence, but it or not the ornaments had cult significance.

is

not

known whether

Aphrodite probably preserved her function as a fertility goddess when she came to Mt. Ida in the Troad, for such was the Great Mother whose worship she there absorbed. The Homeric Hymn,

(fl.

tator on

>.

Homer, who was born

at Oasis in

source for the story of Androcles and the

Libya,

and commenis

the original

This was taken was head of the school lion.

by Aulus Gellius from his Aiguptiaka. He at Alexandria and led a deputation sent to Caligula by Alexandrians to complain of the Jews. References

(in a.d.

a

Jewish deputation to

Rome

in

a.d.

39-40.

38)

to this dep-

utation are to be found in the Legatio ad Gaiiim of Philo

who

led

The charges he

APIS— APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

112

brought in his books against the Jews were answered by Josephus Later he settled at Rome and taught in his Contra Apioncm.

3.

rhetoric.

4.

For fragments of

his

Glossai Homerikai, see

F.

G. Sturz

(ed.),

Etymologicum Gudianum (1818).

APIS

(Hapi), the bull, a god of the ancient Egyptian panHis chief centre of worship was Memphis and he was supposed to be the image of the soul of Osiris. He is occasionally represented as a man with the head of a bull. He was also regarded as the reincarnation (or the son) of Ptah except by Greek writers and from his posthumous name of Osiris-Apis (indicating his theon.

—

—

assimilation, after death, to Osiris)

is

derived that of his anthro-

pomorphic Greco-Egyptian successor, Sarapis

APLANATIC REFRACTION,

Sibylline Oracles). 5. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs; c. 140-110 B.C. (see Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs). 6. The Psalms of Solomon; c. 50 B.C. (see Solomon, Psalms of). 7.

(see

9.

refraction of light without

or

more

of feldspar.

—

—

may

be white, cream, flesh, gray or red. Under the microscope they often have a granular or sugary texture. The primary reference of the adjective "aplitic" is generally to this characteristic texture rather than to composition. (F. Cs.) (Apnoea) is a suspension of breathing. A person may voluntarily hold his breath for a limited length of time, as in swimming under water. Respiration stops during swallowing, by a protective reflex which prevents food from entering the windpipe. Other stimuli, such as severe pain, may cause a reflex inhibition of respiration. True apnea, however, as defined by physiologists, is a standstill of respiration brought about by overventilation of the lungs. The carbon dioxide content of the blood thereby becomes lower than usual and there is no impulse to breathe until it returns to normal. In certain diseases respiration may be irregular, intervals of apnea alternating with intervals of See also Respiraoverbreathing (Cheyne-Stokes respiration).

APNEA

tion.

APOCALYPSE OF

ST.

JOHN THE APOSTLE:

see

of.

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE.

The word "apocain origin and means "unveiling" or "uncovering." used to describe a vision (cf. Dan. viii, 1) and was then applied to books relating it. The type of literature called apocalypse" It

Greek

is

was

first

knowledge of future events, in particular and manner of the End, and is able to disclose these secrets by superhuman means. The Jewish apocalyptic literature is of considerable significance both for' Judaism and for ChristianOn the one hand it gives interesting insights into that section ity. of Judaism that lay outside the rabbinical schools; on the other hand it casts light on a number of important developments in relyptic professes a secret

of the time

ligious beliefs that took place during the intertestamental period

and that are reflected lyptic also

is

though

in the

New Testament

exemplified in the Bible by the

by the Book Christian,

writings.

of Revelation (q.v.) reflects

the

Scriptures.

Apoca-

Book

of Daniel (q.v.) and (Gr. Apokalypsis), which,

pattern

of

Jewish

apocalyptic

'

NATURE AND FORM OF APOCALYPTIC There

is

no agreed

list

of Jewish apocalyptic books, but those

generally accepted as belonging to the group, or as having apocalyptic elements in them, are as follows: 1.

The

2.

I

biblical

a.d. 7)-a.d.

30

Ascension

Enoch (the Book of the Secrets of Enoch); Enoch, Books of). The Life of Adam and Eve (the Apocalypse

II

1st

century

10.

11.

of

Moses);

12. 13. 14. 15.

(see

The Testament of Abraham; 1st century a.d. The Apocalypse of Abraham, 9-32; c. a.d. 70-100. The Sibylline Oracles, book iv; c. a.d. 80. II Esdras, 3-14; c. a.d. 90 (see Esdras, Second Book II

Baruch (the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch)

;

a.d.

of).

100-130

Baruch Apocalypses).

16. The Sibylline Oracles, book v; after a.d. 100. Apart from II Enoch and the several Sibylline Oracles, which reflect a Hellenistic background, these books probably originated in Palestine.

Aplites are often closely associated with coarse-grained granitic pegmatites. They are usually fine-grained sometimes so fine that individual minerals cannot be identified in hand specimen and

Revelation, Book

perhaps

shortly before a.d. 70.

the Greek haploos, "simple").

Early petrologists extended the in which light silicates were the only essential constituents; e.g., syenite-aplite. Unless modified by prefix, however, the word ordinarily connotes a rock of granitic composition, containing more than 20% of quartz and 60%

B.C. (or

of Isaiah; a.d. 1-50 (see Isaiah,

a.d. (see

of essential quantities of other minerals (hence the name, from

any type

The Martyrdom

of).

(q.v.).

Aplanatic Points of a Sphere. APLITE, in petrology, a term originally applied to fine-grained intrusive rocks, usually dikes, consisting entirely of quartz and feldspar. It differs from granite in fineness of grain and absence

to include dike rocks of

The Assumption of Moses; 4 Moses. Assumption of).

8.

spherical aberration; see Optics: Aberrations of Optical Systems:

name

Enoch, Books of). The Book of Jubilees; c. 150 b.c. (see Jubilees, Book of). The Sibylline Oracles, book iii; from c. 150 B.C. onward (see

(see

Book

of Daniel; 165 B.C.

Enoch, 1-36, 37-71, 72-82, 83-90, 91-108;

c.

164-80

B.C.

There has been much controversy among scholars concerning the authorship of these books, which have been ascribed to. each of the main Jewish sects in turn. It is very doubtful, however, whether they belonged exclusively to any one particular party.

The Judaism of the period before a.d. 70 embraced many parties and sects, among which there was much interchange of ideas and beliefs. It seems likely that there were some in all these parties, and outside them, who shared in the apocalyptic tradition. The apocalyptists do not form a sect; they represent a certain

mood

temper of religious belief. Popular Literature. Although only one of these writings, the Book of Daniel, gained canonical authority, many others must have acquired a measure of sanctity and were highly valued. It is uncertain to what extent they may have been used in the synagogues and schools, but the indications are that they enjoyed a considerable popularity particularly in certain circles within Judaism. The ideas contained in this literature would be more widespread than the books themselves and would have a strong appeal to the Jewish people as a whole. There are indications that as late as the 3rd century a.d., in some parts of the Diaspora at any rate, apocalyptic was still highly esteemed. In the synagogue at DouraEuropus (a.d. 245) on the Euphrates there appear, prominently displayed, the figures not only of Moses and Joshua but also of Enoch and Ezra, representing the apocalyptic tradition. It is of interest to note that many fragments of an apocalyptic character were found among the writings of the Qumran covenanters, with whom, it seems certain, this kind of literature was very popular. It may well be, indeed, that some of the apocalyptic books were actually written there. The Book of Jubilees, I Enoch and certain sources of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs are represented among these discoveries (see Dead Sea Scrolls). When, in course of time, the apocalyptic books fell out of favour in Palestine they had already been translated into Greek by the Jews of the Diaspora and enjoyed an even greater popularity there. The Christians in their turn took over this literature and popularized it still more by adapting it to their own use. Background of Persecution. The first and greatest of the apocalyptic writings, the Book of Daniel, was written in a time of national crisis when the Jews suffered grievous persecution under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-163 B.C.). Those that followed continued through the troubled times of the Hasmonaeans, the Herodians, the Roman procurators and the Zealot fanatics. Not or

—

—

only did they reflect the unrest of the time but their teaching did much to fan the flames of revolt, particularly in the war of a.d. 6670 and the revolt of Bar-Cochba in a.d. 132-135. Their message

has rightly been called "a gospel for bad times."

It did

much

to

n3

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE encourage the faithful to continue their struggle against and to hope for the miraculous intervention of God.

evil

powers

earth (cvi, 19).

—

Authorship: Pseudonymous. The pattern of this disclosure roughly the same in all the books. They record revelations of divine secrets made known by God to certain elect individuals, ranging from Adam to Ezra, who purport to be the authors of the is

Apocalyptic is thus almost invariably pseudonymous. These revelations generally consist of an account of world history culminating in the End. For generations they have been kept books.

secret; this disclosure

Form: Visionary. is

in

now makes

clear that the

—The form taken by

End

at hand.

is

this divine disclosure

usually that of dreams, visions, trances, auditions or translations

which the seer

divine mysteries

is

—

visit heaven or hell. There the and future are revealed to him,

permitted to

past, present

—

This literary device is common in Greek literature, but probably the apocalyptists were influenced even more by the Old Testament idea of a heavenly council presided over by God and attended by angels and sometimes by men (cf. I Kings xxii, 19 ff.; Job i, 6ff.; etc.). Language: Symbolic. Symbolism is the language of apocalyptic. Some is derived from the Old Testament, whose metaphors and figures are adapted to a new purpose; much, however, derives from ancient mythology and from foreign sources. The pattern of often by an angelic attendant.

—

presentation represent

is

largely stereotyped.

men and

Animal

many

figures of

nations; angels symbolize

men;

kinds

stars indicate

fallen angels. Numerology too plays its part, symbolic significance being given to certain numbers which feature also in the Old Testament and in Babylonian and Persian sources.

RELATION OF APOCALYPTIC TO PROPHECY transition from prophecy to apocalyptic is not marked by sudden break, and Daniel does not represent an entirely new type of literature. Apocalyptic had its beginnings in the Old Testament in such passages as Ezek. xxxviii-xxxix, Zech. xii-xiv, Joel and Isa. xxiv-xxvii. In these writings the ground was prepared and the seed sown; but in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes conditions were right for spectacular growth and in Daniel the seed came to

The

a

full flower.

Apocalyptic as Fulfillment of Prophecy.

— During the

inter-

testamental period the belief was held that prophecy had ceased soon after the Babylonian exile (cf. I Mace, iv, 46; ix, 27; xiv, 41).

The

apocalyptists, however, believed that they stood in the true prophetic tradition and sought to interpret human life and destiny in the light of the prophetic revelation. As T. W. Manson pointed

attempt to rationalize and sysIn particular, the tematize the predictive side of prophecy. apocalyptists proceeded to interpret and reinterpret unfulfilled prophecies in the light of their own day and of the approaching End. An example of this is Jeremiah's prediction that the captivity would last 70 years (xxv, 11; xxix, 10), which is reinterpreted by Daniel as 70 weeks of years (ix, 24) and by I Enoch as the 70 reigns of the 70 "shepherds" or angels who would shepherd Israel (lxxxix, 59 ff.). Somewhat the same method is adopted in the Book of Revelation, where the Antichrist's rule of 42 months (xi, 2 xiii, 5) is a reinterpretation of the three and a half years of persecution referred to in Daniel ("a time, two times, and half a time"; vii, 25, out, apocalyptic

was

really an

;

xii. 7

i.

Divine Compulsion.

— Much

of this literature no doubt fol-

lows a stereotyped, conventional literary pattern and has an air of artificiality about it. It would be less than fair, however, to think of the apocalyptists as mere plagiarists, woodenly reproducing what the prophets and other apocalyptists had written. They were deeply religious men with a message for their time who wrote under a sense of divine compulsion as the prophets had done before them.

literary convention may be traced, in some cases at any genuine experiences of inspiration (through actual dreams, vi-

Behind the rate,

—

Character: Esoteric. The apocalyptic writers believed that certain divine secrets had been revealed to them which they were to record in their "hidden" books and which would enable the righteous to discern the signs of the coming End. The secrets thus disclosed are recorded in "heavenly tablets" which contain an account of "all the deeds of mankind ... to the remotest generations" (I Enoch lxxxi, 2) and foretell the evil which is to come upon the

sions

and the

like) that lie

midway between

the inspiration of the

prophets and that of a more modern literary kind. Literary, Not Oral. Both prophet and apocalyptist were given a message to proclaim. But their methods were different. The prophet, for the most part, declared his message by word of mouth, which might subsequently be recorded in writing. The apocalyptist, on the other hand, remained completely hidden behind his message, which he wrote down for the faithful to read. God's command to the prophet was, "You shall speak to them this word" (Jer. xiii, 12) His command to the apocalyptist was, "Write what you see in a book" (Rev. i, 11). Pseudonymity. The prophets spoke in their own name a message for their own day; the apocalyptists wrote in the name of some notable man of the past a message for the time of the End. Many explanations have been given of this strange phenomenon. R. H. Charles maintained that, from the time of Ezra onward, when prophecy was believed to have ceased, the all-sufficiency of the Law made impossible the reception of fresh revelations of faith and truth unless the books containing them came under the aegis It is doubtful, however, of certain great names in the past. whether the Law was in fact regarded as all-sufficient at that time, for the prophetic canon was certainly not closed by the time of Ezra, and it is more than doubtful that pseudonymity can be explained in terms of such open deception. This charge was removed by H. H. Rowley, who suggested that the author of the Daniel stories, in the first part of that book, later wrote an account of his visions under the guise of Daniel, not with the intention of deceiving his readers but in order to reveal his identity with the author of the Daniel stories, and concludes that pseudonymity only became artificial when it was woodenly copied by imitators. This may well be a true explanation of the origin of apocalyptic pseudonymity, but, as has been indicated above, in the case of some of these writers at least the evidence seems to suggest more than simply the following of a literary convention, indeed a genuine experience of inspiration. Not only did they want their readers to believe their revelations; they actually believed them themselves. If this is so, it would indicate that they had a deep sense of kinship with those in whose name they wrote and were convinced that they were saying the kind of thing the ancient seer would have said were he alive at that time. For the purpose of revealing the divine secrets they were essentially the same people. In support of this, F. C. Burkitt suggested that the choice of a name was not arbitrary but showed more or less the problems occupying the writer's mind. This explanation would have even greater credence if, as has been suggested, the writers were using ancient traditions long associated with those in whose names they wrote. In this case the apocalyptist would see himself as the interpreter and not simply as the author of his book. Deterministic View of History. The apocalyptists inherited

—

;

—

—

the idea of the unity of history from the prophets (cf. Amos and Deutero-Isaiah) and developed it along two lines, no doubt under the influence of Zoroastrianism.

First,

—

they divided history sys-

(Assump"weeks" (Apocalypse of Weeks in I Enoch) or 7 parts (Testament of Abraham) or 12 parts (Apocalypse of Abraham, etc.). Second, they taught that history, thus divided, had been predetermined by God, Who recorded on the heavenly tablets its fixed orders: "What is determined shall be done" (Dan. xi, 36). The course of history from the beginning and the predetermined time of the End God had revealed to His servants, who recorded them in their books. By calculating the times and seasons and by identifying events in the scheme they could discover at what point in time they stood; almost invariably this was in the last days just before the End. Concern With Eschatology. The future and the world to tematically into well-defined periods

into 85 Jubilees

tion of Moses), or 10

—

come

In some writings of God established on this earth But generally speaking these writers despaired of the present and of this world and looked to the future and to the world to come for the fulfillment of their hopes. Already there had been are the prevailing interest of apocalyptic.

the prophetic idea of the

persists.

Kingdom

—

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

ii 4 growing up

in

Judaism, largely under the influence of Persian

thought, an eschatology described by S. Mowinckel as at once dualistic, cosmic, universalistic, transcendental and individualistic.

The old idea of a kingdom on earth gives place to a supernatural kingdom in a new heaven and a new earth (I Enoch 37-71) or a kingdom in heaven (II Enoch) or a temporary earthly kingdom followed by an eternity in heaven (II Esdras and II Baruch; cf. Rev. xx for a similar millennial idea) in which the rightspiritual

through resurrection. important aspect of this eschatology is the Day of Final Judgment, which might be described as a development and specialization of the prophetic Day of the Lord. In the prophets judgment eous

will share

An

upon the

falls

living

and takes the form of a great

when destruction overtakes

crisis in

history

the nations; in the apocalyptists

it

in-

cludes the dead and assumes a forensic character in which indi-

men

vidual

(See also Eschatology.)

receive their just reward.

MESSAGE OF APOCALYPTIC Purpose and Goal of History.

—

Like the prophets before them, the apocalyptists saw in the working out of history a purpose The evil in the world might lead men to despair, but a goal. the unfolding of the plan of the ages (see above) showed clearly the predetermined purpose of God which could not be frustrated. Nor would this purpose end with the climax of history, for "the Most High has made not one world but two" (II Esdras vii, 50). The future age of righteousness would replace the present age of ungodliness and God's purpose would at last be fulfilled. This literature, then, is a mixture of pessimism times would become worse and worse and God would destroy this present evil world and of optimism out of travail and confusion God would bring in His kingdom, the goal of history. Angels and Demons. Persian influence is to be traced in the remarkable growth during this period of the belief in angels and demons. Angels act as God's intermediaries, are arranged in ascending orders of rank and acquire names and personalities of their own. Of particular interest is the idea that each nation has a guardian angel upon whose power and authority depend the fortunes of the peoples on earth. (A variation of this is to be found in the Book of Revelation in the angels of the churches, who, as representatives of these churches, are answerable for them to God.) The evils perpetrated against Israel by the nations are ascribed to the angels who, in the End, share the punishment of evil

and

—

—

as the Messiah.

Resurrection and Life Beyond.— With the exception of two is no clearly expressed belief in life after death indicated in the Old Testament. It is of considerable significance that both these passages are to be found in an apocalyptic setting and passages there

Isa. xxvi, 10, possibly dating

An

apocalyptists and supplies a bewildering

how men

which

tells

the angels, later called "watchers," lust after the daughters of

(cf. I Enoch, Jubilees, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, II Enoch). From this illicit union a brood of giants is born from whose bodies evil spirits come forth (I Enoch xv, 8 ff.) who continue their work of inciting to sin until the final judgment. This developed doctrine of angels and demons, and the notion that the present world is in the power of the prince of demons, is familiar to readers of the New Testament. (See also Angel.) Advent of the Messiah. The figure of the Messiah does not occupy a central place in these writings, but certain developments within this idea are of the utmost importance, especially for an understanding of the New Testament. In several apocalyptic books (Daniel; I Enoch 1-36, 91-104; Jubilees; Assumption of Moses II Enoch) no mention is made of a Messiah. In others the traditional Davidic Messiah is presented (e.g., Psalms of Solomon). In at least one writing (Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs) hope is expressed in the coming of two Messiahs, one priestly and the other kingly; this belief seems to have been shared by the covenanters of Qumran. But most important of all is the emergence of a transcendent type of Messiah, closely associated with a mysterious "Son of Man," who plays a significant role in certain of these writings. Of

—

;

particular interest in this connection are the Similitudes of (I

Enoch 37-71),

in

which the Son of

Man

Enoch

described as a prestands at the head of "the elect ones," is

heavenly being who and by whom the righteous will one day be exalted to share in God's kingdom. In II Esdras this transcendent Son of Man is presented existent,

number

of variations.

The

conviction that the righteous must be raised to share in the glories of the coming kingdom (as in Isa. xxvi, 10) was accompanied by the belief that the wicked also must be raised to receive

due punishment for their sins (as in Dan. xii, 2-i). In this literature, then, for the very first time in Jewish thought, moral distinctions are made in the realm of the departed. Here, too, for the first time the departed are called "souls" or "spirits," although in the two biblical apocalypses the typical Old Testament picture of Sheol as the abode of "shades" is retained. In subsequent writings the concept of Sheol undergoes a radical change. No longer is it the eternal abode of all the departed; it has become a waiting place from which the souls of men are taken in resurrection to receive reward or punishment. Two separate compartments appear, one for the righteous and one for the wicked. These are subdivided still further to provide paradise, heaven, hell and Gehenna in addition to Sheol itself where the souls of men suffer punishment, even before the resurrection, or else await the coming judgment. The influence of these ideas on the New Testament conception of the last things is obvious, in particular on the Book of Revelation.

RELATION OF APOCALYPTIC TO JUDAISM

AND CHRISTIANITY Judaism.

—

has been argued by some scholars that Jewish apocalyptic lay outside the main stream of Judaism and that, indeed, it represents a rather stagnant backwater. This contention is

It

It is true that it

difficult to substantiate.

what G.

F.

Moore

does not represent

"normative" Judaism of the rabbinical

calls the

writings; but the indications are that during the intertestamental

period at any rate it was part of the accepted Jewish tradition and represented one important aspect of its life and belief. A comparison of the apocalyptic literature with the writings of the

early apocalyptic tradition traces this association of the an-

gels with evil to the story recorded in Genesis vi, 1-4

first

B.C.,

in which most scholars see a reference to the resurrection of the body; the second is Dan. xii, 2-3, dating from 165 B.C. This concept undergoes considerable development in the extracanonical

—

earthly rulers.

The

from the 3rd or 4th century

that both express this belief in terms of resurrection. is

Qumran

covenanters, for example, gives a clear indication of

the prevalence of apocalyptic ideas during this period.

the fact that several apocalyptic books are represented

Qumran

texts, the

two bodies of

Apart from

among

the

literature are closely related not

only in the beliefs they express but even in actual words and phrases used. In particular there is a close connection in their expression of messianic hopes, in their belief in good and evil spirits and in their ideas concerning the End the final apocalyptic bat-

—

tle,

the judgment to come, the reward of the righteous and the

punishment of the wicked exact relationship

may

be,

in the life

it is

beyond.

Whatever

certain that they shared a

their

common

spiritual tradition.

This, too, can be said of the relationship between apocalyptic and orthodox Pharisaic Judaism. To both alike the Torah, for example, was central and commanded reverence as the revelation of God. Moreover, that deep ethical concern so often expressed by the rabbis is found frequently in the writings of the apocalyptists, while in such beliefs as the resurrection of the body and the advent of the Messiah there is no small measure of agreement. The influence of apocalyptic thought and even phraseology can be traced in the writings of the rabbis themselves and in the later liturgy of the synagogue.

Some time after a.d. 70, however, the apocalyptic literature official rabbinical Judaism and met with antipathy on the part of the rabbis. At least two reasons probably lie behind its ultimate rejection by Judaism. One is the dangerous part played by this literature, with its often belligerent messianic hopes, in rousing the people in open rebellion against Rome, which led to the downfall of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. The other was the interest now being taken in it by the Christians, who had begun became unpopular with

:

APOCRYPHA, NEW TESTAMENT to

adopt it for their own use. Christianity. It is not at

—

surprising that, almost from the beginning, the Jewish apocalyptic writings were popular with the Christians who had themselves been brought up in the Jewish faith.

The teaching contained

in

all

them covering such matters as the Kingdom of God and the imminent

resurrection of the dead, the

return of the Messiah was very much in keeping with the church's hopes and expectations. As Greek rather than Aramaic became increasingly the language of the Christian community, these books, already popular in Greek translations among the Jews, became even more widespread, and when at last they were relinquished by Judaism they remained the secure possession of Christianity. Thus, with the exception of the canonical Book of Daniel, the tradition of apocalyptic is Christian, not Jewish. This entire body of literature, then, owes its survival to the Christian church, which has preserved the several books, in whole or in part, in many lan-

guages.

Not content with taking over

the Jewish apocalypses, however,

Christian writers set about interpolating them with specifically Christian teaching (as, for example, in the Sibylline Oracles) or adding to them entire new sections w-ith a Christian content (as in the

Ascension of Isaiah or the Christian additions to II Esdras). way they were able to claim the support of ancient tradi-

In this

tions for their

new

faith.

Within the New Testament canon itself the pattern of Jewish apocalyptic is evident. This is particularly the case with the Book of Revelation (q.v.), by far the most significant of all the Christian apocalypses. Though a Christian writing, it draws freely on Jewish apocalyptic tradition and follows in a true line of descent from the earlier writings. Many of the marks of Jewish apocalyptic are to be found in it fantastic imagery, symbolic language, angelic powers, the overthrow of evil, the resurrection of the dead, the

—

final

judgment, the messianic kingdom, the world to come. The Messiah and the Christian him as the meaning and end of human

chief difference lies in the person of the

interpretation given to history.

Quite apart from this canonical book, many other apocalypses were written in the course of the following centuries, usually in imitation of earlier Jewish works. A number of these were attributed to New Testament characters such as Peter, Paul, Thomas, Stephen, the Less, Philip and the Virgin Mary. John, James, James Not a few of the apocalyptic writings from these centuries are known to us only by name or in fragments preserved by the Church Fathers.

Three apocalypses, dating from the 2nd century a.d., may be These are the Epistle of the Hermas (see Apostolic Fathers) and the Apocalypse of Peter. The first is in the form of a revelation from the risen Lord and purports to be based on his speeches. The Shepherd of Hermas narrates certain allegories in the form of visions; it has a deep interest in eschatology and points to the last judgment. The Apocalypse of Peter, like the Shepherd, was widely read in Christian circles for a time and is the most imsingled out for special mention.

Apostles, the Shepherd of

all those named after apostles. In it the Lord, at the request of his disciples, gives signs of his second advent and of

portant of

the End. Reference to the last judgment is followed by a gruesome picture of hell and the punishment of sinners according to their deeds. Visions of heaven are also given and the glories of the

The stress in this book on the fate and future condition of individual souls had a considerable influence on later writings and especially on medieval theology. saints in paradise revealed.

Generally speaking, when in course of time Christian expectations of an early return of Christ faded, the apocalyptic books,

both Jewish and Christian, tended to fall out of favour. The hope, however, remained, and again and again the Christian church has turned to this kind of literature for inspiration and encouragement

and persecution. Bibliocraphy. Most of the Jewish apocalyptic books are to be found translated in The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, vol. ii (1913), ed. by R. H. Charles, and in several volumes of Translations of Early Documents, ed. by W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. R. H. Charles has published a number of larger commentaries on individual apocalypses. A convenient list of Christian in times of crisis

—

ii5

apocalyptic writings is given by M. R. James in The Apocryphal New Testament (1924) and in The Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament (1920). Informative articles by R. H. Charles appear in J. Hastings el al. (eds.), Dictionary oj the Bible, vol. i, pp. 109-110 (1900) and in T. K.

Cheyne and

E. S. Black (eds.), Encyclopaedia Biblica, vol.

i,

col.

213-

by H. T. Andrews in A. S. Peake (ed.), Commentary on the Bible, pp. 431-436 (1920); and by J. B. Frey in L. Pirol (ed I, Supplement au dictionnaire de la Bible, vol. i, col. 326-3S4 (19: Other books of a more general character are: Joshua Bloch, On the Apocalyptic in Judaism (1952); F. C. Burkitt, Jewish and Christian Apocalypses, Schweich lectures for 1913 (1914); R. H. Charles, A Critical History oj the Doctrine oj a Future Life, 2nd ed. (1913); R. T. Herford, Talmud and Apocrypha (1933) R. H. Pfeiffer, History of New Testament Times (1949); F. C. PorXer, The Messages of the 250 (1899)

;

;

Apocalyptical Writers (1905); H. H. Rowley, The Relevance of Apocalyptic (1944); D. S. Russell, Between the Testaments (1960); C. C. Torrey, The Apocryphal Literature (1945). (D. S. R.)

APOCRYPHA, NEW TESTAMENT,

early Christian or semi-Christian writings that in form resemble the books included in the New Testament but were not admitted to the canonical collection. These are not analogous to the Old Testament Apocrypha, for most of the New Testament apocryphal literature never was regarded as acceptable by orthodox Christians; it was pro-

duced by and for schismatic or heretical groups, especially by Gnostics isee Gnosticism). In the past the writings of the Apostolic Fathers (q.v.) sometimes were included among the New Testament Apocrypha, but such a classification is purely arbitrary. Early Christian writers classified some of the apocrypha as "spurious" Christian but noncanonical they treated other documents as plainly heretical. In general, however, there was little dispute; the apocryphal writings were simply rejected. Among them is sometimes placed the Testament um Domini ("Testament of the Lord'*), but this is a 5th-century expansion of the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus (q.v.). In addition to complete books or fragments of books, there are isolated sayings recorded (supposedly from oral tradition) by later writers. These sayings, whether "authentic" or not, can add nothing to our knowledge of Jesus because the canonical writings provide the only norm by means of which they can be tested. Most of the apocryphal literature consists of (1) gospels; (2) acts or preachings or teachings of the apostles; and (3) epistles. For the Apocalypses see Apocalyptic Literature. (

)

;

GOSPELS Traditions of the deeds and sayings of Jesus were circulated, both orally and in writing, along with the four gospels that came to be accepted universally. Apparently it was in the first half of the 2nd century that attempts were made to create gospels in which these materials were utilized and interpreted; usually materials

from the canonical gospels

also

were employed.

The authors

of

the apocryphal gospels often tried to give the impression that their

works were historically and theologically reliable; in some instances they pretended that they were conveying secret doctrines that Jesus had set forth to only a few of his disciples. Under such circumstances they naturally reproduced some materials from the canonical gospels (so that Jesus would be recognizable as Jesus) and some materials from their own often Gnostic theology (so that Jesus would be recognizable as the revealer of their teaching). The church recognized these purposes and rejected the works. Papyrus Fragments of Unknown Gospels. These include 1. Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840 (4th-5th century), a discussion of ritual purity between Jesus and a Pharisee who is high priest. (The Oxyrhynchus papyri are a collection found at the site of the 4th-century town of Oxyrhynchus in Egypt, beginning in 1897. See Oxyrhynchus; Papyrology.) 2. Egerton Papyrus 2 (2nd century), sayings of Jesus based on

—

—

—

the four gospels. 3. Oxyrhynchus Papyri 1, 654 and 655 (3rd century), all of which come from the Gospel of Thomas. 4. A Coptic papyrus fragment (Strasbourg 5-6) of the 5th— 6th century, containing a prayer of Jesus and a discussion with the

apostles.

Gospels

Not Ascribed

to

Authors.

—Among

these

are:

:

APOCRYPHA, NEW TESTAMENT

n6 The "gospel"

1.

created by Marcion

The Gospel

2.

so-

Gospels Ascribed to Sectarian Leaders or to Groups that Used the Books The existence of such gospels as those ascribed

work quoted once by

Basilides and Cerinthus is questionable; on the other hand, Marcion and Mani certainly composed works this kind. of Among relatively early gospels used by special groups are three that reflect Jewish Christianity as it gradually came to be more sectarian: 1. The Gospel according to the Hebrews, probably written in Egypt in the 2nd century and known chiefly from quotations given by Clement of Alexandria and Jerome. 2. The gospel used by the Ebionites (q.v.). 3. The gospel used by the Nazarenes (q.v.). The interrelations of these three gospels (if there really were three of them) have not been established. In addition, there was a gospel according to the Egyptians, now known only from fragments, that reflects its author's tendency toward Gnosticism. This work may have been used by the author of II Clement (see Clementine Literature).

(q.v.)

by removing

from the Gospel of Luke.

called interpolations

of Perfection, a Gnostic

Epiphanius (4th century). 3. The Gospel of Truth, used, according to Irenaeus (c. 185), by Yalentinian Gnostics. This is probably the work which, found among the Coptic Gnostic writings from Nag-Hammadi, Egy., was published in 1956 by M. Malinine, H. C. Peuch and G. Quispel under the title Evangelium Veritatis ; several pages missing in their edition were published by P. Labib in Coptic Gnostic Papyri From the Coptic Museum in Old Cairo (1956); cj. also K. Grobel, The Gospel of Truth (1960). The work is a mystical-homiletical treatise based not on secret traditions but on a mixture of Christian doctrine with a kind of Gnosticism that is Jewish in origin. Gnostic Books in the Name of Jesus. These writings are not. strictly speaking, gospels, but their content resembles that of

—

gospels.

Among them

are

1. The Coptic treatise (two versions extant) called the Sophia (Wisdom?) of Jesus Christ, a postresurrection dialogue with the disciples (a 3rd-4th century Greek fragment in Oxyrhynchus Pa-

—

to Apelles, Bardesanes,

ACTS The apocryphal Acts

2. Two Books of Jeu containing secret mysteries revealed by "Jesus the Living." 3. Pistis Sophia, a 3rd-4th-century revelation of the same sort. 4. The Dialogue of the Savior, a similar document found at Nag-

from the New Testament book of Acts (see Acts of the Apostles). While the latter is concerned with the work of the Holy Spirit as the guide of the apostles in their work of proclaiming the gospel and establishing the church (though some biographical interest

Hammadi.

is

pyrus 1081).

Gospels Ascribed to Biblical Personages.

—These

writings

include works ascribed to "the apostles," such as:

The

1.

Epistle of the Apostles

(not really an epistle), from

course supposedly given by Jesus after the resurrection. 2. The Gospel of the Twelve, now completely lost but mentioned

by Origen. 3. Perhaps the Gospel of the Seventy. More often, apocryphal gospels were ascribed to individual apostles. These works include books ascribed to: 2nd-century "protevangelium of 4. James, especially the James," which in a 3rd-century papyrus (Papyrus Bodmer V, edited by M. Testuz, 1958) is entitled "Genesis [birth? bringing Revelation of James"; this work was valued by forth?] of Mary many Church Fathers because it set forth the perpetual virginity of Mary. There is also an Apocryphon (secret book) of James from

—

Nag-Hammadi. John, especially the 2nd-century Apocryphon of John, known one form to Irenaeus and in others to those who produced various Coptic versions of Jesus' Gnostic teaching after the resur5.

in

rection.

Judas (Tscariot), in whose name there was a gospel that, according to Irenaeus, was used by the Gnostic Cainites (see Cain). 7. Matthias, whose "traditions" were known to Clement of 6.

Alexandria. Peter, supposedly author of a gospel that

was rejected about

190 by Serapion, bishop of Antioch; an 8th-9th-century fragment was found at Akhmim, Egy., in 1886. 9. Philip, supposedly author of a gospel from Nag-Hammadi that contains Gnostic teaching (chiefly Valentinian). 10.

Thomas

work found

(the

Gospel of Thomas; there the

Book

of

Thomas

is

at

another

Nag-Hammadi is called the Nag-Hammadi book called

the Athlete; in addition there

is

an "infancy

Thomas).

gospel" ascribed to Several apocryphal gospels were assigned to them were:

women.

Among

The Gospel of Eve, quoted by Epiphanius. The Major and Minor Questions of Mary (Magdalene), also discussed by Epiphanius. 13. The Gospel of Mary (Magdalene), partly preserved both in 11.

12.

Greek (Rylands Papyrus 463, early 3rd century) and in Coptic (Berlin Papyrus 8502, 5th century). Epiphanius also describes a Gnostic parody of the Genesis of

Mary

(see

number 4 above).

not absent ), the apocryphal Acts deal primarily with the miracuand piquant adventures of individuals, and the doctrine set by most of them is a popular form of 2nd-century Christianity that often verges on Encratism (i.e., asceticism carried Both in form and in content these Acts to the point of heresy).

lous

forth

the middle of the 2nd century, an apocalyptic, antiheretical dis-

8.

of the Apostles are rather different

contemporary Hellenistic romances (see Romany of them seem to be borrowed from such writings. The authors of such works tried to make the story of Christian origins dramatic; usually they made it merely melo-

are

close

the

to

mance), and

dramatic.

details in

Tertullian (early 3rd century) relates that the author

known to be a presbyter of Asia Minor; he claimed that he had written from "love of Paul," but he was deposed. Even so, these Acts were still used as an authority by Hippolytus and Origen, and it was not until the early 4th century that clear evidence shows that they were almost universally reof the Acts of Paul was

jected.

—

Andrew. Acts of Andrew were rejected by Eusebius and, according to Epiphanius. used by Gnostics. Such acts are extant in various forms, including several versions of martyrdoms of Andrew, Acts of Andrew and Matthias among the Cannibals, and Acts of Peter and Andrew. Barnabas. Journeys and Martyrdom of Barnabas, 5th-century acts, were written to glorify Cyprus, where Barnabas was believed to be buried, in its struggle with Antioch. The author supposedly was John Mark, described as formerly a servant of a certain Cyril, high priest of Zeus. They are partly based on the canonical book

—

of Acts.

—

Bartholomew. This Martyrdom describes the adventures and death of the apostle in India. John. The Acts of John (Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 850, 4th century), very close to the Hellenistic romance, probably came from Asia Minor in the 2nd century. They contain occasional semi(See also John, Gospel According to and Gnostic touches. Epistles of Saint: Literary History: Apocryphal Acts of John.)

—

Matthew.

—The Martyrdom of Matthew describes miracles and

death of Matthew in "the land of the cannibals"; evidently Matthew is confused with Matthias (see Andrew above). Paul. These include the Acts of Paul, Acts of Paul and Thecla, and Acts and Martyrdom of Peter and Paul. The most popular of all the apocryphal Acts, those of Paul and Thecla (or of Paul alone, according to varying titles), describe the apostle's activities in Asia Minor and tell of an encounter with a lion he had previously baptized cj. the story of Androcles and the lion). Peter. These include Acts. Martyrdom ( = Acts of Peter with Simon) and Peter and Paul (see Paul above) (Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 849, 4th century). Close in popularity to the Acts of Paul, these were probably modeled after them. Striking parallels exist

—

—

(

APOCRYPHA, OLD TESTAMENT between some of the sayings of Jesus in the Martyrdom of Peter and those in the Gospel of Thomas. This work, composed c. 190, contains Peter's question, "Domine, quo vadis?" and the reply of the risen Lord that he goes to Rome to be crucified (again). Acts of Peter and the Twelve have been found at Nag-Hammadi. Philip. The Acts of Philip relate deeds, especially miracles, of Philip in Greece, Parthia and the land of the Ophians (apparently Naassene Gnostics), and his martyrdom. Thaddaeus. The Acts of Thaddaeus include the story of how Thaddaeus converted Abgar. king of Edessa, and others. Thomas. The Acts of Thomas is a semi-Gnostic account of the oriental adventures and death of the apostle; the book includes the Gnostic "hymn of the pearl." It was used by Gnostics and Manichaeans.

—

—

—

EPISTLES

No fewer than five of the 49 Gnostic works found at NagHammadi are in epistolary form (including an epistle of Peter to Philip), and this form was popular among authors of apocryphal books

(cf.

Below are con-

the Epistle of the Apostles, above).

sidered only the letters written in the

not admitted to the

New

name

Testament canon

of the apostle Paul but in the west.

mentioned the correspondence of — Such Seneca with Paul (see below), probably never Alexandrians. — According such a the Muratorian was forged by Marcionites. No trace of Corinthians. — An antiheretical probably of the

Achaeans.

in

a letter,

existed.

to

list,

it

Ill

letter

exists.

late

letter,

2nd century, composed largely out of the genuine epistles, along with a letter from the Corinthians to Paul. Laodiceans. This is found in Latin biblical manuscripts from the 6th century and later; there is also an Arabic translation from It is intended to supply the lack of a letter from the Latin. Laodicea mentioned in Col. iv, 16. (According to Marcion, the letter known as Ephesians was properly entitled Laodiceans.) Macedonians. This title is mentioned by Clement of Alexandria but probably refers to Philippians (Philippi is in Macedonia), from which he quotes. Seneca. A collection of letters, probably from the 4th century, supposed to have been exchanged by Paul and his contemporary, the philosopher-politician Seneca; first mentioned by Jerome. In addition, there are several apocryphal letters among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers (q.v.) and in the Clementine literature (q.v. a famous forgery is the Letter of Jesus to Abgar (g.v.). See also Apocrypha, Old Testament.

—

—

—

)

;

—

Bibliography. Gospels: W. Schneemelcher and E. Hennecke, Neutestamenlliche Apokryphen, vol. i (1959) R. M. Grant, D. N. Freedman and VV. R. Schoedel, The Secret Sayings of Jesus (1960). Acts: B. Pick, The Apocryphal Acts of Paul, Peter, John, Andrew and Thomas (1909) R. Soder, Die apokryphe Apostelgeschichten und die romanhajte Lileratur der Anlike (1932); B. Altaner, Patrologie, 2nd ed. (1950) J. Quasten, Patrology, vol. i, pp. 12S-143 (1950). For Greek texts, see R. A. Lipsius and M. Bonnet, Acta Apostolorum Apocryphe. A Greek papyrus (late 3rd century) of the Acts of Paul was edited by C. Schmidt in Praxeis Paulou (1936) he notes other papyrus fragments, and still others are noted by H. A. Sanders (Harvard Theological Review, 31:73 ff.), G. D. Kilpatrick and C. H. Roberts (Journal of Theological Studies, 47:196 ff.) and W. D. McHardy (Expository Times, 58:279). Epistles: The Seneca letters were edited by C. W. Barlow, Epistolae Senecae ad Paulum et Pauli ad Senecam (quae vocanlur) (1938) a 3rd-century Greek text of the Corinthian letters was published by M. Testuz, Papyrus Bodmer X-XII (1959). See also M. R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament (1924). (R. McQ. G.) ;

;

;

;

;

APOCRYPHA, OLD TESTAMENT.

The term apocryGreek neuter adjective apocryphon ("hidden designate certain religious books highly regarded

pha, the plural of the

away"), is used to by the Jews of ancient times but never included in the Hebrew canon of Scripture. In the narrowest sense it refers to a section in the King James version of the Bible (and other versions related to it) that contains those books found in the Greek and Latin translations of the Old Testament but not in the original Hebrew. In a broader sense it is used to cover not only these books but also certain other noncanonical writings from Hebrew antiquity, such as those more commonly called pseudepigrapha books "written

—

117

name," most of them of an apocalyptic character. The use of the term apocrypha is merely arbitrary and conventional, since the books ordinarily designated by it were never "hidden away," either in the sense of being literally concealed from the public or of containing esoteric teaching. The origin of the term is still a matter of dispute, but the most probable view derives it from the legend preserved in II Esdras (IV Esdras of the Vulgate), ch. xiv. which relates that when Ezra was commissioned to republish the Law in the days following the Babylonian Exile he was told that Moses on Mt. Sinai had been instructed to "hide" many of the words he received (verse 6) and that he himself was to issue publicly only a portion of the books that were dictated to him, the others to be delivered "in secret under a

false

to the wise" (verses 26, 46).

From

this tradition of a store of

books deliberately "hidden away" from public use there arose quite naturally an imprecise use of the word apocrypha to denote any books outside the familiar canon. It was in this sense that the word was introduced into Christian usage by Cyril and Jerome as a convenient name for those books they found in the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint) but not in the Hebrew. Although these books were, for the most part, ultimately included in the Latin Vulgate, Jerome himself proposed to call them apocrypha with the connotation "uncanonical"; in later Roman Catholic usage they are called deuterocanonical but without any implication of inferior worth or authority. Jerome's usage subsequently was revived by the reformers Andreas Karlstadt and Martin Luther. Luther segregated the surplus books of the Latin canon

which he called Apocrypha, a custom that was then imitated in the authorized versions of the reformed Church of England. The Apocrypha is an integral part of the King James version of the Bible and was always printed with it until 1S27, when the British and Foreign Bible society, followed by the American Bible society and other publishers, decided to omit it in their editions. in a separate section,

STANDARD APOCRYPHA of the King James, Revised and Revised Standard versions of the English Bible consists of the follow-

The standard Apocrypha

ing books: 1. I Esdras, a Greek translation of the canonical Book of Ezra with some important additions and variations, preceded and followed by brief portions of II Chronicles and Nehemiah (see Esdras, First Book of). 2. II Esdras, an apocalyptic work of the 1st century a.d. (neither of these books was included in the Septuagint or in Luther's Bible, and both appear in the Vulgate only as part of an appendix attached

to the 3.

New

Testament) (see Esdras, Second Book of).

Tobit, a pleasant romantic story that gives interesting insight and customs in the late pre-Christian era (see

into Jewish beliefs

Book of). Judith, a nationalistic and thoroughly unhistorical account of the deliverance of the people of Bethulia by the heroic conduct of a noble widow Judith (meaning "Jewess") (see Judith, Book

Tobit, 4.

of). 5. The Rest of Esther; i.e., those portions of the Book of Esther, characterized by a religious spirit missing in the Hebrew, that are found only in the Greek (see Esther, Book of).

6. The Wisdom of Solomon, the most valuable of the apocryphal books, a philosophical work that evidences the growing rapprochement in Alexandria between Judaism and Hellenistic philosophy (see Wisdom, Book of). 7. Ecclesiasticus, or The Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach, another wisdom book which, however, remains firmly anchored in the main stream of the older Hebrew wisdom literature (the prologue makes it plain that it was composed in Hebrew; portions of the Hebrew original have been found in modern times in the

Genizah at Cairo and the Dead sea caves) (see Ecclesiasticus). 8. Baruch, a pseudepigraphic work, somewhat difficult to characterize, which contains a letter purporting to have been written by Baruch in Babylon to the people of Jerusalem (i, 1-iii, 8), a hymn in praise of wisdom (iii, 9-iv, 4), and a song of comfort addressed to the people of Israel (iv, 5-v, 9) to which is appended ;

—

APOCRYPHA, OLD TESTAMENT

n8

as a sixth chapter (in the King James and Revised versions) another pseudepigraph, the Epistle of Jeremy, a brief polemical

on the folly of idolatry (printed as a separate book in the Revised Standard version; (see Baruch, Book of; Jeremy, Epistli 9. The Song of the Three Children, Susanna and the Elders, and Bel and the Dragon, the additional items that appear in the Septuagint version of Daniel, the first being a liturgical composition placed upon the lips of the three young Hebrews who were thrown into the fiery furnace, while the other two are independent Stories loosely connected with the Book of Daniel by the fact of having a common hero (see Daniel, Book of). 10. The Prayer of Manasses, a brief devotional composition that was never part of the Septuagint and is found in the standard Apocrypha only because the Vulgate includes it, like the two Books of Esdras, in an appendix attached to the New Testament Manasses, Prayer of). 11. 1 Maccabees, a sober historical work describing the course of the Maccabean revolt from the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes to the accession of John I Hyrcanus. 12. II Maccabees, a more romantic account of the same revolt from the days of Seleucus IV to Judas' victory over Nicanor (see Maccabees, Books of). These books may be classified as follows: (1) Hellenistic works, composed in Greek, presumably in Alexandria (Wisdom of Solomon and II Maccabees) (2) Palestinian works, composed in Hebrew (I Esdras, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Prayer of Manasses and Maccabees); (3) Palestinian works, probably composed in I Aramaic Tobit. Rest of Esther and, possibly, II Esdras and the ;

I

Additions to Daniel

l.

sometimes assumed that these works, which (with the exception of I— II Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses) are found in the Septuagint, are evidence of the existence of an Alexandrian Since, however, as opposed to a Palestinian canon of Scripture. the manuscripts of the Septuagint exhibit considerable differences among themselves and sometimes contain other books (such as III and IV Maccabees and the Psalms of Solomon), it is rather to be inferred that the distinction between canonical and noncanonical books was more fluid in Alexandria than in Jerusalem. The Palestinian canon, created by a conservative, not to say reactionary, type of Judaism, was rigidly limited to books that were unimpeachably ancient, or that were at least not patently of recent date a standard that automatically excluded such works of indubitably Hebrew origin as Ecclesiasticus (the date and authorship of which were well known) and I Maccabees, which dealt with events of the recent past. In the freer atmosphere of Alexandria, on the other hand, while the hard core of the Hebrew canon was left inviolate, greater tolerance was shown toward other religiously valuable works, regardless of date and authorship. It

is

—

OTHER APOCRYPHAL WORKS: PSEUDEPIGRAPHA If the

Hebrew canon may be regarded

Pseudepigrapha,

the other works, including the so-called be thought of as a still further layer, cen-

it,

may

tred in Scripture but

much more

Isaiah, Ascension of); the Salathiel Apocalypse, included in II Esdras 3-13 and, possibly, a Book of Noah, now part of Enoch. In the general class of apocrypha are frequently listed certain quasi-historical works, such as III and IV Maccabees and the Letter of Aristeas, which are still extant. The largest group of pseudepigrapha are apocalyptic writings such as the books of Enoch (and the Slavonic Enoch), II Baruch, ;

'

the Testaments of the

Twelve Patriarchs, the Psalms of Solomon, Moses and the Sibylline Oracles. Several fragmentary manuscripts of Enoch (though not including the important section called the Similitudes have been found in the Dead the Assumption of

)

sea caves, as have fragments of Testaments of Levi (in Aramaic)

Hebrew), these latter perhaps to be accounted Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs rather than (See Apocalyptic Literature; Baruch Apocalypses; Enoch, Books of; Moses, Assumption of; Sibylline Oracles; Solomon, Psalms of; Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. ) A number of works that are legendary rather than apocalyptic also may be included among the Old Testament apocrypha: First in importance is the Book of Jubilees, a midrash on Gen. i, 1 to Ex. xiv, 31, preserved in its entirety only in Ethiopic. It was probably composed in the late 2nd century B.C. Its theme is that normative Judaism existed from the beginning of human history, and it is characterized by a division of history into jubilees, and Naphtali

loosely attached.

None

of these

books ever received general recognition as part of the Bible, even though three of them are alluded to in the New Testament Jannes and Jambres in II Tim. iii, 8, the Assumption of Moses in Jude 9, and Enoch in Jude 14 ff. No doubt many of them were highly regarded in certain more or less eccentric Jewish groups, such as the Qumran community, in whose library a number of them have appeared along with some other works previously unknown. Certain of the additional apocrypha are known today only by name. Such, for example, are the Chronicles of John Hyrcanus mentioned in I Mace, xvi, 23 ff.; the Five Books of Jason of Cyrene, of which II Maccabees is professedly only an abridgement ill Mace, ii, 23); and the Book of Jannes and Jambres alluded Others have been preserved only as selected portions to above. In this of them were incorporated in other, still extant works. category may be mentioned the Martyrdom of Isaiah, an account

(in

as sources for the

as parts of the completed book.

cycles of seven times seven years (see Jubilees,

Book

of).

This

was one of the most popular books in the community of the Dead is shown by the fact that fragments of some ten manuscripts have come to light. The popularity of the work is due in part to the peculiar, solar calendar which it (in common with I Enoch) advocates, the observance of which was evidently one of the important points of controversy between the Qumran Covenanters and the Pharisees. Since all the Dead sea fragments are in Hebrew, the view that the book was written in Aramaic becomes increasingly improbable. Other works sometimes counted among the legendary apocrypha are a series of writings in Latin, Greek or one of the oriental church languages, apparently based on Jewish sources, that deal with the life of Adam and Eve; several late Christian versions of what seems to be an older Jewish work dealing with the story of Joseph and Asenath (in which Asenath is represented as really the daughter of Shechem and Dinah and only the foster daughter of Potipherah) and Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicannii, a haggadic revision of biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul. To these should be added the Lives of the Prophets, a work perhaps originally written in Hebrew as early as the first century a.d., but surviving only in Greek, Latin, Syriac and Ethiopic. It purports to supplement the information given in the sea scrolls, as

;

Bible about the

more important Hebrew prophets.

APOCRYPHAL WORKS FROM QUMRAN

as the hard nucleus of

Scripture and the standard Apocrypha as a surrounding layer closely attached to

of the prophet's death, preserved in the Ascension of Isaiah (see

The discovery, beginning in 1947, in the Qumran at the northwest corner of the Dead

caves near Khirbet sea, of great quanti-

manuscripts and manuscript fragments that once belonged community of Covenanters (probably to be who are known to have lived in this vicinity) brought to light portions of Tobit (in Hebrew and ties of

to the library of a

identified with the Essenes,

Aramaic) and the Hebrew Ecclesiasticus (in a form that agrees closely with medieval Hebrew texts found by Solomon Schechter in the Cairo Genizah). As noted above, Jubilees and some form of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs also are represented there.

Of greater interest, however, is the discovery of some fragments Damascus, or Zadokite, Document. This book, unknown until it was found in the Cairo Genizah by Schechter in 1910, was included by R. H. Charles in his edition of the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha and was widely studied by scholars, although its original provenance and historical significance were uncertain. The fact that fragments of it have been found in the Dead sea caves and that other Qumran literature shows marked affinity with it makes it apparent that this document was a product either of the

APOCYNACEAE— APOLLINAIRE of the

Qumran community

document that

is

or of

closest to

it

some is

closely affiliated group.

the so-called

Manual

The

of Dis-

by which the Qumran community was governed and upon which knowledge of its distinctive beliefs and practices is largely based. In this connection must also be mentioned a briefer document that sets forth the Rule of the Congregation "at the End of Days," when the ideal of the community was to be more perfectly realized. A special class of literature, which scarcely falls into the category of apocrypha but should be mentioned here for the sake of completeness, is represented by the various fragments of commentaries on parts of the Old Testament Genesis, Isaiah, Habakkuk, Micah, Nahum and Psalm 37. More strictly "apocryphal" in character are several documents for which no precise parallels are known: the War of the Sons of Light With the Sons of Darkness, the Genesis Apocryphon, the Copper scroll and the Thanksgiving Psalms (the names in all cases being modern inventions used merely for convenience of reference). The War scroll gives the plan of campaign for the last great battle of world history when the conflict between the forces of good and evil reaches its decisive climax. The idea of such a final battle appears in the Old Testament and later became one of the stock elements in Hebrew The scroll published under the title of apocalyptic literature. A Genesis Apocryphon (edited by N. Avigad and Y. Yadin) remained unrolled for several years because of the poor condition in which it was found and was then commonly supposed to be a lost "Book of Lamech," since the patriarch's name could be seen in the opening lines. When read, however; it turned out to be an Aramaic cipline,

an almost complete

scroll containing the rule of life

—

midrashic paraphrase of some of the early stories of Genesis. The Copper scroll acquired its name from the unusual material on

which it was inscribed. Like the Genesis Apocryphon, it remained unopened for several years, but when the problem of unrolling it was finally solved by the drastic procedure of cutting it into strips, it proved to contain a list of sites in Palestine where large treasures are supposedly buried. The Thanksgiving Psalms (Hebrew, hodayoth) are a collection of religious lyrics, highly personal in character, which praise God for His merciful dealings with the poet, who is thought by some to be the Teacher of Righteousness, the founder of the Qumran sect. See also Apocrypha, New Testament; Dead Sea Scrolls.

—

The texts of the Qumran manuscripts (apart from Apocryphon and the Copper scroll) are to be found in M. Burrows et al. (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls of St. Mark's Monastery (1950) E. L. Sukenik (ed.), The Dead Sea Scrolls oj the Hebrew University (1955) and D. Barthelemy and J. T. Milik, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, vol. (1955). Translations of the more important of them are included in M. Burrows, The Dead Sea Scrolls (1955) and More Light on the Dead Sea Scrolls (1958), and T. H. Gaster (ed. and trans.), The Dead Sea Scriptures in English Translation (1956). Introduction, translation and text for the more important standard and traditional apocrypha will be found in R. H. Charles (ed.), The Apocrypha and Pseudcpigrapha of the Old Testament in English, 2 vol. (1913) and in the series, edited by S. Zeitlin, called Jewish Apocryphal Literature (1950See also C. C. Torrey, The Apocryphal Litera). Bibliography.

the Genesis

;

;

i

(R. C. De.)

ture (1945).

APOCYNACEAE,

the

dogbane family, a numerous group of

dicotyledonous plants composed chiefly of tropical twining shrubs but including also various trees and perennial herbs, all with a milky, often poisonous juice. There are about 130 genera and 1,000-1,100 species, comparatively few of which are found in cool Of the species representing the family in temperate regions. North America, only about 6 are found as far north as New York and adjacent Canada. The best known of these are the American dogbane (Apocyniun androsaemifolium) and the Indian hemp (A. cannabinum). In the British Isles the family is represented by the greater and the lesser periwinkle {Vinca major and V. minor), the latter of which has run wild in the eastern United States. Several tropical genera yield rubber {Landlophia, Cardopinus, Funtumia, Urceola, Willoughbya, etc.); others are sources of drugs (Aspidosperma, Strophanthus, Alstonia, Allamanda, etc.). Some are exceedingly poisonous, notably the ordeal tree (Tanghinia) of Madagascar, the manghas tree (Cerbera) of tropical Asia and the Bushman's poison (Acocanthera) of South Africa. Other widely known plants of this family are the oleander

119

(Nerium the temple tree or frangipani (Plumeria acuminata), the crape jasmine (Tabernaemontana coronuria), the star jasmine {Trachelospermum jasminoides) and the Chilean The Natal plum (Carissa jasmine (Mandevilla suaveolens). grandiflora) and several other species produce edible fruits and many are showy ornamental plants. (See Dogbane; Indian oleander),

Hemp; Oleander; Periwinkle.) The leaves are simple, entire and usually opposite; the flowers are regular, sympetalous, with the parts in fours or fives, and are borne either singly or clustered in cymes or panicles.

APODICTIC, the

same

in

a logical and philosophical term, approximately meaning as "necessary" or "a priori." Aristotle used

the w-ord occasionally in the sense of "demonstratively certain"

Kant classified (i.e., inferred from premisses that are certain). judgments according to the kind of assertion made: in assertoric judgments something is asserted to be true; in problematic judgments something is held to be possible; while in apodictic judgments something is held to be necessary. On this traditional view, an apodictic judgment would take the form A is necessarily B. The word is now used (though somewhat rarely) in the more gen(M. Bk.) eral and vaguer sense indicated above. APOGEE, in astronomy, that point in the orbit of a satellite, natural or artificial, which is farthest from the earth. In the case of the moon, the distance at apogee is approximately 253,000 mi. APOLDA, a town of Germany which after the partition of the nation following World War II was located in the Erfurt district of the German Democratic Republic, is about 6 mi. N.E. of Weimar. Pop. (1959 est.) 29,621. For centuries it has been noted for bell casting and the nationally owned Apolda bell-casting works export a large part of their output. In the bell museum Apolda is on the is an extensive collection of bells and chimes. railway line from Leipzig to Weimar. Its industries include leather and knitted goods, and dye and chemical works. Apolda, named in 1119, became a town in the 13th century. Until 1666 it belonged to the bishopric of Mainz.

APOLLINAIRE, GUILLAUME

(real

name Wilhelm

Apollinaris de Kostrowitzki) (1880-1918), French poet who in his short life took part in all the avant-garde movements which flourished in French literary and artistic circles at the beginning of the 20th century, and who helped to direct poetry into unexplored channels.

He was born and an Italian

26, 1880, the son of a Polish emigree but his origins were long kept secret, and Left more or less to himself, he his father did nothing for him. went at the age of 20 to Paris, where he led a bohemian life. Several months spent in Germany in 1901 had a profound effect on in

Rome, Aug.

officer;

him and helped

to

awaken him

to his poetic vocation.

He

fell

Rhineland, and later recaptured the beauty More important, he of its forests and its legends in his poetry. Englishwoman, Annie Playden, whom young with fell in love a he pursued, unsuccessfully, as far as London; his romantic dis-

under the

spell of the

appointment inspired him Aime."

to write his

famous "Chanson du Mal-

After his return to Paris, Apollinaire became well known as a by literary men. He met Paul Fort and Jean Moreas, became friendly with Andre Salmon, Andre Billy, Paul Jean Toulet and Leon Paul Fargue and in 1903 attempted to run an avant-garde review, Le Fes tin d'Esope. He also made friends with some young painters who were to become famous Maurice de Vlaminck, Andre Derain, Raoul Dufy writer and a habitue of the cafes patronized

—

and Pablo Picasso; he introduced his contemporaries to Douanier Rousseau's naive paintings and to Negro sculpture; with Picasso, he applied himself to the task of defining the principles of a cubist aesthetic in literature as well as painting. Enchant eur pourrissant (1909), His first volume,

U

is

a strange

dialogue in poetic prose between the magician Merlin and the nymph Viviane. In the following year a collection of vivid stories, some whimsical and some wildly fantastic, appeared under the title

Then came Le Bestiaire (1911), in mannered quatrains. But his poetic masterpiece was Alcools he relives all his experiences and expresses (1913) in these poems them sometimes in alexandrines and regular stanzas, sometimes in L'Heresiarque et Cie (1910).

;

APOLLINARIS— APOLLO

120 short

unrhymed

lines

such, but only as in

and always without punctuation.

In 1914, Apollinaire enlisted. He became a second lieutenant Discharged, in the infantry, and received a head wound in 1916. he returned to Paris and published a symbolic story, Le Poete I, and more significantly, a new collection of poems, Calligrammes (1918), which is dominated by images of war and a new love affair. But on Nov. 9, 1918, two with his obsession days before the Armistice, he died of Spanish influenza. In his poetry Apollinaire made daring, even outrageous, technical experiments; his calligrammes, thanks to an ingenious typoMore graphical arrangement, are designs as well as poems. generally, Apollinaire set out to create an effect of surprise or even astonishment by means of unusual verbal associations and,

assassine (1916

Yet he this, could be called the herald of surrealism. sometimes forgot all his modernistic principles and poured out his sufferings and his nostalgia in sincere and melodious lyrics of because of

haunting beauty.

—Oeuvres

Bibliography. Decaudin, with a B. Labracherie, G. an anthology with

poitiques, ed. by M. Adema and M. See E. Aegerter and preface by A. Billy (1956). Apollinaire (1943) A. Billy, G. Apollinaire (1947), (P.-G. Ca.) an introductory essay. ;

APOLLINARIS

(Apollinarius), the Younger

(c.

310-

390), bishop of Laodicea in Syria, collaborated with his father, Apollinaris the Elder, in reproducing the Old Testament in the c.

New

form of Homeric and Pindaric poetry, and the after the fashion of Platonic dialogues,

when

the

Testament emperor Julian

had forbidden Christians to teach the classics. In his eagerness to combat Arianism, Apollinaris went so far as to deny the existence of a rational replaced in

human

Him by

soul in Christ's

human

nature, this being

a prevailing principle of holiness, the Logos.

It was held that the system of Apollinaris was really Docetism and the position was condemned by several synods and in particular by that of Constantinople (a.d. 381). Apollinaris had a considerable following which after his death divided into two sects, the more conservative taking its name (Vitalians) from Vitalis, bishop of Antioch, the other (Polemeans) adding the further assertion that the two natures were so blended that even the body of Christ was a fit object of adoration. The Apollinarian type of thought persisted in what was later the Monophysite

school (see

Monophysites).

Although Apollinaris was a prolific writer, scarcely anything has survived under his own name. But a number of his writings are concealed under the names of orthodox Fathers, long ascribed to Gregory Thaumaturgus. These were collected and edited by Hans Lietzmann, under the title Apollinaris von Laodicea und seine Schule (1905). Apollinaris must be distinguished

who bore

the

"apologies"

from the bishop of Hierapolis same name and who wrote one of the early Christian

(c.

170).

—

Bibliography. A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. iii and iv; R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation; G. Voisin, L'Apollinarisme (1901) C. E. Raven, Apollinarianism (1923) G. L. Prestige, Fathers ;

;

its less

—

wild animals and disease

regular features it

god of manifold function who occupied the loftiest place, next to Zeus, in the Greek pantheon. Though his original nature is obscure, to Greeks of the historical period he was above all the averter of evil, presiding over religious law and expiation, who communicated to man through prophets and oracles his knowledge of the future and the will of his father Zeus. No god save his father awoke such dread and awe as he, and no god was handled with more respect by poets and mythmakers. Homer considers him the deadliest of the gods and compares his coming with the swift onrush of night (Iliad i, 47). Beside him the hero Diomedes, who can sneer at Aphrodite and wound Ares, is puny indeed. Homeric Hymn 3 records the fear felt even by the gods when first Apollo came among them, when only his mother Leto and Zeus himself could endure his presence. Hesiod and Pindar humanize him by including in his sphere music and the dance and by telling of his loves with mortal girls, but nowhere in their pages nor in those of the Athenian tragedians does his stature diminish. In humbler circles he was also a god of crops and herds, though his chief concern was seldom with the life of nature as

of

and fears of men.

This most Hellenic of all gods was of foreign origin. Even Delphi, where during the middle of the 1st millennium B.C. his cult was virtually the centre of Greek religion and its nearest approach to a Vatican, remembered him as a newcomer. Archaeocame to Delphi long after the Greeks had settled there. The gods who are said to have preceded him have left particularly shadowy traces, but from their names Ge (Earth) and Themis (Moral Order), which are Greek words, and Poseidon, a god of ancient standing among the Greeks it seems likely that Apollo ousted Hellenic deities. Less reliable is the evidence that the older gods possessed an oracle; prophesy by inspiration, at any rate, probably came to Delphi with Apollo. In this ritual the prophetess (called Pythia) sat upon a tripod chair and delivered Apollo's message while in or immediately upon release from a state of ecstasy, a condition devoid of violence and hysteria and resembling apparently a mediumistic or visionary trance. Sometimes she spoke a yerse of several lines, perhaps previously prepared by other priests, sometimes when a simple choice among answers was sufficient she drew The path by which Apollo and the Pythia came to Delphi lots. is uncertain. He had many other oracles, not only on the Greek mainland but also in Asia Minor and on the islands. One in Lycia (a region in southern Asia Minor) and another on Delos in the Aegean were well known; each claimed to be his birthplace. Homeric Hymn 3 gives Delos the honour, implying that he came thence to Delphi; the latter opinion is probably right, but Apollo can scarcely have been a Delian aboriginally, for many things link his cult there to Asia Minor. (See also Oracle.) The theory that the Greeks first met Apollo in Lycia was advanced in 1903 by Ulrich von Wilamowitz-MoeHendorff and is now, with certain modifications, generally though not universally accepted. Very striking is his epithet Letoides ("son of Leto"); rarely were the Greeks called after their mothers, but the practice No other Greek is common in Asia Minor and Lycia especially. god bears a matronymic epithet (Hermes, for instance, is called "son of Maia," but always with the full descriptive form). Apollo fights against the Greeks in the Iliad ; in the pre-Homeric tradition he and Paris killed Achilles, the greatest Greek hero. Of the other Trojan champions, Ares and Aphrodite are of foreign origin, while Artemis, who alone has roots on Greek soil, plays a quite unimportant role in the poem and doubtless owes her Trojan allegiance to the fact that she was Apollo's twin sister. The gods who fight for the Greeks, on the other hand, are all from the Greek mainland, and the division seems hardly fortuitous. If Homer depicts Apollo as a full-fledged Olympian, his alien origin was probably known to Homer's remote predecessors. Apollo's mother Leto was from Asia Minor and of little importance elsewhere her name seems related to the Lycian word lada ("woman"). If Apollo was logical evidence suggests that Apollo

— —

;

and Heretics (1940).

APOLLO,

—the encroachment

affected the hopes

Lycian, his eios

a

is

common

epithet

Lyk-

easily explained, though

can be otherwise derived.

it

Delian

hymns honouring

divinities subordinate to Apollo and Artemis

were attributed

to

the

Lycian

poet Olen. It is characteristic of Apollo that at certain annual periods he was not present at his

shrine,

and many cults behad retired hometempting to infer,

lieved that he

ward.

It

is

from the Delians' belief that he spent his winters in Lycia, that

apollo belvedere,

greek sculp.

^vs^zi, ??.

called apostles." It looks therefore as if the term apostle originally given in Christian circles to the Twelve, and then achieving a wider connotation (much as the pioneer missionary of a country is still

called the ''apostle" of that country), later

became used of the

chief administrative ecclesiastical officer of a district before finally

reverting to

its

(See Episcopacy and

original significance.

Min-

The

Christian.) Rudolf Bultmann, however, radically changes the order of deHe holds that the looser application of the term velopment. "apostle" to all missionaries came first and was narrowed down to the Twelve in the interests of a desire to establish the theory of apostolic succession. This appears to be an anachronism. The Twelve were in great esteem from the beginning, and the gospels faithfully reflect the situation. There is no need to call in a special motive for the emphasis placed upon them in the gospel record beyond the desire to make it clear that in fact Jesus did treat them so. The recognition that the Twelve were apostles par excellence meant that they were the chosen delegates of Christ but did not preclude the possibility of the use of the term for other people on other occasions. It might be employed (e.g., by Paul) to designate delegates to certain churches or the delegates of local churches to one another. By the end of the 2nd century, as in the writings of Irenaeus, the desire to prove an "apostolic" succession both of office and of doctrine against the Gnostic heresy threw the term into strong relief. But there would have been no value in appealing to apostolic precedent if it had not been firmly rooted in the tradition that the apostles had from the beistry.

life of the church. Legends About the Twelve Apostles. As Paul had made missionary journeys and brought people far afield into the Christian fold, it was later assumed that the other apostles must have

ginning played a leading role in the

—

done the same, although there is no mention of it in the Bible. Legends relate that each went to a different territory in which he successfully evangelized the local inhabitants, usually by miraculous means. It was further believed that each apostle was responsible for one of the 12 clauses or articles in the "apostles' creed," which in fact has no direct connection with the apostles Nor were the apostles the authors of the "apos(see Creed). When the tolic constitutions" (see Constitutions, Apostolic). 12 apostles are represented in art, the traitor Judas is generally omitted and Paul takes his place.

—

Bibliography. R. H. Rengstorf in G. Kittel (ed.), Theologische Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament, vol. i, pp. 406-448 (1933) G. Dix in K. E. Kirk (ed.), The Apostolic Ministry, pp. 183-303 (1946); J. Munck, "Paul, the Apostles, and the Twelve," Studia theologica, vol. iii, pp. 96-110 (Lund, 1950); R. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (1952); A. Ehrhardt, The Apostolic Ministry (1958); A. Richardson, An Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament (1958). For legends of the apostles see T. Schermann, Prophetenund Apostellegenden (1907). (J. W. C. W.) ;

APOSTOLIC FATHERS, the title given to a group of Greek who belonged to the second or third generation whom tradition associated them (Clement and Hermas with Peter and Paul; Barnabas with Paul; Ignatius. Polycarp and Papias with John). At first these writers were Christian writers

after the Apostles, with

men" (Apostolici) the name Apostolic Fathers applied to early 2nd-century writers in the 6th century, after the conception of the authority of the Fathers had been developed. It did not pass into common use until the 1 7th century. Since that time it has been applied not only to the writers mentioned but also to the authors of a diverse group of writings that, called "apostolic

was

first

;

Teaching of the Apostles or published in 1883; the 2nd- or 3rd-century apology entitled To Diognetus ; and the late 2nd-century Martyrdom of I', tlycarp. The group is thus very heterogenous. It included letters (one by Clement of Rome, seven by Ignatius of Antioch, one or first

Polycarp's

(Hermas),

death),

an

apocalyptic

writing

with

appendices

document dealing with church order (the Didache), exegetical treatises (Barnabas, fragments of Papias), a sermon (II Clement) and an apology (To Diognetus; see Apologists, Early Christian). Not everything in the group comes from the early 2nd century, and not everything in it is equally valuable a

theologically; but taken as a whole the writings of the Apostolic

Fathers are more valuable historically than any other Christian literature outside the New Testament. They provide a bridge between it and the more fully developed Christianity of the late

2nd century. To a remarkable extent the writings of the Apostolic Fathers have come to light only in relatively recent times. First Clement, discovered in the Codex Alexandrinus of the Greek Bible, was published at Oxford in 1633, but a complete text of it and of II Clement was not found until 1875. The genuine letters of Ignatius, painstakingly restored by use of a medieval Latin translation by Archbishop Ussher in 1644, were first published from a Greek manuscript in 1646 at Amsterdam. The first edition of the Epistle of Barnabas, printed by Ussher in 1644, was destroyed by fire, and the first real publication was therefore given by Dom Luc d'Achery Hermas was published in Latin by Lefevre at Paris in 1645. d'Etaples at Paris in 1513, but in Greek it first appeared in 1857. The letter to Diognetus appeared in 1592, when (as in the manuscript that contained it)

it

was assigned

to the apologist Justin.

The Martyrdom of Polycarp was first printed in 1689. Before this work of discovery and publication took place, there was a long period in which writings wrongly ascribed to the Apostolic Fathers During and after their resupplanted their genuine writings. covery, scholars tended to value their primitive teaching too highly, but subsequently a more balanced appraisal was made.

Their value life

lies in their reflection

of the beginnings of Christian

and thought.

Clement.

—The oldest of the Apostolic

tainly Clement,

name

of the

who toward

Roman Church

Fathers

is

almost cer-

the end of the 1st century wrote in the to the

Church

of Corinth in order to

dissident members to return to peace and apostolic order. Clementine Literature.) His letters were regarded as scripture by many Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries, and by

urge

its

(See

some even

later.

The

principal subjects discussed in I

Clement

are as follows: (1) the troubles at Corinth explained as due to jealousy and envy, with examples from the Old Testament and from the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul (1-6); (2) the need for

repentance, leading to the harmony evident in the creation (7-20) (3) the importance of resurrection (21-32); (4) the necessity of good works in relation to the high priest Jesus Christ, in whose army we serve (33-38); (5) the apostolic succession (30-45); (6) Paul and the need for reconciliation and love (46-50); (7) examples showing the need for humility and obedience (51-58); (8) the need to pray for the elect (59-61); (9) summary on the inspiration of Clement and his messengers to Corinth (62-65). Each of these sections is ended with a doxology. With it. in our manuscripts, was transmitted a homily known as II Clement, probably written at Rome in the period between 125 and 140. Its genuineness, questioned by Eusebius and Jerome, was upheld in the 5th and 6th centuries by Monophysites, who believed that it anticipated their theology when it began with the words, "Brothers, we must think of Jesus Christ as of God." Ignatius. Another early Apostolic Father was Ignatius, bishop of Antioch early in the 2nd century, who on his way to martyrdom at Rome wrote seven letters: five to churches in Asia Minor (at Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia and Smyrna), one to Polycarp of Smyrna and one to the Roman Church. In these he opposed Judastic and/or Docetic heresy and made a plea for Christian unity, which he based primarily on the unity of the monarchical episcopate. In the 4th century (or perhaps later) his letters suf-

—

APOSTOLIC FATHERS more were added by someone who found Ignatian theology hard to reconcile with the conclusions of The Monophysites, (or of Chalcedon). again, found his authentic letters attractive, especially because he was fond of the expression "my God, Jesus Christ," and in this situation neo-Chalcedonians tended to use the inauthentic version instead. It was this version that Lefevre d'Etaples first published, Ignatius' vivid Syrian rhetoric and his yearning in Latin, in 149S. for martyrdom have sometimes impelled scholars to regard him as somewhat neurotic and to discount the validity of his testimony His insistence upon its importance to the primitive episcopate. has been treated as due to idiosyncrasy. On the other hand, it would appear that, while Ignatius' ideas were not shared by all his Christian contemporaries, his witness for the state of the (See also Igchurch should not be discounted too markedly. natius, Saint.) Polycarp. From Ignatius' younger contemporary Polycarp one letter exists which seems to speak at one point of Ignatius' death as past and, at another, of it as future; the letter also denounces a heresy that may be that of Marcion, later than Ignatius' These apparent contradictions have led many scholars to time. suppose that they are two letters rather than one. It is also possible, though uncertain, that like Ignatius' letters that of Polycarp has undergone later revision. The Monophysites, who were quite careful in citing authorities, provided quotations from Polycarp that do not exactly correspond with the existing text (much of which is available in a late Latin translation). (See also Polycarp, fered interpolation, and six

the council of Nicaea

—

Saint,

i

Hermas.

— Either

toward the beginning of the 2nd century or Hermas, according to later tradition brother of Pius, bishop of Rome, produced a book known as the Shepherd (from the guise of the angel who appeared to him). It contains a series of five visions to which Hermas later added 12 moral "commandments" and ten "parables." His basic purpose was to teach that postbaptismal sin was not unforgivable; a certain "day of repentance'' would soon come, though sins committed

somewhat

later a

certain

Hennas represents a kind of Jewish Christianity (also reflected in II Clement) that seems to have flourished at Rome during the period. His work, regarded as scripture by many writers in the century after his time, gradually lost its influence, though it is contained in the Codex Sinaiticus of the Greek Bible and is found in many Egyptian papyrus fragments of various dates. It was translated into Latin and several oriental after that time could not be forgiven.

languages.

Barnabas.

—The

so-called Epistle

of Barnabas

is

really

an

The

epistle

129

To Diognctus

consists partly (ch. 1-10) of an apol-

ogy for Christianity not unlike that of Theophilus of Antioch (q.v.) and partly of a liturgical sermon (11-12) in the style of Melito of Sardis or Hippolytus of Rome. The association of this document with the Apostolic Fathers must be regarded as simply a mistake. Finally, the Didache, composed either at the end of the 1st century or toward the end of the 2nd, is not the product of an Apostolic Father but reflects the liturgy and order of a church possibly in Egypt but more probably in Syria. Its importance lies in its primitive Jewish-Christian catechetical materials (ch. 1-6; some

paralleled in Pseudo-Barnabas), in

its

rather enigmatic descrip-

baptism and Eucharist (7-10) and in its regulations to govern the conduct of peripatetic apostles and prophets (who are beginning to be supplanted by bishops and deacons; 1 1-15). The book ends with a picture of the return of Christ (16). The basic problem in regard to the Didache is whether it describes a real situation of the 1st century or, consciously or unconsciously, archaizes its picture from the standpoint of some later time. Treated as canonical by a few early writers, its materials were appropriated by the authors of the 3rd-century Didascalia and the 4th-century Apostolic Constitutions (see Constitutions, Apostolic), and, except in isolated Egyptian communities, it dropped out of use. Significance. The very heterogeneity of the Apostolic Fathers, in the form and the content of their writings, provides a valuable indication of the condition of Christianity immediately after, and to some extent contemporary with, the writing of the Xew Testament. They show how the Pauline epistles were being interpreted (I Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp); the earlier ones seem tion of

—

to reflect a time

when

the sayings of Jesus, not written gospels

containing them, were regarded as authoritative, though it always certain that written gospels were not being used. reflect the

Rome

development of

speaks in the

name

ecclesiastical authority.

of the

Roman Church

is

not

They

Clement of

and. insisting upon

the importance of the apostolic succession of presbyters (not altogether clearly differentiated from bishops), gives instructions to the church at Corinth. Ignatius of Antioch shows the existence of a threefold ministry of bishops, presbyters and deacons in Asia Minor and in Syria. Polycarp of Smyrna gives instructions to

The Didache the presbyters of the nearby church of Philippi. speaks of the development of the ministry, and Hermas reflects a similar situation. Both Ignatius and the Didache clearly present baptism and the Eucharist as central elements of Christian life, while all these writers insist upon the importance of Christian

exegetical treatise on the use of the Old Testament, which in the

morality.

by Jews; its significance can be understood only by those who read it and search for "types'" not content with types At the end of

has been argued that their writings represent a significant from the Christianity of the apostolic age. especially in In reply to this claim relation to the Pauline doctrine of grace. it may be said that (1) they did not necessarily express the full

sets forth the "two ways" of light and darkness (ch. His work, regarded as scriptural at Alexandria, was not though it is included in the Codex Sinaiticus, few Christians continued to read it. Papias. The fragments of the Exegeses of the Dominical Oracles, a work written by Polycarp's contemporary Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia, were preserved chiefly by Irenaeus and Eusebius; the latter commented on the Jewish apocalypticism that undoubtedly resulted in the neglect of Papias' work, though he also preserved some rather obscure remarks of Papias about the

range of their religion in the documents that have been preserved, and (2) the kind of doctrine of grace to be found in the major Pauline epistles is not the only emphasis tenable within Christianity. Under various circumstances various aspects of the doctrine may need to be stressed. According to the tradition of the church, and perhaps already in the letter of Polycarp. the thought of Paul himself is adequately represented not in his major In relaepistles alone but in the Pastoral Epistles (q.v.) as well. tion to apostolic Christianity, the Apostolic Fathers are important because they constitute the earliest witnesses both to New Testa-

(See also Papias.) Others. In the latter decades of the 2nd century the MartyrPolycarp was composed; this, along with the roughly conof temporary Martyrdom of Justin, is the oldest authentic account of an early Christian martyr's death. Unfortunately the form in which it is presented in extant Greek manuscripts the oldest of which comes from the 10th century) is rather different from that provided by the lengthy extracts found in Eusebius; and it is possible, if not probable, that it has undergone interpolation. In Eusebius' quotations are not found the elaborate comparison of the death of Polycarp with that of Christ which is given in

ment scripture and to tradition. They show the New Testament church alive and flourishing in a new age, though the extent to which all of them fully represent Christian teaching in their times remains open to question; on the basis of the available evidence

the fuller version.

5 vol.

author's view cannot be understood or prefigurations of Jesus.

Its

author

is

but often goes into the purest of allegorizations. his

work he

18-19).

so highly regarded elsewhere; and.

—

church's gospels.

—

dom

1

It

decline

the question probably cannot be answered. Toward the end of the 2nd century Irenaeus (q.v.) made use of Clement. Ignatius.

Polycarp, Papias and Hermas; he obviously regarded them as witnesses to the apostolic tradition; as a hearer of Polycarp he well have been capable of judging whether or not they cor-

may

rectly represented the Christian teaching of their day.

—

Bibliography. General: J. B. Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers, (1885-90); K. Lake, The Apostolic Fathers, 2 vol. (1919); F.

APOSTOLICI— APOTHECARY

130 Diekamp, Die apostoliscken Voter, \V.

vol.

'liscken

Schneemelchi

Translations: E. Translation (1950)

ii

(1913); K. Biblmeyer and i (1956).

Voter, vol.

Goodspeed, The Apostolic Fathers: an American C. C Richardson (id). Early Christian Fathers

J. ;

Writers, vol. i (1946) and vol. vi (1948); vol. (1947). Goodspeed, Index Patristicus (1907); W. Bauer el es: E. the New Testament, and other Early Lexicon of al.. A Creek-English Christian Literature (1957). The Doctrine Torrance, F. of Grace in the Apostolic Studies: T.

In later times the doctrines of the various Apostolici were approached most closely by some sects of the Anabaptists {q.v.). (C. H. Lo.)

APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION,

\tian

hers

the

o)

Ckun

h,

i

.1

Fathers


54

Titicaca and northern Bolivia. A considerable volume of traffic from northern Bolivia passes through Arequipa by way of Titicaca. A small amount of commerce reaches Arequipa by railroad from the Peruvian montana and the eastern border valleys of the south

The port of Matarani competes with the older port Mollendo as the outlet for Arequipa and these other regions. Arequipa is an attractive city with picturesque old Spanish buildings and many interesting religious edifices constructed of "sillar," The houses, generally of one story, a local white volcanic stone. The larger facades are adorned are also built of this material. with elaborate ornament suggesting Spanish baroque. The city, being the seat of an archbishopric, has a cathedral and several historic churches, notably the Jesuit church of La Campania. Santo Domingo. San Augustin, La Merced and San Francisco. The University of Arequipa, built in 1612, the Colegio Nacibnal de la Independencia and a branch of the National Conservatory of Music have helped to keep the city in the forefront of the cultural and via Cuzco. of

intellectual life of the nation.

The Plaza de Armas presents

a

colourful spectacle, for Arequipa is the metropolis for Indians of Arequipa is a popular tourist centre, and good highways provide access to the nearby resorts of Sabandia, Jesus, Socosani and other points of interest. The Pan American highwav traverses the department and air service is maintained.

the district.

(J. L.

ARES,

Tr.)

Greek mythology, the god of war, or more properly the spirit of battle. (For the Roman god identified with Ares see Mars. He may be of foreign origin, quite possibly from Thrace (Odyssey viii, 361). Unlike his Roman counterpart he was never very popular; his worship was not extensive in Greece except at Thebes and to a more limited extent at Athens. He represents the distasteful aspects of brutal warfare and slaughter, which he loves for their own sake. From at least the time of Homer, who establishes him as the son of Hera and Zeus, he is one of the Olympian deities, but his fellow gods and even his parents are not fond of him (Iliad v, 889 ff.). He is accompanied in battle, however, by his sister Eris ("Strife") and his sons Deimos and Phobos ("Panic" and "Rout"). Associated with him also are two lesser war deities: Enyalius, virtually identical with Ares himself, and Enyo, a female counterpart (cj. the Roman Bellona; As a war god Ares has no monopoly. Both Athena and q.v. ). Zeus (qq.v.) have war attributes, which, while less sanguinary, are usually more potent. Strangely enough Ares' appearances in batIn the Iliad he is bested by Athena and tle are often inglorious. even wounded by Diomedes, a mortal. He also is bound by the Aloadae (q.v.), who imprisoned him for 13 months, and eventually rescued by Hermes (Iliad v, 385 ff.). When he tried to avenge the murder of his son, the highwayman Cycnus, Heracles wounded him and sent him off to Olympus (Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, in ancient

)

457 it

relationship

is

humorously recorded

in

Odyssey

The husband

viii.

of Aphrodite, Hephaestus, caught the pair in flagrante delicto, cast an invisible net over

them and summoned

all

the other gods

to witness their shame, causing great hilarity

on Olympus. According to some versions it is the jealous Ares who, disguised as a boar, slew Aphrodite's beloved Adonis. Occasionally (e.g., at

Thebes) Aphrodite is his legitimate wife. By Aphrodite he fathered Deimos and Phobos and Harmonia (see above). He is sometimes also the father of Eros and Anteros. By Aglauros, the daughter of Cecrops (q.v.), he was the father of Alcippe. He was the sire of at least two of Heracles' adversaries: Cycnus and

Diomedes of Thrace. The artistic representations of Ares are not numerous. One of the earliest is on a fragment of a Lemnian vase of the 8th century B.C. depicting the affair with Aphrodite described above. On vases he is usually the typical armed warrior. There were statues by Alcamenes, Scopas and Leochares, but extant works (e.g., Ares Ludovisi and Ares Borghese) are mostly Roman and cannot successfully be identified with Greek originals. The Parthenon frieze contains a group of Olympians, among whom Ares, in unwarlike garb, has been tentatively identified. He also appears on the

great frieze of the altar at Pergamum. Bibliography. Ludwig Preller and Carl Robert, Griechische Mythologie, vol. i (1S94) L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, vol. v (1909) J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1922) O. Kern, Religion der Griechen, vol. i (1926) H. J. Rose, Handbook of Greek Mythology (1953). (R. B. Ld.) Cappadocia, of a Greek physician, who lived

—

\

;

;

;

ARETAEUS

Rome in the second half of the 2nd century a.d. Two treatises by him are extant, each in four books, in the Ionic dialect: On the Causes and Indications of Acute and Chronic Diseases, and On Their Treatment. Aretaeus' work was founded on that of Archig-

at

enes; like him, he belonged to the eclectic school, but he did not ignore the theories of the "pneumatists," who asserted that life is or pneuma. Greek mythology, a nymph who gave her name to a spring in Elis and to another in the island of Ortygia near Syracuse. The river god Alpheus fell in love with Arethusa, one of the retinue of Artemis; Arethusa fled to Ortygia. where she was changed into a spring; Alpheus made his way beneath the sea, and united his waters with those of the spring. In Ovid's Metamorphoses Arethusa, while bathing in the Alpheus, was seen and pursued by the river god in human form; Artemis changed her into a spring which, flowing underground, emerged at Or-

associated with vital

ARETHUSA,

air,

in

tygia.

ff-)-

Ares' worship was largely in the northern areas of Greece, where may easily have spread from Thrace. Although devoid of the

moral and theological associations usual with major deities, worship has many interesting local features. At Sparta, in early times at least, human sacrifices were made to him from among the prisoners of war (a practice that had also been current in Scvthia. an early seat of his worship). At Sparta also a nocturnal offering of dogs an unusual sacrificial victim, which might indicate a chthonic deity was made to him as Enyalius (Pausanias iii, 14, During his festival at 9; Plutarch, Roman Questions, 290 d). Geronthrae in Laconia no women were allowed in the sacred grove (according to Pausanias), but at Tegea he was honoured in a special women's sacrifice as Gynaikhothoinas "Entertainer of Women" (also Pausanias). At Thebes he was an ancestral deity both through his daughter Harmonia, wife of Cadmus (q.v.), and also through another offspring, the dragon whose teeth Cadmus sowed to create the race of Thebans. At Athens he had a temple social,

his

— —

,

the foot of the Areopagus ("Ares' hill"). On this hill the Areopagus council, oldest council of the Athenians, sat as a homicide court. By tradition Ares had been tried there by the gods for the murder of Halirrhothius, son of Poseidon, who had offered violence to his daughter Alcippe. The mythology surrounding the figure of Ares is not extensive. at

Of interest is his association from earliest times with Aphrodite (q.v. 1. Indeed, Aphrodite is known locally (e.g., at Sparta) as a war goddess, apparently an early facet of her character. Undoubtedly an original religious connection gave rise to later myths linking the two romantically. The most famous story of their

Artemis, not Arethusa, who who escapes by smearing her face with mire, so that he fails to recognize her. The story probably originated from the fact that Artemis Alpheiaia was worIn an earlier form of the legend,

is

it is

the object of the god's affections, and

shiped in both Elis and Ortygia, and also that the Alpheus in its upper part runs underground, as is confirmed by modern explorers. In Virgil's Eclogues Arethusa inspiration, like

nymphs

is addressed as a divinity of poetical one of the Muses, who were themselves originally

of springs.

ARETHUSA

(Arethusa bulbosa), a common North American plant of the orchis family, found in bogs and swampy regions during May and June from Newfoundland south to North Carolina and west to Indiana and Minnesota. The flowers are magentacrimson, having a crest formed of three hairy ridges, white or yellow in colour, and with a lower lip spotted with magenta. They grow on single stalks five inches to ten inches in height. The leaves appear after the flowers open and are long, narrow and single.

The

root

is

bulbous.

A common name

for arethusa

is

Indian pink.

ARETINO, PIETRO wrote

in

d492-i55°>,

unconventional language and

Italian

author

who has been

who

described

as the first "journalist" of his century, was born in 1492 at Arezzo. Thence he called himself "Aretino"; the name of his family is

—

; ;

AREZZO— ARC il'NSOLA When

very young he went to Perugia, when prai tised painting, then to Rome, where he published ome mis pasquinate (satirical poems), and finally to Venice

unknown,

I

lal

ted oi

There he found the apuntil his death in 1556 means tor blackmailing liis pen as The six (Ariosto called him "the scourge oi princes"). Volumes of his letters (1537 57) are evidence ol hi powei and propriate milieu for using

,1

rulers

eynicism.

His realistic / Ragionamenti

ten in dialogue form,

show

well as his colourful style.

his sensual

Of

I




'

'

i

coteca contain

'

(qq.v.

1

!

;

'

1

and works of

art.

).

is

a centre of road communications.

Its

economy

is

but the goldsmiths export their goods throughout Europe and there are clothing and footwear factories. The city, already important in Etruscan days, was known to

basically

agricultural,

Romans

In the middle ages it was a flourishing town which fell to Florence in 1384. Later it became part of the grand duchy of Tuscany. After a short period of French rule in the early 19th century it became part of the Italian kingdom in 1861. It was severely damaged during World War II and was (D. Os.) captured by the Allies in July 1944. ARGALI, the largest living wild sheep, Ovis ammon and its many races, found in the highlands of east central Asia. It may stand four feet high at the shoulders and weigh over 300 lbs. Large horns, present in the rams, are especially massive in the Pamir argali. or Marco Polo sheep, in which they may be 70 in. or more in length. See Sheep. the

;

rare objects

Arezzo was the home of Francesco Petrarch (1304-74), Pietro Aretino, Giorgio Vasari (1511-74) and Guido of Arezzo (d. 1050) Arezzo

'

many

as Arretium.

scientifically constructed oil

first

Aime \rgand

ylindrical wick confined

Geneva

ot

in

1784.

con-

It

between two concentric tubes;

ircular flame with a current of air brought to

this device gave a play upon its inner surface. A glass himney increased the draft and improved Mm- illumination, William Murdock, the pioneer of gaslighting, adapted the Argand idea of two concentric circular 1

pipes

in

the designing of gas burners.

ARGEI,

the name given by the ancient Romans to a number of rush puppets (24 or .'7). resembling men tied hand and loot, which were taken down to the ancient bridge over the Tiber on

by the pontifices and magistrates, with the wife of the May iber Flamen Dialis in mourning L'uise. and there thrown mto the by the Vestal virgins There were also in various parts of the four Servian regions of the city a number of tacella Argeorum (ch round which a procession seems to have taken place on Mar' h 7, and where the puppets were probably kept until the second pro1

(

'I

Pietro Aretino was edited by // / il 1913-16) and / Ragionamenti by I) Carraroli F. Nicolini g an edition of the Commedie ili Pietro Aretino, aggiuntavi I'Orazid was published by E. Camerini (1876) and another Commedie, by II libro dr/h' Lettere

i

the

See Lighting: Gas.

He also wrote a remarkable tragedy, Omnia (1546) and live comedies (1525-42). He had ureat influence on some 16th-century writers, but to modern readers he is niaitib im a

a

1

ami uns< rupulo

lesser interest are his

religious writings.

ortant as

burner, was invented by

i

where he remained

355

ARGAND BURNER,

be

siiii

I

1

cession.

The Romans had no historical explanation of these curious rites, and the theory of the common people that the puppets were substitutes for old men who used at one time to be sacrificed to the river is not generally accepted. Various explanations have been suggested

by

scholars.

ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST 1799-1875), German astronomer, famous for his great catalogue which are determined the positions of thousands of stars, was born at Memel, then in East Prussia, on March 22, 1799, and studied at Kbnigsberg, where he was later the successor of F. W. Argelander was appointed director of the Abo observaBessel. tory in 1823 and of the Helsinki observatory in 1827. In 1S37 he published the first major investigation of the sun's motion in space, which had been previously pointed out by Sir Frederick William Herschel, and in the same year he was appointed director of the new Bonn observatory. His greatest achievement was the publication of the Bonner Durchmusterimg (1859-62), which catalogues the position and brightness of nearly 325,000 stars from the north celestial pole to 3° S. of the celestial equator and which was completed after 25 years' continuous work. The corresponding atlas was issued in 1863. The importance of this work is indicated by the fact that it was, by demand, reissued in 1950. In 1844 Argelander drew attention to the importance of variable stars, of which there were then only six known. His method of visual (

in

—

—

estimation of the brightness of stars the "step method" is still in general use. His treatise on the comet of 181 1 appeared in 1822

and his subsequent observations fill the first seven volumes of the Durchmusterimg. He died at Bonn, Ger., on Feb. 17, 1875. (O.

ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER,

E.)

J.

Marquis d' who helped

(1703-1771), French novelist and occasional writer, was born at Aix-enProvence on June 27, 1703, of a noble family. He traveled in Spain. Turkey and Italy in his youth, leading a life of dissipation.

to disseminate the ideas of the philosophes,

Settling thereafter first in the Netherlands, then at the Prussian court, he devoted himself to literature. He produced a number of works inspired by Montesquieu's Lettres persanes, the most im-

portant being his Lettres juives (1736-38), Lettres cabalistiques (1737) and Lettres chinoises (1739-40). His Philosophic du bon sens (1737), a well-written work of popularization, owes much to Bayle and Fontenelle, and stimulated French interest in Locke.

The best-known novel attributed

to

him

is

the scurrilous but often

reprinted Therese philosophe (1748). He was a friend of D'Alembert and Voltaire, and a protege of Frederick the Great. He died at

Toulon on Jan.

12, 1771.

See E. Johnston, Le Marquis d'Argens Memoires, ed. bv L. Thomas (1941).

(c.

1928) and D'Argens' own (Rt. S.)

ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE

(1559-

1613), Spanish dramatist and poet, was baptized at Barbastro, on Dec. 14, 1559. He was appointed historiographer of Aragon in 1599, and in 1610 accompanied the count de Lemos to Naples, where he died in March 1613. Between 1581 and 1585 he wrote three romantic tragedies Fills (lost), Isabela and Alejandro (the

ARGENSON—ARGENTINA

35^

1772). These are uninspired imitations two latter printed of Seneca, dealing with Christian subjects and showing Italian influence. They were praised by Cervantes, Lope de Vega and in

Vicente Espinel. His poems were published with those of his brother in 1634; they consist of odes, sonnets, canzoni, satires and translations from Latin, some being of high quality. His brother Bartolome Leonardo de Argensola (1562-1631), Spanish poet and historian, was baptized at Barbastro on Aug. 26, 1562. He was attached to the suite of the count de Lemos, viceroy of Naples, in 1610 and succeeded his brother as historiographer of Aragon in 1613. He died at Saragossa on Feb. 4, 1631. His principal prose works are the Conquista de las Islas Molucas (1609), and a supplement to J. Zurita's Andes de la Corona de Aragon, published in 1630. He was a gifted and skilful poet.

ARGENSON,

(J.

Gs.)

name

of a French noble family from Touraine, prominent in national affairs in the 18th and in the first half the

of the 19th century.

Marc Rene de Vover, marquis de Paulmy and marquis d'Argenson (1652-1721), was born in Venice on Nov. 4, 1652. After holding a succession of legal offices at the French court, he was in 1697 appointed lieutenant general of police of Paris.

In 1718 he

was made keeper of the seals by the regent, Philippe due d'Orleans, who wanted him to break the opposition of the parlement of Paris to John Law's financial system. He was also made temporary president of the council of finance. In fact he joined forces with the opponents of Law and found himself obliged to resign in 1720.

He

died in Paris on

May

8,

1721.

Bibliography.— H. M. Leclercq, Histoire de la Rigence, 3 vol. (1922) P. Cottin (ed), Rapports inedits du lieutenant de police Rene d'Argenson (1891) P. Clement, La Police sous Louis XIV (1866). ;

;

Rene Louis de Voyer de Paulmy, marquis

d'Argenson (1694-

1757), was born in Paris on Oct. 18, 1694, the oldest son of Marc Rene, and was also a member of the legal profession. Between 1720 and 1724 he served as intendant in Hainaut. Returning to

became a patron of the Club de l'Entresol, in which, through discussions with Voltaire and Viscount Bolingbroke, he learned to think deeply about political problems. He was also influenced by the ideas of Charles Irenee Castel, abbe de SaintParis, he

Pierre (q.v.), and, having been appointed minister of foreign affairs in Nov. 1744, tried unsuccessfully to implement his own doctrinaire schemes for international arbitration.

His plans were whose influence in Italy was undermined by a confederation of the Italian states; against Austria, whose preponderance in Germany was to be counterbalanced by alliances with Prussia and with Saxony; and against Russia, which was to be held in check by a league of Baltic states. These schemes were frustrated by the secret diplomacy of Louis XV and by court intrigue. D'Argenson's persistence in his ideas was a major factor in prolonging the War of the Austrian Succession (q.v.) after he had failed to prevent the election of Maria Theresa's husband Francis as emperor in 1745. In Jan. 1747 he was compelled to resign. As president of the Academie des Inscriptions he spent the rest of his life in literary pursuits. His Journal et Memoires (published in 1859) form one of the major sources for the literary and political history of Louis XV's reign, while his Considerations sur le gouvernement ancien et present de la France, with its suggestion that municipal and provincial assemblies should be revived, had great influence on physiocratic schemes for the reform of local government under the ancien regime. He died in Paris on Jan. 26, 1757. Bibliography. E. Zevort, Le Marquis d'Argenson et le ministere directed against France's ally Spain, to be

—

des affaires etrangeres (1880) A. Ogle, The Marquis d'Argenson (1893) A. Alem, Le Marquis d'Argenson et I'economie politique au debut du XVIIle siecle (1900) Sir Richard Lodge, Studies in Eighteenth Century Diplomacy, 1740-1748 (1930) P. Rain, La Diplomatic jrancaise d'Henri IV a Vergennes (1945). ;

dedicated to him the first volume of the Encyclopedie. He spent the last six years of his life in exile from the court, after being dismissed through the influence of Madame de Pompadour. He died in Paris on Aug. 22, 1764.

MarcAntoine Rene de Voyer (1722-1787) was born at ValenRene Louis. He served as

ciennes on Nov. 22, 1722, the son of

ambassador

to Switzerland (1749-51), to Poland (1759-65) and Venice (1766-70). After retirement he occupied himself with and historical studies and collected one of the finest private libraries in Europe; sold in 1785 to the comte d'Artois, the future Charles X of France, it became the nucleus of the Bibliotheque de to

literary

l'Arsenal in Paris.

died in Paris on Aug. 13, 1787.

marquis de Voyer (1722-1782), the son of Marc was born in Venice. He fought in the War of the Austrian Succession and in the Seven Years' War and was later military governor in Saintonge and Poitou. He died at Ormes Saint-Martin in Poitou on Sept. 16, 1782. Marc Rene, marquis d'Argenson (1771-1842), the son of the last-named, was born in Paris on Sept. 19, 1771. He embraced the principles of the French Revolution and entered the army in 1791, becoming aide-de-camp to Lafayette. However, after the latter's defection, he retired to his estates in Poitou and took up scientific agriculture. Between 1809 and 1813 he was prefect of the departement of Deux Nethes (Antwerp) and helped to repel the British invasion of Walcheren.

After 1815 he devoted himself to the cause of liberalism in the chamber of deputies and under the July monarchy was a member of the republican opposition. He died in Paris on Aug. 1, 1842. (A. Gn.) a town in northern France in the departement of Val-d'Oise, lies on the north bank of the Seine, 8 mi. (13.5 km.) N.W. of Paris. Pop. (1962) 82,007. Argenteuil grew up around a monastery, originally (7th century) a convent in the village of Parisis. A daughter of Charlemagne was possibly abbess of the convent, which later received Heloise (see Abelard, Peter) she became prioress, but was expelled in 1129 and the convent was made a monastery. Enshrined in its church is la Sainte Tunique, claimed to be the seamless robe of Christ, given to the convent by Charlemagne. After World War I the growth of industry (metallurgy, electrical manufacture, aircraft construction, artificial silk) and the increase in its residential area caused what had been a village to rank as a town. The district has long been celebrated for its vineyards, representations of which are in the museum, and the first Sunday in October is still kept as the feast of the wine harvest. Fruit and vegetable growing, especially asparagus, is still a minor activity. (H. de S.-R.) (Republica Argentina), a country occupying most of the southern part of the continent of South America, The length is shaped like a wedge with the point toward the south. of Argentine territory from north to south is 2,294 mi.; its greatest width is about 884 mi. The area is 1,072,067 sq.mi., not including the Falkland Islands (q.v.), various lesser islands in far southern waters, and a 49° sector of Antarctica of about 475,000 sq.mi., to all of which Argentina lays claim. The population was 19,971,342 in 1960. On the north and northeast the country adjoins Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil and Uruguay, with the Pilcomayo, Paraguay,

ARGENTEUIL,

;

ARGENTINA

Parana and Uruguay rivers constituting the greater part of the boundary itself. Argentina is bounded on the west and south by Chile and on the east and southeast by the Atlantic ocean. The capital is at Buenos Aires (q.v.). This article is divided into the following sections and subsections

:

I.

Physical Geography 1.

;

;

II.

Marc Pierre de Voyer de Paulmy, comte

d'Argenson (16961764), born on Aug. 16, 1696, the younger brother of Rene Louis, held office as lieutenant general of police, as intendant in Touraine,

Climate Vegetation

4.

Animal Life

Geographic Regions 1. Northwest 3.

Chaco Mesopotamia

4.

Patagonia

2.

as conseiller d'etat

5.

III.

Geology and Structure

3.

2.

;

and as secretary of state for war. He was responsible for the foundation of the Ecole Militaire in 1751. Like his brother, he was a patron of the philosophes, and Denis Diderot

He

Marc Rene,

Pierre,

Humid Pampas

The People 1.

Racial Types

ARGENTINA

1.

Prehistory

2.

Discovery and Settlement Colonial Development

all

4.

Independence Rosas Regime

3.

Religion Culture

4.

5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11.

National Consolidation The Oligarchy, 1880-1916 Radical Regime, 1916-30 Conservative Restoration

Peron Regime Radical Restoration

V. Population 1.

Number and

2.

Composition

Distribution

Growth

of Population VI. Administration and Social Conditions 3.

1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Constitution and Government

Living Conditions Welfare Services Education Defense

The Economy A. Production

Livestock Agriculture

3.

Forestry, Mining and Fisheries

Fuel and Power Industry B. Trade and Finance 1. Exports and Imports 2. Banking and Finance C. Transport and Communications There are separate articles on all the Argentine provinces and 4.

5.

and on the more important I.

The Republic

very high. Glaciation, however, was more and more vigorous toward the south during the glacial period. The mountains take on the characteristic forms of glaciated mountains: cols, horns, cirques, glacial troughs and hanging valleys. The glaciers gouged out the valleys so that south of 36° S. the passes are all low. South of 46° S. the Andes are still covered with near icecaps, and glaciers descend to the heads of the fiords on the Chilean side and to the ends of the glacial lakes on the eastern side. During the glacial period the ice spread out to the east of the mountains in southern Argentina, as far as the Atlantic ocean along the Strait of Magellan. In the southern Andes, before the glacial period, rivers draining westward to the Pacific had cut back through the heart of the range so that the drainage divide was actually east of the Andes. When the ice invaded these valleys the drainage was blocked, and for a time the rivers drained eastward to the AtLarge lakes were formed where the ice blocked the outlantic. At the present time two lakes Viedma and lets to the Pacific. Argentino are still blocked by ice and drain eastward, but all The fact that the highest crest the other lakes drain westward. of the Andes and the drainage divide are not the same gave rise between Chile and Argentina. dispute boundary to an important (See also Andes.) Alluvial Plains.- The second of the chief physical regions of Argentina includes the great alluvial plains that stretch out eastward from the base of the Andes from about latitude 38° S. northward. A deep accumulation of debris brought down by the rivers from the erosion of the Andes has been spread out like a great In northern Argentina the slope eastward is sheet to the east. Rivers, such as the Pilcomayo and the scarcely perceptible.

—

—

2.

1.

territories

57

3.

Languages

IV. History

VII.

3

tinuous desert ranges push out cast of the main range into the eastern plains, holding between them a number of typical desert highest point to the west of bolsons. The main range reaches it Mendoza in Mt. Aconcagua (q.v.), 22,831 ft., loftiest in the western hemisphere. As far as 36° S. the passes over the main range are

2.

cities.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

of Argentina includes a wide variety of kinds of

—

ferentiate the national territory into contrasted kinds of terrain;

in shifting channels across the alluvial plains, spreading out in extensive floods during the rainy season (October to April) and then forming braided channels with many sand bars during the dry season. The water table is not far below the surface in this part of Argentina, yet finding surface water in dry season

but there are also great climatic contrasts, and the climates are

may

land.

From

the point of view of geology and surface features

there are four different physical divisions:

(1) the Andes; (2) the alluvial plains east of the Andes; (3) a small piece of the Parana plateau; and (4) the plateaus of Patagonia. These dif-

reflected in the pattern of vegetation. is

The

far north of Argentina

north of the Tropic of Capricorn at 2 1 ° 46' 55" S. Fuego is 55° 03' 30" S.

of Argentina in Tierra del

national territory receive the area

is

very

;

the far south

Parts of the abundant rainfall, but a large part of

arid.

Geology and Structure.

—

—

The Andes. The Andes mounform the greater part of the western border of Argentina. About as far south as latitude 36° S. the Andes are very high; the pass routes over the ranges are over 10,000 ft. above sea level. As far as 27° S. the mountains are made up of numerous high intermontane basins separated by short but steep-sided ranges. In this part of the Andes there are two major Cordilleras. The western one lies generally within Chile; the eastern one is a southward 1.

tains

continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of Bolivia.

Essentially the

Andes are a huge block of the earth's crust underlain by folded and faulted sedimentary formations mostly Mesozoic and Tertiary. The block is lifted on the west and tilted toward the east. Its surface, especially in the west where it is little dissected, is remarkably level at the higher altitudes, but is surmounted by numerous small ranges running more or less in a north-south direction. Toward the east the rivers have cut long fingers of canyons back into the high country, and near the eastern margin of the range the whole surface is sharply dissected by the streams. The steep-sided valleys separated by sharp-crested ridges are known as quebradas. Along the eastern margin of the mountains there is a zone of front ranges, tilted cuestas (ridges) of sedimentary strata that face toward the mountains and slope more gently toward the eastern plains.

Between the cuestas are

long,

parallel valleys.

These front ranges continue southward as far as Tucuman. At about latitude 27° S. the Character of the Andes changes. Running southward there is only one single commanding range. In Argentina between Tucuman and about latitude 36° S. discon-

Bermejo, meander

be

difficult.

ley of India

is

The

similarity of these plains to the

Ganges

val-

striking.

All the drainage of this area is gathered by the Rio ParaguayBut south of the Rio Parana-Plata (see Plata, Rio de la). Carcarana, which carries the drainage from the Sierra de Cordoba to the Parana, no major streams reach the sea. This is the Argentine humid pampas (Spanish parnpa), a deep accumulation of alluvial material (985

ft.

deep at Buenos Aires) overlain by

a layer

of fine, wind-blown dust or loess brought by the westerly winds from the deserts of Patagonia. Two ranges of low mountains protrude through the covering of alluvium and loess: (1) the Sierra del Tandil is 1,660 ft. above sea level; (2) the Sierra de la Ventana is 4,078 ft. high. Around the base of each of these ranges and of the Sierra de Cordoba (an outlier of the Andes) there is an apron of alluvial material. At Cordoba, which is built at the base of the mountains on this alluvial apron, the elevation is 1,300 ft. above sea level. The greater part of the pampas, however, stands only 100 ft. or so above the sea, and its surface is so nearly level that drainage is poor. The soil is entirely free from pebbles. So great is the volume of alluvium supplied to the Rio Parana

certain notable peculiarities. the Parana emerges from the Parana plateau, the river is braided and shifting. At the high-water period the floods cover the whole of the flood plain, in some places more than 30 mi. wide; but at low water, sand bars clog the chan-

this main drainage line has Downstream from Posadas, where

that

nels,

and the

river

is split

into a

maze

of

minor

rivulets.

The main

channel often shifts from one season to the next, with disastrous River boats must make many miles of results for river ports. sailing around the meanders to make only a short distance in a direct line. When the Parana is joined to the Uruguay to make the Plata there is a wide swampy zone threaded by many small The main channel of the Plata is near the Uruguay channels. shore.

Between

it

and the Argentine shore on either side of Buenos

ARGENTINA

358

is a wide zone of shallow water; and when the southwest wind is especially strong the water is blown northward, revealing the wide area of mud flats. Constant dredging is required to keep the port of Buenos Aires open.

Aires there

Parana Plateau.

— A small part of Argentine

territory

is

included

within the area of the Parana plateau. This is the territory of Misiones, which extends like an arm between Paraguay and Brazil.

The Parana plateau is made up of successive flows of diabase lava. This rock is so resistant to the forces of erosion that it stands up with cliffs, and the rivers descend from the plateau in great falls, such as the Guaira falls or the Iguagu falls (q.v.), or in long stretches of rapids, as along the Rio Uruguay. Between the rivers the plateau surface

—

is

flat-topped.

Patagonia. Patagonia is the general regional name given to the part of Argentina south of the Rio Colorado at about latitude 40°

The whole width of the country east of the Andes is occupied S. by a series of steplike plateaus rising from the edge of the ocean, where cliffs make landing difficult. The plateau steps rise toward the west, the highest being well over 5,000 ft. above sea level. The plateaus are formed on nearly horizontal sedimentary strata, mostly sandstones. In northern Patagonia crystalline rocks emerge from the sedimentary cover; where they do so, they hold up low hills that stand somewhat above the level of the plateaus. The plateaus are crossed by a succession of deep canyons, steeply cliffed on the sides and flat-bottomed. These canyons carried the drainage from the west during the glacial period, but now the amount of water in them has been much reduced. Along the eastern front of the Andes the west-flowing rivers have excavated a discontinuous belt of lowlands, known as the pre-Andean depression, between the westernmost plateau and the mountains. The Patagonian coast generally lacks harbours. In the south, however, there are embayments such as those on which Santa Cruz and Puerto Gallegos are situated. But the utility of these places as much as 48 ft. in as ports is reduced by the great tidal range the spring tide. (See also Patagonia.) 2. Climate. Temperature. The territory of Argentina extends approximately from latitude 22° S. to 55° S. A similar position in the northern hemisphere would include the area between Cuba and Hudson bay. Since most of the Argentine territory lies within the middle latitudes, temperature extremes and great weather variability might be expected. In North America the range of temperature between summer and winter increases toward the north; at Edmonton, in Alberta, a little less than 55° N., the average monthly temperatures range from 5.5° F. in January to 61.1° in July, a range of near 56°. No such differences between summer and winter are found in South America because the continent tapers sharply toward higher latitudes and the ocean has the Ushuaia, Argentina's effect of moderating the temperatures. southernmost town at about 55° S., ranges from 33.3° in June to

—

—

—

49.6° in January, a range of only a little over 16°. Cool summers and mild winters characterize all of Argentina as far north as the Rio Negro valley in northern Patagonia. Cool

summers also are experienced in the exposed easternmost part of the humid pampas, which is bathed by the cold Falkland Island current. At Mar del Plata, for example, the warmest month averages only 66.9°. On the other hand, very hot summers are experienced throughout the northern part of Argentina. At Santiago del Estero the temperature averages 83.1° in January, higher than any North of Santiago del Estero in the Chaco is the only area in South America in which temperatures of 110° and over are experienced. In this same area the average temperature of the coldest month is about 56°. At Buenos Aires, located a little south of latitude 34° S., the average temperature in January is 73.6°, compared with an average of 81.4° in Charleston, S.C., in July. The average temperature in July at Buenos Aires (48.9°) is about the same as that in January at Charleston (49.8°J. In other words, compared with places at about the same latitude in eastern North America, Buenos Aires has winters of about the same average temperature and summers that are not Actually the average summer temperature in nearly so hot. Buenos Aires is similar to that in New York city, at about 40° N.

place in the low latitudes.

Frosts occur occasionally in almost

all

parts of Argentina ex-

In every winter there are frosts in Patagonia. In the northern part of the humid pampas the length of the frostfree season is about 300 days. Tucuman is located in a small frost-free "island" where the low temperatures of winter nights are moderated by a cloud cover. Farther away from the mountains, where night skies are clear, frosts occur every winter, even well to the north of Tucuman. Rainfall. A very large part of Argentina is arid or semiarid. Abundant year-round rainfall is found only in southernmost Tierra del Fuego and in the northeast, north of Bahia Blanca. The line between semiarid and humid climates runs north and south through the Chaco a little to the east of Santiago del Estero. It passes a little to the west of Cordoba and reaches the Atlantic coast just south of Bahia Blanca. The rainfall of the humid pampas is evenly distributed throughout the year. At Buenos Aires, for example, the average annual rainfall is 37 in.; the driest month, June, receives an average of 2 in., and the rainiest month, April, receives 4.8 in. But the interior of the northeast, in the ParaguayParana valley north of Santa Fe, has most of its rain in summer. In that region the rainiest month is January or February, averaging more than five inches; the driest month is June, averaging less than an inch. cept the far north.

—

The

South America crosses the Andes in southSouth of latitude 20° S. the dry belt extends over the plains east of the Andes. Mendoza averages only 7.7 in. Dry conditions extend southward through Patagonia to the Strait of Magellan. The average rainfall at Santa Cruz, for example, is only 5.5 in. North of the Rio Negro the desert is hot and sunny in Patagonia it is cool and often cloudy. Weather. All of Argentina has changeable weather. The storms in this part of the world are brought by polar outbursts (cold air masses) emerging from the antarctic continent. The cold waves cross the South Pacific ocean, where the temperatures Unstable and are moderated especially in the lower layers. moisture-laden, these air masses bring heavy rains to the west coast of southern Chile. The Andes, however, keep most of this moist air from reaching Argentina, except for a few spots where the rain spills over to the eastern side of the mountains through the deeply cut valleys. Some of the cold air masses reach the continent of South America east of the Andes, setting up cyclonic whirls of air along the advancing cold fronts. The cyclones rotate clockwise in the southern hemisphere. But even when northerly winds reach Patagonia, they must travel over wide expanses of cold water off the east coast of the continent (Falkland Island current). The result is that the Patagonian weather is characterized by shifting, blustery winds, by rolls of gray cloud, but little rain or snow. The typical Patagonian landscape is indistinct and hazy because of the great quantities of dust picked up from the belt of aridity in

ern Bolivia and northern Argentina.

;

—

desert surface

—

by the

violent winds.

Winds. The common winds of Argentina are given special names. The cold air masses advance from the south or southwest, and this wind is known as the pampero. The warm, muggy air on the front of the advancing cold air, coming from the north, is known as the norte. When a cold air mass spills over the Andes and descends as a warm and dry air mass on the eastern side (a typical chinook or foehn), the Argentines speak of it as a zcmda. Each of these winds brings weather that is familiar to people in North America. Anyone who has experienced the parching effect of a chinook in the plains east of the Rocky mountains would find nothing strange about the zonda. The warm, depressing weather associated with a cyclonic storm is brought by the norte. The cold front gives rise to thunderstorms and tremendous displays of lightning, after which the pampero brings clear and bracing weather. 3.

Vegetation.

—The various climatic features are

the cover of natural vegetation. are forests.

Where

rainfall

is

Where

less

there are deserts.

is

reflected in

abundant there

abundant there are woodlands,

Where rainfall And in the humid pampas there man-made formation.

consisting of low, scrubby trees. land, apparently a

rainfall

insufficient

is is

a

tall grass-

The alluvial plains in northern Argentina, between the Andes and the Paraguay-Parana, are covered with a scrubby deciduous

ARGENTINA woodland and with patches of savanna. This is the region known There are as the Gran Chaco (q.v.) or the "hunting ground." places where thorny deciduous trees grow so close together Ihat tin

lurrn almost

:j

impenetrable thickets.

In other places, espe-

—

the semicially near the rivers, there are belts of tall trees deciduous tropical forest characteristic of the regions farther north. There are places where the scrubby trees are widely spaced

and there is grass on the woodland floor. And there are places where, unaccountably, the woodland is interrupted by patches of pure savanna. Throughout this Chaco woodland are found different species of the red quebracho tree or quebracho Colorado Sckinopsis lorentzi is found (Schinopsis), a source of tannin. chierly in the eastern part of the Chaco along the western side of It occurs in dense stands only in those the Paraguay-Parana. In the western part of places where the ground water is salty. the Chaco is found 5. balansae, which contains much less tannin but which is of great value for firewood and for fence posts. The Chaco woodland contains few other commercially valuable species. The southern limit of the Chaco woodland is roughly the valley of the Rio Salado, which enters the Parana near Santa Fe. To the south a woody xerophytic scrub, known in Argentina as monte, occupies the semiarid areas. The drier parts of the country have only scattered xerophytic shrub, with bare ground between the plants. Only where streams descend from the mountains was there originally a dense growth of monte, which has now been cleared

away

to

When

make room

most of the pampas was probably the same woody plants (monte) found farther west and Perhaps grass was mixed with the woody plants. very small population of hunting Indians, who set fire to the

original vegetation of

kind of scrubby, farther north.

spei

ial

rodents in vast numbers and considerable variety characterize the plains.

The Patagonian cavy (Dolichotis) is The viscacha (Lagostomus >, about 30 burrower, and

its

long-legged and graceful. long,

in.

is

a

greg

colonies attract a wide variety of other ani-

mals (including birds), much as do those of the North American prairie dog. The small tuco tuco everywhere riddles the soil. The hairy armadillo, the three-banded armadillo and the molelike and mole-sized pichiciago of the Andean deserts are characteristic. The puma is the most widespread carnivore. Azara's fox and the hog-nosed skunk are ubiquitous. The condor (Vultur gryphus) glides majestically through the bleak valleys of the high Andes. The largest of the plains birds, next to the rhea, is the crested screamer. Native and migrant shore birds are numerous. The various kinds of tinamous, with wailing voice and eggs like purple porcelain, are known as perdiz. The ovenbird with its mud nest is everywhere conspicuous. Caymans, turtles, lizards, small snakes and a few types of frogs are present. A magnificent game fish, the dorado, is found in the larger streams. (K. P. S.) II.

studied the region intensively, reached the conclusion that the

it!

Most conspicuous

are the guanaco (the wild cameloid ancestral of the llama; and the ostrii hlike rheas. Large and small character.

for irrigated crops.

found an apparently endless sea of tall, plumed grass, grass that grew so high in the rainy season that to see out over it a man had to stand on the back of his horse. The grasses of the pampas grow in bunches in the betterdrained spots, and the many wet spots on the pampas were covered with coarse marsh grasses. The geographer Oscar Schmieden who

The

GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS

national territory of Argentina

may

be divided into five

major geographic regions: (1) the northwest; (2) the Chaco; (3) Mesopotamia; (4) Patagonia; and (5) the humid pampas. The first four regions are all oriented toward the humid pampas in the economic and social life and in the institutions of government. In the humid pampas, and especially in the "Great City" of Buenos Aires, is concentrated most of the productive capacity of the nation. 1.

Northwest.

—The

northwest includes the Andes and the

eastern piedmont of the Andes north of the Rio Colorado, or about latitude 36° S. It includes all or part of the following

between the Parana and Uruguay rivers and eastward into Uruguay and south Brazil. But where the arm of Argentine terriis extended northward along the eastern side of the Parana onto the Parana plateau the grasslands give way to forest. In the deeper valleys, protected from frosts, is found a tropical

La Pampa, Mendoza, San Luis, San Juan, La Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta and Jujuy (qq.v.). This was the first section of what is now Argentina to be setThe people who came to this part of the tled by the Spaniards. continent came directly or indirectly from Peru, and their economic connections during most of the colonial period remained oriented toward Lima and the silver-mining communities of the Andes. Santiago del Estero was founded in 1553. Other settlements in the region were made soon after: Tucuman in 1565; Salta Settlers from Santiago in 15S2; La Rioja in 1591; Jujuy in 1593. del Estero also occupied the site of Cordoba in 1573. Meanwhile the piedmont towns farther south had been settled by people from Chile: Mendoza in 1561-62, San Juan in 1562 and San Luis in 1596. During most of the colonial period Tucuman was the major focus of all the country east of the mountains. There the mules from the humid pampas were concentrated and fitted with pack harness before being driven to the annual fair held at Salta. Only after Argentina became an independent country were these eco-

semideciduous forest. On the plateau surface is a forest consistof Araucaria pine mixed with broadleaf deciduous trees. In Patagonia the desert surface is covered with xerophytic shrub. Drought-resistant low shrubs fight for existence in the face of aridity and high winds. Some ribbons or islands of monte occupy canyon bottoms and sheltered spots in the lee of cliffs.

nomic connections gradually broken. The economic orientation of the northwest has turned definitely toward Buenos Aires. In the late 1850s one of the Argentina's first railroads was built from Rosario to Cordoba and Tucuman. Almost at once the stagnant economy began to show new signs of life. In the 1860s sugar cane plantations were laid out south of

On

the city of

grass just before the beginning of the rainy season in order to

round up the game, could have created a pure grassland. the effect of killing the

woody

Fire has

plants, leaving the grasses to

grow

The Spaniards introduced cattle and horses to the part of the pampas along the Parana-Plata shore between Buenos Aires and Santa Fe, and unintentionally they brought the seeds of European grasses. In a short time the whole northeast part of the pampas was covered with European grasses that formed a thick sod instead of growing in bunches. As long as cattle grazed, or fires raged, the woody plants were kept out of the pampas. Yet ornamental trees planted around estate headquarters grew without difficulty. - The grasslands continue northward into the part of Argentina each year without competition.

that lies

tory

ling I

grassland and desert animals gives the Argentine fauna

the Spaniards first arrived on the shores of the Plata in

the early 16th century they

A

359

anteater and jaguar and the largest of rodents, the aquatic capybara, with the still more aquatic coypu. The great variety of

the higher plateaus,

where a thin blanket of snow

falls

each

is a quick-maturing growth of short grass in the short grass steppe runs in the belt along the eastern

winter, there spring.

A

Andean piedmont, the pre-Andean depression, where the rainfall ,is somewhat greater than it is farther to the east. In southern Tierra del Fuego the lower mountain slopes are covered with the Chilean evergreen broadleaf forest. (P. E. J.) 4. Animal Life. Many tropical animals enter northern Argentina in the forests and marshes of the Paraguay and Parana basins. These include the howling monkey, tapir and marsh deer, giant

—

provinces:

This

is

Tucuman

along the eastern base of the mountains.

the southernmost area in Argentina where absence of

ing frost

makes

cane cultivation possible.

kill-

Railroad development

led to a rapid increase of the cane area, which spread out east-

ward until it was stopped by the winter frosts. Although this area receives enough rain to permit agriculture without irrigation, water actually is used to moisten the cane fields during the dry winters. As the railroad was built northward to Jujuy, sugar cane plantations extended in that direction. The chief crops from Tucuman northward are sugar cane and corn (maize).

ARGENTINA

360

South of Tucuman. where the whole piedmont is very dry. agriculture and settlement are dependent on water and all limited to where rivers descend from the mountains into the eastern The oases are proportional in size to the volume of water plains. available. The largest ones are Mendoza, San Juan and San Rafael, there are several smaller irrigated areas such as La Rioja and Catamarca. In all these oases the crops include wine grapes and alfalfa. At San Rafael there is a considerable acreage of

but

pear orchards.

Mendoza is important not only as an agricultural and wineJust to the west is processing centre but also a's» a pass city. the Uspallata pass, over which railroad and highway provide conActually the traffic over these facilities is nection with Chile. small, for the two countries exchange little with each other. In the high Andes are a few small mining communities. Argentina mines asbestos, beryllium, lead, zinc, copper, silver, tungsten, mica, fluorspar, asphalt and sulfur. Near Mendoza are some beds of low-grade lignite; and along the Andean front in Mendoza and also in Salta and Jujuy oil wells are in production. 2. Chaco. The Chaco includes the northern part of Santa Fe. Santiago del Estero, the eastern part of Salta and the two

—

provinces of Chaco and Formosa (qq.v.). It is an area mains thinly populated excepting along its eastern and southern that re-

margins.

The oldest of the settlements on the margins of the Chaco are those that are strung along the courses of the Rio Salado and the Rio Dulce. Long before the arrival of the Spaniards the Indians had grown crops on the flood plains of these rivers. When the floods of the rainy season had receded, certain wet spots on the flood plains remained, and these could be planted with maize or

The wet spots, known is still used. arrangement each year because each flood results in a new pattern of gravel and sand. The Rio Dulce, however, occupies a narrow channel upstream from Santiago del Estero, and there the pattern of banados cannot shift from year to year. The chief commercial centre of this area owes its location other crops.

The same method

as banados, differ in

to the stability of the channel.

The settlements along the eastern margin of the Chaco began as quebracho lumbering centres. The quebracho tree is cut and hauled to tannin-extracting plants located close to the Parana. in bands runAfter the quebracho cutters had cleared the forest ning northwestward into the interior of the Chaco agricultural settlers came in and created small farms along the railroad lines. The chief areas of farm settlement run inland from Resistencia and Formosa, and the chief commercial crop is cotton. In the south, on the other hand, after the quebracho cutters had cleared the forest in Santa Fe state, the land was divided into large ranches and used for the pasture of cattle. These kinds of economic development are restricted by rainfall to the eastern half of the Chaco. Mesopotamia includes the part of Argen3. Mesopotamia. tina that lies between the Uruguay river and the Parana (hence The region includes the provinces of Entre Rios, the name I.

— —

—

Corrientes and Misiones iqq.v.). Because of the difficulty of crossing the wide flood plain of the lower Parana river, this part of Argentina has always suffered It did not share in the moderate prosperity from isolation. brought by the raising of mules on the southern shore of the

Parana.

The

region north of the Parana

is

still

connected with

Buenos Aires only by ferry. The southern part of Mesopotamia has been developed for farming, and is today the major area of The greater part of Mesopotamia, however, linseed production. It has become the leading area of wool prois used- for pasture. duction in Argentina. Some tobacco is grown around Corrientes Where Misiones extends in the northwest corner of the region. onto the Parana plateau the Argentines have developed a string of yerba mate (Paraguay tea) plantations; this is the world's chief source of Paraguay tea, which is widely used in this part of South America. Patagonia (q.v.), the region south of the Rio 4. Patagonia. Colorado, includes four provinces: Neuquen, Rio Negro, Chubut, and Santa Cruz (qq.v.), and the federal territory of Tierra del

—

Fuego

(q.v.).

This southern region makes up about 28% of the it is occupied by only about 2.5% of the

national territory, but

Argentine population. The settlement of Patagonia by people of European origin occurred late. Until the Indian campaigns of 1879-83, most of Patagonia was left to the native peoples, and the only settlements were at Punta Arenas (q.v.) in Chile on the Strait of Magellan and at Carmen de Patagones and Trelew in the northeast. As soon as the Indian menace had been eliminated, however, pioneer colonists began to move into Patagonia. The pioneer settlers included many Welsh. Scottish and English and also many Chileans from Punta Arenas and from Neuquen. The only agricultural area in Patagonia lies along the valleys of the Rio Colorado and Rio Negro, where summers are still warm enough to make the growing of grapes and pears profitable. South of the Rio Negro the temperatures are too cool to support anything but alfalfa for animal feed. The traditional product of Patagonia is wool; the chief use of the land is for sheep grazing. During the winters the herds are sheltered in the canyons or in the lee of cliffs, but in spring they

where there has been enough winter snow growth of grass. A major concentration of sheep is pre-Andean depression, especially in Chile north of Punta Arenas. The wool clip is brought by train or truck to the little ports and shipped by small vessels to Buenos Aires. Only in the north of Patagonia, in the Rio Negro valley and around Neuquen and Bariloche, are cattle more important than sheep. Patagonia is important, also, because of its oil. Oil was discovered in 1Q07 at Comodoro Rivadavia (q.v.) and this oil field are driven to places to support a

in the

now become the largest source of oil in Argentina. In the 1940s a pipeline was built from Comodoro Rivadavia to Buenos Aires to supply that city with natural gas. Another kind of economic activity is the development of recreation facilities around Lake Nahuel Huapi. This beautiful lake on the Andean piedmont

has

southwest of Neuquen has long been used as a the

Andes

to Chile.

Many

summer

route across

tourists stop at the lake to enjoy the

scenery, fishing and other recreational attractions, and the area has been developed for skiing in winter. 5. Humid Pampas. The concentration of people and wealth

—

in the

humid pampas and

in the

metropolitan area of Buenos Aires

The humid the outstanding fact of Argentine geography. pampas includes the whole of the province of Buenos Aires and

is

parts of Santa Fe,

Cordoba and La Pampa

The humid pampas

(qq.v.).

as a geographic region

ment, dating only from

is

a

modern develop-

the last half of the 19th century.

For

the

three centuries of Spanish settlement the humid pampas was considered a poor region, good only for pasturage of range cattle and breeding of mules. The only permanent settlement of the first

humid pampas was along the northeast margin on the Parana-Plata. Buenos Aires, Rosario and Santa Fe date back to the loth century. Inland from these places the land was used for unfenced pastures on which the animals grazed on the native grasses. A little less than 100 mi. S. of the Parana-Plata shore the surface of the humid pampas is marked by a chain of marshes, known in North AmeriSpanish settlement did not can writings as the Salado slough. penetrate to the south of these sloughs. A line of forts along the northern margin of the sloughs gave some protection for the settlers from Indian raids.

The occupation and development

of the

humid pampas beyond

the Salado slough began only in the late 1870s. The first railroad in Argentina had been built out of Buenos Aires in 1857, and

shortly thereafter the line from Rosario to Cordoba and Tucuman Railroads were rapidly extended across the level The Indians plains during the decades between 1860 and 1880.

was constructed.

were finally wiped out in a series of military campaigns between 1879 and 1883. By that time the potential productivity of the humid pampas had been vastly increased through a series of more First was the railroad itself, which or less related inventions. made possible the bulk transportation of goods of low value per Second was the steamship, which vastly reduced unit of weight. the cost of ocean shipping, and the refrigerator ship, which made A fundamental init possible to ship meat across the equator. vention was barbed wire, which in the 1870s suddenly made it

I

ARGENTINA Hid combine farming and grazing on the world' where fencing had been impossible before. Other inventio plow, steel the hi- windmill, well-drilling machinery, the clinic In Argentina, when th< x harvesting combine and many others. new products were available, the land rapidly increased in value and, in accordance with Spanish tradition, it was quickly divided The greater part of the humid into vast private properties. pampas came into the hands of some 300 families, each family hundreds of thousands of acres. with an estancia measured in Argentine landlords have always been chiefly interested in stockraising; their greatest prestige comes from owning a fine herd

possible to

I

t

But purebred cattle, or fine horses or the best-quality sheep. when the large British beef cattle were introduced to the humid pampas during the lS70s and ISSOs. it was found that a feed crop had to be grown, for the native grasses were not adequate. Alfalfa of

proved to be ideally suited to this region, but to eliminate the native grasses and plant alfalfa it was found that the land had To grow the wheat to be prepared by several years in wheat. and plant the alfalfa, the landlords hired tenant farmers mostly immigrants European who grew the Italian, Spanish and other wheat for three or four years, then planted alfalfa and moved Alfalfa remains productive (four or five cuttings a elsewhere. for four or five years, after which another tenant is hired year for the next cycle of wheat or corn or other grain. Great Britain provided a constantly increasing market for both meat and grain. British capital, invested in railroads, grain elevators, packing plants, docks and shipping lines, provided the transportation facilities on which the whole prosperous system As a result, Argentina became by far the leading comrested. mercial nation in Latin America. The humid pampas was created as a geographic region in the process. Without the spread of wheat and cattle, the present outBut wheat lines of the region could not have been determined. was grown as far toward the south and west as the rainfall made With decreasing rainfall, yields of wheat and alfalfa possible. If the price of wheat or of cattle had been higher in declined. the 19th century when this process of development was going on. the outline of the humid pampas would have been developed farther toward the dry areas. Once established and supported by railroad lines, the humid pampas appeared as a region distinctly different in agriculture from the semiarid lands farther west, which The humid pampas the Argentines know as the "dry pampas." The eastern part, itself has become differentiated into subregions. which is cool and poorly drained, is still used chiefly for animals

—

—

1

grazing on grass

—

for sheep

and

cattle breeding.

The

cattle are

fattened on alfalfa (not corn as in the United States), which

is

associated with wheat in a crescent extending from Bahia Blanca

Cordoba along the western boundary of the area. Around is most dependable, corn is more im-

to

Rosario, where the rainfall

portant than wheat, but the corn truck farming has developed

is

raised chiefly for export to

A

zone of intensive dairy and around Buenos Aires for the supply

be used as poultry feed in Europe. of the city population.

modern development as a centre of manuWorld War I. and the development was intensified during World War II. During these wars, when the British chose to use their ships to carry meat rather than wheat, Buenos Aires began

composition of many Latin-American countries, being almost wholly absent Vlthougll the mi tizo 'mixture of Indian and v, bite ontiguous with elemenl con idi chile Bolivia and Paraguay and there are pure Indian communi-

in the

'

i

ties in the

its

1

norihwe

t,

the po pul ated

particular the metropolis ol

The formation

Bueno

1

entri

ol

Un

Vrgentina isl

and

in

pun.- white.

of such

lively recent development, occurring largely since 1870.

Prior to

was a considerable mestizo and even mulatto strain in the national composition. Although the region was never densely populated with Indians, there arc thought to have been about irt of the Spanish colonial 400,000 in the Rio de la Pis that there

Interbreeding with the Spanish conquerors resulted in the mestizo element, so characteristic of the early 19th century gaucho. Negro slaves brought to Buenos Aires in the 18th century added another mixture to the racial make-up. As the 19th century progressed certain alterations took place. The centre of population moved from the mestizo areas of the north and west toward the coast, where Spanish and newly arrived European elements formed the majority. A large portion of the pure Indian stock was eliminated in savage frontier warfare, while the mestizo and mulatto strains continued to grow fainter through intermarperiod.

The major racial change came as a result of the economic expansion of the pampas and the coast. The development of meat refrigeration and of the productivity of cereal grains on the pampas necessitated an enormous working force to raise cattle and, more important, to harvest the wheat and corn. The result was a flood of European immigration concentrated in the three decades following 1880 and amounting to a total addition of 3,500,000 from 1860 to 1940. Nearly three-fourths of these immigrants were Italian and Spanish, with Poles, Turks, French, Russian Jews and riage.

Germans contributing their share in that order. The centre of population came to be definitely located in the littoral and pampas regions and the composition of the population to be southern European.

—

2. Languages. The language of Argentina is Spanish, although sharply distinguished from Castilian in pronunciation. The frontier and gaucho existence added new words to the language, and the influx of a large Italian element created many variations in accent and speech. An underworld language called Lunfardo has developed in Buenos Aires composed of words from many languages, but principally Italian. This argot has been widely used in the words of Argentine popular songs, especially the tango. Large foreign settlements have maintained their languages both in the family and French, German and English form large inin private schools.

fluential groups of the community, at least in Buenos Aires, and use of those languages follows the same order. Indian dialects still exist along the fringe of Argentina bordering Chile, Bolivia and Paraguav but contribute no significant addition to the national

tongues (see

South American Languages).

Religion.

3.

tion

facturing industry during

361

is

Roman

—Approximately

Catholic.

95^

The church

is

of the Argentine populaparticularly strong in rural

areas and in the older colonial centres such as Cordoba, Tucuman and Salta. Although the constitution requires that the president

rural areas to seek

be"a Catholic, and Roman Catholicism is supported as the official religion of the country, complete religious freedom was instituted as part of the 19th-century effort to attract European immigration. As in most Latin-American countries, women are the strength of

industries

the Catholic religion.

the

wheat acreage was cut

in

Argentina and

many

tenants left the

employment in the cities. At these times new were built in Buenos Aires to process the products of the humid pampas and of the outlying regions of the country. The humid pampas remains the lowest-cost producer of grain and meat in the world. The moist, mild winter climate, the level 'surface, the productive loess soil and the easy accessibility to a port combine to reduce the costs of sending food to the world markets. But the absence or scarcity of fuel and minerals makes

I

.Buenos Aires a high-cost producer of manufactured products. (P. E. J.) III. 1.

—

THE PEOPLE

Racial Types. The racial stock of Argentina is overwhelmEuropean, the Indian and Negro strain, so important

ingly white

—

A distinctive Argentine culture is hard to define has so many composite immigrant elements and is continually changing. The basic heritage is Spanish, and in many ways Spanish culture is the primary force in a national cultural pattern. The male is the dominant member of the family and of 1946—55) society, despite legislation under the Peron regime 4.

since

Culture. it

(

women

and political equality. Although industrialization and urbanization have weakened family bonds, loyalty and unity within a large family clan remain important social forces. The influence of the factory and the city has not completely destroyed the demand for a personal and sometimes almost paternal touch in business and politics and an extreme reliance on the that gave

legal

ARGENTINA

362

leadership of the strong individual. The gaucho heritage of the country is largely relegated to story and poetry, and many Argentines rarely come an occasional mate or asado (barbecue). Just as the recent population has been European in origin, its culture is mainly European. France is the cultural ideal of Argentina, and many aspects of art and

closer to their frontier past than

culture follow French models. The economic development of Argentina has created a large middle class, which in turn has fostered some individual cultural

Though material

values.

the

minds of

this

gain and

money

class, as well as

values are dominant in

in those of

the lower class,

is paid to artistic and intellectual values. is sought after, and the average man has and knowledge of music, art and philosophy. a marked Nationalism has not been diluted by the European origins, and the immigrant son has emphasized Argentine nationalism.

by Ferdinand Magellan in 1520. These two voyages revealed the main outlines of the Atlantic coast of what is now Argentina. Sailing up the Plata, which he called the Mar Dulce, or FreshWater sea, Solis, with a small party, landed and was ambushed by Indians. Solis and most of his followers were killed; several dis-

The survivors of the expedition returned to Spain. The Rio de la Plata was not explored again until Magellan arrived in 1520 and Sebastian Cabot in 1526. The latter picked up tw-o survivors of the Solis expedition, who told glowing tales appeared.

of the wealth of the region.

Paraguay

rivers

Cabot discovered the Parana and and established the fort of Sancti Spiritus (the

considerable respect

first

A

and sent home reports of the existence of a

university education interest in

(Js.

IV.

R. S.)

—

tina 5,000 to 8,000 years ago.

It is also

believed that not long

after the beginning of the Christian era the aboriginal

Americans South America somehow estabcultural influences from southeast Asia and perhaps Polynesia and passed these on to their

who

lived on the Pacific coast of

lished

transpacific

contacts,

received

neighbours in Argentina. The total number of Indians living in Argentina about 1500 is estimated at 300,000, divided into many small tribes and speaking many different languages. Their various cultural levels covered a wide range, but none of them had developed a high civilization with large cities, great architectural monuments and accumulated wealth such as those that aroused the astonishment and cupidity of the Spaniards in the Aztec and Inca empires. Compared with the latter, all the Indians of Argentina were relatively poor and backward. The most advanced of them lived in the northwest, under the cultural influence and, in part, the political control of the Inca empire. Many of them spoke the official Inca language, Quechua, and had acquired Inca skills in making pottery, working metals and farming with the aid of irrigation. At the other extreme, culturally as well as geographically, were the Indians of southernmost Argentina, whose primitive fishing and hunting culture had advanced little if any since their ancestors first settled the area.

Between these two extremes were most of the other Indians, lived by hunting and by gathering roots and berries. Farming was confined largely to the lower slopes of the Andes and the borders of the Rio de la Plata and its tributaries; it yielded barely enough for the Indians' subsistence, and this was a major cause of friction when the Spaniards arrived in the country and expected

who

the Indians to feed them.

Most

of the Argentine Indians were

good and willing fighters, was common and prowess in battle rated Their weapons were mainly of the Stone Age. But they were adaptable, as they proved by the rapidity with which they learned to excel in the use of the horses and firearms which were introduced into the country by the Spaniards. (See also Indian, Latin-American; South America: for intertribal warfare

high

among

the values of their culture.

Anthropology.)

—

Discovery and Settlement. Amerigo Vespucci (q.v.) credited by some historians with the discovery of the Rio de 2.

also gathered

mountain and

a rich people in the interior, together with some silver trinkets to support the story. Hence the main stream was renamed when Charles V created the Adelantazgo of the Rio de la Plata (plata, "silver").

HISTORY

Prehistory. When the settlement of present-day Argentina by Europeans began shortly after 1500, all parts of it were inhabited by aboriginal Indians. How long they had been there, and how they got there in the first place, are questions about which scholars disagree. The best opinion seems to be that, like all other American Indians, they were sprung from Asian peoples who came to the new world perhaps 20,000 years ago by way of Bering strait and whose descendants gradually spread southward across both American continents and reached southernmost Argen1.

He

silver

Spanish settlement in the Plata basin).

In 1528 Cabot met another expedition from Spain under Diego Garcia (who had commanded a ship in the Solis expedition). Both Cabot and Garcia had been supposed to sail for the Moluccas but altered their courses, influenced by excited tales about an "enchanted City of the Caesars," a variant of the Eldorado (q.v.)

many explorations and conquests in Argentina. As Cabot himself was preparing to search for the fabled city, a surprise attack by the Indians in Sept. 1529 wiped out his Sancti Spiritus base, and he and the survivors returned to Spain the following year. legend, which later incited

Inspired by the conquest of Peru and the threat from Portugal's growing power in Brazil, Spain in 1535 sent an expedition under Pedro de Mendoza (equipped at his own expense) to settle and hold the country. Mendoza, a favourite of Charles V, belonged to one of the great families of Spain; his expedition was the largest sent to America up to this time (11 ships, 2,150 men, 100 horses). Ulrico Schmidel, the first historian of the region, accompanied the expedition. Mendoza was initially successful in founding Nuestra Senora Santa Maria del Buen Aire, or Buenos Aires (1536), but lack of an adequate food supply proved fatal. Bad treatment antagonized the primitive Indians of the neighbourhood, and they cut off supplies. Discouraged by Indian attacks and mortally ill, Mendoza sailed for Spain in 1537, dying on the way. In the same year a party from Buenos Aires under Juan de Ayolas and Domingo Martinez de Irala, lieutenants of Mendoza, pushed a thousand miles up the Plata and Paraguay rivers. Ayolas was lost on an exploring expedition, but Irala founded Asuncion among the Guarani (q.v.), a sedentary, agricultural people. In 1541 the few remaining inhabitants of Buenos Aires abandoned it and moved to Asuncion, which was the first permanent settlement in this area. In the next half-century Asuncion played a major part in the conquest and settlement of northern Argentina. Until the late 18th century the population of Argentina was heavily concentrated in this northern area, which was bounded on the south by a line running from Rosario, on the Parana, through San Luis to Mendoza, on the eastern slopes of the Andes. Buenos Aires, re-established in 1580 by Juan de Garay with settlers from Asuncion, was largely isolated from this area as well as the rest of the world, except for smuggling.

The dependence

of Argentina on neighbouring colonies for its is shown by the following summary: Santiago

Spanish settlers

permanent settlement by Europeans in Arin 1553 by an expedition from Chile under Francisco de Aguirre, other groups coming from Chile founded San Juan and Mendoza (both 1562) and San Luis (1596). From Paraguay came the founders of Corrientes and Parana (both 1588), Santa Fe (1573) and the second Buenos Aires (1580), while Peru-

is

del Estero, the first

la

gentina,

southern strait which led to the discovery both of the Rio de la Plata by Juan Diaz de Solis in 1516 and of the Strait of Magellan

result, as late as 1?25

direct trade with Spain.

first

Plata in 1501-02. Other historians deny this, but it is well established that Vespucci later stimulated the Spanish search for a

As a

had a population of only 2,200. Northern Argentina as well as Buenos Aires was settled mainly by the overflow from neighbouring Spanish colonies, Chile, Peru and Paraguay (Asuncion). There was little direct migration from Spain, probably because the area lacked the attractions of Mexico, Peru and other Spanish colonies, such as rich mines, a large supply of tractable Indian labour, accessibility and the privilege of it

was founded

—

—

)

ARC, F.N yians founded

Tucumin

(1565), C6rdoba

l..i

communities

iil\

IIm-

(1573), Salta

ill established Rioja (1591). These dozen communities within -4.' years after 1553 continued t" I"' Che main centres "i life throughout the colonial period, and verj Argentine portant additions were made to the list in the national period.

and

INA

I

2,200

363 Continued

rapid

its

the number of gauchos half-wild cowboys, "centaui

1

quered zone. Indian warfare continued as late as 1883. 3. Colonial Development. Politically. Argentina was a divided and subordinate part of the viceroyalty of Peru until 1776, Tucuman. Cordoba and Buenos Aires but three of its cities successively achieved a kind of leadership in the area and thereby

—

sowed the seed of community feeling that much Each of the idea of Argentine national union. achieved leadership in a different way. and each a distinct stage in the history of Argentina, though

later

grew into

the three cities

way

represents

the three stages

overlapped.

Tucuman came

first.

Its leadership lasted

from the latter part political and ecclesi-

through the 17th century. Its extended over most of northern Argentina, including Cordoba; the chief exceptions were San Juan and Mendoza, which depended upon Chile. Tucuman also dominated the chief economic activity of Argentina at that time, which consisted in Bolivia supplying the rich silver-mining area of Upper Peru with foodstuffs and livestock in return for European manufactures and other goods brought from Spain via Panama and Lima, Peru. Under the same economic system Cordoba rose to leadership in the 17th and ISth centuries because the expansion of settlement gave the city a central location and because the University of Cordoba, founded in 1613, put the city in the intellectual forefront in Argentina and Spanish America in general. Administered by the Jesuits until their expulsion from the Spanish empire in 1767, and best known for its theological studies, the university made Cordoba a symbol of conservatism. On the other hand, Buenos Aires, which rose to leadership in the late 18th century, symbolized three important reorientations of Argentine life from west to east. The first, economic, was the shift from trade with the now declining silver mines of Peru to Another, intellectual, redirect transatlantic trade with Europe. of the 16th

astical jurisdiction

(

from the

sulted

rise of interest in the

new

ideas of the

European

Enlightenment, which found fertile soil in cosmopolitan Buenos Aires and challenged the old order represented by Cordoba. The third, political, was brought about by detaching Spain's possessions in the Plata basin (modern Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and southern Bolivia) from the viceroyalty of Peru and erecting them into the new viceroyalty of La Plata, with Buenos Aires as its

capital (1776).

Spain created the putting chief

its

new viceroyalty mainly

Plata dominions in a better defensive position. The came from Brazil, which was growing rapidly in

threat

population, wealth and military potential and Portugal, tional

for the purpose of

was the

enemy

traditional

of Spain.

ally

Though

of

whose metropolis,

Great Britain, the tradi-

the creation of the viceroyalty of

La Plata thus was primarily a measure of imperial defense, it conferred important benefits on Buenos Aires. Besides making the city a viceregal capital, with all the prestige and profit attached to that status, it for the first time threw the port of Buenos Aires

of

li

I

dam ing and mu who liiull for the cathedral an organ

encomienda system, others in free villages and others in missions established by the Roman Catholic Church, which played a notable role in the whole colonizing process. As few Spanish women accompanied the early settlers, there was much intermarriage with the Indians. Of the offspring mestizos 1. some achieved high positions in society, but many became gauctios On the fringe of the conor cowboys (see The People, above). (not slaves) under the

population

to

I7.'(,

ol

a

a

33,500 in nopolitan: in addition to foreign trade merchants .mil books, its growing wealth ami cultural Ophi til ition in the later J and PortUg in

simple but vigorous society developed on the basis of Indian labour and the horses, cattle and sheep imported by the Spaniards, as well as native products such as corn and potatoes. Some of the Indians worked as virtual serfs In these

'from

growth

r

1

that

and a French

1

la-ted lor nearly a cen-

tury.

The growth of commercial Bin in

mutated an increase

One

of these the

ol

pampa," who

saw the city, was the killing of cattle major item- in the Buenos Aires

foi

sell

and horns, ustomed to froneasily led by a

their hides

1

Vc


n

—

or factors of

or that a divides c (written a

c,

The number

c.

of

|

and b divides

c)

be a multiple of a and a multiple

c is said to

b.

The number

and

called the unit,

is

1

divisor of every positive integer.

clear that

is

it

a

is

1

can be expressed as a product ab where a and b are positive integers each greater than A positive integer neither 1 nor 1, then c is called composite. composite is called prime. Thus 2, 3, 5, 7, 11. 13, 17, 19, Euclid proved that the number of prime are prime numbers. numbers is infinite (Elements, book ix, proposition 20). If

c

.

.

.

The fundamental theorem of arithmetic (Carl Friedrich Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, 1801) states that every composite number can be expressed

of prime numbers and which the factors are written, this

as a product

that, save for the order in

This theorem follows rather directly from a theorem of Euclid (Elements, book vii, prop. 30) to the effect that if a prime divides a product, it divides one of its representation

unique.

is

and the fundamental theorem

factors,

therefore sometimes

is

credited to Euclid.

For every

finite set 0], a 2

.

,

.

.

a k of positive integers, there

,

d which divides each of these numbers, divisor (g.c.d.). If d = 1, the numbers are said to be relatively prime. There also exists a smallest positive integer m which is a multiple of each of the numbers. exists a largest integer

common

called their greatest

This

is

common multiple (l.c.m. ). Ph are the distinct primes which divide all of a^., and if e is the smallest exponent to in any of them, then

called their least

p lt p z numbers a x which pi occurs

.

,

,

,

a2

.

,

.

.

,

t

=

d the g.c.d. of a u a 2

is

,

.

.

.

p2''

pi''

ak

,

.

.

If p x

.

pn'h

.

,

p2

.

,

...

p

,

t

are the distinct

primes which divide any one or more of the numbers a lt a 2 a k and if n f is the largest exponent to which p occurs in any of them, then ,

,

m = is

.

.

.

,

t

the l.c.m. of a lt a 2

.

,

.

= 2 .3.5 .7* = 2.3.7 Obviously if k = 2, a

.

,

pi"'

ak

.

p 2 "'

.

.

Thus

.

p"'

if

= m=

3

S

ai

If a

clear that the total

=

are immediate consequences of these. Theory of Divisors. If three positive integers a, b and c are in the relation ab = c, it is said that a and b are divisors

02

3

d

it is

(a™)"

7.

Other laws such as

If

+

plicand, the

a

6.

397

definitions;

the

evident that a repeated sum such as 5 5 -f 5 is independent of the way in which the summands are grouped and is written 3X5. Thus a second binary operation called multiplication is defined. The number 5 is called the multithe above laws

from the

1

a2

=

2.3 2

.7Ml a

3

3

3

3

i

.5 .7

.3

.ll

a

dm.

and b are two positive integers, a > two integers q and

division algorithm (q.v.)

b,

r

by means

of the

can be determined

such that

3 dots each,

a

=

Orgr

Separate the 15 dots written above into two sets:

is

r = 0) equal to applied succes-

called the partial quotient (the quotient

r is called the

sively, a

(ab)c

is

remainder.

g.c.d. of a

If the division' algorithm

r.

remainder

The

and b is

if

is

must ultimately appear. The last remainder Thus if a = 544, b = 119, b.

the g.c.d. of a and

544 68

= =

4.119 1.51

+ 68 + 17

119 51

= =

1.68 3.17

+ 51

The The

columns of 3 dots each, or 3 X 3 dots; the second set consists of 2 columns of 3 dots each, or 2 X 3 dots; the sum consists of 3 2 = 5 columns of 3 dots each, or (3 2) X 3 dots. In general one may prove (a 5. The distributive law: b)c = ac be first set

consists of 3

3X3 + 2X3 +

+

+

+ + a+. ..+a

Just as a repeated sum a written ka, so a repeated product written o*.

The number

k

is

aX»X

.

.

.

summands

is

a of k factors

is

of £

X

called the exponent

and a the base

power The following fundamental laws of exponents follow

of the

&!'.

easily

g.c.d. of 544 and 119 is 17. This process is known as the Euclid algorithm (Elements, book prop. 1 ). By means of it, the g.c.d. can be obtained without

vii,

numbers a and b into prime factors. Fractions. In certain problems it may happen that the unit of measure is inconveniently large. Thus in measuring the width of a room the number of feet in this width may not give a sufficiently accurate measurement. In such a case a smaller unit of measure called the inch may be adopted, 12 of which are equivalent to one foot. But without surrendering the foot as the fundamental unit, the inch may be denoted by the symbol ^. (See Fraction.) first

factoring the

Common

—

:

ARITHMETIC

398 In general the fractional unit 1

o

X 3 is d

The number a

1.

d

mon

defined by the property

is

1

=

d X~;

—,

- and

written

is

d

called a

(com-

v

may

be considered as the quotient of called the denominator (since it determines the fractional unit or denomination) and a is called the numerator (since it enumerates the number of fractional units which are taken). The numerator and denominator together are called the terms of the fraction. or vulgar) fraction.

a divided

by

It

The number d

d.

is

a

A

—

positive fraction

said to be proper

is

not always possible to find a fractional unit such that both a and u are multiples of it. Thus the hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle whose sides are taken as the unit u must by the Pythagorean theorem have a length whose square is 2, i.e., a length of

a

if




iria and Spain. (See Napoleon I; Napoleonic Wars.) Armies of Liberation. After the defeat at Jena, Prussia was compelled by a treaty of peace to limit its army to 42.000 men. However, by passing the men through the ranks as soon as they had been trained, new recruits were constantly added to the army and the reserve -was filled with trained men. Prussia too undertook the conscription of its manpower. A new army under Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (g.v.) arose from the ashes of Jena, an army totally different from that left by FredThe Prussians maintained a few officers and noncommiserick. sioned officers as a permanent cadre to conduct the training of the conscripted army. The first meetings of the new Prussian army with Napoleon ended in defeat, for Napoleon was at the height of his soldierly skill, but the Prussians adopted the open-field tactics of the French, and in time managed to win in combat against all the French leaders except Napoleon himself. The real triumph for the Prussians was Waterloo, where the training of Scharnhorst decided the conflict in favour of Gebhard Leberecht von Bliicher (q.v.). Of the other armies opposing the French during the Napoleonic era those of Austria and Britain were designed much like the French army itself. Wellington commanded the British army

—

conscripted in the same

manner

as the French.

The

conscript

system of recruiting troops became common throughout Europe even in Russia, where there was a mass levy of peasants to fill the ranks of the army. (See Waterloo Campaign.) 1815-70. After Napoleon's defeat a military peace settled over Europe and America for several decades. Long-service armies proved themselves to be the best form of military protection for the countries of Europe and for use in the colonies. All attention in the military field was concentrated upon a study of Napoleon. Every commander read of Napoleon's battles and of the reasons for his decisions. Two military scholars Baron Antoine Henri Jomini and Karl von Clausewitz (qg.v.) made exhaustive studies of Napoleon's tactics and strategy. The fame of both became known in all armies and eventually Germany developed several

—

leaders who utilized Clausewitz' studies as a basis for their strategy His book. On War, remained a textbook for military leaders for a century. He set forth the relationship between the army leaders and the leaders of the state in clear-cut fashion.

against France.

He discussed

at length the first rule of war, that of gaining decision

The first half of the 19th century saw little change in the organization or administration of armies. The big changes came in technical improvements. The industrial revolution had a great upon ment was slow

American Civil War.

—

This tremendous struggle was the' great war of the modern period where industry and transportation played a decisive part. The tactics and weapons are first

readily identifiable with those of World Wars I and II. Compared with previous armies and the areas in which they operated still

War was

the Civil

a gigantic conflict. The theatre of operation its long axis and 800 mi. on its short

extended 1.500 mi. on

The railway and telegraph became of primary importance in handling of the large number of troops in this war. Besides

axis.

the

first battle between ironclad warships, there was the first recorded use of the submarine and of the electrically exploded torpedo. Metal cartridges were invented for the breech-loading repeating rifle; military observation balloons appeared along with the land mine and hand grenade. The moral question of slavery was one of the issues in the conflict. As a result a greater proportion of the population turned out to fight than had been the case in previous wars. The South with 9.000,000 had an army of as many as 500,000 while the North with 22,000,000 inhabitants produced an army of a maximum strength of more than 1,000,000. Apart from a few thousand professional soldiers and some draftees both of these forces were mainly volunteers. The majority of the commanders on both sides were products of the same schooling at the United States Military academy and as a result the organization of the army on each side was almost identical. The infantry regiments numbered about 1,000 men and consisted of ten companies. There was a general use of skirmish lines, and the attack formation called for each regiment to advance on a two-company front. As the war continued a number of revisions were made such as the advance by rushes, half the men firing, while halted, the other half running forward simultaneously. Cavalry was of great importance in the war, and the regiment was approximately the same size as that of the infantry. Normally there were 12 troops each numbering 70 men. The cavalry normally fought dismounted under Gen. Philip Sheridan in the Northern army while the Southern cavalry under Gen. J. E. B. Stuart and Nathan B. Forrest fought on horseback. The artillery battery composed of six guns was employed separately at the beginning of the war. Later they were organized into brigades of five batteries, a system which permitted heavy concentration of artillery fire at key points on the battle

the

There was no general system for training the troops. Most them obtained their training at the whim of the locally appointed officer. However, there was a certain amount of standardization in drill, markmanship and tactics since there had been front.

of

a general publication of these matters in the Field Service Regula-

in battle.

influence

tics.)

the technical equipment in armies, though develop-

as there were no large scale conflicts, requiring the use of an industrial potential. Muskets were equipped with hammerlocks and percussion caps. There were many new inventions

but in most cases the new improvements were tried out in sporting guns before being used in the army. [See Small in firearms,

Arms, Military; Artillery.) The advance in technology

resulted in the introduction into armies of inventions such as steam engines and later the telephone, To use these inventions properly the number of technical troops in armies increased greatly. The division organization was expanded to include more technical troops while other technical units were attached to the headquarters of corps. Another development of the 19th century was that of the staff. Prior to that time commanders had generally been their own staff assisted by a few assistants, spies and quartermaster officers. After Napoleon's time the Prussian staff system which was built upon the French became the model for the nations of Europe, certain adaptions being made to fit the individual situation. (See Staff, Military.) The first military test of the industrial revolution was the American Civil War. Not only did production become important but the railway was used to transport troops more speedily than at any time before in history. (See Logis-

wireless and bicycles.

tions.

Staff systems were greatly developed during the war, there being in each army staff officers for duties such as quartermaster, inspector general, adjutant general and others. Greater attention was paid to the medical care of the troops than at any time previously and nursing by women was a great contribution to the

wounded; nevertheless, the war cost 500,000 lives. Tremendous strides were made in military engineering because of the demand for bridge building and for entrenching and mining. River crossing in the huge area of operations was a continual difrelief of the

both forces. Pontoon bridges were manufactured of both wood and canvas, the pattern being set for such bridging ficulty to

for the next 75 years.

Hasty

field fortification

was another endeavour which became

Almost a normal battlefield task for the first time in warfare. without instruction the U.S. soldier began entrenching and constructing obstacles in preparation for battle. The work was crude

and improvised but the results were effective. Another form of protection was the log breastwork which enabled the men to load their muskets in a standing position. The importance of railways in the Civil War was evidently due to the size of the combat area. The armies could not live off the country and were dependent upon supplies sent by railway, often over long distances. The railways were few in number and most Also for the first of them single tracked with poor roadbeds. time the operation of military and civilian traffic over the railways

ARMY iei

ame

a matter of concern to the government.

realize the

An army came

necessity for traffic other than purely military.

to

Sted

had to be kept moving to provide materials to till the As an instance of the importance of lemands for munitions. railways to military transportation, a movement of reserve troops by the union army at Chickamauga involved 23,000 men with lrtillery and supplies over a distance of 1,200 mi. in seven days, though it involved few changes in organization and training, this war emphasized that industrial revolution had taken its hold on (See also American Cl\ u. War. irmies and their tactics. The lessons of the Civil War made only a small imprint upon mil coal

I

he

war

Germans and none in

at all

1870.

Franco-German War.

upon the French when they went

to

—

Bismarck's policy of blood and iron war with France in 1870, the first major conllict in Both armies had been trained under systems The German doctrine was one of which had become obsolete. offensive while the French had been trained to use their long-range rifle on defensive until an opening appeared for an attack. The .Germans were recruited under much the same system as Scharnirought on a

Europe since 1815.

horst

had used

for service at

in 1807, all

fit German men being liable The enlistment was for three years

physically

the age of 20.

which there were varying periods of duty in the reserve. In France the service was five years in the regular army followed by four in the reserve. Each conscription group became known as the class of a certain year, usually the year when contemporaries came of military age. Experience in the battle of St. Privat lfter

Germans

company column laid French weapons. The regimental attacks failed when, about 500 yd. from the French position, their cohesion was destroyed by the accuracy of the French rifle. As a result of this experience the Germans quickly adopted 'the line of skirmishers employed by the Americans in the Civil War Armed with breechland also the system of advancing by rushes. loaders, the men not advancing were able to fire from a prone position. The French infantry weapon was the chassepot rifle, effective at 1.300 yd., which was almost twice the range of the German needle gun. Moreover the French rifle was superior in every other way to the German rifle. The Germans, however, overcame the single French advantage of the rifle by the weight of their superior forces, by their artillery and by the adoption of the wide-open tactics of the skirmish line. The Franco-German War (q.v.) was, however, only a prelude to the much greater conflict between these two nations in 1914. Preparations began almost at once for a re-enactment of the war, but by 19 14 many other nations were involved in what became a world war. indicated to the

ithem

open

V.

that their attack in

to the effective fire of the

DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO WORLD WAR

I

The German system became the model for the armies of Europe and also of Japan. The success of the German army over the professional long-term army of the French gave a pattern to military organization for the succeeding 40-odd years. Wartime conscription was replaced by universal liability to serve in peace as [Well as war. In Germany every man was required to perform active service for three years beginning at age 20. After he had completed his active service he was placed in the reserve where there were occasional training periods. At 27 years of age he became a member of the national guard where there was less frequent training. Finally until he was aged 50 he was a member pf the inactive reserve but still available for special duties. This system required service of every man and did not, like conscription, make service a matter of drawing lots or of paying someone i

t

jelse

to

Size

perform

this duty.

and Organization.

—

European nations increased the peacetime armies to some extent during this period, but the great increase was in the military potential in manpower. Germany, for example, doubled the size of its peacetime army from 400,000 to S50.000, but had in addition more than 4,000.000 size of their

France kept pace with Germany with similar army. However, with a smaller population France exempt certain groups from military service. So universal was the French military service, that even medical trained

men.

'strength in its

could not afford to

453

students and priests served

in

the ranks as

France, service in active force a extended beyond that of German] be in

comparable

In

well a thai

soldiers.

In

that in the resei

Franc*

trength might

army was 500,000 more than 2,000.000 trained men

Austria-Hungary

trength with a potential of

common

tin-

active

In Russia only a small proportion of the population was touched

by compulsory service to produce a regulai army of 1.500,000 men and a trained reservi ol 1,000 In the smaller tab Europe the armies followed the pattern of tlieir larger neighbours. Continental Europe had become an armed Only in Great Britain and the United States was compulsory service not adopted. It was in the tradition of these people to maintain small armies recruited by voluntary enlistment. Moreoxer. Britain was essentially a sea power and the navy took first priority on manpower. The army's principal task was to garrison the colonial possessions with small

enough the voluntary system with

some

respects relatively

men had more

to

units of troops. a

long-service

more expensive

Strangely

army was

in

for a nation since the

be better paid and the conditions of service

made

attractive.

Two

great changes occurred in the organization of armies dur-

development of the three fields of military service troops and command and staff; and the increased amount of artillery and other technical equipment by the larger manufacturing nations. The combat troops were still essentially infantry, cavalry and artillery. Some improvement was achieved in the combination of these three elements, but the greatest improvement was in the development of their auxiliaries. For example the wireless, and later the telephone, made signal communications and signal troops immensely important. Field entrenchments, bridge building, and other engineer works required more engineer troops. Both these services were also developed for front-line action with the combat arms. Other technical services, including administrative troops, were greatly increased in size and strength, particularly in the supply and medical functions. The control of the combat and technical services, as well as the growing complexity of armies, demanded Staffs became larger so a more elaborate system of command. that the troop commander of larger units became an executive served by specialists in many fields. For example. Count Helmuth. Carl Bernhard von Moltke (q.v.) superintended a number of the battles of the Germans in 1866 and 1870 without leaving his office ing this period: the

forces

— combat

units,

in Berlin.

Each nation during this period of the armed camp sought the weapons to manpower. In France and Germany, cavalry was still important the proportions were roughly best proportions of

;

120 sabres and 6 artillery guns to each 1.000 rifles. Understandably the Austrian and Russian armies, supported by less industrial Also their armies strength, had fewer guns and more cavalry. had a smaller requirement for technical troops. However, the true worth of the factor of industrial strength was not fully realized during this period; when war came, industrial develop-

ments compelled an increase in the proportion of technical troops. Moreover, industrial production of artillery and machine weapons brought a demand for more troops to man them, beyond the proportions determined in the prewar period. The infantry organization became rather standardized with the battalion of 450 men as the basic unit, subdivided into four com-

The company

in turn included three or four platoons, given to an officer. This continental system was not used by the British, whose battalion included eight companies. The usual practice in Europe was to group three or four battalions into a regiment, two regiments into a brigade and two brigades into a division. The cavalry was organized into

panies.

the smallest

command

squadrons of approximately 150 horsemen subdivided into four troops, but the number of squadrons in a regiment varied from three to six and the strength from 500 to 1,000. The battery of from four to eight guns was the basic unit of artillery. It was divided into two sections, this being the smallest command of a field artillery officer. Three batteries normally comprised a group of artillery; two or three groups became a regiment.

ARMY

454

As mentioned above the junior officer or second lieutenant normally commanded a platoon or section of 50 to 75 men. Along with the first lieutenants and captains who commanded the companies and batteries, they furnished the basic tactical leadership of the troops. The next higher rank, that of major, was in command of a battalion of infantry or a group of artillery. Regiments were commanded by colonels. These ranks held generally for continental European armies and for the United States, but in Great Britain the units were commanded normally by officers of one rank greater than that of other armies. The organization and command of the technical and administrative services were developed on similar principles. During this period the army of the United States had no higher organization than the regiment and the British none higher than the division. As part of the new importance given to attack, the idea of adding artillery and technical equipment to units above the size of a division became common. Though in peacetime there were no armies, maneuver groupings brought three or four divisions together as a corps, and two or more corps as an army. The term "army" came into common usage as something less than the total armed strength of a nation. Corps and armies became a useful method of adding cavalry, engineers, additional artillery and other technical troops so that the offensive could be given more impetus. The tactics of the higher units were not much developed during this period, attention being given

to the relative merits of the

triangle or square formation for attack.

movement

The

possibility of the

was however not dismissed since Moltke and later Gen. Alfred von Schlieffen developed the grand strategy of holding on the left while striking of armies under a strategic plan

with a strong right through the VI.

The

test of battle

Low

Countries against France.

WORLD WAR

was given

I

to the preparations

idea of quick victory which dated back to Frederick had not beer achieved. French valour and hastily formed reserves stoppec the Germans just short of Paris. Much of what had been pre-: pared in the years since 1870 then needed revamping, for tht

war

of position influenced not only tactics, but organization, opermorale and industrial support at home.

ations,

Though no

organizational change occurred in the infantry, certain improvisations were put into effect to fit the system of trend: warfare. Normally half the infantry of each division held th( trenches while the other half remained in a rest area behind the

The square formation of four battalions in a regiment, twc regiments in a brigade and two brigades in a division was extremel) The artillery brigade included three regiments of artillery, one of heavier calibre to support the whole division and the other two regiments of lighter calibre, each tc support a brigade. Depleted divisions were sent to rest areas sc that they could be brought up to strength with replacements anc given a brief training period to assimilate their recruits. (For discussion of World War I tactics and armament see Artillery lines.

suitable for this requirement.

Tactics; Tank;

Trench Warfare; World War

During World War

I.)

became obvious that warfare had become a business of all the people; every citizen was affected directly or indirectly. Governments and statesmen began to stud> warfare to a greater extent than at any time in history. Industr> became a teammate of the military. Military leadership was confronted with the problem of properly handling masses of men technological improvements and combat operations in vast areas Continents became combat theatres warfare became three-dimensional, orders were speeded by telephone and the truck made supply quicker. But strangely enough there was no shortening oi the length of war or the duration of battles. Warfare became I it

;

a matter of continuous fighting.

made by

the

The fulfillment of all preparations seemed to bring about the inevitable conclusion of armed conflict. Questions asked later were: How did the armies take the field? How did they stand the tactical test? How did they react to the new European armies.

World War

I also

rale of the fighting

brought out the great importance of the moof the populations at home. Never

man and

before, except in the early years of the French Revolution, had

sc

much enthusiasm for war been developed among the peoples as was common in Germany, France, Britain and the United States during

methods of warfare which appeared?

World War

The mobilization of both the German and French armies was more rapid than anything known formerly. Within 4S hr. 2,000,-

was likewise communicated home. Out ol new emphasis on propaganda utilizing mass communication to weaken the will of the enemy. (See Psychological Warfare.) Many of these innovations in weapons and the idea of total warfare were to appear in new and more devastating form in World War II, but in the interim it did nol become apparent that science was changing warfare and thai techniques of production and transportation would be closely interlocked with military combat. (C. L. Bo. H. M. Ce.)

000 men on each side were in motion, and within 5 days 1. 000. 000 Germans were actually across their frontiers and into Belgium. The gathering of the army of Germany w-as a prime example of efficiency. The troops moved to the attack with a spirit perhaps born of the hope that the war would be short. The German infantry was drawn up for attack in dense lines with small intervals between men. It was expected that the infantry and artillery could attain fire superiority and then move to the assault. Advancing at a walk or by short rushes up to 600 yd. from the enemy, the infantry was then to make an overwhelming assault upon the enemy at a trot. The Germans, like soldiers everywhere, tended to bunch up, making themselves a target for the effective French fire. The first great surprise of the war from the viewpoint of the soldier was the effectiveness of weapons. In no time at all the infantry began to dig in. There were surprises for the artillery too. No longer was it possible to fire from open positions. Artillerymen had thought that a great gun duel would mark the opening of the war. They believed that artillery fire would be so devastating that the enemy artillery would be put out of action for the remainder of the battle. Subsequently artillery was to be used against the enemy infantry, thus assuring quick success. Similar ideas were held by airmen at a later date, but again the capacity of the individual to withstand heavy fire proved surprising. One of the great disappointments was suffered by the cavalry, whose doctrine was the attack; but rapid-fire guns eliminated large-scale cavalry at-

tacks in

World War

I.

Its chief

value was in reconnaissance by

small units.

Underestimation of the power given to defense by modern firearms caused tremendous changes in tactics by the fall of 1914. The conflict became a war of position on the western front by that time and on the eastern front a little later. The German

asm;

I.

The

peoples' enthusiasm was the soldier's enthusi-

their depression

this necessity rose the great

;

VII.

BETWEEN WORLD WARS

I

AND

II

Between World Wars I and II the technique of warfare was gripped by lethargy. Though World War I had brought the internal-combustion engine to a good state of development, had seer the arrival of military aircraft and computing devices for the conand had seen the first beginnings in the use of radio these modern scientific techniques were little used between wars trol of gunfire

Meanwhile new machines were created for commercial purpose; and were available for adaption to military use when war did come The history of the period 1918-39 includes a number of localized wars such as the Russian Revolution, the Chinese civil war

the Sino-Japanese War and the Spanish Civil War. The first three produced no new technical improvements but were fought mainl) in the method of World War I, though later, toward the end ol the 1930s, the Japanese employed tanks and aircraft in combination with their infantry. In Russia, the communists relied heavil) upon military forces in their revolution. In 19 17 Lenin saic that the Soviets were a new state apparatus with an armed force of workers and peasants and that this force was not divorcee from the people, like the old standing army, but closely tied tc them. During the 1920s the Red army was utilized mainly ir support of domestic policy. Its 500,000 men were trained anc equipped in World War I fashion and it was not until Soviet production became strong that munitions for warfare were developed

,

ARMY few years before 1939 Lenin's concept that national defense could only be assured by the building of a powerful Miiimn \ began The army grew in number to 2,000.000 nun and to take shape. developed as a force more slowly than did the armies { western Europe though it did effect a few innovations in tactics and employment of troops, particularly parachutists. Among the victorious democracies there was the belief that a beaten and disarmed Germany could not again arise in opposition. The belief that another war would never come was also widespread. Military expenditures were reduced and the armies of Great Britain and the United States, based on voluntary enlistment, were smaller than the peacetime armies of Yugoslavia. Poland and similar national states created by the peace treaty. France continued to rely on conscription but its army, too, was restricted in Youth in all these countries turned away size by lack of funds. from military service. Conscription and voluntary methods produced small-scale regular armies with difficulty. While the western Allies were lethargic about preparation for their own defense, the defeated Germans were evading the terms Schemes were developed for producing of the Versailles treaty. forbidden munitions of war and the industrial plant to manufacture them. Thus Germany was free to develop modern machinery for war; every effort was made by German scientists and industrialists to perfect a peacetime industry whose tools could be switched quickly to mass production of munitions. In the

i

i

!

I

In

The acquisition of a trained reserve was a little more difficult. some ways the solution was more flexible than that which

'Scharnhorst evolved in 1807 to raise a German army in violation of the treaty of Tilsit. At that time the treaty army of 42,000 was

move them

,used to train a group,

another treaty force.

That

out into the reserve and draft was excluded enlistment period of the 100,000 This provision of the treaty was not

possibility as a loophole

in the Versailles treaty since the

imen was fixed at 12 years.

who merely utilized the army to train a new army. On the side athletic groups of

.evaded by the Germans, ilarge officer all

corps for a

descriptions were established.

Physical culture became a mania

in Germany. This method of forming quasi-military clubs provided Germany with the organization and training of a reserve army. Though wooden models of weapons were used, a supply of armament was secretly accumulated by the Germans. When Hitler came to power he was blatant about his military strength, and in an open manner began his attempt to remake Germany Again a German leader sought linto a first-class military power. !a device or tactical scheme which would assure him of a quick victory. Where his forerunners had analyzed the problem out of their military experience, Hitler was free of any dependence upon tactical doctrines inherent in a military education. His major efforts were confined to the air arm and its use in conjunction with his army while at the same time increasing mobility of the army. He developed a combat team of tanks supported by air-

craft.

Japanese military doctrine was similar to that of Germany. The were utilized to develop the strength of armed forces. Industry was turned to the munitions, and the army and its equipment were put through the school of conflict in China. Too little was known of the developments of that war as the possibility lit concerned Japan and too little understood was Ithat Japan was developing the resources with which it could strike !the western democracies. The Japanese military society took on \

'resources of the country

the

many

of the

same

characteristics as that of

Germany; the man

in

uniform received the adulation of the people and became a law unto himself. In France the spirit of the people was ground down by the possibility 01 another war with Germany, the third in three generations. France's population had not kept pace with that of Germany and a pacifist spirit had taken hold. The great depression of the early ii930s made it imperative that every possible economy be made in military expenditures. This was the spirit of democracy which France shared in company with the United States and Great

'

Dictatorships in Italy, Germany and the Soviet Union no such difficulty since the productive effort of the people would be turned over to munitions in whatever proportion the Britain. ttad

+ SS

leader

dil I.iImI

In the oited Si ite and Greal Britain the small regular were trained mainrj Emq expan ion in e of war. phasis was laid upon the training of r< chooling ol officci and noncommissioned officei ould be (ailed upon for leadership Weapons were rarely new and the troops depended mainly on the use ol pilot modeli for the development "i theii tactics, New weapon- became obsoleti fa thai no nations exrepi dictatoi hip weri rilling bo expend huge l

1

1

1

1

1

1

-

sums

for production of armament and equipment For di new weapons, tactics and training \v\ illery; '1 actj rs; Training, Military. Principal Characteristics of Armies. During the interim and II military development did not keep between World Wars pace with that of industry, The dependence of the military upon industry, however, was gradually becoming more evident. Two other factors influenced military development: the army and the navy had been joined by the air force to make war three-dimensional and total warfare promised that armies would move faster, co-operate over greater areas, be more difficult to control and be hi 1

11


• Development! in Army Weapon Tactu Organization, and Equipment (i fairs

be

literally

up

to 2 in. long.

on their sides and down During the day they hide under pieces of earth or inside plants, emerging at night to stripes

:

;

the back.

;

The

feed.

I

larvae will attack

all

some legumes and almost any other plant if grasses are not grasses,

;

;

available.

At the end of their voracious period the larvae leave the scene as quickly as they came, partly owing to natural control by pred-

;

;

lack

ators,

;

of

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

I

;

;

;

;

;

etc..

and Pre-

paratory to pupating

full-

grown

larvae

;

CULTl"' E

food,

partly owing to pupation.

distance into

the

burrow a short the soil or creep

army worm caterpillar (cirphis beneath stones and develop into UNIPUNCTAI FEEDING ON LEAF , j dark brown pupae about i in. long with a tapered tail and blunt head. About two weeks after the beginning of pupation pale brown or brownish-gray moths emerge having a wingspread of lj in. The moths are not immediately ready for egg production and are strongly attracted to molasses baits and other sweets. Three generations and part of a fourth are usually developed in the midwestern U.S. Not all generations are equally destructive. Several beetles, wasps and flies parasitize the army worm and in most years keep it under control. But when these natural controls are removed, the army worm may destroy farm crops in an area of several hundred square miles. Control measures that man has used against the army worm include sprays and dusts of a mixture of DDT and toxaphene, poison bran, furrows with loose dirt sides (trenching), kerosene and dragging logs. In some localities the name army worm is used to indicate the ,

,

,

.

.

ARNAUD—ARNAULD

460

army cutworm {Chorizagrotis auxiliaris) or certain species of Laphygma, including the fall army worm, beet army worm and nutgrass army worm. See Butterfly and Moth: Economic Importance. See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Insects (1952); C. L. Metcalf \Y. P. Flint, Destructive and Useful Insects (1951).

and

ARNAUD, HENRI

(1641-1721), Savoyard pastor who led on the glorieuse rentree, their back from Switzerland to their Piedmontese valleys, was born at Embrun in Dauphine of parents from Luserna in Piedmont, whither the family returned about 1650. After studying the Waldensian or Vaudois exiles

historic journey

theology in Switzerland (Basel 1662, 1668; Geneva 1666), Arnaud returned to Piedmont and established himself as pastor at Torre Pellice (1685), where he led the resistance of the Waldensians to by Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. Eventually, however, he joined the Waldensian exiles in Switzerland. With help from William III of Orange, Arnaud did much to

the persecution inaugurated

In 1689, encouraged by William's accession to Arnaud decided to lead them back to Piedmont (they had already tried twice to return, in 1687 and 1688). Starting from Nyon with about 1,000 followers on Aug. 17, 1689, he made an arduous journey over the Alpine passes, reaching the valrally these exiles.

the English throne,

ley of San Martino ten he was besieged in the under cover of fog to however, when Savoy

days

later.

From

Oct. 1689 to

May

1690,

from which he escaped the valley of Angrogna. In June 1690, entered the War of the Grand Alliance

citadel of Balsille,

Amadeus made peace with the Waldenses, then took up arms on his side. When Victor Amadeus made peace with France in 1696, persecution began again. About 3,000

against France, Victor

who

Waldenses went into exile in July 1698, under threat of death. Arnaud then went to Germany, where he founded a Waldensian settlement at Schbnenberg in Wurttemberg (introducing the cultivation of lucerne and mulberries) Between 1 704 and 1 706, during the War of the Spanish Succession, the Waldenses were again tolerated by Savoy in return for support against France, and Arnaud returned to Piedmont to be pastor of San Giovanni di Luserna. He visited England to obtain funds for his co-religionists in 1707. After this he returned to Schbnenberg, where he died on Sept. 8, .

1721.

As well as general histories of the Waldenses (q.v.) in the 17th century, see J. Jalla, Henri Arnaud (1926) D. Jahier, Henri Arnaud (L. Ma.) (1926). ;

ARNAULD,

the

name

of a

French family of the

lesser nobil-

which came from Auvergne

to Paris in the 16th century and remembered for its close connection with Jansenism and with Port Royal {q.v.) in the 17th century. Antoine Arnauld (1560-1619) was born in Paris, the son of Antoine Arnauld, seigneur de La Mothe. Well known as an eloity, is

chiefly

quent lawyer, he pleaded for the University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594 and presented his case so forcefully that his speech on this occasion has been called "the original sin of the Arnaulds," as if it were the first cause of the Jesuits' animosity against the family. He married Catherine Marion de Druy and he had 20 children, 10 of whom died young. All except one of the surviving children were in some way connected with Port Royal. In 1629 Arnauld's widow herself became a nun at Port Royal de Paris, where she died in 1641. The most notable of Arnauld's surviving children was Jacqueline Marie Angelique Arnauld (1591-1661), known as Mere Angelique. She took the veil at Maubuisson in 1600 and was made abbess of Port Royal in 1602, when she was not yet 12. She had become a nun only by the decision of her parents and had had no vocation for a monastic life, but in 1608 she was converted by a visiting Capuchin friar's sermon. She then undertook to reform her monastery. After an arduous struggle, even against her own family, she succeeded, and Port Royal became a house of deep spirituality. Mere Angelique was later engaged in the reform From 1618 to of several other convents, especially Maubuisson. 1622 she was under the guidance of St. Francis {q.v.) of Sales. It was she who in 1625-26 transferred the community of Port Royal to Paris. In 1635 she came under the influence of the abbe de Saint-Cyran {see DuVergier de Hauranne, Jean). She was a

woman of deep faith and piety, less inclined mysticism than to asceticism, with a will of iron and inflexibly austere in the conduct that she imposed on herself and on others, but kindhearted. In the Jansenist group her influence was allpowerful. Her last years were darkened by the troubles in which Port Royal became involved because of its Jansenism, but she bore the troubles with constant fortitude and magnificent spirit. "What are men?" she would often say, "Only flies!" On her deathbed she wrote a touching letter to the queen mother protesting against the constraint that was inflicted on her community. She died on Aug. 6, 1661. Some of her writings, including her Lettres, were published in the 18th century (1742-44). The five sisters of Mere Angelique were all eventually nuns at Port Royal, and all attained celebrity. The most remarkable of them was Jeanne Arnauld (1593-1671), known as Mere Acnes, who entered the cloister very young. From 1630 to 1636 she governed the Cistercian monastery of Tard, near Dijon. She then came back to Port Royal, where she was twice elected abbess (1636 and 1658). In Aug. 1 664, during the great persecution of the Jansenists of 1661-69, she was taken away from her community and detained in the Visitandines' convent of Chaillot, persistently refusing to subscribe to the formulary condemning Jansen. In July 1665 she was transferred to Port Royal des Champs with the other recalcitrant nuns. After the so-called "peace of the church" or "peace of Clement IX" (1669), which suspended the persecution, she lived quietly for the rest of her life and was held in general veneration. She was sweet-tempered, calm and mystical, unlike Mere Angelique but no less saintly, and was a spiritual writer of distinction, though few of her works were published. One of them, the Chapelet secret dn Saint-Sacrement, gave rise to an involved controversy in 1633, being condemned by some doctors of the Sorbonne, but defended by Saint-Cyran. She was the principal author of the Constitutions of Port Royal, printed in 1665. There is a collected edition of her Lettres by Rachel Gillet, with a preface by Prosper Faugere (1858). Another sister of Mere Angelique, Catherine Arnauld (15901651), was married in 1605 to Isaac Le Maitre, a king's counselor, but the marriage was an unhappy one and they parted in 1615. After her husband's death, Catherine became a novice at Port Royal de Paris in 1640 and took her vows in 1644. She had five sons who, with one exception, retired to Port Royal des Champs as solitaires {see below). Two of these sons, though they did not bear the name Arnauld, must be mentioned here. Catherine Arnauld Le Maitre's eldest son was Antoine Le Maitre (1608-1658). As a young man he seemed likely to distinguish himself as a lawyer, but disappointment in love and the sudden death of a relative caused him, in 1637, to put himself under the direction of Saint-Cyran and to retire from worldly society. In 1638, with two of his brothers and some other like-minded persons, he established himself at Port Royal des Champs, where he was to spend his days in prayer, study and work in the fields. This was the beginning of the group of solitaires ("hermits") of Port Royal, men who lived within the precincts of the convent and devoted themselves entirely to its material and spiritual welfare. At the beginning of 1656, when the attack on the Jansenists was gaining strength, Antoine Le Maitre went into hiding in Paris with Blaise Pascal {q.v.), the great Antoine Arnauld {see below) and Pierre Nicole {q.v.). He then collaborated in the composition of Pascal's Lettres provinciales and helped in controversy by writing Exhausted by his Lettre d'nn avocat au parlement (June 1657). hard work and ascetic practices, he finally returned to Port Royal des Champs where he died. He was an excellent translator of Latin and Greek works, particularly of patristic texts. The fourth son of Catherine Arnauld Le Maitre was Louis Isaac Le Maitre de Sacy (1613-1684). Showing a religious disposition early in life, Sacy studied the Bible and patristical theology under Saint-Cyran's guidance and acquired a deep knowledge of these subjects. In 1649 he was ordained priest in order to become a conBy 1655 he was fessor to the nuns and solitaires of Port Royal. in contact with Pascal, and the famous Entretien avec M. de Sacy strong personality, a

to

made up of fragments of their correspondence. In 1661 the persecution against the Jansenists forced Sacy into hiding, but in is

;

ARNDT 1666 he was arrested and imprisoned in the Bastille. Released in Royal des Champs for some years, during which he came to be held in high esteem by the Jansenists as a 1668, he returned to Port

The renewal

of persecution 1 Royal chateau of Pomponne in U>7

ractacus (1776). He died, March 5. 1778, after a reconciliatiot with his wife, and was buried at St. Paul's, Covent Garden, when his birth

had been

registered.

Arne's early melodic style was natural and elegant, owing some' His later music becam>

thing to Scots, Irish and Italian sources.

more

Italianate and ornamented, though in his final years then emerged an opera bufja style that anticipates Sullivan. As tb composer of such melodies as "Rule, Britannia," "Blow. Blow

ARNETH— ARNIM Thou Winter Wind" and "Where

the Bee Sucks" added substantially to the English heritage of song.

Arne, like 1'urull,

Sie the article in dove's Dictionary oj Wusii and Musicians, (1954) which contains the most comprehensive list of Arm-'s works, especially for the theatre, although it, and other accounts of Vrne, should no( be r< lied on entirely. (Ju. II.)

ARNETH, ALFRED VON

(1819 1897), Austrian important chiefly for his work in evaluating and publishing sources for Austrian history found in the Vienna state archives, Has born in Vienna on July 10, 1819. His father, Joseph von Arneth (1791-1863), was custodian of coins and antiquities a1 \ ienna museum and author of numerous archaeological and tin His mother Antonie Adamberger ( 1 790— numismatic works. 1867), a notable actress at the Vienna Hofburg theatre, had been Arneth studearlier betrothed to Karl Theodor Korner w/.r.i. ied law and history at Kremsmunster and Vienna and was appointed by Metternich to the state archives, of which he became keeper in 1868. He supported the opening of the archives to In 1879 he became president of the Kaiserliche Akadescholars. mie der Wissenschaften and in 1S96 succeeded Henrich von Sybel Arneth also as chairman of the historical commission at Munich. had a political career, being a member of the Frankfurt assembly Lower Landtag from 1861 and of the Herof the Austria in 1848, tenhaus from 1869. He supported the liberal constitutional party. He died on July 30, 1S97, in Vienna. His chief publications were devoted to the 18th century and derived their value from the They include lives of the field special facilities open to him. marshal Guido von Starhemberg (1853), of Prince Eugene of Savoy (18S8-S9) and of Maria Theresa (1863-79), and numerous between Maria Theresa and Marie collections of correspondence Antoinette, Maria Theresa and Joseph II, Joseph II and Leopold and Joseph II and Catherine of Russia. He also published his early reminiscences Aus Meinem Leben in two volumes (1893). the capital of Gelderland province of the Netherlands, lies on the right bank of the Lower Rhine 39 mi. by road east-southeast of Utrecht. Pop. (1957 est.) 119,814 mun. The old town with the business and administrative centres is surrounded by a semicircular boulevard on the site of the former ramparts. The newer residential and industrial areas are separated by traffic arteries and parks. Sonsbeek park, to the north, is laid out in .early 19th-century Romantic style. In the old town the 14thcentury Roman Catholic church of St. Walburgis is to the southeast and nearby is the Protestant church of St. Eusebius (15th century) on the Grote Markt where the 16th-century town hall and modern provincial government house (Huis der Provincie) are situated. The latter is near the site of the old Prinsenhof the residence of the dukes and later the stadholders of Gelderland. Outside the old town to the west is the municipal museum and art gallery while 10 mi. N. is the Kroller-Miiller state art gallery with modern works and a large collection of Van Gogh's paintings. There is also an open-air museum and zoo. Oosterbeek is the site of the cemetery where British air-borne troops who died in the battle bf Arnhem are buried. Arnhem is a tourist centre; it has a theatrical company and a symphony orchestra. Main railways run There to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and into Germany. are arterial roads to the west and to Germany. Rayon fibres, electrical equipment, ships, metal work and clothing are manufactured. his-

torian,

—

ARNHEM,

,

(J.

was

mentioned

A. L.)

In 1233 Otto II, count of Gelder, ived there, conferring municipal rights on the town and fortifying (t. Later it entered the Hanseatic league. Charles the Bold of It

first

in 893.

1473 and Philip, son of Maximilian I, gave In 1514 Charles of Egmont took it from 'he Spaniards; in 1543 Charles V captured it and made it the seat bf the council of Gelderland. It came under the states general in 11585 and the following year Sir Philip Sidney died in the town The French after being fatally wounded at the battle of Zutphen. 00k it in 1672, but left it dismantled two years later. It was refortified in the 18th century. In 1795 it was again stormed by the "rench and taken by the Prussians in 1813. In World War II it was

Burgundy captured •

t

it

in

coining rights in 1505.

:aptured

by the Germans

in

ind Polish air-borne troops

May

1940.

On

Sept. 17, 1944, British

were dropped there

in

an attempt

to

463

Rhine bridges, but after a heroic resistance they had withdraw to the Bouth eight days later. Anthem was not libi

seize the

until April

1945

Foi an account

World War

see

ARNICA,

a

II:

ol

of

/

II

*

\ttm Europe.

genus of plants belonging to the family Col coir in north-

and containing about SO specie The mo western America.

tae

landing

thi

Allied Reconqut

to

1

the

oi

genus,

perennial herb of the mountains however, is Arnica montana, ' of A. and uplands in northern and central Europe. montana is tough, slender, of a dark brown colour and an inch from its It gives off numerous simple roots or two in length. underside, and shows on its upper side the remains of rosettes of leaves. It yields an essential oil in small quantity and a resinous matter called arnicin, a yellow crystalline substance with an acrid The tincture prepared from it was once commonly used taste. ;i

I

and sprains. In North America arnicas are most numerous in the Rocky mountain region from Colorado northward, but there are also many Conspicuous species in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. may be observed in Rocky Mountain, Glacier, Yosemite, Mount Rainier and other national parks of the western United States and Canada. Several species occur in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada, mostly on the higher mountains.

in the treatment of bruises

Typical with very The heads and borne

of the various far northern species

narrow leaves, occurring

in

is

A. angtistijolia,

arctic Asia

and America.

of flowers are 2 to 2% in. across, orange-yellow in colour on the summit of the stem or branches; the outer ray

The

flowers are an inch in length.

crowned by a tuft of stiffish hairs. England in the 18th century.

fruit is

The

brown and

hairy,

and

plant was introduced into

CARLOS

(1866-1943), Spanish dramatist, ARNICHES, born at Alicante on Oct. 11, 1866, created a special version of the genero chico or "little genre," the traditional type of one-act play that has been a feature of Spanish drama since the entremeses ("farces") of Cervantes and the pasos ("interludes") of Lope de Rueda in the 16th century. Arniches based his plays upon direct observation of the customs and speech of the people of Madrid. His most popular sainetes ("one-act plays") and zarzuelas ("musical comedies"), such as El puhao de rosas (1902), El amigo Melquiades and Don Quintin el Amargao (both 1924), became classics of Spanish literature and were set to music by popular com(W. F. Se.) posers. He died in Madrid on April 16, 1943.

ARNIM, ACHIM

(Karl Joachim Friedrich Ludwig)

VON

(1781-1831), made his mark in German literature as a He collector and editor of folk songs and as a writer of stories. was born in Berlin on Jan. 26, 1781, a descendant of an ancient noble family. In his student years he formed a close friendship with Clemens Brentano (q.v.), whose sister he married in 1811 (see Arnim, Bettina von). While they were studying at Heidelberg, the two friends jointly published a remarkable collection of folk poetry,

Des Knaben

the opening poem, which

W underhom. of a youth

tells

(The

who

derives from

title

brings the empress a

magic horn.) The first volume (published in the autumn of 1805, dated 1806) was dedicated to Goethe, who reviewed it appreci-

Though it was criticized for lacking philological accuracy, (completed in 1S08) remains an outstanding achievement of German Romanticism. It succeeded J. G. Herder's equally famous collection of Volkslieder (1778-79); but whereas Herder's work includes folk songs of many different countries, Arnim 's and Brentano's is emphatically German. In the troubled days of the Napoleonic wars, Arnim sought to restore to his fellow countrymen a sense of their national heritage. Arnim's numerous plays, poems and novels are deservedly forgotten; but a few of his short stories (Isabella von Agypten, Der tolle Invalide, Fiirst Ganzgott und Sanger Halbgott) as well as the fragment Die Kronenwachter all of them strangely compounded are notable contributions to German of realism and fantasy

atively.

this collection

—

—

prose fiction. Arnim died at his country house of Wiepersdorf, Brandenburg,

on Jan.

21, 1831.

Bibliography.

by

Max Koch

—Sdmtliche

Werke, 22 vol. (1839-56) selections ed. Deutsche National-Literatur, vol. 146

in J. Kiirschner's

;

—

ARNIM—ARNO

464

(1892) by A. Schier, 3 vol. (1925) Des Knaben Wunderhorn, ed. by K. Bade U916). For bibliographical details, cj. J. Kbrner, Bibliographisches Handbuch des deutschen Schrifttums, 3rd ed., pp. 331 ff. (1949). See also F. Gundolf, Romantiker (1930); Ina Seidel, Drei P. Kluckhohn, article on Arnim in Dichter der Romatttik (1956) (VV. VVi.) Neue Deutsche Biographie, vol. 1 (1953). ;

;

;

ARNIM, BETTINA

(Elisabeth Katharina Ludovica (17SS-1 859), was born at Frankfurt am Main She is one of the outstanding women writers in modern German literature, memorable not only for her books but for the personality which they reflect; all her writings, whatever

Magdalen a

on April

4,

i

VON

1785.

their ostensible themes, are essentially self-portraits.

Gifted women played a prominent role in the German Romantic a Romantic par excellence. She was unconventional to the point of eccentricity; wayward, yet a loyal wife (she married Achim von Arnim in 1811) and a devoted mother to her seven children; susceptible and passionate, but jealous of her personal freedom; capable of enthusiastic devotion, yet absorbed in a cult of her own personality which verged on narcissism. These paradoxes in her nature she projected into her books. Her three best-known works purport to be records of her correspondence with Goethe {Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde, 1835 the ''child," be it noted, was a young woman of 22), with her friend Karoline von Giinderode (Die Giinderode, 1840) and with her brother Clemens Brentano (Clemens Brentanos Friihlingskranz, but the original letters have been rearranged and re1844) touched, the result being a peculiar blend of documentation and fiction, written in a brilliantly vivid, uninhibited style. Her mother, Maximiliane Laroche, had been on terms of affectionate friendship with Goethe both before and after her marriage to Peter Brentano, an Italian merchant settled at Frankfurt. Maximiliane's connection with Goethe ended abruptly because it aroused her husband's jealousy; 35 years later, however, her daughter took her Bettina idolized Goethe (who was 57 when she first met place. him she had frequently visited Goethe's mother in Frankfurt and made a point of recording the old lady's tales of the poet's childhood. (Goethe later used her notes when he was writing his autobiography, Dichtung und Wahrheit.) In her extravagant way, Bettina pursued Goethe with her attentions, until in 1811 a public quarrel between her and Goethe's wife Christiane caused Goethe

movement, and Bettina was

;

)

;

disown

to

her.

She took an active interest in politics, sympathizing with the underprivileged and pleading for victims of political recrimination such as the poet J. G. Kinkel (q.v.) and the brothers Grimm (q.v.). She stated her views in two books, written for the special benefit of the king of Prussia, Frederick William IV (Dies Bitch gehort dem Konig, 1843; Gesprdche mit Ddmonen, 1852). Bettina was also a gifted sculptor and musician. Her poetic sensibility is seen in her appreciation of Holderlin {q.v.), whose genius she divined long before it was generally recognized. In the diversity of her talents and interests, she exhibits that universality which Friedrich Schlegel regarded as the hallmark of the Romantic spirit. She died in Berlin on Jan. 20, 1859.

—

Bibliography. Sdmtliche Werke, ed. by VV. Oehlke, 7 vol. (1920Ina Seidel, Drei Dichter der Romantik (1956) H. Lilienfein, 22) Bettina (1949) C. Kahn-VVallerstein. Bettina: Die Geschichte eines ungestiimen Herzens (1952) P. Kluckhohn, article in Neue Deutsche Biographie, vol. 1 (1953). For further bibliographical details see J. Kbrner, Bibliographisches Handbuch des deutschen Schrifttums, 3rd ed., pp. 334 ff. (1949). (VV. Wl.) ;

;

;

;

ARNIM, HANS GEORG VON

(1581-1641), German

sol-

dier and statesman who served different princes according to his personal attitude to contemporary politics, was born of an old noble family at Boitzenburg in Brandenburg. He started his mili-

tary career in the Swedish service (1613) and fought in Gustavus Adolphus' war against Russia, but quarreled with the king and

entered the Polish army in 1621 to fight the Turks. Joining the imperial army under Wallenstein in 1626 and soon made field marshal, he distinguished himself in the campaigns in Silesia, Mecklenburg and Pomerania but failed to take Stralsund in 1628. Sent to Poland in 1629 he defeated Gustavus Adolphus at Sztum.

As

a strict Lutheran he resigned his commission in protest against

the Edict of Restitution and thenceforward

worked

for the crea-

tion of a "third party," under the elector of Saxony, to hold the

balance between the imperial court and the encroachment oi; Sweden, France and Spain. As generalissimo of the Saxon army, he fought in the first battle of Breitenfeld and in Nov. 1631 took Prague, but he was ejected from Bohemia by Wallenstein. An :

opponent of Swedish policy, he approached Wallenstein with a plan for a general pacification which largely coincided with Wallenstein's own ideas, but Wallenstein's assassination in 1634 put an end to these schemes. Leaving the Saxon service in protest against, the peace of Prague between the emperor and Saxony (1635). he refused a French commission. Arrested on Swedish orders in 1637 and taken to Stockholm, he escaped to Hamburg in 163S and was reinstated as imperial and Saxon lieutenant-general. Arnim was occupied with military preparations against France and Sweden when he died suddenly at Dresden on April 28 (new style; 18, old style), 1641.

See also Thirty Years' War. See G. Irmer, Hans Georg von Arnim (1894) K. Wittrich, "Zur VViirdigung Hans Georg von Arnim's," Neues Archiv jiir sdchsische Geschichte, vol. 22 (1901). (S. H. S.) ;

HARRY

KURT

ARNIM, (KARL EDUARD), Grap von (1824-1881), Prussian diplomat whose opposition to Bismarck was so indiscreetly expressed that he was accused of treason, was born

at Moitzelfitz in

Pomerania on Oct.

3,

(

1824.

After studying

law, he entered the diplomatic service in 1850, serving in

Rome

Lisbon (1862). He was appointed Prussian en-: voy to the Holy See in 1864. Before the Vatican council of 1869 he made proposals intended to prevent a declaration of papal infallibility, which, he foresaw, would create serious political diffi-

(1853-55) and

in

culties.

Arnim took

part in the negotiations to end the Franco-German

War and was

appointed Prussian envoy to France on Aug. 2i, 1871, becoming ambassador on Jan. 9, 1S72. In June he arranged the war reparations settlement, but differences soon arose between him and Bismarck. Arnim, who considered that Bismarck's backing of the republican regime in France would encourage opponents of the monarchy in Germany, wished to support the French monarchists, and his intrigues contributed to the fall of A. Thiers (q.v.) in May 1873. Arnim's favour at court and his support of the conservative groups among the nobility led Bismarck to suspect that he was planning to supplant him. Then, in 1874 a Vienna newspaper published correspondence on the Vatican council, including confidential dispatches of Arnim's, with a view to showing that he had exhibited greater foresight than Bismarck. It was then found that papers were missing from the Paris embassy. Arnim lost the emperor's favour and, as he refused to return some of the missing documents, Bismarck had him temporarily superannuated and then, on Oct. 4, 1874, arrested. Condemned to three months' imprisonment, Arnim appealed, but the supreme court increased the Arnim left Germany and, in 1876, sentence to nine months. anonymously published Pro nihilo, a pamphlet attributing the attack on him to Bismarck's jealousy. Convicted of treason, of insulting the emperor and of libeling Bismarck, he was sentenced in absentia to five years' penal servitude. In Austria, Arnim published two more pamphlets on Prussia's ecclesiastical policy, Der Nuntius kommt! (1878) and Quid faciamus nos? (1879). His repeated demands for a new trial had just been granted when he died at Nice, in France, on May 19, 1881. As the legal grounds for the prosecution of Arnim had been rather doubtful, Bismarck, in 1876, carried an amendment to the criminal code, the so-called Arnim Paragraph, making the unauthorized disclosure of official documents a criminal offense.

Der Arnim'sche Prozess. Stenographische Berichte (1874) F. Hartung, "Bismarck und Graf Harry Arnim," Historische Zeitschrijl, See

;

vol. 171 (1951).

ARNO

(anc. Arnus), the principal river of Tuscany, is second only to the Tiber in importance in central Italy. Its course is 150 mi. long and its drainage basin covers 3,1S4 sq.mi. The Arno rises on the slopes of Mt. Falterona (5,426 ft.) east-northeast of Florence, and in its upper course traverses the former lake basin called Casentino. Near Arezzo it turns west, flows through a second ancient lake basin, and after the narrow gorge at Incisa, After traversing the enters the third basin, that of Florence.

(1

ARNOBIUS—ARNOLD valley, the river enters a

last gorge at its lower course, past Empoli and In the lower section it receives the waters of the Ombrone, Pesa, Elsa and Era. The valley of the Arno was substantially modified by man: in the upper course, the Vol di Chiana now drains to the Tiber; flood-control work'-, sunn- designed by Leonardo da Vinci, control the middle section; while the ancient

Florence section of Golfolina and below

iPisa,

its it

to the Ligurian

begins

is

single

mouth.

In

its

the Arno reaches the sea through a lower course the volume of the river averages

140 sq.yd. per second, with variations from a maximum of 2.600 a minimum of 2.2; navigation on the river is negligible.

to

Arezzo. Florence

and Pisa are the principal

cities

along the Arno. (G.

ARNOBIUS

(sometimes

called

Afer

or

Khi

the Elder),

a Christian apologist, was born a pagan but, as he says himself, had by a.d. 300 become a Christian. Jerome adds other brilliant

details:

d and a republic proclaimed by the Roman aristocracy. \mnld to Rome on a penitential Pope Eugeniu

long he

sea.

now reclaimed and

delta

Arnobius taught rhetoric

at Sicca

Veneria

in

proconsular

numbering Lactantius among Induced by dreams to embrace the- newer faith, he met with suspicion because of his former antipathy to Christianity and therefore composed as a pledge of his sincerity the seven "'most splendid books" Against the Pagans (Adversus nationes) Hasty readers have done Arnobius and thus received baptism. grave injustice by too easily viewing the work as the product of That he does not, a recent convert, not yet perfectly instructed. like other apologists, abundantly cite Scripture, implies not his ignorance of it, but that he viewed it as unnecessary to his purpose, which was to defend Christianity by demonstrating to the Africa during the reign of Diocletian, his pupils.

own ridiculous inconsistencies. The work is thus mine of great richness for knowledge of contemporary pagan cults. A general defense of Christianity from pagan calumnies is followed by sustained attacks in turn upon neo-Platonism, anthropomorphism and other weaknesses including myths, and specifically two important myths described in detail, as well as upon pagan temples, images and ceremonials. What appears in earlier printed editions as an eighth book is really the Octavius of Minucius Felix, preserved in the same unique manuscript. While the rhetorical style is characteristic of the period, the invective is always brilliant with frequent flashes of humour worthy of a great satirist. Bibliography. Latin texts were edited by A. Reifferscheid, Corpus oagans their

a

—

for a (1875) and C. Marchesi, Corpus Paravianum, 2nd ed. (1953) (translation, full introduction (with bibliographies) and commentary, see George E. McCracken, Arnobius of Sicca: the Case Against the 'Pagans, Ancient Christian Writers, 2 vol. (1949). (G. E. McC.) (called the Younger) (fl. c. 460), Christian ;

ARNOBIUS

465 made common cause with

gents and resumed

the insur-

against pope and cardinals, de-

nouncing Eugenius as "a man of blood" and the papal curia as "a house of merchandise and a den of thieves." He was excommunicated in July 1148, and from tin- point his career was bound

Up with the fortunes of the Roman republic. Agitation for ecreform reinforced and permeated the revolt against the pope as temporal ruler. Arnold speedily acquired a moral and political ascendancy over the Romans through his oratory and gift of leadership. The able and energetic Pope Adrian IV (see Adrian placed Rome under interdict in 1155, and called upon the The senate tamely submitted; the citizens to surrender Arnold. republic collapsed, and the papal government was restored. Arnold, who had fled the city, was captured by the forces of clesiastical

)

Frederick

I (q.v.),

Rome

then visiting

for his imperial coronation.

Arnold was tried by an ecclesiastical tribunal, condemned for heresy and handed over to the emperor for execution. He was hanged, either at Civita Castellana or at Monte Rotondo, in about June 1155, his body being then burned and the ashes cast into the Tiber lest they should be treasured as relics. Arnold's character was austere and his mode of life ascetic. St. Bernard, his implacable enemy, described him as "a man who came neither eating nor drinking," and admitted that his morals were above reproach. His teaching was inspired by the gospel, fortified by the example of the early church and more immediately derived from that of the Patarini, a sect that sought to reform Essentially an the clergy in Lombardy during the 11th century. idealist, "he taught things most consonant with the law of Christians, but altogether remote from everyday life" (John of Salisbury, Historia pontificalis, xxxi). He left followers, known as Arnoldists. and although the extent of his influence on the heretical sects of the 13th century

is

problematical, his cardinal tenet of the

incompatibility of spiritual power with material possessions was

among them.

In modern times Arnold has attracted the attention of poets, dramatists and Italian politicians, and his personality has been gravely distorted in the process. He was

widely held

before

all

else a religious reformer, constrained

by the circum-

stances of his time to adopt the role of a political revolutionary. See G. (1931).

W. Greenaway, Arnold

ARNOLD, BENEDICT

of Brescia, with

bibliography (G. W. Gr.)

full

(1741-1801), American

officer in

War who

bishop in Gaul, was the author of a mystical and allegorcommentary on the Psalms, first published by Erasmus in 1522, ind by him attributed to the elder Arnobius (q.v.). He also attacked St. Augustine's doctrine of grace and was author of some

deserted to the British, was born in Norwich. Conn., on Jan. 14, 1741. His family had been a distinguished one in Rhode Island. In the fall of 1757 he served with the militia in the French and Indian War. but soon returned home and completed his apprenticeship with a firm of druggists. In

on the Gospels and of an anti-Monophysite treatise. The from the commentary, are semi-

As the store 1 762 he opened a drug and book store in New Haven. prospered. Arnold bought ships and engaged in trade with Canada

priest or ical

aotes

opinions of Arnobius, as appears Pelagian.

ARNOLD

of Brescia ( Arnaldo da Brescia') (d. 1155), priest ind monk, was an outspoken critic of the wealth and corruption bf the clergy and became a vigorous opponent of the temporal '

Dower of the pope. Born in or near Brescia toward the close of :he 1 1th century, he studied letters and theology, but it is doubtful whether he was a pupil of Peter Abelard. as stated by Otto of Freising (Gesta Friderici, ii, 28). Arnold took part in a popular revolt against the government of Bishop Manfred at Brescia in (1137, and was condemned as a schismatic by Pope Innocent II in 1139. Banished from Italy he went to France, where he became i

supporter of Abelard, whose errors

in Trinitarian

doctrine St.

Bernard charged him with sharing. At the Council of Sens (1140) 30th were condemned. While Abelard submitted to authority, Arnold defiantly continued teaching in Paris until he was exiled py King Louis VII at the importunate insistence of St. Bernard From Paris Arnold fled first to Zurich, then to Passau. 1(1141). There he was protected by Cardinal Guido, legate to Bohemia and Moravia, through whose mediation he was reconciled with Pope Eugenius III at Viterbo (Sept. 1145). Two years earlier a revolt had broken out in Rome. Pope Innocent II and the cardinals had been expelled, the ancient senate

the Revolutionary

and the West Indies. Late in 1 774 he was elected captain of a militia company. When news of the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington arrived in April 1 775 Arnold marched his company to Cambridge and immediately proposed the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga and seizure of its cannon. Named a colonel by Massachusetts on May 3. 1775, he was authorBut he soon ized to raise a regiment and proceed with his plan. found himself forestalled by Ethan Allen (q.v.), who had been authorized by Connecticut to undertake the same mission and had 1

.

already recruited a force. Reluctantly waiving his own claim to command, Arnold joined Allen as a volunteer in the successful attack. He then seized a ship and with a hundred men ran down Lake Champlain and captured St. John's.

When Arnold mand

returned to Cambridge, Washington gave him com-

of an expedition to

men was

Quebec

via the

Maine

wilderness.

The

remarkable feat of woodsmanship and endurance, but Quebec was too strong to be attacked until Arnold was joined by Gen. Richard Montgomery's force from Montreal. The combined assault in a snow-storm on Dec. 31, 1775, failed; Montgomery was killed, and Arnold severely wounded. Congress promoted him to the rank of brigadier general, and he continued to besiege the city until spring when he was forced to retreat to

march

of 700

a

4 66

ARNOLD

Montreal and Lake Champlain. Enlarged British forces followed, on reaching Albany. Arnold constructed a flotilla on Lake Champlain and inflicted severe losses on a greatly superior enemy intent

He returned home a hero, fleet near Yalcour Island, Oct. 11,1776. but his rash courage and impatient energy had aroused the enmity of several other officers. When in Feb. 1777 congress created five new major generals, Arnold, the ranking brigadier, was passed over in favour of his juniors because of the political necessity of apportionment among the states. Only Washington's personal persuasion kept Arnold from resigning. Two months later, while he was at New Haven, Danbury was attacked.

Arnold took immediate action and drove the British back

This exploit forced congress to make him a major to their ships. general but his seniority was not restored, and Arnold felt his

honour impugned. He tried to resign but accepted congress' order in July to join Gen. Philip Schuyler above Albany to stem a fresh invasion from Canada under Gen. John Burgoyne (q.v.). He marched up the Mohawk valley in August against Col. St. Leger and raised the siege of Ft. Stanwix (Rome, N.Y.). Arnold later commanded the left wing in the first battle of Saratoga (Sept. 19). In the second battle (Oct. 7) he galloped into action, took command of advance battalions, and fought brilliantly and decisively until seriously wounded. For his services he received a new commission restoring him to his proper relative rank. Since Arnold's wounds had left him crippled, Washington placed him in command of Philadelphia in June 1778. He enjoyed the city's social life, moved among families of Loyalist sympathies, and lived extravagantly. To make money he violated several state and military regulations, arousing the suspicions and finally the denunciations of Pennsylvania's supreme executive council. The charges against Arnold were then referred to congress. Some of the charges were thrown out, but four remained and Arnold asked for a speedy court-martial to clear himself. Meanwhile, on April 8, 1779, four years after the death of his first wife, he married young Margaret (Peggy) Shippen (1760-1804), daughter of a moderate Loyalist. She had been impressed by the society of British officers during the previous winter of occupation and was Loyalist in feeling. Either she suggested that they change sides or readily seconded such a suggestion from Arnold, for early in May he made secret overtures to British headquarters. He was asked to remain on the American side and send information until he obtained an important post or field command that he could betray. Payment was promised, but the British were vague about the amount, to Arnold's irritation. He did forward intelligence from time to time and persisted in asking £10,000 for indemnification plus the rank of major general in the British army for his services. The correspondence lapsed in Oct. 1779. Arnold's postponed trial finally was held in Dec. 1779, and he was found guilty of two minor offenses and sentenced to a reprimand by Washington. Mild and just as the sentence was, Arnold was furiously aggrieved. He reopened the treasonable correspondence in May 1780, sending news of the proposed invasion of Canada and later revealing that he expected to obtain the command of West Point. Having now an important fort to deliver, he asked £20,000 for betraying it, and half that sum if he failed and fled to the British lines. Maj. John Andre (q.v.) arranged to meet him on Sept. 21 under a misuse of a flag of truce. As the ship that brought Andre up the Hudson was fired upon and forced to retire, Andre spent the night within American lines. The next day he was persuaded to don civilian disguise in order to return overland to New York, provided with a pass by Arnold. When notified of Andre's capture, Arnold managed to escape on the boat that had returned for Andre, leaving the latter to be hanged as a spy. His wife joined him later in New York. The sacrifice of Andre made Arnold odious in New York, but Clinton named him a provincial brigadier general, awarded him £6,000 plus expenses, and authorized him to raise a regiment of American deserters. Only 28 privates responded to his published appeals. He was sent on a raiding expedition to Virginia and captured Richmond, and in Sept. 1781 led a raid on New London, Conn. Upon Cornwallis' surrender, Arnold obtained permission to go to England and sailed on Dec. IS. Naively he hoped to

succeed Clinton as commander in chief, but the Tory ministry fell; peace was negotiated; and Arnold became a retired colonel on half pay. His wife was given a pension of £500 a year "for her services"; each of his sons was given a military commission and drew pay although too young to serve. Later the younger children were given pensions of £100. Disappointed at the failure of his plans and embittered by the neglect and scorn he met in England, Arnold spent the years 1 787— 91 at Saint John, N.B., once more engaging in the West India trade. But he was greatly disliked in Canada and in 1792 returned to London. He failed to get a command in the war with France and fought a duel with an earl who insulted him. Going to the West Indies again to trade, he was captured by the French and escaped, but steadily lost money. Inactive at home, ostracized and ailing, he died on June 14, 1801. His faithful wife survived him only three years.

—

Willard M. Wallace, Traitoro-us Hero (1954) Carl Secret History of the American Revolution (1941) contains Andre-Arnold correspondence; James T. Flexner, The Traitor and Spy (1953). (H. H. P.)

Bibliography.

;

Van Doren, the the

EDWIN

ARNOLD, SIR (1832-1904), English poet, scholar, and journalist best known for his epic poem The Light of Asia, was born at Gravesend, Kent, on June 10, 1832, and educated at King's college, London, and University college, Oxford. He was principal of the government college at Poona, India, from 1856 to 1861, when he joined the Daily Telegraph, of which he became chief editor in 1873. A brilliant journalist, he was nevertheless known to his contemporaries as the author of The Light of Asia (1879), a poem in elaborate language on the life and teaching of Buddha. This was followed by The Light of the World (1891), on the Christian theme, which was not successful. Arnold also published many prose works, including Education in India (1860), Seas and Lands (1891) and The Queen's Justice (1899). He died better

in

London on March 24, 1904. His Poetical Works appeared in 8 vol. (1888).

ARNOLD, HENRY HARLEY

(1886-1950), commanding World War II, was born at After graduation from the U.S. Military academy in 1907, Arnold served in the infantry and then transferred to the aeronautical section of the signal corps, regeneral of U.S.

Gladwyne,

Pa.,

army

air forces in

on June

25, 1886.

ceiving his flying instruction from Orville Wright in 1911.

During World War I he rose from the grade of captain to coloand was eventually the executive officer to the chief of the air In the decade of demobilization and disarmament after service. the war, he was one of the apostles of air power, following the lead of Brig. Gen. William Mitchell (q.v.). In 1931 he was appointed commanding officer of the first wing, G.H.Q. air force, where he originated and tested the organization and tactics later employed in World War II. Arnold reported to Washington in 1936 as assistant chief of the air corps. When his superior, Gen. Oscar Westover, was killed in a plane crash (1938) Arnold succeeded him as chief of the air corps. Anticipating the coming conflict, Arnold strongly pressed for increased air corps appropriations and aid to the Allies against In 1941 he published,! isolationist hostility and military myopia. in collaboration with Gen. Ira C. Eaker, a book entitled Winged nel

Warfare.

During World War II Arnold was commanding general

of the

throughout the world. He also served as the on the U.S. joint chiefs of staff and the Allied combined chiefs of staff. In these capacities he was an influential architect of the plans and strategy which resulted in Allied victory. In Dec. 1944 he was one of four army leaders promoted to the five-star rank, general of the army. His title was U.S.

army

air forces

U.S. air representative

changed to general of the air force. Arnold had long planned and advocated that the air forces have army and navy in the U.S. military establishment. The National Defense act of 1947, authorizing this organization, was undoubtedly due in no small degree to Arnold's effort and inHe died at his retirement home, fluence. (See Air Forces.) (I. C. E.) Sonoma, Calif., Jan. 15, 1950. (1822-1888), English poet, critic, later

parity with the

ARNOLD, MATTHEW

ARNOLD mid inspector 1,, [822 1

1

Laleham Middl He was the eldest son ol the famous Dr. Thomas who was appointed headmaster oi Rugby in 1828.

"i

Arnold (q.v.), From his mother,

schools,

Mary

was born

I. nee Penrose I, he inherited Cornish and wiili it something of what he would have distinguished as the After a year at Winchester, "Celtic" strain in his sensibility. Matthew Arnold entered Rugby school (1837). His first publica[840). He wenl up tion was a Rugby prize poem, Alaric at Rome to Oxford as a scholar of Balliol college in 1841 won the Newdigate prize with his poem Cromwell 184.; i, and graduated with secondAt Oxford, probably in half-reaction from class honours in 1844. father's Rugby, he affected a certain dandyhis earnestness of the I



Stockholm, a posl which be held until death on Oct. 2, [(J He was buried ,

a in

few months before Uppsala. In 1910

he was made a foreign member of the Royal society, and in the course of his later career he received numerous honorary doc-

new world, as well as the Davy medal Royal society and the Faraday medal of the Chemical soA series of lectures, delivered at Vale university, NewHaven, Conn., in 191 1 is reproduced in Theories of Solution! (191 2). He delighted both to visit his colleagues abroad and to receive his contemporaries and students at his home. A genial humour characterized his discourses and his private conversation, and be was welcome at scientific discussions in any land. Besides the books mentioned above Arrhenius published, in 1926, Erde itnd Wei tall, a combined and revised reissue of Das Werden der Welten and Der Lebenslauf der Planeten. A German translation of his original thesis on "Galvanic Conduction in Electrolytes" was published as no. 160 of Ostwald' s Klassiker in torates in both the old and

of the ciety.

The essence of this classic is given in English translation 19 of the Alembic Club Reprints (1929). Bibliography. J. Walker, "Arrhenius Memorial Lecture" in Journal E. Riesenfeld. Berichte der deutschen of the Chemical Society (1928) chemischen Gesellschaft (1930), Svante Arrhenius (1931); G. Bimsie, Das Bitch der grossen Chemiker, vol. 2 (1930); B. Harrow, Eminent Chemists of Our Time, 2nd ed. (1927); R. Lorenz, Zeitschrijt fiir angewandte Chemie (1927); \V. Ostwald. Zeitschrijt fur physikali cht Chemie (1909, 1927) S. Lindroth, Swedish Men of Science, 1650-1950 (1952); E. Farber, Sobel Prize Winners in Chemistry, 1901-1950 (1954) J. Kendall, Great Discoveries by Young Chemists (1954). (E. N. Da C. A.; R. E. O.) a departure from the normal rhythm of 1907.

in no.

—

;

;

;

ARRHYTHMIA,

the heart beat.

See Heart, Diseases and Defects of: Arrhyth-

mias.

r

ARRIAGA (Y BALZOLA), JUAN CRISOSTOMO (JACOBO ANTONIO) (1806-1826), Spanish composer whose great promise was cut short by his early death. Bom in Bilbao, Jan. 27, 1806, SO years to the day after the birth of Mozart, he showed,

like

the

earlier

master,

an extraordinary musical

precocity; at the age of 13, without having received any lessons in harmony, he composed an opera, Nada y mucho. Its success when produced in Bilbao in 1820 led to his being sent to the Paris conservatoire, where he studied the violin under Pierre Baillot

and harmony under F. J. Fetis. He matured with phenomenal rapidity, and within two years had written an eight-part fugal Et vitam venturi, which Cherubini declared a masterpiece; by the age of 18 he was an assistant professor at the conservatoire. Among his compositions, remarkable for freshness, originality, abundant invention and technical resource, are three string quartets which in style form a connective link between Haydn and Schubert (although the first contains one of Arriaga's rare suggestions of Spanish folk idiom some French cantatas, a Mass, a Salve Regina, the opera Los esclavos felices, an octet for strings, trumpet, guitar and piano, and a symphony which, like most of his music, combines the classical tradition of Haydn and Mozart with a flavour of Rossini. Arriaga died in Paris on Jan. 17, 1826. and was buried in Montmartre cemetery. The chief theatre in his native Bilbao was later named after him. See C. A. Figuerido, El arte y la mente del musico J. C. de Arriaga )

(1948).

,

(L. Sa.)

ARRIAN

(Flavtus Arrianus) (c. 96-c. 180), Greek historian and philosopher, the most reliable source for the military career of Alexander the Great, was born in Nicomedia in Bithynia, about a.d. 96. He was greatly esteemed by Hadrian, who appointed him governor (legatus) of Cappadocia (131-137), where he distinguished himself in a campaign against the Alani. This is the only instance before the 3rd century in which a first-rate Roman military command was given to a Greek. Arrian spent much of his time at Athens, where he was archon during 147-14S. In his declining years, he retired to his birthplace, where he devoted himself to literary work. He died about 180. His biography, by Dio Cassius,

is

lost.

ARROL—ARROWROOT

47 6

When young, Arrian was the pupil and friend of the stoic philosopher Epictetus. He took verbatim notes of his teacher's lectures, which he subsequently published under the title of The Dissertations Diatribai), in eight books, of which the first four are extant i

and constitute the chief authority for Stoic ethics, and The Enchciridion ("Manual") of Epictetus, a handbook of moral phiThe most important of Arrian's original works is his losophy. Anabasis ("Expedition") of Alexander, containing the history of Alexander the Great from his accession to his death. His chief authorities were, as he explains, Aristobulus of Cassandreia

and Both

Ptolemy, son of Lagus (afterward Ptolemy I of Egypt). were with Alexander in Asia, and Ptolemy especially, who became one of his leading generals, had access to the best information. It is due greatly to him that Arrian's is the most complete and trustworthy account of Alexander that has survived. Other extant works of Arrian are: hidica, a description of India in the Ionic dialect, including the voyage of Nearchus, Alexander's general, from the Indus to the Persian gulf, which was intended as a supplement to the Anabasis; Acies Contra Alanos ("Campaign Against the Alani"), a fragment of importance for the knowledge of Roman military affairs; Periplus of the Euxine ("Voyage Around the Black sea"), an official account written (131) for the emperor Hadrian; Tactica, attributed by some to Aelianus, who wrote in the reign of Trajan Cynegeticus (Latin, De venatione), a treatise on the chase, supplementing that of Xenophon. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ("Voyage Around the Red Sea" I, attributed to him, is by a later compiler. Among his lost works may be mentioned: Ta meta Alexandron ("Alexander's Successors"), a history of the period succeeding Alexander, of which a few pages survive, and an epitome is preserved in Photius; histories of Bithynia, the Alani and the Parthian wars under Trajan; the lives of Timoleon of Corinth, Dion of Syracuse and perhaps of a famous brigand named Tilliborus. The lost work de rebus Physicis probably belongs to him too, and not to another ;

Arrian. Bibliography.

— A. G. Roos

had elected councils, but these were suspended in 1940. During most of the Third Republic the arrondissement was the basis of the electoral districts for the chamber of deputies. The cities of Paris and Lyons are divided into local administrative units also called arrondissements, and some of France's naval regions are divided into arrondissements maritimes

; neither of these should be confused with the departmental subdivisions of the same name. See also Local Government. (Ry. P.)

ARROWHEAD,

a

common name

series:

vol.

i,

arctic region. (ed.), Flavii Arriani

Anabasis, vol.

arrowhead and is often cultivated for food by the Chinese of the district in a manleys in California this is

;

;

;

various places until, in 1868, he opened his own boilerIn 1872 he started the Dalmarnock ironworks, which grew into a vast enterprise. Arrol built many" bridges for the Caledonian railway, including the Clyde viaduct at Glasgow, the second bridge across the river in

works.

Tay and knighted.

the Forth bridge, on the completion of which he

He

also constructed the steelwork for

Tower

was

bridge,

London, and the Nile bridge, Cairo. Knighted in 1890, he sat in parliament for South Ayrshire as a Unionist, 1892-1906. He died at Ayr on Feb. 20, 1913. See Sir R. Purvis, Sir William Arrol (1913) and Engineering, Lond. (Feb. 21, 1913). (S. B. Hn.)

ARRONDISSEMENT (from Fr. arrondir, "to make round"), a subdivision of the principal

partement (or department)

French administrative

(q.v.).

The

district, de-

principal cities and their

surrounding areas generally constitute the arrondissements. There are more than 300 arrondissements in metropolitan France, each containing usually from 100 to 150 towns. The administrative officer of the arrondissement containing the capital city of a departement is the prefect the other arrondissements are administered by subprefects. These officials are appointed by the national government. Most arrondissements are judicial as well as administrative districts. Before World War II the arrondissements ;

as tule potato,

its

Common arrowhead

engineering contractor responsible for building the bridge across the Firth of Forth, Scot., was born at Houston, Renfrewshire, on Feb. 13, 1839. Apprenticed at 14 to a blacksmith in Paisley, he

known

ner similar to the cultivation for starchy tubers of S. chinensis

;

(1839-1913), British structural

Its large starchy

American Indians. In the lower San Joaquin and Sacramento val-

;

ARROL, SIR WILLIAM

.

tubers were used for food by the

ii,

;

worked

)

(

quae exstant omma, Scripta Minora et Fragmenta, with particulars of all earlier editions (1928). English translations: E. Iliff Robson, Loeb series, 2 vol. (iQ2g, 1930) E. J. Chinnock, Arrian's Anabasis of Alexander and lndica (1893) T. Falconer, Arrian's Voyage around the Euxine Sea (1805) W. Vincent, Voyage of Nearchus and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1809) W. Dansey, Cynegeticus biographical sketch by E, Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Real(1831) Encyclopddie der classischen Alterlumswissenschaft (1896). See also H. Strasburger, Ptolemaios und Alexander (1934) E. Kornemann, Die Alexandergeschichte des Konigs Ptolemaios I von Aegvpten (193S). (G. T. Gh.)

Teubner

for plants of the genus

group of perennial aquatic or marsh herbs of the water plantain family (Alismaceae), so named because the haves of the best-known species are characteristically arrow shaped. The scapes, which rise from tuberbearing or fleshy knotted rootstocks, are mostly erect though sometimes decumbent and more rarely floating. Though borne on partly submerged stalks, the strongly nerved leaves usually rise conspicuously above the water. The flowers, arranged in whorls of three at the top of the scapes, have three broad white petals alternating with three small green sepals; the fruit is a dense head of small achenes dry, one-seeded There are about 40 species, native to temperate and tropical regions, but chiefly American. The common old world arrowhead (S. sagittifolia), found in ditches in England and Ireland, is very widely distributed in Europe and Asia. It grow-s three to four feet high and bears showy white flowers and orbicular achenes. Many profusely blooming and double-flowered varieties are cultivated in lily ponds and bog gardens. The similar broadleaved arrowhead (5. latifolia), with sharply beaked achenes, grows in shallow water throughout North America except in the Sagittaria, a

(sagittaria latifolia) of north america

(which by most botanists is reduced to the widespread Sagittaria sagittifolia) in China.

The

montevidensis) sometimes grows 6 ft. tall, with leaf blades 2 ft. long, and bears showy white flowers from 2 in. to 3 in. across, blotched with brownish-purple at the base. This handsome species is native in South America from Peru and Chile to Brazil and Argentina, and was first introduced into cultivation giant

in is

arrowhead

(S.

1883 from seeds sent to England from Buenos Aires, Arg. It planted in water gardens in the warmer parts of the U.S. in slow streams in California and the south

now

and has run wild Atlantic states.

ARROWROOT.

A large proportion of the edible starches obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of various plants are known in commerce under the name of arrowroot. Properly the name should be restricted to the starch yielded by two or three species of Maranta (family Marantaceae), the chief of which is M. arundinacea; and when genuine or West Indian arrowroot is spoken of it is understood that this is the variety meant. M. arundinacea is probably a native of Guiana and western Brazil but it has long been cultivated in the West Indies and has spread to most tropical countries. The plant is a herbaceous perennial with a creeping rootstock which gives off fleshy cylindrical tubers, covered with pale brown or white scales and afterward ringed with their scars. When these tubers are gorged with starch, immediIn addition to ately before the season of rest, it is ripe for use. about 25% of starch, the tubers contain woody tissue, protein and salts. The arrowroot may be separated on a small scale by peeling

ARROWSMITH— ARSENAL the root

and grating

when the starch

in

it

falls to

unknown

water,

the bot-

The liquor is then drained and the starch purified by re-

peated washings.

On

manufacture of arrowroot is conducted withspecial machinery. Arrowroot is distinguished by the granules agglomerating into small balls, and by yielding with boiling water a fine, transparent

in official

lum at the thick extremity of the granule instead of at the thin end.

West Indian is

cultivated in

and South Africa. The slender much-branched stem is 5 or 6 ft. high and bears numerous leaves long narrow sheaths and ovate blades, and few short-stalked white flowers Tous-les-mois or Tulema arrow-

root, also

I

;

f,

j

,

from the West Indies, arrowroot

plant

A!

obtained from species of Canna,

same manner. The granules of tous-les-mois are cultivated in the

part of flowering stem; (B) base of flowering stem and young branch of rhizome; (C) part of the

mature rhizome

(Manihot esculenta), which when agglutinated on hot plates forms tapioca. Tacca or Otaheite arrowroot is the product of Tacca pinnatifida, the pia plant of the South Sea Islands. Portland arrowroot was formerly prepared on the Isle of Portland. England, from the tubers of the common cuckoo pint. Arum maculatum. Various other species of the arum yield valuable food starches in hot countries. Under the name of British arrowroot the farina of potatoes is sometimes sold. The chief use, of the cassava plant

however, of potato farina is for adulterating more costly preparations. This falsification can be detected by microscopic examination. Arrowroot contains about &2% starch and about i c c

ARROWSMITH, of geographers.

The

the first.

See also Starch.

name

of a distinguished English family

Aaron Arrowsmith

(i

750-1823), was

born at Winston. Durham, on July 14. 1750. Without a formal education, he went to London, and after working as a surveyor, set

map maker and

publisher. He became famous for his large on Mercator's projection published in 1790. Four years later he published another large map of the world on the globular projection, with a companion volume of explanation. Another important work was his chart of the Pacific ocean in nine sheets (1798). His maps were clearly engraved and free from fanciful decoration. He died in London on April 23, 1823. He left two sons, Aaron and Samuel, the elder of whom was the compiler of the Eton Comparative Atlas, of a biblical atlas, and of various manuals of geography. They carried on the business in company with John Arrowsmith 1790-1S73 ). nephew of the elder Aaron. In 1S34 John published his London Atlas, the best set of maps then in existence. He followed up the atlas with a long series of elaborate and carefully executed maps embodying the results of contemporary exploration, those of Australia, America, Africa and India being especially valuable. He was an original member of the Royal Geographical society and was awarded one of its gold medals. ' (G. R. Ce.) ARSACES, an Iranian name borne by the Parthian royal house as being descended from Arsaces, son of Phriapites i^date

up

as a

chart of the world

(

1

to its original meaning.

East India arrowroot is obtained from the rootstocks of species of Curcuma (family Zingiberaceae), chiefly C. angustiBrazilian arrowroot is the starch folia, a native of central India. very large.

protein and mineral matter.

By historians they are generally called by The Arsacid dynasty maintained

documents,

ARS ANTIQUA.

with

large spreading

is

1

although not in unbroken succession, until its overthrow by Ardashir (q.v. in ad. 224. During the time of the Parthian empire the Arsacids claimed descent from Artaxerxes II. probably to legitimate their rule over Achaemenian territories. By the Sasanian chroniclers they were linked either with the Achaemenids or with the Kayanians (patrons of Zoroaster); and the period of their rule was shortened to 266 years, because of faulty data and the requirements of Zoroastrian priestly chronology. From the Sasanian chronicles they enter Persian epic under the name the Ashkanian (individual rulers as Ashak, Ashkani. The name Arsaces was also borne by several kings of Armenia who were of Parthian royal blood. It occurs also in cuneiq.v, form characters on a Persian seal, probably of the Parthian period. Parthia; Persia: History. .Mi B.) See The term was originally used in a polemical sense in a 14th-century treatise called Ars Nova by Philippe de Yitry to describe the "old technique" of composing from which he and the adherents of the "new style" had progressed. It was intended to refer to the late 13th-century style of writing motets. German musicologists adopted the term and gave it a wider meaning, using it to define the style of the whole polyphonic era. parFurther study of ticularly in France, between 1230 and 1320. polyphonic music, however, revealed the great variety of forms and styles during that period, and the term "ars antique" reverted 1

Brazil, southeast Asia. Australia

a

Parni tribe from

1

the granules are oval, marked with concentric lines, similar to potato starch, but having the hi-

arrowroot

lomadii

tl

personal names

their

and pleasant-tasting odourless In microscopic structure jelly.

In addition to the

477 thi

Arsaces I. brothei oi riridati about 247 11. c. (the begins \ll Parthian kind's after him used the Arsacid era) their throne name, and with the contestants for the throne, all are so designated on their coii

a large scale

the

supplies,

oi

pian

|tom. off

a chief

I,

For bibliography, see Ars Nova,

ARSENAL,

a publicly

Wz. manufac-

(E. J.

owned establishment

for the

1

munitions for land, sea or air forces. used loosely to describe a variety of different types of establishments, including both storage depots and manufacturing plants, and during World War II was applied by Pres. F. D. Roosevelt to the whole United States when he used the phrase "arsenal of democracy." A closely related term, armory, is generally used in the United States to denote an establishment where weapons, usually small arms, are stored and kept ready for issue and where reserve troops assemble for training. But in some instances the term is applied to a manufacturing arsenal, meaning a place where armourers work. In England the Tower of London served from the Plantagenet era down to the 17th century as a storehouse for weapons and as In modern times the official workshop for their manufacture. ture, repair or storage of

The term

is

British arsenal

and

since the early 1800s has been designated the royal arsenal.

It

Woolwich began

arsenal has

in the

become the most famous

17th century as a "gun wharf" on the

Thames

for the

supply of naval vessels and later undertook the manufacture of bronze cannon and other munitions. In the United States two arsenals, officially called armories, were established in the 1790s at Springfield. Mass.. and Harpers Ferry. Va. now W. Va. I, to manufacture and store small arms and They were to provide a dependable source of related supplies. military weapons for the U.S. government and render it independent of other nations in this regard. During the early 1800s 1

Frankford arsenal was established at Philadelphia. Watertown arsenal near Boston and Watervliet arsenal in upper New York state. At the same time, storage arsenals or depots were built at strategic points for the supply of the army, and gun factories were Rock Island arsenal was established in 1S63 built for the navy. on an island in the Mississippi river, and later Picatinny arsenal in New Jersey was added as a powder factory. Of the U.S. manufacturing arsenals that continued in active service into the 20th century, each specialized in the development and manufacture of

one or more classes of ordnance such as artillery, small arms or ammunition. Because of the great demand for armoured vehicles in World War II a new tank arsenal was created at Detroit. Mich.

—

ARSENIC

478

After the war, Redstone arsenal in Alabama became the U.S. (H. C. T.) army's chief rocket and guided missile centre. ARSENIC, a chemical element that has both gray and yellow crystalline forms.

White arsenic (arsenious oxide), the common

commercial form of the element, product of the roasting of various

is

usually prepared as a by-

ores. The highly toxic nature compounds has led to their extensive use in insecticides and weed killers. Arsenic is designated by the chemical symbol As. Its atomic number is 33 and its atomic weight is 74.91. Occurrence. History and Of the compounds of arsenic, the

of

many

arsenic

—

mentioned. In the 4th century B.C. Arisprobably realgar, which he designated as sandarach; Pedanios Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder in the 1 st century refer to auripigmentum. which was probably orpiment. Both observed the change in colour and properties of the sulfide on calcining it. Albertus Magnus in the 13th century noted the appearance of a metallike substance on heating arsenicum (arsenious sulfide) with soap. Later writers considered arsenic to be a semimetal. In 1733 A. Brandt showed that white arsenic is an oxide of arsenic and in 181 7 Jons Jakob Berzelius established the weight relations of arsenic to the other elements. Arsenic is widely distributed. It appears at low concentration in volcanic gas, sea water and spring water, and traces are present in many chemicals, metals and foodstuffs. Mineral deposits of native arsenic usually occur in metalliferous veins in association sulfides are the earliest

totle referred to a substance,

Table Type

I.

Mineral Compounds of Arsenic

ARSENIC Table 11.— Physical Gray

Properties of Arsenic

479

cipitation of

and dissolved

off

arsenic

magnesium ammonium

precipitated as Appearance Crystalline

yellow; transparent

system

Melting point 0.0772 at 28° C. 5.T3 g./cc. 35xlO~< ohm-cm. /cm. 1 at 20° C.

Specific heat

Density Electrical resistivity Specific

2.03 g./cc. at 18° C.

0.31x10-*

efficient of

5.50x10-" at 40° C. 1 .5x10"' atm. at 20° C.

expansion Cubic compressibility Mechanical properties

brittle;

Vapour pressure

1

hardness 3.5 scale at 604° C.

on

softer than gray

form

Mohs atm.

more volatile than gray form

580 kg,ca), r. atom not appreciable in common solvents

8g./100c.c. slightly in

CSiat20°C; CtH« and

glycerine

planes has as closest neighbours three equidistant

atoms

in the

The next

closest neighbours double layer, and are 3.1 5 A removed. The yellow form of arsenic probably contains tetrahedrally shaped molecules As 4 This conclusion is reasonable since the molecular weight of yellow arsenic in carbon disulfide corresponds to the formula As 4 and in the analogous case of white phosphorus, the tetra-atomic molecules persist in the solid

adjacent plane at a distance of 2.51 A. three

are

equidistant atoms

of an adjacent

.

,

state.

pressure,

the average molecular constitution

sponds to the formula As 2

.

of

gas

the

corre-

—

General Chemical Properties. In common with the other main Group V elements, arsenic exhibits the range of valence states

— to 5+ in its compounds. These extremes, together with 3+ state, embrace the principal compounds of the element. The enhanced electropositive character of arsenic as compared

.from 3 the

with phosphorus can be correlated with the following facts: is

less stable

is

less basic;

than

is

PH 3

,

is

a

the oxidation of

by

can be achieved

AsH 3

more powerful reducing agent and As to the positive ion As(OH) 2 +

weaker oxidizing agent than would be

a

re-

quired for the corresponding hypothetical change with phosphorus;

hydroxide As(OH) 3 but not the hydroxide P(OH) 3 can be converted to a positive ion by strong acid. While the arsenic atom is larger than that of phosphorus, the usual co-ordination number to oxygen is still only four. The similarity in size and shape of arsenate and phosphate ions is indicated by the isomorphism of many metal arsenates and phosphates. In their chemical behaviour, however, phosphates and arsenates show important differences, the arsenates being in general much more labile. Thus, the

,

,

Oxidation and Reduction) much more rapidly than do phosphates, and equilibrium between ortho and condensed forms of arsenic acids is established much more rapidly ;than is the case with the phosphoric acids. Antimonates and arsenates are dissimilar in structure and in many properties, since ,the co-ordination number of antimony to oxygen in antimonates .arsenates oxidize

(see

;

I

!

is six.

Analysis and Detection. analysis,

tive

with

the

arsenic

is

— In

a

common scheme

for qualita-

precipitated as the trisulfide, together

of mercury,

sulfides

copper,

antimony,

tin.

etc..

by

passing hydrogen sulfide into an acid solution containing these as

may

be added to the solution to facilitate the present, to the 3+ valence state. Arsenious sulfide together with the sulfides of antimony and tin are separated from those of mercury, copper, etc., by treating the precipitates with an alkaline solution containing sulfide ion. In this operation. As 2 S 3 is converted to AsS ~, and the antimony and 2 ions.

Iodide ion

reduction of arsenate,

tin

sulfides

to

if

similar

sulfo-anions.

On making

t,he

,

piece of clean copper

This

can be filtered off and the presence of arsenic confirmed by a conmethods of detection described below. Quantitative determination of arsenic can be based on the pre-

is

inserted into the solution to

an arsenite is present a black deposit forms on the copper, and the deposit on heating in oxygen is converted to the white volatile oxide which collects on the walls of the tube. In other tests, the arsenite is reduced to the volatile substance arsine which is carried along by a stream of hydrogen. In the Fleitmann test, silver nitrate test paper is exposed to the vapour, a In the Marsh black deposit indicating the presence of arsine. test, the gas is passed through a heated tube, and if arsine is present, a shiny black mirror of arsenic is deposited. The similar mirror of antimony is not removed by a solution containing In the Gutzeit test, a hypochlorite ion, but that of arsenic is. mercuric chloride test paper is exposed to the gas stream, and In each case, hydrogen develops a black stain if arsine is present. sulfide is removed by generating the gas in an alkaline solution, or by passing it through a solution of lead acetate. Chemical Properties of Elementary Arsenic. Elementary arsenic can function both as an oxidizing agent and as a reducing If

—

The

agent.

modes of action, and normal hydrogen electrode as zero,

half-reactions describing these

are:

AsH 3 = As-|-3H* + 3e-

3H20 + As = As(OH) 3

E°=o.S4 E° = —0.248

aq.-r-3H*-l-3e-

is to be expected from the value of the potential for the reduction of elementary arsenic, only powerful reducing agents can accomplish this process. It does take place when arsenic is present at the cathode during electrolysis of an alkaline solution.

As

A

large variety of oxidizing agents oxidize elementary arsenic to higher valence states in the presence of water. Chlorine, bromine, concentrated nitric acid and potassium permanganate are examples.

In contrast to phosphorus, arsenic does not disproportionate 3+ and 3— valence states when it is treated with alkali. Fusion with alkali does result in the production of arsenite, but presumably hydroxide ion or oxygen functions as the oxidizing to the

agent

in the change. In the dry state, arsenic can be oxidized by oxygen, fluorine, and sulfur as well as by other powerful The products of oxidizing agents, such as 3 or KC10 3 interaction for the elementary oxidizing agents listed are: As 4 6 AsF 3 or AsF 5 AsCl 3 AsBr 3 Asl 3 and As 2 S 3 or As 2 S 5 The changes take place readily in all cases, and in fact with 2 F 2 and Cl 2

chlorine, bromine, iodine

KN0

.

,

,

.

.

.

,

they can proceed as combustion reactions. " Arsenic can be reduced in the dry state by the direct action of alkali metals and other active metals.

Valence State

AsH 3

3— and Compounds with

Metals.

—Arsine,

extremely poisonous gas. The melting point and normal boiling point of the substance are C. and 119 55 C. respectively. The solubility in water is low, much less than that of ammonia, but the solubility in less polar solvents such as fats and turpentine is quite high. Arsine cannot be prepared by the direct combination of the elements. Two methods of preparation have been used: (1) the reduction of arsenious acid or arsenates by powerful reducing ,

is

a colourless,

—

—

agents in a strongly acid or, for

medium, and (2) the interaction

some metals, strongly

alkaline

of water or a mineral acid with

The mineral acid commonly used Equations describing typical preparations

the arsenide of an active metal. is

hydrochloric acid.

are:

3Zn

+ 6H + +

As(OH1 3 = 3Zn !+ + 6H + = 3Zn 2+

ZnsAs 2

resulting

solution strongly acid, only arsenious sulfide precipitates.

venient one of the

filtered

hydrochloric acid solution; the arsenic is then which is filtered off, washed, dried and

As 2 S 5

their potentials relative to the

Arsenic vapour at temperatures below 800° C. exists as As 4 molecules but at higher temperatures measurable decomposition Thus, at 1.700 C. and ordinary into smaller molecules occurs.

j

A

copper.

be tested.

magnetic

susceptibility

is

weiehed. The detection of arsenic even in traces is important because of the toxic nature of many arsenic compounds. The Reinsch test utilizes the fact that arsenites in acid solution are reduced by

cubic transforms below mcl point

.

in

This solid

arsenate.

The second method

+ AsH + 3^0 + 2AsH, 3

of preparation yields a purer product. unstable with respect to decomposition into the This decomposition proceeds slowly under ordinary conditions but less rapidly if the gas is thoroughly dried

Arsine

is

constituent elements.

—

ARSENIC

480 or

if

the surface area

decreased.

is

The

reaction

and by an increase

is

accelerated on

temperature, and can proceed explosively if the gas is suitably detonated. Arsine is a powerful reducing agent, being oxidized by even It reduces soluble silver, mercury fairly weak oxidizing agents. and gold salts, sulfurous acid and the more powerful oxidizing agents such as chromates, permanganates and the halogens. Arsine can act also as an oxidizing agent but only powerful reducing agents are affected; sodium and potassium react with it, reducing it to hydrogen and forming the corresponding arsenide. Double decomposition reactions, involving the interaction of arsine with a metal salt to produce a metal arsenide and an acid, It seems likely that this type of change are not well defined. takes place when arsine is passed into a solution of a cupric salt, and the formation of a metal arsenide may be an intermediate stage in the net reduction by arsine of heavy metal ions. The Compounds of Arsenic with Alkali, Alkaline Earth and several other metals are also examples of compounds conthe absorption of light

in

—

valence state. Specific examples are: Na3As, Ca As 2 Zn 3 As 2 and AlAs. Substances of this type can be prepared by the direct union of the elements or by heating the metals with arsenious oxide and carbon. Other compounds of arsenic with metals, some of which are more complex than those of the previous class, are known. Many of these compounds occur naturally and some can be made by the methods used above. As the metals become increasingly noble, it is observed that the compounds depart more and more from the rather saltlike character of the alkali metal arsenides, and begin The reaction with acid to assume metallic physical properties. to form arsine does not take place for the more noble metal taining arsenic in the 3 ,

;

compounds and in these compounds the assignment of a negative valence state to arsenic has little significance. The 3+ Valence State (in Solution). Arsenic in the 3 valence state can exist in water solution as a positive ion, as the arsenic

—

+

hydroxide, as a negative oxy-ion and as a negative sulfarsenite ion.

A

is

formed by bring-

The

exact formula of

solution of the hydroxide, arsenious acid,

ing arsenious oxide in contact with water.

However,

the acid in water solution has not been established.

has been shown that the hydroxide contains only one arsenic atom per molecule and on this basis the formulation of the substance as As(OH) 3 or As0 3 seems reasonable. Arsenious acid is a weak monobasic acid; the value for the dissociation constant it

H

:i

C. is about 6X10" 10 There are a number of important association reactions

at 25

.

in-

Arsenious acid reacts with volving the oxyarsenite species. strong bases to give a solution containing the arsenite ion, HoAs0 3 ~. There is evidence that in solutions containing both arsenious acid and arsenite ion, substantial concentrations of a complex which has two arsenic atoms in each unit exists. Since

most

arsenites, with the exception of the alkali metal

nium are

and ammo-

arsenites are only sparingly soluble in water, precipitates

formed when solutions containing arsenites and many metal

The metal arsenites resulting are of various In some of the products, Ag 3 As0 3 and Pb 3 (As0 8 ) 2 for example, complete replacement of the hydrogen ions of the acid by metal ions has taken place. Other compounds, Ca 3 As 4 9 and

salts

are mixed.

types.

Ca^As L.O r

,,

for example,

may

cases, association of metal

appears to take place.

contain polyarsenite ions.

and arsenite ions

to

In

some

form complex ions

Thus, although copper arsenite

is

sparingly

form when a solution of and an excess of an alkaline solution containing arsenite are at room temperature. In strongly acid solution, arsenious hydroxide is converted to a positive ion, which can be represented by the formula As(OH) 2 \ The constant governing soluble in water, a precipitate does not a copper salt

the equilibrium,

As(OH) 3 = As(OH) 2*+OH-

When

sulfide

15 is about sXio" passed into a solution containing arsenious acid, arsenious sulfide is formed. If the concentration of ions in the solution is low, the sulfide persists for long periods of time as a colloidal suspension. In the presence of an electrolyte such as HC1, however, arsenious sulfide separates as a yellow

hydrogen

precipitate.

is

.

Arsenious acid and arsenites are fairly strong and, in most Thus, chlorine, bromine and iodine,; concentrated nitric acid, potassium permanganate, etc., rapidly transform arsenites to arsenates. With iodine, the oxidation is 1

cases, rapid reducing agents.

:

substantially complete only in neutral or alkaline solutions. In solutions of intermediate acidity, the equilibrium, 3 AsO,+

H

2H +21 =As(OH) 3 + I.J + H L,0, The reduction of been discussed

arsenites

is

measurable.

by powerful reducing agents

has

connection with the chemistry of arsine. A solution containing sulfarsenite ion can be prepared by dissolving arsenious sulfide in a solution containing sulfide ion. The sulfarsenite ion is commonly represented by the formula AsS 2 ". In the presence of acid the reaction, 2AsS 2 ~-(-2H*—^AsmSj + H^S, in

takes place.

Many

metal sulfarsenites, of formulas analogous to arsenites,

are formed on adding soluble metal salts to solutions of sulfarsenites.

Examples are Ba 3 (AsS 3 2 and Ba^As^Sr,. in the 3+ Valence State. Arsenious )

—

Compounds As L,0 3

,

oxide,\

the substance referred to as white arsenic and often simply

as arsenic, exists in several forms as

Table Property

III.

shown

in

Table

III.

Physical Properties of Arsenious Oxide

ARSENIUS Wide. It can be Arsenious sulfide occurs naturally as orpiment. An m. nil- by heating arsenic and sulfur in equivalent amounts. amorphous, or cryptocrystalline, form is deposited when hydrogen sulfide and arsenious acid interact in water solution. The solubility of arsenious sulfide in water is very low. Even concentrated hydrochloric acid, if cold, does not affect it, but it is transformed by sulfide ion to sulfarsenite ion, by concentrated alkali to sulfarsenite and arsenite ion and by oxidizing agents to

{senates and sulfur. The Valence State consider for the

5-f-

5-(-

(in Solution).

valence state

—

in

tions.

Arsenic

acid

functions as a

The 4.SX10

and 4.SXio~

13 .

Most arsenate

dissociation

acid.

tribasic

constants for the successive dissociations are salts except

,

4.8X10

ammonium and

7

alkali

metal salts are only sparingly soluble in water, and can be precipitated by mixing solutions of arsenates and the appropriate

metal salts. The products obtained from water solution are almost always the /7//-arsenates. Arsenic acid is a sufficiently powerful oxidizing agent to oxidize stannous salts, iodides in acid solution and sulfurous acid. The reaction with hydrogen sulfide can proceed either as the double decomposition reaction. 2H 3 As0 4 -|-5H 2 S = As L.S r,-l-8H L,0, or as

2H As0 4 + 5H 2 S = As 2 S 3 + 2S + Both changes proceed slowly but are accelerated by an An in hydrogen ion concentration and of temperature.

the oxidation-reduction reaction.

SH 2 0. increase

:i

concentration of arsenic acid favours

increase in

relative to precipitation of arsenic pentasulfide. Sulfarsenate ion in solution is represented

AsS 4 3_

its

reduction

by the formula

It is formed when arsenic pentasulfide is treated with a containing sulfide ion, or arsenious sulfide with polyThe acid corresponding to the ion is unstable and desulfide ion. composes to arsenious sulfide and hydrogen sulfide. As a class the sulfarsenates are more soluble than the arsenates but precipitates .

heavy metal sulfarsenates can be formed from water solutions. OrrAo-sulfarsenates. Cu lAsS 4 u, etc, and />yro-sulfarsenates, Co 2 As 2 S 7 etc.. are known. Compounds in the 5+ Valence State. When a solution of arsenic acid, made for example by oxidizing arsenious oxide with concentrated nitric acid, is evaporated, the solid hydrate 2H 3 of

:!

As0 4 .H 2

—

separates.

H

As 2

On

further dehydration, crystals of pyro-

Continued heating produces a glassy mass of simplest formula HAs0 3 and on complete dehydration arsenic pentoxide, of simplest formula As 2 5 results. Arsenic pentoxide formed on the dehydration is white and appears noncrystalline on examination under a microscope. At a sufficiently high temperature it melts and on cooling forms a glassy solid. In the vapour state at high temperature it dissociates to arsenious oxide andoxygen. As 2 0-,.HAs0 3 andH 4 As 2 7 all absorb water rapidly and are transformed to orr/zo-arsenic acid. Arsenic pentafluoride has been prepared by the spontaneous interaction of arsenic trifluoride and fluorine, and by heating a mixture of arsenic trifluoride. antimony pentafluoride and bromine. The boiling point of arsenic pentafluoride is —53° C. and its melting point — 8o° C. It has been suggested that arsenic pentachloride is formed when arsenic trichloride and chlorine react at low temperature. The substance if it exists is unstable above arsenic acid

4

7

-30

— In

I.

tmple II

I

ol

the lowest stage of oxidation for the

Compounds of the type

RH 2A

thi

respectively. first

known. None pronounced basi< charac-

R 2HAs and R g As

are

ubstance in thi da tbove ha although they do show a strong affinity for some metal Pd(II) Arsenii trimethyl, (CH 3 ) 3 As can be prepared by the reaction ol ai eni< trichloride with zinc dimethyl. By the action of an alkyl iodide on compounds of the

1,1

the

ter to

ll

II" type k .\s. tetra-alkylarsonium compounds are formed alkylarsonium compounds such as R 4 AsCI are saltlike, little hydrolyzed and are completely dissociated into ions in water. R 4 AsOH is a strong base. In the second stage of oxidation, the Cacodyl derivatives, ('11 X. have received particular attention. Cacodyl oxide, 2 As (CH3 ) 2 As O As(CH 3 )o, is prepared by distilling a mixture of nun acetate and arsenious acid. On treatment of cacodyl pol oxide with HC1. cacodyl chloride. ( H, i._,As('l. is obtained. The halogen is readily replaced by other electronegative groups. By reduction of cacodyl oxide, free cacodyl. (CH 3 ) 2 As As(CH3 ) 2 analogous to hydrazine in structure, is formed. In the third stage of oxidation. RAsO rather than RAsfOH) 2 is formed when a substance of the type RAsCl 2 is treated with a base. Compounds of the type RAsCL can be prepared by the action of chlorine on RAsH 2 ;

..

1

—

l

— —

1

(

—

,

.

Examples of organic derivatives of the

final

stage of oxidation in

The ester As(OC 2l first series are esters of arsenous acid. prepared by the reaction of arsenic trichloride and ethyl alcohol. Trimethyl arsine oxide, (CH 3 3 AsO, an example of Series II. the lowest oxidation state for the second series of arsenic organic derivatives, results when (CH 3 3 As is exposed to air. Compounds of the type R AsCl 2 can be prepared by treating R 3 As with chlorine. the

I

—

,

)

)

:!

An important compound in the second stage of oxidation for the second series is dimethyl arsenic (or cacodylic acid. (CH 3 ) 2 AsO OH. It can be obtained by oxidizing cacodylic oxide with mercuric oxide in the presence of water. It is a weaker acid than is arsenic -7 acid, its dissociation constant being 6.4 Xio )

.

Methyl

arsinic acid,

CH AsO(OH) 2 :!

.

is

a representative of the

Sodium methyl arsenate

third stage of oxidation.

sodium arsenite and methyl iodide are

left

in

is

formed when

contact in dilute

alcoholic solution for several days.

compounds described thus far, there bonds are retained. They include mentioned above, arsenobenzene (C 6 H 5 As AsC 6 H 5 ) and

In addition to the organic are others in which

cacodyl.

As

— As

—

and arsenomethane (CH 3 As)„. two present interesting structural features; arsenobenzene because a multiple As As bond is presumably involved, and arsenomethane because of the problem of the skeletal arrangement. See also Index references under "Arsenic" in the Index volume. Bibliography. Richard Abegg and F. Auerbach, Handbuch der anorganischen Ckemie (1905) J. W. Mellor, A Comprehensive Treatise W. M. on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, 16 vol. (1922-37)

its

derivatives,

The

latter

—

—

;

;

Latimer! Oxidation States 0) the Elements and Their Potentials in Aqueous Solutions 1952) A. F. Wells, Structural Inorganic Chemistry Metallurgy (1941); D(1945) J. L. Bray, Non-Ferrous Production M. Liddell (ed.), Handbook of Nonjerrous Metallurgy, 2 vol., 2nd ed. Compounds Organic of Arsenic and Antimony (1945) G. T. Morgan, (191S) G. W. Raiziss and J. L. Gavron. Organic Arsenical Compounds and Its ApPharmacology Manual Sollmann, of Torald (1923); (H. Te.) plications to Therapeutics and Toxicology, ith ed. (i9}6). (

;

;

;

.-I

Arsenic pentasulfide, As 2 S 5 can be prepared by heating the elements in the proportions required by the formula. It is yellow in colour, and only sparingly soluble in water. At high temperatures, it decomposes to arsenious sulfide and sulfur. Organic Derivatives of Arsenic. Most of the organic de,

—

[

rivatives of arsenic can be considered in Series I, R.iAs, Series II, R 3 AsX 2

2

atom or

,

,

R

represents hydrogen atoms and

radical (F, CI, Br,

I,

and

X

represents an electro-

OH, ^S0 4

,

etc.).

ARSENIUS AUTORIANUS

r wall or door, is enough. But, though the wood of the house leed not be set ablaze, there must be a charring, the destruction if the fibre of the wood; a mere discoloration will not suffice. ^2) "Dwelling house": A building is a dwelling house if people :ustomarily sleep there, though it is not necessary that someone ictually be in the house at the time of the fire. An abandoned dwelling is no longer a dwelling house, but a house is still a dwellng house though the inhabitants close it for the summer, intending irson statutes

—

Common-Law

nally punishable

(

.o

return.

"or living

he

Weekend

cabins,

modern

trailers, buildings

used partly

and partly for business (as a building with a store on living quarters on the second floor) have all been

first floor,

483

Second, it is commonly made arson for one to bun) his own property, real or personal, if done to defraud the insurance company. (But modern -t rally still require a "burngrain.

1

ing"

in

the sense of charring, rather than

mere discoloration, and

"malicious and voluntary" burning in the sense of intentional and perhaps reckless burning, rather than merely negligent or accidental burning. Generally accompanying these new additions to arson has been a division of arson into two or more degrees, with heavier punishments assigned to what was common-law arson, with its emphasis on danger to human life, and lighter punishments to the new types of statutory arson, which involve primarily a danger to property. Insanity as a Defense. Criminal insanity in the generally accepted sense of mental disease which prevents knowing right from wrong constitutes a defense to arson as to other crimes. About IS of the states of the United States accept the "irresistible impulse" test for insanity in addition to the "right and wrong" test; in such states pyromania (a mental disease causing the sufferer to possess an irresistible urge to set fires) affords a defense to arson, though the pyromaniac should be held for psychiatric treatment of his dangerous disease before being released. Motives for Arson. The principal motives for intentionally burning property are (1) to collect fire insurance; (2) to conceal the existence of some other crime (as where a murderer burns )

—

—

the building containing the corpse to conceal the fact of murder) (3) to obtain revenge upon the owner; (4) to punish the owner,

generally a merchant,

for

failure

pay demanded extortion

to

money; and (5)

to experience the excitement of watching the Motive, as distinguished from intent, is generally irrelevant to guilt or innocence of crime; but in statutory arson to defraud the insurance company the particular motive to defraud is required; and in states which accept the "irresistible impulse" test

blaze.

be dwelling houses. On the other hand, unfinished strucdesigned for dwelling purposes but not yet occupied, are In England common-law irson encompasses the burning of outbuildings, such as barns and stables, which are part and parcel of the dwelling house because :hey are "within the curtilage" of the house, i.e., enclosed within 1 common wall, hedge or fence. In more spacious America, where such enclosures are less common, outbuildings have been included for arson purposes, though not so enclosed, where the building is jsed in connection with the house and not situated too far away. i(3) "Of another": At common law it is not arson to burn one's house (e.g., to defraud the insurance company). (It is a ;ommon-law misdemeanour not the felony of arson inten:ionally to burn one's own house where other houses are close by; put if in fact another house is thereby burned, such conduct constitutes arson.) The term "of another," however, refers to the right to possession rather than to ownership. Thus a landlord is .guilty of arson who burns the house he has leased to his tenant; but a tenant is not guilty of arson who burns the leased premises. iThe owner of a house who leases a part of it to a tenant is guilty of arson, however, if he sets his house afire. (4) "Malicious and voluntary": The act of burning another's dwelling house, to constitute arson, must be accompanied by a "malicious and voluntary" .state of mind. "Malice" in the literal 'sense of hatred, spite or ill will is not required. An intention to burn the building, unac-

On Sept. 7. after the crusaders had left Arsuf. the Muslim attacks became more intenand were concentrated against the Hospitallers, Richard's rearguard, whom Richard forbade to counterattack until the evening. He then ordered the infantry to open ranks and launched a general charge that overwhelmed Saladin's army and inflicted

companied by any such hatred,

heavy

leld to

j.ures,

generally held not to be dwelling houses.

Wn

—

—

It is probably true conduct which the actor realizes though he does [not desire it will do for arson, though mere negligence or accident clearly will not suffice. Probably criminal conduct which jcauses an unintended and nonreckless burning as where a candlelight burglar in the course of the burglary carelessly leaves his 'candle too close to the curtains, thus causing the burglarized house jto burn will not qualify for arson. jalso

that a reckless burning

will suffice.

(i.e.,

Jcreates a high degree of risk of causing a burning, 1

—

,

—

—

Statutory Arson. Modern statutes, in England and the [United States, have enlarged the scope of arson by altering two of iks four common-law elements. First, other types of property, have commonly been made the subject arson: unfinished dwellings, various types of buildings other than dwellings [e.g., stores, warehouses, factories, churches), auto-

of insanity, the existence of

Arson-Murder where the

fire kills

a defense.

—

with the infantry protecting their flanks. sive

losses on the forces attacking to the rear. Seven hundred crusaders and several thousand Muslims were killed.

The victory at Arsuf enabled the crusaders to but was not a crushing blow to the Muslims, as has Saladin was able to regroup his forces, which the not pursued for fear of ambushes. From Sept. Muslims renewed to

push on

occupy Joppa been asserted. crusaders had 9 onward the and Richard did not dare

their harassing tactics

to Jerusalem.

See C. W. C. Oman, History oj the Art of War in the Middle Ages, vol. i (1924) R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare 1097-1193 (1956). (J. B. R.) ;

ART (ARTICLES mean

jof

other arts, see

and stacks of

pyromania constitutes

and generally statutory murder, even though the arsonist does not intend to kill anyone, at least where the death is the foreseeable consequence of the arsonist's act of setting the fire. England abolished this form of "constructive" murder in 1957. See also Criminal Law. (A. W. St.) ARSUF, an ancient town on the coast of Palestine, situated 9 mi. N.N.E. of the modern Tel-Aviv in Israel and famous for the victory won there in 1191 by the English king Richard I during the third crusade (see Crusades). Richard, having taken Acre in July 1191, was marching on Joppa (Jaffa) in preparation for an attack on Jerusalem, but the Muslim army under Saladin slowed down the crusaders' progress when they advanced from Caesarea. which they left on Sept. 1. Richard marched his forces in strict formation, dividing the cavalry into three bodies, which advanced

jother than dwelling houses,

jmobiles, railroad cars, ships, bridges, fences, trees

—An

arson which actually produces a death the occupant of the burned dwelling house or a fireman fighting the blaze constitutes common-law murder, as

ON).

In this article, art

the visual, plastic and graphic arts.

Music (Articles on)

;

Theatre (Articles on). The artist may attempt to communicate

on)

For

is

taken to on the

articles

Literature (Articles

;

a sense of beauty or he

::

ART

484

may react to his impulses and attempt to express them in various mediums; finally, he may accept a commission for a specific work These basic attitudes it to the best of his capability. are discussed in Art, which includes a review of the history of art and a discussion of trends in art in terms of western and oriental approaches. Attempts to define the nature of beauty and to fit the and execute

concept into a philosophical and psychological framework are described in Aesthetics and Aesthetics, History of. Articles in which the history of European art is summarized along general lines include (in approximately chronological order)

Greek Art; Roman Art; Early Christian Art; Byzantine Romanesque Art; Gothic Art; Renaissance Art; Baroque Art; Neoclassical Art; Nineteenth-Century Art; Modern Art. These articles are supplemented by others on

Art;

Abstract Art; Barbizon School; Ex-

distinctive phases, as;

pressionism; Fauvism; Futurism; Impressionism; Postimpressionism; Surrealism. Also, there are articles on Design, 19th-century; and Design, 20th-century. Articles on the characteristic art of various regions include Armenian Art; Chinese Painting; Indian Art; Indonesian Archaeology and Art; Islamic Art; Japanese Painting and Prints; Persian Art; Russian Art; Tibetan Art; etc. The rise of the great European schools of painting under the influence of Christianity and their evolution in various countries is described in Painting, which is accompanied by many illustrative plates. The major types of subject matter are treated in Still- Life Painting; Portrait Painting; and Landscape Painting. Articles devoted to painting mediums include Encaustic Painting; Gouache; Oil Painting, Technique of; Pastel; Tempera; and Water-Colour Painting. Articles dealing with engraving processes include Dry Point; Etching; Engraving, Line; Lithograph; Mezzotint; Stipple and Crayon Engraving; and Woodcut and Wood Engraving. Various technical procedures in the arts are discussed in many other articles, for example: Crayon Drawing; Design; Drawing (Techniques of); Miniature Painting; Mural Painting; Pencil Drawing; Pen Drawing; Perspective and Poster. Certain themes in the tradition of art are traced in Dance of ;

Death; Caricature and Cartoon; Motion Pictures ing

(includ-

animated cartoons).

Sculpture surveys

the history of this art in western civiliza-

supplemented by Sculpture Techniques. Greek sculpture is discussed in Greek Art, Roman sculpture in Roman Art. Separate articles are devoted to Chinese Sculpture and Japanese Sculpture. Articles on special phases include Sculpture, Sepulchral; Ivory Carving; Jade and Other Hard Stone Carvings; Relief; Terra Cotta; Wood Carving; Wax Figures; etc. Fine Arts gives a general survey of the arts in which material functions and values become mediums for the expression of aesthetic ones. The subject of architecture is surveyed in Architecture, and among the many articles on related arts are: Interior Decoration; Interior Decoration, History of; Ironwork; Landscape Architecture; Leadwork; and Woodwork, Decorative. A more detailed listing is given in Architecture (Articles on). A key article on applied arts is Industrial Design. The story of the struggle of British artists to win aesthetic recognition for various applied arts is summed up in Arts and Crafts Movetion

in

postclassical

times;

it

is

sion are discussed in

Aw

Embroidery;

The processes

etc.

and revolution by which the major philosophies of art were developed are discussed in Art, Societies of and Museums and Galleries. The influence of these processes on the economics of art is described in Art Selling. Trends in the teaching of art appreciation and of art as a profesof evolution

in articles

on

specific archaeological sites, such

Altamira Cave; Carnac; Troy;

ART,

in

its

its

a;

etc.

most basic meaning,

This definition holds true for

signifies a

skill

or ability

Latin antecedent, ars, as well

aj

German equivalent, Kunst (derived from konnen, "to be able") One who has acquired a skill may be designated an artisan or artist its

according to whether his abilities are directed principally towarc a utilitarian or an aesthetic purpose. While art continues to hi associated with basic skills (e.g., the art of gardening, the arl of warfare), the term more generally carries the connotation ol nonutilitarian activities: the art of painting, the art of poetry anc the art of music.

A further distinction occurs in the traditional differentiatior of the liberal arts and fine arts (q.v.). The former include those practical pursuits that facilitate freedom of expression in lan-i guage (grammar), speech (rhetoric) and reasoning (logic anc mathematics), as well as the studies that lead to an understanding of man's physical, social and cultural environment. The fine arts, on the other hand, are those that are cultivated more for their own sake and for the intrinsic pleasure they afford the minds anc emotions of those who experience them. The term fine arts is a translation of the French beaux-arts. meaning the arts concerned only with the beautiful. Because of the bureaucratic structure of the French academies, the term came to be associated primarily with sculpture and painting, the con-'

cern of the Academie des Beaux Arts.

Architecture, partly owing

and letters and music were artifically excluded because they came under the jurisdiction of other academies. The fine arts, in any rational view, however, must be broadened to include any aesthetically directed expression in visual, verbal or auditory images and symbols. The fine arts thus would include architecture, sculpture, painting and the various related visual, plastic and graphic arts; literature in its various poetic, prosaic and dramatic forms; as well as the dance and to its semiutilitarian character,

music. This article, however, by force of tradition, after a review of some of the broader principles that underly all the arts, will be focused primarily on the visual arts. It is organized as follows: I.

Principles of Art 1. Art v. Science 2.

3.

II.

Imagination and Imagery Creative Drive

5.

Major and Minor Arts Analysis and Synthesis

6.

Approaches

4.

Techniques of Art A. Architecture B. Sculpture 1. Materials 2.

Technique

3. Minor Three-Dimensional Arts C. Painting 1. Materials and Techniques 2. Application of Pigment 3. Allied Arts D. Drawing and the Graphic Arts

Articles on the fine

tiles;

and

cal areas;

ment. and applied arts include, besides those mentioned above: Bookplate; Costume Design, Theatrical; Dress; Enamel; Frame Design; Furniture Design; Gem (for gem engraving); Glass; Illuminated Manuscripts; Jewelry; Lace; Lacquer; Lamp; Metalwork, Decorative; Numismatics; Pottery and Porcelain; Silver and Gold Work; Tex-

Art Education.

Primitive and preclassical forms of artistic expression are ex amined in Primitive Art; Archaeology; in the section of thropology captioned Archaeology and the Cultural Record; ir the anthropological sections of articles on continents and man) other geographical sections of articles on continents and geographi

III.

E. Content 1. Traditional Categories 2. Abstract and Imaginary Art 3. Modifications in Sculpture and Graphic Arts F. Concerts of Arts History A. Prehistoric and Early Near Eastern Styles 1. Early Man 2. Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Aegean B. Classical Styles C. Oriental Parallels D. Medieval Styles E. Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical Styles

F.

1.

Renaissance

2.

Classicism

Romantic and Modern

Styles

ART PRINCIPLES OF ART

I.

Art

1.

v.

Science.

— While

both art and science are concerned

iltimately with the pursuit of truth, the processes

and methods

anployed by the artist, on the one hand, and by the scientist, on he other, vary to a considerable degree. The scientist, whether ihysical or social, is concerned principally with the problem of Analyzing materials or events, while the method of the artist is >rimarily synthesizing. The scientist isolates, breaks things down md separates matter into its constituent parts for purposes of tnalysis: the artist selects his materials, assembles, composes (in and builds. The .he literal sense of putting things together .dentist has to concern himself with the objective world of facts the artist deals more with the subjective world ind phenomena feeling. The sciences attempt to evolve general i)f imagery and it are applicable in all cases; the arts and letters explore 1

:

ndividual reactions and revel in the unique qualities of experience. Scientists, by increasing concern with particular fields, tend to

form and substance to a and statistical compilations, attempts to comprehend the dynamics of human But. as Romain behaviour and to analyze political movements. become specialists;

The

vorld view.

Holland put

it

:

artists strive to give

social scientist, with his case histories

"The

political life of

in order to learn its

part of its being;

—we

only a superficial inner life the source of

a nation

is

—

must penetrate to its very soul by way of its •iterature. its philosophy, and its art. where the ideas, the pasions and the dreams of its people are reflected" (Romain Rolland, tome Musicians of Former Days, 4th ed., Routledge & Kegan I'aul. Ltd.. London). actions

jts

A

theory once formulated is at best tentative, since on which it is based are destined to be disproved or uperseded by subsequent research and discovery. A work of art mce completed, however, stands as a final statement for all time, fashions and critical evaluations may change rapidly, and the vork of one artist may be eclipsed by that of another and greater

j

scientific

he premises

but a particular building, statue or painting endures. It be sure, but not disproved. Out of the rust's subjectively built world he projects a moment in the yorld of objective values, a fragment of infinity. The artist thus does something to make the moment last, to give permanence to the present. The artist, then, is the only victor n man's struggle against time, and the work of art is the crystallitis t,

(Qay be destroyed, to

i

ization of a moment, a link between past and future, a bridge beween individual and universal experience. The broader and wider jhe artist

builds his bridge into the infinity of the objective world,

he more universal will be the values he expresses and hence the reater and more lasting his work of art.

—The

Imagination and Imagery.

2.

'ivity is

wellspring of

all

crea-

the imagination, which manifests itself in the projection

One of the profoundest insights into the creative contained in Gen. i, 26-27: "Then God said. 'Let us .' So God created in our image, after our likeness; aan in his own image, in the image of God he created him." The 'iodlike principle, then, can be interpreted as creativity. If God is onceived as the creative force, and man is fashioned in his image, i images.

irocess is

man

aake

f

.

follows that

man

also possesses creative

•nd in turn creates his gods in his etical void, the !.e

own

.

powers

image.

in his

own

From

the theo-

right

man-artist conceives an image; from nothingness from chaos he achieves order, which is to

gives birth to being:

ay that by selection he conceives relationships. The development art skills then becomes necessary in order to transmit his ideas

f

irom

mind

to mind. Art thus becomes a language in images and man communicates his conceptions of order in more than conceptual terms. The role of the artist is

•ymbols by which .erceptual

ihus to clarify, intensify,

im

dramatize and interpret the world about

in all its physical, social

and

spiritual aspects.

Art as a creative process involves the activities of both artist directly in the case of the visual arts and books, ind with the mediation of reader, narrator, actor or performer 1 the case of poetry, drama and music. The process of creaivity is thus threefold with the artist as the prime mover, com-

—

nd audience

lunicating his ideas through the performer, as his interpreter, 3 his

audience.

Each

485 and response and the concentrated creative thought each brings to bear on the

difference being in the intensity of the stimulus

participates in the creative process, the

in

situation

Art works are ional artists.

ing or playing,

by no means confined

to the products of profes-

In such daily activities as speaking, dressing, workall

participate in the projection of images.

sciously or unconsciously, everyone

is

involved

in

Con-

the process of

projecting a psychological and social image of himself. Furthermore, when participating in a work of art, whether as reader,

observer or listener, a person is not a mere passive receiver of images and impressions, but an active agent in the creative process. By experiencing the work of art, he must conjure up a corresponding set of images, perceptions and impressions in his own mind and imagination. The intensity of the activity, to be sure, may be less than that of the artist who produced the work, but the reader, observer or listener is nevertheless involved in the dynamic activity of responding. Through education the development of a disciplined imagination makes it possible for the eye, ear and mind to acquire perceptive vocabularies and to develop the critical faculties so that some of the finer nuances of sight and sound are distinguishable. Mental images, aroused as they are by sensations, assume certain perceptive and symbolic forms associated with sight ii.e., visual imagery), sound (auditory), taste (gustatory), smell (olfactory), touch (tactile) and muscular motion Ckinaesthetic). Art expression is based principally on the so-called higher senses of sight and sound, with the other senses playing more or less While no fine art, for instance, is based excluindirect roles. sively on taste or smell, gustatory and olfactory imagery nonetheless often is used in poetry and prose to awaken corresponding sensations in the minds of readers and to intensify the vividness Tactile imagery, while not the basis of an art of description. in its own right, nevertheless is important in distinguishing the feeling for hard or soft, rough or smooth textures in architecLikewise kinaesthetic imagery is ture, sculpture and painting. important in conveying the feeling of motion, either implied as in the visual arts or actual as in the dance and music. Sensitivity to certain types of imagery predisposes the artist, as well as any other person, to one rather than another type of expression. It seems clear that a person deficient in visual imagery would not be inclined to the visual arts except perhaps as a psychological compensation for that deficiency; and that one who is insensitive to auditory imagery would not be predisposed Fortunately these various types of imagery are not to music. mutually exclusive, and most persons experience several types, with one or another dominant. A writer or reader, for instance, would tend to be primarily visual minded, and the auditory imagery of the sounds of words would play a secondary role in his experience; a musician or listener would be primarily auditory minded, visual and kinaesthetic perceptions being of less importance to

him. In some cases synaesthesia that is, a fusion of sensations by which the experience of one sense impression conjures up that of another type ispresent. Sounds, for instance, often evoke visual images such as colours. The descriptive vocabulary used in connection with the arts is evidence of the common experience of Painters speak of the "tone" of such synaesthetic perception. Titian and Veronese have been contrasted by certain colours. some critics on the basis of their preference for gold and silver "tonalities"; the tactile analogy of "warm" and "cool" colours is also used. Musicians distinguish the timbres of various instruments according to their tone "colour." Richard Strauss wrote "tone poems," or musical compositions with narrative or pictorial content, while Debussy called one of his piano pieces Sounds and Perfumes on the Evening Air. Synaesthesia, in which perfumes, colours, tones and textures echo each other, was rather thoroughly

—

—

explored by the Symbolist poets. "There are perfumes fresh as children's flesh," wrote Baudelaire, "Soft as oboes, green as ." (Selected Poems From Flowers of Evil, trans, by meadows Geoffery Wagner. New Directions. Norfolk, Conn., 1946). 3. Creative Drive. Man as an experiencing individual is ceaselessly seeking to bring his experience to articulate expression. .

.

—

,

ART

486

past experience of the individual may be said to have present existence in so far as there is a mental image of it and to the degree that it is recreated by the mind. Through images of this

The

experience he reveals his conception of his relationship to the world about him. Through these images he asks questions of life, seeks to clarify his confused impressions and to give unity and meaning to

Through

many-sided and seemingly unrelated events.

this

human

being seeks to understand himself and to make himself understood to others. Since the experiences of life are never finished, but flow and change constantly, no one projected image can be sufficient and final, and hence one witnesses an inexhaustible number of expressive manifestations of the human being about himself, about other human beings and about the world around him. He tries to discard the unessential and to unite and preserve the essential elements in his experience, and by creating images of certain conceptions of life he endeavours to create a coherence and a unity process of externalization the

Imagination

is

the prime source of creative expression, and the

capacity to discipline the imagination and give form and substance to its products is one of the distinguishing characteristics of a successful creative artist or an intelligent

and

sensitive ob-

server or listener. The imaginational experience of a writer occurs in the shape of figures of speech, that of the visual artist pictures, that in of the composer in musical forms, that of the engineer in inventions. Free imagination usually is fanciful and undirected, while constructive imagination represents a conscious effort to create an imaginary product with a view to letting others see, hear or feel the sensations and images the artist himself experiences.

imagination thus

artistic

is

concerned with the creation

moods

of fictitious characters, events, scenes, situations and

in

such a way as to recreate the artist's experience in the minds and imaginations of those who come in contact with his work. In order to bridge the gap between minds, the artist must fashion some vehicle poem, building, statue, mural, symphony that will convey his ideas to his readers, viewers and listeners and thus make his intuitions and emotions readable, visible and audible

—

—

to others.

The

creative act, then, results in the concrete forms

works of

4.

and

art,

the choice of encountered.

it

is

known

as

here that the question of classification,

medium and

Major and Minor

the problem of technical facility are

Arts.

—The

arts, for the

sake of con-

venience, customarily have been divided on the basis of various practical, critical, aesthetic or philosophical principles.

has been

made above

to the separation of the higher

Reference and lower

Another widely found distinction is the division into major and minor categories. Architecture, sculpture, painting, literature and music are classified thus as major arts; while ceramics, furniture, tapestry, gem carving, gold and silver smithing, coin and cameo work comprise minor categories. Similar is the classification of the fine as opposed to the applied arts. sense arts.

Modern

thought, however, tends to reduce the distinction becrafts, form and function. An equestrian statue

tween arts and

monumental fountain is, to be sure, a major achievement; but a beautiful chair, despite its practicality, is also a form of sculpture and a work of art. A cathedral and a suspension bridge once were thought to be miles apart on the aesthetic scale, but in the contemporary view engineering is the alter ego of architecor a

ture in the building craft.

On

a

more philosophical

plane, the arts

have been separated on the basis of their relative concreteness and abstractness, their degree of materiality and spirituality, their aspirations toward the beautiful or sublime, or their existence in space or time. 5.

Analysis and Synthesis.

hands of the

work

artist, it

—Once

a

work of

obtains an existence of

its

art has left the

own.

The com-

both an organized whole and a historical fact. As a composition that is, a system of related parts it can be analyzed; as a product of a definite time and place, it can be synthesized. Analysis, by breaking the work of art down into its component parts, by examining how the parts are related to the pleted

in the manifold is achieved, by examining its composition, by studying the techniques the artist used to achieve his effects, can be very: revealing. But while each work of art is essentially unique, it also can be placed alongside others of a similar kind, together

the materials the artist used in

with those originating at the same time and place, so that by comparison a pattern of development eventually may be found. The process of synthesis, then, by placing the work of art in its

and historical frame of reference, by relating the particuwork to that of other contemporary artists, by viewing the work in the light of broader cultural developments and the general stream of events in its decade, century and style period, is

social lar

likewise an invaluable aid to the understanding. 6.

is

—

—

Approaches.—All

in all there are essentially

but three ways

of approaching art: (1) theory, which includes the factors of evaluation, the setting up of critical standards, aesthetics (q.v.) and the philosophy of art dealing with speculation on ultimate objectives

to life itself.

The

whole and how the unity

and meanings; (2) the practice of art, which has to do with mediums, the techniques employed by the artist in and (3) history, which involves

the choice of

the performance of his craft;

placing art in

its

temporal context, investigating streams of

in-

and relating particular works to the spirit of the timein which they were produced as well as to the history of ideas in general. The remainder of this article will deal with the techniques and with the history of the visual arts.

fluence

II.

The

TECHNIQUES OF ART

any given time and place cannot be divorced from historical and geographical circumstances. When, for instance, the rebuilding of the Acropolis temples in the Athens of the Sth century B.C. was contemplated, the visions of Pericles and Phidias would, of necessity, have taken an entirely different turn had it not been for the presence of the vast and fruitful marble quarries at Mt. Pentelicus only a few miles away; otherwise stone had to be transported by ship from Ionia across the Aegean Likewise the sculptural genius of Michelangelo could not sea. have developed in the direction it did, had it not been for the easy availability of marble from Carrara and elsewhere in Italy. Similarly, a young painter of talent born in 16th-century Venice could hardly have become a great fresco painter if he wished to remain and work in his native city, the damp climate of which made fresco work unfeasible and hence favoured the development of oil painting; the wealth and splendor of Venice, consequently was mirrored best in the rich, deep, warm colours of oil pigments. A pictorial artist working in the middle ages naturally would have favoured the dominant two-dimensional mode of representation in his mosaics or miniature manuscript illuminations, while his Renaissance counterpart just as naturally would have thought in terms of the three-dimensional techniques of linear and atmospheric perspective as the normal way to describe space. An artist, then, must choose the medium in which he is to work whether it be sculpture or painting, architecture or music, etching or engraving, water colour or oil pigments as well as the matepractice of art in

—

—

and methods suitable to that medium. It is also necessary for him to develop the proper skills and disciplines necessaryi to manipulate his materials according to his will and imagination,! and to allow him to arrive at a personal solution for the expresrials, tools

sion of his ideas.

In addition, he must take certain external con-

siderations into account, such as the nature of his commission Is his work to be seen in sacred or secular surroundings? Is his audience to be the general populace of a city like Athens or Florence, or a sophisticated aristocracy such as the court of Louis XIV? Thus inevitably, the artist's medium, materials and techniques will reflect the tastes. of his time, as well as the dominant ideas and stylistic trends of

and the source of

his patronage.

his period.

An artist's personal style thus is determined quite as much by the current practice and the historical tradition of his time as by the nature of his skill, craftsmanship and technique. Fresco for instance, dates back to ancient times, and while of representation have varied, the basic methods and procedures of fresco have changed very little since Greco-Roman

painting,

modes

ART times; certain skills, on the contrary (such as encaustic painting; q.v.), that were widely practised in pre-Christian art eventually

become obsolete, while other disciplines (such as mosaic making), after falling into disuse for a number of centuries, are revived and Sourish again. use

become accepted as a surface for painting along with wood panels and other surfaces. With the increased use

nasonite has :anvas,

metals for sculpture, the welding torch as well as the chisel And the strength of ferro-concrete as used by the sculptor. Hlilding material has made it possible for modern architects to idd the structural device of the cantilever to the more venerable if

is

systems of the post and lintel and the arch

and

vault.

A. Architecture

and

to devise a

framework for

his domestic, religious

and

In its broadest sense architecture also includes own, city and regional planning (see City Planning) as well as andscape architecture (q.v.). The building art, furthermore, is perhaps the best example

.ocial activities.

partnership and basic identity of a fine and useful art, and utility, form and function. A building whether a

of the

—

>eauty

emple, church, exhibition hall or domestic dwelling >trate

—must demon-

the solution of the practical problems associated with

its

purpose.

The primary concern of the builder

is

the definition and ar-

and the spanning and enclosure of a square or circle has been described >n the ground, one area has been separated from another and the irchitectural process has begun. As the architect spans his space ;—on the ground as with a wall or road or in the air as with an krch or bridge he encounters not only the complex technical iculation of exterior space

nterior space.

The moment

—

nroblems of his craft but aesthetic factors as well. He must mold lis materials with an eye for the proportion of masses and voids; •or the qualities, textures, colours and capacities of materials;

harmonious relationship of open windows and doors to and flow of lighting; and above

the

;or

losed wall space; for the control

for architecture in action

;.ll

—that

is,

for the

movement

of the

who

will be living, working and carrying on their various within his building. The history of architecture may be read in the progressive

leople

j.ctivities I

changes in the solution of structural problems.

The

transition

rom the most primitive shed roof and simple truss construction

to

he vertical posts, or columns, supporting horizontal beams, or lin-

covers the period from the beginning of civilization through he ancient Egyptian and Greek cultures. The Romans exploited

els,

and dome and made broader use of the load-bearing mass masonry; and in the late medieval period the pointed At this point ,11 the problems of brick and stone masonry construction had been olved, and little innovation except in decoration was achieved he arch, vault

vail

of

rch, ribbing and pier systems gradually emerged.

ptil the Industrial Revolution.

he advent of cast iron

and

Not

until the 19th century, with

steel construction, did a

new

archi-

age dawn and higher, broader and lighter buildings be|ome possible. With the advances of 20th-century technology, ;.ew structural methods such as cantilevering received more exensive use. Building materials evolved in much the same way from the tectural

I

frame, wattle and daub, to clay, The modern use of reinforced various metals including steel, ,opper and aluminum as well as of glass, has led not only to more iaring structural innovations but also to greater beauty through he realization of the inherent qualities of such materials and heir use in novel decorative schemes. Thus architecture as a fine art and engineering as a practical ;rience, after being artificially separated since the Renaissance, ;ave again been reunited in the 20th century. See also Architecture. >rimitive grass, thatch, stick

•dobe. brick, stone

and cement.

'nd prestressed ferro-concrete, of

1

Sculpture, like architecture, is concerned with three-dimensional but unlike architecture it is representational in that it depicts human, animal and plant as well as abstract forms. Sculp-

space;

and architecture exist in an intimate relationship, since most is conceived in terms of moldings, friezes, statues in niches and the like. Sculpture can be subdivided into two categories: (1) relief (q.v.) sculpture, in which the figures are attached to a background and seen against a plane; and (2) free-standing sculpture, in which the figures are detached and appear in the round. Modern sculpture goes a step further in the pieces called "mobiles" and achieves a freedom of movement, part against part, by being suspended in the air. Motion itself thereby becomes the subject matter, whereas previously it could be suggested only by illusion and exterior and interior architectural embellishment

incipient tendency.

Architecture seems to be the logical starting point for any man's necessity to shelter him-

itudy of the visual arts because of ;elf

Sculpture

ture

initial experimentation new mediums and tools come into and are quickly absorbed into contemporary practice. Thus

After

I

487 B.

—

1. Materials. Any material with the capacity for being shaped and retaining that shape is potential material of sculpture. Tradition has favoured wood, clay, stone, and metal as the usual choices

In ceramics clays of various kinds are shaped, either by hand or with a potter's wheel, then hardened by baking. Wood carving (q.v.) and stone carving are also among the simplest and oldest techniques of the plastic arts, while for plastic expression.

first

metalwork

in copper, silver

and

gold, as well as bronze casting,

more complicated processing. Modem sculptors have employed other metals, such as aluminum, iron and steel, requires

far

together with such foundry techniques as welding. Their preoccupation with new materials as well as their forthright and rugged treatment of them has led to modern abstract sculpture whereby the formed material becomes its own subject matter. They likewise have experimented with industrial components such as pieces of steel with rough and jagged surfaces that are often shaped into anthropomorphic forms suggesting the intimate relationship of man and machine. Modern sculptors also have taken cognizance of the opposition of solids and voids, sometimes termed positive and negative volumes, by perforating their works. Often the masses are merely suggested by outlines of wire or planes defined by bent sheets of plastic or metal. 2. Techniques Sculptural techniques can be separated into two major classifications, additive and subtractive. By addition sculptor usually works with clay, wax, plaster or some other the soft material building up the work from a central nucleus, shaping and molding his three-dimensional composition from the inside out. The image then can be hardened by baking, as with terra cotta (q.v.), or transferred by casting into a metal such as silver or bronze. Many modern sculptors work additively by assembling pieces of wood, stone, plastic, metal or wire. In the subtractive technique a sculptor works with a block of wood or marble and carves and cuts away toward the interior, working from the outside in. Material thus is removed, and what remains becomes the

—

final

product.

lines, planes, masses and plastic forms, the sculptor must be concerned with the texture and colour of his mateTacrials as well as with the play of light and shade about them. tile values play an important role in the art, as is indicated by

Besides

also

the necessity of placing "Do not touch" signs near sculptural works. Lighting also must be taken into account, and the sculptor must consider whether his finished work will be placed indoors or out, in bright light or dim, in natural or artificial light; whether the light will fall from above or be reflected upward from below; and whether it will be viewed from eye level or at a considerable height. Because of such factors as these, wrong impressions may occur when a work of sculpture is taken from its original setting and placed in a museum. The pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon, for instance, were intended to be viewed at a height of approximately 35 ft., but in the British museum they are seen Similarly the cella frieze was designed for lighting at eye level.

from below, but in the British museum the from above. (See also Sculpture.) reflected

3.

Minor Three-Dimensional

—A jeweler

light falls

quite as

much

works with metal. His more precious matecan be molded and are also malleable (that is, capable of

as a bronze caster rials

Arts.

ART

+88

hammered or beaten into various shapes"). For ornament a design can be added by engraving or chasing or by beating a metal sheet against a mold so as to leave a relief pattern on one side, a being

technique called repousse. Inlaying (or damascening! with other metals, plating one metal with another, and enameling (cloisonne) are also employed (see Metalwork, Decorative; Enamel). In addition to such decorative arts as silver and gold work, bone and

ivory carving (q.v.), cameo portraits, gem carving (see Gem) and coin making [see Numismatics), there are the arts that combine utility with decoration, among them pottery, glass blowing,

cabinetmaking, furniture designing, basket weaving, leatherwork and the modern machine arts and industrial design. See Pottery and Porcelain; Glass; Furniture Design; Silver and Gold Work; Basket; and Industrial Design. C. Painting

The image

in painting, as in all the other pictorial arts (mosaic,

tapestry, textiles, stained glass, engraving, etching

and the

like),

that is to say, it has no physical three-dimensional Since the artist works only on a surface or picture plane, he must employ certain conventional devices if he wishes These methods include perspecto symbolize objects in space. is

fictitious;

existence.

tive, modeling in light and shade, and the use of colour. Linear perspective takes advantage of the apparent reduction in the size

of objects as they recede

from the eye; atmospheric perspective

suggests the haziness, softening of outlines and loss of detail as the eye looks into the distance; chiaroscuro, or the gradations

and dark as reflected from objects, produces the modeling, a term borrowed from the sculptor's vocabulary; colour perspective is based on the principle that warm colours such as red and yellow seem to project forward and cool colours such as blue and green create the illusion of recession. 1. Materials and Techniques. The materials of which painting is composed and the techniques that organize the materials are closely related. The three materials of painting are 1 the surface, also called the ground; (2) the pigments employed to make the colours; and (3) the tools used to spread the paint on between

light

effect of

—

(

)

the surface. in

painting has a special meaning, referring

which the powdered colours, or pigments, are suspended and which binds the pigments to the surface. One medium is pastel (g.v. ), in which the powdered colours are compressed into pencillike sticks, or crayons, and then spread directly onto the paper; in order to assure permanence, a fixative must be sprayed on the work when it is finished. Another is water colour, in which the pigments are suspended and their tone controlled by the proportion of water; the usual surface is paper or silk (see Water-Colour Painting), In the technique known as gouache (g.v.), the addition to the water colours of an opaque filler such as zinc white makes certain textured and bright-hued to the vehicle in

effects possible.

(see

by artists to achieve certain textures and qualities. Some even pour the paint directly on the canvas; others use an airbrush run by compressed air from a pump, to spray paint on the surface in a fine mist.

Although painting sionally will

a

is

two-dimensional

art,

employ certain techniques that add

to the picture plane.

The

an

artist

occa-

a third dimension

texture of the canvas itself

may

be used, or the gesso sizing can be thick in texture. The painter then builds up his picture with thick pigments, called impasto. or he may smear lighter-coloured paints over darker ones with a "dry" brush to vary the texture in the technique called scumbling. Painters also have experimented with adding sand, pebbles and other materials to their pigments to give thicker-textured and three-dimensional effects. They also may desire the opposite ef-

and paint layer after layer of thin transparent pigments over each other permitting colours to shine through each other. This technique, called glazing, permits delicate and subtle colour modulation, thin textures and precise delineation of detail. In most oil painting the mixing of colours is done as little fect

on the palette, since it renders them muddy and dull; mixing is done on the picture surface itself, thus permitting the colours to fuse and blend more directly. Or the artist may not mix his colours at all, but place, for example, his yellows and blues side by side in small dots or splotches, allowing the eye of the beholder to blend the hues and give the effect of a lively green. Such techniques, called optical mixing and pointillism, were used extensively by the Impressionists to suggest the vibrant as possible

rather, the

nature of sunlight. Though many other arts use colour in their expression, in no art is colour so fundamental as it is in painting.

See also Painting. 3. Allied Arts. Parenthetical mention should be made of allied types of mural decoration (see Mural Painting) such as mosaics, textile wall hangings and glass painting. The technique of mosaic (q.v. requires the placement of many small, flat, vari-

—

)

The term medium

Fresco

pigments on the surface with brushes of various sizes and with of varying textures. Flexible palette knives, spatulas the handle of the brush, and the fingers sometimes have been used his

bristles

Fresco Painting) means painting with water

colours on a wet lime-plaster ground, usually a wall or ceiling surface; the paints and plaster combine chemically to dry into a

permanent surface and become part of the wall

itself.

ground, which is then bound with cement. A rich and sparkling is produced, and though pictorial effects such as light and shade as well as perspective can be suggested, the nature of the medium is best realized in two-dimensional patterns of a semiabstract or abstract style. This is also the case with stained glass (g.v.) as well as with the textile arts, tapestry and embroidery. Cloth and tapestry weaving (see Tapestry) calls for the coloured threads to become a part of the cloth— the warp, as it were, worked into the woof to make the resulting design or image a part of the fabric itself. Embroidery, by contrast, uses the technique of superimposing the design by stitching it onto a plain fabric back-, ground. The artist can also make his designs by stamping or painting them on a plain piece of cloth, a process much favoured surface

modern, machine-manufactured Textiles.

in

With tem-

pera (q.v.) the binding medium is egg yolk, or some other viscous substance; remarkably permanent and capable of brilliant colour effects and precise detail, tempera can be used not only for mural painting but also can be applied to wooden panels, parchment and Casein, a milk-based vehicle, has found favour as a the like. tempera type of painting. Oil is perhaps the most flexible of all vehicles (see Oil Painting, Technique of). Slow in drying, it allows the painter time to consider and correct his work until the desired quality is achieved. Oil paints, unlike the more opaque tempera, are translucent and thus allow light to be refracted; luminous surfaces and certain shimmering effects thus are obtainable. Experiments have been made with synthetic lacquers and pyroxilins such as Duco as mediums for painting. Mexican muralists have employed such mediums, often spraying them on ground of Portland cement. a 2. Application of Pigment. The painter ordinarily spreads

—

ously-tinted pieces of stone or glass, called tesserae, into a mortar

fabrics.

See Embroidery;

D. Drawing and the Graphic Arts

Drawing

(q.v.)

is

an

art in itself

and an indispensable

tech-

Architects, sculptors and painters usually As the artist's ideas set their first ideas down as quick sketches. crystallize, a series of preparatory studies may pave the way for the final work, or the drawing itself may eventually become the

nique for other

finished work.

arts.

There

exist

many

fine

drawings by almost all the numbers of drawings of

great western masters, as well as vast

from Chinese and Japanese artists. A fairly wide range of drawing tools and materials has been traditionally available to the artist; the surface has usually been paper, though many oriental drawings are done with brush and ink on silk, which in turn is mounted on paper. Besides the common pencil (see Pencil Drawing), pen and ink (see Pen Drawing), chalk and charcoal sticks, the artist also may use crayon of various great sublety

types (see Crayon Drawing), or silverpoint, a somewhat more complex technique in which the artist uses a paper prepared with

ART abrasive coating that retains bits of metal scratched off sharp silverpoinl stylus as it moves across the surface.

k fine lu'

An

artist at

)Iflce

niv other ion

his

may be drawn to the graphic command a wide range of

medium, and

many

copies

may

arts partly because they effects

not available in

also because through mechanical rcproduc-

be

made from

a single plate, enabling

him

The end of the graphic process is a reach a larger public. an inked impression, usually on paper, made from a previorint

—

The two principal methods for making the The relief technique is employed, are relief and intaglio. the case of wood and linoleum cuts, when the lines the artist

ously prepared plate. ilate is in

only the remaining smooth surface is nked and transferred to the paper. With intaglio the process is and lines the cut into the copper, zinc or steel plate reversed, ire inked, while the remaining surface is wiped clean and becomes ias cut are not inked, but

olank on the paper. '

methods of working the surfaces of metal plates are With engraving (see Engravengraving, etching and dry point. ing. Line) a steel graver, or burin, is pushed over the plate with

The

chief

sufficient

pressure to cut lines in the metal. In dry point (q.v.) pulled as with a pen. The burr, or raised edge, is

:he stylus is

isually

«

scraped

off

so as to leave a clear precise line.

Sometimes,

left on the plate in order to In etching (q.v.) the plate is irst coated with a wax or varnish through which the artist The plate is then scratches his lines with an etching needle.

in the

3;ive

case of dry point,

it

is

the line a soft, fuzzy edge.

dipped into a corrosive acid,

posed parts of the metal.

which etches, or

Upon removal

bites, into the ex-

of the surface coating,

remaining lines are inked and the plate is ready for printing. The etcher has the advantage of working with soft wax material, ,vhich makes greater subtleties of line, tone and shadow effects oossible. In the technique known as aquatint (q.v.), not only lines but tones, shadows or large areas of various grays may first oe etched into the plate by carefully sprinkling the wax on the blate rather than by coating it completely. Or in mezzotint (q.v.), he burr may be raised on the metal plate mechanically rather han chemically by the use of a rocker, or tool that roughs a arger surface at one time. Other techniques common to the graphic arts are lithography, iquatone and serigraphy, as well as photography. Lithography {see Lithograph), as the name implies, entails drawing on a special kind of polished stone, though metal plates also are used. Subtleties of shading, tone and line are more readily available in 'ithography than in other graphic mediums because the artist has :.he greater freedom of drawing directly on the plate with grease :rayons or brushes with special inks. In serigraphy, or the art of ,iilk screen (see Silk Screen Printing), paints are squeezed hrough a special cloth masked with a stencil so that only certain ireas permit the colours to pass through to the surface of the japer beneath. Invented in the 1 9th century, the methods and j.echniques of silk screen have been raised to the status of an important art form. Photography (see Photographic Art) is basically a simple process of exposing light-sensitive, chemically reated materials to light-reflecting objects, which are then recorded on a plate of film. The processes, materials and equipnent employed by photographers have become extremely complex, jexible and sensitive. The most varied and subtle effects can be Achieved by this graphic method, which takes modern chemistry .he

;

and optics into account. E.

Content

Traditional Categories.

—

Traditionally the subject matter divided into various categories. (1) In historical scenes, including mythological and religious events, the artist usually is concerned with epical subjects and many figures :

!)f

1.

the pictorial arts

is

(2) Genre (q.v.) pictures, by coninclude casual, everyday situations such as a family at

blaced in large-scale settings. trast,

Such subjects are not the epic somelimes humorous treatment, usually tempered with the warmth of .luman sympathy. (3) Portraiture (see Portrait Painting) and igure painting, including academic studies of the nude, constitute supper or a group playing cards. stuff

of history, but lend themselves to informal, genial,

489

another branch of traditional Mibject matter. (4) Landscapes (see LANDSCAPE 'PATNTINC), including seascapes and cityscapes, arc pictures in which scenery assumes major interest. When human or animal figure are included they ate of secondary importance. (5) Then, if l.'intl-c ,-ipe n-pn ml iliel.ni'ei of man's environment, still life (q.v.) becomes the smaller, instill

terior and more detailed view. Still-life pictures usually are composed of static arrangements of fruit and flowers, or a thoughtful grouping of inanimate objects on a table. 2. Abstract and Imaginary Art While these categories are still valid for traditional art, the 20th century has witnessed a break with the past, so sharp that it becomes necessary to add In the one still another division for abstract and imaginary art. case the picture does not describe or refer to the world outside itself, but rather, by an abstract play of lines, shapes and colours,

the picture is self-identifying and its own referent. In the other, by conjuring up phantasms from the inner psychological world of emotion and imagination, the picture becomes a revelation of

the artist's unconscious reactions.

In the various

movements

— cubism, nonobjectivism, expressionname a few—contemporary

ism, surrealism, fantastic art, to

artists

attempt to see the world with new eyes, to distill the essence of things rather than represent their external appearance, and to construct a subjective reality out of their own imaginations. This can mean anything from the distortion of natural shapes to the invention of new forms independent of those found in nature. In abstract design, the artist tries arbitrarily to free line, colour

and form from nature and

emphasize the essential order of Fantastic art and surrealism, on the other hand, look inward toward an introspective dream world of emotions and psychological states. Salvador Dali has called his pictures "hand-painted dream photographs," and the surrealist Andre Breton declared such art to be "pure psychic automatism." 3. Modifications in Sculpture and Graphic Arts. Some modification of these categories must be made for sculpture and the graphic arts. Sculpture, like painting, has always dealt with historical subjects (both religious and secular), as well as with genre and portraiture, and, in the 20th century, with abstract and imaginary plastic forms. Landscape and still life, however, play only an incidental part in sculptural expression. Such devices as a tree trunk, the shape or texture of a rock, the element of water as with fountain groups serve to suggest the placement of figures amid natural surroundings; or a sculpture composition may include an arrangement of flowers, fruits or other still-life comto

things as he understands them.

—

ponents.

While the

pictorial ingredients of the graphic arts can include

those of painting, a subtle relationship between form and content and between the limitations of a medium and the choice of

all

Shakespeare, for instance, casts his tragedies of poetic drama, but for more tender and lyrical expressions he chooses the sonnet. Similarly, a visual artist must take the nature of his medium into account. If the theme is of heroic proportions, a fresco mural or large canvas is in order, but casual and intimate subjects find themselves more at home in the dimensions of an etching or lithograph. subject in the

is

involved.

monumental mold

F.

Concerts of Arts

In addition to the relatively independent arts, there are composite arts such as religious monuments, the theatre arts and opera that result from collaboration of artists from many fields. More than the work of stonemasons, sculptors and glass painters are those collective outbursts of medieval creative energy known as cathedrals. Here the constellations of breathtaking vaults, proliferation of sculptured forms, mysterious colour harmonies of stained glass, merge with choral chant and the sacred liturgy to form one grand architectonic design. Similarly, a theatre or opera production entails the setting of a theatre building, scenic architecture, sculptured properties, costumes, dramatic movement of human figures, plot and dialogue, dance interludes or ballet, spoken or sung melody, solo, choral and instrumental music, and an incidental or full score. These concerts of the arts apparently had their origin in pri-

—

—

ART

49°

eventually took the shape of the more mordial stylized sacred liturgies and such art forms as the Greek drama. Medieval mystery, miracle, morality and passion plays, as well as the popular forms of minstrelsy, combined elements of dramatic action, spoken dialogue, poetry, solo and choral chant and pantoreligious rites that

Renaissance Florence witnessed such elaborate pageants as

mime.

the canti carnascialeschi, or carnival songs of the pre-Lenten celebrations, and the Calendimaggio, or May-season entertain-

ments, that included outdoor singing and dancing by masked merrymakers, mimicry, tableaux and torchlight processions with elaborately designed floats and chariots representing mythological or historical events. Lorenzo de' Medici himself wrote some of these so-called triumphs, and the foremost visual artists of the Ghirlandajo. Verrocchio, Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea time did not disdain to design the scenes and machines for del Sarto

—

—

them. History records some notable examples of these composite arThe poet Angelo Politian collaborated tistic ventures of the past. with the composer Germi on an Orjeo at Mantua in 1474. The presentation was modeled on the sacred representations and pas-

which included dialogue, solo and choral pantomime, plot and scenic spectacle. In Renaissance Rome, Pope Leo X, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, in 1518 patronized a production of a poetic comedy by Ariosto that included dancing, instrumental music and toral plays of the period,

song, instrumental interludes, ballets,

The English court masque was a combination of these Italian triumphs and the French court ballet. For the Masque of Blackness, performed in 1605 at the court of James I, Shakespeare's junior contemporary Ben Jonson wrote the text and the architect Inigo Jones designed the scenery, which involved nothing less than the invention of movable stage sets. Nor Sergei Diaghilev asis the 20th century wanting in this respect. sembled in Paris for his Russian ballet productions such leading lights as the composers Debussy, Ravel and Stravinsky; the scenic designers Bakst, Derain, Matisse and Picasso; the choreographers Fokine and Massine; and the dancers Karsavina and Nijinsky. scenery painted by Raphael.

III.

HISTORY

Ultimately what matters in art, as Lionel Venturi pointed out in the case of painting, "is not the canvas, the hue of oil or tempera, the anatomical structure, and all the other measurable items, but its contribution to our life, its suggestions to our sensations, feeling and imagination." (Lionel Venturi, Painting and Painters, p. 10,

Charles Scribner's Sons,

New

York, 1945).

reflects the conflicts of social forces, the

The

history of art

rivalries of cities

and

ambitions of priests and rulers, the competition among public and private patrons. The human urge to create order and build, decorate and depict, impress and express are the constants of art history, while the dynamics of society, the momentum of particular art movements, the fluctuation of shapes and forms, the evolution of techniques and the vagaries of group and individual states, the

tastes are its variables.

When a centre of population attains a degree of civilization, develops a prosperous economy, fosters an adequate educational system and produces a number of talented persons, a cultural climax may occur. Usually this happens because some person of powerful and persuasive convictions reacts strongly enough to the challenge of his age to reach a position of prominence and influence. Various arguments have been advanced, such as the "great man" theory, according to which outstanding persons stamp their image upon

their age,

history.

and genius

is

the primary causal influence on

Social realists, on the other hand, contend that environ-

mental forces shape the personality and product of the individual. The truth probably lies somewhere between these extremes of nature and nurture; the interplay between powerful personalities and the stimulus of their times brings about the explosion com-

monly described as genius. Such a cultural climax may be

instigated or encouraged by a and discernment. The with the vision and means might an individual ruler patron be possessed by Pericles, who built the Acropolis temples and fostered the poetry and drama that combined to produce the aesthetic clisingle or collective patron with energy

max

Or it might be a family of merchant who brought Renaissance Florence to its development. In the 20th century the Common-

of ancient Athens.

princes such as the Medici

high point of wealth of India became the patron of Le Corbusier, whose commission was nothing less than the construction of an entirely new city, complete with every public and private architectural facility. Modern industrialists have contributed to New York city such cultural complexes as Rockefeller centre, and have joined with the city planning commission as well as other public and private contributors to erect the Lincoln Square "Acropolis" that embraces an opera house, several concert halls, a repertory theatre, a library and educational centre, as well as co-operative housing units. Taken as a whole the arts of a given time and period usually demonstrate a certain unity of direction. Yet this unity does not lie in the separate objects or techniques of production; its focus is found in minds capable of perception and understanding. A search for the common idea that animates and motivates human activities often can reduce to basic simplicity what appears on the surface to be a confusing multiplicity of actions and directions. And since the arts usually are not experienced separately but simultaneously, comprehension may be sought multidirectionally. If a common idea or configuration of ideas can be found, then elements that previously were not understood begin to fall into place and to acquire significance. Techniques of production, of course, are and always will remain private problems to the particular craftsman, but the idea of composition, used here in its basic

sense of putting things together,

is

common

to

all.

An

architect

puts bricks together, a poet words, a musician tones, but they do not do so in a vacuum of abstractions; they do so rather for purposes of expression and communication of thought, free fantasy, social

comment,

satirical observation, self-revelation, con-

new orders and

the like. Highly important is the' viewpoint has been coloured and shaped by a social and historical environment, and his works are addressed

struction of

fact that the artist's

to

some segment

of the

contemporary order.

Whether

the artist

accepts or rejects, endorses or protests, constructs or destroys, his taking-off point must be his own period. Some artists function largely within their own time, having little to say to posterity

and hence passing eventually into oblivion.

Others speak in broader humanistic terms so that they transcend their own times, their works are consequently significant enough to ensure

and

their survival.

Through

can see, hear and feel aspects of never experienced before. Similarly, by training his perceptions and sensitizing his eyes and ears to sight arid sound, the individual observer, reader or listener may discover a new and richer world. The insight of the artist thus can help to create a larger world outlook; through the arts it is possible to participate in the intellectual and emotional currents of the past and present. The visual arts can present the visage of an age through historical painting, portraiture, scenes from daily life; while poetry and music, by revealing emotion, can yield deeper understanding of present as well as past life. Song and lyric poetry reflect the joys and sorrows of the people who sang them. Dances reveal the inner rhythms as well as the outer gestures and steps of the individuals and groups who have performed them. The drama and lyric stage, including opera, is a rich source of social commentary, replete with conceptions of order, manners and characteristic attitudes of a given time. The music of a period tells not only of its harmonies but also of its conflicts: in periods of oppression, it represents the passionate outpouring of the human heart; during religious revivals, it sings out with resounding declarations of faith; in an age of reason, it bespeaks the logical processes of wellordered minds; and during social upheaval, it rings out with revolutionary anthems. It is the artist, then, who most poignantly expresses the spirit of his age. The poet, as leader, establishes goals and ends for human living. He opens up new areas of potential experience and gives structure to that experience by creating images of order. He can convince the individual that life is not an incoherent sequence of events but a force that has a definite direction, unity and meaning in which particular events are subordinated to a its

its

world that

artists, society

it

:

)

ART A work

of art is always a reflection of both the perand the age in which it was produced. Paintmore eloquently than do historical and other documentary evidence. Titian in a portrait

irger whole.

onality of the artist ings,

for instance, often speak

reatises

V

h tries

I

has contributed

some

vital

substance thai allow

the

iewer to visualize the qualities of a living human being as he apIn ieared to one of the subtlest and most alert minds of his age. rt

the past continues to exist as a living process;

arbitrary

its

True underfrom present and future disappears. tanding of human life and history can come only by relating one vent to another and eventually to the entire stream of universal in achieving such a ife from which each derives its significance eparation

;

elation art plays the vital role.

A.

The

Prehistoric and Early Near Eastern Styles

origins of art in preliterate times can be discerned dimly in

nomadic hunter-artists of the Paleolithic Age (c. and in the lake dwellings and agricultural 5,000-10,000 B.C. ettlcments of their Neolithic Age (c. 10,000-4,000 B.C.) sucVarious theories about the important and vital place of •essors. he caves of the

i

rt expression in the activities of early man have been formulated: ;ome feel that art is the expression of an affirmative attitude nd the joy of life; others see fear as an impetus to artistic crea-

man seems

have enjoyed ornamenting his lothing, tools and weapons and decorating his baskets and potery; but he likewise fashioned idols and fetishes, presumably in >rder to propitiate hostile spirits in magic ceremonies and thus o bring the more mysterious forces of the universe under his ion.

Primitive

ontrol.

To some

to

students primitive art represents the delight to others it

n exercising the play instinct during leisure time;

;

by-product of the struggle for existence, the psychological leed to assert the self in the face of an overwhelmingly hostile s

a

nd brutal world. Some see early man's art as originating in the to cover blank surfaces with lines, shapes and patterns; |>thers feel that it is based on deeper spiritual aspirations and he worship of superpersonal beings. 1. Early Man. Already manifest in these early times is the mlarity between a naturalistic recording of observed phenomena ind the tendency to symbolize unseen forces in formal patterns and The Paleolithic artist covered the surfaces of .bstract designs. .aves and rocks with richly coloured, lifelike bisons and mamnoths. With amazing accuracy and keen powers of observation, he cave artists saw and recorded details of animal anatomy, its Musculature at rest and in action. Unconcerned with tradition or jonvention, Paleolithic art was the reflection of a highly indi|lesire

491

etiquette and conformity to convention.

The

shift

toward life. from hunting to agricultural

life

brought about cor-

responding changes in art, and art of the Neolithic period shows

trend to severe geometrical design. Instead of merely representng the visible world, Neolithic man appears to have been conrerned with the invisible forces that controlled his destiny. i

Natural observation and recording gave way to stylized signs and symbols that stood perhaps for the unseen forces and hidden inner In an agricultural world that alternated between and scarcity, man's livelihood and destiny depended upon ;uch capricious factors as the fertility of domestic animals, the ilternation of sunshine and rain, threats of drought and flood, ';torm and wind. Such forces do not lend themselves to realistic treatment, and hence must be represented by signs and symbols tr personified by masks or totems. Neolithic geometrism bespoke more integrated social organization, uniformity of social attitudes Jtnd acceptance of conventions. See Primitive Art. 2. Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Aegean. With the coming ,)f the city cultures of the great river valleys the Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and Nile concentration of population allowed for more varied life as well as for a greater stratification of social levels. In both the near and far east, art expression, with occasional exceptions, was essentially a continuation and refinement substances.

plenty

ii

(

—

— —

)

\i

formal geometrical style of Neolithic times. The cerenonial and courtly arts that developed in Mesopotamia and Egypt 'effected the splendour and magnificence of a superindividual. iloof ruling class, whose life was inexorably regulated by a rigid

of the

individuality was

I

the stylized friezes of solemn and stately processions, winged lions and sphinxes, are massively static and endlessly repetitive. Because prince and priest had to adhere to rigid convention in order to proclaim and maintain their worldly position, only subhuman creatures could become emotionally expressive; hence representations of animals became the most human aspect of art. Two exceptions to these stylized, hieratic expressions were a brief interlude that coincided with the reign of Ikhnaton q.v, in Egypt, and the longer-lived culture of Crete and Mycenae. Ikhnaton broke with the past not only in his adoption of monoi

Portraits theism but also in his conscious innovations in art. of him and his queen, Nefertiti, as well as the informal scenes depicting his court, reveal truly individual personalities with real human warmth. The animated, lively Minoan style of Crete, afterward continued on the mainland at Mycenae, mirrored a gay, chivalrous, luxurious courtly life (see Aegean Civilization i. Difference rather than sameness, diversity rather than uniformity, spontaneity rather than study, flexible forms rather than strict symmetry characterized this colourful and imaginative art. See also Egyptian Architecture; Jewish Art; Persian

Art; Pre-hellenic Architecture.

—

vidualistic attitude

All

suppressed under a veneer ol tereotypes and archetypes. This art was the producl "i temple .in. palace workshops in which generations of anonymous artisans and craftsmen laboured and in which the personality of the artist-designer invariably was conIt was an art created not to be admired and enjoyed but cealed in impress potential enemies with the rulers' power or to preserve their bodies and souls for eternity. Hence its remains are found not only in public places, but also in remote temple sanctuaries and in tombs. Neither the conservative aristocracy nor the priestly caste desired change in the social structure. Consequently those masterly solids, the ziggurat (q.v.) towers and pyramids (q.v.), that practically negated interior space, the pylon-faced temples with their forests of painted columns, the immense palaces, the obelisks,

B. Classical Styles

remained for the Greeks to synthesize these opposing tendencies in Mediterranean art. After a slow germination during the Archaic period, the abstract geometrism of the near east and the spontaneous naturalism of the Minoan-Mycenaean culture, the decorative elegance of the Ionian merchant cities and the solid east and west, strength of the Dorian agricultural communities in short met and merged and eventually flowered into the clasperiods of Helsuccessive Throughout the sical art of antiquity. lenic. Hellenistic and Roman domination (roughly the millennium spanning the five centuries before and after Christ), and despite the social evolution from city-state and kingdom to world empire, this balance between the extremes of naturalistic uniqueness and stylized convention was maintained. Though the scales could tip at any time in one direction or the other, the precarious balance between democratic individualism and aristocratic traditionalism. the actual and the ideal, the changing world of appearances and the permanent realm of abiding principles, spontaneity and selfrestraint, emotional and intellectual elements somehow was maintained. Classical art was never wholly one or the other, but in the work of various generations, geographical centres and schools of artists now one aspect was predominant, now another. The declared principle of Greek aesthetics was the imitation, or representation, of nature. Taken at face value this would be a straightforward naturalism, and to some extent it was; Myron's bronze "Heifer" on the Acropolis at Athens, for example, was so But lifelike that cows were said to low at it as they passed by. the desire to idealize, to perfect, to create types, to work out canons of proportion and rational concepts of order invariably asserted It

—

—

itself.

The history of art knows no event more momentous than the aesthetic revolution brought about by the Greeks. Art emerged from the tomb and from dim temple sanctuaries into the light of day. where it could be seen and admired by all. No longer was art a form of propaganda; it became a free pursuit of creative truth

—

ART

492

and a method of interpreting reality. Ponderous pyramids, with their overwhelming weight and size, yielded to perfectly propor-

must concern himself more with interpretation than with sentation, more with the spirit than with the semblance

tioned temples conceived as dwelling places for benign deities. No longer were the gods conceived as mighty monsters but as perfect human beings endowed with attributes of physical beauty. No longer was art the work of anonymous craftsmen; artists now

subject.

acquired individual reputations, and their works exhibit personal Beauty in the Greek conception was equated with truth and style. goodness in a trinity of eternal verities, and aesthetic activity was raised to the level of intellectual and moral pursuits. Physical or visible beauty could lead the mind of the beholder to thoughts of the divine, and through the contemplation of eternal beauty man could obtain glimpses of the moral order of the universe.

Such lofty

however, still allowed ample scope for perIndividual differences were explored along with

ideas,

sonal expression.

tions

The other

—the

five rules

repre-

of his

have to do with technical considera-

lines and brush strokes, or skejeton that supports the the forms and colours, or flesh and skin that enclose it;

spirit;

the spacing or arrangement of the design; and copying that transmits the principles established by the old masters. The brush strokes by which the oriental artist puts his conception into execution are never static entities but the invocation of living motion, the nerve system of his composition. Sketching from nature and

colouring likewise are dynamic processes that included training the artist's perception by observation, grasping the spirit inherent in objects, pondering on the mystery of animate and inanimate objects and identifying himself with his subjects. In painting a plant or tree, furthermore, the oriental artist follows the natural order of growth, drawing the roots first and proceeding upward.

pricious differences could coexist with accepted conventions; personal hero worship in portraiture and biography found a place

Rules of composition based on Hsieh Ho's canons have been The order and relationship of principal and subordinate parts are carefully distinguished, with the former as the major portion of the design and the latter as its adjunct.

beside admiration for abstract ideals; architects concerned themselves with city planning and domestic dwellings as well as with

The principal is the focal centre of attention, larger more abundant in detail; the subordinate is smaller in

the establishment of types and archetypes; sensuous and intellectual pleasures

were found not to be mutually exclusive; ca-

temples and shrines; utilitarianism in engineering projects such as aqueducts and bridges was not incompatible with concepts of beauty; and painters depicted casual genre scenes as well as vast mythological and historical subjects. Above all, perhaps, the Greeks established the ideal of man as the measure of all things, a concept that has illuminated all succeeding phases of classicism in western art. To the Greeks art was an adjunct to the good life, the material embodiment of attributes,

spiritual

the harmonious reconciliation of

man and

environment. Nature was humanized by personification; even such fanciful creatures as the goat-footed Pan and the centaurs, Classical the human body was always the point of departure. architecture, furthermore, humanized the experience of space by imposing special limitations that rendered it intelligible to the eye as well as the mind. The Greeks defined space in terms of lines and planes and banished mystery from the building process by making all parts of their temples clear and self-explanatory. The Romans went a step farther in expanding and developing interior space and in learning to control and manipulate it as a

amplified at various times.

in size and

proportion, supporting, complementing and balancing the principal. In a portrait of an emperor, for instance, the personality is the prin-

and the palace, furniture and garden are the subordinate The artist must always be conscious of the dominant characteristics, attributes and ideals of his subjects in the case cipal,

accessories.

of

human

—

subjects, the dignity of a ruler, the courage of a warrior,

the refinement of a lady, the rusticity of a farmer; in the case of animals, the plumage of a peacock, the beak and talons of an eagle, the horns of a deer. In figure drawing the oriental canon

his

prescribes that the head should be twice the size of the open palm

in

of the subject's hand;

sculptor molds his materials.

In

all

cases the point of reference

movements.

The anthropomorphic

to the perfection

was man,

his activities

and

idea of the gods gave impetus

and idealization of the human body, and sculpi.e., systems of measurements of the body in a particular statue

tors evolved canons of proportion in

modules

is

logically

its criteria

a

—by which each part

and integrally related

to the whole.

of moderation, balance, order

and

Classical art with

clarity has stood as

model and inspiration to all subsequent generations. Across the it has been an ideal to be studied and emulated, a stand-

centuries,

ard for critical comparisons, a basis for judgment.

See also

tecture;

Greek Architecture; Greek Art; Roman Archi-

Roman

C.

Platonists, through the ancient treatises on rhetoric, poetry, music and the visual arts, to the commentaries of St. Augustine and Boethius. The basic tenets of oriental art were formulated in China by Hsieh Ho about the 5th century. His Six Canons of Painting, which have constituted the basis of oriental art criticism

ever since, are arranged in the order of their importance: (1) life rhythm engendered by spiritual harmony; (2) correct use of the brush in delineating structure and anatomy; (3) rendering of forms in keeping with the objects; (4) application of colours appropriate to the kinds; (5) spacing based on proper planning; and (6) emulating classic pictures in order to preserve tradition. To be recognized as a masterpiece, a work must qualify on It will also

Oriental conventions for representing perspective differ from occidental.

be noted that

first

and foremost an

The

picture

is

built in three planes,

one above the

other, with the nearest objects in the lowest plane.

The

tones

of ink or colour are graded accordingly, with the darkest tones in the foreground, medium in the middle and lightest in the background. Likewise the degree of representing detail is arranged accordingly, with distant objects being less distinct. This does not imply that such details are absent; they merely appear as if they were not present. The total effect thus amounts to aerial rather than linear perspective, and the artist must decide how to suggest spatial and temporal relationships within a restricted area. This involves grasping the essential attributes of a subject, then rendering them with the utmost economy of means. Every extraneous detail must be omitted, and what is left out of a picture One of the most is often more important than what is included. felicitous aspects of oriental painting is precisely this uncluttered appearance, allowing the observer's imagination free play. Copying, as part of rule six, was probably not intended to be literally,

but rather in the sense of interpreting and preserv-

ing traditions, acknowledging that the past is inevitably a part of the present, and recognizing that art parts company with the

Oriental Parallels

By the end of the classical era both Occident and orient had arrived at critical principles and criteria of judgment. The line of thought in the west runs from Aristotle's Poetics and the Neo-

six points.

standing, the height of the figure

times.

taken

Art.

when

should be seven times the size of the head, when seated only three

past as

its

own

peril.

new

of

solutions to technical problems) leads to a certain repetitious-

ness both of subjects and their treatment.

For cross references to numerous articles on the arts of China and Japan, see Chinese Art and Japanese Art. See also Indian Architecture; Indian Art; Indonesian Art; Tibetan Art. D. Medieval Styles

all

artist

Reverence for tradition and the habit

looking to the past for inspiration, however, is deeply ingrained in the oriental artist. Time-tested techniques and hallowed treatment of subject matter plays a far greater part in eastern than Schools of mannerism, by which artists seek in western art. models in the work of other painters rather than from nature, abound in oriental art. Stylization (i.e., using conventional devices and accepted modes of representation rather than seeking

After the

fall

of

Rome and

the dissolution of the Pax

Romana

ART the situation in the western

world was one of disunity and con-

The middle ages comprise, in time, roughly the millenfusion. from the early nium between the 5th and 15th centuries; i, Roman and Byzantine Christian periods, through the barbarian invasions and the successive European dynasties, to the emergence Geoof the Romanesque and the climax of the Gothic styles. graphically the middle ages may be said to have covered the Mediterranean world and all of Europe. Thus multiplicity and variety are more characteristic of the medieval styles than unity, •.,

and a diverse rather than a homogeneous culture prevailed. As Christianity came to maturity in the final phases of the Roman empire, the arts were drawn into the orbit of the church, which was extending its influence over all aspects of political,

and cultural life. There was a reorientation from a physical to a metaphysical view of life, a turning away from the natural world toward the supernatural, from the visible social, intellectual

to the invisible.

Johannes Scotus Erigena, a 9th-century theologian, expressed the patristic viewpoint in his fear that sacred pictures,

if

beautiful,

might lead the faithful toward an appreciation of the seen rather than the unseen world, toward false rather than true beauty. According to Scotus, God created the world of appearances in order to reveal himself in visible form to those who could not see the

Adam came

about when he took delight in the tangible aspects of creation before he had arrived at the perfect state of wisdom in which he would have praised the Creator beinvisible.

The

fall

of

fore the things created.

Hence

the lesson of the Fall was to learn

God first, then to contemplate beauty in its sensible forms and praise the Creator. It is therefore possible to enjoy beauty only on condition that it is seen as the revelation of the glory of God and not as a gratification of sensuous desire. Scotus thus left one door open to aesthetic expression. Knowledge of the criteria of classical art is not particularly While late Roman helpful in understanding medieval styles. building methods and modes of representation continued in modified form, such criteria as canons of proportion, correct use of classical architectural orders and symmetrical design do not apply. Medieval architecture, sculpture and painting actually emphasized the nature of

The walls of Rothe irregular, asymmetry and eccentricity. manesque buildings often are not parallel; the angles of the vaulting sometimes are askew; the arches in arcades frequently are not of uniform height; and Romanesque and Gothic sculptors de-

493 glass.

i

fagades and porches all contemporary knowledge was recorded in jymbolii language of stone. Through the medium of stained glass, the ultimate in the ethe-

a

Light itself became realization of interior space was achieved. a building material that the architect, with the collaboration of

Through his glass-curtain the glazier, could manipulate at will. walls, exteriors and interiors became unified, and the architect was in complete control of the flow of light. Physical light was transmuted into metaphysical illumination, and interiors seemed to be lighted not by the outer rays of the sun but by the inner radiance of the spirit. The loftiest expression of the middle ages is thus found in these miracles of soaring stone and gleaming glass, the Gothic cathedrals, which were the end result of an amazing co-ordination of community effort in concert with a spirit of religious exaltation.

Reflected in Gothic art are

God

the Father, for instance,

became

a

hand pointing downward

from above; the Son was represented by the chrismon (an abbreviation of Christ formed by a combination of the Greek letters Chi and Rho") and the Holy Spirit was a dove. Evolution of church forms is most characteristic of the changing medieval styles. Romanesque abbey churches were designed for monastic communities, while Gothic cathedrals had to take the needs of growing city populations into account. The isolation of Romanesque monasteries contrasted with the greater accessibility of city churches, and during festival periods a cathedral might need to accommodate an entire town's population in addition to a contingent of pilgrims. The cathedral choir and presbytery evolved, for example, to provide space for a large participating clergy. Porches and portals at the ends of transepts, often more elaborate than those of the west fagades, had to be developed to allow for entrance and egress of large crowds. In the abbey church, where many services took place at night, the need for interior light was minimized, while a cathedral's congregation, assembling by day, required larger windows and an increased use ;

many

of the social, political

intellectual dissonances that affirm the vigour

and

and

vitality of the

The struggles between town and country, feudal lords and monarch, kingdom and empire, church and state, monastic and secular clergy, sacred and secular aspects of life, knowledge and faith, reason and feeling were either at or just beneath the surface. By bold thinking and intellectual adroitness the mind attempted Remarkably, the period was to reconcile these irreconcilables. able to effect a balance, however temporary, between such sharp divergencies. Some of the ingenious solutions are found in the monarchy that divided powers between king and feudal lord; in the code of chivalry that effected a balance between strong and weak; the courts of love that upheld ideal love against both marriages of convenience and gratification of the senses; in the art of counterpoint that harmonized note against note, consonance and dissonance, in two or more divergent musical lines: and in the building system that solved the problem of gravitational pull by its equipoise of attraction and revulsion, and by its equilibrium of thrusts and counterthrusts. See also Byzantine Architecture; Byzantine Art; Gothic Architecture; Gothic Art; Islamic Architecture: Romanesque Architecture; Romanesque Art; Russian Architecture; Russian Art. period.

lighted in apocalyptic grotesqueries.

This metaphysical orientation could not be expected to find its models in nature. Objective observation yielded to subjective feeling. The open, exterior colonnades of Greco-Roman temples were succeeded by the enclosed interior arcades of Christian basilicas, and the earthbound horizontality of classical architecture was replaced by aspiring Romanesque and Gothic vertically. In sculpture and the pictorial arts the three dimensions of classical To depict the space yielded to two-dimensional illusionism. infinitely remote and unfathomably mysterious realm of the spirit, medieval artists had to devise an elaborate system of symbols.

And

while the embellishments of abbey churches were Concentrated on the interior, Gothic cathedrals, facing as they did inward market places and city squares, called for inti in the sculptures thai graced smh Ignificanl exteriors and f

E. Renaissance,

Baroque and Neoclassical Styles

— The widely accepted

historical view that the Renaissance represented a rediscovery of the beauties of nature and the joys of this world, a rejection of medieval religious authoritarianism in favour of a secular spirit of free scientific inquiry, and a rebirth of classical humanism needs critical reappraisal. More accurately, the movement appears to have been more an evolution than a revolution, more a continuation and intensification of certain trends apparent in late Gothic thought than an abrupt break with the immediate past. In regard to nature, no more eloquent tribute than St. Francis' "Canticle of the Creatures" (c. 1225) or the descriptive passages The acute in Dante's Divine Comedy have ever been penned. observation and accurate representation of flora and fauna in late Gothic sculpture, tapestries and manuscript illuminations reveal 1.

a

Renaissance.

de-emphasis of allegory and symbolism and point to a recogni-

and beauties of the visible world. The paintDuccio and Giotto are evidence of renewed interest in and the presentation of visual data as the eye Naturalism was thus already highly developed in sees them. Gothic art. The Renaissance extended this and gave it a special tion of the realities ings of

spatial perspective

scientific character. in fact, witnessed a partnership between art which sculptors and painters became leaders in seekCuriosity ing a more exact understanding of the physical world. about natural phenomena drove artist and savant alike to experimentation and investigation. In order to depict the musculature

The Renaissance,

and science

of the

in

human body more

and made

accurately, artists dissected cadavers

significant strides in

anatomy.

By

applying Euclid's

ART

494

worked out the principles of spatial representation, perspective drawing and Speculation on optics and the dynamics of light foreshortening. led painters to the discovery of atmospheric perspective and the modeling of figures in light and shadow so as to create the illusion Renaissance man thus was pictured of three-dimensionality. in well-proportioned interior settings that had depth as well as height and breadth. Outdoors, in the midst of living landscape, Renaissance man could gaze about and behold a world created Nothing, in short, was too large for his delight and enjoyment. theorems to diverging and converging

lines, artists

or small to claim the attention of the inquiring Renaissance mind,

and Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks bear witness speculation and progress that took place. During the middle ages the spirit of classical been kept alive in isolated monastic centres and Renaissance times it began to flourish once more.

to the scientific

humanism had universities; in

God, according Pico della Mirandola, made man at the close of creation to know the laws of the universe, to love its beauty, to admire its greatness. Man once again became the measure of all things, and nothing human was foreign to the Renaissance artist or his art. to

Medieval

man had

thought of himself in such larger contexts as party or corporation, but Renaissance man became an individual in his own right. In late medieval times Petrarch wrote sonnets to his Laura, and Simone Martini painted her portrait, but Laura was still partially an abstract ideal from the With Renaissance writers and painters, the age of chivalry. subjects of biographies and portraits became flesh and blood. Artists became active competitors for personal recognition. Their patrons likewise sought renown by sponsoring works that bore their names as, for example, the chapels created by Brunelleschi, Masaccio and Michelangelo for the Pazzi, Brancacci and Medici class, family,

could be seen on

Roman

all sides, in

the extant

monuments

as well as in

and buildings that were still in use. Not until the late 18th century and the discovery of the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii, however, were large-scale excavations undertaken. The Neoclassical period, therefore, had a far more exact knowledge about all aspects of ancient life than was available during the Renaissance or Baroque periods. Speculation about antiquity during the Renaissance was largely an individual affair. During the Baroque, however, the French academies were set up to codify classical principles, uphold canons of proportion and order and enforce rules of symmetry and clarity. In this way the academies acted as a restraining influence on Baroque exuberance and to a certain extent curbed Baroque decorative extravagance. By Neoclassical times, classical archaeology had come to be regarded as a science, and faithful adherence to authentic models was required. Renaissance and Baroque artists, furthermore, knew antiquity only through Roman eyes, while the Neoclassicists had the advantage of more authentic information about Greek originals. Until the late 18th century, original Greek architecture and sculpture had remained unknown to western artists. At that time Stuart and Revett described and measured the antiquities of Athens; Winckelmann drew a clear distinction between Greek and Roman sculpture; and Lord Elgin brought back his collection of ancient Athenian sculptures to London. the

bridges, roads

In the Renaissance Botticelli occupied himself with mythological subjects and allegories; Poussin, his Baroque counterpart, evoked

families, respectively.

and elegiac moods with his serene figures strolling through Arcadian landscapes; while the Neoclassicist David desired all aspects of his canvases to be so faithful to antiquity that if a Roman of ancient times should suddenly come to life he would feel at home. In sculpture the Italian Renaissance reaffirmed the

To enjoy, said Leonardo, is to love a thing for its own sake and for no other reason. The Renaissance artist looked more for

casting and

the intrinsic value of objects than for their symbolic or allegorical

In contrast to his medieval counterpart, the Renaissance artist thought more in terms of the purely aesthetic aspects of his work and less in terms of moral lessons and visual narrative techniques. He was more concerned with modes of presentation significance.

mechanics than with subject matter as such. He was also more conscious of his mission to create works of art, while his medieval predecessor was content to produce functional objects in which artistic implications were more a by-product than

and

pictorial

a direct concern. 2. it is

Classicism.

— Greco-Roman

ideas recur in every century,

and

illuminating to compare Renaissance conceptions of classical

Baroque and Neoclassical periods. The models each generation chooses from antiquity, the way each century adapts and modifies ancient forms and handles decorative details, the manner in which each period absorbs the classical vocabulary into its expressive language become critical indices

art with those of the

to the

understanding of each

style.

Interest in the antique world during the Renaissance had been

limited to certain restricted circles of intellectuals and artists:

academy, the group around Lorenzo de' Medici and the courts of certain of the popes. Baroque classicism, as exemplified at the court of Louis XIV, was the plaything of an aristocratic class who pictured themselves as Olympian deities with all their mythological trappings and capricious moral behaviour. The Neoclassicism of the revolutionary period had a broad popular base in the solid citizenry of an educated middle class who saw Greece and Rome as the birthplaces of liberty and freedom. Lorenzo the Magnificent, as the head of a small citythe Florentine

state, could envisage himself as the philosopher-king of

Plato's

Republic; Louis XIV, who viewed the antique world through the eyes of an absolute monarch, found his model in Alexander the Great; and the leaders of the American and French Revolutions found precedents for their new governments in the parliamentary forms of the Roman republic. The extent of knowledge about antiquity varied considerably. During the Renaissance an occasional antique statue was unearthed and caused a stir. In Italy, however, the heritage of antiquity

nostalgic

expressive power of the nude, revived

Roman

techniques of bronze

created original works animated by the spirit of antiquity. Baroque statuary created new variations on old mythological themes. The Neoclassical sculptors saw living flesh through the marble eyes of antique statuary, and with their pointing machines produced works that adhered closely to classical models.

In landscape architecture the gardens of the Italian Renaissance, with their fountains, grottoes and statuary, had a dignified formality. Baroque classicism sought to master nature, force it into geometrical patterns and harmonize it with a rational concept of the cosmic order. Neoclassical gardens, however, became highly picturesque with artificially constructed ruins and picturesque accents.

In the early Renaissance Brunelleschi sought the inspiration Rome in Vitruvius' treatises and in such monuments as the Pantheon. When, however, he built the dome of the FlorenBy using tine cathedral, he reverted to Gothic vaulting methods. Roman decorative detail, his Pazzi chapel achieved a crisp, clearcut geometrical definition that marked a distinct departure from the medieval concept of infinite space. Baroque architects thought

of ancient

in terms of the correct use of the classical orders, the mathematical proportions of their buildings and the judicious use of antique decorative detail. The Neoclassicists, however, were con-

cerned with the problems of archaeological correctness. Baroque rationalism could never have countenanced the reconstruction of classical buildings for contemporary use. Baroque architects were content to design their "modern" buildings and adorn them with ancient porticoes and Roman decorative motives. The archaeological enthusiasm of the Neoclassicists, however, led to the construction of "ancient" buildings for modern use, and this antiquarianism often resembled a cult of ruins.

See also Renaissance Architecture; Renaissance Art; Baroque and Post-Baroque Architecture; Baroque Art; Neoclassical Art. F.

Romantic and Modern Styles

and early 19th centuries Neoclassicism had the full force of officialdom and the academies behind it in style in Georgian England and still the accepted France and was the American Federal period and early republic, it represented

Though

in the late 18th

ART, SOCIETIES OF While Neoclassicism but one tendency of the arts of this time. was riding the crest of the popular wave, the Gothic revival was enlisting its partisans; the German "storm and stress" outbursts were reverberating in dramatic, literary and musical circles; the tender emotions were being aroused by the "sensibility" movement in bourgeois novels, plays and genre pictures; interest in the near and far east was adding an exotic dimension to the imagination; and bucolic novels and landscape paintings pointed to the In this battle of styles the pious "back to nature" movement. medieval knight, the noble savage, the idyllic shepherd, the poor popular favour with the dignified proud peasant competed for but Greek and stalwart Roman. Together these new images of man heralded the dawn of romanticism with its repertory of escape mechanisms and its longings for any place but here and any time

but now.

In approaching the arts and ideas of the modern world, it is keep in mind that at present, as in the past, there are two The subjective view is coloured by personal

well to

possible world views.

involvement and an accent on emotionalism. The objective view bespeaks logical organization and a cool, detached intellectuality. The subjective side reveals itself in the various facets of expressionism, in which the emotions gain the upper hand, the inner world of neuroses and psychoses is explored and protests against existing conditions in the external world are made. Objectivity in contemporary art finds its outlet in various forms of constructivism such as cubism, futurism, the mechanical style in painting and sculpture and the international style in architecture. The exponents of expressionism and its variants are little conReactions to physical, cerned with the world of appearances. psychological and spiritual events can be revealed only by looking inward and beholding soul states through the mind's eye. The images on the canvas are altered and distorted according to the intensity of emotion and violence of feeling through which they are viewed. The visual vocabulary used to express such flights of the imagination, neuroses and psychoses includes psychological symbolism, violent visual distortions, conflicting linear directions, clashing colour dissonances and a variety of shock techniques. From the Renaissance until the end of the 19th century, the pictorial artist was expected to portray the three-dimensional physical world and to describe the objects in it more or less completely from one point of view, that of the spectator. Pictures through their subject matter, literary allusions and narrative content made constant reference to the world outside the picture. In abstract design, natural appearances, as the eye beholds them, play little part; it is a type of analytical vision in which a landscape or stilllife composition is simplified to a system of angles, shapes and patches of colour on a two-dimensional surface. Abstract art had its inception in Cezanne's pictorial studies in which he saw nature in terms of such forms as the cylinder, the sphere and the cone.

The geometry

of the cubists, futurists

and practitioners

mechanical style, based as it is on a dynamic image of the is considerably more complex. Vision, in their theory, is a fast-moving, fleeting experience in which the observer sees objects not from a single point of view but simultaneously from many. A picture, therefore, should be presented as a constellation of multivisual viewpoints and in multifocus perspective. In of the

world,

and reintegration, fission and fusion, broke up and fragmented content, then reassembled it in a new unity, one

a process of disintegration

the cubists

and

their pictorial

their successors analyzed,

that lies not in the subject represented

but in the picture itself. went a step farther in banishing all recognizable objects derived from the external world. They manipulated their abstract lines, swirls of colour and free forms, and the picture becomes both an independent entity and its own referent.

Th.e nonobjectivists

Abstract Art; Cubism; Dadaism; Expressionism; Futurism; Impressionism; Mannerism; PostimSurrealism. In seeking an understanding of contemporary art, the observer must remember that modern society presents an unusually com(See also

Fatjvism;

pressionism

;

plex picture, that extraordinary technological

advances have inexperiment in many new mediums and that detailed knowledge about the products of past centuries have opened up cited artists to

495

than those beheld by any previous period. While fo lived and worked within a small graphical centre and executed commissions for a few patrons, his modern counterpart addresses his work to a vast, inchoate public, with all its international connotations and multiplicity oi vers are, to a greater levels. Contemporary artists as extent than ever before, the heirs of all the ages. Access U wirier historical horizons

stores of information can lead either to a stultifying eclecticism in artistic

to

new

productivity and public taste, or can become a challenge In one case the dead arts are in danger

creative activity.

of burying the living; in the other, the present, without denying its

heritage, can assert itself in the face of the past

and evolve new

mediums and expressive forms. Since each cultural epoch, century, generation and individual views the world with different eyes, no one concept or image is ever final. All works of art exist in the present, and since new ideas of art are constantly appearing, all such works become links in the chain of evolution of new forms. See Modern Architec-

ture;

Modern Art; Nineteenth-Century Art;

see also ref-

W.m. F.)

erences under "Art" in the Index.

ART, SOCIETIES OF. sisted

solely of practising

The

artists

earliest societies of art con-

and existed

chiefly

for

their

mutual protection and to a lesser extent for their social betterment. They had their origins in medieval "lodges," which were groups of craftsmen working together on ecclesiastical building projects; but early in the 14th century painters and sculptors began to secede from the lodges and to attach themselves to guilds. In Florence the appropriate guild came to be the surgeon apothecaries', and a special branch for artists was formed in 1360 with compulsory Earlier, the Florentine Compagnia di San Luca membership. (Guild of Saint Luke) had arisen (c. 1339) as a voluntary religious company of artists, but with mainly charitable aims, for its rules (1386) do not mention the practice of art. St. Luke had been chosen as its patron saint in accordance with the 6th-century legend that the Apostle painted the Blessed Virgin's portrait.

A

similarly

named

guild also flourished at

Antwerp;

its

earliest

surviving records are of 1453. The guild organization, with its restrictive rules and carefully observed hierarchy, became increasingly irksome to more independently minded artists, particularly when the church ceased to be the unchallenged patron of the arts and when painting came to

—

be regarded more as one of the liberal arts than as a craft with all the enhanced social status thus implied. The old master-apprentice relationship was slowly replaced by one of professor-student, with the emphasis upon the teaching of knowledge rather than of manual skill. Symptomatic of this change was Lorenzo the Magnificent's "garden school" (or academy) at Florence, founded in 1490 with the sculptor Bertoldo at its head and Michelangelo as its most distinguished student. There the instruction was informal and uncircumscribed by guild rules. Leonardo da Vinci's academy (c. 1498), by contrast, was not a teaching establishment, but seems to

—

have been a group of amateurs a social gathering of men meeting to discuss the theory and practice of art. Similar academies were formed by Baccio Bandinelli at Rome (1531) and at Florence (1550). Nevertheless, the old Florentine guild of surgeon apothecaries and Guild of Saint Luke were only finally vanquished by the advent of Giorgio Vasari's Accademia del Disegno in Jan. 1563, under the patronage of Grand Duke Cosimo de' Medici, who shared a significant dewith Michelangelo the honour of capo (master) velopment of the artist's social position. Vasari's accademia beand the chief centre artists Florentine leading society of came the But its organization soon began to of instruction for students. crack, and in about 1575-78 Federico Zuccaro unsuccessfully attempted to reform it. His ideas were later carried out at Rome when he and Cardinal St. Carlo Borromeo founded the Accademia di San Luca in Nov. 1 593. This was the prototype for the modern academy: education took priority with the election of 12 visiting tutors; there were departments of drawing from casts, the antique and the life; prizes were offered, and the members and the president (Zuccaro) were required to present works of their own. Lectures on mathematics and physics were planned but never delivered.

—

After several vicissitudes the Accademia di San Luca became firmly

1

ART, SOCIETIES OF

+9 6 established

by 1635.

tion

The history of academies then became inextricably interwoven with that of art societies: then. too. were sown the seeds of confusion between the definitions of learned society and society of art; for once painting, sculpture and architecture were regarded as the equals of. for example, mathematics, astronomy, rhetoric

and poetry, it became necessary to indicate how each branch of knowledge again divided off into separate compartments by the time the highly specialized 20th century was reached. Thus the Accademia della Virtu. Rome (c. 153S ). was the first archaeological society and the indirect ancestor of such societies as the (British) Societies of this Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. kind obviously have an artistic as well as scientific appeal, but their membership is comprised of enlightened amateurs or professional scholars with few.

In the

1

if

any. practising artists.

6th and 17th centuries there appeared in Italy a number and sometimes semisecret. societies of artists, intended

of informal,

to provide corporate lodgings, studio

and life-model

facilities,

and

even mutual physical protection. Some of these clubs or cabals were formed by foreign artists working in Italy. A notorious example was the "Cabal of Naples" organized in the 1630s by Jusepe Ribera and others to persecute north Italian artists who had obtained contracts in the city. During the 17th century Italy gradually lost the initiative in artistic matters to France. In Paris the Academie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, due largely to Cardinal Mazarin's efforts, merged with the old guild organization, the Academie de St. Luc, in Aug. 1651. Ten years later Jean Baptiste Colbert was elected director and in 1666 the Academie de France was founded at Rome. The four-year studentship. "Prix de Rome," followed, and French supremacy in Rome was achieved when the French artist Charles Errard was elected principe of the Accademia di San Luca in 1672. An important new development of the academy as an exhibiting society took place in 1667 when an exhibition of students' prize drawings and members' work was held at the Paris Academie. From this was evolved the annual salon of succeeding centuries, which in turn formed the pattern followed throughout Europe during the latter half of the 18th century and after. In northern Europe the most important academy after that of Paris was Berlin's. Founded by Frederick I of Prussia in 1697 it was part of an ambitious cultural program which included the formation of the University of Halle and the Akademie der Wissenschaften. Both the Berlin academy and that at Vienna (1705. reformed 1725 and 1770) were based on the French pattern. By contrast with those in the wealthy, highly systematized royal states. Flemish and Dutch artists remained within loosely knit guild organizations which hardly interfered in their affairs except to gather annual taxes. In Holland no direct state patronage existed, and the artist had complete freedom of expression. But this meant that he had to paint for an unknown clientele, and so gradually specialized in a particular genre, disposing of his work through a

new

class of intermediaries

—

dealers.

The

old regulating

mech-

anism of guild and state patronage disappeared, and the markets became oversupplied. Most Dutch artists chose to have a second breadwinning occupation. This was the first symptom of an evil that bedeviled 20th-century painting, and one which helped to stimulate the rapid increase in exhibiting societies after about 1880.

—

The 18th Century. Paris. Rome, Florence and Bologna were the most active of ig academies flourishing in 1720; by 1790 over 100 academies and public schools of art had been formed. Most German princely states possessed private academies, closely followed by Italy; in France provincial academies were subservient to Paris; Spain. Scandinavia. Belgium, the Netherlands and the U.S. also opened new academies. This rapid rise accorded well with the changing taste of the age of reason, an age also characterized by revived interest in antiquity, classical ruins and literature. Equally important was the practical value of these schools as stimulants to overseas commerce resulting from their raising of the general standard of a nation's products. A few exceptions to this revived mercantilism were Rome, Florence. London. Madrid. Turin and Diisseldorf. Rome and Florence had a strong ancient tradi-

among

in

;

England

art education

generally conservative.

Even

remained

in private

hands and was

the (now- Royal) Society of Arts

and Commerce in Great Britain (1 754 did not provide an art school, and it had been anticipated by the Dublin society for "improving husbandry, manufactures and the useful arts and sciences" (1731) and the Foulis academy. Glasgow (17531. Sir Godfrey Kneller's academy held its first meeting on St. Luke's day. Oct. 18. 1711. and soon after Kneller's death in 1723 this private art school was continued by Sir James Thornhill. who was himself succeeded by his son-in-law William Hogarth in 1734. Hogarth then fused the old St. Martin's Lane academy (begun with Thornhill's property and by 1750 it had become the 1 720 chief English academy. But life drawing was its only function, and a more general artistic demand was satisfied after the foundation in 1734 of the Society of Dilletanti by a group of gentlemen travelers and amateur cognoscenti. In 1 768 the Royal academy (see Academy. Royal came into being, and a special feature of it was the great importance attached to annual exhibitions. Experience had shown that its precursor, the Society of Artists of Great Britain (founded 1760. granted royal charter 1765 1. found such exhibitions a sure and cumulative source of income; so also did the academy, which soon became financially (and for the

Encouragement of

Arts. Manufactures,

)

1

)

therefore politically) independent of royal patronage.

By 1 790 the chief function of most academies was as art schools, whereas formerly they had been select groups of especially competent men. An interesting reversion to the function of the Medicean and Vasarian academies had taken place, for academies were educational rather than social institutions. Just as they had spread rapidly across Europe during the second half of the 18th century, so also did they gather a small but vociferous opposition. Jean Jacques Rousseau. Edward Young. Goethe and J. G. von Herder led the Romantic school in philosophy and letters. J. L. David and A. J. Carstens in painting. Their chief attack was made against the universal rules prescribed by academicians for the comprehension and instruction of creative genius. Academies were regarded as sickly things only capable of perpetuating the mediocre, a view

by Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists. But Jacques Louis David, in his struggle against the Academie Royale, failed to change any part of its fundamental structure. Although in 1793 he broke with it and replaced it with a Commune des Arts which abolished all rival organizations, its successor, the Societe Populate des Arts, renewed contact with surviving members of the old Academie Royale. reopening in 1795 as the Ecole des Beaux-Arts (for art instruction) which left social functions to the fine arts section of the Institut de France. This latter was named the Academie des Beaux-Arts by Louis XVIII in 18 16. Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. After about 1S05 there was a bewildering proliferation of art societies, the majority of which were, originally at least, antiacademic in intention. This' rapid growth also reflects 20th-century anarchy and increasing spealso held

—

cialization in the figurative arts.

At first, the most effective antiacademic movement centred around the German painters Johann Friedrich Overbeck, Franz Pforr, Peter von Cornelius and Friedrich Wilhelm von Schadow, who formed a Brotherhood (later "Order") of St. Luke, about 1807-08. afterward traveling to Rome where they lived and worked in the deserted monastery of S. Isidoro. The Nazarenes (as they were nicknamed believed that the defects of an academy mechanical routine and slick drawing formulas could be avoided by a return to the more intimate teacher-pupil relationship characteristic of a medieval workshop. Cornelius returned to Germany in 1819 to direct the Diisseldorf academy, but both there and at Munich, where he moved in 1S24. he proved a poor organizer and it was left to his successor, Schadow, to introduce teaching reforms in 1826. The most important of these derived from an idea already practised in France by David; i.e., one professor, instead of 12 visiting teachers, to supervise 30 or 40 pupils drawing and painting from casts and life. Patronage began to undergo radical changes: fewer works were commissioned directly from the artist, and by the middle of the century it had become increasingly important for artists to find )

—

—

ART, SOCIl space in order to attract buyers. Academies could supply this need only partially and were therefore highly selei live; iince quality was mil always the sole basis of selection their enemies •xhibition

iad further cause

complaint. In England the Free Society of Artists held exhibitions from 7(11 to [783, and the (now Royal Society of British Art Ms was founded in 1S23 as a revival of the old Royal Society ol Artists for

(

I

1

1

Between [850 and t86o the National Institute of Fine Ails alered for many minor painter-, who seldom •xhibitcd elsewhere. More specialized institutions were the (now Royal) Society of Painters in Water Colours (1804), the Royal Institute of Oil Painters (1S83), the Royal Society of British Sculptors (1904), the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers (18S01 and the Pastel society 1898). The foundation of :he New English Art club in 1S85 marked a major secession from the Royal academy, only partially healed after several leading nembers were later readmitted. A second upheaval followed the first Postimpressionist exhibition at the Grafton gallery when the London group (at first called the Camden Town group was founded (191 2). Other independent groups were the Society of Twelve 1904-15 ), which included Charles Conder. William Orpen, \lphonse Legros and D. Y. Cameron; the short-lived Young if

Great Britain

1

17I1O-01

1.


hich causes momentary paralysis of the heart muscle as well as nterruption of the flow of blood to the respiratory centre of the jrain.

by

Resuscitation

artificial res-

piration consists chiefly of actions:

(1)

establishing

two and

maintaining an open air passage from the upper respiratory tract (mouth, throat and pharynx) to the lungs, and (2) exchanging air and carbon dioxide in the terminal air

step in resuscitation,

no matter what type of artificial respiration is used, is to quickly clear the mouth and throat of any foreign material or mucus that might obstruct the air passage. In the case of an infant or child hold the victim in a head-down, face-down position with the right hand and forearm (fig. 1). Pat him sharply on the back with the other hand. This should clear the upper respiratory passages.

To

prepare for mouth-to-mouth breathing, place the child on With the thumb and middle finger of the left hand (thumb under the tongue) lift the lower jaw forward and upward Hold the jaw in this to open the air passage fully (fig. 2 [A]). position with the left hand under the angle of the jaw (fig. 2[B]). The rescuer should place his mouth over the child's mouth and nose, making a relatively leakproof seal (fig. 2[C]). Breathe into the child's mouth with positive pressure. With an infant use

amounts may damage his lungs. As the chest and the lungs expand the rescuer should place his right hand on the upper abdomen between the ribs and the navel (fig. 2[D]). With gentle pressure of the right hand the air is expelled from

short puffs; larger rises

the lungs.

The of

the

rescuer should take a deep breath during each exhalation victim; the mouth-to-mouth inflation-exhalation cycle

should be repeated about IS to 20 times a minute. With an adult the same procedure is followed except that both hands are generally needed to elevate the jaw in an upward and

sacs of the lungs while the

heart

functioning.

is still

Time

is

an important factor in successful resuscitation not only in the urgency with which a first aid method is used but also in the continued application of a technique that may eventually revive an unconscious victim.

Two methods

of artificial res-

were recommended by the American National Red Cross and the American Medical AssoIG. METHOD OF CLEARING AIR _ One 'ASSAGE BEFORE APPLYING ART1- Clatl0n m the earl y 1 960 S icial respiration to children method, known as expired air inflation or "mouth-to-mouth ?«,.,.,>, holds „„ hoiH. child „>,;m In 1. head-down t„=w a rescuer portion and sharply pats him on back breathing," is widely accepted for piration

I.

when

his back.

shock.

In

FIG.

(A) Rescuer opens child's air p angle of child's jaw and (C) pla

—

.

.

.

,

,

'

.

FIG.

3.

— MOUTH. TO-MOUTH

RESUSCITATION FOR ADULTS

:

(A) Rescuer elevates victim's jaw, cla ips nostrils and places mouth, breathing to inflate the victinr s lungs; (B) rescuer a hale before repeating forced inhalatic

ARTIGAS

528

outward position where it can be maintained with the right hand (fig. 3). Use the fingers of the left hand to clamp the nostrils Press the mouth firmly against of the victim. victim to make a tight seal. Inflate the lungs of forceful, short, even breaths, causing the chest to are filled. Allow passive exhalation (fig. 3[B])

the lips of the the victim with rise as the lungs

and then repeat

the forced inflation 12 to IS times a minute. In both youngsters and adults, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation

should be continued until normal breathing returns or the victim is

pronounced dead by a physician. In May 1958 the American Medical association published the Symposium on Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation which

report of the stated:

"Resuscitation with expired-air breathing is simple and efIt is readily adaptable to babies, children and adults

fective.

without adjunct equipment. Rescuers can maintain mouth-tomouth breathing for an hour or more without fatigue even when the victim is twice the size of the rescuer. Skilful performance of expired air breathing is an easily learned lifesaving procedure. It has revived many victims unresponsive to other methods and has been proved in real emergencies under field conditions.''

The Holger Nielsen Method.

—

Another method of artificial is the "back pressure-arm method. This technique was first described in 1932 by Col. Holger Nielsen of Denmark. The procedure is as follows: (1) Place the victim on his abdomen (fig. 4) with face turned to one side and the elbows bent so respiration that has been widely used

lift"

FIG. 4.

— HOLGER

NIELSEN BACK PRESSURE-ARM LIFT METHOD

(A) Rescuer places hands on victim's back and, slowly rocking forward, exerts steady pressure; (B) rescuer releases pressure by rocking backward, lifting victim's arms forward and up and then down

that one cheek rests on the back of the hands. victim's

mouth and

the free flow of

air.

Quickly clear the throat of any material that might obstruct At the same time pull the tongue forward.

(2) Kneel at the head of the victim while facing him; place open hands on the victim's back (fig. 4 [A]) at a level just below the armpits with fingers spread and thumbs touching. (3) Rock forward slowly on extended arms while exerting steady pressure downward on the back. This forces air out of the lungs. Do not exert sudden or violent pressure. (4) Release the pressure slowly and rock backward while grasping the arms of the victim just above the elbows (fig. 4[B]); lift the arms forward and upward until you meet resistance, then slowly lower the arms to the ground. This arm-lift causes active inspiration by pulling on the chest muscles and arching the back. The cycle of press and release-lift and release should be repeated 10 to 12 times a minute and continued until natural breathing occurs or the victim is pronounced dead. Drowning. In cases of near-drowning it is imperative to start artificial respiration as quickly as possible and to provide to the lungs a sufficient supply of oxygen so as to ensure the continuing function of the heart and the brain. Do not be concerned about water in the lungs or the stomach. Valuable time should not be wasted in an effort to evacuate the water or loosen the

—

clothing.

Place the unconscious victim on his back and start mouth-toresuscitation. If the stomach bulges when inspiration is moderate pressure over the stomach area during expiration and thereby evacuate some of the water from the stomach.

mouth

forced, exert

(A)

Rescue

ARTIGAS—ARTILLERY A

undoing, however.

lis

later

Portuguese invasion ultimately

2.

orced Artigas out, although he resisted bitterly for more than tree years. In 1 820 he withdrew to Paraguay, where he spent the

He died Sept. 23, 1850, in Ibiray near Asuncion. regarded as the chief creator of Uruguayan indft)endence although that movement was not finally won until several See Uruguay: History. R. H. Fi.) rears after his retirement. ARTIGAS, a department bordering the Uruguay river in exreme northwest Uruguay, with Argentina on the west and Brazil ni his life.

est

'

Artigas

is

(

was named

in honour of Jose Gervasio hero of independence. It is the least in the country, with only 70,426 lensely populated department ohabitants ( 1954 est.) in a territory of 4,682 sq.mi. Artigas, like Its rolling, somewhat nost of Uruguay, is ranching country. ocky pastures are good but subject to damaging droughts. A low •ange of foothills, the Cuchilla de Belen, traverses the southern There is some agriculture, with sugar iart of the department. The :ane. oranges, grapes, forage and maize as the principal crops. apital city, Artigas, faces Brazil across the Cuareim (or Quarai)

the north

and

east.

It

Vrtigas (q.v.), the national

(M. I. V.) As constituted in mid-2oth century, this ategory of military weapons was difficult to define exactly. In ommon parlance it meant all manner of big guns, howitzers and ocket launchers, as distinguished from small arms (q.v.) or inThe traditional dividing line between the two antry weapons. :lasses was calibre .60 (0.6-in. or 15-mm.); weapons with bore liameter greater than calibre .60 were considered artillery and But there ;hose with smaller bores were considered small arms. iver.

ARTILLERY.

many

vere

Portable rocket launchers like

exceptions to the rule.

bazooka with its 2.36-in. (60-mm.) bore or the larger 3.5-in. S9-mnO superbazooka and recoilless rifles of 57-mm. and larger ,.vere sometimes classed as small arms because they were used by infantry troops and could be handled by one or two men. Small ,nortars also were often classed as infantry weapons rather than artillery. At the other end of the scale, the large rockets and guided jnissiles that emerged during and after World War II added a whole lew category of weapons capable of performing an artillery function but operating on principles radically different from conventional guns and howitzers. Between these two extremes were rapidiring aircraft weapons ranging from machine guns of calibre .30 and .50 up to larger pieces of 20 mm., 37 mm. and even 75 mm..

With these

aircraft

weapons the

distinction

Detween infantry use and artillery use was, of course, not appliThough similar to their ground counterparts, these aircraft liveapons were usually not designated as artillery but as aircraft armament, just as the big guns mounted on tanks were referred to cable.

,is

tank armament.

The term artillery also described the personnel or artillerymen who transported and served the weapons and the branch of the army

Organization of to which such personnel were assigned. and employment of weapons are discussed later in this artiFor the differences cle and also in the articles Army and Tactics. between military gunnery and naval gunnery see Gunnery, Naval. 'For a description of artillery shells, fuzes and propellants, see Ammunition, Artillery; Fuse; Propellants. For an exposition of the physical laws governing the flight of projectiles, see Bal'units

listics.

The main I.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

II.

16th 17th iSth 19th

1.

3.

5.

Antiaircraft Artillery

6.

Gun

Aircraft Artillery Recoilless Rifles

9.

Rockets

Mounts

6.

Occupation of a Position Choice of a Position Ranging Ranging by Map or Survey Methods Sound, Flash and Radar Ranging Laying

7.

Fire

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

8. Use of Various Types of Ammunition IX. Tactics 1. Application of Fire 2. Observation 3. Co-operation With Other Arms X. Attack 1.

Approach March

2.

Dispositions

Plan Close Support 5. Counterbattery 6. Harassing Fire 7. Pursuit XI. Defense 3.

4.

Work

1.

Dispositions

2.

6.

Plan Repulse of Assaults Antitank Defense Counterbattery Harassing Fire

7.

Withdrawal

3. 4. 5.

XII. Antiaircraft Defense

During World War II and the years that followed, artillery materiel was subject to various classifications. A simple method was to divide it into two basic groups: (1) mobile or field artillery which was capable of comparatively quick transfer from one place to another; and (2) immobile artillery, or artillery of position, being heavy cannon which, once emplaced in a permanent seacoast or fortress defense, was rarely moved. Because World War II was a war of rapid movement over wide areas, mobile artillery assumed greater importance while immobile artillery of the old fixed-fortification type tended toward obsolescence. A new type came into service during the iq40S and took the name of selfpropelled artillery. It consisted of guns or howitzers mounted on armoured tanklike carriages that moved under their own power instead of being towed by truck or tractor. In field use there were many specialized classes of artillery such as mountain guns or howitzers, tank and antitank guns, and antiaircraft weapons. Each class had its own peculiar requirements and its own technique of fire. In terms of army organization, artillery was sometimes classed as battalion, regimental, divisional, corps or army. As their names indicated, these classes steadily increased in calibre, range and effectiveness from battalion up to corps, though army artillery was usually a composite of all types. Another common practice was to classify artillery pieces as light, or heavy.

The

lines dividing these classes differed

The

U.S.

army placed

in the light

among

category

weapons up to the 105-mm. howitzer; in the medium category the 155-mm. howitzer: and larger guns and howitzers in Still the heavy category. (See Artillery in World War II below.

artillery

)

another classification described the various types of artillery weapons as guns, howitzers, heavy mortars or rocket launchers.

I

Evolution of Equipment Evolution of Organization and Evolution of Tactics

Spanish Civil IV. Coastal Artillery

Carriages and

8.

the armies of the world.

Century Century Century Century

Between World Wars 1.

Artillery Artillery

Heavy

Mortars

VI. Cold War Era VII. Organization 1. United States 2. Great Britain 3. Soviet Union VIII. Technique

medium

Construction 15th Century

World War 2.

III.

sections and divisions of the article are as follows:

Origin and Early History 1. Early Artillery (14th Century)

Medium

3.

4.

7.

;he

olus aircraft rockets.

529

I

and

War

V. Artillery in World 1. Light Artillery

War

II

II

Briefly, for

Command

arms of

like calibre, the

gun was

a long-barrelled, long-

range weapon with a relatively flat trajectory (path followed by the projectile) the howitzer had a shorter barrel, less range and followed a moderately arched trajectory; the mortar had a very short barrel, short range and a hairpin-shaped trajectory because Intermediate types posof the high angle at which it was fired. sessed some of the characteristics of both guns and howitzers and ;

ARTILLERY

53o

Rocket launchers were simple that held the rockets before firing and

to as gun-howitzers.

were referred

tubes or guiding rails aimed them in the desired direction. I.

ORIGIN

AND EARLY HISTORY

Before the invention of gunpowder, artillery in France and England signified bows and arrows. Thus, the weapons of the Genoese crossbowmen at Crecy (1346) were referred to by Jean Froissart in his account of the battle as leur artillerie, while Roger Ascham in Toxophilus (1545) wrote that, "Artillerie nowadays is taken for two things: gunnes and bowes." Confusion resulted from changes in meaning undergone by certain technical words in the course of time, changes to which may be ascribed much of the uncertainty existing as to the origin and evolution of many instruments in modern use. Thus, the "gunnes" of Ascham meant to Geoffrey Chaucer no less than three different objects, as indicated by his employment of the earlier form "gonne" to designate: a throwing machine (in his translation of Le Roman de la rose) a missile (Legende of Good Women) and finally a cannon (Hous of Fame). Naturally, the uninitiated, discovering the word "artillerie" (or "gonne") in a work of early date would be inclined to endow it with its modern meaning, and so perhaps to surmise the existence of ordnance at a period considerably antedating that of ;

;

its

actual introduction.

Obviously, before the artillery of modern times could take its some agency for propelling missiles, at once simpler and more powerful than the physical means employed in the earlier forms of projectile weapons (see Engines of War), had to be shape,

discovered. ingredients

—

Such an agency was gunpowder, a mixture of three The English friar sulfur, charcoal and saltpetre.

Roger Bacon c. 1220-c. 1292), described certain of its properties But there is nothing in a volume written sometime prior to 1249. in that work to indicate that he possessed any idea of its possible use as a propellant. He realized that it could and would explode, and might, as a result, be adaptable to the arts of warfare, but (

further he apparently failed to speculate.

The question

as to

who took

the next step and used the explo-

sive mixture as a propellant, thus

a matter of endless debate

making

among

it

gunpowder, has been

historians.

The 19th-century

Hindus invented cannon lost ground after publication of Col. H. W. L. Hime's Gunpowder and Ambelief that the Chinese or the

munition in 1904, exposing errors in translations of ancient documents. Some historians gave credit to the Arabs for devising a crude type of firearm called a madfaa as early as 1304, but the evidence to support this thesis was far from conclusive. Researchers found no convincing evidence that any of the crusaders from Europe encountered firearms in all of their many battles with the Turks during the middle ages. In Europe the name most often mentioned by 19th-century historians as inventor of cannon was that of an obscure German monk of the 14th century known as Berthold Schwarz or Berthold the Black, apparently so named for his interest in the black art Substantial evidence to support this view was altogether lacking. As for the date of the invention of cannon, the best we can say is that it probably occurred between 1320 and of alchemy.

The claim that the year 1313 introduced cannon to the 1325. world rested on the following widely quoted entry in the official records of the city of Ghent for that year: "Item, in this year the use of bussen {i.e., "cannon") was discovered in Germany by a monk." After study of the original Ghent records in 1923, Sir Charles Oman in his classic work, The Art of War in the Middle Ages, A.D. 378-1485 (1924), rejected this evidence on three counts: (1) it was a marginal note in the early copies of the record book; (2) it was not a contemporary entry but had been added later; and (3) it actually appeared under the year 1393 in the earliest copy. 1.

Early Artillery (14th Century).

—Though precise data

as

cannon were lacking, historians found numerous references to the use of firearms by the English, Scots, Germans, Moors and others in the second quarter of the 14th century. As early as 1327 a drawing of a crude cannonlike device appeared without explanation in an English manuscript in the library of to the origin of

Christ Church, Oxford (see fig. 1). Most historians concluded that the battle of Crecy, often quoted as the earliest occasion

where gunpowder was employed by the military in projectile weapons, must yield priority to other instances of the use of this destructive combination. But all references to artillery in the early year?, including Crecy, were fragmentary and inconclusive. 2. Construction. The outlines of the piece shown in the Christ Church manuscript explain why early cannon were commonly de-

—

scribed as vasi or pots-de-fer ("iron pots") since its contours are identical with those of a modern vase; viz., bulbous base, narrow

curving neck and flaring mouth. They likewise indicate its characteristics with respect to size, shape, manner of mounting and firing, better than words could accomplish.

And

despite the obvious

unsuitability of an arrow-type projectile for discharge

from

a

firearm (an unsuitability belied in some measure by the successful development more than 400 years later of harpoon guns for

whale fishing), this unhandy combination continued in use for well over two centuries. As time passed, cannon balls of roughhewn stone were employed, followed by cast-iron and wrought-iron balls. As to method of manufacture, the

first artillery

pieces

seem

to

have been constructed of cast bronze or brass and were very Soon after, guns of small. wrought iron appeared, but not of

-EARLY TYPE OF CANNON

cast iron since the technique of

producing successful casts with ferrous metals did not develop until the 15th century. It reached England relatively late. Research by the British Iron and Steel institute fixes 1509 as the approximate date of the first iron cannon to be cast in England.

Wrought iron, because of its slag inclusions, was far from a medium in which to work, but it was long employed for

perfect

lack of

something better, and with it guns of substantial dimensions were' produced. The usual practice was to arrange one or more layers of hand wrought-iron bars or rods side by side in a circle, then weld their abutting surfaces together like the staves of a barrel (whence the name gun barrel). To fill the interstices that remained, molten lead was often employed. Then, to give added strength and solidity, wrought-iron rings were driven onto the sheaf of welded bars so closely together from breech to muzzle as to cover entirely that which lay beneath. Since it was difficult to attach an integral breech piece to this open-ended affair, many cannon so constructed were made breechloading, though in some instances a hollow bronze cylinder, open at one end and closed at the other, was driven into the breech end of the welded barrel to serve as a powder chamber. Thus the enclosed end of the cylinder became the breech of a completed, muzzle-loading cannon. For the breechloaders, powder chambers were supplied by welding to the open breech of the barrel tube a skeletonized cylinder of a diameter somewhat greater than that of the bore, cut away at the top and open at the forward end where Into it joined the barrel to become a rearward extension thereof. the cutaway top of this barrel extension, a movable, ready loaded chamber (powder container) could be dropped. This was simply a hollow vessel closed at one end, with a handle attached for easy manipulation. The rear (closed) end of this cylinder abutted against the closed (breech) end of the welded-on barrel extension. The forward end lined up with the breech end of the barrel tube. The ball was pushed into the open rear end of the barrel, then the movable powder chamber dropped into position behind. Early nomenclature for firearms of all kinds, as indicated, was confusing. The English words cannon and gun (the latter can be traced back to about 1350, the former at least to Froissart) derive respectively from the Latin canna ("a tube") and mangonel' Mortal a powerful pre-gunpowder stone-hurling engine of war. has always been applied to a short, stubby cannon because of its resemblance, in its earliest forms, to the conventional vessel of the chemist and apothecary. Bombard was also used to describe early guns, large and small. Thus bombardes a main ("hand bom-

bards") are mentioned as in use at the siege of Bonifacio in 1420 while the diminutive form bombardelle appears in an earlier Italiar

ARTILLERY manuscript of 1381. However, after the art oi casting great guns tered during the last decades of the 14th century, bombard came gradually to apply only to lame pieces of artillery now long 1

qjpsolete

The limited

efficiency of these crude

any

(were

limitation

specimens of necessary)

powder of the day, which was truly a

was severely

Serious effort

"serpentine"

said to

nol the

1

!non

most

iFrench

artillerists

3.

were

army employed

civilian specialists called "artists."

civilian "artists" as

an

The

cannoneers as late as

— Dating, however, from about 1429, one important achievement — the "corning" of powder.

15th Century.

.record of

finds

involved the mechanical incorporation, in fixed proportions, of the three ingredients so firmly and intimately that there was no longer any tendency for them to become dissociated on handling, plus the added feature of turning out the finished iproduct in "grains" of various sizes according to the purpose for Briefly, this

.which intended; [for

large ones.

slowly that

much

viz.,

small grains for small guns, large grains

Large grains

fired in

a

small piece burned so

of the charge left the muzzle

unconsumed.

its

burned so Small develop dangerous pressures in the chamber, and sometimes even to burst the tube, before the ponderous shot ahead could fairly get started. The grains of the new product, though of about equal weight, were irregular in shape, hence could not ball Instead, the [up into a conglomerate mass as did the serpentine. linterstices so necessary to the swift propagation of the flame were thus automatically provided, and the explosion of each successive charge was uniform and highly effective. So effective was ;it indeed that though the employment of corned powder in small arms went rapidly forward, it was a full century before its adaptation to artillery had become complete; for the cannon of the period were wholly unequal to the strains set up by this improved probellant, nor was the art of gun founding able to meet the situation |thus arising for many decades yet to come. The 15th century saw the manufacture of enormous bombards that still rank among the largest pieces of artillery ever built. It is significant that they appeared in such widely separated regions as Scotland, Belgium, Turkey and Russia. Edinburgh castle's 'Mons Meg." of uncertain origin but probably built before 1500, weighed five tons and could throw a icjj-in. iron ball nearly a mile. I'Dulle Griete," the giant 13-ton bombard of Ghent, had a 25-in. 'ralibre and fired a 700-lb. stone. The largest of all. the "Great Mortar of Moscow," with its 36-in. bore, was built shortly after [500 and could fire a stone projectile weighing a ton. Some of the Host formidable bombards of the 15th century were those used effect thus entirely wasted. fast as to

I

was attempted

artillery

the

grains in a large piece

1

lurks when they captured Constantinople in 1453. thi Riflin of artillery pieces were smooth-bore pieces. as early as the middle of the 15th century, but nly without much success. ap]

bj

by

powder and

substance now known. This required no little skill in handling, and an experienced gunner could develop the full capabilities of a piece where a tyro was likely to blow it up (and himself and crew into the bargain) or else be plagued cither with a succession of misfires (the charge failing to burn when the match was apor a series of "overs" or "shorts" (the missile falling beplied The whole secret lay jyond or on the near side of the target). in the fact that the finely divided mixture would form into a solid mass practically impermeable to flame when rammed too vigorously, or simply fizzle out like a weak firecracker when seated with insufficient force. Only when put in place with the delicate touch gained from long experience, which left it loose enough for a Bame to spread quickly through its fine interstices, yet packed tightly enough to build up what constituted, in effect, an explosion rather than a progressive, but ballistically impotent, conflagration, (See Gunpowder.) did it really perform satisfactorily. Further, it was soon discovered that such powder, when mixed beforehand and transported for any distance, tended to separate iout. the heaviest component (sulfur) settling to the bottom, and Fired in this state, it the lightest (charcoal) rising to the top. The result was that jwas even more than ordinarily inefficient. the gunner had to mix the several ingredients on the field of batitle, a precarious maneuver in view of the fact that the lighted matches of the musketeers were everywhere about. Thus he became a man apart, feared and shunned by all and sundry. For more than three centuries following the invention of the can-

11800.

53

All these

to di

1

lop

it

are

have been made by the Swiss Jean Maritz during the early 1700s, but manufacturing difficulties held it in abeyance until

the 19th century.

Despite the inventive genius constantly devoted to the de-

FIG.

2.

— DULLE

GRIETE.

BELG.

velopment of lire-arms, artillery included, the 15th century waned and closed without these new agencies of warfare having gained sufficient recognition to receive special classification either on the basis of relative size or tactical employment. Thus, Francesco di Giorgio Martini, writing a few years prior to Charles VIII's expedition against Naples (1494), describes ten different types of Yet firearms, and adds that this by no means exhausts the list. he draws no distinction between cannon and shoulder weapons. To him the bombard, 20 ft. long and firing a 300-lb. ball, falls in the same category with the scopietto, which measured 24-36 in. over-all and discharged a missile weighing ^ to $ oz. All were to him "artillery." Nevertheless, a differentiation,

among

the heavier pieces at least,

and before the 15th century ended field artillery as distinct from the more ponderous and relatively immobile artillery of position may be said to have been born. was taking

place,

if

insensibly,

Prior to this time, field artillery consisted simply of such guns of But the its siege train as an army was able to bring into the field. Italian wars, which Charles VIII initiated, stimulated French ingenuity to the development of means whereby guns could be endowed with a fair degree of mobility. These included the uniform mounting of ordnance on wheeled carriages (in place of the clumsy

sledges theretofore prevalent) and the

employment

of well-trained

horses, rather than the slow-footed oxen, as draft animals.

while the Italians and Spaniards were

still

of their artillery to that sluggish beast,

draft teams sufficient to

move but

Thus,

entrusting the transport

and Maximilian

I

possessed

half of his siege train at a

draw heavy canmarching speed of

time, the sturdy French horses were learning to

non on

level roads at a pace equalling the

cavalry.

But the French were not alone in their efforts to make artillery mobile arm. Indeed, the Italian Bartolommeo Colleoni (d. 1475) is credited with being the first captain to develop a true field artillery tactic, locating his light guns in the rear of other elements, and firing through gaps in these which were opened at a given signal. Nevertheless, such practices were far from general, and most Italians considered Charles VIII's employment of field guns as something quite revolutionary. Fortunately for him, he so outweighed his adversaries in the quantity and quality of his artillery, not to mention pieces exceeding in calibre any yet known in Italy, all mounted on scientifically designed carriages and operated by trained gunners, that his superiority in that arm was maintained throughout all the earlier Italian campaigns, its reputation alone being in some instances, as at Fornovo, sufficient to undermine a

enemy morale. was during this century that artillery acquired a characterwhich it had lacked (to the considerable limitation of its whereby the gun tube was affixed to its mount, about which it could be rotated when an increase or decrease in range was desired, and through which the shock of discharge was transferred in large measure to the carriage. In earlier types, the simple cylindrical tube or barrel was commonly set into a heavy wooden framework, a stout cross member of which abutted against the breech and received from it the impulse of recoil. This crude design did not by any means yield without a struggle to the more advanced one in which trunnions figured, for the obvious reason that it was much easier to cast a plain tube than one from which two excrescences projected outward opposite one another at right angles to the tube axis. But the advantages of the trunnions were so outstanding that the It

istic

effectiveness); namely, the trunnions

ARTILLERY

532

simpler but less efficient trur.nionless type was finally replaced entirely by its more adaptable competitor.

—

4. 16th Century. The French successes naturally stimulated The younger duke of Ferrara, others to emulate their efforts. whose father (d. 1505) had long been interested in ordnance and was one of the few of noble birth to engage in its production prior to 1500, turned out specimens in considerable numbers and of increasingly high quality. In 1509 was witnessed the destruction by his artillery of the dread Venetian fleet which had proceeded up the Po to within a short distance of his capital, an event which contributed enormously to the increasing prestige Only the following year, the French acof artillery in general. complished the reduction of Legnano chiefly through the agency of two of Ferrara's guns of tremendous size, the casting of which he had personally superintended. As the 16th century neared mid-point, the artillery policies of all great nations of that day. which had been developing without rhyme or reason for more than 200 years, appeared ready for a complete overhaul. Calibres and varieties of guns approached infinity; standardization was unknown. To reduce this chaos to some sort

of system, Charles

V

of Spain decreed, in 1544, a total of seven

models of cannon which would thenceforward be made for, and used by, the armies of his empire. These included a cannon (40pounder), a cannon-moyen (34-pounder), two types of 12-pounder culverins, two 6-pounders and a 3-pounder falcon. Early pieces were often named after birds of prey. The French were quick to follow suit, and in 1550 Henry II issued an edict restricting the number of calibres to 6, the heaviest a 33-pounder weighing, with its carriage, 8,000 lb., and drawn by 21 horses; the lightest a 2pounder to which two horses were assigned. Later (1584) two additional types were permitted, a 12- and 24-pounder (calibres which the Spaniards had found useful in the Low Countries). The practice of the day involved the transport of these pieces muzzle foremost, their massive trails dragging on the ground behind, and their equine motive power stretched out in single file, so that each gun when on the march must have occupied interminable yards of road space. Nor did the passage of time simplify the picture, for the 33-pounder of 1633 had increased in weight by 400 lb., and the horses drawing it now numbered no less than 25, though some progress could be recorded in the fact that the weapon was now hauled trail foremost. These gestures of Charles of Spain and Henry of France, while aimed in the right direction, left much to be accomplished. Thus, among a few of the shortcomings of contemporary artillery may be mentioned their want of limbers, a complete lack of uniformity among carriages, the quite common and often disastrous failure to provide the artillery train with any spare parts for emergency repairs (save an occasional extra wheel and so on. No specific powder charges were established, though practice favoured the use of a weight of the very indifferent propellant then current which actually equaled that of the shot. Three sizes of powder were employed large-grained for the heavier guns, small-grained for the lighter and a still finer type for priming all varieties. During this century the art of gun founding was introduced into England by ordnance-minded Henry VIII after he had been forced by lack of a home industry to reach overseas and employ the famous Fleming, Hans Poppenruyter, to supply him with nearly 150 )

—

Napoleon and Gen. Ildefonse Fave's work on artillery as in use during the period 15 50- 1600 no less than n varieties of mobile cannon, from a little i-pounder to a huge piece discharging a 94-lb. ball.

Further, there existed

smallest, subclassifications

ballistician.

customary to make the barrels of cannon (as contrasted with mortars; howitzers came along later) outlandishly long to afford opportunity for the complete combustion of the serpentine powder originally employed in them. Then came the introduction, and finally the general adoption, of corned powder, which burned faster and more evenly, and accomplished as much in short barrels Yet for a long time barrels conas its predecessor had in long. tinued to be made long, no one quite knew why. Similarly, though some of the earliest cannon to be cast with trunnions had these located where they properly belonged with their long axes in the same plane as that of the long axis of the bore practice soon departed from this, and trunnions came to be set on a level with the

—

.

kindled, that the fire-work might be set on fire to break in small

same hollow shot, whereof the smallest piece hitting any man would kill or spoil him." Here we see, in the type "stuffed pieces the

with fire-works," the beginnings of the explosive shell and, in that containing "wild-fire," of incendiary projectiles. In the

German

was not then carried illustrated and described in

states, calibre simplification

as far as in France.

Thus there

is

—

bottom of the bore and remained so situated for generations. As a result there was at each firing an undue strain on the trail of the piece which, as the strength of powder increased, frequently gave way under the force so applied. Not until the latter half of the 1 8th century was this patent error generally corrected. During the first half of this century, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden introduced (1626) his famous leather guns, so named because the external casing of the barrel was of that material. The bores, however, were metal (copper) tubes. Every effort was made to curtail weight, and as a result that of the gun itself, apart from its light carriage, came to but 90 lb., and the piece could easily be drawn by two men. Designed as the last word in mobility, it possessed that qualification in high degree but embodied at the same time a deadly disadvantage; for on repeated firing it became so hot that a new charge would often ignite spontaneously. This led to its supersedure (1631) by materiel of more substantial, if less mobile, character, and further effort to develop a truly light artillery remained in abeyance until resumed in the century following by Frederick the Great. During this period, calibres of French cannon underwent further change by reason of the adoption of various foreign pieces. This resulted in an increase in varieties from six to seven, the largest

now

being a 48-pounder, then ranging downward through 32-, and 8-pounders to one of 4 lb. But here all order

24-, 16-, 12-

.

—

5. 17th Century. By this time some artillerymen were beginning to realize that certain practices, though hoary with age, lacked foundation in logic. Thus it had from the very beginning been

piece

yron, stuffed with fire-works or wild-fire: whereof the bigger sort for the same had screws of yron to receive a match to carry fire

of these, save the very

—

known

bombards "Twelve Apostles." He likewise imported (c. 1515) foreign armourers and established schools of instruction for native artificers. Nor was he entirely satisfied with the ordinary solid shot then in use, but undertook to augment these with crude types of shell described by a contemporary as: ". hollow shot of cast

all

But far more important than the number of cannon types employed in France, Spain or Germany at this time were the premonitory rumblings then coming out of Italy to predict the birth of a new science ballistics. Given written expression by the famous mathematician Niccolo Tartaglia (q.v.) in works which appeared in 1537, 1546 and 1551, these constitute the first recorded scientific approach to the theory of gunnery as distinguished from the prevailing rule-of-thumb practice. And although in large measure incorrect, this author's ideas on the trajectory of a cannon ball (previously held to be a straight line from gun muzzle to some point in space, after which the missile fell suddenly to earth) were so far ahead of his day that he justly deserves the title of first

pieces of varying calibres, including the celebrated set of as the

among

which brought the total to the impreswhich called for no less than 60

sive figure of 40, the heaviest of horses to get it into motion.

ended; for the kingdom was divided into a number of artillery disAnd tricts, each commanded by a lieutenant general of that arm. the cannon and all their accessories of one district differed from those in the next. Each calibre of gun employed wheels of a size unlike that used by any other calibre. Spare carriages were taken into the field, but those of one district would not mount the guns In but one feature was simplification of the pracpreceding century evident powder had become standardized in grains of a single size and, ballistically speaking, this evidenced a retrogression. But here again, specimens from the

from another.

tices of the

several districts were likely to exhibit

:

marked

variations in strength,

though for the most part a charge of but two-thirds the weight of the ball now accomplished what had required weight for weight a

ARTILLERY century earlier, the quality of powder having improved to this extent over the intervening years. i

—

6. 18th Century. This century was marked ordnance activity on the part of

pounder, thus making that calibre the nation's heaviest field weapon. Coincidently he decreet! a uniformity in the method- of fabricating cannon never before attempted. Unfortunately, his at this point. There remained as many different gun carriages as there were manufacturing arsenals. Limbers, when used at all, were too low. and draft horses were still strung out in single file ahead of the guns to which they were hitched. Turning to England, we find the groundwork of modern ordnance theory and practice laid by Benjamin Robins (1707-51), whose Principles of Gunnery 1742 exploded ancient superstitions ,about the nature and action of gunpowder and the flight of projectiles, and formed the basis of all later scientific studies in these fields Gunners were now for the first time able to measure with considerable exactness the muzzle velocities of projectiles delivered by their pieces as a result of his invention of the ballistic pendulum, a device whereby the energy of a projectile suddenly halted in its flight could be accurately estimated and translated into terms

efforts

ceased

.designs of

Axletrees continued to be of wood.

(

)

of velocity.

By

:

the time of Robins' death, strenuous efforts were again being

made on the continent toward developing

a truly efficient mobile Thus, the Seven Years' War found Prussia in the midst of a series of experiments with pieces weighing from 80 to 150 times as much as the balls they fired, while by 1762 the Austrians had standardized on guns all 16 calibres long (i.e., with tubes 16 times their diameter in length), all 115 times

ordnance

J

(field

artillery).

,the ball in weight, all firing missiles carefully cast to a true spher-

form and with so

jical

little

windage (excess

in

diameter of bore

lover that of projectile) that they achieved excellent results with ,

i

I

,

\

!

'.

'

.

I

;

,

powder charges not exceeding

in

weight one-third that of the

missile.

Other nations were not insensible to these developments and, by 1765. Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval, who became chief inspector of artillery in 1776, had commenced yet one more revamping of French materiel. This resulted in even further reduction in the

number of

different calibres

employed

in

the

field,

these

now

totaling but three, the heaviest a 12-pounder, the others carrying

and 4-lb. balls respectively. These were all 18 calibres long and 150 times the weight of the shot for which designed, thus continuing the now well-established trend toward reducing the length and weight of field pieces. Once again, much attention was paid 8-

to securing balls of true sphericity and correct diameter, thus making possible the same reduction in powder charge as had been effected by Austria; i.e., to one-third that of the ball in weight. Another innovation was the introduction, for field use, of a light howitzer of 6-in. bore. Yet another, which marked a real milestone in artillery progress, was the disposition of draft horses in double files in place of single file. Six horses now sufficed to draw

the

1

2-pounder

— four

for the lesser sizes, a pleasing contrast with

numbers required a century earlier. Limbers, then casually in use, became standard equipment. These were large, six-wheeled affairs, but higher and more serviceable than those of Valiere. The limber box (a combination receptacle for ammunition and seat for some of the gunners failed, however, to gain acceptance dethe

1

Gribeauval's strenuous efforts, though he did succeed in establishing interchangeability of wheels and other parts, and in introducing iron axletrees, elevating screws, tangent scales and prefabricated cartridges. These replaced the old loose powder and spite

shot and

embodied carefully weighed powder charges sewed into end of which a shot was securely affixed, the whole being swept down the bore of the piece and seated at the breech by a vigorous movement of the rammer. They were, however, in no sense a new invention, Adolphus having used them with some success in the century preceding. cloth bags, to one

Other of Gribeauval's achievements included the classification ordnance into three well-defined groups (field, siege and

of land

first

category he endea

.loin to

majoi

European naAmong the high lights may be noted the abolition in France by General Valiere of all mobile pieces above the 24-

tions.

the

to witness a period of all

533

coast defense) according to the purpose for which intended. iiii|ion.

1,1

In

uccessfully to educate his

horse artillery, an ultramobile

employed by Frederick the Great 1759), designed maneuvei with iavalry in the manner in which field artillery in

to

il"

1

1

1

operated with infantry. Not, however, until after the outbreak of n m h Resolution was such a unit found in the French service, the lis counterpart, incidentally, appearing in England at approximately the same time. The latter years of the 18th century are marked by the invention (1784) by a British lieutenant Hater general I, Henry Shrapnel, of a form of spherical case shot for use personnel, destined to bear his name and to supplant most other types of artillery ammunition for well over a century to come. 7. 19th Century. This century was to record a series of advances in ordnance practice so brilliant as to render the artillery in use when the century closed probably ten times as efficient as that which marked its opening. Contributing factors included progress in chemistry, mechanics, metallurgy, optics and associated sciences I

:

—

which made possible: (1) the perfection of a workable rifled cannon, long sought by ordnance engineers but never before success-

and (2 the adaptation to rifled cannon of elongated which (a) because of their more streamlined form were by wind than were the round balls they displaced; (b) by reason of the stabilizing spin imparted them by the rifling grooves, flew much straighter; and (c) being decidedly heavier than a ball of like diameter, ranged much farther than the spherical form. But to propel these heavy bolts, more and better powder was required. This was made available through the researches of Capt. Hater Gen.) Thomas J. Rodman ("U.S.A.), who produced a "mammoth" brand of powder shaped as large hexagonal prisms and perforated to permit the flame to bum outward as well as inward from the prism surface. Thus the initial violent evolution of gas from the burning grains, followed at once by a progressive decrease in gas production as the surface of unburned powder exposed to the flame was steadily curtailed, gave way to a situation where, though the external surface of the grains constantly shrank, internal surfaces, provided by the perforations, were enlarging with each instant. The final effect was to stretch out materially the period of mass evolution of gas and of high pressures on the chamber walls, and so to develop, in effect, a prolonged steadypush against the base of the projectile rather than a sudden blow, with maximum stresses much moderated. But before this achievement had been recorded, workers in other fields, attacking the problem from different angles, had succeeded in producing guns both of bronze and cast iron, the two materials used almost exclusively in the founding of cannon for centuries past, and which fully attained;

)

projectiles

less affected in flight

possessed high physical characteristics that enabled them to withstand pressures formerly unthought of. In the case of bronze, this result was attained by the admixtures of certain proportions of phosphorus to the copper-tin alloy. However, the achievement came too late (1870); the day of the bronze cannon was over. Toward enlarging the capabilities of iron pieces, two Americans offered solutions. One, a civilian engineer, Daniel Treadwell 1791-1872;, designed a built-up, muzzle-loading cannon in 1841, which he evidently believed his exclusive invention, though his claims have been disputed in favour of a Frenchman (M. Thiery I, said to have developed a similar piece in the 1830s. Treadwell's gun. in its final form, consisted of a central tube of cast iron or steel, surrounded by a series of wrought-iron or steel hoops, shrunk on after heating, and in some instances united also by screw-threaded joints. This basic method of construction was later successfully adopted in the United States by Robert Parrott and in England by William Armstrong (q.v.) and Blakely and, save for improvements in means and materials, became the modern practice. But Treadwell received no adequate encouragement from the military, and died disappointed and discouraged. The other system was developed about 1845 by Rodman and was quite different. Instead of casting guns as solid cylinders of iron later to be bored out, the ancient and honourable method, he cast them hollow about a removable core through which a stream of water was slowly passed. Cooling thus took place from within (

ARTILLERY

534

outward (the external walls were kept warm meanwhile), succeeding layers of metal from bore to surface undergoing compression as those overlying slowly shrank, thus accomplishing, but by But a radically different method, just what Treadwell had done. cast iron, like bronze, had had its day as a material for gun conRodman's though process saw active struction and, application for two or three decades, it eventually was forced to give way to others in which the piece was built up (a la Treadwell) from successive layers of steel. The advantages of this material for cannon fabrication had long been recognized, but until the mid-igth century, no methods of producing it in the quantities and qualities required had been evolved.

FIG.

Alfred

3.

—

U.S.

6-LB.

FIELD GUN USED

Krupp (Germany) was

all-steel gun.

the marvel of

the

first

IN

THE CIVIL WAR

to

produce a successful

Drilled out of a single block of cast metal, its

day.

The

first

specimen to be shown

at a

it

was

world

modest six-pounder displayed at London in 1851, Within ten years Krupp was producing guns of 8-in. bore and larger, all from solid blocks of cast steel. However, after other makers had demonstrated the possibilities of all-steel guns on the built-up (hooped) system, he gradually adopted that method of fabrication also. The military world was now (1850s) enjoying rifled cannon which projected heavy missiles to what were then considered stupendous ranges, this as a result of the improved powders and stronger gun tubes. Capt. Paul le Boulenge of the Belgian army invented an instrument (chronograph) which constituted a material improvement for measuring velocities over Robins' ballistic pendulum. But it still lacked accurate means of estimating the farces exerted by the burning powder gases against the breech of a weapon. As a result, current methods of determining the strength of the walls required to withstand these were based more on trial and error than anything else. But here again Rodman came to the rescue by designing a gauge which permitted very accurate calculaexposition, a

attracted universal attention.

tion of the pressures engendered.

Three factors were

still

Even so, the vast majority of cannon usee smooth-bore cast-iron (plus some brass)! muzzle-loaders, although steps to modernize these by reaming out the original bore and driving into it a rifled tube of wrought iron or steel were taken during this period and continued for a number of years thereafter. Wire-wound guns in which countless turns of fine wire coiled under tension replaced shrunken-on hoops as reinforcement for a relatively thin central tube had already been under development from about 1855 but were yet to receive the recognition later accorded them. In the field of propellants (g.v.) black powder, which reigned supreme, produced so much smoke as to obscure both firer and target after a heavy volley, or broadside, and left such heavy fouling in a gun bore as to require frequent cleaning if accuracy were to be maintained. In addition, it was, despite the notable achievements of Rodman and others, far from under full control in the matter of the chamber pressures it developed. A new propellant, smokeless, without residue and capable of being harnessed over a much wider range of its activity was urgently indicated. The answer appeared at hand when, during the 1S60S, Baron General von Lenk conducted a prolonged field test of guncotton (first' compounded a few years previously) in the Austrian artillery. But a lack of stability and consequent tendency to spontaneous explosion in storage led to its eventual rejection. So it remained for' the French chemist Paul Vieille (1887) to harness this unruly substance by gelatinizing it into colloid form with the aid of suitable solvents, and thus make available to the military world the propellant it had so long awaited. And now the science of mechanics, which had already solved the problem of breech loading, came again to the aid of the artilleryman and gave him a gun mount so ingeniously designed as to permit it to absorb the tremendous recoil developed when a modern piece is fired, this without rearward movement of the carriage or displacement of the barrel from its original position once action and reaction had their effect. This was accomplished by suspending the gun tube proper in a cradle and interposing between the two compression cylinders, heavy spiral springs or other means of accumulating, as the barrel swept rearward, the energy necessary to return it to its original position, once recoil effects had been disbreechloaders as well. in

that conflict were

sipated, rather than transmitting these to the carriage.

the development of such a system, the gun and it

was

its

Prior to

mount, to which

rigidly affixed, recoiled to distances varying with the calibre

of the piece and charge employed, then had to be brought back "into battery" by human effort and pointed again at the target. With the perfection of such counterrecoil mechanisms, artillery finally acquired all the more important characteristics which it possessed at the commencement of World War I. It is interesting to note that there was a revival of interest in the rocket during the closing years of the 1700s and particularly

lacking to

make

the gun the super-

engine it became with the advent of the 20th century. These were: (1) a successful system of breech loading; (2) a satisfactory smokeless powder; and (3) means to dampen the forces of recoil when the piece was fired so that it could be relaid on its target quickly and accurately. In respect of the first, breechloading cannon of fair efficiency had been produced as early as the 1840s by Cavalli, a Sardinian officer, and Baron Wahrendorff of Sweden. The time was ripe for such a development, for as guns became longer and heavier, the mechanics involved in getting the charges properly inserted into their ponderous muzzles, ramming them home, then returning the pieces to their firing positions and relaying them upon their targets became increasingly complicated, and a satisfactory system of breech loading more urgently indicated. During the 1860s and 1870s, several such methods were perfected simultaneously in France (Col. C. Ragon de Bange), Germany (Krupp), Spain (Freyre) and the United States (Broadefficient

in

the early part of the 19th century, after the

weapon had been

neglected as an implement of war for several centuries. In their wars with the British, for instance, native Indian troops used rockets. During the Napoleonic Wars British warships launched' rockets in their attacks on continental coastal

cities,

and the

field

both siege and battle. The "rocket's red glare" in the "Star Spangled Banner" was not a phrase penned by Francis Scott Key without foundation in fact. In the bombardment of Fort McHenry, defending the city of Baltimore, Md., ships of the attacking British fleet were equipped with rocket-firing devices which were used with spectacular effect. (See Rockets. forces used

them

in

)

— H.

W.

L. Hime, Origin of Artillery (1915) Sir Charles Charles Oman, The Art of War in the Middle Ages (1924) Ffoulkes, The Gun-Founders of England (1937), Arms and Armament (1945) Willy Ley, Shells and Shooting (1942) J. F. C. Fuller, Armament and History (1945) A. R. Hall, Ballistics in the Seventeenth Century (1952); Edwin Tunis, Weapons: a Pictorial History (1954); A. Manucv, Artillery Through the Ages (1955) W. Y. Carman, History of Firearms (1955). (C. Gd.; M. B. H.; H. C. T.)

Bibliography.

;

;

;

;

;

;

well).

In England during the 1850s, Sir William Armstrong and Sir Joseph Whitworth had developed wrought-iron, built-up, rifled cannon. Whitworth's was noteworthy in possessing a hexagonal bore.

The American

portunity for a mass

Civil

trial

War

of 1861-65 offered the first op-

of rifled guns and, to a limited degree, of

II.

WORLD WAR

I

by the three major powers involved at the beginning of World War I (Great Britain, France and Germany) did not vary to any marked degree. All

The types

of artillery

equipment

in

use

1

:

ARTILLERY

535

proved deficient in range, the British equipment being initially at li.it It will be apparenl [articular disadvantage in this respect.

The necei it; For trong reserve, command, of both Field and bi

important differences in the allotment of ;he artillery as between divisions, corps and armies and in the agThe Gergregate proportions of the various types of equipment. n.ins had a marked advantage in the possession of a large number if howitzers capable of assisting in both field and siege-operations.

creal

t

here were, however,

Both Britain and Germany had six-gun batteries while the French All three countries had divisional latteries were of four guns. irtillery commanders, but France alone had an artillery com-

Viewed in the licht of subsequent would seem that both the British and French tactical of 1014 unduly emphasized the importance of mobility

nander at corps headquarters. xperience. ioctrines

it

(a)

1

Flargi

numbei

in the

hands of the higher

oi

artillery led to the

of artillery units outside the organization

In [914 tin- proportion of field artillery to inFormations. By the end in an army was about 6 guns to 1,000 rifles. of World War I the proportion of all types was about 10 guns and howitzers per 1.000 rifles, roughly 6 field, 2 medium, i^ heavy and «ii

fantry

(3) The allocation of equipments to formations was based upon their ranging powers and their degrees of mobility. Thus, field artillery (in the United States light artillery) was seldom allotted to formations higher than the division medium and heavy artillery were normally allotted to corps, while superheavy guns were directly under armies. (4) The corps was recognized \ superheavy.

;

The German doctrine appears to .0 the detriment of firepower. lave been better balanced in this respect and the Germans also more fully the necessity for co-ordination of combined Ktion of the artillery with that of the other arms. All three counealized

had grossly underestimated the quantities of ammunition The British reserve was calculated upon rounds of the biggest field-

ties

which would be required. 1

basis of a probable expenditure of 7

but in World War I the actual daily expenditure for No guns occasionally rose to 500 rounds or more. country had fully appreciated the effect upon artillery power of :he development of railways, motor traction, aircraft, telegraphs, pieces per day.

>ome

light

•".elephones, radio

and survey.

—

Evolution of Equipment. The British field artillery stood che test of the war well and the minor defects which appeared were The proportion of medium and heavy artillery easily remedied.

1

1.

vastly increased, the equipments adopted being 60-pounder Superheavy jnd 6-in. guns and 6-in., 8-in. and 9.2-in. howitzers.

,.vas

in. and upward and guns on railway mountings and upward were brought into use. Much publicity was given the German "Big Berthas," howitzers with bore diameters of And mortars, a type of weapon which had 4.2 cm., or nearly 17 in. long been discarded, made their reappearance for the war of posiweapons were increased, field artillery The ranges of all tion. .ranges rising to about 10,000 yd. and even more in the case of French and German equipments; the greatest range (viz., 76 mi.) was attained by the German 21-cm. guns used to shell Paris (see Big Bertha 1. The British field guns, which had started the war with Grapnel ammunition only, were supplied with high-explosive Shrapnel was abolished shell in addition before the battle of Loos. jfor 4.5-in. howitzers, and in the heavier pieces high explosive was Smoke shells were introduced for the almost exclusively used. In July 1915 the lighter types of guns and howitzers in 1916. Germans first employed gas shells, and this type of shell came into general use in steadily increasing numbers. It is noteworthy that the supply of gas ammunition never equaled the demand and that the use of gas was still in its infancy at the end of the war (see Chemical Warfare). An advance in the control of fire was effected by the development of [observation from aircraft. Intercommunication was improved by the more extended use of the field telephone and of radio. Survey, isound-ranging and flash-spotting units were provided for co-operation with artillery. The lighter types of artillery were still generally horse drawn in 19 18 although trucks were used, especially

howitzers of 12

pf 9.2

in.

French, to transport a portion of their field artillery. The heavier pieces were drawn by motor tractors of various designs ,ranging from the four-wheel-drive truck to the caterpillar. 2. Evolution of Organization and Command. A comparthe

jby

—

1

development of artillery organization and command in the British. French and German armies shows that, notwithstanding their initial differences and the separate lines of evolution which were followed, all three arrived at similar solutions of fundamental iproblems. The changes introduced may be summarized as follows (1 Artillery command was centralized as much as was consistent with effective control. This proved the best means of co-ordinating 'action, of economizing force and of concentrating fire at the right time and at the right place. Centralization of control was often carried to excess, however, in the western theatre. This change in the system of artillery ison of the

•

1

)

command

entailed an

increase of artillery headquarters

staffs.

FIG.

4.

— FRENCH- DESIGNED

FORCES

IN

WORLD WAR

75-MM. FIELD GUN. MODEL 1897. USED BY

U.S.

I

most suitable formation for the control of counterbattery special staffs were provided for this task. The divisional artillery of an infantry division. U.S. army, consisted of two regiments each of six batteries of four 75-mm. guns, one regiment of six batteries each of four 155-mm. howitzers and one trench mortar as the

work and

battery. 3.

Evolution of Tactics.

—The evolution of equipment and

or-

ganization and the evolution of tactics were, of course, interde-

was naturally on the western front that artillery tactics were most fully developed. During the first operations in 19 14 sharp lessons were learned. It was soon evident that because of the hitherto unrealized power of small-arms fire in defense, attacks must be well prepared by artillery. Tactical mobility had. in fact, become dependent upon firepower, but neither side had the artillery or the ammunition to provide firepower in adequate measure. At Le Cateau the British learned the disastrous results pendent.

It

of attempting close support of infantry with guns disposed too close

The early engagements also demonstrated the necessity for distributing guns in depth in defense and for concealing them if they were to avoid destruction. The need for into the foremost troops.

creased quantities of

medium and heavy

artillery

was soon ap-

parent.

During the trench warfare (q.v.) of the winter of 1914-15 new developments began to take shape. Attempts were made to engage targets by night and to provide defensive barrages. Air observaThe employment of tion of artillery fire also found favour. barbed-wire entanglements introduced a new task for artillery in the preparation of infantry attacks.

The operations of 19 16 and 191 7 were based upon the fact that, given sufficient artillery and ammunition, limited advances of 2,000 or 3,000 yd. at a time could be almost guaranteed. Enormous concentrations of artillery supported every attack. Thousands of tons of ammunition were fired daily during an operation on a front of a few miles.

Surprise continued to be sacrificed, for the bombardments often lasting four

artillery carried out preliminary

or five days. Rolling barrages of great depth and heavy counterbattery fire were the unvarying accompaniment of the actual advances. Such were the methods of artillery action adopted in the battle of the Somme (1916), the French attack at Verdun (1916), at Arras (1917), in Gen. Robert Nivelle's attack on the Aisne

(191 7). at Messines and in the third battle of Ypres. The Gerin their attack at Verdun in 1916. had endeavoured to obtain some measure of surprise by reducing the preliminary bombardment to ten hours and, in Field Marshal Edmund Allenby's attack

mans,

ARTILLERY

536

measures were successfully taken to deceive the Turks who might otherwise have been warned of the British plan by the five days' preliminary bombardment. But none of the commanders had as yet appreciated the paralyzing effect of the brief and intense hurricane bombardment of short duration which was adopted in at Gaza,

191S. It became apparent, however, that a drastic change in tactical methods must be made if decisive success was to be obtained. The defender could, in great measure, counter the form of artillery support then in vogue, heavy as it was, by suitable adjustment of his infantry tactics; the ammunition expenditure entailed proved too great a strain on industrial resources; and the effect of the fire on the ground was such as to create new obstacles for the attackers. In the defense, artillery action had taken the form of "counterpreparation" to break up impending attacks by neutralization of hostile artillery and of stationary barrages close to the foremost trenches to repel assaults once they were launched. The advent of tanks had an important bearing on artillery tactics. At the battle of Cambrai it was demonstrated that tanks could carry out tasks which had previously fallen to the artillery. They had a very great demoralizing effect; they could create gaps in barbed wire; and they could neutralize small-arms fire. The employment of tanks had a considerable influence in bringing about the abolition of lengthy preliminary bombardments and the consequent simplification of the problem of ammunition supply. The battle of Cambrai further proved that effective artillery support could be given, by means of survey methods, without previous

BETWEEN WORLD WARS

III.

The

I

AND

II

gun design and manufacture languished during the two decades from 1918 to 1938. In France, Great Britain and the United States the antiwar spirit was strong, leading to disarmament treaties that nourished the hope that war would never occur again. Commercial firms that had manufactured munitions for World War I were denounced as "merchants of death" and in all the western democracies the development of new or improved weapons was hampered by lack of interest and lack of funds. In the United States there was no commercial manufacture of field artillery and even the government arsenals were barely able to keep from closing. The U.S. army devoted most of its limited artillery funds to development of a 37-mm. antitank gun, a 75-mm. field gun to supersede the French 75, a 75-mm. pack howitzer and a

art of

105-mm. howitzer. The Germans, being disarmed, had to limit their developments from time to time they found an op-

to theory except insofar as

portunity, through relations with the U.S.S.R., to carry out some

experimentation with the Russians. The Russians, from the beginning of the organization and armament of their World War II army, showed a tendency to develop new tactical ideas and therefore to

modify

their artillery

armament

eral, their artillery doctrine differed

to suit these ideas.

In gen-

from the French one of

large concentrations of fire primarily under one

using

command

and leaned toward the splitting up of their artillery in small groups assigned directly to infantry units. The Italians, while closely following the French theory, showed a decided tendency after

registration.

World War

The German successes on the western front in 19 18 were largely the result of skillful artillery tactics, for the development of which Colonel Bruchmiiller was chiefly responsible, the element

artillery

Their new tactics had first been employed, and with marked success, at the battle of Riga in Sept. 19 1 7. Secrecy was observed in the preliminary concentration and other arrangements. Each attack was preceded by a short hurricane bombardment of a few hours' duration designed to produce moral rather than material effects and containing an element of surprise in the repeated withdrawal of fire to the forward defenses after it had apparently passed on. Gas and smoke shell were extensively used; counterbattery fire was heavy. The advances were supported in their initial stages by intense concentrations on enemy strong points and the infantry was boldly followed

portunity to test their theories with respect to the supporting artillery for infantry in mountainous countries and the relation-

of surprise being thus safeguarded.

up by

field artillery.

A

counter to the German artillery tactics was eventually devised by the French in Champagne. Careful artillery counterpreparation was carried out for some time before the German attack which the

enemy had not been

were thinned out the attack was to

Troops which the first shock of be absorbed, and the main line of defense was orin the

able to keep secret.

forward zone,

ganized in the rear, the artillery with these arrangements.

A hurricane bombardment

fire

in

being adjusted to correspond

by a creeping barrage, was adopted with complete success by Allenby in his final of 15 minutes, followed

break through the Turkish lines in Sept. 1918. During 1918 the use of concentrations of fire increased. Gen. Charles P. Summerall (U.S.A.) in 1918 first tried out concentrating the fire of all his divisional artillery in front of one infantry brigade at a time when the infantry could go no farther with the help of the rolling barrage. Later, in the November attack

Argonne, he gave his army corps heavier artillery support than had been seen up to that time. The system of artillery

in the

command

at last

admitted of centralization or decentralization ac-

cording to the varying situation. A return was made to a long preliminary bombardment when the British 4th army attacked the

Hindenburg line in September; surprise had then ceased, however, to have great value because of the extent of the Allied offensive and the disappearance of the enemy's reserves. When operations ceased, the art of tactics was on the threshold of a new era of development which had been ushered in by the renewal of mobility, by the introduction of tanks and by the mechanization of transport. (See also Tactics: World War I.) (J. N. K.; M. B. H.)

I to put into practice German theoretical solutions of problems, insofar as their financial status would permit

rearmament.

The Abyssinian campaign

in

1935-36 gave the Italians the op-

and aviation and the means of transport of The Italians steadily developed the idea that the infancommander should have immediately available the lesser cali-

ship between artillery artillery.

try

bres needed for the assault.

Therefore, besides small mortars

which could be carried forward by the troops by hand, they had in each infantry regiment one battery of 65-mm. mountain guns carried on pack mules. 1. Spanish Civil War. The Italians discovered that in many instances larger calibres could not keep up with the infantry and at other times could not be emplaced where they could reach enemy positions well up on a mountain. They therefore came more and more to use bombing by airplane as a means of supplementing their artillery fire. The Italians found that pack and horse-drawn artillery were essential because the use of mechanized and motorized artillery was greatly limited by the lack of roads and the difficulties of the terrain. A large and well-equipped road-building force enabled them to make a much greater use of mechanized and motorized artillery than would have been the case with other armies with nothing more than their customary organization and equipment for this purpose. The result of the German, Italian and Spanish experimentation in battle in the Spanish civil war showed the need for increase in all types of artillery and, in general, larger calibres. The cannon as an aviation weapon was shown to be a necessity. The cannon as the principal tank weapon was shown to be an essential for all heavy combat. In other words, just as artillery weapons had

—

steadily increased as essential parts of the

armament

of infantry

had the artillery become an essential part of aviation and tank armament. There is little doubt that the experience in Spain with a few airplanes armed with a cannon of around 20 mm. was the reason for the large use of airplanes armed with cannon by units so

the

Germans

In

all

in

World War

II.

assaults in Spain in 1938

and 1939 the

artillery

bombard-

ment was followed by aerial bombardment from heavy bombers upon the same targets as those upon which the artillery had fired. The accompanying artillery fire during the infantry assault was dispensed with. There were no rolling barrages and no concentration on the first objectives of the infantry. Artillery concentrations were on the rear of this objective. The accompanying artillery fire

ARTILLERY by aviation and by tanks armed with cannon, rhe aviation attacked with light bombs and machine guns by sombing, one plane after another from one flank of the objective furnished

was

i

to

the other.

It

repeated this until the infantry had reached

thi

where further air attacks became dangerous. Tanks with cannon were distributed at intervals in the infantry Their guns furnished fire on all critical points enissault wave. Wherever the :ountered by the infantry during its advance. nfantry was held up, a number of tanks with cannon and dive Dombers would make a concentrated attack. The use of tanks with :annon of around 47 mm. and up frequently resulted in the 37-mm. joint

intitank guns proving ineffective, this because of the longer range sf

the tank

cannon and

its

bigger bursting charge.

The conse-

quence was that the 65-mm. mountain gun was more and more Besides its greater range and bigger jsed as an antitank gun. Dursting charge it could, being a much smaller target, be emplaced

n positions which an ordinary field gun of 75 mm. or 77 mm. could This was because the latter was such a large target it lot use. would be destroyed by the enemy's

The

German

first

fire.

antiaircraft artillery used in the Spanish civil

These guns were in mechanized batteries It was soon found that the range was not enough, the trajectory not flat enough and the bursting :harge not large enough. Therefore, a new piece of 88-mm. calibre, ind of greater length than the 77-mm., was constructed in Germany and shipped to Spain. This piece could reach any bomber All sighting apparatus was set and corrected ,vith a war load. sy remote control from a range-finding party some distance from he guns and in a position such that it had a good view of the These guns, instead of being emplaced in line, were em.arget. alaced at the four corners of a square probably 109 yd. to a When not firing on targets in the air the guns were used to ;ide. Their long range made them parire at targets on the ground. ticularly effective not only against positions well up on mountains jut also against the rear areas including all the roads over which ;nemy tanks, artillery and supplies had to advance. The guns were field artillery in that they could be put in or out of battery in a relatively short period of time and could move easily over ,var

if

was a 77-mm. gun.

four pieces each.

rreat

roads and also over terrain which was not too difficult. As the result of their experiences in Spain the Germans and Italians

made

may be

a

number

of changes in their

armament and

defensive purposes.

By

the use of cannon in aviation and in tanks

it

can be said

and movement," that is, fire to cover movemovement." "Fire in movement" was the success of the German armoured or panzer divisions

that in addition to "fire

basis of the in

artillery batti

During the

is

"fire in

1939 and 1940.

IV.

I

first

installed seacoast

bases in

its

island possessions.

from 3-in. pieces to huge 16-in. weapons and included 12-in. mortars that were designed to shells on the armoured decks of warships. These weapdrop heavy ie supplemented by antiaircraft guns, searchlights and guns of smaller calibre for direct fire at high-speed motor torpedo boats and small submarines. Coast artillery assumed such importance in the United States when memories of the Spanishafter the turn of the century American War were still fresh -that the army created a coast artillery corps (CAC) separate from the field artillery in 1908. In addition to the coastal guns it had responsibility for the installation and control of submarine mines and in World War I took on a significant new responsibility when antiaircraft defense -

size

—

—

became

a military necessity.

Coast artillery played only a minor role in World War I, and during the years that followed it gradually declined further as the bombing plane came into its own. As time passed, it became apparent that coastal batteries could be bombed too easily from the air. attacked from the rear or bypassed altogether. Early in World War II the fall of Singapore, Britain's mighty bastion in the far east, came as a severe shock to the whole western world. The Japanese had managed to approach Singapore through the jungle on the land side, where its defenses were weak, while its great coastal guns silently pointed out to sea. Even before the fall of Singapore the U.S. army had reorganized its forces along lines that dropped the CAC as a separate entity, at the same time that horse cavalry was supplanted by armoured forces. By the end of World War II most military authorities were convinced that fixed seacoast artillery had

many

of

nearby

its

become

obsolete.

The

U.S.

army dismantled

and turned them over to be used as public parks. (See Coast Defense,

old seacoast fortifications

cities to

i

(H. C. T.)

V.

The

ARTILLERY IN WORLD

WAR

II

they encompassed, the speed with which situations changed, the frequent combinations of land, sea and air elements in one engagement and the co-ordinated, simultaneous use of all arms and services in every campaign makes an abbreviated outline of the part played by a single arm in World War II an impossible task. which were primarily wars of position and In previous wars which progressed from battle to battle in a relatively confined sector of the globe it was possible to trace the progress of organic lines of battle, the areas

— —

artillery

played

COASTAL ARTILLERY

quarter of the 20th century the United States all its principal harbours, in the

batteries at

Panama Canal Zone and at naval The coast artillery guns ranged in

said that these changes

proportion of artillery to infantry,

ment, there

gun position.

tactics.

had to do with increasing the making cannon a part of aviation armament, increasing the number of tanks with cannon and the calibre of these cannon, and improving the communications between all parts of their armed forces so that the maximum beneat could be derived from their artillery fire for both offensive and It

537

The data reported by observers were processed in the plotting room and the target's location, speed and direction of movement were calculated. Just before World War II the British army experimented with radar for the control of coast tions to the

and point out the spectacular and victorious

in

roles

it

combat, often occupying the spotlight of attention as

the sole active participant for long periods.

participation during

World War

Such continuity of

II cannot be narrated in a brief

In the 19th century coastal artillery (or seacoast artillery as it was sometimes called) attained a position of substantial importance is a special branch of artillery. All leading military powers pre-

account because (1) the use of artillery as a weapon was not confined to an organic unit like the field artillery or the coast artillery corps, but was shared by the infantry and armoured cavalry (later

pared their coastal cities, harbours or strategic waterways for defense against naval attack by the installation of both fixed and

known as armour or armoured forces) as well as the artillery; and (2) combat artillery units were engaged, withdrawn and reengaged in so many different areas and participated in such varied

mobile artillery weapons capable of firing high-explosive shells enemy ships far out to sea w'ith a fair degree of accuracy.

at

types of operations that it is difficult to separate their action in a short description from the work of the rest of the fighting team. In substance, the story of such artillery is the story of World

Big coastal guns were elaborately protected from hostile fire ay being emplaced behind thick earth and concrete fortifications, and were sometimes effectively camouflaged. In most instances

War

were equipped with underground storage rooms for supplies and had their own electrical systems. In some of them complicated mechanisms were installed to raise the guns above ground long enough to fire; the huge gun tubes were then quickly retracted into their concealed and well-protected pits. To control the fire of long-range coastal guns, observation posts were set up at points along the coast and were connected by wire communica-

In general, the employment of organic artillery followed the techniques foreshadowed by the Spanish civil war. Despite widespread feeling early in World War II that aircraft bombing might supplant artillery, the role of guns remained significant. Experience demonstrated that the most concentrated bombing of which planes were capable could not achieve the same results as pounding by heavy artillery. For attacking strongly fortified positions,

Ihese fortifications

II.

ARTILLERY

538

only artillery was able to maintain constant, accurate, highly destructive fire on specific targets, unaffected by darkness or bad weather.

As rapid-firing guns and howitzers were used to lay down thunderous barrages, consumption of artillery ammunition reached astronomical proportions. In the first two days of the attack on Monte Cassino in Italy, U.S. artillery units fired something like 11,000 tons of ammunition. Total output of artillery ammunition in the United States from 1940 to 1945, counting all sizes from 20 mm. to 240 mm., totaled nearly 1,000,000,000 rounds, exclusive of bombs, grenades, mines and billions of rounds of small-arms ammunition. It was estimated that if all the 105-mm. shells produced in the United States had been laid end to end they would have extended twice around the earth at the equator. The variety and complexity of both weapons and ammunition were so great that only broad Detailed data are in the classifications may be described here. countless technical manuals prepared by the armies using each type of weapon. Artillery development in World War II moved forward along several

distinct

lines.

All nations increased the

calibres

of

their

field weapons as horses and mules were replaced by trucks and tractors that helped solve the problem of mobility. Before this time the weight of mobile artillery had been inescapably governed by the power of horses, with even the 75-mm. gun requiring a team of six or eight horses. Typical of the trend toward larger calibres was the U.S. army's action to replace its 75-mm. guns, modeled on the famous French 75 of World War I, by the 105-mm. howitzer. The trend toward more powerful guns was also motivated in large part by the appearance of tanks with thicker and tougher armour. At the same time, heavy weapons such as railway guns, coast defense guns and guns of permanent fortifications such as the Maginot and Siegfried lines fell into the discard. (See Forti-

mobile

fication.)

No new

gigantic

weapons appeared

in

World War

II to

compare

with the much-publicized Paris gun of World War I. Instead the Germans brought forth new types of weapons, long-range V-is (flying bombs) and V-2S (rockets) that were launched against

England and Allied-held points on the continent during the

latter

part of 1944 and early 1945. Meanwhile Allied forces introduced the proximity fuze that automatically exploded artillery shells

when they came within range

of their target.

Used

first at

sea for

fire, the proximity fuze proved equally effective in on ground troops. Because World War II was a war of rapid movement, altogether different from the trench warfare of 1914-18, the demand was not Rapidity for bigger guns but for lighter, more mobile weapons. of fire and speed of movement and emplacement were prime conwere equipped achieve these ends, gun carriages siderations. To with pneumatic tires and with improved bearings and springs to permit towing at high speeds. A major innovation along this line was the introduction of self-propelled artillery. Instead of being

antiaircraft firing

towed by horses, trucks or tractors or carried on the backs of mules guns and howitzers were mounted on tank chassis or on other vehicles so they could travel speedily over rough terrain and fin without taking a long time for emplacement. In the Pacific ocear area the terrain and limited area of many of the islands did nol provide opportunity for use of highly mobile materiel but did require powerful weapons for dislodging well-entrenched troops

Following the lead taken by British forces in their attack on Sicily guns and rocket launchers mounted on ships were used in conjunc tion with aircraft bombing to provide a beach barrage that blastec coastal areas with high explosives before troops went ashore. 01 equal importance were three classes of artillery that had come intc prominence during the years since 1918 antiaircraft, antitank and aircraft all of which played a major role in World War II If to these are added recoilless rifles and the bewildering array oi rocket launchers that appeared during the 1940s the multiplicit)

—

—

of artillery

weapons

at the disposal of field

commanders

is

ob-

vious.

Lines of classification between guns and howitzers and between small arms and artillery were frequently blurred, anc weapons were not easily separated into mutually exclusive categories. The old U.S. army classifications of field artillery and coasl artillery gradually lost their importance and after the war were merged into one branch known simply as artillery. Under these circumstances the weapons are best discussed under the heading; of light, medium and heavy artillery, with additional special classes such as mortars, antiaircraft guns, aircraft weapons, recoilless rifles and rockets. 1. Light Artillery. In the U.S. army the light artillery classification included the 37-mm. antitank gun and other weapons up The chief weapons in the British field to the 105-mm. howitzer. artillery ranged from the small 2-pounder (37 mm.) to the 3.7-in. howitzer and the famous 25-pounder (88-mm.) gun-howitzer These guns and howitzers were used as mobile field artillery, towed or self-propelled, and as tank or antitank (AT) weapons. The 37-mm. AT gun was light in weight (about 900 lb. when mounted on its carriage) and was maneuverable in areas denied tc other artillery. Its maneuverability combined with its rapid rate of fire (25 rounds per minute) and seven-mile range made it a versatile weapon, equally useful for firing canister at enemy troops

—

or armour-piercing shells at light tanks. In the Pacific area its maneuverability made it a favourite with troops. It served as a field gun on its own two-wheeled mount and was also placed on tanks, armoured cars and light trucks as a tank destroyer. Although used in large numbers, the 37-mm. steadily lost ground during World War II because it was too small to penetrate the armour of any but the lightest enemy tanks. To defeat the new heavier armour, a Soviet army gun of 45 mm. had been battle-tested in Spain. The British 57-mm. (6-pounder) AT gun was a still more powerful weapon, but effective antitank The fire demanded guns of even greater range and striking power. U.S. army adopted a 3-in. AT gun with special ammunition that could penetrate more than three inches of tank armour at

ARTILLERY 2,000 yd.

y a sagittal crest,

bony

tympanic bullae, a comand with the lower leg bones

orbital ring, large

pete set of 44 teeth, five-toed limbs

eparate and capable of a degree of supination exceptional rtiodactyls.

Tylopoda. lies,

among

The deer family, Cervidae, evolved from early traguloids during the Oligocene 30,000,000 to 40.000,000 years ago. Eumeryx, one of the oldest of known fossil deer, lived during the early Oligocene of China and Mongolia. The American branch of the deer family appeared some 23,000,000 to 30,000,000 years ago. (See also Deer.) The Giraffidae arose about 25,000.000 years ago in the Miocene of Asia and ranged into Europe and Africa. They are closely related to both Cervidae and Bovidae but may be nearer the former. The living genera of the family are the African giraffes (genus (See also Giraffe; Giraffa) and the okapi (genus Okapia).

Ok api.) The Antilocapridae appeared during the Miocene of North The horns of the pronghorn are bifurcated as in deer and the horny sheath is shed annually. The bony core of each horn,

America.

however, is permanently fixed to the skull as in true antelopes. Many forms with bizarre horns were developed but only one species, the pronghorn antelope, survives. (See also Pronghorn. The most highly specialized and diversified family of ruminants is the Bovidae. It arose sometime during the Miocene in Asia and spread into Europe, Africa and the new world. Living representatives include the domestic cattle, goats, sheep, antelopes and all other hollow-horned ruminants. The horns of bovids are never shed. See also Bovidae. I

—The suborder Tylopoda

the Camelidae, which includes

is composed of two fammodern camels and llamas, and

made up of several extinct forms. Living amels are characterized by having: padded toes; a stomach dapted for rumination; a diaphragm with an ossification; red orpuscles of the blood ovate and not circular as in all other mamnals; three upper incisors in each jaw of the young individual he Xiphodontidae,

only the third lateral incisor persists in the adult); canines dif-

from incisors and present in upper and lower jaws; nolars selenodont and hypsodont; and auditory bullae filled with ancellous tissue. Neither the stomach nor the "hump'' of camels

CLASSIFICATION

AND DISTRIBUTION

(indicates extinct)

erentiated

erves as a reservoir for water.

Camels originated in North America during the upper Eocene, bout 40.000.000 years ago. Like horses, they underwent most of heir evolution on the North American continent before invading ^sia and South America during the Pleistocene. (See also Camel; .LAMA, i

The family Xiphodontidae includes primitive selenodonts of the .•fiddle Eocene and lower Oligocene of Europe. They appear to be Camelidae but not certainly ancestral to them. The suborder Ruminantia is the most widepread. most varied and most abundant of ungulates. It is the lominant herbivore group of the world and has been so for more han 30,000,000 years. The name Ruminantia alludes to the runinating or cud chewing habit of the animals. Rumination is nade possible by the division of the stomach into four connected hambers (three in camelids). Food when first swallowed enters he first chamber, or rumen, where it is softened by fermentation, t then passes into the second chamber, the reticulum or honeyomb bag, where further fermentation takes place. The food is hen regurgitated into the mouth in the form of balls, or cuds, -ach cud is thoroughly rechewed and then reswallowed. Because f its more fluid condition the rechewed mass filters through the oarser contents of the reticulum into the third and fourth chamers, where digestion continues. (See also Ruminant.) The most primitive of recent ruminants are the chevrotains of he family Tragulidae. They can be traced to the Miocene, where hey seem to have evolved from a still more primitive group, posibly the Gelocidae, which dates back some 40,000,000 years to he upper Eocene. The Hypertragulidae is another family of ex-

»earest the

Ruminantia.

—

Suborder Suiformes Infraorder Palaeodonta* Superfamily Dichobunoidea* Family Dichobunidae* (Eocene: North America; EoceneOligocene: Europe). Family Choeropotamidae* (Eocene: North America, Asia; Eocene-Oligocene: Europe). Family Cebochoeridae* (Eocene-Oligocene: Europe). Family Leptochoeridae* (Oligocene: North America). Superfamily Entelodontoidea* Family Entelodontidae* (Eocene-Miocene: North America; Oligocene: Europe; Eocene-Oligocene: Asia). Infraorder Suina Superfamily Suoidea Family Suidae pigs (Oligocene-Recent: Europe; MioceneRecent: Africa, Asia; world-wide in domestication). Family Tayassuidae peccaries (Oligocene-Recent: North America; Pleistocene-Recent: South America; Oligocene-Miocene: Europe; Pliocene: Asia). Family Hippopotamidae hippopotami (Pliocene-Pleistocene: Asia; Pliocene-Recent: Africa; Pleistocene: Europe). Infraorder Ancodonta Superfamily Anthracotherioidea* Family Anthracotheriidae* (Eocene-Miocene: Europe; EocenePleistocene: Asia; Oligocene-Miocene: Africa, North .America). Family Anoplotheriidae* (Eocene-Oligocene: Europe). Superfamily Cainotherioidea* Family Cainotheriidae* (Eocene-Miocene: Europe). Infraorder Oreodonta* Superfamily Merycoidodontoidea* Family Agriochoeridae* (Eocene-Miocene: North America). Family Merycoidodontidae* (Eocene-Pliocene: North America). Suborder Tylopoda Family Xiphodontidae (Eocene-Oligocene: Europe). Family Camelidae camels, llamas (Eocene-Pleistocene: North America; Pleistocene-Recent: South America, Asia, North Africa; Pleistocene: Europe). Suborder Ruminantia

—

—

—

—

Infraorder Tragulina

ART NOUVEAU—ARTOIS

55°

Superfamily Amphimerycoidea* Family Amphimerycidae* (Eocene-Oligocene: Europe). Superfamily Hypertraguloidea* Family Hypertragulidae* (Eocene-Miocene: North America; Eocene: Asia). Family Protoceratidae* (Oligocene-Pliocene: North America). Superfamily Traguloidea* Family Gelocidae* (Eocene-Oligocene: Europe, Asia). Tragulidae chevrotains (Miocene-Recent: Asia; Family Miocene-Pliocene: Europe; Pleistocene-Recent: Africa). Infraorder Pecora Superfamily Cervoidea (Oligocene-Recent: Europe; Family Cervidae deer Asia, Miocene-Recent: North America; Pleistocene-Recent: South America). Superfamily Giraffoidea Family Lagomerycidae* (Miocene: Europe, Africa, Asia). Family Giraffidae giraffe and okapi (Miocene-Pleistocene: Asia; Pliocene: Europe; Pliocene-Recent: Africa). Superfamily Bovoidea Family Antilocapridae pronghorn antelope (Miocene-Recent: North America). Family Bovidae domestic cattle, sheep, goats, gazelles, buffalos, etc. (Miocene-Recent: Europe; Pliocene-Recent: Asia, Africa; Pleistocene-Recent: North America; world-wide in domestica-

—

—

Oh

—

—

—

tion).

Hector guimards -project for metro station."

—

Bibliography. E. H. Colbert, "The Osteology and Relationship of Archaeomeryx, ap Ancestral Ruminant," Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1135 (1941) W. Flower and R. Lydekker, An Introduction to the Study of

the stations of the

Mammals (1891); P. P. Grasse, Traite (1948) W. K. Gregory, "A Half Century

other buildings and structures. In the applied and decorative

;

de Zoologie, vol. 17, part 1 of Trituberculy," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, vol. 73, pp. 169-317 (1935); R. Lydekker and G. Blaine, Catalogue of the Ungulate Mammals in the British Museum (Natural ;

History)

(1913-16); A. S. Romer, Vertebrate Paleontology (1955); B. Scott, A History of Land Mammals in the Modern Hemisphere (1937) G. G. Simpson, "The Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 85 (1945). (Ph. H.) a defined style of architecture and decora-

W.

;

ART NOUVEAU,

tion,

was launched

in

the

i8gos by Belgian architects.

Self-

reaction to the imitative styles of the iqth century, art nouveau was rooted partly in the determined individualism

conscious

in its

of William Morris and the arts and crafts movement (q.v.) in England, and partly in a valid appreciation of new materials and mechanical developments. This fusion of structural features and naturalist aesthetics resulted in a style that included the long, sensitive, flowing line of both a Paris Metro station and a rich Tiffany glass vase. Indications of this style appeared in expositions of paintings, graphic arts, furniture and interior design as early as 1884 in

Belgium and England. The first major application in architecture, however, was Henry Van de Velde's villa at Uccle, Belg., in 1894-95. The success of this building led Samuel Bing, an avantgarde Paris decorator, to invite Van de Velde to introduce his new The style was first style at the Dresden exposition of 1897. designated the style beige and, in 1895, the style nouveau; not until 1S98 did it become known as art nouveau, a name used by Bing for the art galleries he opened in 1896. Bing was a born showman. It was largely because of his promotion of this very new style that it was adopted by the French decorators and became the fashionable, elaborate manner in which to refurbish houses, shops and restaurants. The Paris International exposition of 1900 brought the movement enthusiastic recognition. Van de Velde was chiefly interested in the architectural application of new principles; he wrote much in their support. After 1902 his activities were concentrated in Germany where the style flourished and became known as Jugendstil. Van de Velde's most important structure was the Folkwang museum, Hagen, Ger. (1901). An important contemporary of Van de Velde, the Belgian architect Victor Horta, designed numerous houses and public buildings in the style, notably the Maison du Peuple commissioned by the city of Brussels and completed in 1897. The popular fame of houses and the church of the Holy Family, by Antonio Gaudi, transformed the city of Barcelona into a capital of art nouveau.

Removed from the mainstream of the movement, Gaudi developed an individual style which nevertheless incorporated the leading characteristics of art nouveau. He continued to work in this style until his death in 1926. In Paris, Hector Guimard designed

paris, 1900

Metro (the underground railway), nouveau

art

arts,

as well

as

flourished

throughout all Europe. The tendency to obliterate the straight line, to maintain a continuous flow of linear movement, is particularly evident in the interiors of restaurants like Maxim's in Paris and in the fashionable shops of the day in European capitals Wall areas were treated as large decorative panels or were hidden by mirrors and overlaid with delicate moldings that wound around corners and onto pillars, deliberately obscuring architectural form In addition to flower motifs, the peacock was a central decorative theme: the eyes of the tail were repeated through whole interiors and the curves of the spread fan were echoed over and over. International expositions and fairs provided excellent showcases for the new style. Not only exposition buildings but individual rooms, furniture and art objects were designed in an nouveau and met with great success. By 1902, art nouveau reached the apex of its international phase The exposition that year in Turin, Italy, had for its theme thi application of art nouveau to buildings and interiors. the crossroads of the style.

Most nations

It was alsc Europe were repre

of

sented and variants of the style were readily apparent.

Belgiar

and French interpreters of Van de Velde's texts had elaboratec them as far as possible. German, Austrian and English architect: and designers gradually changed to a simpler, rectilinear manne which led to the International style. After 1902, art nouveau wa: found mostly in toiletries, jewelry, vases, wallpaper and othe purely decorative products reflecting the frivolous prosperity western Europe in the early 20th century. In the United States, the glass and bronze designs Comfort Tiffany are the outstanding examples of the glass It

is

in

lie

execution that art nouveau became confused; positivi

in its theories

pact on the public. art nouveau,

of

and

principles,

and

in its liberating

Despite the superficiality of

its final

made an important

im

phase

by successful application of a unified aesthetics

linear emphasis,

ment

hi,

iridescent, his bronze flows in S-curves.

was

values

of Loui: style:

ani

contribution to the develop

modern architecture and applied

arts.

—

Bibliography. Holbrook Jackson, The Eighteen Nineties (1922) Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilizations (1934) Nikolaus Pevsnei ;

Pioneers of Modern Design, rev. ed. (1949) Henry F. Lenning, Th Art Nouveau (1951) Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecturi 3rd ed. (1954) Stephan T. Madsen, Sources of Art Nouveau (1957) (H. F. L.) I ;

;

;

ARTOIS,

an ancient province of France, corresponding t< of Pas-de-Calais, less the arrondissement Its capital was Arras (q.v.), an< of Boulogne and Montreuil. other important places were St. Omer, Bethune, Aire, Hesdin Bapaume, Lens, Lillers, St. Pol and St. Venant. The names Artois and Arras are derived from the Atrebates, wh the

modern departement

1

«

MOVKMKM

ARTS AND CRAFTS ohabited the district in the time of Caesar. From the 9th to the It was 2th century Artois belonged to the counts of Flanders. iromised in 1180 to Philip II Augustus of France by Philip of count of Flanders, as the dowry of his niece Isabella of

Vlsace,

and was conferred in 1237 as an appanage by Louis IX His son, France on his brother Robert, who died in 1250. iobert II of Artois, was killed at the battle of Courtrai in 1302. Philip having predeceased him (1298), Artois was ad-lis son udged to Robert IPs daughter Mahaut (Matilda) as against 'hilip's son Robert, who attempted to support his claim to the ountship by forged titles. Banished from France (1332), Robert if Artois took refuge in England and incited King Edward III to nake war upon Philip VI of France (see Hundred Years' Vari. His descendants, the counts of Eu (q.v.). continued to By the marriage of Mahaut tyle themselves counts of Artois. d. 1329) with Otto IV, Artois passed to the counts of Burgundy, vith whom it remained, so that the marriage of Mary, daughter of ?harles the Bold, to the Austrian archduke Maximilian brought it to the house of Habsburg (see Burgundy; Franche-Comte). -ouis XI, however, occupied portions of Artois, and the claims the treaty of Senlis if Austria were contested by France until 1493). When the Habsburg possessions were partitioned on the bdication of the emperor Charles V, Artois went to Spain with he rest of the Burgundian inheritance. At the end of the Thirty /ears' War, Artois was again conquered by the French, and the onquest was ratified by Spain in the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). "he treaties of Nijmegen (1678) and Utrecht (1713) confirmed •'rench sovereignty. The title of comte d'Artois was borne by Charles X of France before his accession. lainaut,

if

See J. Lestocquov, Histoire de

la

Flandre

et

de V Artois (1949). The arts and crafts

ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT.

novement, which flourished in England during the 1880s and '90s, vas one of many reformatory efforts protesting the social, moral nd cultural confusions that accompanied the Industrial Revoluion. The movement opposed the imitative architecture and hoddy, ugly, mass-produced objects of its era by reviving handiWalter Crane, an arts and crafts rafts and designing for them. eader, maintained that "the true root and basis of all Art lies in he handicrafts," reflecting the attitude of many progressives of he period, who sought in design the expression of individuality oined with expressions of fitness for use, the nature of materials

nd the nature of fabrication. ecture and design accept these

Twentieth-century western archiideals, though handicrafts no longer

hallenge industrialization.

Precursors to the movement in England were the Gothic Re'ivalists. the Pre-Raphaelites and John Ruskin, the most influential

In 1859 William Morris built his home and two years later opened a shop Morris and his vhere interior furnishings could be ordered. 'riends endeavoured actually to practise the principles of medieval .raftsmanship, not merely to imitate its forms or effects. They remastered the crafts; Webb rediscovered English vernacular building. Together Morris and Webb led the English domestic revival, vhich evolved into the less antiquarian arts and crafts movement. Meanwhile Japanese architecture and crafts won over artistic ^ondon at the 1862 World's fair, demonstrating principles renarkably parallel to Morris' and introducing cheerful light colourngs. In the 1860s and '70s Christopher Dresser published ^hematic botanical ornament while Charles Locke Eastlake popilarized advanced interior design to English-reading audiences. \11 this influenced the nascent arts and crafts. In 1882 Arthur H. Mackmurdo (a disciple of Ruskin's), Selwyn .mage and others founded the Century guild for craftsmen. In .886 the same group began the revival of hand printing in the nagazine the Hobby Horse. An association for encouraging ottage crafts also started in 1884 as did the Art Workers' guild, |wo of whose founders were W. R. Lethaby, later principal and noving spirit of London county council's Central School of Arts .nd Crafts, and Walter Crane, first president of the Arts and Crafts ixhibition society. This society, sheltering several groups, may ie considered the focus of the movement. Ruskin and Morris vere its prophets; two generations of enthusiasts had learned that English on rom Philip Webb's

vriter in

art.

designs,

was

art

all

one

55'

— the generally accepted

me

di

arts

seemed destructive and artificial from the An Workers' guild approached the Royal Academy of Arts, suggesting joint exhibitions. After many meetings no agreement was reached. The Arts and Crafts Exhibition society then was formed and In tin jociety's catalogue notes of held its first show in 1888. 1889 Crane stated the aesthetic character of the movement ". plain materials and surfaces are infinitely preferable to inorganic Distinguished exhibitors included or inappropriate ornament." William De Morgan, potter; W. A. S. Benson, metal designer; and who founded two schools and in 1888 his own Guild Ashbee, R. C. of Handicraft, which lasted 20 years. Some progressives, however, voiced dissent. Lewis F. Day, a want machine work leading designer, in 1882 said "the public they will not pay much heed to us." Oscar Wilde said that good machinery was graceful and that the line of strength and the line of beauty were one. John D. Sedding, designer-archiu-i t. in 1888 accepted the machine. William Morris in his socialist vein asked "what business have we with art at all unless all can share it?"; but The Studio, in 1893 London's new progressive art periodical, assessed the Arts and Crafts Exhibition society's fourth show as "the work of a few for the few." The same review recognized, however, a worthy protest against design as "a marketable affair, controlled by the salesman and the advertiser, and at the mercy of every passing fashion." The '90s were full years for the arts and crafts. C. F. A. Voysey. Webb's gifted successor in architecture, became famous, though his cottage style was known earlier to enthusiasts like young Frank Lloyd Wright. Voysey's wallpapers and printed applied arts

and

>•

1

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

fabrics also aroused widespread admiration with their light colours and uncluttered, simplified plant patterns. Ernest Gimson's cabinetwork reached a high level. William Morris made a last conThe arts and crafts tribution, his great Kelmscott press books. replaced orientalia in an important shop. Liberty and Co., soon identified with the

movement.

Later in the decade a group of young architects and designers, brilliantly led by C. R. Mackintosh, gave the movement new liveliness and a new centre, Glasgow. The Scots established good foreign connections, especially with Austria and Germany, and were

open

to

artists

the allure of ornament and the influence of aesthetic

and

writers, such as Beardsley

and Wilde, which the English

craft adherents rarely were.

Several craftsmen gained prominence in England between 1900Cobden-Sanderson and Emery Walker founded the Doves Frank Brangwyn, the painter, designed distinguished rugs

10: T. J.

press;

and furniture; Ambrose Heal translated the craftsman's style into popularly priced, well-made furniture. In Europe during the 1890s and 1900s the influence of the arts and crafts movement expanded. A. W. Finch, the potter, in 1891 carried it to Belgium where G. Serrurier-Bovy took it up; in 1897 Finch moved to Finland, becoming an eminent arts and crafts teacher. In Holland H. P. Berlage and in Austria Otto Wagner, both leading architects, after 1895 preached gospels similar to those of the arts and crafts movement they were followed by younger men, many leaving the art nouveau (q.v.) for this stricter, quieter style. This trend was true still later in Germany, after Peter Behrens and Richard Riemerschmid were converted. The art nouveau and the arts and crafts were allied to fight against historic revival styles; they were shown together in many exhibitions in Belgium, France and Germany, as well as in ten progressive periodicals that sprang up, after The Studio's success, from 1895 to 1898 in Germany, France and Austria. The Belgian Henryvan de Velde reorganized the Weimar Academy of Art in 1900 along English craft school lines and his successor Walter Gropius kept some of this when he transformed the school into the Bauhaus ;

(q.v.).

At East Aurora, N.Y., in 1895 Elbert Hubbard set up a deliberate In 1897 Bostonians evocation of William Morris' workshops. organized the first American Society of Arts and Crafts. In California the Greene brothers built and furnished handsome homes which showed much arts and crafts as well as Japanese influence.

ART SELLING

552

Gustav Stickley's magazine, The Craftsman, popularized mission furniture and bungalows in the United States from 1901 to 1916. Frank Lloyd Wright at Chicago, close to the craftsmen in style, voiced realistic doubts in his repeated lecture, The Art and Craft of the Machine. In fact few important arts and crafts designers personally practised crafts, and many worked regularly for industry. C. R. Ashbee, visiting Chicago in 1900, was strongly impressed by Wright and later sponsored him in Europe. By 1911 Ashbee wrote that modern civilization rested on machinery, and the arts and crafts protest dissolved into craft activity, an esteemed specialty of modern design. See also Fine Arts.

—

Bibliography. Walter Crane, William Morris, et al., Arts and Crafts Essays (1893); J. W. Mackail, The Life of William Morris (1899); Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of Modern Design, rev. enl. ed. (1949) Thomas Howarth, Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Modern Movement (1952); Victoria and Albert Museum, Victorian and Edwardian Decorative Arts, "Exhibition Catalogue" and "Small Picture Book" (1952). The 20th-century publications have excellent bibliographies. David H. Dickason, The Daring Young Men (1953) documents the ;

arts

and

crafts

movement

ART SELLING.

(Er. K.)

in the U.S.

An

art sale

is

a sale of a

work

of art

by

an auctioneer, an art dealer or the artist himself. Art dealing may be carried out not only by dealers who have established businesses, but also by middlemen between the artist and the buyer, between the sales room and the public and between the excavator or explorer and the public. Works of art also may be sold through commission, in which case the artist comes into direct contact with the purchaser, filling a particular demand rather than supplying the general needs of the market. History of the Art Market. Art in the heroic, Homeric and classical ages was a craft and the artist an artisan, sometimes a wanderer moving from town to town looking for employment. In Greece, the city-state was the sole large buyer of art. Commissions were by public competition and consent, and an artist could

—

a need for craftsmanship, and artisans and merchants became th( two new occupational groups creating a revolution in the trade ir works of art. After the 12 th century a more or less regular art trade was established, and not only did works of art travel frorr country to country but artists moved from place to place in ordei to fill orders from the town corporations and churches. The rising bourgeoisie, through town corporations, exercisec important buying power, but not until personal fortunes had growr were individuals able to purchase works of art for themselves A regular market for art then began to take shape, inducing the artist to leave his lodge and settle in a town as an independent

it

master, selling to individual clients.

In the 14th century

artist;

and architects became members of guilds supplying families suet as the Strozzi and Medici in Florence, who then outdid the corporations in purchasing works of art. These artistic commission; were mainly gifts to churches or monasteries, and not until the ISth century were works of art bought for personal use in the home or private chapel. The change from commissioner to collector meant that the collector no longer ordered what he needed but bought what he was offered, and this encouraged artists to paint what they themselves wanted; conversely Paolo Uccello, in painting what he wanted, at the same time was perhaps unconsciously satisfying the needs of a wider public with his portable "easel'

Competition between the upper bourgeoisie and the papal curia for an artist's services caused prices to rise. Along with living artists, whose works were bought by merchants for resale, the antique art trade flourished. In the 16th century there was a regular demand for monuments of the past, which sent dealers looking for excavators and sites. Like a modern art dealer Giovanni Battista della Palla ordered from artists and acquired pictures.

from private owners objets d'art for the French king. Something like modern art dealing began in the Netherlands .

the 17th century

—

first

the artists themselves sold their

own

in

and

not secure a position in the community by offering works to a During the age of Alexander the Great, the general market. growth of private wealth created a demand for art objects, but

other pictures, then book and print sellers, jewelers, frame makers and even innkeepers dealt in art. Art dealers became too numerous and the individual townships had to restrict art selling to those

the great change that was to affect the market was that artists began to acquire some philosophical education, thus raising themZeuxis' painting earned him selves from the level of tradesmen. a fortune, and Apelles became the confidant of Alexander himself. During the conquests of the Roman republic in the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. artists were often slaves and the prices of works of art were low, but toward the end of the Roman empire works of art from other countries and other ages acquired a rarity value previously confined to the cult objects of religion. The change from an agrarian society to the urban society of imperial Rome led to an exceptional rise in private fortunes, which promoted activity in the art market. Rome already possessed an art-dealing quarter near the Via Publica, and Suetonius records what was virtually an art auction conducted by the emperor Caligula himMost art purveyors were Greeks, Alexandrians and other self. middle easterners. The profession of artist continued to be considered low even though art itself was winning new respect, and successful painters and sculptors sometimes showed their social embarrassment by refusing to take money for their great works. Plutarch calls Polygnotus "not ungentlemanly" because he frescoed a public building without asking for a fee. In Byzantium the court, as the centre of intellectual and social life, was the sole purchaser of art, on behalf of church and state. During the early middle ages lack of fluid capital prevented dealing in works of art, although there was considerable patronage. However, ecclesiastics like Suger (c. 1081-1151), abbot of St. Denis near Paris, in their quest of precious objects with which to adorn their churches, stimulated an interest in these things. There are many instances of traffic in luxury objects such as illuminated manuscripts, statues in Nottingham alabaster and other works of But because of the art, which found their way all over Europe. church's disapproval of commerce, the art trade was restricted and the artist became once more an anonymous artisan. The collapse of feudalism and the breakup of the static equilibrium of early medieval culture led to the renascence of monetary and commercial activity. The birth of an urban bourgeoisie brought with

in the painters' guilds; since many artists were too busy working to trade, it often fell to their apprentices to do so for them. When art-dealing apprentices left, the studios to set up independent businesses, they regulated the market and developed a clientele who relied on their advice and went to them for a This led to individual dealers giving inspecific kind of art.

who were

structions to particular artists to

The

sale of

works of

art in the

phases, each characterized

meet special requirements. modern era can be divided into

by the predominance of

a special but

The most nonexclusive relationship between buyer and seller. active phases of art marketing, such as auctions and sales from dealers' galleries, have taken place in times of marked political economic or social change. One of the greatest stimulants to the art market was the sale, after his execution, of the superb collection of Charles I of England. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars both produced mass buying and selling, the results of which founded many of the leading national art galleries of Europe. World Wars I and II stimulated trade in art objects.

The extraordinary

rise in art prices during the first half of the 20th century was connected with the progressive economic deterioration of Europe, the economic growth of the United States, the devaluation of currencies and racial and national persecutions, which set a premium on works of art as easily transportable securities. Heavy taxation and its accompanying social changes also were responsible for releasing onto the market heirlooms that would normally have remained out of the dealers' hands. Taxation also stimulated art buying: since most countries do not impose any tax on capital gains, the amateur who buys a work of art and it at a profit can count the profit as entirely his, while in the United States the tax system induces citizens to buy wo.rks of art by offering them a tax deduction in any one year on the appraised value of a work, provided it is handed over to a public gallery upon

sells

the purchaser's death.

Art buying, dealing and selling shift from country to country with historical changes. In the 16th century Romans were buyers of art; in the 18th they became sellers to British collectors. In

ART SELLING 20th century the British became sellers to the U.S. buyer, hose preferences largely have guided the world art markets. Art easures are considered secure investments by U.S. financial adders, and the United States' position as the wealthiest capitalist ie

>untry, together perhaps with a desire to create a cultural backround and artistic heritage, has caused one of the greatest booms It turned New York into an art capital, competing art buying. ith Paris and London as the most important art selling and buylg centre of the western world. Various influences were responsible for developing U.S. taste in i

Prominent among them was the Museum of Modern Art, York (founded 1929), which devoted itself not only to showlgnew trends in contemporary American and European art but in jucating the public in the history and foundation of modern art irough its exhibitions, lectures and other activities, which reach rt.

,'ew

3

many

parts of the world.

This activity created unreal prices

in

which the museum was particularly interred, and the museum's influence over U.S. contemporary taste and thus over its spending) was so strong that many dealers in aris and London would not think of handling a modern artist •hose work was not either owned or sanctioned by the museum, .nother influence in the development of the U.S. art buying public Duveen concentrated only as Lord Duveen of Millbank {q.v.). jecific

art trends in

n old masters, since he realized that these could not be replenished nd would grow more valuable the rarer they became; his absolute He ijle of the market during five decades transformed U.S. taste. aused a price inflation for the works he supported by buying back .hat he sold at almost the same price and, though the market ormed by such a salesman died with him, he implanted a buying

rame of mind

in the U.S. public. indispensable element in the U.S. art market as in others An example of the effects of a as been the fluctuation of taste. evolution in taste may be seen in the discovery in the 19th cen-

An

After the time of Raphael ury of early Renaissance painting. ,1483-1520), w orks of art of the preceding three centuries were The reawakening of public taste to a egarded as curiosities. :

beauty and value produced a burst of activity market, especially in England, where amateurs had long Scholars have influenced popular taste, and he work of the art historians G. B. Cavalcaselle and G. Morelli nd later Bernard Berenson {qq.v.) had great effect in establishing ound canons of appraisal of the qualities of old masters. More Iramatically, contemporary art grew steadily in favour after the ealization of their

a the art

ollected such works.

,930s,

under the auspices of

many museums

of

modern

art,

and

devoted primarily to modern ;rt. Extravagant variations in taste produce alterations in price, In 1955 nostly due to causes that are impossible to analyze. Christie's of London sold for £11,500 a work by Titian that had >een bought in 1918 for £98; it had always been recognized as a Titian, and there had been no appreciable reassessment of that urtist's work. Sale by Commission. Artists generally have been active in jromoting the sale of their own work, and their relationship with he purchaser has ranged from that of executor of a commission o that of resident painter. In Florence the artists competing 'or work on doors of the baptistery of the cathedral were kept for year by the Calimala (wood finishing organization) while they ivorked on their models and, when Lorenzo Ghiberti was chosen, ae was paid a yearly salary while he worked on the doors themselves for 20 years. French painters, such as Franqois Boucher ,ind Jean Honore Fragonard, could never have succeeded without :'oyal patronage. Although the advent of a new monied class, the ;irtist's own rise in social stature, and organized commercial galery selling all tended to break up the direct link between artist ind patron, yet national or international organizations, government institutions and private businesses still commission works directly from living artists; e.g., Pablo Picasso was commissioned :o provide a mural for the United Nations building in New York, fn modern times subjects are seldom dictated by commissioners :o artists, who usually have freedom to chose their own manner of nost

new commercial

art galleries are

—

|i

expression.

Auction

Sales.

—This method

553

come popular until the 18th century in England, when James Cock made Covent Garden a centre of the art world with his famous auctions and even artists, such as William Hogarth, themselves organized private auctions of their work. In 1766 James Christie opened his auction rooms in Pall Mall against the competition nt

about 60 other auction houses, including Sotheby's, which had been opened in 1744 by Samuel Baker. Christie's concentrated on works of art, and the saleroom became not only an auction house but a place where artists displayed recent work. With the fall of the French monarchy, Paris declined as an art market and London found itself the centre of most European art buying. The combined results of the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and the fortunes accumulated during the growth of the British empire made London increasingly important as an international art buying centre, particularly through the auction rooms. Christie's enjoyed a huge success in the fine arts trade and was joined after World War I by Sotheby's, which until that time had specialized After World War II these two houses in selling books and prints. held the lead in international auction sales of fine art,

Parke-Bernet galleries

in

New York

w ith r

the

and the Galerie Charpen-

tier in Paris.

The

success of London's auction houses

is

attributable partly to

10%

as compared with United States and 16-21% (on a sliding scale) in Paris. (Also to be taken into consideration in the United States is a New York state sales tax and a federal tax on certain kinds of goods; and in France a sales tax.) Further, there is no import or export duty on works of art entering or leaving England. Auction sales in England and the United States usually are run similarly: the sale is advertised in prominent magazines and newspapers by the gallery; a "reserve," or minimum price, is placed on the work by the seller so that it does not go too cheaply through lack of bidding; the auctioneer then takes open bids at the auction. The auctioneer, who generally does not accept responsibility for the attributions of the works disposed, is an employee of the auction house and can often "bid up" the work for sale until it reaches its reserve by calling out bids that are not actually made. "Rings," or combinations based on prearranged mutual agreements, may be formed between dealers who bid against outsiders but not against each other. In Paris, the auction is run by a commissaire priseur ("valuer") whose name is advertised with the sale. He is frequently an expert on the objects for sale, and often the success of the auction depends on his reputation. He may hire the auction room himself, he takes a commission on the sales paid by the buyer and

the low normal commission rate on sales, the basic rate of

15%

in the

assumes the responsibility of the attributions. The bids are written down, collected and handed to the commissaire priseur, who then calls them out. This is a secret bid. Of Paris' two most important auction houses, the Galerie Charpentier is privately owned, holding auctions at irregular intervals interspersed with exhibitions, and the Hotel Drouot is the official government auction house, holding as

many

as six or seven regularly

announced

sales

daily.

In the Netherlands, the Dutch auction system has been in use It is a complicated technique that involves two same object. For instance, a provisional bidder might

for centuries. sales of the

go up to 250 guldens for an object but, instead of the sale terminating, it then begins again by the auctioneer calling out double the provisional bid, say 500 gulden. He works backward toward the first price and at any point another bidder can call out "mine," which indicates he wants the object for that price. If this does not happen, the first bidder gets the object at the original price. In order to stimulate bidding during the first part of the sale, the provisional bidder gets a commission on the final sale if he does not get the object. Art Dealers. The main spur to art dealing came in the 18th century with the progress of archaeological excavations in Italy, which produced a wealth of statues, marbles, vases and terra

—

were eagerly sought. Rome was as the English banker Thomas the Italian sculptor Bartolomeo Cavaceppi and the

cottas, as well as pictures, that

the centre of selling where such of art dealing did not really be-

city

Jenkins,

men

ARU—ARUNDEL

554

Scottish painter Gavin Hamilton produced and sold the bric-a-brac

Malayan

Rome. So great was the passion for and so contagious the enthusiasm it engendered that some of the purchasers turned amateur dealers themselves; e.g., Sir William Hamilton and Lyde Browne, the elder, of Wimbledon, who sold his collection of statues to the empress Catherine of Russia for £23,000. Joseph Smith (1682-1770), British consul at Major Venice, was a prominent art dealer of the 18th century. artists have been dealers: the collection of Charles I was amassed partly through the efforts of Rubens, Daniel Mytens and others, while Sir Peter Lely, Sir Godfrey Kneller, Sir Joshua Reynolds and Sir Thomas Lawrence were all dealers as well as collectors. The 19th century saw the elevation of the picture dealer to his modern position of dominance, in which, rather than merely supplying a prospective consumer with a desired object, he plays an extensive and influential aesthetic role as an active shaper of taste. He acts in liaison between customer and artist and, being in a position to find out quickly what the former expects from the latter, he can suggest to the artist the size, subject and manner most suitable for sale. He constantly looks out for fresh talent. (Ambroise Vollard's "discovery" of the Postimpressionist and Fauve painters in Paris at the beginning of the 20th century won him a place in art history). Dealers who sell contemporary works for artists usually do so on a commission basis, although the artist can often hire the services of the gallery for an exhibition. Occasionally, the dealer pays the artist a fixed sum for all his works and then sells them for whatever price the market will bear, as was the case with the painter Maurice Utrillo and his arrange-

though

of Hellenistic and imperial this activity

ment with

the Petrides brothers.

—

Sales From Exhibitions. Another type of selling is that effected through bodies of artists holding at fixed intervals large organized exhibitions, to which outsiders may be invited to submit works and at which sales are made with little or no commission. of these are the Royal Academy exhibition, London, held annually each summer, and the various academic and independent salons in Paris in the latter part of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. Just as in Venice in the 17th and 18th centuries local artists would display their wares once a year in St. Mark's square, so at exhibitions of art in several cities of the United States, artists "claim" a length of railing or boarding on the street and hang their pictures, which are sold to passers-by; and in London similar exhibitions have sprung up, particularly since the 1950s. See also Art Forgery. Bibliography. John Pye, Patronage of British Art (1845) Algernon Graves, Art Sales from Early in the XVIII Century to Early in the XX Century, 3 vol. (1918-21) Frits Lugt, Les Marques de collections de dessins et d'estampes (1921) F. H. Taylor, The Taste of Angels (1949) F. Antal, Florentine Painting and Its S. N. Behrman, Duvcen (1952) Social Background (1948) A. Hauser, The Social History of Art, 2 vol., Eng. trans, by S. Godman (1951) Denys Sutton, Christie's Since the War, 1945-58 (1959); Art News (1902 et seq.) Hans Floerke, Die Formen des Kunsthandels in den Niederlanden (1905); Otto Kurz, Fakes (1948); Maurice Rheims, La Vie Strange des objets (1959). (M. A. A.) ISLANDS (Pulau-Pulau Aru), the easternmost group of islands in the south Moluccas (q.v. ) (Maluku province) belonging to Indonesia, lie in the shallow Arafura sea, between 5° 22' and 7° 01' S. and 134° 05' and 134° 52' E., on the edge of the submarine continental shelf of Australia and New Guinea. They are composed of one large island, Tanahbesar, 122 mi. long and 58 mi. wide, and nearly 100 smaller islands, the total area of the group being 3,306 sq.mi. Tanahbesar, of irregular, oblong

The most famous

—

stock, as in the

Tanimbar

pagan, though Christianity has made a little headway, and some In the western islands, the Voorwal, where the Muslims and Christians mostly live, including Chinese, Buginese and Macassarese settlers, the villages are near the coast and nearly hidden among clumps of trees. In the eastern islands, the Achterwal, they stand on high rocks. The houses of the pagans are often of rough wood and atap, crowded close together; they are entered by a tfap door in the middle of the floor. Usually a shed in the centre of the village harbours the protec-

are Muslims.

community to whom offerings are made. The Aru islanders are a gentle quiet people; there is little crime among them, and they retain their old laws and customs and are largely governed by their own chiefs. Many of the men wear a single short garment round the waist and the women a very short and tight sarong, home woven, but they decorate themselves with bead tive spirit of the

necklaces, anklets, bracelets, earrings of copper, plaited leaves and

combs

of

bone or wood.

The animal

life is

Papuan and

includes

several birds of paradise, including the king bird of paradise.

Many

natives find occupation in hunting this magnificent bird for

plumes which are used for ornaments. Little ground is tilled, except by the Christians and Muslims, and the communally owned uncultivated ground is hunted and explored for sago and other food products. Wives are purchased, a man becoming absolute

its

master of his wife, and his brother having the right to marry her on his death. The principal means of subsistence are agriculture (amongst the Voorwal peoples), sale of bird of paradise plumes and collection of trepang, pearl and tortoise shell for Chinese and Macassar traders. The capital, and practically the only port, is Dobo, on the small island of Wamar in the west where only a few people live but which is the centre for all trade. The islanders retained certain rights in the pearl fishing of the east coasts, which were leased by The headthe Dutch government to an Australian concern. quarters of the fleet of luggers obtaining pearls and mother-of-pearl are at Dobo. The Aru Islands were occupied by Japan in Aug. 1942, and became part of Indonesia in 1949. (J. O. M. B.)

ARUM, a genus of tuberous-rooted herbs of the family Araceae (q.v.), containing

about 20 species found

in

Europe and the Medi-

terranean region, and represented in the British Isles

;

known

;

;

Islands, but of darker colour,

less dark than that of Papuans proper; smooth rather than curly hair; and thin lips. The natives, divided into Pata-lima and Pata-siwa, showing influence of Tidore and Ternate, are mostly

by the

well-

lords-and-ladies, cuckoo-

pint or wake-robin (A. maculaturn), which yields the somewhat

;

;

poisonous Portland arrowroot. The black calla (.4. palaestinum),

;

;

native to Syria and Palestine, is a greenhouse plant resembling the

;

calla lily.

ARU

form, is virtually divided into five separate islands (Kola, Wokam, Kobroor, Maikoor and Trangan) by three narrow channels of varying width and depth from 10 to 300 ft. They have been variously interpreted as remainders of stream courses which once traversed the former land surface between New Guinea and the Aru Islands or as fault lines. All the islands are low, mostly horizontal layers of coralline limestone, and covered with a dense forest the coast is often very swampy. The vegetation includes screw pines, palm trees, kanari and tree ferns; in Trangan, the southern portion of Tanahbesar, there are grassy plains, and along the coast and river banks are mangroves. The population (1956 est.) was 27,006, of mixed Papuan and ;

1

Arum popular

is

also the

name

common

or

for several other,

plants related to the genus Arum but considered generically distinct.

arum LORDS. AND-LADIES

LATUM)

(ARUM

MACU-

Among them

are the water

(Calla pahtstris),

several

(Zantedeschia) and some plants in the genera Anthurium and Arisaema. All have an See acrid or poisonous juice. (N. Tr.) calla

lilies

Calla; Cuckoopint. ARUNDEL, EARLS OF The question of deciding who was first earl of Arundel is complicated by the admission by the crown in 1433 of a claim by John Fitzalan (see below that the earldom was and always had been vested in the castle of Arundel. Had this claim been investigated, which it was not, it could have been shown that the assertion was untrue. Nevertheless, applied retrospectively, the admission of 1433 would mean that Roger de Montgomery, who came to England from France in 1067 and was I

created an earl, with lands in Sussex including Arundel castle,

is

j

ARUNDKL to be considered 1st earl of Arundel, though he was known by Other titles; e.g., earl of Chichester. (See also SUSSEX, Earls 01 He was succeeded by his two sons, but in 1102 the 3rd earl was I

and attainted, and

exiled

his

honours and estates were forfeited

555

death from wounds, on June 12, 1435, at Beauvais. The earl's only son, Humphrey (1429-38), died in April 1438, when the earldom pa eel to John brother W'lI.LIA.M 1417-87), Wilthe 9th earl, and the dukedom of Touraine became extinct. field until his

1

I

HOMA8 (1450-1524),

crown. In 138 William d'Aubicny married Adelaide, widow of Henry acquired Arundel castle as part of her dowry. He was conand I, firmed in possession of the castle and honour of Arundel by

liam was succeeded by his son

Hugh, the 5th in this line, died in 1243, and his were divided among his sisters and cousins and their chilgren, Arundel castle passing to his nephew, John Fitzalan. Neither John nor his son appears to have been known as earl of Arundel. Moreover, all of the above-mentioned earls appear to have been merely earls "at" Arundel. Richard Fitzalan ( 1 267— 1302), who was made earl of Arundel probably in 1289, seems to have been the first to be specifically so created. He is, therefore, here considered as the 1st earl, though, by virtue of the claim of 1433, he is held by some to be the 8th earl (in the d'Aubigny line). Richard fought for Edward I in Wales, France and Scotland and died on March 9, 1302. He was succeeded by his son, Edmund (1285-1326), 2nd earl, who married Alice, sister of John de Warenne, earl of Surrey. A bitter enemy of Piers Gaveston, Arundel was one of the ordainers appointed in 1310; he declined to march with Edward II to Bannockburn, and after the king's humiliation he was closely associated with Thomas, earl of Lancaster, until about 1321 when he became connected with the Despensers by the marriage of his son with Isabella, daughter of the younger Hugh. Thenceforth he sided with the king. He was executed at Hereford by the partisans of Queen Isabella on Nov. 17, 1326. Edmund's son, Richard (c. 1313-76), 3rd earl, who obtained his father's earldom and lands in 1331, led one of the divisions of the English army at Crecy and took part in the siege of Calais; he also fought in the naval battle with the Spaniards off Winchelsea in Aug. 1350. He was one of the regents of England in 1355 and died on Jan. 24, 1376. His marriage to Isabella was annulled in 1345. By his second marriage he left three sons, the youngest of whom, Thomas, became archbishop of Canterbury, while the eldest, Richard (1346-97), became 4th earl of Arundel and of Surrey. This Richard was a member of the royal council during the minority of Richard II, and about 1381 was made one of the young king's governors. About 1385 he joined the baronial party led by the king's uncle, Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, and in 1386 was a member of the commission appointed to regulate the kingdom and the royal household. As admiral of the west and south he gained a victory over the French and their allies off Margate in 13S7. Then came the king's futile attempt to arrest Arundel, which was the signal for the outbreak of hostilities. The Gloucester faction quickly gained the upper hand, and the earl was again a member of the royal council. After a personal altercation with the king at Westminster in 1394 Arundel underwent a In 1397 he was involved in a conspiracy short imprisonment. against Richard II and was beheaded on Sept. 21. Richard's only surviving son, Thomas (1381-1415), 5th earl, was made by Richard II a ward of John Holland, duke of Exeter, from whose keeping he escaped about 1398 and joined his uncle, Archbishop Thomas Arundel, at Utrecht, returning to England in 1399 with Henry of Lancaster, afterward King Henry IV. In Oct. 1400 he was restored to his father's titles and estates. Arundel joined the party of the Beauforts and was one of the leaders of the English army that went to France in 1411 then after a period of retirement he became lord treasurer on the accession of Henry V and was at the taking of Harfleur in 1415. He died on Oct. 13, 1415. His wife was Beatrice (d. 1439), a natural daughter of John I. king of Portugal, but he left no children, and the lordship of Arundel passed to his second cousin, John (1385-1421), Lord Maltravers, who was summoned to parliament as earl of Arundel

earldom in 1544. He took part in the siege of Boulogne (1544) and was appointed lord chamberlain and a privy councilor in 1546. He was one of the council of 12 appointed by Henry VIII to as-

in 1416.

to

to the

1

Henry

II in 11 55.

ostitis

;

John's son the

earldom

1433,

when

7th earl, did not secure

as the "English Achilles" he

won great distinction in the French wars. 1434 duke of Touraine and continued to serve

already in

John Fitzalan (1408-35), until

He was

had

created in the

Henry VI

I

10th earl.

HENRY Fitzalan (1512-80), 12th earl, son of William (14831544), 11th earl, by Anne, daughter of Henry Percy, 4th earl of Northumberland, was born on April 2i, 1512, and succeeded to the

sist

the executors of his will during the minority of

Edward

VI,

He was

twice arrested and twice released on various charges at the instigation of Northumberland. In June 1553 he alone of the

council refused the "engagement" of the council to support Ed-

ward's "device" for the succession which passed over his sisters, Elizabeth, as illegitimate, in favour of Lady Jane Grey, though he signed the letters patent. On Edward's death, while pretending to support Northumberland, he secured the proclamation of Mary as soon as Northumberland had left London. Under Mary I he held a series of high appointments, including the lord stewardship which he retained under Elizabeth I. But as one of the leaders of the Catholic nobility he fell under suspicion, resigned his offices in 1564 and was more than once disgraced. In 1569 he was implicated in the intrigues of Thomas Howard. 4th duke of Norfolk, but although he appears to have received money from Spain, the evidence against him was insufficient, and he was released in March 1570 and even recalled to the council. After the discovery of the Ridolfi plot he was once more arrested and He died liberated only after the execution of Norfolk in 1572. on Feb. 24, 1580. At his death the title passed through his daughter Mary, the wife of the beheaded Norfolk, to the Howards. Philip Howard (1557-95), 13th earl of Arundel, eldest son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, executed for high treason in 1572, and of Lady Mary, daughter and heiress of Henry Fitzalan, 12th earl of Arundel, was born on June 28, 1557. He was married in 1571 to Anne, daughter and coheiress of Thomas Dacre. Lord Dacre. On the death of his maternal grandfather in Feb. 1580 In 1582 his wife became a Rohe became earl of Arundel. man Catholic and was committed to the charge of Sir Thomas Shirley by the queen. He was himself suspected of disloyalty and

Mary and

was regarded by the discontented Roman Catholics as the centre of the plots against the queen's government and even as a possible successor. In 1583 he was with some reason suspected of complicity in Francis Throckmorton's plot and prepared to escape to Flanders, but his plans were interrupted by a visit from Elizabeth I at his house in London and by her subsequent order to confine himself there. In Sept. 1584 he became a Roman Catholic and made another attempt to leave England. He was then brought before the Star Chamber and sentenced to a fine and imprisonment for life. He was released for a time but was again arrested on a charge of high treason and, in 1589, condemned to death. The sentence was not executed, and he died in the Tower of London on Oct. 19, 1595. Arundel wrote three treatises on virtue. In 1929 he was beatified. Thomas Howard (1585-1646), 14th earl of Arundel, and earl of Surrey and of Norfolk, son of Philip, 13th earl of Arundel and of Lady Anne Dacre, was born on July 7, 1585, and educated at Westminster school and at Trinity college, Cambridge. On April 18, 1604, he was restored to his father's earldoms of Arundel and Surrey and to the baronies of his grandfather, Thomas, 4th duke of Norfolk. His fortunes fluctuated under James I and Charles I; he held many high offices and was more than once imprisoned. In 1641 as lord' high steward he presided at the trial of the earl of He again became This closed his public career. Strafford. estranged from the court, and in 1641 he escorted Marie de Medicis to Holland,

England

remaining abroad, with the exception of a short in that winter,

visit

and taking up permanent residence

at

Padua, Italy. He ar. On June 6, 1644, cause and suffered severe losses in the Civil he was created earl of Norfolk. He died at Padua, when on the point of returning home, on Oct. 4, 1646, and was buried at contributed a

sum

of £54,000 to the king's

W

r

ARUNDEL— ARUNTA

55&

Arundel. The 14th earl is best remembered for his patronage of the arts and for his magnificent collections. These were dispersed after his death, most of the marbles and statues being given to Oxford university in 1667 to

become known

later as the

Arundel (or Ox-

marbles. The library was given to the Royal society and to the College of Heralds, the manuscript portion of the Royal society's moiety being transferred to the British museum in 1831 ford

l

and forming the present Arundel collection. In 1606 the 14th earl married Alathea, daughter and heir of Gilbert Talbot, 7th earl of Shrewsbury, by whom, beside three sons who died young and one daughter, he had James, who predeceased him, Henry Frederick (1608-52) who succeeded him as 15th earl of Arundel and earl of Surrey and of Norfolk, and Henry William Howard, Viscount Stafford, executed in 1680. Frederick's son Thomas (1627-77), 16th earl, succeeded by the reversal (1660) of the attainder of 1572, to the dukedom of Norfolk, in which the earldom has since been merged. (1353-1414), archbishop of Canterbury and chancellor of England, who played an important part in politics during Richard II's reign, and was a determined opponent of the Lollards (g.v.). He was the third son of Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel and Warenne, by his second wife, Eleanor, daughter of Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. In 1373 Thomas Arundel was archdeacon of Taunton, and in April 1374 he was consecrated bishop of Ely. During the early years of Richard IPs reign Arundel belonged to the party led by Thomas, duke of Gloucester; Henry, earl of Derby (afterward King Henry IV) and his own brother Richard, earl of Arundel. In 1386 he became chancellor for three years, and in 1388 archbishop of York. In 1391 he became chancellor again, but resigned in 1396 on his appointment as archbishop of Canterbury. In the following year Gloucester, Warwick and Arundel were arrested and he himself was impeached by the commons on a charge of complicity in forcing a council of regency on Richard during his minority. He was condemned and banished, and at the same time demoted from Canterbury to St. Andrews. At the end of 1397 he left England for Rome, and joined Henry of Lancaster. (The Thomas Arundel whom according to Froissart the Londoners sent to encourage Henry to assume the English crown was apparently not the bishop, but his nephew and namesake, the earl of Arundel.) In 1399 he accompanied Henry to England, where he became chancellor again for a few days and also archbishop of Canterbury. He witnessed the abdication of Richard and crowned Henry IV on Oct. 13. The main work of his later years was the defense of the church and the suppression of heresy. He was instrumental in passing the statute de haeretico comburendo (1401) under which William Sawtrey was the first Lollard to be burned. He successfully opposed the attempts to disendow the church made by the parliament of 1404, but he was unable to persuade Henry to pardon Archbishop Scrope. In 1407 he became chancellor again for two years. During this period he passed constitutions against the Lollards at Oxford. In 1411 he went on an embassy abroad, and

ARUNDEL, THOMAS

;

2 he became chancellor for the last time, until the accession Henry V. He took a leading part in the proceedings against the Lollard Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham. He died on Feb. 19,

in 141

of

1414, and was buried at Canterbury. See The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. vii, ch. 15 (1949) and vol. ch. 11 (1936); W. A. Pantin, The English Church in the Fourteenth Century, ch. 2 (1955). (Pl. Gn.) viii,

ARUNDEL,

municipal borough of West Sussex, Eng., is 2 1 mi. W. of Brighton by road. Pop. (1961) 2,614. It lies on a hill slope above the river Arun, and its castle, rising from the summit of the hill, was placed to guard not only the passage along the river through the South Downs to the north but also the east-west route along the coastal plain. The first mention of the place is in 877 as Harundell (O.E., Harhundell, "horehound valley"; the plant horehound being prolific in the neighbourhood ). In the time of Edward the Confessor it seems to have consisted of a mill and an earthwork, but it appears in Domesday Book as a thriving borough and port. It was situated

1 1

a

mi. E. of Chichester and

the head of one of the six rapes (administrative divisions) of Sussex and was granted by William the Conqueror to Roger de Montgomery, who restored and extended the castle on the site of the earthwork. From very early times, markets were held within the borough on Thursday and Saturday, and in 1285 a grant of two annual fairs in May and December was obtained by Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, but neither markets nor fairs are now held. In 1580 the earldom passed to the Howards, of whom Sir John Howard had been created 1st duke of Norfolk in 1483. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832 and one member until 1868. Arundel is a borough by prescription

and

in 1586 Elizabeth I acknowledged its incorporation and anOnce a flourishing river port, it is now a quiet country town with considerable tourist traffic in summer. The canal that linked it with Chichester harbour is dry. The town was partially destroyed by fire in 1338. Arundel castle, which has long been one of the seats of the dukes of Norfolk, was frequently assaulted and greatly damaged in the Civil War. However, it was repaired and improved by Thomas, 8th duke of Norfolk, between 1716 and 1720 and was restored by Charles, 11th duke (d. 1815), and Henry, 15th duke •(d. 1917), who between them made it one of the most splendid baronial mansions in England. There is a beautiful park of 1,100 ac. containing Swanbourne lake. The Perpendicular parish church of St. Nicholas, rebuilt in 1380, contains fine ironwork and wall paintings. The eastern part, which belongs to the duke of Norfolk, is walled off from the remainder and only entered from the castle precincts. Formerly the collegiate church of the Holy Trinity and now known as the Fitzalan chapel (Roman Catholic), it contains many memorials and tombs of the Fitzalan and Howard

cient rights.

families.

The Gothic Roman Catholic church

was built by Henry, 15th duke of Norfolk, Arundel, Earls of.

of St. Philip Neri in

1873.

See

also

ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR, THOMAS ARUNDELL, of

1st

Wardour

Baron

(c.

1562-1639), son of Sir Mathew Arundell served with great distinction as a

castle, Wiltshire,

under the emperor Rudolf II against the of Turks, and was created a count of the Holy Roman empire. His assumption of a foreign title was strongly resented by Elizabeth I, who sent him to the Fleet prison on his arrival in England in 1596. He was soon released, but next year was again imprisoned for a short time on another charge. James I gave him his English peerage in 1605, but he repeatedly fell under suspicion because of his Catholic faith during the reigns of James I and Charles I. He died on Nov. 7, 1639. Arundell was a devout Catholic, but the accusations of disloyalty made against him appear to have been unfounded. His grandson, Henry Arundell (c. 1607-94), 3rd baron, who succeeded in 1643, fought on the Cavalier side in the Civil War. At the Restoration he regained the family estates and became an officer of the queen's household. He was employed by Charles II Denounced by Titus Oates as in negotiating the treaty of Dover. a participator in the "Popish plot," Arundell, with four other Roman Catholic peers, was impeached and imprisoned. He was soldier

fortune

After the accession of James II. the charge was annulled, and Arundell was for a time keeper of the privy seal. He died on Dec. 28, 1694. Aranda). The description of this Australian tribe in W. B. Spencer's and F. J. Gillen's classic of 1899 made a great impact on studies in social anthropology and comparative religion; the Arunta became famous. They occupied a pear-shaped region released in Feb. 1684.

ARUNTA

(

It included the upper Finke river and its northern tributaries, the MacDonnell ranges and the Todd and Hale river courses east of Alice Springs. The rainfall varies from 5 to 10 in. a year in different parts. Having migrated across deserts into this comparatively hospitable region, the Arunta increased. The groups that hived off to occupy new food-gathering grounds remained separated for months each year and for longer periods during droughts. As a result, there are five Arunta subtribes, marked by differences in dialect, and in some cases also in social organization, in ritual practices and in doctrinal emphasis. Each regards itself as the true Arunta.

of about 25,000 sq.mi. in central Australia.

ARUSHA—ARYABHATA Material equipment included the nonreturn boomerang, a barbed ooden spear and an ovate-shaped spear thrower with a stone Fire was produced by sawing the lisd fixed on the handle end.

lrdwood edge of the spear thrower across the softer wood of the lield.

Behaviour was, and is, based on classificatory kinship. Maris between the children of cross-cousins, own or classificaIn the southern division, kinship, marriage and descent iry. jles are correlated with a four-section system, but in the rest of le tribe with an eight subsection system of grouping relations Both systems spread from the •id of codifying ritual affiliations. age

Polygyny was practised. The doctrine of pre-existence and reincarnation was fundamenHuman spirits sojourned in centres where the ancestors of the il. Itjiranga (the "Dreaming"), the creative era. performed signifiant acts and rituals, or left parts of their bodies or died. A person •hose conception was realized near such a centre was a reincarnaon of a local ancestor. The ancestors were also in totemic relaonship with natural species and phenomena (see Totemism). len whose pre-existent spirits were associated with a particular jtemic centre performed rituals which caused the "souls" or emanations" to go forth from it and increase the species in due During ritual, the creative past became operative in the eason. Males had to pass through long and severe initiation resent. raining and ordeals (including circumcision and subincision) beorthwest.

admitted to totemic rituals with their sacred chants nd symbols (tjurunga), be the latter permanent of wood and made for the occasion only. Sorcery caused ill— "Pointing bone" technique was believed in. ess and death. )octor-men, who had passed through special revelatory rites and raining, could cure, protect and also exert psychological influence n general. Burial ritual expressed the social value of the inore being

557

The great annual festival was held in honour of the anonymous Dea Dia, a field deity of uncertain identity, on three days in May. It is a matter of dispute whether this festival was identiThe ceremony of the first cal with that called Ambarvalia (q.v.). day, on which a sumptuous banquet took place, followed by a distribution of doles and garlands, was held in Rome itself. On the second and principal day of the festival the ceremonies were conducted in the grove of the Dea Dia. They included a dance in the temple of the goddess, at which the song of the brotherhood was sung, in language so antiquated that it was hardly intelligible (text and translation in Mommsen, History of Rome) even to Romans of the time of Augustus. Special mention should be made of the ceremony of purifying the grove, which was held to be defiled by the felling of trees, the breaking of a bough or the use of any iron tools. The song and dance were followed by the election of officers for the next year, a banquet and races. On the third day the sacrifice took place in Rome, and was of the same nature as that offered on the first day. The Arvales also offered sacrifice and solemn vows on behalf of the imperial family on Jan. 3 and on other extraordinary occasions. The brotherhood is said to have lasted till the time of Theodosius. A small frieze of the Antonine period found near Lyons may represent the actual sacrificial ceremony of the Arvales to the Dea Dia. W. Bibliography. W. Henzen, Acta Fratrum Arvalium (1874) Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People (1911) G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus (1912); Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclop'ddie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft; F. Altheim, History of Roman Religion (iq}8) E. Norden, Aus Altromischen Priesterbiichern (1939).

—

;

;

;

tone, or objects

lividual.

The body was

interred.

mainly geometrical and symbolical, was mostly temporary, being expressed on ritual paraphernalia and on the bodies )f the actors. A modern group of Arunta has become successful as vater-colour artists, specializing in landscapes. The language is :omplex and very rich and, as in other tribes, is a suitable medium Arunta

I

art.

or aboriginal poetical powers.

Greatly reduced

,

in

numbers during the

first

70 years of contact.

Arunta showed signs by the 1960s of holding their own and ;ven of increasing, as a result of readaptation, medical services -and greatly improved conditions. See Australian Aborigines. :he

i

See W. B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Australia (1899); T. G. H. Strehlow,

The Native Tribes of Central Aranda Traditions (1948). (A. P. E.)

ARUSHA REGION, TANGANYIKA:

Northern

ARVE,

a river of eastern France,

is

(R. B. Ld.) a tributary of the Rhone,

Rising in Savoy it joins in Switzerland below Geneva. heart of the Alps, the Arve collects the drainage of the northwestern side of the Mont Blanc massif, and about Chamonix its valley separates that massif from the Aiguilles Rouges to the west. Below the basin of Sallanches, in the northern portion of

which

in the

the great longitudinal valley that lies between the crystalline core of the Alps and the limestone Prealpes, the Arve turns northwest

by the gap between the Chablais and Bornes massifs. There it occupies a valley through which Alpine ice debouched on to the Alpine foreland during the Great Ice Age. Below Bonneville, in the district known as Faucigny. the Arve valley is wide, low-lying and highly cultivated, though broken by morainic hills. The valley is the gateway to Chamonix (q.v.) and the glaciers and highest peaks of the French Alps, and its course of over 62 mi. presents some of the finest and most varied

to traverse the prealpine zone

(Ar. E. S.)

Alpine scenery.

ARVERNI,

the ancient Celtic tribe of the

modern region

of

sacrifice for the fertility of the fields.

France whose chieftain. Vercingetorix (q.v.), led the great rebellion against Julius Caesar in 52 B.C. In the previous century they had built a considerable empire in southwestern Gaul, but their chief, Bituitus, was overcome by the Romans in 121, and the new Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis pushed the tribe northward beyond the mountain range of the Cevennes. A weakness of the coalition of the year 52 between Arverni and Aedui was their rivalry for Gallic primacy, but the rebels severely defeated Caesar at the Arvernian hill fort Gergovia before Ver-

antiquity of the college, which

cingetorix surrendered at Alesia

see

Region, Tanganyika.

ARVAL BROTHERS,

Roman

in

antiquities, a college or

priesthood (Fratres Arvales, "brothers of the field"), consisting of 12 members, elected for life from the highest ranks in Rome, and !during the empire always apparently including the emperor. (The

museum contains a bust of Marcus Aurelius in the dress of Frater Arvalis.) Their chief duty was to offer annually public

British a

iRome

There is proof of the high was said to have been older than

the verbal forms of the song with which, down to late times, a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which itself, in

still preserved. No mention of the fratres occurs in Cicero and literary allusions to them are very scarce but there remains a long series of the acta or minutes of their proceedings, drawn up by themselves and inscribed on stone. Excavations (1570-1869) in the grove of the Dea Dia about 5 mi. from Rome yielded 96 of these records, dating from a.d. 14 to 241. The brotherhood, almost forgotten in republican times, was revived by Augustus. In his time the college consisted of a master (magister), a vice-master (promagister), a flamen and a praetor, who were assisted at the sacrifices by four chorus boys, sons of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore a wreath of corn, a white fillet and the praetexta (a characteristic garment of prepubertal boys). The election of members was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a flamen, was elected for one year.

is

or Livy,

;

Auvergne

in central

(q.v.).

Under

the empire, al-

though they assisted Vindex' rising in a.d. 68, the tribe seems to have been peaceful and prosperous, with the status of civitas libera Their capital was moved to Augustonemetum or "free city." (modern Clermont-Ferrand ), and the sanctuary there of Mercurius Dumias on the Puv-de-D6me summit became famous. (G. E. F. C.)

ARYABHATA

(b.

476

),

Hindu astronomer and mathemati-

Pataliputra (Patna), India, on He was the author of the Aryabhatiya, written which gives the rules of mathematics as known (See also Chronology: Hindu.) Most of this work in his time. deals with astronomy and spherical trigonometry, the remainder consisting of 33 rules in arithmetic, algebra and plane trigonometry, including quadratic equations, the sums of powers of the first n natural numbers and a table of sines. The work was published in Sanskrit at Leiden, Neth., in 1874 (French trans., 1879). cian,

was born

at

Kusumapura near

the upper Ganges.

in verse couplets,

ARYAN— ASBESTOS

558

Aryabhata gave a very accurate value for pi (x), SyWff (3- I 4'6), and he taught that the daily rotation of the heavens was a mere (D. McK.) appearance due to the axial rotation of the earth. ARYAN, a Sanskrit word meaning "noble," was once com-

monly used

to refer to the entire family of languages

as "Indo-European";

name

it

was

more

also used,

now known

restrictively, as the

of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of that family.

In

modern

times, particularly in National Socialist Germany, the term became infected with political connotations that have made it almost useless.

Even

century,

it

in the purely linguistic meaning, common in the 19th has been abandoned. See also Indo-European; Indo-

Akvax Languages.

(J.

ARYA SAMAJ, a vigorously reforming sect

of modern HinSwami Dayanand Saraswati 1824-83) Swami Dayanand established the Arya Samaj (So-

duism, founded

Bombay.

at

Wh.)

in

1S75 by

(

ciety of Aryas) on the basis of the Vedas {see Sanskrit Literature) as divinely revealed; he denounced all later additions and commentaries as false. The Vedas, as interpreted by the method laid down by Dayanand, may be said to be the theology of the Arya Samaj and are held to contain all truth and all knowledge, including the basis for modern science. The Arya Samaj is completely opposed to idolatry, is sternly monotheistic and denies the efficacy of priestly intervention. Its organization and services are

strongly reminiscent of Protestantism.

The Arya Samaj opposes un-Yedic and

should

upon

reflect merit.

birth, as

Among

its

active reforms have been opposition to child marriage and to untouchability, which it works to eliminate. It is organized in local samajas, which send representatives to provincial samajas and to an all-India samaj. Each local samaj elects its own officers in a democratic manner. By 1931 the Arya Samaj was estimated to have upwards of 1,000.000 members; no reliable figures are avail-

able after that date.

Hindu life and to inamong Hindus. It has

to revitalize

self-confidence and national pride

established a network of excellent schools and colleges, including the

Dayanand Anglo-Vedic

college in Lahore,

which teach

rigor-

ously in the Vedas and in modern sciences. It has also built missions, orphanages and homes for widows, while undertaking work. famine relief and medical

—

Bibliography. H. D. Griswold, "Arya Samaj," in J. Hastings et al. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. ii (1909) S. Konow and P. Tuxen, Religions of India (1949) L. S. S. O'Mallcy, Popular Hinduism (1935); R. W. Scott, Social Ethics in Modern Hinduism 1953) H. Mukhcrjce and U. Mukherjee, The Growth of Nationalism in India (1957) O. Lewis and V. Barnouw, Village Life in Northern India (1958); J. N. Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements in India (R. I. C.) (1915) Lala Lajpat Rai, The Arya Samaj (1915). ;

;

(

;

;

;

ASA,

Bible, son (or perhaps brother) of Abijah. and Judah (I Kings xv, 9-24), c. 911-870 B.C. He was a contemporary of Baasha, Zimri and Omri of Israel, but little is recorded of his long reign except some religious reforms and conflicts with Baasha. Baasha fortified Ramah, S mi. N. of Jerusalem, and Asa bribed the king of Damascus to renounce his league with Baasha and attack him. Baasha was forced to retreat, the building material which he had collected at Ramah being used by Asa to The Book fortify towns to the immediate north of Jerusalem. of Chronicles relates a story of a sensational defeat of Zerah the "Cushite," and a great religious revival in which Judah and Israel took part (II Chron. xiv-xv, 15). Asa was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat (q.v.). ASAFETIDA, a gum resin obtained chiefly from an umin the

third king of

Ferula joetida ), allied to the giant fennel (q.v.), native to Iran and Afghanistan. It grows to five or six feet, and when four years old is ready for yielding asafetida. The stems are cut down close to the root, and a milky juice flows out which quickly sets into a solid resinous mass. A freshly exposed surface of asafetida has a translucent, pearly white appearance, but- it soon darkens in the air, becoming first pink and finally reddishbrown. In taste it is acrid and emits a strong onionlike odour because of the presence of organic sulfur compounds. The gum resin is relished as a condiment in India and Iran, belliferous plant

(

and has been used

growth the whole plant

is

used

as'

ASAHIGAWA,

a city of Hokkaido, Japan, on the Ishikari river, is in the agriculturally important Kamikawa basin. Settled by government subsidized farmer soldiers in 1893, Asahigawa became the railway, agricultural marketing and industrial centre of northern Hokkaido. Asahigawa 's industries include brewing, especially sake rice wine I, lumber, pulp and wood products and cotton textiles. Pop. 1960 188.309. (J. D. Ee. ASANSOL, a town in the Burdwan district of West Bengal, India, is situated in the heart of the Raniganj coal field, 132 mi. W. of Calcutta, on the Eastern railway. Pop. (1961) 103.405 Area 4 sq.mi. The Grand Trunk road runs right across the town from east to west, and on both sides of it stand shops, offices and hotels. Asansol is the headquarters of a subdivision and is of growing industrial importarfce. It is an outstanding centre of the coal trade, and a railway centre with a large railway workshop and a railway colony. Jaykaynagar, a suburb of Asansol, has a big (

(

)

)

aluminum works.

ASARABACCA

(S. P. C.)

(Asarum

europeum)

a

low,

stemless

perennial plant of the birthwort family (Aristolochiaceae). native to the woods of Europe and north temperate Asia, and occurring are

some English counties. The allied North American species commonly called wild ginger (q.v.). Asarabacca is a small

creeping herb with a pungent, aromatic rootstock, kidney-shaped leaves and small purplish bell-shaped flowers. It was formerly grown for medicinal purposes, the underground stem having ca-

and emetic properties. a town in Sverdlovsk oblast of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., lies on the eastern flank of the Urals, 37 mi. E.N.E. of Sverdlovsk, on a branch railway from the main Sverdlovsk-Tyumen line. Pop. 1959 census) 60,053. It owes its existence to the presence of asbestos, first discovered in 1720. It is the largest asbestos mining and processing centre of the U.S.S.R., the vicinity of the town supplying most of the Soviet thartic

ASBEST,

(

The Arya Samaj has sought still

its

a fresh vegetable, the inner portion of the full-grown stem being regarded as a luxury.

wild in

the caste system, based

insists that caste

In the regions of

flavouring.

in

Europe and the U.S.

in

perfumes and for

Union's annual production of 150,000 tons. (R. A. F.) ASBESTOS, a general term applied to any mineral that can be easily separated into flexible fibres and that can be spun or felted to make noncombustible fabrics. The name is derived from the ancient Greek name for a fabulous stone that, once set on fire, could not be quenched, probably quicklime.

The noncombustible character and spinning qualities of asbesPlutarch tos fibre were undoubtedly known to the ancient world. mentions "perpetual" lampwicks used by the vestal virgins, and Pausanias records a lamp with a wick that was not consumed, being made of "Carpasian linen," or mineral fibre from Carpasius in Cyprus. Shrouds of woven asbestos appear to have been used in ancient times for the cremation of nobility, and thus Pliny "the funeral dress of kings." The refers to it as linum vivum beginning of the modern asbestos industry was in 1868, when 200 tons of raw material were produced in Italy. Varieties. Of the several types of asbestos, chrysotile, the fibrous variety of serpentine, is the most important; the others all belong to the amphibole group of minerals of which anthophyllite, amosite, crocidolite and tremolite-actinolite are the principal

—

—

varieties.

Chrysotile, the fibrous form of the mineral serpentine (q.v.), It is a hydrous magwith the chemical composition Mg 3 Si 2 5 (OH) 4 The individual fibres are white, but the colour of the aggregate The in the veins varies from green to greenish-yellow to amber. chief occurrence of chrysotile is in veins in altered peridotite associated with massive serpentine, where the asbestos may be found either as cross fibre, roughly perpendicular to the vein The fibres range in walls, or as slip fibre, parallel to the walls. length from jL to ij in. in most deposits but in places may be as long as 1 2 in. The world's greatest deposits of this type are Only 5% to: in Quebec, Can., and the Ural mountains, U.S.S.R. 109c of the rock mined is asbestos; the remainder is serpentine. Chrysotile also occurs in limestone near the contact with small

constitutes the bulk of commercial asbestos.

nesium

silicate

.

ASBJ0RNSEN ntrusions of basic igneous rock.

The average

is longer than that found in peridotitcs but is frequently Asbestos deposits in the Transvaal, mrsher and less flexible. Republic of South Africa, and Arizona are of this type.

Anthophyllite, a magnesium-iron silicate.

(

Mg.Fe

i

7 Si 8 l

22 ((Hi...

)

i

orthorhombic amphibole. It is characteristically in long is an ;oarse fibres having low tensile strength. Anthophyllite is of ittle commercial importance although small amounts have been nined in South Africa and in Maryland and California. Amosite, an iron-rich anthophyllite, is characteristically found n cross-fibre veins with fibres usually several inches in length.

may be brown, gray or yellowishAmosite is more brittle than chrysotile but is more acid resistant and thus has specialized uses. The world*s supply of amosite comes entirely from the Republic of South Africa. Crocidolite is a soda-iron, monoclinic amphibole, Nao( Fe 2 + 3 Fe 2 3+ iSi s Ono(OH)o. It occurs in cross-fibre veins up to three inches wide with a characteristic dull blue colour and for this

It is

variously coloured and

jreen.

,

commonly referred to as blue asbestos. It has a higher strength than chrysotile but is less resistant to heat and fuses to a black glass at a relatively low temperature. Some

.reason

is

lensile

crocidolite

is

found in Australia and in Bolivia, but the major comis South Africa, where it is found in a siliceous rock

mercial source

known

rich in iron

as ironstone.

Tremolite-actinolite are monoclinic amphiboles and

the type

names amphibole asbestos, hornblende asoestos or merely asbestos. The chemical composition of tremolite Is expressed by the formula Ca ; Mg 5 Si g iron may sub2 ;;(OH 2 stitute in part for magnesium, and when it reaches 2% the mineral referred to under the

i

Is

called actinolite.

Pure tremolite asbestos

is

;

white, but actino-

5S9

Production and Consumption.

fibre in these de-

tos fluctuates

from year

—The consumption of asbes-

was a steady The industry expanded rapidly after

to year, but in general there

increase after about 1930.

World War

11. with Canadian production increasing especially Prospecting for new deposits was intensiand there were increased efforts to develop substitutes and synthetics. The world consumption of asbestos of all grades in 1930 was 338,783 tons; by 1950 it had risen to an estimated 1,200,000 tons and in the second half of the 20th century approached 2,000,000 tons. Approximately 60% was produced in Canada, 6% in the Republic of South Africa, 6% in Southern Rhodesia (Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland), 4% in the United States, 2% in Swaziland. 2% in Italy and the balance mostly in the U.S.S.R. Data were not available from the U.S.S.R. after 1938, when 86.000 tons were produced, but output was estimated at about 16% of the world total. About 95% of the world

after the early 1950s. fied,

production is chrysotile asbestos. Asbestos products are manufactured in the United States. England, U.S.S.R., France, Germany, Austria. Italy. Canada, Spain, Belgium and Australia. The United States is the largest user, ordinarily consuming nearly half of the world's output; about 95% of this amount is usually imported. See also Index references under "Asbestos" in the Index volume. Bibliography. Oliver Bowles, "The Asbestos Industry," U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 552 (1955) W. E. Sinclair, Asbestos: Its Origin, Production, and Utilization (1955) D. O. Kennedy and Annie L. Marks, "Asbestos," reprint from Minerals Yearbook logs, vol. L'.S. Bureau of Mines (1957) R. B. Ladoo, "Asbestos," Nonmetallic Minerals, 2nd ed. (1951) G. E. Howling, Asbestos, Imperial Institute, Mineral Resources Dept. Bull., 2nd ed. (1937) L. A. Stewart, "Chrysotile-Asbestos Deposits of Arizona," U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 774s (1956); Asbestos (issued monthlv Julv 1919

—

;

;

i,

;

;

;

;

lite is

green.

etseq.).

(C. S.'H.)

Tremolite asbestos characteristically is fine and silky and occurs in slip-fibre veins. This is the original material to which the

ASBJ0RNSEN, PETER CHRISTEN (1812-1885), and MOE, J0RGEN ENGEBRETSEN (1813-1882), collectors

name asbestos was

Norwegian folklore whose Norske folkeeventyr is a landmark in Norwegian literature, were closely united in their lives and work and are rarely named apart. Asbj0rnsen was bom in Christiania (Oslo) on Jan. 15, 181 2. The son of a glazier, he had to give up medical studies and at the age of 20 became a private tutor in eastern Norway, where he began to collect folk tales. He had met Moe, born at Hole in Ringerike on April 22, 1813, when Moe was Moe, the son of a rich and highly educated farmer, graduated 14. in theology from Christiania university in 1839; religious scruples combined with ill-health made him give up thoughts of the ministry and he became a tutor, spending holidays in collecting folklore in southern Norway. Meanwhile Asbjornsen had become a naturalist and made investigations along the fiords for Christiania univer-

I

given.

The

fibres of

some amphibole asbestos

instead of being easily separated are interwoven into a felted mass. ilf

the aggregate

leather; rieties

if

is

in thin flexible sheets,

in thick sheets it is called

it

is

called

mountain cork.

mountain Both va-

are light gray to white in colour and have an apparent

specific gravity of less

Uses.

than

— Because asbestos

1.

incombustible and is capable of being woven into fabrics, it is a valuable industrial material. Crude asbestos is graded into nine main groups, but only the best grades are spinning fibre. To be of high commercial value asbestos must possess length and fineness of fibre combined with infusibility, toughness or relatively high tensile strength and flexibility. Asbestos fibre resembles fine polished wire, free from serrations of any kind that would add to the difficulties of spinning. Under is

seen to consist of numerous fine threads crowded together. The longer fibre can be carded and spun into yarns, either alone or with additions such as cotton or small sizes

high magnification, fibre

is

Spun products are woven into fabrics varying weights, thickness and densities to meet numerous in-

of

sity,

Moe

adding all the time to his collection of tales. When in 1837 discovered this, he urged a joint publication, to which

Asbj0msen agreed. Their main problem was one of form: the Norwegian day was too

Denmark

literary

of brass or copper wire.

style of the

of

national folklore, while the various dialects of the actual narrators

dustrial needs.

Some

of the principal uses are for drop curtains in theatres,

for fireproof wall linings and for boiler pipe packing. Yarns spun with fine wire are used for fabric for brake linings; woven as-

convey cement clinker and other hot products. When impregnated with rubber, asbestos is utilized for heat insulation and for gaskets. Asbestos yarns, impregnated with graphite and suitable greases, are used for steam and pump packings; ropes, cords, twine and threads are made for various purposes. Asbestos gloves and other articles of clothing are worn by firemen and by workers in foundries and other places where fire is a hazard. Various products are used to insulate electric conductors; fibre shorter than spinning stock is used for making coverings for steam pipe, hot-water pipe and boilers. Certain classes of short asbestos fibre are mixed with cement or gypsum and molded into various shapes for special purposes or pressed into millboard, wallboard, corrugated siding, shingles or tiles. Asbestos sheets deaden sound, and asbestos papers are used where dampproof and fireproof coverings are required. Short fibres are used as an ingredient in paint and roofing cements. bestos belts

like that of

to be suitable for

were too local for the purpose. A new style had to be forged. Finally they adopted the Grimms' principle, in their Kinder- und Hausmarchen, of reproducing tales in their traditional and popular form, without dialect, but in a simple language. In 1837 the first tales appeared in Nor, and some were then published as Norske folkeeventyr ("Norwegian Folk Tales") in 1841. Further collections, enlarged and illustrated, appeared in 1842, 1843 and 1844, the whole being published in 1852 with critical notes. The influence of this work was striking. Accepted all over Europe as a major contribution to comparative mythology, it was widely translated, the most popular English version being Sir George Dasent's Popular Tales From the Norse (1859). In Norway it provided a national source of inspiration and a stylistic model to young writers. It is usually said that the vigour of these concise and humorous tales came from Asbj0rnsen and their charm from Moe, but in fact, although Asbjornsen was a jovial man and Moe a quietly reflective one, their contributions are indistinguishable.

Each, however, published individual works. In 1845 Asbjornsen published Norske huldreeventyr og jolkesagn, a collection of fairy tales, in descriptive settings. In 1856 he was appointed forest

—

ASBURY—ASCALON

s6o

master and was sent by the government to examine methods of timber preservation in various other European countries. In i860 he introduced Darwin's Origin of Species to the Norwegian public. He died in Christiania on Jan. 5, 1885. In 1850 Moe published a set of lyrics which placed him among the first and best Norwegian romantic poets. / br0nden og i kjaernet (1851) and En liden julegave (i860) are books of stories for children. In 1853 he eventually took holy orders, and rose to be bishop of Christiansand in 1875. He died there on March 27, 1882. See Sir Edmund Gosse, Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (1879) Ulit Gr0ndahl and Ola Raknes, Chapters in Norwegian Litera;

ture (1923).

ASBURY, FRANCIS (1745-1816), the first bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church consecrated in America, arrived in Philadelphia late in 1771. There were then in the colonies but three Methodist meeting houses and about 300 communicants. Forty-five years later, when his incredible labours ended, there were nine annual conferences and 412 Methodist societies with a membership of 214,235. When he began his work, Methodism was confined almost wholly to America's eastern shore. At the close of his career the movement had spread over every state east of the Mississippi river, then the nation's western boundary. He organized scores of Methodist societies, ordained more than 4,000 preachers, traveled approximately 270,000 mi. mostly on horseback over rough roads and unsurveyed mountain paths and preached more than 16,500 sermons. He crossed the Alleghenies 60 times. "My horse trots stiff," he wrote in his journal, "and no wonder when I have ridden him upon an average of 5,000 miles a year for five

—

—

years successively." Francis Asbury was born at Handsworth, Staffordshire, four miles from Birmingham, on Aug. 20, 1745, the son of Joseph

and Elizabeth Rogers Asbury. His father was a yeoman, a humble, hard-working man; his mother, of Welsh descent, was devoutly religious and was confident that her son would become a great religious leader. At the age of 14 he experienced a spiritual awakening and began to attend meetings for Bible reading and prayer. With very limited schooling he was licensed as a local

Admitted at 21 to the Wesleyan conference, for four years he served as an itinerant preacher. In Aug. 1771, when at a conference John Wesley called for volunteers to go to America, preacher.

Asbury responded first. After eight days at sea he wrote in his journal: "Whither am I going? To the New World. What to do? To gain honour? No, if I know my own heart. To get money? No; I am going to live to God, and bring others so to do." This was his purpose to the last. He landed at Philadelphia on Oct. 27, 1771, and left on Nov. 6, 1771, on his first itinerary. He acted independently in making his plans. He began by preaching in inns, jails and by the wayside wherever he found hearers. Soon he was made Wesley's general assistant. With this authority he proceeded to enforce Wesley's rules for his preachers and societies. There was iron in his character.

He determined to stand He insisted

as a wall of brass." a circuit.

When

the

against

all

opposition, "stedfast

must travel American Revolution broke out and prothat every preacher

British sympathizers departed, Asbury, convinced that independence was inevitable, remained. At the Christmas conference (Dec. 1784), when the Methodist Episcopal Church was organized, he refused to accept from Wesley appointment as general superintendent, insisting that election must be by vote of the preachers. For long years he was not well, yet, suffering intolerable pain and distress, so weak that he had to be lifted from his sulky, he continued to travel and preach. He died on March 31, 1816.

Asbury was not a learned man or, from the standpoint of sermon composition, a great preacher. He preached on simple themes with such deep earnestness that his preaching carried conviction and and in changed lives for great numbers of His Journal and Letters were published in three volumes

resulted in decision

people.

(1958).

See aiso Methodism: United States.

—

Bibliography. W. P. Strickland, The Pioneer Bishop; or, The Life and Times of Francis Asbury (1858) Henry King Carroll, Francis Asbury in the Making of American Methodism (1923) Herbert Asbury, A Methodist Saint, the Life of Bishop Asbury (1927) Wade Crawford Barclay, pt. i, Early American Methodism, 1769-1844, vol. i, Missionary ;

;

;

Motivation and Expansion, pp. 34 ff., vol. ii, To Reform the Nation "History of Methodist Missions Series" (1949-50). (W. C. B.)

ASBURY PARK,

a city of

Monmouth

'

county, N.J., U.S.

was founded in 1871 by James A. Bradley who named the seasid( resort for Rev. Francis Asbury, the first U.S. bishop of the Methodist Church. Bradley guided the development of the community until his death in 1921. It became a borough in 1874, anc a city in 1897. In 1933 it adopted a council-manager form c government. (For comparative population figures see table ir New Jersey: Population.) The community attracts many New Jersey resort visitors, ranking second only to Atlantic City. Prom inent sites along the beach boardwalk are the Auditorium and th( Convention hall. Asbury Park was the scene of a spectacular ship disaster ir Sept. 1934, east gale

when

the

"Morro Castle" caught

fire at

and was beached near the Convention

ship continued to burn, with a loss of 134 lives.

sea in a north-

hall,

where

the

(E. R. D.)

ASCALAPHUS, in

Greek mythology, was the son of Acheror and Styx. It was he who revealed that Persephone (q.v.) hac eaten a pomegranate seed in the underworld, so that she was unabk to return with her mother to remain permanently on earth. Deme ter in revenge changed him into an owl or a lizard. (T. V. B.) (Ashkelon or Askalon), an ancient city of Palestine. Its now desolate site, on the coast of Israel 12 mi. N. of,

ASCALON

Gaza, occupies a rocky amphitheatre including about ^ mi. ol shore with traces of a harbour in the southwestern area. From the sand-swept terrain shattered columns and remnants of ruined buildings testify to former greatness.

and

plied with wells,

fertile coastal plain.

vines, olives

An

stands near the ancient

—

and

The

site is plentifully sup-

fruit trees flourish in the

Israelite settlement,

Migdal Ashkelon.

site.

History. Traces of habitation reach back to about 2000 B.C.. and Ascalon appears in the Egyptian execration texts of about this time. In the Amarna letters (14th century B.C.) Ascalon is one of the cities that ask the Pharaoh to provide assistance against the Apiru (Habiru) it would appear that Ascalon was allied with Gezer and Lachish against Abdu-Khepa, the prince of Jerusalem. In the 13th century Ramesses II stormed Ascalon; the town had evidently rebelled with Hittite encouragement. About 1220 B.C. ;

certain Palestinian cities,

among them

Ascalon, rebelled against

Egyptian overlord Merneptah: "Carried off is Ascalon" sings Ascalon is not mentioned among the cities of Judah in Josh, xv, and it appears as a Philistine city, one of the Pentapolis, from the days of Samson to the 6th century. Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.) of Assyria received their

the Egyptian poet of the period.

from Mitinti of Ascalon, who later revolted. Sennacherib captured the city in 701 when Sidqia refused to submit; Sidqia, his and brothers, together with the city gods, were deported to Assyria, and Sarru-lu-dari, son of Rukibtu, their former Subsequently Ascalon was a vassal king, was installed as ruler. Nebuchadnezzar met of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal (qq.v.). stiff opposition in the Philistine plain and was forced to capture and tribute

wife, children

destroy the city, deporting the leading citizens to Babylon (604 B.C.). Conquered by Alexander the Great, the city became Hellenized, and following his death its fate as a vassal was determined alternately by the Ptolemies and by the Seleucids. Though it was a centre of Hellenism, it opened its gates to the Jewish leader Jonathan Maccabaeus (147) and later to Alexander Jannaeus. Herod the Great, who adorned it with monumental buildings, was born there. From 104 B.C., for four and a half centuries it was a In a.d. 636 it passed into Arab free city of the Roman empire.

hands.

During the crusades (q.v.) Ascalon was the key to southwestern Baldwin III of Jerusalem completed the Frankish con-

Palestine.

quest of Palestine in 1153 after a successful six-month siege of Ascalon. In 1187 it was retaken by Saladin after feeble resistance; he burned the city and demolished its defenses at the approach of Richard I Coeur-de-Lion in 1191. Richard promptly set about restoring it, but under the terms of a truce the following year the walls were once more destroyed and the city abandoned. In 1240

Richard of Cornwall began rebuilding, but in 12 70 the Mameluke sultan Baybars I, in accord with his scheme of defense, destroyed

ASCANIAN—ASCETICISM and blocked the harbour with stones. Ascalon scene of fighting between British and Turkish armies in

he fortifications ,:is

the

War

Vorld

I.

Excavations.

—

After a preliminary survey in 1913, the PalesExploration fund organized operations there (1020-23) under he supervision of J. Garstang and VV. J. Phythian-Adams. the "court surrounded by columns" of Josephus [erod's cloisters -wire exposed and a number of statues, among them one of ine

—

The stratification of the site was letermined and a date of about 2000 b.c. for the earliest traceable Distinctive Philistine ware appears after labitation established. sis-Tyche, were recovered.

he destruction of the Canaanite town about 1200 B.C. Bibliography. G. Adam Smith, "Ashkelon," Encyclopaedia Biblica W. J. Phythian-Adams, "History of Ascalon," Palestine Ex1899) tforation Fund Quarterly Statement, pp. 76 ff. (1921) reports on the xcavations in P.E.F.Q.S. for the years 1921-24; F. M. Abel, "Ascalon," "lictionnaire de la Bible (192S). (J S I ) branches of a German family

—

;

;

ASCANIAN DYNASTIES,

nfluential

from the 12th century

to

1918.

The name, adopted

quarter of the 12th century, was derived from Ischersleben, where the counts of Ballenstedt had a castle in the 'nidst of possessions northeast of the Harz mountains. Albert the 'luring

the

first

was the first to raise the family's rank from that of margrave. Having been invested with the North mark in 134, he extended it east of the Elbe to form the mark of Brandenmrg (q.v.). These lands remained under the senior branch of the \scanians till it became extinct in 1320. In 1180, meanwhile, on he fall of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, Bernard, line of Albert's younger sons, had obtained those of Henry's terrifories in the Elbe region which carried the title duke of Saxony. 'n 1260 these lands were divided into two duchies, Saxe-Lauenburg n the northwest and Saxe-Wittenberg in central Germany, for 'he sons of Bernard's son Albert. Saxe-Wittenberg, which secured he Saxon electoral title in 1356, passed in 1423, on the extinction >f the Ascanian branch there, to the margraves of Meissen (of he house of Wettin). Thus the name Saxony, which originally Jear (q.v.)

!

:ount to

partridges. island in vast

in.

The "wideawake" birds (sooty numbers to lay their eggs.

terns)

frequent the

The island was discovered by the Portuguese Joao da Nova Castella on Ascension day. 1501. In 1701 William Dampier was wrecked on its coast. It remained uninhabited till after the arrival of Napoleon at St. Helena (1815), when it was garrisoned by the British government. A settlement named Georgetown (locally known as Garrison was made on the northwest coast, water being obtained from "Dampier's springs" in the Green Mountain, 6 mi. distant. The island was under the rule of the admiralty till 1922, when it was transferred to the administration of the colonial office and made a dependency of the colony of St. Helena. There are cable and radiotelephone connections with Europe, Africa and North America, and cable communications with South America. The local manager of Cable and Wireless, Ltd., serves as resident magistrate. The total population in 1956 was 390, mainly St. Helenians. The inhabitants are largely dependent upon the cable company, which also maintains a farm at Green Mountain. In World War II the island was used as a refuelling base for U.S. aircraft and in 1957 a station was constructed on it as part of the U.S. long-range proving ground for guided and ballistic missiles. )

See E. H. Ford, The History and Postage Stamps of Ascension Island (1933) C. C. Watts, In Mid Atlantic (1936), "Ascension Island," Scot. Geogr. Mag. (Jan. 1933); Colonial Report on St. Helena (biennial). (J. D. Ha.) ;

FEAST OF

(espe-

THE, the 40th day after Easter, ASCENSION, commemorating the taking up of Jesus Christ into heaven, as witnessed by the apostles, apparently on Mt. Olivet (Mark xvi, 19; Luke xxiv, 51 Acts i, 1-11). Ranking with Christmas. Easter (qq.v.) and Pentecost in the universality of its observance among Christians, the feast was celebrated as early as the end of the 4th century, according to testimony of Etheria. Chrysostom. the hisAugustine, in fact, declares that torian Socrates and Augustine. in his day it was already celebrated "in all the world." A distinctive feature of its liturgy in the western church is the extinguishing of the paschal candle after the gospel has been chanted, as a symbol of Christ's leaving the earth. Despite the idea of separation indicated in this act, which might be expected to set a note of sadness, the whole liturgy of Ascension-tide, through the ten days to Pentecost, is marked by joy in the final triumph of the risen Lord. One of the central themes is the kingship of Christ (hence the frequent use of Psalms xxiv and xlvii in the liturgy of the feast); and a theological implication is that the Ascension is the final redemptive act conferring a share in In the words the divine life on all who are members of Christ. of the Roman preface, Christ "was lifted up into heaven so that he might make us partakers of his Godhead." In the middle ages, the people's delight in the visual and dramatic found an outlet in various ritual practices that came to be

prevalent in warm, moist areas where conditions of sanitation are inadequate. Closely allied forms are A. suis, found in pigs, and A. megalocephala, in horses. See also Round-

associated with the feast. A procession, in imitation of Christ's journey with his apostles to the Mount of Olives, and the raising of a crucifix or a statue of the risen Christ through an opening in

German plain, was transand to the upper Elbe (see Saxony). The till 1689. Yet anther Ascanian principality was Anhalt (q.v.), the basis of which was formed when the original possessions of the family (from Aschersleben to Zerbst and Dessau) passed to Bernard's elder son jrlenry in 1212. The Ascanians ruled in Anhalt till 1918. See H. Krabbo, Regesten der Markgrajen aus dem askanischen Hause belonged to a tribal land in the North

ferred to the southeast

j\scanians of Saxe-Lauenburg, however, lasted

i

l;i910-20).

(H. Lz.)

ASCANIUS,

important in Roman legend as the son of Aeneas Various conflicting stories were told of him, but the general pattern appears in Virgil. As a boy, he accompanied Aeneas Hpm Troy, gradually maturing during the arduous trip. When Aeneas died in battle, Ascanius succeeded him as ruler of the Trojans at their new city. Lavinium. However, his stepmother, [Lavinia, jealous for her son Silvius, soon forced Ascanius to leave the city and found a new one, Alba Longa, where the Trojans were 'to live until the time of Romulus. Silvius eventually gained ipower in Alba Longa, too, and Ascanius ended his days probably !as a priest. Under the name Julus, Ascanius is connected with the gens Julia, family of Julius Caesar. (Wm. S. A.) ASCARIS, the genus name of certain roundworms (class or phylum Nematoda that are parasitic on various animals. A. lum'

561

on Green Mountain, March and April being the rainy months. Ascension was originally bare save for the summit of Green Mountain, but the lower hills have been planted with grasses and shrubs. The natural vegetation includes purslane, rock roses, ferns and mosses. The island is the resort of sea turtles, which come in thousands to lay their eggs on the shores between January and May. The coasts abound with a variety of fish of excellent quality. Like St. Helena, the island does not possess any indigenous vertebrate land animals. There are some wild donkeys and goats, rabbits, wild cats and a few

Georgetown on the coast and 25

'(q.v.).

)

bricoides. the giant intestinal

roundworm

that infects

man

cially children), is

worm; Parasitology: Roundworms.

ASCENSION,

a small British island of volcanic origin in the

700 mi. N.W. of St. Helena (q.v.). Area 34 sq.mi. The island is within the influence of the southeast trades (latitude 8° S.) and the lee side is subject to "rollers," which break on the shore with great violence. Green Mountain, a huge elliptisouth Atlantic,

lies

crater, is 2.870 ft. above the sea, while the surrounding ft. Steep ravines, lined with masses of lava and ending in small bays, are typical. The climate is remarkably healthful. The average rainfall is about 6 in. in cal

tablelands vary from 1.200 to 2,000

;

the church roof were widespread customs identified with Ascension.

See also

Church

— H.

Year.

Leclercq and F. Cabrol, "Ascension," in Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de liturgie, vol. i, pt. 2, cols. 2926H. Kellner, Heortology (1908) P. Benoit, "L'Ascension," 43 (1907) P. Parsch, The Church's Year of in Revue biblique, 56:161-203 (1949) M. Righetti, Sloria Liturgica, vol. Grace, vol. iii, pp. 159-200 (1954) (G. L. D.) ii, pp. 232-235 (1955).

Bibliography.

;

;

;

;

ASCETICISM. The rives

Greek word from which asceticism demeans practice or training for the attainment of an ideal it was applied to soldiery, athletics and learning as well

or goal;

—

ASCETICISM

562 as to virtue is

and

modern

In

piety.

commonly employed

in a

usage, however, asceticism

narrower sense.

It

can be described

as a religious exercise or exercises, often involving difficulty and pain, by which self-conquest in a physical or spiritual sense is

promoted and eventually more or less perfectly achieved. While asceticism is often looked upon as a preparation for mysticism ((/.'i, current usage tends to restrict it to the realm of merely human activity; mysticism, on the contrary, implies a state in which the divinity acts and the soul remains more or less passive. in

Asceticism is found in practically all religions but especially those that profess dualism or stress the opposition of soul and

body, of the divine and the world (see Dualism). It is practised (1) to avoid or frighten away a divine force that is conceived as to prepare for union with a divine force in order to be (2 strengthened; (3) to please a divinity by offering sacrifice; and evil;

)

(4) to make reparation for sin and thus attain to holiness. In general the practices of asceticism may be divided into spiritual and physical. Spiritual ascetical practices include silence,

guard of thoughts, spiritual reading, prayer, obedience and the acceptance of humiliation. Physical practices may be either negative or positive. Negative practices often are concerned with food, drink and sex, consisting in abstention from certain food and drink either for a time or permanently or in decreasing the intake of food or drink, and in temporary or permanent abstention from sex relations. Positive asceticism is practised by enduring heat or cold, embracing homelessness, living in a narrow cell or on a pillar, using hard beds or rough clothing, going barefoot, reducing the amount of sleep or sleeping in an uncomfortable posture, going on pilgrimage, omitting of bathing and other corporal care, remaining immobile in certain bodily positions, lying on spike beds, wearing chains or other painful bonds, flagellation and self-mutilation, etc. Asceticism can be practised individually, as by hermits, or socially in convents and monasteries. Magic and magical practices also often involve asceticism. Indeed according to some authorities there is a magical as well as a religious asceticism, the magical being profane, and this-worldly in purpose. In this view, however, religious and magical asceticism are inextricably interwoven. Often magical asceticism can be equated with a kind of

mysticism.

—

Jewish Asceticism. Asceticism in early Judaism was limited, God was acknowledged as creator of the world and of the body. The principal forms were abstention from sex relations since

(Ex. xix, 15) and fasting, which was practised in times of bereavement, pestilence, war, etc. (Joel i. 13 ff. Jer. xxxvi, 6). The purpose of this asceticism was usually to move the deity to mercy, but on occasion it was mystical. The Nazirites had various asceti;

among them abstention from wine. The Essenes renounced personal property, practised obedience and silence and engaged in hard labour. Even the Qumran community, which seems to have been the most ascetical Jewish sect, was far from considering asceticism an end in itself. In late and contemporary Judaism, asceticism also occupies a subordinate position. Its principal practice seems to be observance of the Law, e.g., in its prescriptions in regard to food. etc. Greek Asceticism. In Greek religious practice asceticism was cal practices,

—

phenomenon, confined for the most part to certain Orphism imposed abstention from animal food and beans. Early Pythagoreanism seems to have been influenced by Orphism and also practised ascetical silence; later, dualism led it to widen its ascetical practice. Greek philosophy, especially that of the Cynics and Stoics, was in practice ascetical. Christian Asceticism. Jesus imposed an ascetical program when he described the life of his followers as a narrow way along which they were to carry their cross (Mark viii, 34). Self-denial a peripheral cults.

—

and self-abnegation also were stressed. The Christian is to prefer Christ to his nearest and dearest (Luke xiv, 26), to expect persecution (Matt. x. 23) and to watch and pray (Mark xiii. 33). This evangelical asceticism

is

conceived as principally interior since

merely exterior devotion, fasting and almsgiving have no value (Matt. vi). Moreover love of God and the neighbour are conceived as

more meritorious than

asceticism.

During the centuries before monasticism became prominent, a of ascetical practices appear. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries the prospect of martyrdom was ever present to many Christians. The widespread practice of chastity arose at the same time. In the early 3rd century a study of the theory of asceticism was made by Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Under the influence of Greek philosophy, they concluded that it was necessary in Christian living for the purification of the passions, as a means of loving God more and as the gateway to mysticism. During the 4th century monasticism united in itself the currents of Christian asceticism. Various practices were experimented with, and the heroes of asceticism (e.g., the pillar saints) became popular heroes. In the medieval west, Christian perfection was placed by St. Thomas Aquinas and other theologians in the fulfillment of the commandments of love of God and the neighbour. All Christians, no matter what their state or condition, were held to be called to this perfection. Asceticism, in some instances extreme, was conceived as a means to progress in holiness and as a help in

number

the struggle against

sin.

At the time of the Reformation, the Protestant leaders

in prin-

rejected asceticism as a perversion of the Gospel. The doctrines of the depravity of human nature and of justification by faith alone, as well as the rejection of good works, undermined ciple

the theoretical foundations of asceticism.

The

Christian

life

in

conquer the world in the world, as Troeltsch and not the ascetical life was Luther's ideal. As a matter of fact, however, much asceticism was carried over into Lutheranism from its Catholic antecedents. Calvinism and pietistic Protestantism went further in this direction, in some instances as far as Puritanism. Methodism and some of the Baptist sects further revived asceticism, and the Salvation Army favours selfdenial on the part of its members. At a time when Protestants were breaking away from medieval practice in this matter and the humanists were decrying asceticism, St. Ignatius Loyola in his Spiritual Exercises standardized Catholic practice for the modern period. He noted that exterior asceticism was employed either to make reparation for past sins, or to overcome oneself by bringing the lower faculties into subjection to the higher, or to obtain some grace or gift from God. He also summarized a balance program of exterior asceticism itself (soul free, to

put

it)

when he wrote: The first kind of exterior penance concerns eating. In this matter, if we do away with what is superfluous, it is not penance but temperance. do penance when we deny ourselves something of what is suitable for us. The more we do this, the better the penance, provided only that we do no harm to ourselves and do not cause any serious illness. The second kind of penance concerns sleep. Here, too, it is not penance when we do away with the superfluous in what is pampering and soft. But it is penance when in our manner of penance we take away something from what is suitable. The more we do this the better it is, provided we do not cause any harm to ourselves and do not bring on any notable illness. But we should not deny ourselves a suitable amount of sleep, except to come to a happy mean in case we had the habit of sleeping too much. The third kind of penance is to chastise the body, that is to inflict sensible pain on it. This is done by wearing hairshirts. cords, or iron chains on the body, or by scourging or wounding oneself, and by other kinds of austerities. The more suitable and safe form of penance seems to be that which would cause sensible pain to the body and not penetrate to the bones, so that it inflicts pain, but does not cause sickness. For this end it would seem more suitable to chastise oneself with light cords that cause superficial pain, rather than in anv other way that might bring about serious internal infirmity. (Exercises 82-86 from The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignativs. A New Translation by Louis J. Puhl, S. J., The Newman Press, Westminster, Md., 1951.)

We

St. Ignatius like St. Benedict and the other Roman Catholic masters put more stress on interior asceticism i.e., on obedience, than on exterior. Instead of encouraging silence and humility men to harden themselves by striving to become heroes of physical endurance, they shifted the emphasis to the interior, from the

—

flesh to the spirit.

Recent times; perhaps, have witnessed a decline of exterior in the church, although Charles de Foucauld (see Foucauld, Charles Eugene) is one of the most striking examples of penitential holiness in the history of Christianity. This decline, if it exists, can be explained perhaps by the increased asceticism

ASCH— ASCHAM modern life. Indian Asceticism.

tensions of

— India

563

is

the classic

home

of asceticism.

the chapel are an alabaster high altar

The Indian view that the purpose of life is to escape from the Ijycle of successive existences and so attain union with the infinite implies negation of the world and life, and ascetical practices have Indeed mortifibeen prevalent in India since the earliest times. cation and self-inflicted penances have been carried to greater The ascetic was approved by lengths there than anywhere else. Power was his if religious leaders and acclaimed by the people. he could stand the prolonged and often inhuman austerity. Ascetic word meaning burning or practices collectively are called tapas, a warmth. In this connection, however, it is applied to self-inflicted pain from a religious motive, to religious austerity and to the merit

The 12th-century church

thus acquired.

fortified in 1122.

Union with the infinite demands merely renunciation of the world. meditation on the supermundane.

more The

in

Indian thought than must be fixed in

spirit

Detailed instructions on how to practise this concentration are given Upanishads. The repetition of the sacred sound "Om" plays a What is aimed at in great part in such exercises of self-submergence. this Yoga practice is ecstasy, the psychical experience of union with pure Being. (Albert Schweitzer, Indian Thought and Its Development,

in the

A.

&

C. Black Ltd.,

London, Beacon

ol SS Pi berg in the old part of the town contains the predella with the

"Lamentation ol Chri by Mathias Grunewald (q.v.), who lived there, and a Romanesque crucifix. On the north side of the church The collections in the Stadt and Stift is a 13th-century cloister. museum include manuscripts and paintings taken from the castle '

in 1945.

The town's main ing,

industries are the manufacture of men's clothcoloured paper and machine and precision tools. Roman settlement, Aschaffenburg came under the

Originally a

Jainism has a somewhat similar attitude to asceticism, but its all kinds of life leads to such ascetical practices as allowing mosquitoes to bite. Muslim Asceticism. Though Islam in its origins was somewhat adverse to asceticism, it has developed a monastic asceticism in Sufism. while in the Dervish order asceticism has been carried about as far as human nature permits. See also Index references under "Asceticism" in the Index doctrine of the sacredness of

—

volume. Bibliography. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. ii, pp. 03—11 1 (1010) Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, vol. i, col. 570-5S9 (1929) A. Schweitzer, Indian Thought and Its Development

—

Mainz toward

the end of the 10th century. It was In 1292 a synod was held there, and in 1474 an imperial diet, preliminary to that of Vienna, at which the Aschaffenburg Concordat was decided. In 1814 the town became Bavarian and in 1866 the Prussians defeated the Austrians in the jurisdiction of

neighbourhood.

War

Aschaffenburg was extensively damaged

in

World

II.

ASCHAM, ROGER famous

(

for his enlightened

1

516-1568), English scholar and writer,

humanism and

for his prose style.

w as r

His father, John Ascham. of a family well known in Yorkshire, was steward to Lord Scrope He sent all his three sons to Cambridge: Thomas, of Bolton. fellow of St. John's college in 1523; Anthony, a graduate in medicine (M.B.) in 1540. author of books of popular medicine and almanacs; and Roger. As a boy. Roger was taken into the family of Sir Humphrey Wingfield. a lawyer and official of the prominent Wingfield family of Suffolk, who lived at Brantham. near Harwich. Wingfield, as Ascham later wrote affectionately, "ever loved and used to have many children brought up in learning in his house," providing a tutor, his chaplain Robert Bonde, and training them born

Press, Boston, 1936.)

electors of Mainz.

In and and a pulpit by Hans Junker. tei and Alexander on the Stifts-

14 as a residence for the archbishops

at

Kirby Wiske. near York.

also in archery.

;

;

(E. A. R.)

(1951).

ASCH,

SHOLEM

(1

SSO-1957), novelist, playwright

and

most turbulent and controversial figure in Yiddish literature and also one of the most internationally acclaimed. Born in Kutno. Poland, on Nov. 1, 1880, he received a traditional Jewish education, though close association with Chrisshort-story writer, the

exposed him to a strong non-Jewish influence. He began professional writing at 19; his first triumph came in 1904 with Dos Shtetl, a prose work which cast a romantic glow over Jewish life and also introduced the leitmotiv of all his work his religious mysticism, which, as later developed, distinguished between "faith." which unites, and "religion." which divides. Asch's preference for "faith," disregarding historic differences, was unacceptable both to Jews and to the more orthodox Christians, although his books were widely read and praised by the religiously minded. In 1907 he wrote God of Vengeance, a play which introduces on the stage a brothel in which a Holy Scroll of the Law is installed; it aroused violent Jewish public reaction to what was considered a sacrilege and a defamation. With the outbreak of World War I Asch settled in the United States and continued writing, mainly novels; he wrote almost entirely in Yiddish, his books being translated into German and then into English and other languages. Salvation (1934; literal title "The Jew of the Psalms") is considered the peak of his art and contains the epitome of his philosophy. His famous Christological series began with The Xazarene (1939), a novel in the grand manner, presenting Jesus tians

—

Christ in the likeness

Apostle

(

1943

Mary (1949).

I,

a

All

it was followed by The work dealing with St. Paul, and

of the 'gospels;

huge, sprawling

were great popular successes.

In his later

Asch lived in England and then in Israel, where he was accepted with mixed feelings; he died in London on July 10, 19S7,

years

while on a visit there.

ASCHAFFENBURG,

a town in Bavaria, Ger., lies on the river near the foot of the Spessart moun26 mi. S.E. of Frankfurt. Pop. (1959 est.) 53,962. The Renaissance castle of Johannisburg, of red sandstone, replaced a former castle destroyed in 1552 which stood on the site of the Roman castrum overlooking the river. It was built in 1605— right

tains.

bank of the Main

The same patron

sent Ascham in 1530 to St. John's college, This was the time when the new Renaissance enthusiclassics, especially Greek, was at its height; after qualified to teach, he wrote enthusiastically in 1543 "Aristotle and Plato are now read by the boys in their original language Sophocles and Euripides are now more familiar to us than Plautus when you were here Yet we do not treat the Latin writers with contempt, but we cherish the best of them who flourished in the golden age of their literature." This study not only made competent scholars, but also prepared for state employment those who could write effective Latin. Ascham took his B.A. degree in 1533 (old style; 1534. new style 1. and was elected a fellow of St. John's. The MA. followed in 1537, and he was appointed reader in Greek in the university. Though he rejoiced in the company of the many enthusiastic scholars, he was dissatisfied with his income of £4 a year, and he sought higher patronage. He first offered his learning to the archbishop of York by translating into Latin an early Greek biblical commentary; he also dedicated to the king a treatise on archery which exhibited both classical learning, on which Henry prided himself, and concern for military training. The work. Toxophilus ("lover of the bow"), was published in English in 1545. Henry granted Ascham an annuity of £10. then an adequate living.

Cambridge.

asm for the Ascham had (new style),

.

.

.

.

Ascham was made

.

.

public orator of the university in 1546. and

wrote many official letters. But he was soon to depart. His teacher and friend Sir John Cheke. the first regius professor of Greek, had gone to court as tutor to Prince Edward; William Cecil, also of St. John's, had begun the official career which was to make him Elizabeth's chief minister; and Ascham's own pupil. William Grindal. followed Cheke to become tutor to Princess Elizabeth. When Grindal died in 1548. Ascham in turn became her tutor in Greek and Latin for two years: then, by Cheke's influence, he was appointed secretary to Sir Richard MoryThe ensuing son, English ambassador to the emperor Charles V. three-year service took Ascham to Augsburg, Innsbruck, aside to Venice, and back by the Rhine cities to Brussels and home; he wrote many of the envoy's dispatches, and also (such was the He force of classical enthusiasm) read Greek authors with him. was appointed Latin secretary to Edward VI; in 1533 he was conin this capacity

—

ASCHELMINTHES— ASCLEPIADES

564

firmed in this post by Queen Mary (his earlier outspoken Protestantism notwithstanding), and in 1559 by Queen Elizabeth. He served Elizabeth until his death on Dec. 30. 1568, not only as the

composer of

official letters to foreign rulers (like John Milton a century later), but also as not the least among the humanists who adorned her court, reading Greek with her, and welcomed for his

came especially known for its seed raising, and many nationally owned and private seed-raising enterprises supply grain and vegetable seeds to the entire German Democratic Republic. Farming is carried on in the area. The chief industries are tool, paper and cloth manufacture. Aschersleben was probably founded in the 11th century by Count Esico von Ballenstedt, ancestor of the

learning and his conversation.

house of Anhalt;

Ascham severed his connection with Cambridge in 1554 when he married Margaret Howe, who bore him three sons, Giles, Dudley

model

and Sturm (named after the great German teacher). When his son Giles entered Westminster school, he made his father's letters accessible to the headmaster Edward Grant, a recent graduate of St. John's college; Grant brought out an edition of them in 1576, the first of seven editions, and the first separate edition of the

town

correspondence of an English humanist. 'Grant praised the letters for their Latin style, but they are most important for their revelations of Ascham 's personal history, or, in the case of the private letters written home from Germany, for their observation of the religious wars there. One such letter was published separately as a very incomplete Report and Discourse of the Affairs and

Germany (1570). Ascham wrote two books, both in English, The Toxophilus was w'dtten as a dialogue, in the manner which Renaissance humanists had learned from Cicero. The first or learned part demonstrated State of

the military importance of the

bowman from

the Parthians to the

contemporary Turks, while the second discussed archery as a sport (its position was like that of cricket today), dealing with both the training of the archer and the care of the instruments. chief value is that of the familiar essay, with its warm personal interest and its observation of everyday life. The Schoolmaster is Ascham 's better-known work; it exists in the first manuscript draft of 1564, and in the expanded version of 1568 which was published by Ascham's widow in 1570. The title applies to only a small part of the book, which presents an effective method of teaching Latin prose composition, the heart of English classical education. A larger concern of the book is with the "psychology of learning" (to use a modern term), and Ascham discussed with mature wisdom the qualities needed in a student, and characteristically deplored the general use of corporal punishment both at school and at home. His greatest concern is with what would now be called the education of the whole man, and he recommends training in manners and morals as Sir Thomas Elyot had done in The Governor (1531). Ascham was shocked by the behaviour of the "great ones" of the land, which permitted the wildness and "italianate" behaviour of youth. The book contains much vivid observation, as well as eloquence in stating an intellectual and moral ideal of personality in a lively, individual style. The humanity of the book and of its author makes Ascham the outstanding literary personality of the generation following that which had been dominated by Sir Thomas More. As an enlightened and engaging writer of English prose Ascham is assured a steady literary fame.

The book's

Bibliography.

—The

only complete edition of the writings and

let-

ters of Ascham is that of J. A. Giles, The Whole Works, 3 vol. published as 4 (1864-65). The two books and the Report were edited as The English Works by W. Aldis Wright (1904). The letters writ-

ten in English were edited from the manuscripts by Albert McHarg Hayes (Princeton dissertation, typescript, 1933). The life by Edward Grant, published with the letters in 1576, is included in the Giles ed., vol. iii. See also Alfred Katterfeld, Roger Ascham. Sein Leben und Seine Werke(i&79). (G. B. P.)

ASCHELMINTHES,

a problematical

phylum

of microscopic

pseudocoelomate wormlike animals that includes the following classes (some of which are themselves often given phylum rank) Gastrotricha, Kinorhyncha, Nematomorpha, Priapulida, Rotifera (qq.v.) and Nematoda (see Roundworm). ASCHERSLEBEN, a town in Germany in the district of Halle, is a railway junction and is situated some 30 mi. N.E. of Halle. Pop. (1959 est.) 34,736. It lies in the region of the extensive potash deposits on the northern edge of the lower Harz mountains and most of the people are employed in the potash-mining industry. There is a brown coal mine just north of the town and the Mansfeld copper slate deposit to the south. Aschersleben beto small,

:

it received municipal rights on the Halberstadt in 1266. On the death of Otto III (1315) it passed to the bishop of Halberstadt and, after 1648, to Brandenburg. The

hall dates

from 1518.

ASCITES,

the term in medicine applied to an effusion of noninflammatory fluid within the peritoneal cavity. It is not a disease

but is one of the manifestations of disease elsewhere usually in the kidneys, heart or in connection with the liver cirin itself

Obstructed portal circulation is the commonest cause It may be confused with encysted fluids or with inflammatory exudates as in tuberculosis. Ascites is produced by (1) diseases within the liver, as cirrhosis and cancer; (2) diseases outside the liver, as cancer of the stomach, duodenum or pancreas, causing pressure on the portal vein, or enlarged glands in the fissure of the liver. Ascites is one of the late symptoms in the disease and precedes dropsy of the leg, which may come on later due to abnormal pressure on the large veins in the abdominal cavity. In ascites due to heart disease the dropsy of the feet and legs precedes the ascites, and there will be a history of palpitation, shortness of breath and perhaps cough. In the ascites of kidney troubles there will be a history of general edema including puffiness of the face and eyes on rising in the morning. (F. L. A.) culation.

of well-marked ascites.

ASCLEPIADACEAE, or milkweed

family, one of the largest

families of flowering plants, includes mostly

woody

vines and per-

ennial herbs predominantly of tropical

world.

The name milkweed

is

regions throughout the popularly used because of the milky

latex found in all parts of most of the species. They are of little economic importance; however, the floss of the seeds of some species has been used as a substitute for kapok, and attempts were made to extract rubber from, and to produce paper from the phloem fibres of other forms. Local use is made of the plants for food, medicine, dye and fish poison. Among the species cultivated

are silk vine (Periploca), carrion or starfish flowers (Stapelia),

stephanotis (S. floribunda) and butterfly weed (q.v.; Asclepias tnberosa). Some American species are handsome flowering plants; others are weeds or livestock poison.

The Asclepiadaceae are an interesting and highly specialized family most closely related to the Apocynaceae (q.v.), or dogbane family. Taxonomists disagree as to the number of genera and speThe numbers given vary from 1,700 to 3,500 species in percies. haps 100 to 300 genera. The leaves are always simple, entire and usually opposite.

One group

of South African forms (stapeliads)

are succulent and cactuslike with much reduced leaves. The inflorescences are basically terminal flat-topped clusters, but usually

appear racemiform or umbelliform, and, by sympodial growth, are pushed into a lateral position (thus appearing to arise between the leaves at a node rather than in the axil of a leaf). The flowers are regular, sympetalous and have epipetalous stamens and a superior gynoecium. The latter is composed of two carpels, free below but united above into a massive stigma head. Pollen produced in the two pollen sacs of an anther is aggregated into pollinium sacs which look like little bags of pollen. Two pollinium sacs from adjacent anthers are united by a yokelike structure (secreted by the stigma head) comprising two translator arms and a small clip. The stamens are united into a tube surrounding the carpels and joined with the stigma head. From the back of the anthers there are usually complicated enations called the corona. Insects of the proper size visiting the flower are guided by the corona to the clips, which become attached to their bristles. Thus they carry the pollinium sacs to other flowers, where, if they fit a complex pollination chamber, they break loose, germinate and effect fertilization. See also Milkweed. (R. W. H.) ASCLEPIADES or Bithynia, Greek physician, was born at Prusa in Bithynia (modern Bursa, Turk.) in 124 B.C., and flourished at Rome about the end of the 2nd century B.C. He traveled

ASCLEPIADES— ASFLLI much when young, and seems

at first to

have settled

at

Rome

as a

In that profession he did not succeed, but he acquired

rhetorician.

great reputation as a physician.

He founded

his

medical practice on a modification of the atomic

which disease results from an irregular or inharmonious motion of the corpuscles of the body. remedies were directed to the restoration of harmony, and His or corpuscular theory, according to

much

changes of diet, accompanied by friction, bathing and exercise, though he also employed emetics and bleeding. He recommended the use of wine. His pupils were numerous, and the school formed by them was called the Methodical. He is stated to have been the first to use music in the treatment of the insane. Asdepiades died at an advanced age. ASCLEPIADES of Samos (fl. c. 270 b.c), was the earliest and most important of the Alexandrian epigrammatists. He is given as the author of about 40 poems in the Greek anthology, mainly love songs, and was probably the first to introduce into poetry such symbols as Love the archer. A friend of Theocritus, he was addressed by him under his pen name of Sicelidas. he trusted

to

See J. W. MacKail, Select trans. (1911).

Epigrams From the Greek Anthology, with

(Asklepios; Lat. Aesculapius), the Greek god of medicine, the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He probably came from Thessaly. The centaur Chiron taught him the art of healing. At length Zeus, being afraid that he might render all men immortal, slew him with a thunderbolt. Homer, in the Iliad, mentions him only as a skilful physician, whose sons, Machaon and Podaleirius, are physicians in the Greek camp before Troy. In later times, however, he was honoured as a hero for example, at Athens and eventually worshiped as a god. The cult began in Thessaly, but temples were erected to Asclepius in many parts of Greece, near healing springs or on high mountains. The practice of sleeping in these sanctuaries was very common, it being supposed that the god effected cures or prescribed remedies to the sick in dreams (cf. the modern practice in the Aegean island Tenos, cited by M. P. Nilsson in History of Greek Religion, p. 300 [1925]). All who were healed offered sacrifice (especially a cock), and many tablets, recording their names, their diseases and the manner in which they had been cured, have been discovered at Epidaurus (q.v.), the god's most famous shrine. Herodas, in his fourth mime, gives a description of one of Asclepius' temples and of the offerings made to him. Festivals in honour of Asclepius are known to have been observed in cities as widely separated as Ancyra in Asia Minor and Agrigentum in Sicily. The cult was introduced to Rome by order of the Sibylline books (293 B.C.), to relieve a pestilence. A delegation sent to fetch the image of the god from Epidaurus returned bringing instead a snake in which the god was thought to reside. A temple was assigned to him on an island in the Tiber. Asclepius is frequently represented in ancient sculpture and as

—

a coin type, standing, dressed in a long cloak, with bare breast; his usual attribute is a clublike staff it.

This

medicine.

staff

with

its

with a serpent coiled around is the only true symbol of

single serpent

The caduceus with

winged

staff and intertwined which is frequently used in the U.S. as a medical emblem, is without medical relevance since it represents the magic wand of Hermes or Mercury, the messenger of the gods and the patron of trade. Asclepius is often shown accompanied by Telesphorus, the boy genius of healing, and his daughters, Hygieia, the goddess of health, and Panacea. Votive reliefs representing such groups have been found near the temple of Asclepius at Athens. His extremely popular cult yielded late and slowly to Christianity. its

serpents,

—

Bibliography. L. Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie der classischen Altertumswissensckajt; W. Roscher, Ausfiihrliches Lexikon der griechishen und romischen Mythologies Alice Walton, "The Cult of Asklepios," in Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, iii (1S94) W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (1902) Mary Hamilton, Incubation (1906) \V. A. Jayne, The Healing Gods of Ancient Civilizations (1925) T. C. Allbutt, Greek Medicine in Rome (1921) E. J. and L. Edelstein, Asclepius, 2 vol. (1945-46) (T. V. B.) ;

;

;

;

;

ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIA guist, a

i

he published "Saggi ladini" on the previously neglected RaetoRomanic dialects; in vol. viii appeared his "Italia dialettale," a model classification of Italian dialects. He emphasized the importance of studies of living vernaculars. He rejected, as a mat-

method, the tenets of the neogrammarian school concerning sound laws. Ascoli was greatly honoured during his lifetime. He died in Milan on Jan. 21, 1907. (E. Pm.) ASCOLI PICENO, a city and province of the Marches, central Italy. The provincial capital, Ascoli Piceno lies among wooded hills (chiefly oaks and chestnuts) about 500 ft. above sea level at the confluence of the Tronto and Castellano rivers, which surround it on the north, east and south, 130 mi. N.E. of Rome by road. Pop. of commune (1957 est.) 48,319. Two of the main streets correspond with the old Roman thoroughfares and there are remains of the Roman city wall (4th to 2nd centuries b.c. as well as much of the medieval wall. There are two Roman bridges, one of which was partly destroyed by the Germans in 1944, and remains of a theatre, an amphitheatre, a capitol and a temple of Vesta. With the introduction of Christianity (c. 300) pagan temples became churches and later Benedictine cloisters were built. In 1006 the civil power passed to bishops and feudatories but internal quarrels caused fortifications to be built, including numerous towers, a few of which still stand, mostly truncated or incorporated in houses. Defense at this period involved much destruction with the consequent formation of slums, many of which remain. The medieval castle, high on the hill, was largely destroyed in 1798 and the fortress of Malatesta (1349) is now a prison. In 1245 St. Francis constituted his Order in Ascoli. and the great Gothic church dedicated to him was built in 1265. The cloisters are now the market place. The Palazzo dell'Arrengo and the Palazzo del Popolo (now a museum) date from the end of the 13th century. After 1300 the town declined from loss of trade and internal strife. The cathedral, founded between the 8th and 12th centuries, was enlarged between 1481 and 1592. Carlo Crivelli (q.v.) started an artistic movement in the town about 1486. Ascoli Piceno contains a picture gallery, a public library (opened 1856) with incunabula, early printed books, manuscripts and parchments, and a museum (founded 1779). The chief industries are agricultural, but there are chemical and electrical works and other smaller ter of

i

ASCLEPIUS

—

565

Without formal higher education, he wrote his first major work in 1854 on oriental languages. He was professor at Milan from i860 to 1907. His contributions in Indo-European, Celtic and Romanic linguistics were notable, but he is mainly known for his work in dialectology. In 1873 Ascoli founded the journal Archivio glottologico italiano, which he edited until 1907. In vol Gorizia.

pioneer in dialect studies, was

(1829-1907), Italian linon July 16, 1829, in

bom

businesses.

Known

to the

Romans

as

Asculum Picenum, the ancient

city

was

captured by them in 268 B.C. during the building of the Via Salaria. played a leading part in the Social War against Rome; the praetor C. Servilius provoked a massacre of the Romans there in 90 b.c. but P. Strabo besieged and took it in 89 B.C. Caesar occupied Asculum after crossing the Rubicon and later it became the capital of Picenum (q.v.). It was captured by Totila in a.d. 545. In 781 Charlemagne gave Ascoli to Pope Adrian I and it was made a Papal state; in 1183 it became a republic with free judicial adIt

It was taken by Frederick II in 1242 but in 1266 again became a papal possession, keeping some of its former rights, and entered a period of great prosperity. Under French

ministration. it

domination from 1798 to 1815 it returned to papal jurisdiction after the fall of Napoleon and became part of the Italian kingdom in 1860. Bridges were blown up during World War II and the town was captured by the Allies in July 1944. ASCOT, a village of Berkshire. Eng.. 6 mi. S.S.W. of Windsor, famous for its race meetings. At the Royal Meeting, held on four days in June, it is customary for the sovereign to drive down the course each day in an open carriage accompanied by members of the royal family and guests, also in carriages. The Gold Cup is one of the most important races of this meeting. The race course is on Ascot heath and was laid out by order of Queen Anne in 1711. Ascot is in the ecclesiastical parish of Ascot Heath (pop., including Sunninghill, 1951, 6.365).

ASELLI

(Asellio),

GASPARO

(1581-1626?), Italian phy-

ASEN—ASH

5 66 who contributed

knowledge of the circulation of body fluids by discovering the lacteal vessels, was born at Cremona in 1 581 became professor of anatomy and surgery at Pavia and practised at Milan, where he died about 1626. He described the lacteals (lymph vessels in the intestine that take up certain products of digestion) in De lactibus sive lacteis venis, which was published in 1627 just before the De motu cordis of William Harvey, who appears to have been unaware of Aselli's work. Earlier observations on the lacteals by the ancient Greeks and the great Italian anatomists Fallopius and Eustachius had been sporadic and without comprehension of their function and sician

to the

,

importance. Aselli's discovery occurred in 1622 during the vivisection of a dog that had been richly fed just prior to the operation. On opening the abdomen he noticed whitish cords that exuded a creamlike Upon careful repetition of the experiment he described liquid. these new vessels as venae albae et lacteae. See T. L. Pagel, Einjuhrung in die Geschichte der Medizin, ed. by Karl Sudhoff, 2nd ed. (1915) Arturo Castiglioni, A History of Mediand ed. by E. B. Krumbhaar (1947). (I. V.) ;

cine, trans,

ASEN

(Assen), the first dynasty of the second Bulgarian empire (see Bulgaria), founded by the brothers Asen and Peter, landowners and boyars from Turnovo, whose actual family name was Belgun. While some historians have contended that the family was of Vlach descent, it was more probably Kuman-Bulgarian in origin, but there is written evidence that the Asens considered themselves and were considered abroad as the rulers of both the Vlachs and of the Bulgars. In 1186 after a violent dispute with the Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelus, Asen and Peter led a popular rising of Vlachs and Bulgars and proclaimed their independence from Constantinople. Asen was crowned tsar as Ivan Asen I at Turnovo, and Peter became ruler of the eastern half of the kingdom, with his residence at Preslav. The brothers invaded Thrace but were defeated, withdrew to the north and, in alliance with the Kumans, conquered northern Bulgaria. In 1187 they checked the imperial army in Thrace and, in the armistice that followed, their younger He brother Kaloyan was sent as hostage to Constantinople. escaped, however, and war broke out, to continue intermittently until the Byzantine forces were thoroughly defeated in 1196. Later in that year Ivan Asen was killed by one of his boyars, Ivanko, who seized power at Turnovo but soon had to seek refuge Asen's brother Peter ascended the throne but in Constantinople. was killed by the boyars in 1 197. Kaloyan was then crowned tsar. A shrewd and capable ruler, but violent and cruel, he restored and consolidated his power over northern Bulgaria and began negotiaIn Nov. 1204 Pope Innocent Ill's legate betions with Rome. stowed the title of primate of Bulgaria on the bishop of Turnovo, With papal backing, Basil, who then crowned Kaloyan king. Kaloyan now approached Baldwin I, the Latin emperor of Constantinople, but the latter refused a treaty unless Kaloyan reverted In the war that followed, the Latins to the position of a vassal. were defeated at Adrianople in April 1205. Baldwin was taken For two more years prisoner and later murdered at Turnovo. Bulgars and Kumans jointly ravaged Thrace, but in 1207, while besieging Salonika, Kaloyan was killed by one of the Kuman chiefs, probably at the instigation of the tsar's own wife. One of the accomplices, Kaloyan's nephew Boril, proclaimed himself tsar and married his uncle's widow. His incompetent and highly unpopular reign ended in 1218, when Tsar Asen's son Ivan Asen II deposed and blinded him. Ivan Asen II was a good soldier and a man of wisdom and humanity. He restored law and order, controlled the boyars and, after defeating Theodore, despot of Epirus, in 1230, acquired large parts of Albania, Serbia, Macedonia and Epirus. The record of his achievements, dated 1230, can still be seen in the old church of the Forty Martyrs at Turnovo. One of his daughters was married to the Serbian prince Vladislav, whom Ivan was able to establish as king of Serbia; another was married to Manuel Angelus, ruler of Salonika; and his third daughter, Helen, was betrothed in 1228 to the 11-year-old Latin emperor Baldwin II. The regency of the empire was then offered to Ivan, who agreed in return to give back

Macedonia and Albania. The Latins, however, afraid of Bulgaria's growing power, repudiated the treaty, and Baldwin was betrothed to the daughter of John of

his conquests in Epirus, western

Brienne, king of Jerusalem, who was elected emperor. Ivan Asen gave Helen to the son of the Greek emperor of Nicaea and denounced Kaloyan's agreement with Innocent III, thus separating the Bulgarian Church from Rome. During the siege of Constantinople by the Greeks of Nicaea (1236), the tsar, changing sides once more, allied himself to the Latins, but in 1237 he was finally reconciled with Nicaea and withdrew from the struggle. He died in

1241.

Under Ivan Asen

II's sons Kaliman I (1241^6) and Michael I (1246-57), large parts of Thrace, Macedonia and Albania were lost to the Greeks of Nicaea. These reverses played into the hands of the unruly boyars. With their complicity Michael was killed by a prince of the royal blood, who was crowned under the name of Kaliman II (1257), but the boyars killed him also less than three months later. The male line of succession in the Asen dynasty now came to an end, and the Bulgarian crown passed into other hands. In 1262, however, Mitza, a nephew of Kaliman I and Michael, seized power for a short time but then had to flee to Constantinople. His son was crowned as Ivan Asen III in 1279, but a mass rising of the peasantry forced him to leave Bulgaria a few months afterward, in 1280. (N. I. M.) ASEPSIS: see Antiseptics.

ASH,

the

common name

originally applied to

members

of the

genus Fraxinus of the olive family (Oleaceae). Unrelated groups, mostly with pinnately compound leaves, are also commonly known as ashes. The Hebrew word Oren, translated "ash" in Isa. xliv, 14, probably referred to the Aleppo pine (Finns halepensis) inasmuch as there are no ashes native to Palestine. The genus Fraxinus includes 50-65 species of trees and shrubs, mostly distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. A few species extend into the tropical forests of Java and Cuba. Ashes feature opposite, deciduous, pinnately compound leaves, which in a few species are reduced to a single leaflet. Their flowers, with or without petals, are unisexual and bisexual and appear before or with leaf emergence. The fruits, of various sizes and shapes, are terminally winged samaras, often called keys. About 20 ashes are included in the woody flora of the United Four eastern species, white (F. americana), green (F. States. pennsylvanica) black (F. nigra) and blue ash (F. quandrangulata), attain commercial proportions and abundance and are the Oregon principal American sources of ash lumber (see Wood). ash (F. latifolia) enjoys limited industrial use in the Pacific northOther noteworthy American ashes include: (1) the twowest. petal ash (F. dipetala), a small California shrub featuring flowers with two showy white petals; (2) the fragrant ash (F. cuspidata), a small tree of Texas and New Mexico bearing large, white, heavily scented blossoms; (3) single-leaf ash (F. anomaea), a species of the arid southwest featuring leaves that have been reduced to a single leaflet; (4) velvet ash (F. velutina), another tree of the southwest with twigs and leaves densely clothed in velvety hairs; ,

,

WHITE ASH (FRAXINUS AMERICANA AND LEAVES

LEFT.

FEMALE FLOWERS; RIGHT. FRUIT

A'SHA— ASHANTI ami

5

(

1

eoastal

wood

profunda a tree of eastern .mi southern pumpkin ash swamps productive of a chara< teristically light, weak, brash /•'.

i

of

I

value.

little

Known

1.

Roman

since early

times, the

European ash (F

excel

wide distribution through Europe and Asia varieties have been cultivated and used Notable among these are forms with in landscaping for centuries. weeping and dwarllike habits, variegated foliage, warty twigs and

pot Minor.

a

is

1

1

imber

1

ree ol

A number

of

its

One especially interesting form, F. e. England and on the consimple and three-parted leaves. Flowering ash (F. ornus) is a handsome tree indigenous to Europe and Asia, the saccharine exudate of its hark being the branches, and curled leaves.

Mversifolia, which occurs naturally in tinent, features

manna

source of white

wax

(q.v.) used as a mild laxative for children. A obtained from F. chinensis, while highly figured

is

and F. sieboldiana. The European and American mountain ashes are Sorbus aucuparia and Sorbus americana, of the rose family. The poison ash of southeastern United States is in reality poison sumac Klius Uernix), a member of the Anacardiaceae and a close relative of veneer

is

the product of F. mandshurica

t

Prickly ash, a shrub of eastern United States,

poison ivy.

)

;

(

He

died

said to

c.

a.d. 629.

have believed

Even before

Mohammed

the time of

in the resurrection

and

last

he

is

judgment and

to

have been a monotheist, probably under the influence of his patron, Haudha ibn 'Ali. chief of al-Vamama. Several other Arabian poets were also called al-A'sha (the "night blind").

—

Bibliography. The collected poems of al-A'sha were edited by R. Geyer (1928). For his eulogy of Mohammed, which is of doubtful authenticity, see A. H. Thorbecke (ed.), Al Asa's Lobgedkht auf

Muhammad

(1875).

ASHANTI.

The Ashanti (Asantefo) belong to the Akan peoples of Ghana who occupy most of the southern half of the country. The Akans speak closely related dialects known under the generic name of Twi, which is a Sudanic language of (q.v.

quarters of the other districts are Ejisu, Juaso, Offinso,

)

Kwa

Mampong,

Teppa, Bekwai and Fomena. The Kwahu scarp, which runs across the country from northwest to southeast, divides Ashanti into two topographically distinct halves. South of the scarp is a thickly forested plateau, which is the true Ashanti country. Kumasi stands at its centre. Twentyone miles to the southeast is the sacred Lake Bosumtwi, 5 mi. in diameter, which lies at the bottom of a remarkable craterlike depression. North of the scarp, the land is undulating savanna drained by the river Volta.

is

ianthoxylum americanum, of the citrus family. Flindersia and Tarriftici are two Australian genera productive of the silver ash and crow's ash timbers, respectively. The former is a member of the citrus family Rutaceae the latter belongs to the Sterculiaceae, the cocoa family. Cape ash. Ekebergia capensis, of the Meliaceae, is indigenous to the Cape of Good Hope. (E. S. Hr.) A'SHA Maimun ibx Qais ), Arabian poet of the 6th— 7th century, famous for his description of wines, was born in Manfuha, a village of al-Vamama in the centre of Arabia, and became a wandering singer, passing through all Arabia. Born before Mohammed, he lived long enough to accept the mission of the prophet. (

567

were incorporated in the Ashanti union early in the 18th century. The majority of the inhabitants belong to the Ashanti branch of the Akan stock. The population of Ashanti was 818,944 at the 1948 census and its area was 24,379 iq.mi, Alter (ihana attained independence in 1957, Brong-Ahafo (q.v.) region was created from Ashanti which was reduced to 9,700 sq.mi. The Ashanti population, however, had increased by 1960 to 1,108,548. The capital of the region and the headquarters of one of the eight administrative districts into which it is divided is Kumasi the seat of the Asantehene (king of the Ashantis). The head-

HISTORY The kingdom

was one of the and greatest of the Akan states. The focal point in its history has been its sacred golden stool, the significance of which cannot be appreciated unless some mention is first made of the nature of Akan political society. The primary political unit is the village, governed by a council of clan elders (though less significant today, at the time the Ashanti union was formed the matrilineal clan was fundamental to Akan social life and by a headman elected by the of Ashanti, or the Ashanti union,

last

)

elders for

life

The headnot autocratic but representative and paternal.

so long as he retains their confidence.

man's authority

is

A number

of villages form a state (oman), whose government by a chief (omankene) and elders is a more elaborate replica of village government. Within each state, one clan provides the royal lineage, and a candidate for the chieftaincy is nominated by the Ashanti queen mother who is the royal clan's authority on kinship and precedence for election by the elders. Ancestor worship plays a large part in Akan life, and clans and states are regarded as comprising the spirits of their dead as well as their living members. A chief is consequently more than a political head: he is the chief earthly representative of his state's and his clan's most important ancestors and the guardian of their interests. One of the principal symbols of the spiritual unity of

—

the state existing in

—

its

chief

is

the latter's stool.

Besides being

subfamily. The dialect spoken by the Ashanti is Asante. The Ashanti settled in the central part of Ghana (q.v.), in the

his chair of state, the stool is the repository of his spirit or per-

and founded the town of Kumasi (q.v.), the capital, about 1665. About 80% of the people live in small towns and villages. They are predominantly agricultural, practising shifting cultivation and growing maize, manioc, plantain, bananas, yams and coco-yam among their principal crops for the home market,

where sacrifices are offered to the spirits they represent. Formerly the sacrifices made on imThe portant, occasions were commonly human, usually slaves. spiritual continuity of chieftainship is established when, just before taking office, a chief-elect is formally placed on his predecesA chief's stool may thus be said sor's stool for a few moments.

the

forest belt,

and cocoa for export.

The rule of matrilineal descent is the key to Ashanti social It governs titles to different offices or property and jural rights and obligations. The extended family is the basis of social as well as political life. Local communities consist of kin groups or lineages, and election to political offices is based on the lineage system. But there is also full recognition of patrilineal descent, which determines certain religious and moral obligations. Ashanti social organization is thus maintained by the recognition of maternal as well as paternal bonds and the reconciliation of their organization.

respective obligations, rights

The Ashanti

and claims.

believe in a universe of spirits, but

it is the everpresent spirits of the ancestors which provide religious sanctions

for social

and

political life.

See R. A. Lystad, Ashanti: a Bibliography.

Proud People (1957)

;

and

also

Ashanti:

(K. A. Bu.)

ASHANTI,

one of the regions of Ghana, was the core of the old kingdom of Ashanti which was annexed by Britain in 1902. Under the colonial regime (1902-57), the province of Ashanti also included the

Brong

states in the west,

whose related peoples

sonality (sunsum).

The ceremonially blackened

stools of departed

chiefs are kept in a stool house,

to symbolize the spiritual unity of a state, its community with its ancestors and the position of the chief as guardian of the traditions of the state and of his predecessors. A chief may be "destooled" not only because he has lost the confidence of his people but also when he is deemed to have forfeited the trust of the ancestors. Formation and Growth of the Union. The original nucleus

—

of the Ashanti union lay in a

number

of small states established

in the forest c. a.d. 1600 by small groups of Akan immigrants from the west. These states paid tribute to Denkera, a more powerful Akan state to the southwest. About the middle of the 17th century, the rulers of a number of these states, who were all members of the Oyoko clan, began to co-operate under the leadership of the chiefs of Kumasi in an attempt to check the encroachments from When Osei Tutu the west of the Doma, another Akan people. became Kumasihene (c. 1680?), he and his okumfo (priest) Anokye enlarged this alliance and the Doma were soon decisively

defeated.

Osei Tutu and Anokye then determined to free the Ashantis from dependence on Denkera. In their estimation, the existing alliance

ASHANTI

5 68

between the Ashanti states was not adequate to this task, and they determined to convert it into a permanent military union. Such a union was feasible only if they could establish a spiritual community of the whole Ashanti people transcending the particular spiritual unity of each state. Their solution was the golden stool. Tradition asserts that a wooden stool adorned w-ith gold was brought forth from the sky by Anokye before a great assembly of chiefs and people and that it descended gently onto the knees of Osei Tutu. Anokye declared that this stool contained the sunsum of the whole Ashanti people and that the strength of the nation depended on its preservation. Thenceforward, since the omankenes present all formally subscribed to this view, every Ashanti had a dual allegiance: to his state stool and chief, and to the golden stool and its guardian, who was now Asantehene as well as Kumasihene. The golden stool achieved a perpetual sanctity of its own and took precedence of the Asantehene himself. The union thus established duly defeated the Denkeras, absorbed some of their subject states and was drawn on into further wars

Ashanti invasion. By a peace treaty in 1831 the Ashantis agreed to keep the peace and recognized the independence of Denkera, Akim and Assin, and British and Danish sovereignty in the forts. The period from 1831 to 1843 was one of peace and prosperity during which British influence with the coastal peoples steadily increased. But the peace was humiliating to Ashanti, whose expansion had suffered its first major reverse and whose market for slaves was steadily diminishing (with the result that the practice of human sacrifice was on the increase). After 1843 misunderstandings between Ashanti and the local British authorities became increasingly frequent and bitter. Since the British were now clearly the paramount coastal power, the Ashantis held them responsible for the good behaviour of the coastal peoples. But Great Britain's legal relation to the coastal states before 1874 was at most that of a protecting power, and the British authorities did not accept responsibility for the coastal peoples in disputes with Ashanti or for returning to Kumasi fugitives from Ashanti justice. Great Britain and Ashanti drifted into a hostility which became

Osei Tutu died in 1712, and shortly afterward his successor seems to have been killed in a war with Akim Kotoku. This disaster was revenged by Opoku Ware

open

against their allies in the south.

who brought

the northern Akim states and Sefwi and embarked on extensive conquests to both north and south, a policy further continued by Osei Kojo (1764-77). Thus in the north the Ashanti empire was extended over the ancient Akan state of Tekyiman, over Gyaman and Banda, and as far as Dagomba, while in the south expeditions against Wassaw and the Akim and Akwapim states brought Ashanti into contact with the coast. In 1806-07 an Ashanti army under Osei Bonsu (1800-24) invaded the Fanti states and reached the sea. The commanders of the English and Dutch forts on the coast were forced to recognize Ashanti suzerainty over the Fantis and to accept the Ashantis (c.

1720-50),

into the union,

as landlords of their forts.

The underlying motive of these Ashanti conquests seems to have been basically economic. The defeat of Denkera enabled the Ashantis to make contact with the apparently inexhaustible market for slaves and gold afforded by the European merchants at the coast. Conquest of the coastal peoples promised closer control of this trade and its profits together with an assured supply of munitions of war, while inland expansion would provide more slaves and gold for export and a closed hinterland in which Ashanti merchants could profitably retail European goods. The Ashanti union, however, failed to evolve a mechanism of government for the states it conquered. It assumed that the relation of their rulers to the Asantehene would be the same as that of the rulers of the original member states, but the conquered states had spiritual personalities and traditions of their own. Their was in part a result of the military expediency and economic advantage of siding with the conquering power. But even while the Ashantis were demonstrating this power in the coastal states, its fundamental premises were being destroyed. Between 1804 and 1814 the three European countries whose merchants possessed forts on the Gold Coast Great Britain, Holland and Den-

allegiance

—

—

mark all outlawed the slave trade for the Danes and the Dutch gradually lost British remained.

their subjects.

Though

interest in the coast, the

Their merchants wished to substitute legitimate

trade for the trade in slaves, while their government gradually

committed itself to the task of abolishing the whole African slave trade and of encouraging the peaceful progress of African peoples. In the Gold Coast this involved first the establishment of a peaceful

modus

with Ashanti and eventually responsibility and government of the coastal peoples among the European merchants lived and, therefore, for the ultivivendi

for the protection

whom

mate defeat of Ashanti. Early Contacts with the British. In 1817 the English merchants negotiated a treaty with Osei Bonsu under which the former were held responsible for the good behaviour of the Fanti states. This led to difficulties; and when in 1821 the British government took over the British forts, the new governor, Sir Charles M'Carthy, organized the coastal peoples to resist Ashanti pressure. In 1824 M'Carthy's forces were defeated and he himself was killed, but two years later the British and their allies routed a new

—

At first there was little direct conflict, the Ashantis most part contenting themselves with expeditions against immediate neighbours to the south and southeast. In 1869,, however, an Ashanti army in Togoland captured a party of German missionaries, and in 1870 the Asantehene Kofi Karikari protested against the transfer of the fort at Elmina from the Dutch to the British on the ground that he was still its overlord. In 1873 a full-scale Ashanti offensive was launched toward the coast, and the Denkera and Fanti were soon heavily defeated. The British government was at last convinced of the need for firm action. Maj. Gen. Sir Garnet (later Viscount) Wolseley was sent out as governor and commander in chief, British troops led an invasion of Ashanti, and in Feb. 1874 Kumasi was captured and destroyed. But though in 1874 the British finally accepted responsibility for the government of the coastal states, they had no intention of occupying Ashanti. All they wanted was to destroy the Ashanti threat to their coastal colony, and in 1874 it seemed as though this had been achieved. The Ashanti union was breaking up under the stress of defeat, and each of the member states adhered separately to the treaty of Fomena (1874), by which the Ashantis renounced all claims to Denkera, Akim, Assin, Adansi and the coastal forts, and promised to trade peaceably, to abandon the practice of human sacrifice and to pay an indemnity. But in the same year Kofi Karikari was destooled, and his successor, Mensa Bonsu, devoted himself to the reconstruction of the union. The. Ashanti states proper were soon restored to their old allegiance, as also were some of the more central non-Ashanti states. To go. further might have led to further hostilities with the British since, some of the remoter former members of the union were now under Mensa Bonsu shrank from this risk, with the British influence. result that he too was destooled (1883). After a period of uncer-, tainty and civil war during which different factions struggled for supremacy in Ashanti, Prempeh, a youth 16 years old, was en-: stooled in 1888. His authority had been forcibly established throughout the union by 1893. Protectorate The British and Colony. The British viewed in 1863.

for the

their

—

the events of these years with some mistrust, but failed to adopt any positive policy toward the country until after Prempeh and his party were firmly in control. Eventually in 1S95 the Ashantis were charged with failure to observe the terms of the Fomena treaty and required to accept a British protectorate. When theAshantis tried to negotiate, the British couched their demands in the form of an ultimatum and, early in 1896, occupied Kumasi for the second time. Prempeh and the leading chiefs and members The Ashanti of the royal line were deported to the Seychelles. union was considered dissolved, and its member states were brought under British protection by a series of separate treaties. The four years 1896-1900 saw an uneasy vacuum in Ashanti. The nation's leaders were exiled, the union was broken and the golden stool hidden away. The people were sullen and resentful of a power which seemed to have destroyed their nation without 1

•

actually

conquering

it.

The

British

failed

to

understand the Kumasi, During

situation and, -although they maintained a resident in

provided neither leadership nor effective administration.

)

ASH'ARI

-ASHBURNHAM

to Kumasi in 1900, the governor of the Gold Coast, Sir it was an insult to the queen he represented that he was not sitting on the golden stool. The Ashantis were scandalized; three days later a whole nation had risen against the British, and Hodgson and his retinue were Nine months of bitter fighting followed before the besieged. British were again in control. On Jan. 1, 1902, in pursuance of an order in council of Sept. 26, 1901, Ashanti was formally declared a British colony. The country was administered autocratically by the governor of the Gold Coast through a chief commissioner in Kumasi and a number of Direct European rule, together with the district commissioners. social changes resulting from European education and Christian missions, the building of railways and roads and the development of a cash-crop economy, seriously undermined the prestige of the British rule allowed little effective power traditional authorities. to the chiefs, and the people appreciated that such power as was Destoolment left to them derived from the British government. a visit

ASHBEE, CHARLES ROBERT

(1863-1942), and a leader of the arts and crafts movement May 17, 1863. After Cambridge, and while actively involved in the work of Toynbee hall, he was articled to the architect G. F. Bodley. In 1887 Ashbee founded the School of Handicraft and in 1904 the School of Arts and which continued its work until the outbreak of World War I. In addition, Ashbee in 1888 founded the Guild of Handicraft, which produced notable works, often to his designs, particularly in silver hollow ware and jewelry and furniture. The guild prospered through the first years of the 20th century, enlarging its working quarters and retail shops, and though it was dissolved in 1908 it left a permanent mark on modern design. At the peak of this activity, Ashbee was also in charge of the Essex press, for which he designed type, and a principal in the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Buildings (S.P.A.B.). In 1900, in Chicago, Ashbee became acquainted with, and an admirer of, Frank Lloyd Wright, and when Wright's executed works were published in Germany (1911) the preface was written by Ashbee. In this decade he began to accept the inevitability of the machine as a factor in design, as Wright believed. After the closing of the guild, Ashbee practised architecture; during the war years he lectured at Cairo university on English literature; from 1918 to 1922 he adThereafter vised the Palestine administration on civic affairs.

Frederic Hodgson, declared that

architect, craftsman

whom

d/.v.),

of chiefs

The

became increasingly frequent.

first

and

British attempt to understand the social

organization of Ashanti

came with the appointment

political

of Capt. R. S.

Rattray as government anthropologist in 1920. Rattray was just in time to advise on the policy to be pursued when a few Ashantis accidentally found the hiding place of the golden stool

and robbed

In Ashanti eyes the crime was sacrilege British authority allowed the crime to be investigated by a council of Ashanti chiefs but could not allow the council the status of a court of law; the ultimate sentence

golden ornaments. punishable only by death. it

of

its

found guilty was deportation. The Confederacy Council. During the 1920s British administration in the Gold Coast as a whole began to move toward inIn Ashanti, guidance was afforded by Rattray's elucidirect rule. for those

—

dation of the socially cohesive value of the old authorities.

In

1924 chiefs were given definite powers of subordinate jurisdiction, and Prempeh was brought back (he was officially recognized, though as Kumasihene merely, in 1926). In 1935 his successor, Prempeh II, was restored to the dignity of Asantehene, and an But the Ashanti confederacy council was recognized by law.

changes had been so great and rapid that golden stool would ever recapture ministrative, see

it

was unlikely that the For ad-

full significance.

its

economic development and

later history of

Ashanti

Ghana.

—

Bibliography. T. E. Bowdich, A Mission From Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee (1819) J. Dupuis, Journal of a Residence in Ashantee (1824) Winwood Reade, The Story of the Ashantee Campaign (1874) F. Ramseyer and J. Kuhne, Four Years' Captivity in Ashanti (1901) R. S. S. Baden-Powell, The Downfall of Prempeh (1896) H. C. J. Biss, The Relief of Kumasi (1901) W. W. Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, 2 vol. (1915) Sir F. Fuller, A. Vanished Dynasty —Ashanti (1921) R. S. Rattray, Ashanti (1923), Religion and Art in Ashanti (1927) Ashanti Law and Constitution (1929) W. E. F. Ward, A History of Ghana, 2nd ed. (1958) K. A. Busia, The Position of the Chief in the Modern Political System of Ashanti (1951) M. Priestley and I. Wilts, "The Ashanti: Kings in the 18th century," Journal of African History, vol. i (1960). (J. D. F.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

,

;

;

;

ASH'ARI, AL- (Abu

'l-Hasan 'Ali al-Ash'ari) (873was born of pure Arab stock in Basra but spent the greater part of his life in Baghdad. He is said to 935), Arabian theologian,

have been a pupil of the Mu'tazilite rationalist ) teacher al-Jubba'i and to have remained a Mu'tazilite until his 40th year, when he was converted to traditional Islamic orthodoxy. His name was in later times attached to the school of orthodox theologians who admitted the validity of reason and created the scholastic theology (

which became dominant among the Shafi'ites. He is have written about 300 works, of which only four or five The most remarkable of these is the to be extant. Makalat al-islamiyin, in which the Muslim sects and heresies are examined and the orthodox creed is set forth. See also Arabic Philosophy; Islam. Bibliography. Al-Ash'ari's Al-lbana 'an usul al-diyana was translated, with an introduction by W. C. Klein (1940). See also The Theology of al-Ash'ari, texts, translations and appendices ed. by R. J. McCarthy, S. J. (1953); A. J. Wensinck, The Muslim Creed (1932); A. S. Tritton, Muslim Theology (1947) Spitta, Zur Geschichte Abu of Islam, said to

are

known

—

;

'l-Hasan al-As'aris.

569 English

was born

at Isleworth,

I

he returned to England, living the rest of his life at Godden (Er. K. Green, Kent, where he died on May 23, 1942. an urban district of Derbyshire, Eng., lies 13 mi. W.N.W. of Derby by road on rising ground between two Pop. small ravines opening into the valley of the Dove (q.v.).

ASHBOURNE,

Ashbourne is a marketing centre and also for fishermen and tourists visiting the scenic Dovedale and Manifold valley. The church of St. Oswald, dating from 1241, is a cruciform building with a central tower and lofty octagonal spire (212 ft.) and contains brasses and monuments to the Bradbourne, Cockayne and Boothby families. In Ashbourne hall, until 1671 the seat of the Cockaynes and from then until 1847 of the Boothbys, Prince Charles Edward stayed in 1745. The oldest of the famous almshouses was founded in 1640. There are many associations with Samuel Johnson, a frequent visitor to John Taylor who occupied the mansion (now the girls' boarding house for the grammar (1961) 5.656.

'

Area

1.7 sq.mi.

for the surrounding agricultural districts,

school) opposite the old grammar school (built 1586, now the The present school building was built boys' boarding house). The free-for-all traditional Shrovetide football game in 1909. between Up'ards and Down'ards (those living on opposite sides

Henmore brook, which runs through the town) is still played every Shrove Tuesday and Ash Wednesday; the goals are three miles apart. The making of corsets, condensed milk, clocks and fishing tackle (since 1763) are the chief industries. (c. 1603-1671), English royalist, who served Charles I from 1628 as a groom of the bedchamber, is remembered chiefly for his part in persuading the king, on his escape from Hampton Court in 1647, to go to the Isle of Wight rather than abroad. The son of Sir John Ashburnham, who died in 1620, he began a career at court under the patronage of George of

ASHBURNHAM, JOHN

duke of Buckingham. He was treasurer of the royal the Civil War and commissioner in the Uxbridge neand then went abroad. After the seizure of Charles I by the army, Ashburnham joined him at Hampton Court in 1647. The king chose wrongly in following Ashburnham's advice, in opposition to that of Sir John Berkeley, to make his escape to the Isle of Wight. In so doing, he placed himself in the hands of Robert Hammond, the governor, before the latter's loyalty had been ascertained. "Oh, Jack," the king is alleged to have exclaimed when he understood the situation, "thou hast undone me!" By this fatal step Ashburnham incurred the unmerited charge of treachery and disloyalty, but of this he was acquitted both by Charles I and Charles II. He was separated, with Berkeley, from Charles on Jan. 1, 1648, and in May was imprisoned at Windsor. In Aug. 1648 he was exchanged for Sir W. Masham, but the same Villiers, 1st

army during

gotiations (1644)

month Charles I's request for his attendance at the treaty negotiations at Newport was rejected, and in Oct. 1648 he was among

ASHBURTON—ASHER

57° those

as "delinquents who shall expect After Charles Is death he remained in England, an

marked out by parliament

no pardon."

object of suspicion to all parties, corresponded with Charles II and underwent several terms of imprisonment in the Tower of

At the Restoration he was reinstated in Guernsey. former place of groom of the bedchamber and was compensated for his losses. He represented Sussex in parliament from lool till his expulsion, in 1667. for taking a bribe of £500 from French merchants for landing their wines. He died on June 15,

London and in his

1671.

His grandson John (1656-1710) was raised to the peerage in the 16S9; this John's great-great-grandson Bertram (1797-1S7;> 4th earl of Ashburnham, was the collector of the famous Ashburn,

ham

library.

Memoirs

See A. Fea.

of the

Martyr King (1905), which includes Ash-

burnham's narrative of the events

of April 1646-Dec. 164S.

ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING,

1st

Baron-

(1731-

house of commons in 17S0. He was born at Ashburton. in Devon, on Oct. IS. 1731, and was called to the bar in 1756. In 1762 he was employed to draw up a defense of the British East India company against the Dutch East India company, which had memorialized the crown on certain grievances. This masterly document immediately procured him reputation and emolument. In 1763 Dunning distinguished himself as counsel for John Wilkes whose case he conducted throughout. His powerful argument against the validity of general warrants in the case of Leach v. Money June IS. 1 7o4 established his reputation, and his practice from this period gradually increased to such an extent that in 1776 he is said to have been receiving nearly £10,000 a year. In Jan. 176S he was appointed solicitor-general, probably under the particular patronage of Lord Chancellor Camden. His friend Lord Shelburne brought him into parliament in 176S as member He disapproved of for Calne. which he represented till 1782. the government's further proceedings against Wilkes, which Camden and he both criticized in parliament in Jan. 1770. On Camden's consequent dismissal he immediately resigned. From this i

period he was considered as a regular member of the opposition and distinguished himself by many able speeches in parliament. His motion against the crown in 1780 was carried by a majority of IS.

He

strongly opposed the system of sinecure offices and pensions; but in 17S2, when the marquis of Rockingham became prime minister. Dunning was raised to the peerage and appointed chancellor Under Shelburne's of the duchy of Lancaster, a rich sinecure. administration he accepted a pension of £4,000 a year. He died I. R. C. at Exmouth on Aug. IS. 1783. an urban district and market town in Devon, Eng.. lies 20 mi. S.W. of Exeter and 22 mi. X.E. of Plymouth byroad. Pop. (1961) 2,715. It lies under the southeastern edge of Dartmoor, in the valley of the Ashburn near its confluence with (

|

ASHBURTON,

Ashburton was a borough by prescription from the the Dart. Since Saxon times the court leet early middle ages until 1835. a bailiff and ofhas elected annually a portreeve chief officer ficers such as ale tasters and bread weighers. Ashburton was made In 1314 tin-mining) town by Edward I in 1285. a stannary Bishop Walter de Stapledon gave the town the chantry chapel i

(

.

i

of St. Lawrence, whose priest was to keep a "free scole." Henry VIII suppressed the chantry in 1535. but in 1594 the chapel property was bought back from the crown and a grammar school was founded, which continued until 1938. Only the tower remains of the original chapel but an addition was made in the 17th century and it is there that the portreeve is elected. The parish church of St. Andrew, with its 92-ft. tower, was built of granite in the 15th century. The monks of nearby Buckfast abbey (see Buckfastleich made Ashburton serge famous in the 16th century. i

but the chief industry

is

now

the tourist trade.

ASHBURTON RIVER, range and flowing into the Pacific a

(

when

little

(G.

a stream rising in the

M. Mo.

i

Opthalmia

it does flow ) for about 400 mi. to fall north of Exmouth gulf on the extreme This area has the greatest rainfall

western coast of Australia.

mean

the

deviation from the average

40%

and total annual rainfall has ranged from 1 to 27 in. has extremely high temperatures, over 100° F. having been recorded for 28 successive days at Onslow. Only after exceptional cyclonic storms ("willy-willies" is "river" more than a courtesy title; it is usually dry more than three miles from its mouth, though in high flood it may be several miles wide. There is some fairly good pastoral country along the river, served by the tiny roadstead-and-jetty port of Onslow (pop. [1954] 242; entire Ashburton district 612 >. and also a little pearling. It was hoped that the area might grow in importance if the active exploration following the 1954 oil strike near Exmouth gulf proved successful. (O. H. K. S.) ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, an urban district and market is

over

It also

I

town of Leicestershire. Eng..

lies in

a fertile valley 17 mi.

N.W.

of

Leicester by road.

English lawyer, is chiefly remembered as author of the motion that the "influence of the crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished." which he brought forward in the

i

variability of Australia;

Pop. (1961) 7.425. Coal seams surrounding Ashby are worked by both deep and opencast mining. Other industries include soap and biscuit making, limestone quarrying and engineering. There are weekly markets and stock sales. The suffix u de-la-Zouch" was given to Ashby by Alain de Parrhoet la Souche. lord of the manor in the 12th century. In 1461 the manor was granted by Edward IV to Sir William Hastings who became Baron Hastings and whose grandson was created earl of Huntingdon in 1529. Sir William obtained royal licence to enclose land and to build a fortress. Besieged in 1644. this castle surrendered to the parliamentarians in 1645 and was largely demolished in 164S. After the publication of Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe (1820). in which the castle plays a large part, the 1st marquis of Hastings took measures for the preservation of its ruins. The Perpendicular church of St. Helen contains a finger pillory and monuments to the 2nd earl of Huntingdon (1561) and to the 9th earl (1746), whose wife. Selina. founded a sect of Calvinistic Methodists known as the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion. The 3rd earl

founded the grammar school

in 1567.

ASHDOD

(Isdud. modern Ashdod Gimel), an ancient city in Israel about 3 mi. inland from the Mediterranean and about equidistant (IS mi. from Gaza and from Tel Aviv. Ashdod stands close to a large hillock of red sand (177 ft.), probably Mt. i

Azotus on which Judas Maccabaeus

fell (I

Mace,

ix,

15

ff.).

Be-

extending to the shore cliffs, lie sand dunes under which the ancient city is probably buried. Ashdod was an important city of the Philistine Pentapolis and a centre of the worship of Dagon. In Josh, xv it is assigned to the tribe of Judah. The Philistine conquest of Israel resulted in the

hind

it.

capture of the Ark of the Covenant, which remained in Ashdod In the Sth century Uzziah. king of Judah. seized Ashdod. and soon afterward the city fell into Assyrian hands. In 713 Ashdod joined Egypt against Assyria, but Sargon II reduced the city to submission (Isa. xx. 1 I. By 701 it again had a native ruler, but Sennacherib's conquest of Tyre (700 B.C.) brought the submission of Ashdod to Assyria again, and the city paid tribute, During the second half of the to Esarhaddou and Ashurbanipal. 7 th century B.C. the city is said to have withstood a siege of 29 for a time.

years by Psamtik II of Egypt Herodotus ii. 157). The inhabitants, of the province of Ashdod were opposed to the Jewish refortifica-, tion of Jerusalem at the time of the return (Xeh. iv, 7), and I

Xehemiah cursed the Jews who had married women of Ashdod whose children could speak only a mixture of languages Xeh. Ashdod was captured and cleansed of idolatry byxiii. 23 ff. i. Judas Maccabaeus in 163 B.C.. and later (148) it was taken by Jonathan, who burned the temple of Dagon. From the 4th to the 6th century' a.d. it was the seat of a Christian bishopric. By the time of the crusades the city was reduced to a small village. It was the scene of fighting between British and Turkish armies in World War I. (J. S. I.) I

ASHER,

a tribe of Israel, called after the son of

Jacob and

maid (Gen. xxx, 12 ff.). The district held by this tribe bordered upon Xaphtali. and lay to the north of Issachar and Zebulun. and to the south of Dan. See Twelve Tribes of Zilpah. Leah's

Israel.

ASHER BEN YEHIEL Jewish rabbi and

codifier,

(known

was

bom

as

Rosh)

in the

(c.

Rhine

1250-1327), district,

but,

;

ASHEVILLE—ASHKHABAD endangered by the persecutions inflicted on the German Jews in the 13th century, he fled to Spain, where he was made rabbi of

A

Toledo.

disciple of

interest in the

Talmud.

Meir of Rothenburg, Asher found his sole He was a man of austere piety, profound

and narrow, a determined opponent of the study of philosophy and His Compendium, comthus antipathetic to the Spanish spirit.

between 1307 and 1314 and printed in most editions of the Talmud, differs from previous compendia in greater simplicity and deference shown to German authorities. the in Asher was the father of the codifier Jacob ben Asher (q.v.). piled

ASHEVILLE, Buncombe

county,

a city of

the

North Carolina, Appalachian

U.S.,

and seat of

mountains,

is about French Broad and Swannanoa rivers. It has long been the cultural, resort and economic centre of the mountainous counties of the western part Adjacent to the Blue Ridge parkway, Asheville is of the state. the eastern gateway to Great Smoky Mountains National park and the Cherokee Indian reservation. Mt. Mitchell (6,684 ft.), the highest peak east of the Mississippi river, is nearby. The city aas a mild climate with a mean average rainfall of 40.28 in., and uneven on an plateau averaging is 2,200 ft. in elevation. The area is cut by streams and ringed by the higher Blue Ridge, Pisgah

119 mi.

W.

in

of Charlotte, at the junction of the

Newfound mountains.

and

Asheville

gap through the which had been Indian territory, was settled after the American Revolution. The first settler was John Burton, who in 1794 laid out a town tract of 21 ac. and named it Morristown in honour of Robert Morris, financier of the Revolution, who owned extensive land nearby. It was renamed Asheville for Samuel Ashe, then governor of North Carolina, and incorporated mountains.

is

strategically located at a natural

The

area,

1797.

in

Asheville remained a small village until

the

Western North

came in 1880, but even before that time the area known as a health resort. The emphasis upon health cosmopolitan population. The town was chartered as

Carolina railroad

was widely attracted a a

city in

1883

;

adopted a commission form of government

and the council-manager

form

in 193

1.

in 1905

Industries include textiles,

components, wool, minerals and tobacco. Millionaire George Vanderbilt, at the turn of the century, built

paper, cellophane, electric

French chateau, Biltmore house, on his estate and in [913 E. W. Grove, a St. Louis manufacturer, built the Grove Park ran. Asheville also is the site of Pack Memorial library, holding a

palatial

Sondley (35,000 volumes of books and papers) and the Thomas Wolfe collections; Zebulon Baird Vance monument on Pack :he

square;

and the Thomas Wolfe memorial, the birthplace of the

(I960) 60.192; standard metropolitan statistical 130,074. For comparative population figures see table in North Carolina: Population. (D. J. Wr.) ASHFIELD, STANLEY, ist Baron '1874-194S), British businessman instrumental in the creation )f London's passenger transportation system, was born at Derby, "Jov. 8, 1874. He spent his early years in the United States, and vas educated at U.S. technical schools and colleges. Entering ;ervice of the Detroit City Street railways, he became general nanager of the company and subsequently of the Public Service author. area

Pop.

(Buncombe county).

ALBERT HENRY

New Jersey. In 1907 he returned to England as general manager of the Metropolitan District railway and, by acquiring other transport :ompanies, began working toward a single controlling authority Corporation of

passenger transport in London. Knighted in 1914 for his connection with transportation, he stood for parliament a Coalition Unionist for Ashton-under-Lyne in 1916, he served

or

all

iervices in is

n the cabinet as president of the board of trade, resigning in May [919 to return to his work in transport. In Jan. 1920 he was aised to the peerage. When a public corporation was formed in [933 and the London Passenger Transport board w-as established, \shfield was appointed chairman; upon the establishment of the British Transport commission in 1947 he was appointed a member. He died in London, Nov. 4, 1948. ASHFORD, an urban district in the Ashford parliamentary livision of Kent. Eng., 14 mi. S.W. of Canterbury by road. Pop. [1961) 27,962. It lies on a slight hill in the plains under the

57i

downs near

the confluence of the upper branches of the Great Stour, and is a considerable road and rail centre. Ashfonl (Es-

was held at the time of Domesday Book by Hugh de Montfort. A Saturday market and an annual fair were granted to the lord of the manor in the 1.3th century, and further annual fairs were granted by Edward III and Edward IV. Jack Cade led his men from Ashford in the rebellion of 1450. The cattle trade increased from the latter half of the 18th century because of the fertile pasture land in Romney marsh, and a stock market was established in 1784. The fine Perpendicular church of St. Mary has a lofty tower and many interesting monuments. At Bethersden, between Ashford and Tenterden, marble quarries were formerly worked extensively, supplying stone for Canterbury and Rochester cathedrals and for many local churches. Ashford has agricultural implement works, brickyards and breweries, large locomotive and carriage works and a bicycle industry. The parishes of Kennington and Willesborough were added to the urban district in 1934. ASHI (c. 352-427), head of the Jewish academy at Sura, Babylonia, and one of the two chief editors of the Babylonian Talmud. Under his leadership, the Sura academy was revived and the gigantic task of collating the scattered notes, sayings, legislative opinions and homiletic lore was conducted for more than 30 years. After an interruption of several decades, this work was completed by a staff of scholars, headed by Rabina, who directed the Sura academy in the years 489-500. See Talmud. setesford, Essheteforde)

See J. Zuri,

Rab Ashi

ASHIKAGA,

the

(1924).

name

of a family that held the

title

of

shogun (military ruler) in Japan from 1338 until 1573, with its capital at Kyoto. The position of the family was established by Takauji (1305-1358), who in 1333 shifted his allegiance from the Kamakura military government to the rebel forces led by the retired emperor Godaigo II. Godaigo II rewarded him with landed estates, but he aspired to the title of shogun. After two years of war, Takauji entered Kyoto as a conqueror, declared that Godaigo II had forfeited his throne and installed another imperial relative in his place. Thereafter two emperors reigned at the same time: the southern dynasty, so-called because Godaigo II had retired to the south of Kyoto; and the northern dynasty supported by Takauji and his successors. The schism was terminated in 1392 by the compromise of alternate reigns, although in fact the northern line prevailed.

The Ashikaga family held the title of shogun until 1573, but no shogun ever exercised effective control over all the military From leaders and powerful Buddhist monasteries of the land. 1467 on, civil wars were chronic throughout Japan, and strong feudal lords on occasion drove Ashikaga shoguns out of Kyoto. The last shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki (1537-1597), lost his power Some of the Ashikaga to his protector, Oda Nobunaga, in 1573. shoguns achieved fame as patrons of Zen monks who gave particular Japanese form to Chinese arts, as in the case of no drama, landscape painting, flower arrangement and the tea ceremony. (Ge. M. B.) See also Japan: History. ASHINGTON, an urban district, in the Morpeth parliamenNorthumberland, Eng., 26 mi. of Newcastle N. tary division of upon Tyne by road. Pop. (1961) 27.294. The district, especially along the river Wansbeck, is not without beauty, but there are numerous collieries, one claiming to be the largest in the world, to which the development of the town is due. Associated with the At Bothal on the coal mines, there are some metal foundries. is the river (from which parish that of Ashington was formed castle that belonged to the Bertram family in the reign of Edward III. The church of St. Andrew there has Early English to Perpendicular work, and in the neighbouring woods is a ruined chapel of St. Mary. ASHKENAZIM, the Jews whose ancestors in the middle ages lived in German lands and migrated from there to eastern and western Europe and, in the 19th and 20th centuries, overseas. See Sephardim, Ashkenazim and Oriental Jews. )

ASHKHABAD the

Turkmen

(Poltoratsk from 1919 to 1927), capital of Soviet Socialist Republic. U.S.S.R.. since 1924, is

situated in the

Ashkhabad

oasis at the foot of the

Kopet Dag

ASHLAND—ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE

572

about 25 mi. from the Iranian frontier and 325 mi. E.S.E. of Krasnovodsk. Pop. (1959) 169,935. It was founded by the Russians in 1SS1 as a fort and as capital of the Transcaspian province. It is a station on the Krasnovodsk-Tashkent railway line and an important centre of light industry: there are silk-spinning of national importance), yarn-spinning, knitting and shoe factories. Food industries include bakeries, meat-packing plants, wineries There is an important factory making and candy factories. windows and glassware. An oil pipeline connects the city with Krasnovodsk. Ashkhabad is in an earthquake area and a serious tremor occurred in 1948 destroying a large part of the town which has been rebuilt on the same radial plan as before. New public buildings include two theatres, a railway station and a hotel. Higher educational establishments include the Turkmenian A. M. Gorky State university (founded in 1950 with faculties of philology, history and law, physics and mathematics, biology and geography, I

engineering and physical education). The Turkmen academy of sciences was founded in 1951 from the branch U.S.S.R. academy, and the permanent South Turkestan Archaeological expedition is a division of its department of social sciences.

There are spemiddle schools, three theatres and four museums. Until May 1959 Ashkhabad was also the administrative centre of an oblast of the same name, which absorbed the former oblast of Krasnovodsk in 1947 and occupied the whole southwestern part of the republic. This oblast has now been abolished. The Tedzhen, Kirovsk and Serakhs raions were transferred to the Mary oblast but this was abolished in 1962 and all raions are directly administered from Ashkhabad. (G. E. Wr.) cialized

ASHLAND,

a city of Boyd county, Ky., U.S., on the Ohio 125 mi. S.E. of Cincinnati, just below the mouth of the Big Sandy river. A deep harbour extends the full length of the city's waterfront. Pop. (1960) 31,283; Huntington-Ashland standard metropolitan statistical area (see Huntington), 254,river,

780.

(

For comparative population figures see table in Kentucky In the early years of Kentucky and Ohio settle:

Population.)

ment thousands of pioneers

boats past this spot Settlers from Virginia arrived in 1815. Ashdrifted their

flat

without stopping. land was founded in 1850, and named for Henry Clay's estate in Lexington. Ashland was incorporated as a city in 1870, and has had a council-manager form of government since 1950. The city stands at the mouth of the narrow but fertile Big Sandy valley which penetrates deep into the eastern Appalachian range. At one time most of the traffic into the isolated highland corners

West Virginia and Virginia started from this point. Subsequently the great log run from the mountains terminated at Catlettsburg and Ashland. Ashland became important, however, of Kentucky,

Kentucky iron industry. The Bellefonte furnace was a large producer of iron in the 19th century, and it consumed most of the available timber for several miles about the town. Ashland was linked to central Kentucky and Cincinnati in the early 1900s by the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad, and by 1920 it had begun a new phase of economic development becoming one of the state's most important industrial centres. In the AshlandIronton (Ohio)-Kenova-Huntington (West Virginia) region are important iron, metal working, chemical and petroleum industries. as the centre of the early

(T. D. C.)

ASHLAR,

also written

Ashler, Ashelere,

in architecture,

squared stone used for facing walls; also the term

is

used to de-

Sometimes the word is used any stone-wall facing which is worked or tooled, whether squared or not, but such work is usually known as "rough" or "uncoursed" ashlar. An ashlar piece in English carpentry is a vertical timber inserted between the rafters and the wall plate. See Carpentry; Masonry. scribe a wall built of squared stones.

of

WILLIAM JAMES

ASHLEY, SIR (1860-1927), English economist and historian of English economic development, was born in London on Feb. 25, 1860, and educated at St. Olave's grammar school and Balliol college, Oxford. He was succeseconomy and constitutional history Toronto university (1888), professor of economic history at Harvard university (1892), professor of commerce and finance sively professor of political in

Birmingham university (1901) and dean commerce there (1902). Ashley made most important contributions

in

of the

faculty of

to the history of English industry and the economic development of England in general in his Early History of the English Woollen Industry (1887) and his Introduction to English Economic History and

Theory in two parts (part 1, "The Middle Ages," 1888; part 2, "The End of the Middle Ages," 1893). The Introduction remained for many years the standard work on the subject and was translated into German, French and Japanese. He was foremost among the economists who supported Joseph Chamberlain in his campaign for protection for British industry. His Tariff Problem (1903) was republished in a new and enlarged edition in 1920. In addition to his professional and literary work, Ashley sat on many important public committees and commissions of in-

—

on coal prices (1915), food prices (1917), cost of living (1918), agriculture (1919-23), tariffs (1923), industry and trade (1924). He also was joint author of the Report of the Unionist social reform committee on industrial unrest (1914). He died on July 23, 1927. a city of Ashtabula county, O., U.S., on Lake Erie, 55 mi. N.E. of Cleveland. The city derives its name from the river flowing through it called Hash-tah-buh-lah (Algonkian, quiry

ASHTABULA, many

by the Indians. (For comparative populaOhio: Population.) George Beckwith, the first permanent settler, arrived in 1803. Matthew Hubbard came in 1804 and became a principal proprietor of the town; Hubbard house, built in 1834 by his brother Col. William Hubbard, was the last station on the underground railroad running from Kentucky to Lake Erie and is still in use standing on a high bluff overlooking the lake at Walnut beach. Because of its location on both the land and water routes from New England, Ashtabula became a stopping place for pioneers entering the Western Reserve. The village was incorporated in 1831 and received a city "river of

fish")

tion figures see table in

charter in 1891.

Because of the river, a deep gorge divides the city. One of the most tragic accidents in railroad history occurred on Dec. 29, 1876, when a train of 1 1 wooden coaches and 2 heavy engines laboured in a blinding snowstorm onto the bridge spanning the gorge. Suddenly the bridge collapsed, plunging 156 persons 75 ft. into the chasm, where the cars caught fire from the heating stoves and oil lamps and 85 people perished. Industries include shipbuilding, the manufacture of automobile forgings, wood products, farm tools, leather processing, corrugated boxes, sheet metal boilers, plastic auto bodies and cabs, Fiberglas and greenhouse vegetable cultivation. The city is also an important chemical centre. In the 1950s oil drilling was resumed in the area. Two 2,000-ft. docks were added to the harbour facilities to accommodate St. Lawrence seaway shipping. (J. A. Ta.) (William Mallandaine) (1906-

ASHTON, FREDERICK ),

associate director of England's Royal Ballet and

cipal choreographer,

was born

its

prin-

Guyaquil, Ecuador, on Sept. 17, 1906. Ashton studied dancing in London under Leonide Massine, Nicholas Legat and Marie Rambert. Mme. Rambert encouraged his first choreographic efforts, in The Tragedy of Fashion (1926) and Capriol Suite (1930). Ashton joined the Vic-Wells (later the Royal) Ballet in 1935 and distinguished himself as a mime and character dancer (e.g.. Carabosse in The Sleeping Beauty, the Gigolo in Facade), and as versatile choreographer of about 30 ballets including Cinderella. Sylvia, Daphnis and Chlo'e and the film Tales of Hoffman (1950). (Ln. Me.) a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, Eng., on the River Tame, a tributary of the Pop. (1961) 50,165; or Mersey, 6£ mi. E. of Manchester. April 1, 1954, part of the rural district of Limehurst was added to the borough and the population thereby increased to 51,335 The derivation from the Saxon aesc (ash) and tun (an enclosed place) accounts for the earliest orthography, Estun. The addition subter lineam is found in ancient deeds because the place is below the line or boundary of Cheshire, which once formec the frontier between Northumbria and Mercia. The manor was in

ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE,

.

ASHUR— ASHURBANIPAL granted to Roger de Poictou by William I, but before the end of his reign was transferred to the Greslets as part of the barony of

Manchester.

The mayor

of the

manor

still

holds the court leet

There was a church or chapel there in 1261-62, but the church of St. Michael, begun in 1413, is almost entirely modIts stained glass windows are among the finest in England. ern. The ancient industry was woolen, but soon after the invention of tlif spinning frame the cotton trade was introduced and as early as 1760 the weaving of cotton yarn by machinery became the half-yearly.

In addition to cotton, important industries are and oil engines, air-conditioning plant, filter equipment, ciealeather rette making, and leather goods, plastics and machine tools. There are large collieries in the neighbourhood. Stamford park, presented by Lord Stamford, is shared with Stalybridge. Ashton-under-Lyne has two technical colleges (one opened in 1954 and a school of art. In 1847 a charter of incorporation was granted. (Assur), the ancient religious capital of Assyria (q.v. ). identified with modern Qal'at Sharqat in northern Iraq, on a rocky headland overlooking the west bank of the Tigris river about 15 mi. above the mouth of the Little Zab. The first scientific excavations were conducted by a German expedition led by VV. Andrae 1903-13). The place was originally occupied about the middle of the 3rd millennium b.c. by a tribe that probably had reached the Tigris from Syria, for historical tradition refers to a succession of 17

Enlil.

Anu-Adad. Sin-Shamash, Ishtar and Nabu; two of the three are ziggurats, of which that of Anu-Adad, a mighty staged

named

tower of burnt brick, is the best preserved. Historically the most interesting temples are those devoted to the cult of the goddess Ishtar, or Innina as she was known to the Sumerians. The associated objects show clearly that the first

staple industry.

two foundations

gas

culture.

)

ASHUR

(

In the early records Ashur was written as Sumerian ideogram A-USAR, which may be interpreted as meanhad quay walls. Ashur, or Ashshur as it was subsequently called, was a name applied to the city, to the country and to the principal god of the ancient people known as the kings dwelling in tents. a

ing that the place

Assyrians. Strategically,

Ashur was

less well situated

than

Nimrud (Kalakh)

and Nineveh, the other principal cities of Assyria, which were upstream on the opposite bank of the Tigris.. But the religious sanctity of Ashur, associated with the memory of the earliest

ensured its continuous upkeep until 614 b.c. when the was destroyed by the Babylonians. At various periods its citizens enjoyed exemption from taxation. Between the 11th and 7th centuries b.c. several monarchs w-ere buried within the city walls; a space was also reserved for the memorial stelae of the tings of Assyria from Adadnirari I to Ashurbanipal, including jne of Queen Sammuramat (Semiramis). Although it was the religious capital. Ashur was smaller than S'ineveh. Kalakh and Dur-Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad). The Jiner city, which in the 9th century comprised about 150 ac. was defended by a circuit of walls nearly 2 1 mi. long. On the eastern side it was washed by the Tigris, along the line of which massive stone and brick-built quays were first erected by Adadnirari I [reigned 1307-1275 or perhaps 1305-1273 B.C.). These were :xtended and repaired by subsequent kings. On the north side here was an arm of the river and a high escarpment reinforced jy a system of buttressed defenses and by a powerful sally port lamed the mushlalu a semicircular tower of rusticated stone nasonry, built by Sennacherib, probably the earliest known archi:ectural example of the kind. Tukulti-Xinurta I (reigned 1244)8 or perhaps 1243-06 b.c.) dug a ditch 20 m. wide along the western side, and 400 years later Shalmaneser III, who built the nner wall, shortened the line of defense and so made it easier to lold. Along this western wall there was a system of towers at ntervals of 29-31 m. with a frontage of 8-10 m. projecting 4 m. irom the wall. The towers were probably not less than 15 m. high ind stood behind a curtain wall 11-12 m. high. A text of Sennacherib mentions 13 gates as standing in the 7th :entury b.c. of which seven have been located. The earliest was he gurgurri gate in the northwestern corner. This is typically Assyrian in form, defended by heavy flanking towers with stair:ase leading from an inner guard chamber up to the battlements ind closed by three double-leaved doors. Within the city there were paved streets sometimes reinforced with timber balks. A jrocessional way led out of the gurgurri gate to a temple built by Sennacherib, the forecourt of which was planted with trees. A settlers,

city

—

573

catalogue of the town buildings inscribed in the reign of this monarch shows thai there were 34 temples in Ashur. Of these temples less than one-third have been found, including those of ,Wiur-

(c.

2600-2500

b.c.) bore the imprint of

Sumerian

The fifth in the series belonged to a period when Ashur was ruled by an independent line of rulers, c. 1900-1800 B.C., and had trading colonies in Cappadocia. A break thereafter corresponds with a time when Ashur became subject first to Babylon, then to Mitanni, and was of no political importance. The cult however was revived by Tukulti-Ninurta I, who erected a temple There is evidence to support to Ishtar-Dinitu ("of the dawn"). the theory that at this time sexual intercourse took place within the temple under the aegis of the goddess, a practice later on ascribed by Herodotus to Babylon. In addition to the temples, three palaces were identified. The oldest, ascribed to Shamshi-Adad I (fl. c. 1810 B.C.) was a building with a frontage of 112 by 98 m. and followed the plan of one that had been erected at Tell Brak in northern Syria five centuries Later this building was used as a burial ground. The earlier. many private houses found in the northwestern quarter of the site were often spaciously laid out and also had family vaults that were dug beneath their floors and contained many valuable votive deposits, including jew-elry, weapons, metal bowls and pottery. The irregular planning of the town and its tortuous streets indicate a strict respect for property rights and land tenure. Other aspects of Assyrian law. particularly relating to women, are known from a series of tablets compiled in the period 1450-1250 B.C. Many inscriptions found include historical and especially religious Stone sculpture, both in texts, as well as business documents. the round and in relief, illuminates the history of Assyrian art at many different periods, as do the thousands of small objects found in the ruins. Evidence of the sack of Ashur is seen in the violent burning of the gurgurri gate, the breaching of the walls and the presence of When in 401 B.C. the army of sappers' tools and arrowheads. 10.000 Greeks commanded by Xenophon passed by, even its ancient name had been forgotten. Even so, some pottery types appear to indicate traces of occupation in the Seleucid period. A part of the city was revived either shortly before or shortly after

Mesopotamia (140 B.C.) when a temple Ashur and Sherua, and a vast palace with peristyled courts and pillared hall was erected. See Babylonia and the Parthian conquest of

was dedicated

to

Assyria. Bibliography.

—

Wissenschaftliche Veroeffentlich-ungen der deutschen orient -gesellschajl, vol. 10, 23, 24, 34, 35, 37-39, 46, 50, 53, 57, 58, 64-67

(1909-56) Sidney Smith, Early History of Assyria (1928) E. Uneer, "Assur," Reallexicon der Assyriologie (1928-32); W. Andrae. Das A. Parrot, Archeologie mesopotaWiedererstandene Assur (1938) (M. E. L. M.) mienne (1946) ;

;

;

ASHURBANIPAL

(Assyrian Ashur-bani-apli) (reigned 669-630 or 626 B.C.), the last of the great kings of Assyria, had been proclaimed crown prince of Assyria during his father Esarhaddon's reign, his brother Shamash-shum-ukin being simultaneously nominated crown prince of Babylonia. His first military concern at his succession was the settlement of Egypt, which Esarhaddon had conquered shortly before his death. The former Egyptian king Tarku (biblical Tirhakah), who had invaded the delta from the south, withdrew at the approach of the Assyrian army, and Ashurbanipal set up an administration under native Intrigues princes, backed and controlled by Assyrian garrisons. between the delta princes and Tarku were discovered and the Here Ashurbanipal ringleaders arrested and sent to Assyria. showed his statesmanship and, forgoing revenge, appointed Necho, over the delta ruler as paramount princes concerned, one of the under Assyrian tutelage. An invasion by Tarku's successor provoked a further Assyrian campaign in Egypt (663 B.C.), during which the Assyrian army destroyed Thebes an event recalled in

—

ASHURNASIRPAL—ASIA

574 Xahum

In the same year Necho died and was succeeded by his son Psamtik. The pacification of Egypt allowed Ashurbanipal to deal with the Phoenician city of Tyre, which, after siding with Egypt during Esarhaddon's reign, had since withstood a long siege. The kings of Syria and Cilicia hastened to make submission, while Gyges of Lydia, farther west, sought assistance against invading Cimmerian hordes. The Lydian alliance was short-lived, for soon afterward Lydia supplied troops to Psamtik, who had become supreme in the delta and now asserted his independence, expelling Mining Assyrian garrisons from Egypt by 654 B.C. The former good relations between Assyria and Elam were ruptured by an attempted Elamite invasion of Assyrian territory during the Egyptian campaign. Once Egypt no longer engaged the Assyrian army, Ashurbanipal, after a brief campaign in the northeast, turned his attention to Elam, conquering the land and 8.

iii,

up a pro- Assyrian king. In Babylonia Shamash-shum-ukin, loyal to his brother for more than 15 years, now organized a hostile coalition and in 652 b.c. rebelled. His principal ally, Elam, was paralyzed by dynastic troubles, and the Assyrian army was able in 648 b.c. to starve out the Babylonian cities, despite attempts by Arab allies to break the siege. Shamash-shum-ukin himself committed suicide, and Babysetting

was placed under a puppet ruler Kandalanu. With Babylonia settled, Ashurbanipal attempted to re-establish order from the chaos into which Elam had fallen. After several unsuccessful efforts at setting up friendly Elamite princes, Ashurbanipal lost patience and undertook a major punitive campaign in which the principal cities and shrines suffered severely. lonia

Little is

known

of the events of the final years of Ashurbanipal's

had set in the immediate cause was probably economic, the intrusion of Cimmerians and Scythians to the north and of Indo-Aryan peoples to the east having dislocated vital trade routes. Ashurbanipal's most lasting achievement was in the realm of culSome would discount his boast of special ability in the ture. scribal arts, but he certainly showed great interest in literature This in collecting at Nineveh a great library of cuneiform texts. library, discovered in the early days of Assyriology, still forms unique value light which for the the basis of that science and is of it sheds on ancient life and thought. See Babylonia and Assyria; see also Index references under "Ashurbanipal" in the Index volume. reign, but

it

is

clear that the decline of Assyria

:

—

Bibliography. M. Streck, Assurbanipal und die The Cambridge Ancient History, Konige (1916)

letzten assyrischen vol. iii, reprinted T. Bauer, Das lnschrijtenwerk Assurbanipals (1933); H. (H. W. F. S.) Schraokel, Geschichte des alten Vorderasien (1957). ;

(1929);

ASHURNASIRPAL

(Assyrian Assur-nasir-apli, "the god guardian of the son"), the name of two Assyrian kings. Ashurnasirpal I, son of Shamshi-Adad IV and uncle of Tiglath-pileser I, ruled Assyria c. 1049-31 B.C. His few surviving inscriptions show that the country was impoverished by frequent

Ashur

is

intruders from the western deserts against stantly.

Ashurnasirpal

I lived in a large

whom

he warred con-

palace southwest of the

ziggurat at Ashur and used Nineveh as an alternative capital,

if

a

sculptured obelisk found there (now in the British museum) is to be attributed to him rather than to Ashurnasirpal II. Ashurnasirpal II was king of Assyria from 884 to 859 B.C. His great achievement was the consolidation of the conquests begun by his father, Tukulti-Ninurta II, leading to the establishment of the New Assyrian empire. In seven years of arduous campaigning he first subdued the Aramaeans in the upper Euphrates valley and imposed taxes on the states of Laqe and Hindanu. He also marched unopposed to the Mediterranean sea and received tribute

from the

cities of Phoenicia. In the north he thwarted Aramaean pressure on the Assyrian city of Damdamusa by storming the rebel stronghold of Kinabu and ravaging the land of Nairi (Armenia). He organized a new Assyrian province of Tushhan to control the border, and there he received tribute from his father's former opponent Amme-ba'ali. In 879 B.C., however, the tribes in the Kashiari hills revolted against Tushhan and murdered Amme-ba'ali. The Assyrian revenge was

swift

and

ruthless.

One reason ing this reign

growth of Assyrian prestige and wealth durwas Ashurnasirpal's ability to maintain authority

for the

over the peoples

in the hills to the east. Early in his reign he publicly flayed the rebel governor of Nishtun at Erbil (Irbil) and,

expedition in 880 B.C., dislodged the rebels holding the Babite pass which controlled a main caravan route. Zamua was then made an Assyrian province with a new capital at Atlila. Ashurnasirpal used the many captives from his campaigns to in a brief

new capital at Kalah (the modern Nimrud). By 879 B.C. main ("northwest") palace in the citadel, the temple of Ninurta and Enlil, shrines for nine other deities and the city walls had been completed. Botanical gardens and a zoological garden were laid out, and water supplies were assured by a canal from the Great Zab river. The inscriptions and reliefs from this city, to which the king moved from Nineveh, are the principal source for his reign. One of these described his campaigns, building activities and the feast given for ten days to 69,574 people to celebrate the opening of Kalah. A statue of the king (now in the British museum) was found by Sir A. H. Layard in the Ninurta temple in 1847. See Babylonia and Assyria. build a the

—

Bibliocraphy. E. A. W. of the Kings of Assyria, vol. vol.

iii

Nimrud,"

Budge and L. W. King (eds.), The Annals i (1902) the Cambridge Ancient History, ;

New

J. Wiseman, "A in Iraq, vol. xiv (1952).

(1925)

;

D.

ASH WEDNESDAY

in the

Stela of Assur-nasir-pal II from

(D. J. Wi.)

Western Church

is

the

first

day

of Lent, the fast of 40 days (in imitation of Jesus Christ's 40-day

In the 8th century, Lent in the west began six weeks before Easter and thus 40 days before Good Friday, but as there was no fasting on Sundays it included only 34 days of fast. In order to make up the number of fasting days to 40, four days were added before the first Sunday, and Good Friday and Holy Saturday were counted in also. Lent therefore began six and a half weeks before Easter, on the Wednesday preceding the first Sunday in Lent. At about the same period in Rome the rites of public penance for notorious sinners coincided with the beginning of Lent. The ceremony of admitting penitents occurred on this Wednesday; they were sprinkled with ashes, dressed in sackcloth and obliged to remain apart until the end of the period of public penance and their reconciliation with the Christian community on Maundy Thursday. When these rites fell into disuse (8th-10th centuries), the beginning of the penitential season of Lent was symbolized by the imposition of ashes on the heads of the whole congregation, clergy and people. Nowadays the ceremony takes place with the marking of a cross on the forehead with the ashes obtained by burning the palms used on the previous Palm Sunday. In the Anglican Book of Common Prayer a commination servAsh ice replaces the earlier penitential discipline on this day. Wednesday is also observed in Lutheran churches. Orthodox Ash Monday therefore not keep churches begin Lent on a and do Wednesday. See also Lent Church Year. fast in the desert) in preparation for Easter.

;

See H. Thurston, Lent and Holy Week (1904) The Christian Calendar (1960).

ASHWELL, LENA

;

N. M. Denis-Boulet, (L. C. S.)

Lena Pocock)

(1872-1957),! British actress, who during World War I organized entertainment on board ship in the Tyne, on front, was born for the troops at the Sept. 28, 1872. She acted with Sir Henry Irving in 1895 in King (originally

Arthur, and again in 1903 in Dante, but established her reputation in Henry Arthur Jones's Mrs. Dane's Defence with Sir Charles Wyndham in 1900. Other successes were The Darling oj

Gods (1903) and Leah Kleschna (1905). From 1907 to 1915 she managed the Kingsway theatre. Later she formed the Lena Ashwell Players and for several years produced good drama at low prices at the Century theatre. In 1908 the

she divorced the actor Arthur Playfair, 1896, and married

whom

she had married

in

Henry) Simson. In 1916 she Empire for her services during London on March 13, 1957. (W. J. M.-P.)

Henry

(later Sir

received the Order of the British the war.

ASIA,

She died

in

the largest of the continents with an area of 17,139,445 sq.mi., has as its conventional western boundaries the Ural mountains and Ural river to the Caspian sea, the Caucasus to the Black

ASIA sea, the

Mediterranean coasts of Asia Minor and the Levant, and

In the east, the Indonesian archipelago and the the Red sea. island chains stretching north through Japan to the Kamchatka peninsula are considered Asian. Viewed on the globe, Asia is a great isosceles spherical triangle having two sides of 6,500 mi.

extending from Bering strait to Aden and Singapore respectively, the third side measuring 4,500 mi. and enclosing the Arabian sea

and the Bay of Bengal. This article is organized according to the following outline: I. Physical Geography A. Geologic History B. Geology and Relief C. Climate

D. Vegetation E. II.

III.

Animal Life

Natural Resources

Anthropology A. Ethnology and Languages B. Physical Anthropology

IV. History A. Prehistory and Archaeology B. Exploration C. Summary of General Social-Economic and Cultural History V. Population I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY A.

Geologic History

575

Burma, Thailand, Maurnm a Japan and Korea have laya and west Borneo. Po--iM\ Variscan folds, around the east of the south and east China nuclei. of the Himalayas, in the

Shan

states of I

In the far east generally, however, the Yen Shanian (JurassicCretaceous) orogenic epoch was more important. Block faulting, vulcanicity and granitization were more significant than folding in the central parts of this region. Thick Triassic-Jurassic deposits between Angaraland and the Chukchi nucleus were folded up in the

Verkhoyansk and Cherski ranges. The Sikhote-Alin (U.S.S.R.j, South Korea and south Honshu were all affected, while between the east China and Ordos nuclei occurred the folds of the Shensi coal The Nan Ling and other east-west trends of the south China field. coast are of the same epoch, and continue through the northern Indochina peninsula, Thailand and Malaya into southwest Borneo. The products of the final phase of mountain building stretch in an immense chain flanking on the south and east all earlier systems and abutting onto the massifs of Arabia and India. Starting in Turkey the ranges run eastward converging on the Armenian knot where they open out southeastward. The Caucasus, continued across the Caspian as the Kopet Dagh, join the system in northeast Iran. In Afghanistan and Baluchistan the influence of the Indian shield is seen in the northward sweep of the Kirthar and Sulaiman ranges and the narrowing of the fold belt in the Pamir In northeast India the trend turns sharply south in the Burma and continues through the Andaman and Nicobar islands to Sumatra, into the tortuous arcs of Indonesia.

knot.

of north

Continents are thought to be formed by the addition to relatively stable nuclear areas, or shields, of fold mountain systems formed from sediments accumulated in geosynclinal troughs. Four major mountain-building episodes may be recognized in Asia, during which portions of previous systems and of the ancient nuclei themselves have been incorporated into the new system along with the younger sediments (see fig. i). Two main groups of Pre-Cambrian shields are distinguishable. The northern, comprising Angaraland and the lesser nuclei (largely submerged) of the Kara and Chukchi seas, appears to have played a more active part, while the southern Gondwanaland group, including Arabia and the Indian peninsula, remained relatively The extent of these land masses in unaffected by movements. Pre-Cambrian times was probably very much greater than that of their present known area, outcropping or concealed beneath Angaraland together with the Cathaysian land later formations. mass, fragments of which formed nuclei in south China and around the Gulf of Chihli, are regarded by some authorities as part of a vast northern continent, Laurasia, stretching through

hills

Europe and North America. A geosynclinal trough, the Tethys sea, separated Angaraland from Gondwanaland. Little is known of Pre-Cambrian movement in Asia, though

world." Northward, high Asia gives way to the broad sweep of lowlands and low plateaus which extend from east Siberia to the

Asia to

one such mountain-building period occurred in south India. The first orogeny for which widespread clear evidence is known, the Caledonian, lasted from Cambrian to Devonian times. The Sayan

and Altai mountains show Caledonian structures also found partly obscured by later folds in the Verkhoyansk range. Movement probably took place over a wide area in Outer Mongolia and even in the Himalayas and Indochina. Around the Kara sea nucleus the trends run through Severnaya Zemlya, and west of the Chukchi nucleus through the New Siberian Islands (Novosibirskie Ostrova). The Variscan or Altaid orogeny spans Carboniferous to Triassic time and has a more extensive influence than did the Caledonian, a good deal of which was probably reabsorbed by the new movements. Fresh folding took place around the Kara sea nucleus, particularly on the west in Novaya Zemlya, whose structures continue in the Urals on the mainland. Hidden Variscan folds may underlie later deposits in the west Siberian plain, and represent extensions of the structures outcropping in the Kazakh uplands. These in turn are linked to fold systems encompassing the southwestern corner of Angaraland; e.g., the Altai, Tarbagatai mountains and Dzungarian Ala-Tau. Much of central Asia was molded at this time, when local nuclei of Fergana and Tarim in the west and Ordos in the east formed stable regions, later to founder as basins, around which fold mountain chains were thrown up. The east-west Astin Tagh (Altyn Tagh), Nan Ling and Tsinling ranges follow the Variscan trend, which may also be seen in parts

Continuing northward in Formosa and Japan, the mainland is reached again in Kamchatka. Severe -earthquakes have occurred in the 20th century throughout the Alpine-Himalayan belt in Asia. The greatest instability, evidenced by active vulcanicity and frequent earth tremors, is associated with the island arcs of Indonesia and the far east, where it is possible the orogenic epoch has not yet reached

its

climax.

B.

Geology and Relief

Asia presents a great variety of relief forms generally of an incomparable scale. The open ancient landscapes of the plateaus of Arabia and India merge almost imperceptibly with the youthful alluvial plains of the Tigris-Euphrates and the Indus and Ganges where the deltas of mighty rivers continually extend the land area. Above the plains rise abruptly the flanks of the youngest and most vast mountain system, which borders in its turn the high plateaus, block mountains

and basins of the "roof of the

Atlantic. To the east great spurs, between which the diligent rivers have built up the flat alluvial plains now teeming with humanity, reach toward the Pacific. For more detailed treatment of geology and relief, Asia may conveniently be divided into eight regions: (1 the Arabian massif and plains of Iraq; (2) peninsular India and the Indo-Gangetic plain; (3) the mountain belts of Turkey, Caucasia, Iran, Afghanistan; (4) the Himalayan system from Baluchistan to Burma; (5) )

central Asia; (6) the lowlands of Asiatic U.S.S.R.; (7) the Pacific borderlands; (8) the island arcs. Arabian Massif and Plains of Iraq. Pre-Cambrian rocks are

—

extensively exposed along the

Red

sea

and

in central Arabia.

From

Cambrian times onward marine strata have been laid down, Mesozoic and Tertiary being well represented. These formations, generally little disturbed, are arched and faulted west of the Jordan and slight rucking of the strata is found as the Alpine fold belt of Turkey, Iran and Oman is approached. There occur the important The dominant structural feature of oil fields of the middle east. is, however, the rift valley system of Tertiary age. to which the Red sea, Dead sea and Jordan valley belong. Vulcanicity accompanied the strong fault movements, producing the prominent lava flows that form the high ground in Yemen (up to 12,336 ft.), northern Hejaz (9.400 ft.) and southern Syria (5,938

the region

ft.).

From its high western rim the Arabian plateau slopes gently to the plains of Iraq and the undulating coastlands of the Persian Seasonal watercourses abound and many features indicate gulf.

—

ASIA

576

The Indo-Gangetic plains are remarkable for their level surface broken only by steep river bluffs. Delhi, 1,000 mi. northwest from the Ganges' mouth, is 718 ft. above sea level. Toward the Himalayan silts

give

foothills

way

clays

and

to coarse gravels

the "bhabar" country.

Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan.

—

These countries with west Baluchistan are made up of numerous fold and block mountains enclosing broad basins, often with interior drainage. The Elburz (Mt. Demavend, 18,580 ft.) and Koppeh Dagh in north Iran run east in the

^

S

~~]

Hindu Kush

of north-

west Afghanistan, while to the south lies the broader Zagros system with several peaks over 14,000 ft. and having a northwest-southeast trend through south Iran, branching into Oman and sweeping north in Baluchistan. The principal oil fields of the middle east are associated with the Zagros and its "ripple folds" against the Arabian massif. The two mountain systems enclose several MESOZOIC FOLOING

VABISCAN FOLDING

saline

basins, e.g., Seistan, Lut,

where

also recent volcanic cones

occur. CALEDONIAN FOLDING

The simplest elements of the more complicated structure of Turkey are the Pliocene volcano, Mt. Ararat (16,945 ft.), from

^"] MAIN SHIELDS AND NUCLEI

FlG.

more humid climates

of the past.

1.

— STRUCTURAL

Only the

Tigris,

HISTORY OF ASIA

Euphrates and

a few Mediterranean rivers are perennial.

Peninsular India and the Indo-Gangetic Plain.

—

times, though faulting, large-scale

movements

of the

and the outpouring of the Deccan lavas complicate its surface evolution. Over a great area the gently undulating landscape is composed of very ancient granites and gneisses above which rise abruptly occasional isolated granite hills. The larger masses of highland in the south, e.g., the Nilgiri hills (8,640 ft.), and in Ceylon appear to be due to post-Jurassic upthrust. A unique feature of India's structural evolution was the sinking of fault-bounded troughs and the accumulation therein of freshwater deposits over a period lasting from about the close of the Carboniferous to the early Cretaceous. The most important area of these Gondwana rocks, in which thick coal seams occur, lies along the Damodar valley. Apart from evidence of marine Permoearth's crust

Carboniferous limestone near Jabalpur. only the fringes of the peninsula experienced marine incursions, in Mesozoic and Tertiary time. In the northwest of the peninsula the eruption of the Deccan lavas

in the late

sq.mi. with

flat

which the Anti-Taurus and Tauand along the Mediterranean coast, and the Pontic

sea. The fringing ranges enclose sevon the Anatolian plateau, some containing bitter lakes; Around Zonguldak on the Black e.g., Lake Tuz and Lake Van. sea lies an important Carboniferous coal field and elsewhere there

mountains along the Black Stability

has characterized the geologic history of the peninsula since early

Cambrian

rus run toward

Cretaceous or early Eocene covered 200.000

basalt flows.

The Western Ghats form the plateau edge to the west and stand 4.000 to 5.000 ft. above the Arabian sea. Eastward the plateau slopes gently to broad plains in Madras. A number of rugged hill groups toward the east reach 3,000 ft. but plains and broad valleys dominate the landscape. In the northeast the more extensive Chota Nagpur plateau reaches from 2.000 to 3,500 ft. and the Shillong plateau beyond the Ganges delta represents an outlier of the peninsula block. Across the north centre of the peninsula, the Tapti and Narbada rivers and the Satpura and Vindhya ranges form an important dividing zone, north of which the southwestnortheast-trending Aravalli hills gradually become submerged beneath the recent deposits of the plains.

eral basins

chrome and manganese deposits. Modern earthquakes indicate the continuing instability of the region. The Himalayas. The influence of partly hidden extensions of the massif of southern India on the changes in direction of the The fold systems of Tertiary age has been referred to above. main 1,500-mi. chain of the Himalayas has generally five longitudinal divisions. Separating the system from the Tibetan plateau are the valleys of the upper Indus and Brahmaputra (Tsangpo), from which rise to the south the Great Himalaya with about 60 peaks over 24,000 ft., culminating in Everest (29,028 ft.). Nanga Parbat (26,660 ft.) and Namcha Barwa (25,446 ft.) mark the extremities of the range, south of which spreads a deeply dissected apron of spurs with summit levels of about 15,000 ft. The Lesser Himalaya comprise a number of ranges, sometimes over 12,000 ft., and enclose some basins, the largest being the vale of Kashmir. An abrupt descent follows to the Siwalik hills, with a maximum height of 6.345 ft., formed of coarse detritus brought down from are extensive

—

the rising Himalayas in mid-Pleistocene times.

—

Central Asia. The Tibetan plateau averages about 16,000 ft., Karakorum on the southern edge to 28,250 ft. in Mt. Godwin-Austen (K-2). Heights of over 20,000 ft. are reached in the Pamirs and the west-east-trending Tien-shan, while several basins sink to about 9.000 ft.; e.g., Tsaidam swamp in the Tsinghai province of China. The unique Turfan oasis lies 980 ft. below sea level. The range of altitude is more significant than absolute height above sea level. Many of the basins are enclosed drainage systems and those to the northeast, e.g., the Gobi desert, have suffered much wind erosion. Lowlands of Asiatic U.S.S.R. This term is strictly relative rising in the

—

ASIA as

the

region includes the low central

Siberian plateau,

below

West of the 3,000 ft., between the Lena and Yenisei valleys. Yenisei the unfolded Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits of the west Siberian plain stretch to the Urals which are conventionally regarded as in Europe. The surface is often marshy as in the Vasyugane swamps. To the southeast the Kuznetsk and Minusinsk basins, containing Paleozoic coal, form foothills to the Altai and Sayan ranges. The Kazakh uplands, averaging 1,000 ft., form the southern limit of the plain. There are a number of inland drainage basins, the climate being increasingly arid toward the Kirgiz steppe to the south,

Caspian.

which includes the open plains of Turan east of the

The Syr- and

gated cultivation. alkali desert; e.g.,

Amu

Darya

rivers provide strips of irri-

There are considerable tracts of sand, clay and Kyzyl-Kum and Kara-Kum. Oil fields are ex-

around the shores north of the Caspian. Borderlands. These include a variety of regions from east Siberia through China to Malaya. East of the Lena, the Verkhoyansk and Cherski ranges rise to 8,200 ft. Kamchatka, with active volcanoes rising to over 15.000 ft., consists of two north-south ranges enclosing a basin. The relief of the Bureya highlands and Sikhote-Alin on either side of the Amur river is below 8,000 ft. China is characterized by rejuvenated relief of fault blocks of Yen-Shanian orogeny and very young alluvial plains. Manchuria is a plain of erosion flanked by tilted blocks: the Greater Khingan, Jehol and Liaotung, the latter being cut off by the sea from the similar Shantung peninsula block. Korea is compounded of dissected plateaus and zones of mainly Mesozoic folding. The southeast China block is much faulted as is also the broad folded zone The P'o-yang and Tung-t'ing lake basins and the Hsi to its west. Chiang (or Si Kiang) valley occupy structural depressions in clays and slates. Westward two broad steps deeply dissected by valleys lead into the 6,000-ft. plateau of west Yiinnan. Its spurs enclose the Red basin of Szechwan, to the north of which the Tsinling Shan, with rugged ranges up to 13,474 ft., forms a major ploited

—

Pacific

stretching

Permian times and covered with great thicknesses of undisturbed loess and older terrestrial deposits, forms the nucleus of northwest China. Loess redistributed by rivers clogs the valleys and has been carried down the Yellow river (Huang Ho) to form the north China plain. Both Yellow river and Yangtze plains are very young; lakes and alternative channels abound, and disastrous floods have been common. The Yunnan plateau continues south of China into the Shan plateau of Burma and Indochina, deeply cut by the Salween and Mekong rivers. The highlands branch southward to enclose the deltas of the Chao Phraya or Mae Nam and Mekong. Rarely do heights exceed 10,000 ft. and in hilly Malaya the highest point is 7,186

plateau, rigid since

ft.

The Island Arcs.

— From Sumatra

Japan

lies

a belt of great

slopes.

C.

Climate

The classic theory of the monsoons much of Asia has undergone radical

as explaining the climate of

revision in the light of the

more intensive meteorological research into the dynamics of the upper atmosphere that took place during and after World War II. Among the most important factors influencing the climate of a is its

As

far as Asia

is

concerned, the planetary circulation consists

1. The circumpolar vortex of the westerlies extending into the upper layers of the atmosphere, within which lies the jet stream, generally at a height of over 30,000 ft. and sometimes several hundred miles wide. Within the jet stream the velocity of air flow is much above that of the main body of the westerlies. According to G. T. Trewartha, the jet stream has an important regenerative and guiding effect on the depressions which follow beneath it. In summer the jet stream lies over the U.S.S.R. north of the mountains of central Asia and cyclonic disturbances tend to follow tracks west to east across central Siberia bringing rain to the steppes. In winter, with the southerly shift of the circumpolar vortex, the jet stream is caused to split in two by the highlands of central Asia, one branch passing south of the Himalayas and a weaker branch fluctuating in position north of the highlands. Over central China the branches converge to flow northeastward across

Japan. 2.

Equatorward of the westerlies there lies at the surface a These are strongest over the

belt of easterlies: the trade winds.

west Pacific ocean at all seasons, but are operative only in winter over the Indian ocean. 3. Air rising over the easterlies joins the general westerly whirl of the atmosphere at high altitudes. At the surface there is also a belt of equatorial westerlies, nora countercurrent, however mally quite narrow over the sea. It has been suggested by H. Flohn that this stream of air widens in summer to produce the so-called southwest monsoon over India and southeast Asia and presses eastward to meet the west Pacific trade-wind flow over

—

China.

The climate

of Asia can in large measure be described in terms

wind systems and the cyclonic disturbances that they generate through bringing into contact air masses of contrasting character, through dynamic causes due to air flow over the irregular surface of the land and through thermal causes due to the differential heating of the surface. The details of the climate may best be treated under the following regional divisions: Asiatic U.S.S.R., southwest Asia, India-Pakistan, southeast Asia and the far east.

—

Asiatic U.S.S.R. With the exception of Transcaucasia, the Soviet Union's "greenhouse" sheltering south of the Caucasus, the whole of the U.S.S.R. lies exposed to influences from north and west.

The

lack of mountain barriers in this vast area stamps its common traits: cold winters, warm to hot

climate with certain

summers and low to

In Indonesia the evidence of volcanic chains, double island festoons and anomalous gravity values has been taken to indicate that orogeny is there in its infancy. A Mesozoic block including Malaya and west Borneo has probably been a buffer to Tertiary folding, and the Tertiary deposits include petroleum. The highest peaks are usually volcanic cones of which Java has several over 10,000 ft. In Japan faulting rather than folding is combined with vulcanicity. An outer, eastern rugged mountain zone on older folded strata cut by faults is distinguished from an inner western zone of younger block faulting and active vulcanicity. A deep rift in which rises the cone of Fujiyama (12,388 ft.) cuts across central Honshu. Plains of young alluvium, flanked by older gravels, occupy a relatively small area in this land of steep instability.

place

the configuration of the land surface. of three elements:

of these three

divide across China.

The Ordos

577

upon which the distribution of high mountains and of land and sea masses has an effect. Local factors also have their effect, such as distance from and altitude above the sea and of the atmosphere,

position in relation to the general planetary circulation

rainfall.

Siberian winters are notoriously cold and the lowest temperatures recorded in the northern hemisphere are almost invariably to be found there. The Siberian high-pressure system engenders calm, sunny weather as a rule and rarely can depressions break through bringing dreaded blizzards. Only the southern Caspian and Black sea coasts have

January means above freezing.

Summer

follows

winter with amazing rapidity. The Arctic ocean and large lakes tend to reduce temperatures locally, but south of the Arctic circle July means are over 60° F. and Verkhoyansk's record is 93°. In the central Asia republics July means of over 80° F. are found.

Only Transcaucasia, the middle Amur basin and Kamchatka have more than 20 in. of precipitation. Large areas in the central Asia republics and toward the Arctic circle receive less than 10 in., leaving a belt tapering eastward from the Urals with 10-20 in. Rainfall is generally concentrated in the summer months when frequent shallow depressions pass eastward across the steppes. Transcaucasia has rain at all seasons, while the fringe of the cenIn the far tral Asian highlands receives most rain in winter. eastern region a slight monsoonal effect brings late

summer

rain

and polar frontal depressions pass parallel to the coast. In neither There and case, however, does precipitation extend far inland. on the Arctic coasts summer fog is prevalent.

ASIA

578 Southwest Asia.

— Despite the penetration of the Red sea and

the Persian gulf, aridity is the keynote of this area, which lies between the Mediterranean and West Pakistan and south of the Most of what little rainfall the region receives is U.S.S.R.

brought by westerly depressions moving in winter under the jet stream from the Mediterranean toward India. The summer is dry except in the areas bordering the Black sea, which enjoy convectional storms, and in the southern tip of the Arabian peninsula, which is high enough to extract some moisture from the monsoon air stream flowing toward India. Temperature contrasts are very great. In winter the plateaus become extremely cold and there is widespread snow. Kabul has a January mean of 31° F., Tehran 34° and Ankara 28°. and the mean minima indicate even better the severity of winter: Tehran 26 Everywhere, except perhaps on the Ankara 17°, Mosul 32 southern Arabian coasts, temperatures may vary rapidly from day to day with the passage of depressions, in the advance of which warm air is drawn northward from the southern deserts, raising temperatures as much as 40 to be followed by an equally sudden Only the fall brought by cold northwesterly blasts in the rear. coastlands of the Mediterranean (Beirut, January mean minimum 50° F.), the Persian gulf, Makran and, above all, the southern fringes of Arabia (Aden, January mean minimum 73 ° F.) can claim really mild winters. Summer is everywhere very hot, tempered in the north by altitude (though by day enclosed mountain basins may be ovenlike) and elsewhere by winds, which though often dust laden help to make high temperatures bearable. Almost the whole of the region apart from Turkey and western Iran has daily maxima exceeding 100° F. in July. The slightly lower temperatures of coastal areas, e.g., the Persian gulf and Aden, are much more uncomfortable because of the higher relative humidity. ,

.

,

—

India-Pakistan. The seasonal rhythm of climate in the subcontinent is apparently linked to the alternating dominance of the winter jet stream and the equatorial westerlies. The northeast trade winds are a minor factor in winter. Depressions, some probably of Mediterranean origin, traveling along and developing in the zone of convergence beneath the jet stream, bring vital winter rain-

northwestern districts. South of the jet stream subsiding from aloft maintains winter drought over central India. The removal of the jet stream to north of the Himalayas in summer seems an essential precondition to the sudden inflow of moist equatorial air from the southwest, which brings heavy rainfall to the Western Ghats (Mahabaleshwar 261 in.), Bengal and Assam (Cherrapunji 428 in.) and the eastern Himalayas (Darjeeling 123 in.). Precipitation diminishes in the rain shadow of the Ghats (Bijapur 20 in.) and up the Ganges valley, becoming negligible In the in the Thar desert and farther west (Jacobabad 4 in.). northeast the main period of the rains is preceded by increasingly frequent storms from March onward. It is a popular misconception that the monsoon rains fall continuously for weeks. Rather fall to

air

they come with marked periodicity, rainless episodes of increasing length occurring as the season progresses and the distance from the sea increases. A notable feature of the rainfall is its variability from year to year, this being most pronounced in areas of low average precipitation. With the reappearance of the jet stream south of the Himalayas in the autumn, rain-bearing air masses can no longer penetrate from the south and the dry season begins. Southeastern India, however, and northern Ceylon experience their season of maximum rainfall from October to December as the equatorial air masses retreat south, giving way to northeast trades over the Bay of Bengal. Tropical cyclones add to the autumn precipitation. Temperature conditions emphasize the vast extent of the subcontinent and one can refer to a "continental" northwest and a "tropical" peninsular India. In the plains of the Punjab several slight frosts may be experienced each cold season, .though day temperatures may rise into the 70s. The hot season brings excessively high temperatures to the same region, with mean June maxima over 110° F. in places. The arrival of the rains brings

by day. though night temperatures may remain

welcome

relief

the 80s.

The annual and

daily range of temperature

is

much

in

less in

the lower Ganges valley and the peninsula. In the far south Trivandrum has a yearly range of 5° F. compared with 20 at Calcutta and 40 at Lahore, and a daily range of only 12° in January, cf. Lahore 29 Southeast Asia. This area includes the broad peninsula lying between India and China, tapering southward into Malaya and the Indonesian archipelago. Except in the interior of the mainland, maritime and equatorial influences are all-important. Tempera.

—

mean of about 8o° F. in the The annual range increases northward: Singapore 3 Mandalay 20 Air flow across the equator alter-

tures at sea level maintain a daily

archipelago.

,

Rangoon

10°,

.

nates seasonally and rainfall regimes depend largely on aspect. Thus the coastal uplands of Vietnam lie across the path of the west Pacific trades in winter and with the northern flanks of the islands receive rain at this period. The equatorial westerlies of summer

impinge most strongly on Burma, Thailand, South Vietnam and the south coasts of the islands. The Philippines and Vietnam also have much rain from late summer typhoons. Between the seasons of fairly constant air flow, Malaya and Indonesia are in the doldrums and calm thundery weather predominates. Much of the archipelago and Malaya have rain at all seasons but

on either side of the equator occur dry seasons characteristic of monsoon climates. From east Java to Timor the islands have a dry season during the southern winter. Northern Malaya has one month dry and the period lengthens northward: Akyab (Burma) has four months with under 2 in. in a total of 203 in. The dry season is accentuated in the "dry belts" of Korat (Thailand) and central Burma, where Mandalay, total 33 in., has only 0.8 in. between December and March. The Far East. China north of the Tsinling Shan has a severely continental climate, characterized by extremes of temperature and low rainfall. Central and south China and Japan by contrast have a humid temperate to subtropical climate. In winter the difference between these two major divisions is greatest; e.g., January mean temperatures: Mukden 9° F., Peking 23 Tokyo c 37°, Hong Kong 6o The southern branch of the jet stream in the westerlies is joined by the weaker northern branch over central China, and depressions intensify there and during their passage northwestward across the China sea and the Japanese islands. Some develop dynamically as passing lee depressions in air sweep across the Tsinling Shan from the high-pressure centre of northeastern Asia. The depressions draw moist air into central China and bring rain, while the north remains dry because of its outflowing air streams. Japan's winter rain and snow are heaviest on the west which is exposed to cold blasts from the mainland. In summer China becomes the meeting ground of the equatorial westerlies and the trade winds. As in India, the removal northward of the southern branch of the jet stream is the signal for

—

,

.

the beginning of the early

summer

baiu rains.

Precipitation,

heavy over south and central China (from 40 in. to more than 60 in. annually), decreases northward to less than 10 in. in the bend of the Yellow river. The coasts of southern China and southern Japan may suffer destructive typhoons from June to November. Because of its maritime position Japan has over 60 in. of rainfall except in the north. Unlike winter, summer temperatures are remarkably similar throughout the far east; e.g., July means: Mukden 76° F., Peking 78°, Tokyo 78°, Hong Kong 82 .

Bibliography.— J. H. F. Umbgrove, The Pulse of the Earth, trans, by D. N. Wadia, The Geology of India, J. L. van Houten, 2nd ed. (1947) 3rd ed. (1953) Ssu-kuang Li, The Geology of China (1939) O. H. K. Spate, India and Pakistan (1954); E. H. G. Dobby, Southeast Asia (1950) J. E. Spencer, Asia East by South (1954) G. B. Cressey, Land of the ;oo Million: a Geography of China (1955) G. T. Trewartha, An ;

;

;

;

;

;

Introduction to Climate, 3rd ed. (1954), "Climate as Related to the Jet (B. L. C. J.) in the Orient," Erdkunde (1958).

Stream

D. Vegetation which determine the vegetation of much of Asia are the monsoon winds and the lofty mountains which intercept them. The seasonal alternation of the monsoons in the south and east causes an alternation of wet and dry seasons. In these regions there has developed a vegetation composed of plants which

Two major

factors

can reduce their activities during the dry season.

This condition

ASIA where there

an alternation of warm The central and southwestern or temperate and cold seasons. portions of Asia for the most part can support only desert or steppe communities, because the surrounding mountains and the great distances from the seas prevent moisture-laden winds from parallels that in the north,

is

These general conditions are greatly altered various parts of the continent because of local conditions and so give rise to a great diversity in the vegetation of Asia. The flora of northern Asia is essentially similar to that of reaching these areas.

in

northern Europe and

many

deed,

is

composed

largely of the

same genera.

species are circumpolar in their distribution.

In-

Some

Mediterranean genera extend eastward across northern Asia Minor and on to the Himalayas, and a few elements reach as far as China. The deserts of interior Asia are continuations of the desert areas of Africa and Arabia with much the same types of plants; many of the genera are found throughout. The vegetation changes somewhat toward central Asia in accordance with the change of climate from the hot and dry conditions of the southwest to the alternate extremes of hot summers with cold nights and cold winters at the high altitudes and latitudes of Tibet. Chinese Turkistan and Mongolia. These deserts lack such distinctive plants as the succulent cacti of the new world and the peculiar euphorbias which are characteristic of the drier parts of Africa.

Temperate and subtropical eastern Asia has the richest flora of any similarly located region of the world. Although the region controlled by the alternating monsoons, great floral diversity

579

Southern and southwestern Asia has a rich tropical flora reflecting the generally abundant summer rains and mild to hot climate.

The vegetation

of India

is

composed of somewhat

different floral

elements from that in Indochina, the Malay peninsula and the archipelago. They are differentiated as the Indian and the Indo-Malayan floras respectively. Especially in the southeastern part of the Malay archipelago there are many representatives of the distinctive Australian flora. Northern Asia. The combination of low humidity and severe

Malay

—

winters along the arctic margin of the continent results in a scanty low vegetation known as tundra. The vegetation of the plateau region beginning east of the Yenisei river and reaching to the Stanovoi mountains forms the great tundras of Siberia, composed of low, flowering plants, such as sedges, dwarf birches and willows, with numerous mosses and lichens. The area is better drained and the winters are even more severe than they are toward the west. Forests of small trees occur in the lower and more sheltered parts with the tundra stretching southward on the ridges. Farther south occur distinctive forests or taigas, often swampy, which extend to the coniferous forests and meadows of the Siberian highlands in the general vicinity of

Lake

Baikal.

South of the swampy forests and meadows of northwestern Asia

They are best likened to the Great Plains of the western United States and extend as similar formations into European Russia. They gradually give way toare found the grassy steppes of Siberia.

ward the south

to the desert formations of Turkistan.

Eastward

is

the steppes extend far into Dzungaria and across northern

from variations in the configuration of the land and its range from the uniformly hot climate of the tropical zone northward into latitudes where severe winters prevail. This flora has many elements in common with the Himalayan and Indo-Malayan floras and shows striking relationships with the flora of eastern North America. There are also many genera and even families

golia,

results

which are unique to

this area.

ascending the highlands of Siberia.

longer and

Mon-

There the grass grows

makes better pasturage. Northeastern Asia. In this area high mountains intercept some of the most severe northern winds and allow the better saturated winds from the Pacific to exert a more benign influence on the climate. Hence a more luxuriant flora of a cold-temperature nature is found. It is composed largely of the same genera as occur in Europe and northern North America. Below lichen moors on the edge of the northern

—

plateau in the Okhotsk region are dwarfed forests of hardy northern trees with coniferous forests at the lower levels. Tundra outliers are evident along the coast, but the deciduous forests of farther south are lacking. In Amur and the maritime provinces of Kamchatka, Sakhalin and Hokkaido extensive deciduous broadleaved forests may be found interspersed with coniferous forests, especially at higher altitudes.

Throughout the area are

distinc-

north temperate meadows with a varied flora, especially noteworthy being tall umbellifers. Eastern Asia. This region tive

—

W\

2 B f "3 |

vl

extends from Manchuria to Indochina and from the edge of the Tibetan plateau to the Japanese islands. The temperate deciduous forests of farther north reach down to the Shantung plain and give way toward the west to the desert vegetation of Mongolia. Oak. elm, ash, walnut and many other trees are found. Some hardy bamboos survive in Korea. Mongolia is the eastern end of the central Asiatic desert region and owes its dry condition to the ina-

TUNDRA CONIFEROUS FORESTS STEPPE. SEMISTEPPE. SEMIDESERT OR SCRUB

DESERT

DECIDUOUS FORESTS

MEDITERRANEAN HARDWOOD TROPICAL MONSOON AND RAIN FORESTS

FIG.

2.

— MAJOR VEGETATION

REGIONS OF ASIA

bility of the summer monsoons to penetrate far inland because of the mountain chains that fringe

,

5

ASIA

8o

southern and eastern borders. The better, though by no means abundant, vegetation of the loess region, which lies below the Yellow river and north of the mountain ranges extending east from Tibet, is the result not primarily of greater precipitation, but of the greater water-holding capacity of this richer and finer soil. Central China, comprising largely the Yangtze valley and including most of the Yunnan plateau, contains much of the rich and distinctive warm temperate flora which characterizes eastern Asia. A similar type of flora is also found in central Japan. This central China area is cut off by mountains from the severe northern influences and is bathed by summer monsoons from the China sea. The irregular weather of the northern part frequently results in droughts which profoundly affect the vegetation and the conditions of human life. The southern portion of this middle area contains a larger proportion of more southern plant forms, such as broadwhich are absent in laurels and banyans leaved evergreen trees the north. Members of preponderantly tropical families such as the tea (Theaceae) and mahogany (Meliaceae) are also found. The natural vegetation throughout much of China has been highly altered during centuries of human exploitation by a dense population. In the west, bordering the high interior plateau, remain unexploited forests, passing from temperate deciduous trees upward through various zones of coniferous forests to dense rhododendron thickets below rich alpine meadows with primulas, poppies, asters, Living trees of the dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroetc. boides), previously known only by fossil specimens, were discovered in 1945 in a few moist valleys of central China. The subtropical vegetation of southern China extends northward along the its

—

—

shore of the China sea east of the coastal mountain range as far as Chekiang province, and on to Formosa and southern Japan. Ap-

parently

much

of the lower land once supported tropical or sub-

which may still be found on Hainan. exist largely bare deforested and grass-covered hills with at best a meagre secondary type of savanna forest. Southeastern Asia. The continental portions of this region tropical evergreen rain forests,

There now

—

have a tropical climate and are wholly monsoon controlled. The monsoon type of tropical deciduous forest is found at its best at medium altitudes. Teak is one of the principal components and Dipterocarpaceae (q.v.; a family of timber- and resin-yielding trees) abound. These forests are limited below by evergreen lowland forests which result from a greater soil saturation, and at higher altitudes by evergreen rain forests. The mountain ranges that intervene between the great rivers which diverge from the narrow gorges of western Yunnan cause diverse conditions. The Malay peninsula is covered with dense tropical rain-forest jungles, reflecting the higher humidity and greatly lessened influences of the dry monsoons. There the vegetation is composed very largely of wholly tropical genera and families. Especially noteworthy are palms, rattans and tropical orchids and members of the Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Annonaceae, Melastomataceae and Moraceae (qq.v.). The Malay archipelago and the Philippine Islands have a fairly homogeneous tropical flora diversified by altitudinal changes in climate with generally drier types of vegetation on the sheltered sides of the islands, which are more or less monsoon controlled. Certain mountain ranges extend above the tree limit and show a floristic similarity to the eastern Himalayan region. There is a generally decreasing humidity with less luxuriance of vegetation eastward from western Java. Southern Asia. High-mountain and temperate floras predominate in the Himalayas beyond the maximum influence of the monsoons. In this area are found forests of oak, characteristic conifers, rhododendrons and rich mountain meadows, extensions of the vegetation of far western China but with significantly different In the eastern Himalayas and Assam occur some of the species. heaviest rains and densest evergreen rain forests in the world. The

—

vegetation varies with increasing altitude, beginning at the coast with rich swampy jungles and ending in mountain meadows and shrubby stony slopes around 16,000 ft. In a large part of India the more or less prolonged dry season results in a tropical deciduous savanna (parklike) type of forest, of which teak and Shorea robusta are prominent members. The vegetation in many parts of India is as highly altered by exploitation as it is in central China.

Its original

character can only be surmised.

Peninsular India has

a dry interior plateau with a semidesert type of flora

rich in

thorny trees and shrubs, especially acacias. More luxuriant forms of vegetation occur in the dissecting valleys, where water is more abundant. There the sandalwood tree is at home, although it was probably introduced long ago from the Malay islands. The Malabar coast, a very humid strip backed by the highest mountains (8,800 ft.) south of the Himalayan chain, contains evergreen rain forests with genera and families of plants scarcely represented elsewhere but with some elements in common with the Malayan region.

Much

of the east coast of the

Deccan peninsula has

a

semievergreen flora with a considerable proportion of thorny speThe estuaries on both coasts, as well as on the other shores cies.

Bay of Bengal, have extensive mangrove swamps. Ceylon should naturally be covered with forests, but there are extensive areas of savannas, grasslands and fernlands of secondary origin. The western Himalayan flora is less rich than the eastern and lacks many of the tropical and certain of the temperate genera found in the latter. It includes, however, some European genera, principally representatives of the Mediterranean flora. Thus the deodar (a cedar) is found there, but larch, common in of the

now

is lacking. The plain of the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent is dry and desertlike, with a corresponding flora. It is, indeed, only an arm of the great arid region of southwestern Asia. Its dryness is mitigated by extensive irrigation from the snow-fed Indus river. South-western Asia. Most of this area from Asia Minor and

the east,

—

Arabia to the western margin of Tibet and the Kirgiz steppes is desert or steppe, except where the mountain ranges are high enough to intercept the more northerly winds and rob them of their meagre moisture. Where the larger rivers, such as the Tigris and Euphrates, traverse broad valleys the desert can be made to grow productive crops. The flora of Arabia is poor in the number of species, and plant communities consist of large numbers of plants of only two or three species. They are strikingly pale green, gray or even whitish. The Mediterranean flora of characteristic gray-green aspect, such as the olive and evergreen oak, stretches eastward from the shores of /Asia Minor, especially along the well- watered northern slopes of the Black sea and on across northern Iran and the southern Caspian coast to Afghanistan and the western Himalayas. The mountains likewise bear coniferous forests of distinctive species. Northern Iran is a better watered region where deciduous forests occur, as in Europe, but they are composed of a larger number of species. An extensive growth of box scrub is found at higher altitudes in certain places.

The

chief characteristic of the Iranian

preponderance of thorny and prickly plants, of which more than 500 species have been counted, various kinds of Astragalus being among the most noteworthy. The sand wastes and salt flora is the

tracts in the desert plains support characteristic vegetation, as

tamarisk bushes, saltbush and wire grass. Date palms, however, occur in the oases. The flora of Russian Turkistan reflects the cold desert conditions which prevail in this plain, cut off by high mountains on

One of the principal desert plants is the saxaul of the Chenopodiaceae, a family especially well represented Vegetation sufficient to vegetation in the desert of inner Asia. the east and south.

human life is confined to the vicinity of the two rivers which flow from the mountains into the Aral sea and to the strips along the mountains where irrigation has permitted the growth of cities and centres of culture. In the mountainous highlands of Russian Turkistan occur coniferous forests of an open parklike character, bordered above and below by grassy meadows. Flocks come there when the heat of summer dries up the pastures lower down. Central Asia. The vegetation of this high and dry plateau, which is divided by mountain chains into several basins, is very meagre. The great height of the plateau and its northern location result in extremes of daily and seasonal temperature, so that the plants which survive are of the hardiest types. The vegetation is arranged roughly in concentric zones about the most sterile sandy wastes and salt tracts. Extensive swamps occur, backed by bettersupport

—

ASIA The streams

drained grasslands and thin scrub formations. Often bordered by willows, poplars and elms.

are

Eastern Tibet

is

Toward the northern side of this plateau the vegetation is composed of more northern elements, but in the south there are more genera and species related to the Himalayan partly grassland.

Characteristic mountain forests are found where the mountains converge toward the west. flora.

E.

in

the Pamirs,

(W.

B. T.)

Animal Life

obvious that the animal life (faunae of a large continent such as Asia, ranging from inside the Arctic circle in the north to well into the tropics in the south, and from the arid Arabian regions in the west to the rain forests of the Malay archipelago in the If climate were the only factor coneast, must be very diverse. trolling the distribution of animals, a gradual change of the fauna from north to south would be expected. However, the Himalayas, stretching from west to east, form a barrier which prevents many It is

northern animals from dispersing southward as well as many southern animals from extending their range northward. The part of Asia north of the Himalayas, Iran, Asia Minor and Israel belong to what is called in zoogeography the Palearctic region. This region includes the whole of Europe and the Mediterranean countries of Africa. Asia south of the Himalayas is called the Oriental or Indian region. The boundary between the Palearctic and the Oriental regions east of the Himalayas is not well marked, as there the mountain chains often have a north-south trend, facilitating instead of preventing the migration of the Pale-

fauna southward and of the Oriental fauna northward. Palearctic Region. The Palearctic fauna of Asia is by no means uniform. Distinction can be made between a tundra fauna in the north, followed southward by that of the taiga, the belt of coniferous forests bordering the tundra to the south, which again merges into the steppes with a fauna of their own. In the tundra the deeper soil remains frozen the whole year round, hence burrowing animals cannot live there and, as the tundra is partly free from snow only during the short summer, conditions for life are poor. Most of the animals, such as reindeer, arctic hare, arctic fox and wolf, occupy this region in summer only and migrate southward in autumn, but the lemmings stay there and remain active under Hibernation, as is the the snow, feeding on the buried herbage. rule for many animals in countries with a cold winter, is impossible in the tundra, for the short summer does not allow the necessary accumulation of food reserve in the body. Birds also desert the tundra in winter but here too there is an exception the willow grouse and the ptarmigan live in tunnels in the snow, feeding on berries. During the summer birds are numerous. Many species of waders which in Europe are known as migrants only, such as the gray plover, sanderling, knot and several kinds of sandpipers, breed there, feeding principally on the mosquitoes which occur in the wet parts of the tundra in enormous numbers. These insects also form the staple food of the passerine birds that breed in the tundra, such as the snow bunting and the Lapland bunting. Peregrine falcons, rough-legged buzzards and skuas prey on these smaller birds, but principally on lemmings. Several kinds of geese and ducks, arctic tern and black-throated and red-throated divers occupy the moist parts of the tundra. The taiga fauna is much richer than that of the tundra. This is the haunt of the brown bear, wolf, glutton, otter, ermine, sable, lynx, elk, forest reindeer, hare and several kinds of squirrels. arctic

—

—

Among

birds, capercaillie, black grouse, hazel hen, black

pecker, greater

and

lesser spotted

wood-

woodpeckers, three-toed wood-

pecker, pine grosbeak, crossbill, siskin, redpoll, red-spotted bluethroat, rubythroat, redwing, fieldfare, nutcracker, Siberian jay

many

occur the terek sandpiper, oyster catcher, green and pipers

The

and

others inhabit these forests, and where marshes and pools

and several other waders

may

wood

sand-

be found.

rivers of northern Asia are inhabited

by many

fresh-water

which are common in European inland w aters and, besides, by several kinds of sturgeons, among them the sterlet. Lake fishes

Baikal has a peculiar fauna, including

:

many

native species of

worms and crustaceans and a native species of seal. The fauna of the steppes differs as much from that of the taiga

sponges,

581

There many burrowing rodents occur such jumping mice or jerboas, marmots and piping hares (Oehotona 1.

as that of the tundra. as

The

large grassy plains are the home of antelopes. Typical birds are the bustards, quails, sand grouse and the red-legged hobby, Hoopoes and rollers are common locally, and where the banks of rivers offer convenient nesting grounds, bee eaters

and the com-

martin may be found. Enormous reed beds lie along the courses of the great rivers, and these are inhabited by waterfowl of many kinds, and also by a locust. Certain conditions give rise to a migratory phase in these locusts when they swarm out in

mon sand

numbers and start The mountains and the plateau

incredibly large

their devastation of crops.

to the north of the Himalayas have a mountain fauna which partly reaches the Himalayas proper. Many kinds of wild sheep and goats live there. Tibet is the home

of the yak. The eastern part of the Palearctic region Manchuria and eastern China has several peculiar kinds of deer. The giant panda inhabits parts of China bordering Tibet; the lesser panda is a Himalayan animal. From the wastelands of the higher Himalayas came many legendary accounts of the "abominable snowman"

—

—

(q.v.y.

The large rivers of China have a rich fish fauna among which Psephurus gladius from the Yangtze and Yellow rivers is of interest, as it is one of the two survivors of an otherwise extinct family, the other being the paddlensh (Polyodon spat hula) of North America. Another fresh-water animal, its nearest relative living in North America, is the giant salamander (Megalobatrachus) from Chinese and Japanese waters. The Japanese fauna has many species identical with or closely allied to continental Palearctic species, but also peculiar species,

such as a monkey allied to the Gibraltar monkey and a mountain goat allied to the serous (Capricornis) from the Himalayas and western China. The fauna of Asia Minor (q.v.) is much like that of other Mediterranean countries but Israel, Syria and Arabia have an African element in their fauna, such as a species of coney (Procavia) and, in

Lake Tiberias and the Dead

sea,

fishes

of the

African genus Tilapia.

Oriental Region.

— For

its

greater part the Oriental region

is

The northwestern part is dry and where the fauna is poor. The northern part,

situated inside the tropics.

partly even desert,

south of the Himalayas, has dry, cool winters and very hot. wet summers. In the southern part of the Indian peninsula and in the southeastern peninsula (Thailand, Indochina and Malaya) and in the Malay archipelago the temperature is nearly constant, seldom rising above 30 C. (86° F.). These are the regions where tropical rain

forests prevail.

Monkeys

are

common, but apes

are found only in the rain forests, being represented by gibbons in Assam, Burma, the southeastern peninsula and the Greater

Sunda Islands, whereas the orangutan is restricted to Sumatra and Borneo. Among carnivores the lion is now confined to the Gir forest of the Kathiawar peninsula, where it is protected. The It tiger ranges from the Himalayas to Sumatra, Java and Bali. Panthers range all over is absent from Borneo and from Ceylon. the Oriental region, but have never been found in Sumatra. Civets and mongooses are numerous; the latter do not extend their range so far to the southeast as the former, some species of which even inhabit the Moluccas.

Among

badgers the ratel (Melivora) lives but its range goes as far

in the hilly districts of peninsular India

westward as Israel. Jackals are plentiful in India; the striped hyena is confined to drier parts. Both are absent from the eastFlying and ordinary squirrels ern part of the Oriental region. are common in forests and woodland. The gaur (Bibos gaurus is an inhabitant of the larger hill forests of India and Burma, the banteng (Bibos banteng) lives in the lighter forests of Burma and south to Borneo and Java, but it is absent from Sumatra. The most common antelope is the black buck which may be found in bushes and cultivated plains all over India, except the Malabar coast. The nilgai (Boselapkus tragocamelus) and the four-horned chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis) occupy the hilly regions south of the Himalayas. There are several species of deer in the Oriental region. The musk deer lives in the pine zone of Kashmir, I

ASIA

5«2

Nepal and Sikkim; the sambar deer and its allies are distributed practically over the whole of the region; the barking deer also has a wide distribution, ranging northward into China. Typical beasts are the chevrotains (Tragulus) and wild boars are widely distributed. The Indian one-horned rhinoceros is at present confined to Nepal and Assam; the Javanese rhinoceros, too, formerly had a wider distribution but its range is now restricted to Malaya, southern Sumatra and western Java, and the two-horned rhinoceros ranges from Burma to Sumatra and Borneo. The Indian tapir is an inhabitant of dense forests in southern Tenasserim. Malaya and Sumatra. The Indian elephant can be found in suitable places throughout the Oriental region, including Ceylon and Sumatra.

but one species are

numerous

sell's

viper.

abundant.

found

is

too,

in

peninsular India and Ceylon. Snakes the poisonous krait, cobra and Rus-

among them

Frogs and toads belonging to several families are tree frogs (Hylidae) are absent, but some species

True

of other families have taken to an arboreal

The

mode

of

life.

fresh-water fish fauna of the Oriental region

is

rich.

The

carp and catfish families have many native genera and species. The labyrinth fishes, to which the climbing perch and the gurami belong, and the spiny eels (Mastacembelidae) are characteristic of

although a few species live in Africa. Insects, arachnoids, mollusks and other invertebrates inhabit this region in great numbers. The large and gorgeous bird-winged this fauna,

Scaly anteaters or pangolins are characteristic, but occur also in

butterflies (Ornithoptera, Troides), allied to the well-represented

Africa.

swallowtails, are typical, although they occur in the Australian region as well. Almost all known families of scorpions are present.

Among

the

many

birds which inhabit the Oriental region,

game

The Indian peacock

birds play an important part.

is met throughout India, whereas another one is restricted to Java. Numerous species of pheasants live in the forests of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Malaya, Sumatra and Borneo. Jungle fowl are found only in the Oriental region. Pigeons occur in great variety, but the number of species of parrots is small as compared with that of other tropical regions; the most conspicuous one in India is the rose-ringed parakeet, replaced to the east by the moustache para-

Water kingfishers as well as wood kingfishers are represented by many species. Hornbills, although not restricted to the Oriental region, show their greatest development there. The Indian hoopoe is rather common in India but is only met as a migrakeet.

tory bird in the southeastern part of the Oriental region. Among cuckoos the brain-fever bird is well known. Eagles, ospreys, falcons, hawks, kites and buzzards all occur, and in the western part vultures are numerous and can be found even in towns. The forests are inhabited

by many species of woodpeckers.

The

bar-

bets are characteristic, the best-known being the coppersmith bird.

Bee eaters and rollers are common can be found as far as the Malay archipelago and beyond, rollers are absent from the southeastern

in India,

but whereas the former

Among

land shells the absence of Helicidae, common in the Paleis noteworthy. Their place is taken by other forms,

arctic region,

such as Hemiplecta, and by operculate land mollusks. (L. F. II.

some of

the driest as well as the wettest regions of the

world, the coldest as well as the hottest, and embracing rocks of every age and type, Asia has natural resources which are under-

standably varied. Its soils include the alluvium of the teeming rice-growing deltas of the monsoon lands, the arid expanses of southwest Asia and West Pakistan where snow-fed rivers enable the desert to bloom, and the fertile black earths of the Russian steppes. In mineral resources Asia holds an enviable position. Reserves of almost every important mineral occur and much of its wealth has yet to be surveyed and developed. For convenience Asia can be divided into six major regions, each having some degree of homogeneity whether of culture, po-

The

passerine birds are too numerous

survey at length. The house crow, the Indian grackle and the to

common mynah

are familiar birds

Drongos, flycatchers, orioles and many others are widely distributed and broadbills (Eurylaimiin

India.

bulbuls,

dae)

tailorbirds,

are

typical

Many

birds.

passerines, such as swallows, pip-

and wagtails, have both resident and migratory species and the same can be said of many plovers, gulls, terns, ducks, storks and herons. Among the last its

named

mon

the cattle egret

is

a

com-

bird in suitable localities

all

over the Oriental region, whereas spoonbills,

cranes and gulls are

confined to the western part. Of the crocodiles the gavial

is MANUFACTURINl, BK.ION',

restricted to the large rivers of

PLANTATIONS

northern India, a species of an allied genus is found in Sumatra

MAINLY RICt FARMING

and Borneo and the mugger and the estuarine crocodile have a wider distribution.

Fresh-water

and land tortoises are well represented. Lizards are numerous, including geckos, skinks and monitors, and flying lizards (Draco) are typical of the region. Chameleons are chiefly African. turtles

IRRIGATION |

j||

SHIFTING AGRICULTURE

~^\ COMMERCIAL FARMING. MAINLY WHEAT

Fig.

B.)

Stretching from near the north pole to south of the equator, possessing

part of the Oriental region but

reappear again in Celebes.

De

NATURAL RESOURCES

-PRINCIPAL LAND-USE REGIONS OF ASIA

ASIA regime or state of economic development. These regions are: Asiatic U.S.S.R.; southwest Asia (including Afghanistan); India-Pakistan; southeast Asia with Indonesia and the Philippines; (Inn, including Tibet and the inner provinces and Formosa with Mongolia; and Japan and Korea. It should be noted that information regarding resources in the U.S.S.R. and China comes mainly from government sources and can rarely be checked inlitical

i

>

(

dependently.

—

Asiatic U.S.S.R. The great size and climatic variety of this region are reflected in the range of soil types. Tundra soils, peaty and overlying a frozen subsoil, occur along the Antic coast and more extensively east of Lake Baikal. Podsols are developed over great areas in Siberia, often sandy and marshy in the west Siberian lowland, sometimes stony on the central Siberian plateau. Some podsols lie on permanently frozen subsoil in northeast Siberia. Gray podsolic forest-steppe soils mark the southern limit of the podsols and the beginning of the unleached pedalfer soils in the chernozem (black-earth) belt which extends in a narrowing zone from the southern Urals east to the Ob river and then in isolated patches close to the southern frontier of the U.S.S.R. These are important agriculturally; e.g., Minusinsk steppe and areas in the

widespread

towns along the Trans-Siberian railway Textile industries are concentrated in the latter area and in Transcaucasia but are also found in the Kuznetsk basin, Irkutsk and in other large towns. Of all the countries of Asia the U.S.S.R. probably has the greatest area of productive forest, almost all of it coniferous softwood. The taiga forest stretches across the whole of Siberia, flanked by the steppe grasslands to the south and by the bleak tundra strip to the north. Forest exploitation is mainly along the Trans-Siberian railway and navigable rivers accessible to it or, like the Yenisei, penetrable from the Arctic sea during the brief summer. Lumbering is important also in the far eastern region in

neering

and

in

is

in

Soviet central Asia.

the vicinity of Vladivostok. Agriculturally, as industrially, Soviet Asia colonial territory still

compared with

contains virgin land suitable for development.

where the growing season

Cultivation

is

wealth of the Urals is held to be conventionally in Europe. The Soviet Union's principal source of uranium is in central Asia at Tuya-Muyun. Iron ore is mined in the Kuznetsk region and at

Khabarovsk, both areas supporting iron and steel production. Of the ferroalloys, manganese is found in the Kuznetsk basin and in Kazakhstan, which also has large chrome deposits, cobalt and molybdenum; the latter occurs in several localities east of Lake Baikal. Tungsten is mined in southern Siberia, vanadium in the Kirghiz A.S.S.R. Nonferrous metals are widely distributed and few are unrepresented. Kounradski on Lake Balkash is a major copper producer and there are half a dozen other mines in Kazakhstan, central Asia and west Siberia. Tin is found near Chita, east Siberia. The Kuznetsk basin has the Union's main lead-zinc ore complex and more is mined in Kazakhstan and in the far eastern region.

Nickel

Aluminum minerals

is

mined

at Norilsk within the Arctic

Akmolinsk (Kazakhstan) The Lena valley is probably among the world's chief sources of gold. Other minerals worthy of note are mica, asbestos, mercury, beryllium and silver. With such a plethora of resources, it is not surprising that industry has developed rapidly at a number of centres, especially under the stimulus of wartime necessity when much of the U.S.S.R.'s European industry in the Donets basin (Donbas) and elsewhere circle.

and

in the

Kuznetsk basin.

are found at

The

black-

earth belt, especially the Barnaul steppe, is one of the Soviet's Wheat, rye and oats (the latter notably in

east Siberia

)

something of a

surplus grain areas.

increas-

With

ing aridity the

is

European counterpart and

its

chernozem gives way southward to chestnut soils in the Kirgiz steppe and then to brown desert-steppe soils with extensive tracts of sandy desert. On the Caspian coast are areas of In Transcaucasia there salt marsh and solonchak (saline soils). are dark brown podsols developed under moister conditions and a small patch of subtropical red-yellow earths on the Black sea coast. Water resources for irrigation are of particular importance along Rivers the Syr- and Amu Darya rivers in Soviet central Asia. have been harnessed for hydroelectric power at several stations in in Transcaucasia, but the greatest potential region and the same probably lies in the rivers of southern Siberia. Oil and coal are There are oil fields on the the main sources of energy, however. eastern and northern shores of the Caspian near Krasnovodsk and along the Emba river. The Fergana valley field in central Asia is of some importance, and small fields are worked in the Lena basin (Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and on the island Coal is of more immediate industrial value. The of Sakhalin. Kuznetsk basin in west Siberia is the Soviet Union's second in production and supports a major industrial region. The Karaganda field in Kazakhstan provides coking coal for metal industries in the Urals. In east Siberia the Irkutsk field and in the far eastern region the Bureya and Vladivostok fields are of value to local industry and to traffic on the Trans-Siberian railway. Lignite deposits in the central Asia republics and west Siberia are of minor significance but vast coal fields are thought to underlie the Tunguska and Lena basins. Other mineral resources are considerable, even if the varied

upper Angara valley, and near Chita farther east.

1

5«3

was overrun by the Germans. However, production is still secondary to that of the European part of the U.S.S.R. The Kuznetsk basin is important for heavy industry of many kinds but engi-

is

short) are the food grains.

generally extensive rather than intensive.

for increasing agricultural production

Projects

by cultivating the virgin

steppelands have concentrated attention on the chestnut-soil belt on the semiarid southern margins of the black earths. Irrigated cotton is the main industrial crop in Soviet central Asia and Trans-

some

flax

drier steppelands support sheep

and

caucasia, sunflowers for

oil in

on

The

its

northern fringe.

goats, as

the black-earth belt and

do mountain pastures, while

cattle are associated with

the agricultural areas and reindeer herding with the tundra and

more open

Grapes grow well in Transcaucasia and in irricentral Asia, and the sheltered subtropical western

taiga.

gated gardens in corner of Transcaucasia has a small area of tea plantations. Southwest Asia. As most of this region can be regarded as semidesert and desert, except for its northern and western fringe,

—

water resources are of the utmost importance to agriculture and pastoralism. Apart from Turkey, where the need is less pressing, water resources are used very intensively. Well over half the agricultural area of Iraq is irrigated by the Tigris-Euphrates system, while in Iran the irrigated area comprises lands in a great number of internal drainage basins. Syria, Lebanon and Israel to 20% of their cultivated land, and would Long summer drought water were available. causes river regimes to be very irregular, militating against their use for power production. Syria (Yarmuk river) and Turkey generate hydroelectric power on a small scale.

irrigate

from

12%

include

more

if

The region is fortunate however in its resources of oil and coal. Turkey, with little oil, has a valuable coal field supporting indusIran mines coal near the Caspian coast, try around Zonguldak. and Afghanistan north of Kabul. Oil is of immense importance but chiefly as a source of foreign exchange. Iran and Iraq have extensive oil fields in the foothills of the Zagros mountains but the more recently developed fields on the Arabian shore of the Persian gulf in Kuwait, Bahrein, Qatar, etc., are even more productive. The countries on the Mediterranean coast have neither oil nor coal. Turkey

is

most fortunate

in possessing a variety of minerals.

smelted at Karabuk close to the coal field; manganese is found at Eregli and on the Mediterranean coast. Turkey ranks first in world production of chrome, of which Afghanistan has small reserves. Copper is mined at Madan (Turkey) and a little gold in Saudi Arabia. The rest of the region is poor in metalliferous minerals but among nonmetals mention Iron ore from Divrigi

is

should be made of the Dead sea potash, sulfur in Turkey and phosphate rock in Jordan. As, however, much of southwestern Asia has been little explored it is quite possible that further resources will

come

to light.

countries bordering the Mediterranean have about one-fifth to one-quarter of their area under cultivation but eastward in

The

Afghanistan the proportion falls to under 2^ and is negligible in Saudi Arabia. Much uncultivated land is of value as grazing for sheep and goats and seminomadic pastoralism is the way of life

ASIA

5 84

over wide areas of semidesert. Turkey and Syria, with agriculture supported by rainfall to a large extent, and Iraq with its irrigated

stations.

plains normally export a surplus of agricultural products, notably

new

wheat. This is the main food crop, but barley takes first place in Iraq and Israel. Maize and rice are also grown, the latter as an irrigated crop in Iraq, Turkey and on the Iranian shores of the Caspian sea. Turkey, Iran and Israel grow sugar beet but cotton is a more important industrial crop, especially in Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq. The cotton-spinning industry is established in a number of centres in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Iran and in the capital cities of Iraq and Afghanistan.

nessed and an ambitious multipurpose scheme is at Warsak on the Kabul river. In East Pakistan the Karnafuli river project is designed to produce 80,000 kw. India's schemes are mostly designed to control floods and to provide irrigation water at the same time as power. The Bhakra-Nangal project on the Sutlej river is one of the biggest constructions, but others have been completed on the peninsular rivers, e.g., Damodar, Mahanadi, Tungabhadra

Citrus

fruits

Lebanon and

are

Israel's

principal

export,

important too

in

Syria, while Iraq produces four-fifths of the world's

The latter grow in Arabia wherever water is available. dates. Grapes are grown on a large scale to be dried as raisins in Turkey and Iran. Dried figs are exported from Turkey, where tobacco is locally important, and olives are grown on the Mediterranean coastlands. The climate of the region is against the rapid growth of forests which are extensive only in the better watered mountains of Turkey and Iran, particularly around the Caspian. India-Pakistan and Ceylon. An authoritative soil survey of India-Pakistan has yet to be made. The Indian states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab, with the whole of West Pakistan, have mainly dry steppe soils with a saline tendency toward the margins of the Thar desert. The eastern part of the Ganges valley has prairie soils giving way to young alluvial soils in the delta. Over most of peninsular India red soils are developed on Archean

—

rocks while the Deccan lavas give rise to the characteristic black sticky regur. Laterites are found capping the Western Ghats and on parts of the Bastar hills and Chota Nagpur plateau. The Shillong plateau and some "older" alluvium in Bengal bear red-yellow soils best

described as lateritic.

To

the peasant agriculturalist the workability of the soil, its water-holding qualities and the possibilities for irrigation are more immediately significant facts than those concerning its chem-

and genesis.

The

Indo-Gangetic plain and of the and deltas of the peninsular rivers are thus agriculturally of outstanding importance. Except on the moisture-retentive regur soils, agriculture on the uplands is generally poor and of very secondary importance. The concentration of rainfall in the summer months, followed by three to six months of drought, emphasizes the importance of irrigation. There is hardly a corner of the subcontinent that would not benefit from an assured all-season water supply, but this has only been attempted in the northwest in many areas of which agriculture would otherwise be impossible. The great rivers rising in the Himalayas and fed in the dry season by melting snows bring life-giving water to the plain of the Indus and its tributaries and to the Ganges system. Their waters have been extensively controlled and utiistry

more

soils of the

restricted valley plains

In some saline-soil areas in the Indus basin seepage of water from canals and overirrigation have caused alkali efflorescence rendering the land unusable. The regime of the peninsular rivers, lacking snow fields as a dry-season reservoir, is highly variable. Many of them dry up just when their waters are most needed and the major existing irrigation systems distribute floodwater rather than storing it for dry-season use. There and in Ceylon there are numerous crudely embanked shallow tanks storing rloodwater, but they rarely outlast the dry season and command only small areas. Some large multipurpose riverdevelopment schemes were in hand in the mid-:oth century to inlized for irrigation.

Innumerable wells by which ground water can be brought to the surface supplement canal irrigation in the northern plains. These are most important in the submontane belt in the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, but deeper modern tube wells are increasing in number on interfluves beyond the command of canals. All told, about 10% of the area of India-Pakistan is irrigated, more than half of this by canals. The rivers of the subcontinent are of great value as sources of hydroelectric power. The abrupt descents of the Western Ghats, Nilgiri and Cardamom hills have been so utilized for several years but the potential of the Himalayan rivers has been relatively neglected, Malakand and Mandi being for long the only crease the irrigated area.

Since attaining independence, India, Pakistan and Cey-

Ion have set about developing hydroelectric resources to feed industry. In West Pakistan the Jhelum river has been har-

i

(tributary of the Krishna), and in Ceylon the Gal Oya. In these schemes water storage over the dry season is a major problem. India's coal resources are relatively abundant compared with

those of Pakistan. They afe concentrated in the northeastern part of the peninsula, in the Damodar valley particularly, where there are limited reserves of coking coal.

In

Assam and West

there are poor-grade, mainly Tertiary coals.

Petroleum

Pakistan is

found

Assam (insufficient for India's needs) and West Pakistan. Intensive search has failed to reveal further major oil fields but there have been important finds of natural gas in both West and East Pakistan.

in the Digboi field of in

the Attock field of

India's reserves of iron ore, mainly high-grade hematite, and

manganese are among the greatest

in the world.

Both minerals

West Pakistan has some inaccessible iron ore in Chitral and its only significant minerals are chromite in Baluchistan, rock salt, alum, gypsum and salts of magnesium and potassium, all in the Salt ranges. India is endowed with a variety of nonferrous metalliferous minerals: are found in the northeast part of the peninsula.

copper, lead, chromite, gold and bauxite are all worked in various Salt is mined in Rajasthan but much is evaporated from sea water in Bombay and Madras states. India's production of mica from Chota Nagpur amounts to about 80% of the world's supply. Important deposits of the "atomic" mineral monazite are worked in Kerala. Ceylon lacks coal and oil and is very poor in other minerals also. Between 50% and 60% of the subcontinent is cultivated, agriculture being the mainstay of the population. Rice, millets (bajra and jowar) and wheat are the staple food crops. Rice is dominant in areas of good rainfall (60 in. and higher), notably in Bengal, Assam and Orissa, the west coast of the peninsula and in Ceylon. On the east coast deltas, in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and to some extent in Bihar, rainfall is commonly supplemented by irrigation, while in West Pakistan rice is grown irrigated in Drought-resistant millets are favoured a near-desert climate. in peninsular India but are also grown as an insurance crop in parts of the peninsula.

drier

parts

season,

is

of

the

Ganges

the food crop of

plain.

West

and western Uttar Pradesh and

Deccan

is

Wheat, grown

in

the

cool

Pakistan, the Indian Punjab of

some importance on

the

Various pulses and oilseeds are widely grown. Jute is confined to East Pakistan and adjacent West Bengal. Cotton is irrigated in West Pakistan but rain fed on the regur, soils of the Deccan. More restricted in their location, but imporlavas.

the export trade, are plantation crops. Assam, West Bengal, Sylhet (East Pakistan), south India and Ceylon have, extensive tea gardens. Rubber is grown in Kerala and Ceylon; tant in

coffee in

Mysore.

Pressure of population has caused the replacement of much original forest by agriculture or scrub jungle used for grazing, and Even productive forests are mainly limited to sloping areas. there, as in Assam, East Pakistan, parts of the Western Ghats

and Ceylon, shifting cultivation prevents the optimum utilization of forests. The middle slopes of the Himalayas in the drier west bear valuable pine and deodar forests, while in the east are broadleaved evergreen species with much bamboo, especially as secondary growth up to about 9,000 ft. Sal forest is dominant in the Siwalik hills and over the northeast of the peninsula. The Western Ghats and the hills bordering Burma have tropical evergreen and semievergreen forests including valuable teak, while the Sundarbans on the tidal fringe of the Ganges delta is a region of dense

mangrove Except the

forest.

in India's

Damodar

heavy industrial region between Jamshedpur.

valley and Calcutta, and in the cotton textile

dis-

,

—

ASIA

585 found in the Philippines (fourth world producer) and North nam; bauxite and titanium in the phosphate di of Cambodia have not been developed.

number

The

Philippines has a

of gold-minine districts

but elsewhere, in Malaya. Sumatra. Thailand and South Vietnam, output is less important.

A major drawback

to industri-

alization in the retrion

the lack

is

power installations. Waterpower potential is considerable on the many rivers, great and of

small. The Mekong river could be harnessed to supply Laos. Vietnam. Cambodia and Thailand with electricity but capital funds and an assured market are lacking.

Some

hydroelectricity

is

generated in Malaya and Java but most of the small output of power comes from thermal generators in the

major

Man-

cities.

ufacturing regions do not exist. the principal industries being concerned with the processing of

raw materials for export. pore smelts tin ore.

much

Singa-

of the region's

Java has a number of

sugar mills.

Textile

making cotton goods markets are established

industries for in

local

Burma.

Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and North Vietnam. FIG. trict

stretching north

4.

PRINCIPAL MINERAL-PRODUCING AREAS OF ASIA

from Bombay

in

to

Ahmedabad, manufacturing

generally scattered. Calcutta shares the jute industry with the East Pakistan towns of Narayanganj, Khulna and Chittagong. Many large towns have textile industries and miscellaneous manuis

facturing often based on agricultural leather, etc.

raw materials,

foodstuffs,

itic

soils of

upland equatorial areas to the dry

soils

of central

As far as man's utilization of the region is concerned, by far the most important soils are those developed on the alluvium of the several great and many minor delta plains. Next to these young alluvial areas the most productive soils are associated with basaltic lavas, widespread in Java and of some significance in South Vietnam. The more common acid igneous rocks and arenaceous Burma.

sedimentary material generaUy give

rise to soils

Shifting cultiare little developed. vation with its periodic burning of the vegetation is responsible for reducing the quality of the forest cover in many areas, notably

Malaya and the archipelago

in

—

Southeast Asia and Indonesia. This region displays considerable soil contrasts ranging from the excessively leached later-

poor

in inorganic

plant nutrients.

Mineral resources, exploited for export rather than for internal industrial development, fall into two main groups: the metalliferous minerals of the structurally older blocks of the Shan plateau, Malaya and southwest Borneo, and the petroleum fields of the belt of Tertiary folding surrounding this older core. The only important coal field is in North Vietnam, where anthracite is found, but Malaya, Sumatra and Borneo have minor deposits. From a global viewpoint oil is more significant. There are productive fields in Sumatra, Java and Borneo and in central Burma. Malaya and the Philippines have iron ore but there is no heavy industry in the region and the ore has been used in Japan. North Vietnam. Malaya, Java and the Philippines are minor producers of manganese. Ores of nonferrous metals, particularly tin. are of greatest importance. Malaya and Bangka-Billiton (Indonesia) rank first and third as world tin producers. Thailand was fifth and Burma was eighth; North Vietnam is also a producer. The Burmese centre of Bawdwin mines lead, zinc and nickel. Chromium is

Forests are relatively abundant the region compared with

the densely populated neighbouring countries. Burma and Thailand have valuable teak forests but the equatorial hardwoods of

Laos, Vietnam and Borneo.

The predominant agricultural activity is rice farming on the The deltas of the Irrawaddy (Burma), Chao alluvial lowlands. Phraya or Mae Nam (Thailand) and Mekong (South Vietnam) have long been major producers of rice for export, while in the Red river delta of North Vietnam and in Java rice cultivation has been even more intensive to support high densities of rural population. In Java and the Philippines hillsides have been terraced to grow rice and there are carefully tended systems of water conIrrigation supplements rainfall in the drier parts, e.g., centrol. tral Burma and the Korat plateau of Thailand, and inundation canals are found on all the major river systems. Adequate storage

made for dry-season irrigation. Among the crops after rice are tobacco (grown in all countries of the region but especially in Java), sugar cane (Java and the Philippines), soybeans (Java) and peanuts (Java and provision has yet to be

most important

central

field

Burma).

Plantation crops are of great importance. Malaya and Indogrow most of the world's natural rubber and some The Philippines has a is grown in South Vietnam and Thailand. near monopoly of the abaca (manila hemp) trade and leads Indonesia together

Malaya in copra production. The oil palm is increasMalaya and Sumatra, which seek to diversify their is a minor product of Java. China and Mongolia. About two-thirds of this region consists of the high plateaus and mountains of central Asia, much of it steppe and semidesert, where nomadic peoples rear sheep, goats and horses, exporting livestock and animal products, e.g., hides, Cultivation of wool, etc., to lowland China and the U.S.S.R.

nesia and

ingly popular in

plantation economy, while tea

—

5

ASIA

86

grains,

mainly wheat, millets and barley, is restricted to irrigated from the mountains. Little is known

strips along streams issuing

of the mineral resources of this vast area but Mongolia mines

some

and nonferrous metals and oil fields are being deChinese provinces of Sinkiang and Kansu and in the Tsaidam basin in Tsinghai province. Mongolia has some engineering industries at Ulan Bator but is very dependent on U.S.S.R. manufactures. Urumchi (Sinkiang) and Lan-chou (Kansu) have coal, iron, gold

veloped

in the

There are mountain forests in west Mongolia and textile mills. Tibet but inaccessibility prevents their being of economic importance.

By contrast, eastern China with Manchuria has considerable reThere are two principal soil types: brown podsols in sources. north China grade inland with increasing aridity into chernozems developed on loess, while China south of the Tsinling Shan has the more tropical podsolic red earth. The north-south contrast is due basically to climatic differences which are also brought out by agricultural differences. In the north, wheat with drought-resistant millets and kaoliang, barley and soybeans are the principal food crops but the south and Formosa are dominated by rice. Soybeans incidentally are also a valuable industrial crop of which Manchuria produces a surplus. Along the Yangtze valley the rice and wheat regions overlap. Maize in the north and in Szechwan is a minor crop. The chief industrial crops are cotton grown widely in the north China plain and the middle Yangtze, and tea from the south China hills and Formosa. The tung-oil tree is of some importance in the south but the main sources of vegetable oils are sesame in the north China plain and rapeseed in Szechwan and central China. China leads the world in tung oil, sesame, rapeseed and soybean production. Peanuts, also in the north China plain, are another source of oil. The subtropical south China coast lines and Formosa grow sugar cane. Tobacco, for which China is second only to the U.S. in output, is grown extensively but particularly in Szechwan and the north China plain. Citrus fruits thrive in the south and in Formosa but rarely on a commercial scale. Although large irrigation works were under construction by the middle of the 20th century on the Yellow river to protect the dry north from both flood and famine, small irrigation schemes command much of the cultivated land in south China. Everywhere farming is intensive and primarily for subsistence, though less so in Manchuria, an area of relatively recent agricultural colonization, where it is more commercialized. Intensive land use for agriculture and the demand for fuel and for grazing land has led to deforestation, until little real forest remains and that is confined mainly to the Tsinling Shan, the southern hills and the mountains bordering on Tibet and Burma. The mixed forests on the Greater and Lesser Khinghan ranges in Manchuria are, however, probably of greater economic significance. China has long been recognized as possessing considerable hydroelectric power potential, particularly in its great rivers, the Yangtze and Yellow, and in the well-watered mountains of eastern Manchuria and southern China. Among important schemes completed or in hand in the 1960s were the Ta-feng-man (Sungari river) and Shui-feng (Yalu river) in Manchuria, and San-men on the Yellow river. There are also stations on the Yangtze near Chungking, on the Min river in the southeast and in Formosa. Coal is likely to be of far greater value to China's industrial development, and China ranks second in estimated reserves of bituminous coal, including some good coking grades. Hardly a province lacks coal but the main field lies in the northwest in the provinces of Shensi, Shansi and Honan, a field comparable in extent with the American Appalachian field. Southern Manchuria and northern Hopeh have the largest production, but rapid development is taking place in Shansi. Of the southern coal fields the most extensive is in Szechwan. The principal iron-ore mines are in Manchuria near An-shan and Pen-ch'i. Other sources are Hsuan-hua or Suanhwa (Hopeh), T'ang-shan (Shantung), Ta-yeh and Ch'i-chiang (Kikiang) on the Yangtze near Hankow and Chungking respectively, and near Pao-t'ou in Suiyiian. The precise state of development of mining and manufacturing in China is not known. In certain key nonferrous metals China holds an important position, notably in tungsten and antimony, both mined

in the south.

Tin occurs

Yunnan, manganese

in

in

south central

China, copper in Formosa and Manchuria, vanadium in the north, lead and zinc in the south and in Manchuria; generally, all these resources are on a small scale. Shantung, south Manchuria and

Hainan have bauxite and Kiangsu produces some rock phosphate. Manchuria has a large output of magnesite, asbestos and gold, while gold and mercury are found in the south China hills. Mineral salt is obtained in Szechwan but much comes from evaporation of sea water.

With such a range of resources it is not surprising that despite a late start China is developing rapidly as an industrial power. Heavy industrial regions are concentrated in the north around An-shan, Pen-ch'i, Mukden, Harbin and Dairen in Manchuria, at Hsiian-hua northwest of Peking, inland at Pao-t'ou, at Wu-han on the middle Yangtze, at Chungking and at Shanghai. There is an increasing tendency for manufacturing districts to grow inland, especially near the major coal fields, but the textile and other light still located mainly in the coastal cities such as Shanghai, Canton, Tientsin and Tsingtao, though important new centres inland include Cheng-hsien (Cheng-chow), Sian and Ch'eng-tu.

industries are

Japan and Korea. terrain

—

These areas are alike in having rugged and restricted development of plains. Soils are generally

podsolic, tending to subtropical red in southern Japan, but agricultural methods are so intensive that water-holding capacity is

of

more importance than

Japan, of rice

soil

chemistry.

Rainfall, especially in

adequate for plant growth but the traditional popularity as the mainstay of farming makes irrigation important as

is

means to maximum yields. Only in North Korea is rice displaced by millets and wheat as the main food crop, though in South Korea barley is quite important; wheat and barley are becoming more a

popular in Japan as second crops after rice, and oats is a main crop in the cooler north in Hokkaido, though rice is grown there The principal commercial crops are cotton in Korea, multoo. berry trees (for silkworm fodder) and tea in southern Japan. Apples and pears grow in eastern Korea and northern Japan, citrus fruits and tobacco in the subtropical south. In Korea mineral wealth includes low-grade iron ore, anthracite, tungsten, beryllium and lead-zinc in the north, molybdenum and some tungsten in the south; gold and fluorspar are also mined. Hydroelectric power is generated particularly in the north along

Yalu

the

The main

river.

industries are cotton textiles in the

The north

south, rayon in the north using local timber resources. also

had heavy metal and chemical

industries,

though these were

World War II and the Korean war. Japan, after the U.S.S.R., is the most industrialized country in Asia but depends much on imported raw materials to supplement

interrupted during

its

own

resources.

It possesses several coal fields, the chief being

Hokkaido and Kyushu, and has a small output of oil from fields on the west coast of Honshu and Hokkaido. Water power is highly developed, the wet climate and mountainous relief there Vulcanicity being an advantage, especially in central Honshu. ensures the country an abundance of sulfur and pyrites, but except for widespread copper, and some chrome in Hokkaido, the great variety of the mineral resources are quite inadequate for Japan's industries. Thus it has a little iron ore, manganese, tungsten, lead, zinc, tin, mercury, gold and silver. Manufacturing is concentrated in a belt of cities extending from Tokyo west-southwest through Nagoya to Kobe-Osaka on the shores of the Inland sea and the industrial cluster of northern Kyushu centring on Yawata and ending at Nagasaki. This belt includes both heavy and light industry. Outside it there is manufacturing on the Hokkaido coal field at Muroran and at Kaimashi on the iron-ore field in north Honshu. Heavy industry includes shipbuilding, heavy engineering, vehicles and chemicals, but Japan Utilizing its is better known in foreign markets for its textiles. own timber resources, Japan produces cellulose rayon and newsprint and has been an important supplier of cement to south Asian countries. in

—

Bibliography. Oxford Economic Atlas of the World (iq54) Oxford Regional Atlas: USSR, and Eastern Europe (1Q56) T. Shabad, China's Changing Map (1956) S. Adler, The Chinese Economy (iq57) ;

;

;

;

ASIA ''" Ackerman, Japan's Natural Resources (ig )) E H International Affairs, The Middle East, 2nd ed. (1956); U ,.f 1,-ini. Tin- Middle East, ud ed. (1056); O. H. K Spate, India and E. H. G. Dobby, Southeast Asia (igso). Pakistan, 2nd ed. (1957) \

>1

I

;

(B III.

In

this

aspects of

I.

C. J

)

ANTHROPOLOGY

word anthropology is used to cover two the science of man. The first is cultural and depends

section the

on social inheritance or nurture; the second is physical and depends on biological inheritance or nature. Both may be affected by environment in the widest sense of the term. The study of culture is the province of archaeology, ethnology, social anthroThe archaeologist traces the spread of pology and linguistics. past cultures from what is left of their tools and other implements and art forms. The ethnologist does the same by comparing the cultures of present-day peoples. The social anthropologist studies the social institutions in

and related beliefs of peoples. The linguist, between languages, makes pos-

establishing the relationships

sible

inferences about the previous connections of their speakers.

A major aim

of the anthropologist

is

to reconstruct the biolog-

and cultural history of mankind at all times and in all places. As documentary evidence is available to him for only a small number of cultures (and then is often confined to the most recent period of their existence), to fill in the blanks in space and time he draws upon the findings of paleoanthropology, anthropography, archaeology, ethnology and linguistics. Any discussion of Asia as an anthropological unit divorced from adjacent areas is necessarily artificial. Europe is properly only a western peninsula of ical

Asia;

Africa

is

linked with Asia at the isthmus of Suez;

the

may

be seen from the eastern cape of Siberia; and the islands of Indonesia and Melanesia lead like steppingstones from southeastern Asia into Australia and Polynesia. As a result of this geographical propinquity the peoples of Europe, Africa, America and Oceania show, in varying degrees, physical, linguistic and cultural affinities with those of Asia. Within itself, moreover, Asia contains the widest variations in physical types and cultures of all the continents and a diversity of languages apparently exceeded only in the Americas. The intensive anthropological study of Asia is, however, only beginning. In proportion to its area and population, less anthropographic, linguistic and ethnographic research has been done in Asia than in any other continent. The consequent paucity of evidence permits only tentative generalizations. (J. C. Tr.)

American mainland

A.

Ethnology and Languages

may be grouped into six major areas, each which occupies a more or less distinctive natural habitat. These culture areas are as follows: 1. Northern Siberia, comprising the treeless tundra of the northern coasts and lowlands and the forest zone or taiga. The basic subsistence pattern is fishing, the hunting of land and sea mammals and reindeer breeding. Social organization and techThe

cultures of Asia

of

!

nology are relatively simple. 2. Interior Asia, comprising the steppe zone, a transition zone of steppe-forest in the north, a central steppe-desert system and highland. This generally arid region includes Sinkiang or Chinese

!

i

Turkistan, Russian Turkistan, Tsinghai province and northern iKansu, Outer and Inner Mongolia, parts of southern Siberia and Tibet. The traditional economy is nomadic pastoralism, with enclaves of farming where water is made available. Hunting is ,

•

1

>

a subsidiary

means

of getting food, clothing and shelter.

Some

depend on both herding and farming. East Asia, comprising China proper, Japan and Korea. The territory of China within this area is that within the Great Wall, or monsoon China. Intensive agriculture is the predominant 'means of subsistence; peoples who live by other means are few and scattered. Manchuria is a crossroads of the Siberian, east Asian and interior Asian zones in both culture and natural environment.

>

of the peoples of Turkistan 3.

1

,

I

I

:

S«7 1

'

4. The Indian subcontinent, comprising India. Pakistan, Ceylon, Nepal, Bhutan and Kashmir. The cultural range, like that of terrain and climate, is great. The predominant culture is Indie

ilhi

t

P

1.1

'in

.'.im

h

Ceyloi

is

1

liud-

ribet.

5. Southeast Asia, comprising the peninsular states of Burma. lia and North and South Viel Thailand Mai Cultural relations there have not been as clearly defined as in the other areas. The broad cultural range within this wet. tn region includes primitive groups with simple technoloiry and organization who live by fishing, hunting and collectine wild plants as well as civilizations with intensive agriculture, fairly advanced

technology, complex social and political organization and

literary-

traditions.

Southwest Asia, comprising Afghanistan; Iran; the Arab Lebanon Vden proIsrael; and tectorate, Yemen, Kuwait, Bahrein and Oman: Turkey. Much of the region is desert; among the few wellwatered zones are the "fertile crescent" (in James II. Bn phrase) region of northern Iraq, Lebanon and Syria, extending to northern Israel, and parts of the coast of Turkey. The Islamic people predominate save for the Israeli enclave, the Christian communities of Lebanon and minor sects. All the main branches The inhabitants are predomiof Islam are centred in the area. 6.

states of Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq. Jordan,

nantly agricultural but a significant portion of the popul of the Arab countries, Iran and Afghanistan are nomadic pastoralists

and some groups combine cultivation and herding. cultures and languages of these six areas will be discussed

The

in order.

Northern Siberia.— The indigenous inhabitants of central and northern Siberia fall into three main linguistic stocks: Uralic, Altaic (q.v.) and Paleo-Asiatic. The Uralic-speaking peoples include the Samoyed, Ostyak (Khanty), Vogul (Mansi) and Selkup The in western Siberia and the Yukaghir of northeast Siberia. Uralic groups are small; the largest of them, the Nenets of the in fewer than 20.000 the Khanty, each numbered Samoyed and 1926. Others range from a few hundred to a few thousand in size. The Altaic stock is represented by two families in the area, the Tungusic and the Turkic. The most numerous of the Tungusic peoples are the Evenki and Eveni (Lamut). In addition, there are a number of small groups (Negidal, Udege, Oroki, Orochon, Olchi and Nanai or Gold in the Amur river region in southeastern Siberia and northern Manchuria. There are two Turkic-speaking The Yakut have moved north into peoples, Yakut and Dolgan. the Siberian forest over a long period, primarily from the forestIn Siberia steppe of southern Siberia, but also from east Asia. they combined with indigenous peoples. The Yakut are by far the most numerous of the native peoples of Siberia, with a popuTheir economy is chiefly the breeding lation of about 300.000. of horses, cattle and, in the extreme north, reindeer. The Dolgan are a small group who are in the main Tungusic clans become )

yakutized.

The

Paleo-Asiatic peoples form a residual category with no than membership in the north Asian cultural

intrinsic unity other

In northeastern area and a generalized cultural resemblance. Siberia they include the Eskimo, Chukchi. Koryak. Kamchadal (Itelmen) and Gilyak (Nivkhi). The genetic relationship of the Chukchi. Koryak and Kamchadal languages is well established. A suggestive hypothesis needing further exploration is the

Eskimoan-Chukchian connection.

The Gilyak have no known The Ket (Yenisey-Ostyak

relation to the other northern peoples.

of western Siberia

the others. largest, the

The

is

a small

1

remnant group unrelated

to

any of

Most of the groups number in the hundreds; the Chukchi, numbered about 12.000 in 1926.

arctic

and subarctic peoples share a number

their technology, house types, clothing, food getting

of traits in

and

religion.

Their physical type is northern Mongoloid. The northerly habitat has played a central role in the formation of the material culture; the rigours of climate have limited the cultures to certain types. These boreal peoples place heavy reliance on furs and pelts for clothing and shelter. The dog is domesticated None of these groups is limited there as it is throughout Asia. The Chukchi are divided into to a single source of livelihood. two groups, the Maritime Chukchi, whose main subsistence base is the hunting of sea mammals and fishing, and the Reindeer

ASIA Chukchi, who depend on reindeer milk and meat for food and obtain clothing and shelter from the pelts and hides. The Evenki, the largest Tungusic tribe, are divided into sedentary and nomadic groups that live chiefly by hunting and fishing and by reindeer breeding, respectively. Some of the nomadic Evenki who live in

horses from the south. The southern complex could not be maintained and all native pastoralism except reindeer breeding has declined in recent centuries. The pastoralism of interior Asia, by contrast, is more highly developed, involving herds of sheep,

Mongols of southern Siberia (Buryat A.S.S.R.) The and Outer Mongolia raise herds of horses and cattle. Samoved also have double-faceted economies. peoples is The most widespread religion of the north Asian shamanism (q.v.), the basis of which is the establishment of close relations between the chief practitioner, the shaman, and a spirit. In invoking the spirit, the shaman induces a trance state through autosuggestion or narcosis. Shamans preside over religious rites and act as healers and seers. The basis of their supernatural

camels form as

the vicinity of the

powers

With

is

their intimacy with their spirits.

the exception of the Yakut,

who

alone have traces of a

past aristocracy, the social organization of these peoples is simple. They live in the forests and tundra, banding together in small

camps

or settlements.

They have no writing, and their history must be pieced together from the few

prior to the 17th century hints afforded

by

the archaeological record and oral traditions.

goats, cattle

and horses.

much

In the steppe-desert of interior Asia as one-sixth of the herds; in the highlands

the yak and a yak-cattle hybrid are raised; in the southwestern parts of the area (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan) the donkey and the mule play a prominent role.

The agriculture of the Uighur, Tajiks and Uzbeks is intensive, with irrigation. The aridity of the steppe region limits farming to a few oases and river valleys, notably the oases around the Tarim basin of Sinkiang and the Fergana and Zeravshan valleys of Russian Turkistan. There, through careful use of water supAgriplies, high yields of food grains and cotton are achieved. culture is a supplementary source of subsistence for the Kazakhs, Turkmen and other Turkic nomads who cultivate small plots near There is a small amount of farming their winter encampments. on the slopes of hills and mountains, utilizing the seasonal floods This form of agriculture, locally called of the melted snow. bugara,

is

highly uncertain.

Russians moved into the area in large numbers from the 17th century on and have effected profound changes in the life of the indigenous peoples. (See Chukchi; Gilyak; Koryak; Ostyak;

The Mongols had little farming in the past; considerable development of agriculture in Inner Mongolia followed Chinese settlement and influence. The Kazakhs, Kirgiz and other Turkic

Samoyed; Tungus.) Interior Asia The indigenous populations

peoples have been settled in collective farms in the Soviet Union, the change effected by official policy; but longer-range factors also influenced the change-over from pastoralism to agriculture. Chinese and Russian farmers moved into the steppe zone from

—

of interior Asia Chinese are settled in Inner Mongolia, Sinkiang and Russian Turkistan. Their habitat, the steppe zone of Asia, extends from the mountains of western Manchuria to the Caspian sea. Speakers of modern Mongol dialects are divided into three branches, eastern, western and northern. The eastern Mongols have their main seat in Inner and Outer Mongolia. The Khalkha Mongols dwell in Outer Mongolia; the Chahar, Ordos and others, forming the largest number of Mongol peoples, live in Inner Mongolia. The western Mongols or Oyrats live in the western parts of Outer Mongolia, Sinkiang and in the north Caspian plain, where they are known as Kalmucks. The Buriats, or northern Mongols, live in the vicinity of Lake Baikal in southern Siberia. There are small groups of Mongols speaking archaic dialects; the Monguor of Kansu, the Dagurs of the Amur river region and the Mongols of (See Buryat; Mongol.) Afghanistan. Among the Turks, the Uygurs live in Sinkiang, Altai Turks in the Altai mountains and a number of small Turkic groups in southern Siberia, from the Tuva Autonomous Region to the Ural mountains. These are the Hakas, Tuvinians and Shori and others, whose names are taken from their locality, such as the Baraba Turks. There are a few peoples of Samoyedic origin who have

are Mongols, Turks, Tibetans and Tajiks.

turkicized. Among these last are the Motor (Mator or Koybal) and Karagas (or Tofalar). In Russian Turkistan, the chief Turkic groups are the Kazakh, Kirgiz, Uzbek, Turkmen and Karakalpak. A small number of Kazakhs live in Sinkiang. Finally, a group of Turks known as Saryg ("yellow") Uighur (Uigur or Yogur) live in Kansu. In western Mongolia and in the Altai there are small groups of turkicized Mongols and mongolized Turks. (See Turks or Turkic Peoples.) The Mongols and Turks have both moved far to the west in a number of waves during the past 2,000 years. The Kalmuck Mongols have inhabited the north Caspian plain from about 1600. The Turks have moved west and south where they encountered the Iranian Tajiks, the prior inhabitants of what is now southern Turkistan. {See Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic.) The Tajiks are a sedentary agricultural people. The Mongols are nomadic pastoralists by tradition, as are the Kazakhs, Kirgiz, Turkmen, Karakalpak, Altai Turks, Uzbeks and others of the Turkic peoples mentioned. The Uighur of Sinkiang farm the oases of the arid Chinese province; the once nomadic Uzbeks have taken up farming in the close neighbourhood of the Tajiks in recent centuries. Turkic pastoralists had a minor traditional dependence on farming, which is now of major importance. The pastoralism of north Asia is simple; it is focused on the reindeer, except among the Yakut, who brought in cattle and

become

the mid- 19th century and settled in those lands with the best These are at the same time the richest

agricultural potentialities.

The nomads were thrust back on the more arid own reserves. The herders had to take up farming because of population pressures and limits on soil utilization as well as political policy. Farming is a more efficient grasslands.

wastes, which are their

basis of subsistence because

it

can support more people per acre

than herding.

The Monguor

of Kansu have been greatly influenced by Chinese Their farming and social organization are Chinese and system has long been part of the Chinese system. The Mongols have been Buddhist since the days of their great empires in the 13th century; of greater relevance to the present The Turks are is their second conversion in the 16th century. In both cases, the {See Buddhism; Islam.) Sunni Muslims. indigenous been combined with religions of high culture origin have shamanist cults. The organization of these peoples is complex. They have had a long tradition of hereditary nobility. Slavery was practised on a minor scale. The kinship system is based on patrilineal descent; family authority is vested in the patriarch; the son lives with the father in a common camp. The political institutions were evolved to a considerable degree but lacked stability during imperial times. However, the steppe peoples developed sporadic empires during the past 2,000 years, achieving a climax under the Mongol leader) Genghis Khan and a second climax under the Ottoman Turks. These empires joined in a political unity herdsmen and farmers who had a crude sort of economic integration. Numerous smaller oolitical enterprises preceded, accompanied and followed the empires of world-historical importance. The kin groups combined into great political entities and in the process of expansion their culture.

their political

pattern of differentiation into social classes was evolved. Thus, political and kinship structures are historically interrelated on the steppes.

The common

genesis, subsistence base and social organization nomadic pastoralism, the common polity and the development of historical processes make the steppe Turks and Mongols into a cultural unity. The geographic features of aridity and interior

of

drainage have made their impress on the cultures of the region. The aridity limited the areas of agriculture; the lack of waterways caused the development of overland trade routes between the

Mediterranean and the far east. Tibet is a specialized subarea in interior Asia. The main features of the region extend into the Tibetan highland; nomadic

ASIA

Hills and fertile valley in the region of the of Kabul,

Afghanistan

Helmand

river,

southwest

Plate

I

Cedars of Lebanon growing on the slopes of the Lebanon mountains which extend almost the entire length of the country parallel to the Mediterranean coast

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF ASIA: ARABIAN MASSIF, TURKEY, IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN

Plate

ASIA

II

Mt. Everest, situated on the border of Nepal and Tibet ft., it is the highest mountain in the world

in

the Great Himalaya.

Ascending

to

a height of

29,028

^«";.. < -«e!s«r'^'^:

..-

Bullock cart at the edge of a tank at Gundlupet, south of Myson tableland of the Indian peninsula, an area of extensive plateau

*£tt ,

valley within the Himalayas in

jbcontinent, dominated by iver valleys and forests

Kashmir

extremely

in

high

the north of the Indian

mountains,

picturesque

Paro, one of the broad, fertile valleys of Bhutan which interrupt the succession of extremely high mountain peaks of the eastern Himalayas

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF ASIA: INDIA AND THE HIMALAYAS

Plate

ASIA

III

Camel caravan crossing the Gobi desert between Lan-chou, Kansu province, and PaoOne of the world's largest deserts, t'ou, Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, China. the Gobi is an elongated shallow depression within the Mongolian plateau

Glaciers in the Tien Shan, one of the great mountain systems of central Asia extending about 1,500 mi. from Samarkand, U.S.S.R., to the

Kansu border, China

K2 (Mt. Godwin Austen), the second highest mountain in the world, height of 28,250 ft. in the Karakorum range, northeastern Kashmir

rising

Dolomite rock formations along the bank of the Lena river, U.S.S.R.. which flows the Baikal mountains, East Siberia, to the Arctic ocean

to

fr.

a

Lu Shan, a wooded massif rising to a height of 4,500 ft. above the plains and mountains south of Chiu-chiang, Kiangsi province, China

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF ASIA: CENTRAL ASIA

ASIA

Plate IV

Transporting logs down the Yangtze, the longest river in China. 3,600 mi. in length, it traverses China from east to west, linking the interior to the East China sea

P g?^ Woman

taking a buffalo to water in the Meko nating in the Tibetan highlands, the 2,500-mi land, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam

View seen

mountains along the coast Java looking across the Sunda

of the Barisan volcanic

from the coast

of

of

Sumatra,

strait,

Indo-

Fujiyama, the highest peak (12.388 which is one of seven volcanic chains

ft.) in

in

iar

Vientiane, Laos.

Origi-

flows through China, Thai-

the

central

Japa

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF ASIA: THE PACIFIC BORDERLANDS AND ISLAND ARCS

Honshu

ASIA pastoralism

as important as agriculture. posed of sheep, goats, yaks, cattle and horses.

fro

is

I

be herd

are

com

There it no intenagriculture; Farming is poorly developed, although sedentary,

FIG. 5.

l

ibel

Asia.

589 ia

theavenue whereby Buddhism was introduced In

dominant,

into intent*

southern

Tibel neai the Indian border anil Elsewhere, in addition to the native Lamaism

— MAJOR LANGUAGE GROUPS OF ASIA

(mo-

— ASIA

59o

found the Bon faith, a form of shamanism. Tibet is a theocracy in which the chief of state is believed to be a reincarnation of the Buddha and is the chief of the religion.

of fishing techniques of wide Pacific distribution are found in Japan, such as employment of the harpoon, the fish spear (used

A feature of of Tibet are patrilineally organized. Tibetan marital practices is a form of polyandry, the marriage

the use of birds in fishing. A number of features of social organization and religion also bring China and Japan together.

nastic

Buddhism),

is

The nomads

woman to two or more brothers. East Asia. East Asia is an agricultural region: the Chinese have the largest number of peasants in the world. The densities of population in parts of China, such as the coast near the mouth of the Yangtze river, are among the highest in the world. Intensive exploitation of the soil is a necessity for the immense population, which occupies an area not much larger than continental United States. Agriculture is based on a complex organization of water resources by dams, dikes, ditches, canals, reservoirs for Land falling under flood control, irrigation and conservation. the water-conservation effort was about one-fifth of the cultivated area in traditional China. In the late 1950s it was nearly half Political control in China rested on water the cultivated area. of a

—

control by the rulers.

China is relatively homogeneous in population; the Chinese spread over their present territory in historic times by their march In consequence, China is 94% Chinese. There to the tropics. is considerable linguistic and cultural diversity but at the same time solidarity through sharing of the symbolic value of Han

through the ice) and various fishhooks.

Japan shares with China

The Japanese have

a relatively homogeneous culture, combining Chinese and Pacific-wide distribution. The population and culture of Japan are virtually all Japanese. In the extreme north of Japan, and on Sakhalin and the Kuriles, are a small number of Ainu (q.v.), a non-Japanese people who are not placed with certainty with respect to linguistic, cultural or physical type. They are probably responsible for introducing a number of arctic traits into Japanese culture; they are possibly related to the Gilyaks and to the Japanese linguistically. The neighbours of the Japanese to the south are the Ryukyu islanders. The Ryukyuans are related to the Japanese in language; they appear to have preserved a number of archaic Japanese features and have adopted the Japanese script and Buddhism. The culture of the islands reflects certain southerly connections of the archipelago generally, in the preparation of wine for religious ceremonies by chewing rice kernels, in tattooing and in the construction of houses on piles.

traits of indigenous,

Korea

Much

is

the third

main member of the

far eastern culture area.

nationality.

patterns, are of Chinese derivation; moreover,

Rice cultivation dominates in the south and wheat in the north; the Yangtze valley is a transitional zone. The sweet potato has gained increasing importance in the south, where conditions for

among them

cultivation are favourable.

The Chinese

parts of interior Asia

—

Mongolia, northern Kansu, Tsinghai, Sinkiang and Tibet have In China proper there is little pastoralism. Whereas in Outer Mongolia there are China there is only one person, in stock per about 30 head of head of stock for every two or three persons. Animals bred for work and used only secondarily for food include the water buffalo in the south; the donkey, horse and mule in the north; the ox in agriculture mainly in oases and protected valleys.

the north and south. The pig is raised for food, hides and bristles; sheep and goats are raised for meat, hides and wool.

China, aside from the peoples of interior Asia and Manchuria, has a number of less numerous peoples scattered through the country. Some of them have been displaced and some absorbed These peoples in the course of the Chinese movement southward. are part of the Sino-Tibetan-Burman-Thai stock. The most important are Thai-speaking peoples in southwest China, chief among these the

Chuang

of Kwangsi, the largest

non-Han

nationality of

China, numbering about 7,000,000. They are rice farmers, like Also inhabiting the mounthe Thai peoples in southeast Asia. tainous region of southwest China are the Puyi, Nung, Sha, Sishuang and Tehung; these are less numerous Thai peoples related to the Chuang. More distant linguistic and cultural relatives are the T'ung, Shui and Maonan of south China, and the Li peoples of the mainland and Hainan Island. The Yi and Kachin of Burma and adjacent China .and the mountain-dwelling Miao and Yao peoples of central China are members of the same speech stock.

(See also

Thai Peoples.)

number of traits from China to Japan, stock breeding, musical instruments, large portions

the avenue of transit of a

of the vocabulary and certain aspects of Buddhism.

The Chinese

system of writing has been reworked both by Koreans and Japanese to transcribe their own languages. The three languages are genetically independent. Outside their native country Koreans have settled in neighbouring parts of Manchuria; there is also a large Korean colony in Japan. Korean civilization, which covers two millenniums, is a combination of indigenous traits and long-term Chinese influence. Until the early 20th century Koreans maintained such forest traits as tiger hunting with the use of imitative calls, spears, lances and trained dogs. Manchuria is the homeland of the Manchus of the Tungusic family of the Altaic stock. They have strong north Asian connections. The Manchus formed the last conquest dynasty of China, 1644-1912, in the course of which most of them became thoroughly sinified. Only a few remnant groups scattered in Manchuria and a few colonies in Sinkiang kept apart from the process of absorption by Chinese culture. Manchuria has been the arena of a combination of steppe and The Manchus, of northern origin, northern forest elements.

adapted the Mongol script and politico-military organization which they put to their own use in the conquest of China. Chinese culture traits were early introduced into the area. Manchuria has been settled during the 19th and 20th centuries by Chinese farmers, a movement comprising one of the greatest mass migrations in history.

There are a number of common features of social organization Kinship is generally reckoned in the paternal line among the Chinese, Japanese and Koreans. A system of patrilineal clans identified by name forms the basis of the traditional society. The veneration of eminent ancestors is found through the area, and is the focus of a number of cult practices: ceremonial offerings, prayers, sacrifices. In China and Korea there is a strong tradition of exogamy on the basis of family names. By tradition, the typical, extended family is composed of several generations of kin; married sons remain with the parents together with their

in east Asia.

Typical are the Payi of the Tibetan-Burman group, in the valleys Mekong and the Salween in the Burmese- Yunnan border area. They live by rice agriculture and stock raising; the They share traits with the buffalo is used as a draft animal. Burmese in following the Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle (southern) branch of Buddhism; on the other hand, they are strongly acculturated to Chinese ways; e.g., in burial customs. The TibetanBurman-Thai groups are an earlier population whose areas have been considerably restricted by Chinese southward movement. Japan shares a number of traits with China, including a high of the upper

rural population density, the careful

and settlement Korea has been

of the material culture, such as house forms

management

of resources and

the terrace-rice agricultural system found throughout Japan and The intensive exin parts of China (e.g., the Szechwan basin). ploitation of the land means low development of stock breeding.

Horses and cattle are few, and are used as work animals. Hogs are of greater importance for food, as in China. Other than the grains, the chief source of food comes from the sea, and a number

families, provided the family lands can support them.

The religious picture is exceedingly complex. Ancestor worship has been mentioned, together with family and clan temples and Taoism (q.v.) In addition, shamanism is widespread. cults. has a long history in China and Korea; Confucianism (q.v.) has had a great influence both in China and in neighbouring countries. Buddhism, introduced into China from India during the T'ang dynasty, has been long and deeply rooted in Korea and Japan. The dominant form is northern Buddhism, the Mahayana or

ASIA However, there are Hinaynna areas in south The cult of the emperor and the Btate traditionally was China. given a focus in the religions of the area: Confucianism (to the extent that it is a religion) in China and Korea; Shintoism in

(in. iter Vehicle.

Japan.

The Indian Subcontinent. agricultural;

West Bengal

—This

region

predominantly

is

certain areas, such as the delta areas of East and (

Kast

Pakistan and

India), achieve densities

population no lower than the Yangtze valley. of intensive rice and fibre plant (cotton, jute,

of

These are regions

hemp)

cultivation;

and water technology generally are well developed. Much of the northwest of the subcontinent is desert. The summer monsoon brings needed rainfall, failing which India is subThe great mountain ranges of the ject to drought and famine. north form a natural limit correlative with that of the Indian cul-

linguistH

Within the broad frame of cultural and natural unity of the is vast diversity which was emphasized by the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 into the two states, Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. The cultural divisions within Hindu India are complicated by the caste system (see Caste [Indian]). The present population of the Indian subcontinent has been formed out of the union of Indo-Aryan invaders of the 2nd millennium B.C. with the indigenous peoples: Dravidian, Munda or Kol, Sino-Tibetans and a number of smaller groups. The population of India is second in size only to that of China; the rural population predominates over the urban in a ratio of 5 to 1, only slightly The degree of urbanization of Pakistan is less than in China. about on the level of China. The ethnic diversity of India is far greater than that of any of region there

the far eastern countries.

In India after the partition there re-

mained four chief linguistic-cultural constituents: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian. Munda and Sino-Tibetan (see Indian Languages). 1. Indo-Aryan. These peoples, who appeared for the first time in India during the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C., are settled chiefly in north India. They are divided into a number of subgroups on the basis of provincial, linguistic and caste differentia-

The

tion.

principal linguistic divisions are west Hindi, centred

Urdu (a dialect of west Hindi with numerous Arabic and Turkic loan words) east Hindi, with its (in Bihar), Oriya (Orissa), Bengali (East and West Bengal) and the Hindi dialect of Assam. In the west, Gujarati, Rajputani, Sindhi and Punjabi are the main lan-

near Delhi, and Persian,

;

four chief dialects, Bihari

Indo-Aryan family. Together with the neighbouring Iranians, the Indo-Aryans form Indo-European linguistic stock. The Baluchis, who live partly in Iranian and partly in Pakistani

,guages of the

the Indo-Iranian grouping of the

The

Baluchistan, belong to the Iranian group.

Kafirs,

who

live

and partly in Pakistan, belong to a group of own, which, according to the Norwegian linguist G. Morgenstierne, branched off from Indo-Iranian at a time when both language groups were closer together than they are today; the Kafir 'and closely related Dardic languages, including Kashmiri, and the dialects of the Northwest Frontier Chitral Gilgit, etc., are closer .to the Indie than to the Iranian language family. The Gypsy language belongs to the Kafir-Dardic-Northwest linguistic group. The entire group numbers from 200,000,000 to 250,000,000 partly in Afghanistan their

(

)

,

[speakers. 2. Dravidian. The speakers of this language family are primarily in south and central India and on northern Ceylon. Tamil.

;

Telugu,

Malayalam and Kanarese

1

Kannada

)

are the chief Dravid-

Tamil is dominant in northern Related to Kanarese are Tulu. Kodagu and the languages tribes. Dravidian languages of central India are Marathi. Gond, Kui, Oraon, Malto and Kolam. These once occupied a larger region than they do today through the expansion oi the Indo-Aryan languages. Far to the northwest, in Baluchistan, are found the Brahui, Dravidian speakers who suggest a once far wider distribution of the Dravidian tongues. There are one-third to one-fourth as many Dravidian as Indo-Aryan speakian languages of southern India;

Ceylon.

•of

the

Toda and Kota

ers. •

3.

Munda

or Kol.

Their main distribution

is

in

Bihar

(

the

district),

affinitie

lie

Madras and Madhya

to the east, with the

Their

Pradesh.

Mon-Khmer

peoples,

forming the Austro-Asiatic linguistic stock. The agricultural Santal are the largest group of the Munda family; to this family belong the Karmali, a caste of ironworkers; the Mundari proper

and a number of others: Birhar, Koda, Kurku, Kharia, Patua, Ho. Sahara and Gadaba. The Nicobar islanders are Austro-Asiatic (their exact placement is still under debate;; the Khasi of Assam are of the

Mon-Khmer

language family of the Austro-Asiatic

stock.

Some

irrigation

tural pattern.

59 1

Chota Nagpur

of these peoples have introduced a Negroid element into

the physical types of India.

A number

of them, like the Birhar. have special occupations, like the Karmali, noted above, and the Koda, who are road workers. They are in toto far less numerous than the Dravidian peoples. In the Himalayan districts of India and in 4. Sino-Tibetan. neighbouring Bhutan the great majority of the people are SinoTibetan speakers. North and east of Kashmir are the peoples of Baltistan, Ladakh and Lahul who are related to the Tibetans in are

dwellers;

forest

others

language; in Baltistan or Little Tibet are islamized Tibetans, the only ones so converted. The population of Nepal is Tibetan Also in the Sino-Tibetan family are the Lepcha of speaking. Sikkim and the Bhutani, Bhotia and Lhopa.

In the western Himalaya region are found smaller groups which R. Bleichsteiner has suggested that their morphology is reminiscent of languages of the northeast Caucasus. In Assam are a number of peoples who live by hunting and slash-and-burn agriculture. These were related by B. S. Guha and, following him, S. K. Chatterji to a Negrito folk once widespread in India. Negritos (q.v.) were found in the Andaman Islands; they have left traces of their physical type in Cochin and Travancore (south India) and in eastern Bihar (northeast India). For the most part they have been absorbed by later arrivals. are unrelated to their neighbours, such as Burushaski

The in

traditional Indian extended family

;

was undergoing change

the 20th century, being in part replaced by a family with

The Indian rural scene through most around villages which are nucleated or grouped and led by headmen. However, in Travancore-Cochin and west Madras, houses tend to be dispersed rather than grouped. The nonnucleated village has a wide, if sporadic, distribution in north Persia and in both east and west Turkistan. There, agricultural populations, often numbering several thousands, may aggregate in formless masses with no perceivable pattern or clustering. Nonnucleated villages are governed at the district rather only one conjugal pair. of the country

is

than the village

level.

built

caste endogamy an important the practice of hypergamy, the "upward" marriage of women. The patriline is the standard mode of descent; however, the Dravidian Nayar of Malabar and the Vedda of Ceylon are

Marriage

variant

in

Hindu India follows

;

is

well-known matrilineal groups. The Toda have double descent and practise polyandry. Matrilineal organization is widespread in south India among the non-Indo-Aryans i.e., the Dravidian and Munda peoples. Likewise the christianized Khasi of Assam have a strongly matrilineal organization. Inheritance among these peoples follows in the maternal line and residence is matrilocal. On the other hand, the Dravidian Baiga, Bhuiya, Coorg, Gond and Reddi were classified as patrilineal and patrilocal by G. P. Mur;

dock.

The religious systems of India are complex (see Hinduism). Variation of the dominant Hinduist creeds is multiplied by caste cults. Islam is the official religion of Pakistan; there the Sunni doctrine predominates, but there are also Shi'ite and Ismailian peoples. Buddhism, which had its historical foundation in India, spread far beyond to other Asian countries, but has only a small number of members in India proper. Jainism is an early independent offshoot of Hinduism. The Parsis are Zoroastrians and dualists in belief. The Sikhs have their own monotheistic religion, which was a 15th-century Indie response to the Islamic incursion in the Punjab. There are small Jewish and Christian colonies of great antiquity in the south of India.

Ceylon

is

closely related to the Indie cultural area.

The

chief

ASIA

592 population

is

Sinhalese, an Indo-Aryan people.

The Tamils have

settled in the north of Ceylon, reversing the age-old pattern of

movement, since it is the Indo-Aryan which gave way. The Sinhalese of Ceylon are Hinayana Buddhist. However, Sinhalese also form the chief population of the Maldive Islands, where they are Muslims. The Laccadive Islands, off the west coast of India, are inhabited by Malayalam-speaking Muslims. Southeast Asia. This is an area which exhibits indigenous

—

which has also been subject to long-term and profound acculturation with India and China. It is the least clarified of the main cultural areas of Asia. There are three main linguistic stocks: Mon-Khmer, Sino-Burman-Thai and Malayo-Polynesian. The Mon-Khmer languages include Mon, Cambodian, Kha, Moi, Wa, Khasi and Garo; the Sino-Burman-Thai languages include Thai or Siamese, Laotian (Lao), Miao, Yao, Li, Yi, Kachin and Chuang; Malayo-Polynesian includes Malayan and Moi (as distinct from Mon-Khmer Moi). There are also isolated languages, features, but

whose presence may antedate the distribution of the larger stocks on the peninsula. These are spoken by small, relatively primitive groups who inhabit the forests and live by hunting and gathering plants: Yumbri of the Thailand-Laos border area; Senoi and Semang of Malaya; "Sea Gypsies" Orang Laut and Bajau of Malaya and Indonesia, and Salon (Selong) and Mawken of Burma.

—

Semang

is

of Malaya.

a collective designation for a group of Negrito tribes The Negrito peoples are a distinctive type, small in

homogeneous culture. They are widely Molucca Islands, the Andaman group, and on the mainland in Malaya and Thailand. It is evident that the Negrito, both as a physical type and as a culture, once had a wider distribution than today. Their economy, social organization and technology are simple. The Sea Gypsies are not a homogeneous cultural group. The Mawken have two divisions, one in close symbiosis with Malayans and Chinese of the region, the other in isolation. They live by the products of the sea. H. A. Bernatzik described their fishing as of simple technology. They have neither nets nor stakes, but fish with the spear and harpoon. The people live on boats, in extended families a group of boats forms a community. Shamanism is reported among them. The agricultural peoples are of two kinds: those with highly developed, intensive agriculture, with irrigation, fertilizer and the plow; and those with hoe or digging-stick agriculture. Rice is the main crop of both the advanced and the simple technologies. The simpler agriculture, lacking irrigation or fertilizer and usually stature, with a relatively

distributed in the Philippines, the

:

impermanent. Fields are frequently abandoned for long periods by the Miao, Yao and some Karen and Kachin. Those Karen and Kachin who live in the valleys use the plow. All the simpler agricultural peoples do some hunting, gathering and fishing. The Burmese, Thai, Malay, Cambodian, Laotian and Vietnamese peoples have a high cultural development. They share a complex combination of indigenous traits with a heavy overlay of Chinese and Indie influences. The Malays, a large proportion of Indonesians and a small part of the population of the Philippines are Muslims. In addition to profound influences on the material and spiritual culture of southeast Asia, India and China have both carried on in poor, upland

soil,

is

contributed large numbers of migrants in recent centuries who form a major part of the commercial urban as well as some of the rural populations of the area. City life and commerce, state organization, agricultural technology (irrigation, the plow, the cart, sericulture) are related to India and China. Taoism, Confucianism. Buddhism are omnipresent among the shamanist and Muslim peoples; Christianity

among the Karen. Southwest Asia. This region

has spread

—

is

remarkably homogeneous

in

geographic features and in the dominant religion of the area, The Islamic religion is divided into two main branches, the Shi'ite, centred in Iran, and the Sunni, centred in Arabia. A third branch, Khawarij, in eastern Arabia, has little numerical importance. While Islam is the dominant religion in southwest Asia, there is a large Jewish population in Israel and there are significant Christian communities in Lebanon and Turkey. its

Islam.

There are three chief ethnic and

linguistic

components of south-

west Asia: Semitic, Iranian and Turkic. The Semitic peoples are primarily the Arabs. Arabic is divided into a number of dialects in southwest Asia, the chief of which are those of the Arabian peninsula, Syria and Lebanon, and Iraq (see Arabic Language).

Small groups of Arabs, both farmers and nomads, also live in southwest, central and eastern Iran. Arabic, both classical and modern, belongs to the southern branch of the Semitic family. There are scattered groups of Syriacs or Aysors in Syria, northwestern Iran and northern Iraq. Syriac is related to Aramaic of the northern branch; Hebrew is classified in the western branch of the Semitic stock (see

Hebrew Language).

These tongues

are not mutually understandable; however, there

toward uniformity among the Arabic Languages.)

dialects.

is

a tendency

(See also Semitic

The Iranian speakers in the area are divided into two chief groups: west Iranian or Persian and related tongues; and east Iranian or Pashto (Pushtu), the official language of Afghanistan, and related tongues (see Iranian Languages). Persian, or Farsi, is the common and official tongue of Iran; its close linguistic relatives are Lur, Bakhtiari, Kurdish and Baluchi. Various dialects of Persian are spoken in Soviet Tajikistan, Afghanistan and in parts of Iraq. The Lur and Bakhtiari are mountain peoples of western Iran who speak a distinct language closely related to Farsi. The Kurds inhabit parts of eastern Turkey, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran. The Yezidi live in Kurdistan and speak Kurdish but have a religion which combines Zoroastrian and Islamic elements; one feature of their religion is the worship of Satan. The Lur and Bakhtiari are partly agricultural and partly pastoral. They have developed agriculture significantly only during the 20th century, largely because of economic and political pressure from without. The Baluchi of southeastern Iran and neighbouring parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan are primarily herdsmen; Persian farmers live among them. Gilak, spoken in northwest Iran, is related to Farsi. The Gilak are a mountain people with well-developed agriculture and practise some stock raising. Talysh is an Iranian tongue, related to Kurdish and spoken in the Caucasus mountain districts of the Soviet Union and in the Caspian district of Iran. Eastern Iranian languages related to Pashto include those grouped under the name Mountain Tajik or Galcha. These languages are spoken in the Pamirs by highly isolated communities,

many

of

them

of the Ismailian sect of the Shi'ites.

Pashto is the language of the Pathan of Afghanistan. The Pathans have a mixed agricultural and pastoral economy, like the Lur and Bakhtiari. Tajik (west Iranian) -speaking farmers live among them. The Mountain Tajik (east Iranian) also have a mixed economy. Irrigation is a necessity for agriculture throughout the region. The Kafirs are an indigenous population of the Hindu Kush mountains, whose language has affinities to Indie and to Iranian. They were a mountain folk, converted to Islam in the latter part of the 19th century. distant

Their pre-Islamic religion,

and inaccessible parts of

their country,

practised in

still is

a dualist one:

counterposed to an evil deity, Yush. Their closest linguistic kin is the Dardic group of languages. The third major population in southwest Asia is composed of the Turks, most of whom have moved in during the last 1,000 Those of Turkey are years (see Turks or Turkic Peoples). The Anatolian Turks are the largest numerically in this group. almost entirely given over to farming or to urban life pastoralism For is practised only by a few groups of Turks in the southeast. the most part stock breeding is carried on by communities whose a

good

deity, Imra,

is

;

Azerbaijani Turks live in northis agriculture. west Iran and in the contiguous Soviet Azerbaijan. They are an agricultural people, with secondary support from stock raising. The Turkmen of northeast Iran and north Iraq, originally a pastoral nomadic group, became largely agricultural and in part urbanized. The Gashgais of southwestern Iran are primarily pastoral nomads; a small proportion in western Iran are sedentary farmers. Uzbek farmers live in Afghan Turkistan, that is, the basic subsistence

ASIA low steppe-desert region near the Soviet frontier.

The Hezara of Afghanistan are a problem apart. By origin Mongols and nomadic pastoralists, they have become Persianspeaking farmers and urban dwellers. Only small groups in northern Afghanistan still retain the Mongol speech, which is heavily The Hezara are to this extent similar to the Manchus; iranized. in the process of conquest both took over the tongue of the conquered people and the local culture generally, save for tiny isolated enclaves.

Aside from these principal ethnic and linguistic groupings, there number of smaller groups. Armenians are Christians living

are a

Armenian S.S.R. and in nearby regions of Turkey. They and comprise a considerable urban element throughout the area. Jews, aside from those resident in Israel, live in the cities of the middle east and have a role comparable to that of the Armenians in commerce. The traditional family organization of southwest Asia is predominantly of extended type, patrilineal and patriarchal throughout the area. However, as urbanism develops, and as traditional folkways give way to modern, the family is changing in form to a nuclear or conjugal type in the cities and urban fringe. Nomadic groups such as the Arab Bedouin and Baseri, the Turkic Gashgai and Iranian Baluchi have retained a traditional family and social organization. The peoples with a mixed economy Bakhtiari, have experienced a transformation Lur, Turkmen, Kurd, Kafir the

in

are outstanding traders

—

—

The Arabs

of the oil territories in Kuwait, Bahrein and Saudi Arabia and the Persians and Arabs of Iranian Khuzistan have been transformed to an even greater degree. The continuation of traditional society may be found in enclaves such as Baluchistan that remain apart by reason of geographic inacin social

organization.

cessibility or lack of significant

Cultural Focuses. are focused in

—

raw materials.

The cultures of eastern and northern Asia China, in which the highest cultural development in

was attained. Proceeding north from China, the cultural become steadily smaller and the number of communities in To the north of the a culture and population density decrease. Chinese are the Mongol nomadic herders; to the west are the the area units

Turkic.

There

is

little

difference

between the steppe nomads and the

sedentary Chinese in complexity of social organization; each culture area has a complex social stratification and proliferous spe-

—

economic, political, religious. The difference between two groups appears to lie in the durability of institutions employing the various specialists. The Chinese and the nomads have many elements in common but the former have had metallurgy, writing paper, textiles, urbanism for a longer time and concializations

the

tinuously.

The

simpler peoples, measured by these criteria. The populations are smaller, and their densities significantly lower than those of the Turks and Mongols of the steppes. The largest indigenous population, the Yakuts, are hisforest area

contains

still

torically recent in the area.

The

economy

Insimpler than that on the steppe. have but one domestic herd animal, the reindeer. The Yakut have had horses and cattle but their stock are fewer both in absolute numbers and per capita. Moreover, their social institutions are simpler. forest

is

stead of raising variegated stock, forest dwellers

Nowhere are there permanent social stratifications. However, the Tungusic and Samoyedic peoples live in kin villages which in turn have broader relationships traced in the paternal line. They are without writing of their own and have few specialized occupations other than that of shaman.

The tundra peoples

Their population sizes and lower limit of the population sizes and densities of the taiga folk. They move in small bands which do not trace kinship with other groups and live mainly by fishing and hunting, which are supplementary sources of subsistence for the taiga and steppe peoples. The cultural topography of eastern and northern Asia may be represented by a downward gradient from south to north. Westward from China is the arid zone of Turko-Mongol pastoral nomadism with enclaves of oasis farming. There are pockets of are simpler yet.

densities are small, at the

593

mountain lakes of I singhai and Sinkiang. South from hina is an area of long and prol Chinese influence combined with indigenous and Indie trail Indie culture has achieved as dominant a position in south Asia primitive hunter-,

in

the vicinity of the I

as Chinese culture in east Asia,

There are two continent-wide networks of religious institutions. Southwest Asia has been the centre from which Islam spread to Pakistan, Turkistan, China, Indonesia, Malaya and the PhilipThus there is a great network of religious practice and pines. doctrine in central, east and southeast Asia, whose historical and ideological focus lies in southwest Asia. A religious institutional network has also spread from India. Ceylon, Burma, Thailand and parts of the Indochinese peninsula belong to the southern Buddhist tradition; Tibet. Mongolia and, to a considerable extent, China, Japan and Korea belong to one or another branch of northern Buddhism. Aside from these, Taoist and Confucian influences may be perceived in the countries of Indochina. Christianity has had a sporadic but ancient distribution in Asia. The culture areas of Asia have been brought into various unifying combinations by the spread of religious institutions.

At different times in the history of Asia there have arisen a number of political enterprises which have brought together different cultural worlds in various combinations, such as the Chinese. Indian and Persian empires. The Mongols and Turks have, during the past 2,000 years, created empires that temporarily combined all or parts of the steppe with all or parts of China, India and southwest Asia. The political and military framework within which the empires were formed was at the same time an economic framework. The movement of agricultural products from China to the steppe and of pastoral products from the steppe to China has been accomplished by trade, conquest, raiding and tribute collection. The economic interchange has formed a great institutional net, bringing together interior Asia and China and, to a lesser extent, south and southwest Asia.

Trade moved across Asia between Byzantium, Persia and Syria on the one side and China on the other along the "silk road" in ancient and medieval times. The Chinese have also traded with north Asia. Han artifacts have been excavated in Yakutia. India has had a long tradition of trade with southeast Asia. Economic, religious and political movements have spread from India to Burma, Thailand and Indochina, where a number of states have been formed with characteristic Indie institutions; these are the hinduized states of Indochina. plow cultivation with fertilization and Agriculture is intensive More primitive agriirrigation in the high cultures of Asia. culture is practised in the uplands of southeast Asia and in adjacent parts of India and China. There the digging stick replaces

—

—

the plow

;

fertilization

and

irrigation are little

known and

agri-

changed in a steady round. be differentiated by their characteristic tents or house types. The nomads of southwest Asia live in black cloth tents. Altaic nomads of interior Asia live in felt tents on a lattice frame. The reindeer herdsmen to the north live in tents of larch, birch or other bark, or hides and skins, in wooden huts or semisubterranean earth and wood houses. Most hunting, fishing and food-gathering peoples of southeast Asia and Siberia traditionally live in isolated, relatively selfsufficient communities. Even groups bearing the same name, such as the Chukchi, divided as they are into hunting and herding Specialization and interbranches, have little interdependence. dependence between herders and farmers throughout the rest of Asia is more highly developed. For related material on the peoples of Asia, consult articles on individual countries (Cambodia; Tibet), regions (Asia Minor; Lapland), tribal and ethnic groups (Malays; Pathan), lancultural sites are

Nomads may

Thai Language) and (Armenian Church; Tibetan Buddhism).

guages (Finno-Ugric Languages;

—

religions

Bibliography. General: H. A. Bernatzik, "Die grosse Volkerkunde," Asien, 2nd ed. (1954) ii, W. K. Matthews, Languages of the U.S.SJI. (1951) G. P. Murdock, Social Structure (1949) A. Meillet

vol.

;

;

I

ASIA

59+

and M. Cohen. lies Langues du monde, rev. ed. (ig52) W. Schmidt, Die SprachjamUien und sprachkreise der Erde (1926). V. I. North Asia: M. A. Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia (igi4) M. G. Levin and L. P. Jochelson, Peoples of Asiatic Russia (1928) East Asia: W. Eberhard, Potopov (eds.), Xarody sibiri (1956). "Kultur und Siedlung der Randvblker Chinas," T'oung Pao Supplement K. S. Latourette, The Chinese, Their History and Culture, 4th 104: ed. (ig.ii); G. B. Sansom, Japan, a Short Cultural History, rev. ed. T. Shahnd. China's Changing Map (1956). South Asia: W. H. Gilbert, The Peoples of India (1944) J. H. Hutton, Caste in India, 2nd ed. (1951) I. Karve, Kinship Organisation in India (195.;) R. C. Majumdai (ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, vol. 1, The Vedic Age (1951). Southeast Asia: Fay Cooper Cole, The Peoples 0. R. T. Janse, The Peoples of French Indochina of Malaysia (1945) R. le May, An Asian Arcacy (1926). Southwest Asia: Carleton 1044 C. G. Feilberg, S. Coon. Caravan: the Story of the Middle East (1951) Tente noire (1944); H. Field, The Arabs of Central Iraq (1935); /.,; If. Cullinder, Survey of the Vralic Languages (1957). (L. K.) ;

;

;

1

1

;

;

;

;

;

1

)

;

;

B. Physical

Anthropology

convenient to consider physical anthropology (1) from the standpoint of paleoanthropology, which concerns itself with the study of the fossil remains of man and his nearest relatives in the animal kingdom; and (2) from that of anthropography, which deals primarily with measurements and other records of contemporary human populations. The evidence of paleoanthropology and anthropography may throw much light on the origins, migrations and histories of the physical types represented in a given area. Fossil Man and. Other Primates. The Asian continent was It is

—

undoubtedly the scene of a large-scale dispersal of early members of the natural order to which man belongs, the Primates; yet a supposed corollary of this event or series of events, that he also emerged there, has been generally abandoned in favour of his probable origin in Africa a return to Charles Darwin's views of

—

Nevertheless, Asia is the home of the only the igth century. surviving genus (Tarsius) of the tarsiers, small nocturnal primates (about the size of a newborn kitten) nowadays confined to Borneo. Celebes and the Philippines, the fossil remains of which are of great importance in the study of man's remote ancestry.

Several tarsierlike creatures existed during the Paleocene and Eocene periods of the Tertiary epoch in North America and during the Eocene in Europe. A widely held opinion is that one of these gave rise to the catarrhine primates, namely, the old world

monkeys, the tailless or anthropomorphous apes and man. Fragments of jaws and teeth of Upper Eocene age from Burma have been given the generic names Pondanngia and Amphipithecus, while the forms they represent are thought by some students of primate phylogeny to mark a stage in the transition of primitive tarsioids to catarrhines. The U.S. paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson considered them to be possible apes of uncertain affinities. The extinct great apes belonging to the genera Dryopithecus (also European), Sugrivapithecus and Bramapithecus, whose remains have been recovered from Pliocene horizons in the Siwalik foothills of the Himalayas, are clearly too specialized to be accepted any longer as man's potential ancestors; but claims that the Lower Pliocene Sivapithecus (to which the Upper Pliocene Ramapithecus may be allied) of western Pakistan, Kashmir and northern India could be placed in the direct line of human descent were made by Guy E. Pilgrim in 1915 and 1927. In 1953 L. S. B. Leakey suggested that an African species of Sivapilkeciis from the Lower Miocene beds of Kenya might be a true representative of the stock from which man arose. Some enigmatic primate molars of enormous size sold in 1935 and 1939 as "dragon teeth" by Chinese pharmacists in Hong Kong and Canton to G. H. R. von Koenigswald, who proposed the genus Gigantopithecus to receive them, cannot be definitely assigned either to a great ape or to any member of the human family, the Hominidae. (Indirect evidence points to their having come from Middle Pleistocene deposits in Kwangtung and Kwangsi in southern China.) There are no misgivings about the Lower and Middle Pleistocene remains (called Pithecanthropus or Java man) discovered at various sites in Java over the half century 1890-1941. or about those of Peking man or Sinanthropus, of Middle Pleistocene date, found at Chou-k'ou-tien near Peking during the 1920s and 1930s. Their owners were not only certain hominids but should, by the ordinary

canons of zoological classification, be included generically

Man, Evolution of). man and Peking man (the best inclusive terms to moment) stood upright and had low flat skulls of about

in

Homo

(see

Java

— —

use at the i.ooo-c.c.

capacity in adult males the average for present-day European men is 500 c.c. higher with the greatest breadth as far down as the level of the ear openings, continuous bony bars above the orbits and across the occiput, a constricted frontotemporal region and mandibles lacking any chin projection. No artifacts can be directly associated with Java man, but Peking man made tools from stone and bone and knew the use of fire. Java man is represented by the parts of half a dozen craniums. Peking man was represented by more than twice as many, but the whole of the

Chou-k'ou-tien material disappeared at the time of Japan's entry World War II. The rest of the fossil hominids from Asia not of the species Homo sapiens are Upper Pleistocene in date. Eleven or twelve fragmentary calvariae or brain cases, found with two shinbones at Ngandong on the Solo river in central Java in 1931 and 1933, constitute Solo man or, according to the original description. Homo (Javatithropus soloensis. In appearance they resemble the skulls of Java and Peking man but have rather larger capacities. The human remains excavated in caves near Taghba on the Sea of Galilee in 1925. in the Mt. Carmel range near Atlit into

)

(Athlit) between 1929 and 1934 and in the Jebel Kafzeh near Nazareth during 1933 and 1934 belong to Neanderthal man. F. Clark Howell in the U.S. held that Homo sapiens evolved from Mt. Carmel and similar groups. This thesis was opposed by Henri V. Vallois in France, Gisela Asmus in Germany and others, who would

seek our ancestry in a more generalized human form. The skeleton of a child aged about nine, discovered in the Teshik-Tash cave near Samarkand, Uzbekistan, in 1938 marks the eastern limit of Neanderthal man's distribution.

Distribution of Physical Types. of mankind.

Homo

sapiens,

— The

single existing species

polytypic and

is

may

be divided into

four or five major racial groups or varieties, each composed of a number of races or subvarieties. Certain physical features tend to be constant within a particular major group and the average values of others distinguish

its

These are the

constituent races.

familiar

anthropometric and anthroposcopic characters and to them may be added the discriminating powers of the various blood-group systems. Relative to the vast size of Asian populations, the data on their blood groups, apart from those of Japan and Indonesia, are meagre. Of the ABO and MNS systems, the high frequencies of the B gene, especially in Pakistan, northern India and central Asia, gene in southern Asia. are probably adaptive, as are those of the A is often less abundant than B, and loses its otherwise almost universal predominance. Eastern Asia, like Europe, has only a over N; and S, rare in China, is common in slight excess of India. Of the respective Rhesus and Duffy systems, CDe (Rj) becomes increasingly predominant from west to east, and Fy a has a very high frequency. Of the Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Australoid, Negroid and Khoisar major groups, all but the last, which includes the Bushmen, Hottentots and Sandawe of Africa, have Asian representatives. The majority of the inhabitants of Asia, however, are Mongoloids, who

M

M

occupy most of the northern, central and eastern parts of the continent with outliers in Europe Kalmucks and Samoyeds). Oceania (Micronesians and Polynesians) and the new world (Eskimos and American Indians). The Mongoloid races in Asia are the Mongolian, divided into Aralian, Tungusian. Sinian and Pareoear subraces; the Himalayan, with two main branches; and the Indonesian. The European or Caucasoid peoples in Asia from wesl to east and north to south are the Uralic (Voguls and Ostyaks) between the Urals and the Ob basin; the Ainu (q.v.), in Sakhalir and Hokkaido, Japan, and one of the nearby Kuriles the Pamirian from Anatolia to Sinkiang; the Mediterranean, with one subrace the Heberian, in the Levant and Arabia, and another, the Caspian in Iran, Afghanistan, western Pakistan and the Indo-Gangetii plain and the Dravidian or Chersiote of peninsular India ant (

;

;

Ceylon.

The only Australoid type in Asia is the Veddian, whose mem known as pre-Dravidians or proto-Australoids

bers are sometimes

;

ASIA comprises the Vedda of Ceylon and the Kadir, fCurumba, Paniyan and Irula of southern and the Bhil, Gond and benchu of north central India. Small pockets of Veddoids have been identified in Baluchistan and in the Hadhramaut and Yemen in southAsian Negroid groups are wholly pygmies of Negrito ern Arabia. They include the Anrace who as a rule inhabit refuge areas. ft

I

daman

islanders,

the

Semang

of the

Malayan jungles and

the

mountain-dwelling Aeta of the Philippines. In southern India the Kadars and the Pulayas display attenuated Negritoid traits, which recur in eastern Sumatra. If the Malay archipelago is excepted, the continent can be separated into two main anthropological regions to the north and the south of the Himalayas. The presence of the Ainu at the periphery of the first suggests that they are descended from a Caucasoid race living on the mainland, probably south of the Amur river, toward the end of the last glaciation. The Tungus. who divide the

Ainu from the Uralics, are the most specialized of the Mon-

and show the results of adaptation to extreme cold. In second region Negritos seem to have been succeeded in turn by Australoid and Caucasoid peoples to the west and by Ausgoloids

ithe

and Mongoloids farther east. It is also possible that links between the Dravidians of India and the Somali of the horn

traloids 'exist

of Africa.

See also Anthropology: Physical Anthropology; Man, Evolution of; Races of Mankind; and articles on the individual

|

countries.

Bibliography.

— M.

Boule and H. V. Yallois, Les Homines

fossiles,

(1953); L. H. Dudley Buxton, The Peoples of Asia (1925); R. Biasutti, Le razze e i populi delta terra, 2nd ed., 4 vol., ii (1954); A. E. Mourant, The Distribution of the Human Blood Groups (1954).

;4th ed.

(J. C. Tr.;

IV.

A. Prehistory

The Near

,

East.

X.)

HISTORY and Archaeology

— After about

1930 the chief attention of near

from the capital cities of the ancient Bogazkoy (Turkey), Ur (Iraq) and Susa (Iran), to One such district the frontier regions between early civilizations. 'is the plain of Cilicia, in southern Turkey, where J. Garstang's Excavations at Mersin and those of Hetty Goldman at Tarsus illustrated the relations between Anatolia and Syria in prehistoric Another is the Amuq plain by the bend of the Orontes itimes. river, where Sir Leonard Woolley's work at Atchana revealed the iculture of a rich Hittite dependency, in close contact with Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Mediterranean world. Nearby, his excavations at El-Mina at the mouth of the Orontes shed much new light on the trading contacts between the Aegean and the east in eastern archaeologists turned

Iworld, like

the early colonizing period of the 8th century B.C.

This, together

with the conclusions of the joint expedition from the British School at

Athens and the University of Ankara to Old Smyrna, led to a Phrygian and Urartaean evidence and a revision former views on the origins of the oriental elements in the art

careful review of ,of

land civilization of early Greece.

work was done by Claude Schaeffer at the Ras Shamra. This was a very cosmopolitan centre 'in the 2nd millennium B.C., to judge from the wide variety of languages used on its clay tablets. Some of these were inscribed in a In Syria important

i

coastal site of

cuneiform script. At Kultepe. the ancient Kanesh, near Kayseri (Caesarea MazT. and N. Ozguc opened the karum or commercial suburb of Assyrian merchants, which flourished at the time when the Hit,:ite civilization was taking form; while at Karatepe in the Taurus nountains, the headquarters were found of a small neo-Hittite dngdom of the Sth century B.C., among whose relics was a bilingual 'nscription in Phoenician and Hittite hieroglyphic, which made possible great advances toward the complete deciphering of the latter enigmatic script. The mound of Beycesultan near Civril, oward the western frontier of the Hittite realm, was opened in '.he spring of 1954 by the British Institute of Archaeology at

junique alphabetic I

!aca),

\

Ankara.

In the central Anatolian plateau, a series of excavations conducted by the University of Ankara illuminated the culture of he Stone Age and Copper Age. The most important single recent

discovery in this region

was that of the royal graves

at Alaca

595

Huyuk, opened by

the Turki-h

Historical

Their rich

society.

contents proved that a high civilization throve on the plateau in in the middle of the jrd millennium B.C.

pre-Hittite times,

expedition from the Univei incmnati made a careol Hi arlik. check of the ti A brief but important \nglo-Turkish deep sounding at Polatli in 1940. provided a useful continuous stratification in a district between the full excavations at Alishar and Kusura. The art of the Phrygian kingdom was illustrated by the remarkable wall paintings uncovered by the Turkish Historical society in the fortress of Pazarli, while remains of the Phrygian capital itself, at Gordium. were in part uncovered by a party from the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia) museum, and those of the Midas City by an expedition from the French Institute of Archaeology at Istanbul.

An

it

I

ful

The British School of Archaeology in Iraq, under the direction M. E. L. Mallowan, turned its main attentions to the Assyrian levels of the mound of Nimrud at Nineveh. Comparable Assyrian of

material was recovered at Sultantepe near Urfa by the expeditions of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara during

an exploration of the monuments of Harran and the surrounding Throughout the fertile crescent and neighbouring recountry. gions, much attention has been given to the search for the earliest traces of settled Neolithic civilization. These were found in deep diggings at Mersin, at Jericho, at Khirokitia in Cyprus and at Hassuna and the Jarmo cave in Iraq. In Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan stratified excavations are very rare. The chief are those at Siyalk in central Iran, at Hissar in the southern foothills of the Elburz and at Geoy Tepe in Azerbaijan. The main problems there concern the links between Mesopotamia and the Indus valley, and the relative chronology of the plateau and the great river valleys. Contributions to these studies were made by the explorations in Baluchistan in 1950-51 by a party from the American Museum of Natural History in New York, and by the deep sounding by J. M. Casal at Mundigak near Kandahar in Afghanistan. Apart from researches in prehistoric strata, French archaeologists in Afghanistan, w'ho by an agreement of 1922 were given special opportunities for work in that country, explored widely for remains of the Bactrian Greek civilization; and in 195 1 at Surkh-Kotal in Bactria began excavations of a 2nd-century a.d. temple with a fragmentary inscription

Greek characters.

in

in Arabia has included explorations of the tumulus Bahrein and Hasa; several reconnaissances in Yemen, the chief of which was that from Egypt, published by Ahmed Fakhry and extensive journeys in search of epigraphic material by G.

Modern work

fields of

Ryckmans. In the Syrian desert, ordinary methods of ground exploration aerial photography in the study of the archaeology of the eastern Roman frontier. Pere A. Poide-

were supplemented by the use of

bard pioneered this work in Syria, and it was continued in Iraq and Jordan by Sir Aurel Stein in his last major journeys, of 1938-39. In Jordan in 1947 there appeared the first of the Dead sea scrolls, manuscripts in Hebrew and Aramaic of books of the Old Testament and other works probably compiled by the Essene sect Later protracted searches in the caves in the 1st century a.d. about Khirbet Qumran produced further documents. In addition to various sections under Archaeology, see Asia Minor: Archaeology; Babylonia and Assyria; Cilicia; Dead Sea Scrolls; Hittites, The; Mesopotamia; Phrygia. Also consult Mersin, Urartu and other ancient sites; and articles on the various countries.

Bibliography.

— W.

F.

Albright,

The

Archaeology

Palestine

of

V. G. Childe, New Light on the Most Ancient East (1952) (1949) E. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East (1941) J. L. Myres, "Recent Archaeological Discoveries in Asia Minor," Iraq, vol. vi, pp. 71-90 (Wm. C. B.) (1939). India and Greater India. In India, improvement in archaeo;

;

;

—

logical

method

resulting in increased

knowledge makes

it

possible

to present an almost complete narrative from earliest times. Stone tools of the Paleolithic period have been found distributed all

over India.

In the north some of these are associated with

river terraces corresponding with glacial

and

interglacial periods.

Similar aggradation and downcutting of river valleys

is

produced

ASIA

596

by the dry and wet periods of the south, where tools have been found in cemented gravels and pebble or gravel conglomerate, the most complete range of tools, from Clactonian types to microliths, one section being that at Khandivli near Bombay. Hunting, food-gathering Mesolithic peoples, who used microliths to point and barb their arrows and as knives and scrapers, were In forest areas as widespread as their Paleolithic predecessors. this cultural stage with its use of microliths persisted to the early In the valley of the Son river and centuries a.d. or even later. the Mahadeo hills and at Singhanpur, rock paintings, physically microliths, have been compared with Paleolithic associated with paintings in Europe: actually the majority are of the early historic period and none is earlier than iooo b.c. At Kile Gul Muhammad near Quetta a Mesolithic settlement having mud-walled huts but no pottery was found, and it is in such communities that the approach to the Neolithic, food-producing stage is observed. The Neolithic period in India is the hardest to determine, depending mainly on the advance in agriculture to make its evidence apparDigging-stick cultivators would show no change in material ent. possessions from those of the Mesolithic food gatherers. Hoe cultivation, possibly with terracing, needs stone hoes and slash-andburn cultivation needs axes. By far the greater number of ground and polished stone axes have been found in the east and south. Excavations in Brahmagiri in northern Mysore and at other sites have shown that the use of such axes persisted to the 2nd century b.c. The first settlement at the megalithic site of Burj Hama in Kashmir is of a stone-ax-using people, not necessarily connected with the megaliths. The small amount of copper found at some stone-ax sites hardly in

being classed as Chalcolithic, or copper- or bronzesome extent to the peasant farmers of Baluchistan. It would appear also that up to the end of the 4th century b.c. the cultural progress of greater India followed the same pattern and that a Neolithic mode of life, of which highly

justifies their

using,

and

this applies to

polished stone axes and tanged stone adzes were the highest achievement, persisted until influenced by India and China at about that time. In the hill valleys of Baluchistan, from the Iranian frontier on the southwest to the Zhob on the north, many

—

the settlements of early peasant comsites have been discovered munities whose remains are mostly a succession of painted pottery pottery, as shown by the sites of Rana Zhob and Kile Gul Muhammad, was followed by wheel-thrown painted pottery of Kechi Beg-Amri type, so-called industries.

Ghundai

Handmade

in the

and in Sind. This is the earliest ware of makers arrived from Persia after the breakup there of the painted-pottery cultures, between 2800 and 2600 b.c. Both near Quetta, where it appears with Late Kechi Beg, and in Sind, associated with Middle Amri, is an industry known as Togau ware which is also associated in Sind with very early Nal industry types, and as these and Amri ware overlap the appearance at about 2600 B.C. of the Harappa culture pottery, a basis for approximate after sites near Quetta this type

and

its

dating has been obtained. Various cultures, largely represented by their pottery, fill the period between 2600 and 1800 B.C. when they were all swept away by invaders from the west. The most important of these is the Kulli culture, widespread throughout southern Baluchistan, having metallurgy as highly developed as that of the contemporary Ha-

rappa culture and a painted ware with motifs deriving both from India and Persia. Of the Nal-Nundara culture much less is known. There are definite contacts with Amri in its earlier stages, but the site of Nundara has not been excavated and the Nal cemetery seems to have been used during a period when that site was deserted, between the disappearance of a Kulli occupation and the establishment of a

Zhob

settlement.

In the Zhob, communities with bichrome pottery of Amri type were ultimately displaced by a people who spread from Periano Ghundai in the north and who took over on all sites southward to that of Nal, bringing their characteristic black-on-red pottery and mother-goddess figurines with them. It was this people and those of the Kulli culture who were in occupation when the period of invasions started.

an urban civilization, the Harappa culture, which suddenly appears complete with all its cultural characteristics fully developed. The' area affected by this culture was considerable, the two chief cities; Harappa in the Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro in Sind, being 350 mi. apart. Its outstanding features are the high level of town planning, the developed system of drainage and sanitation and the measure of civic control

which these imply, unique

remote

period.

deep and shallow bowls, that of lapping for joins and the cireperdue method of casting were known, but the majority of objects were hammered from rods or cut from sheet metal. Bitumen, which was obtained locally, was used to calk the great bath at Mohenjo-Daro. Cotton clothing was worn, sometimes decorated with embroidery or applique cloth. Wheeled transport and a system of weights and measures completes the picture of a civilized community. A vast number of steatite seals were unearthed displaying a line of script and a picture, usually an animal, the ox, elephant, tiger and rhinoceros predominating. The undeciphered script seemed to be a syllabary of stylized pictographs produced arbitrarily as the result of a knowledge of writing. Terra-cotta figurines have been found in great numbers, the majority being oxen male and female figures may be either deities or votaries, and clay carts and some of the animals were probably Large quantities of plain mass-produced wares and fewer toys. slipped and painted black-on-red jars represent the household pottery of the Harappans. At the two principal sites the presence of a fortified area argues for citadel rule. The culture was Chalcolithic in character, copper and bronze being supplemented by a profusion of cherty flint blades which were the normal utility ;

knives.

After 1942 there was a great increase in knowledge about the "dark age" period, from the ending of the Harappa culture to the invasion of Alexander the Great. In the northwest, invaders, having with them an increasing Aryan element and who buried their dead en route on the Shahi tump mound in Baluch Makran, occupied small towns in Sind, their remains being called the Jhukar culture. Similar invaders also seized Harappa where their burials Polychrome ceramic industries such as have been unearthed. that of Trihni in Sind spread also over the Zhob between 140c and 1200 B.C. In northern India the first evidence for the appearance of iron is the arrival of a people in Baluchistan from Persia, who between Soo and 450 B.C. spread from Persian Makran They were horse riders who buried their dead in to the Zhob. cairns and used iron. Excavations at Ahichhattra (Ramnagar; 1940-44) and Hastinapur (1950-52), sites of the historic period, produced ceramic industries which stretch back to meet the early wares of the northNorthern black polished ware found throughout northern west. India dates back to 400 B.C., and stratified below this appears painted gray ware which would start at about 650 B.C. Associate! with this, but possibly originating about 200 years earlier, is ar ochre-washed ware that can be linked with the copper hoards 0: the Ganges valley, containing swords, daggers, harpoons and axes which previously had no archaeological context. In south Indi: an iron-using people who buried their dead in a variety of fashions notably in megalithic tombs, succeeded, during the 6th to 2nt centuries b.c, a Neolithic people who had as their equipmen ground and polished stone axes and microliths. See also Archaeology; India-Pakistan, Subcontinent of; Indian Architecture; Indian Art. 1

—

Bibliography. General: Archaeology in India, Government ot India publication (1950) S. Piggott, Prehistoric India to 1000 B.C (i9So). Paleolithic period: L. A. Cammiade and M. C. Burkitt, "Fresh Light on the Stone Ages of South East India," Antiquity (19.50) H. de Terra and T. T. Paterson, Studies on the Ice Age in India and Associated Human Cultures (1939) V. D. Krishnaswami, "Stone Age India,' Ancient India, no. 3 (1947) K. R. U. Todd, "Palaeolithic Industries oi ;

;

;

In the Indus valley the peasant communities were succeeded by

at that

The dating proposed in the mid-1950s to cover the known development of this civilization was from 2500 to 1500 B.C. The granary at Mohenjo-Daro and the coolie lines, granaries and grain-pounding platforms at Harappa show that the economic basis was large-scale agriculture. The metallurgy of this people was well developed. The processes of raising and sinking to make

;

.

ASIA R. Anthrop, Inst, (1939); K. E, Zeuner, Stone hr analogy in Gujarat, no. 6 in the "Dcccan College nc 1950) [faph Series" I/, olithic pencil: D. II. Gordon, "The Rock Paintings of the Mahadcn Hill?," Indian Art and Letters (1936), "The Si Industries India and Pakistan," Ancient India, no. 6 (1950); ,)f the Holocene in Ghosh, "Kmk Paintings and Other Antiquities ol Prehistoric and \l [rchaeological Survey oj India No, Later Times," Memoirs oj th, 1 H. D. Sankalia, Investigations in Prehistorii •(1932) Gujarat (1946); V. A. Smith, "Pygmy Flints," The Indian Antiquary

iombay,"

J.

I

M

(

i

i

I

;

90t>>-

I

Neolithic period: B, S. Rao, Stone Age Cultures of Bellary, no. 7 in "Deccan College Dissertation Scries" (194S); L). Sen, "A Celt Site Singhbhum," Man in India (1950) E. C. Warman, "The Neolithic 'roblem in the Prehistory of India," /. Wash. Acad. Sci. (1949) R. E. M. Wheeler, "Brahmagiri and Chandravalli 1947," Ancient India, no. 4 ;iQ47-48). Peasant cultures: B. de Cardi, "On the Borders of Pakistan," Art ind Letters (1950) W. A. Fairservis, "Preliminary Report on the Prelistoric Archaeology of the Afghan-Baluchi Areas," Amer, Mus. Novit, H. Hargreaves, "Excavations in Baluchistan," Memoirs of the 11952) Archaeological Survey oj India No. 35 (1925) N. G. Majumdar, "Explorations in Sind," Memoirs oj the Archaeological Survey of India No. E. J. Ross, "A Chalcolithic Site in Xorthern Baluchistan," l8 (1934) Journal of .Wear Eastern Studies (1946) Sir Aurel Stein, "An Archaeh.

11

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

ological

Tour in Waziristan and Northern Baluchistan, Memoirs oj the Archaeological Survey oj India

Jedrosia."

"In yj and

etc.,"

A'o.

(1929, 1931)Harappa culture : E. Mackay, Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Vol. (1937, 1938), Chanhu-daro Excavations, 1935-36 (1943); Sir f. lohn Marshall (ed.), Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, 3 vol. Sir Mortimer Wheeler, The Indus Civilization, supp. vol., Cam193 1 bridge History oj India (1953). Dark ages: K. de B. Codrington, "Indian Cairn- and Urn-Burial," Man (1930) B. B. Lai, "Further Copper Hoards From the Gangetic >3asin." Ancient India, no. 7 (1951) D. H. Gordon, "The Early Use of VIetal in India and Pakistan," J R. Anthrop. Inst. (1932) S. Piggott, 'Dating the Hissar Sequence the Indian Evidence," Antiquity (1946) W. A. Smith, "The Copper Age and Prehistoric Bronze Implements of India," The Indian Antiquary (1905, 1907). (D. H. G.; Hq. M. V.) •3

)

;

I

;

,'

—

,

The Far

East.

—The

;

.

earliest traces of

;

human

activity in Asia

been found in clefts in limestone hills at Chou-k'ou-tien. 26 :mi. SAY. of Peking. In 192 1 J. G. Andersson and O. Zdansky Identified a new type of fossil man. Sinanthropus pekinensis, from the evidence of two molars. Later W. C. P'ei discovered the primitive skulls, hearths and roughly chipped stone implements. Excavation at the site continued until 1939 and was resumed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 195 1. The crude tools are distinct in shape and method of manufacture from the hand axes characteristic of the Lower Paleolithic, but they are of comparable anitiquity. perhaps about 400.000 years old (see Man, Evolution of: Pithecanthropus). Cultures corresponding to the Middle Paleolithic of Europe, with Mousterian-type tools, had not been found farther east than the Crimea, the Chusovoy valley in the Urals and the Abkhazia district of the western Caucasus by the mid-1950s. The great expanse of Asia to the east had yielded no cultural remains between Chou-k'ou-tien and a period corresponding, at the earliest, to the later Upper Paleolithic of Europe and to ithe terminating millenniums of the Pleistocene or Ice Age. Southern Siberia has been relatively well explored by archaeologists. On the Angara river near Irkutsk (Verkholenskaya gora) land in the Yenisei basin (Krasnoyarsk kray) are found traces of a flint- and bone-using culture somewhat resembling the Magdalenian and Solutrean of Europe, with pressure-flaked flint points and ibone harpoon heads, but lacking the developed art of the west. ;These cultures are perhaps 10.000 or 15.000 years old. Later the |have

597 Some

decorated ! notched sticks and is thereby with the impression related to a broad tradition diffused acrOH Asia from nort! Europe tO Japan and even to North America. Microlithic stone icateddog.

assisteil

of their pottery

is

known from Sjara-osso-gol in the Ordos region of in Manchuria at Djalai-nor and Ku-hsiangAt Lin-hsi in Manchuria and Singer in Sinkiang the microliths were mingled with Neolithic elements. The northern belt of cultures described above reaches to the To the south lies the cradle of the High sea in Kamchatka. Bronze culture of protohistoric China, based on the easy agriculture of the Y'ellow river valley. The Neolithic cultures which preceded the Bronze Age in this area are much more advanced than the Mongolian Neolithic and their origins seem to owe nothing to The southernmost zone, comprising south China, Indochina it. and the great islands, also possessed a distinct pre-Bronze tradiIn the Tongking province of Indochina the excavated site tion. at Hoabinh had only small chipped stone tools unlike anything found in the north, while Bacson produced an individual kind of stone ax, polished only on the edge, and some rough pottery with impressed decoration. But in the south investigation had not gone Over the whole of the area are found far at mid-20th century. rectangular polished stone axes, sometimes like the northern ones. industries are

northwest China, and tun.

Their distribution overlaps but does not coincide with the distributions of quasi-cylindrical and shouldered axes. In the southern coastal provinces of China the rectangular axes are found associated on surface sites with corded pottery. The use of stone in the southern zone continued into historical times. The painted-urn culture of Kansu, the westernmost of the three Neolithic traditions of the central zone of China, was first investigated by Andersson in its numerous cemeteries around Lan-chou. The large, handmade, necked urns accompanying the extended earth burials are richly painted with formal patterns in black, red and purple. These splendid vessels resemble those found at Anau in Turkistan and in the Tripolye culture of south Russia, but not Their anclosely enough to warrant a direct cultural affiliation. cestry

is

territory.

mysterious

;

there are no linking sites in the intervening

Andersson went on

to discover the

Painted Pottery

r

Neolithic now called after the type site at Y ang-shao-ts'un in Honan province. The techniques of painting and some simple

geometric decoration link the Y'ang-shao Neolithic (which is now known from many sites in Honan) with the Kansu culture, but there was no evidence showing their exact relation in time and

The third Neolithic culture of central China is called Lung-shan, after the type site in Shantung province discovered by K. T. \Yu. It is characterized by a fine burnished ware in wheelrecturned vessels of angular outline; abundant gray pottery tangular polished stone axes; walls built of compressed earth; and space.

-

;

(at the type site) by a method of divination in which heat was applied to the shoulder blades of cattle, the resulting cracks giving the augur his clues. This Black Pottery culture is traced in eastern

and northern Honan,

in

Anhwei and

as far as the

Kwangtung

J

stone tools of eastern Asia include many tiny parallel-sided blades !with little secondary trimming, intended for mounting in series. These microliths also echo the European and north African de-

velopment but lack the geometric shapes which appeared 'west.

The

microlithic cultures lasted long, for in Siberia,

in the

Mon-

and Manchuria they are often found combined with Neolithic elements in the shape of polished or partly polished stone axes, |crude handmade pots with rounded or pointed bottoms and small triangular arrowheads. At Ulan Khada on Lake Baikal a layer 'containing the Neolithic additions was found stratified over another, similar but for the absence of the Neolithic types. With the advent of pottery and stone polishing, probably about 3000 B.C., these cultures are termed Neolithic, although they knew nothing of farming or cattle raising. For food they relied on hunting. golia

gray ware resembles that found on numerous unexcavated sites associated with raised-earth platforms in south central China. With the Y'ang-shao culture it shares the vessel with three baglike feet called //', which is characteristic of the Neolithic of central and northeast China and is not peninsula in the northeast.

Its

found elsewhere. The Bronze Age of central China is known from excavations near An-yang in northern Honan on the site of the capital of the later r The occupation kings of the historical Shang or Y in dynasty. covered the period stated by the literary tradition to extend from 1402 B.C. to 1 122 B.C., dates considered by some scholars to give too short a period to this dynasty, which is now thought to extend from 1523 B.C. to 1027 B.C. (For an account of the contents of this rich culture and its paramount significance for the later history and art of China, the reader is referred to the articles Ar-

chaeology and Chinese Sculpture.

Here only some points of The most striking

special archaeological interest are mentioned.)

material achievement of the culture is its ritual vessels of bronze The technique is reflecting aspects of a primitive religious lore. unsurpassed in the bronze art of the ancient world. Excavation

S

ASIA

98

revealed hundreds of storage pits; two large building foundations rammed earth surrounded by the graves of human sacrificial victims; burials of complete chariots and great royal shaft tombs at which human victims had been immolated by the score. Thouof

sands of inscribed tortoise shells and scapulae used in divinations have thrown light on religious and other affairs of the Shang dynasts and furnished unexpected corroboration of the majority of royal Shang names recorded in historical texts. The general pattern of this Bronze Age civilization is familiar from excavations in the near east, at Ur and elsewhere, but there is nothing to support the idea of transplantation of a culture from the west into central China. That the roots of the An-yang culture go deep in China itself is shown by its links with the preceding Neolithic. Yet in China no more primitive version of Bronze Age culture has been discovered.

Bronze metallurgy seems to have arrived suddenly and to have been applied to forms already evolved in other materials. The characteristic weapon, the ko halberd, is undoubtedly a Chinese The only type owed ultimately to the west is the invention. socketed ax, of which very few were found. Versions of the ko occur in the little-known Dong-son culture of southwest China and Indochina, and in the Karasuk bronze culture of the Minusinsk basin of southern Siberia. From the latter region animal-headed bronze knives of Siberian type were imported into China. The rise of the Karasuk culture coincided with the appearance in southern Siberia of a Sinid people who may have been driven from the northwest march of the Shang state by military pressure. Japan had no share in the spread of bronze metallurgy and weapon types from the Shang centre, and was hardly acquainted with the use of metal before the beginning of the Christian era, when iron had been in use in addition to bronze for about three centuries on the mainland. The introduction into Japan of Neolithic culture, with the use of polished and chipped stone tools and pottery decorated with the impressions of cords, shells and wooden stamps, may, however, be almost as early as the appearance of the Neolithic on the mainland of east Asia. It is interesting to note that the influences discernible are from the northern and southern zones, and that no connection with the early cultures of central China is apparent. See also Archaeology; Indian Architecture; Indonesian Archaeology; Indonesian Art; and articles on individual countries, such as Burma; Cambodia.

—

Bibliography. J. G. Andersson, Children of the Yellow Earth C. W. (1943) L. Bachhofer, A Short History of Chinese Art (1946) Bishop, "The Neolithic Age in Northern China," Antiquity (1933) (W. Wn.; Hd. M. V.) H. G. Creel, The Birth of China (1936). ;

;

;

B.

Exploration

from the sight and knowledge of man, but for centuries the broad belt of deserts and mountains from Arabia to eastern Siberia has attracted explorers by its very inaccessibility and by the secrets it offers of past civilizations, Modern exploration is rarely climates and landscape evolution. concerned with venturing into the unknown, but rather with the scientific investigation of the little known. Early Period. Europe's knowledge of Asia in classical times was derived mainly from contact with traders. The salt of northern India and that of Palmyra, traded between Syrian ports and the Persian gulf, were known before Alexander's day. Silk was imported at Cos before classical times, and knowledge of its cultivation spread westward from China through central Asia and Persia. Chinese pilgrims journeyed in Turkistan from the 5th century. The advancing Mongols in the later middle ages drew attention eastward. Franciscan friars made early journeys: Joannes Carpini (q.v.; 1245-47) and William of Rubruquis (q.v.; 1253-55) n central Asia. Giovanni di Monte Corvino {q.v.) was created archLittle of Asia remains hidden

—

i

bishop of Peking in 1307. The travels of the brothers Polo to the court of Kublai Khan and their hearsay descriptions of the farther east added greatly to contemporary information. (See Polo,

Marco.) 19th and 20th Centuries. ploration for yield

its

its

own

sake,

secrets to travelers

—

Colonial expansion engendered exand the unknown heartland began to and surveyors. Father Evariste Hue

crossed the Ordos and Koko Nor, reaching Lhasa in 1846. q.v. Nikolai Prjevalsky q.v. crossed the Gobi and mapped the sources (

I

(

Russian military surveyors

filled in

much

the last quarter of the 19th century.

Vounghusband

i

)

of the great southeast Asian rivers in 1870-73.

.

British, Indian and

detail in central Asia in

The names

of Sir Francis

Tibet and Sven Hedin (q.v.) in Persia, Turkistan. the Pamirs and Tibet stand out, the latter discovering ancient cities apparently dependent on rivers and ground water more plentiful than at present. Sir Aurel Stein (q.v.) continued this

work

(q.v.)

in

into the 1940s.

Modern

exploration has

become

increasingly scientific, though

the urge to climb the world's highest peaks has been a powerful

Ellsworth Huntington (q.v.) in the Tien-shan and Altai (1903), the Filippi expedition in the Himalayas and Karakorum (1913-14) and later researches, e.g., Hellmut de Terra in Kashmir and Tibet, have sought to unravel the climatic changes from Pleistocene times. Stein, Hedin and others contributing archaeological stimulus.

Workers, particularly in the Tibet-Himalayan field, became numerous in the 20th century. The conquest of Everest (1953 by a team led by Sir John Hunt crowned the efforts of three decades. Among other important researches may be mentioned F. Kingdon Ward's work on the China-Burma border, F. von Richthofen q.v. in China. R. C. Andrews (q.v.) and later R. D. F. Schomberg in Chinese Turkistan, P. A. Kropotkin (q.v.) and Baron E. von Toll (19th century and V. A. Obruchev (1926) in northeastern Russia. In southwestern Asia, archaeological excavation dominated (e.g., Sir Leonard Woolley's work in Iraq), but pure exploration of southern Arabia was continued by Bertram Thomas, H. St. John Philby and W. P. Thesiger. while the geologists G. M. Lees and (B. L. C. J.) J. V. Harrison worked in Arabia and Persia. detail.

)

I

I

)

C.

Summary

of General Social-Economic and

Cultural History Asia is a geographical, not a historical, concept. Civilizations, great and small, have arisen in Asia in history and have interacted

one on the other, but their span in both space and time has prevented the emergence of anything like an Asian culture. Turks, Indians. Chinese and so on differ in many important points, and the term Asian, Asiatic or oriental is a mere convenience. The history of Asia to be intelligible must therefore be broken down into

component parts. In the 20th century a sense of Asianism, as Asian consciousness, emerged, rather as a reaction to European and western dominance. The Pacific ocean has limited the spread of Asian peoples to the east, but on the west the borders commonly assigned to Asia; are somewhat arbitrary. The Urals mark no real division of peoples and in both the Greek and Turkish empires, for example. Asia Minor has been as much connected with Europe as with the lands to the east. However, the Urals, the eastern Mediterranean sea and the Sahara desert may roughly be taken as marking historically the western limits of Asia. It may be noted that, in a narrow sense, Asia was the name of the first Roman province east of the Aegean, its

:

formed in 133 B.C. By the reorganization of Diocletian this Asia was broken up into several smaller provinces, one of which, with, its

capital at Ephesus, retained the

name

—

of the original province.

Religions and Major Influences. The great religions of the world Buddhism, Christianity. Hinduism and Islam and others of considerable importance, such as Judaism, Parsiism and Taoism,; However, Christianity, though Asian in origin, all arose in Asia. has expressed itself most fully in Europe and the west, and its most important forms owe little to Asia. It has made little progress to the east of Asia Minor, and the great Christian missionary effort in southern and eastern Asia from the 16th century onward made only modest headway. Although in earliest times the Nestorians penetrated to India and China, they never had anything Yet Budlike the success which attended Buddhism and Islam. dhism and Hinduism never produced much impression west oi India, and Islam later was alike rejected by Christian Europe and Hindu India.

—

The

—

history of Asia in the past 2,500 years is primarily the reof the interaction of five main influences: (1) Chinese; Indian; (2) (3) Islamic; (4) European; including Russian; (5)

sult

ASIA central Asian.

Of

of civilization.

The

these, the first four represent different kinds fifth

has

little

originality hut has been of sig-

nificance in affecting the distribution of

peoples

md

oi

p

powei

China has molded the civilization of eastern \-ia including Japan, Korea and Annam and has been a primary influence on Mongolia, Tibet, Thailand. Cambodia and Burma. Wherever Chinese influence exerted itself, it introduced Confui ianisn Active style of an and. above all, the Chinese si ripl Indian iniluence has mainly expressed itself through Hinduism hese are not merely religious in nature but have and Buddhism carried with them Indian art and literature and often an Indian I

Tibet, Java! and

Cambodia. Indian influences h :i\t and of southeast Asia, including Malaysia and Indochina. Buddhism spread into China Japan, but Indian culture on the whole has itself been little affected alphabet, as

in

affected the peoples of central Asia

1

by Chinese art, literature or ethics. Islam spread widely in all directions from its original home in Arabia. It subjugated the near east, in which it is still the principal religion, also eastern and northern Africa. It spread for a time into eastern Europe and Spain. In the other direction it got a firm hold in the northwest and northeast of the Indian subcontinent, and the state of Pakistan now covers these two areas. Beyond India it reached the Malay archipelago where it submerged earlier Hindu influences. Through central Asia it reached and affected China, but it gained no foothold in Japan and Indochina. Islam, like Buddhism, took with it everywhere a special style of

and culture. It was usually accompanied by the use of the Arabic alphabet and the vocabulary of this language forms a large

art

Muslim peoples. Central Asia has been the region into and through which these

part of the languages of the

various powerful influences have been projected.

Archaeological excavations have shown that early in the Christian era there flourished in the Tarim basin small states, such as Khotan and Kucha, which possessed a mixed culture comprising Chinese,

and even Greek elements. Buddhist. Christian and Manichaean edifices have been found as well as libraries in many languages, two of which were previously unknown. Through central Asia Greek influences and later Islam penetrated India, and Buddhism passed from India into the far east and into parts of Indian. Iranian

southeast Asia.

Lintribes of the area have no common name. they fall into several groups such as Turks. Mongols and Huns and, in the face of difficult communications and terrain, only occasionally did several of the groups come together in one state. In history, central Asia has acted rather like a sponge, absorbing pressures and sooner or later transmitting them. Time and again these pressures have produced invasions of the peripheral regions and in the Christian era the following may be mentioned: the early invasion of Europe by the Avars. Huns and Bulgarians; the conquest of north India by the White Huns; the conquest of Russia by the Mongols; the conquests of Timur; the conquest of Asia Minor and eastern Europe by the Turks; the invasion of India by the Moguls the conquest of China first by the Mongols under Kublai and later in the 17th century by the Manchus. The Ancient Near East. This term is a historical concept [denoting the extent, in space and time, of the earliest civilized societies. Through archaeology, it is known that in this area the change from food gathering to food production first began and that ;the diffusion of agriculture, not only in the knowledge of grains ibut also in the technique of harvesting, took place. Toward the 3rd millennium b.c. the emergence of river- valley civilization in

The various

guistically

;

;

—

'Mesopotamia and Egypt set this area apart from the peasant cultures of the rest of Asia and Europe. The cradle of Mesopotamian 'civilization was the southernmost part of the Tigris-Euphrates ^valley, and there the first cities arose. As is known from the remains of their pottery, the earliest settlers of this marshy plain had descended from the highlands of southwest Persia. These people were probably Sumerians, speaking a very remarkable language which has not been brought into relation with any known tongue. Physically they belonged to the Mediterranean group of peoples. The high civilization of the Sumerian south penetrated the Semitic-

S99

middle regions oi the valleys, nbeni the Akkadian Vccadian) dyna tj under the ruler Akkadians imalh absorbed the 5urai rians, and out of this mixture emerged the -1 tte oi Babylon under Hammurabi, the lawgiver, in But the ep on oi the th century b.c. Sumerians remained the classical texts oi both Babylonians and, the Sumerian civilization had invented writing, later. Assyrians, at first as a practical requirement of the organization of their temples. They used pictograms, later supplementing them with phonetic signs. The form of the society which built the earliest cities has been called theocratic socialism. Its basis was a well-balanced mixed economy in which agriculture, Stock breeding and hunting Through the export of rugs and textiles, existed side by side. speaking peoples

ol the

1

1

weapons and jewelry, the influence of Sumerian civilization permeated the whole of the ancient near east. The Babylonian state collapsed before invaders, the Kassites, from Elam, who controlled Babylon for five centuries. They adopted the civilization and Semitic language of their subjects. The Hittites, who first invaded Babylonia about 15115 B.C., created a considerable empire covering northern Syria and the greater part of Asia Minor in the 14th century b.c. In the archives found at their capital, eight languages are represented, including Sumerian and Akkadian. Subsequently the Assyrians, who seem to have been an offshoot of the Babylonians using almost the same language, asserted, themselves and in the nth century b.c. became Their empire gradually broke up, finally sucthe chief power. cumbing before the Medo-Persian power at the close of the 7th century b.c. Babylon itself was taken by the conqueror, Cyrus, in 539 B.C., but its culture and religion continued to exercise great influence long after the Persian conquest.

In Egypt the cultural continuity was even stronger than in Mesopotamia, and there was never any change corresponding with the displacement of Sumerian by Akkadian in Mesopotamia. Whereas that land was dotted with autonomous cities, Egypt began in the upper reaches of the Nile valley as a royal domain which extended to cover the whole valley and to found a 1st dynasty about 3100 activities of society were cenan extreme degree and it was accepted that in the person of Pharaoh, the living king, a god had taken charge of the people. With relatively minor breaks the established order continued for many centuries, Egyptian influence at times reaching eastward to the upper Euphrates. Up to about 1200 B.C. the history of the ancient near east had passed through two main phases, the emergence of the first great civilization in Mesopotamia and Egypt and subsequently the gradual spread of that civilization to the periphery. About 1200 B.C. new waves of invaders broke into Asia Minor and the Levant destroying the Hittite empire and disrupting Egypt, and after this the creative power of the near east waned. Its main achievement was in the consolidation of acquired knowledge. From this period the centres of power move both to the west and b.c.

The administration and major

tralized to

Egypt and Mesopotamia. seen, Persian power in the 6th century B.C. destroyed the Assyrian empire and in 539 b.c. captured Babylon and created the Achaemenid empire. The Persians, with whom the Medes are often coupled, appear to be Aryan in origin, their language and religion offering remarkable analogies to those of the early Hindus in India. These two peoples appear to have had a common origin in central Asia. The Achaemenid power at its greatest extended from the Oxus and Indus in the east to Thrace in the west and Egypt in the south, but it fell before Greece after lasting for more than 200 years. Darius and Xerxes were repulsed in their efforts to subjugate the Greek peninsula and Alexander the Great conquered their successor, Darius III, in 331 b.c. But the greater

to the east of

As has been

part of the empire continued to exist under new masters, the Seleucids, as a Hellenistic power which was of great importance About the for the dissemination of Greek culture in the east.

2261 the Parthian empire arose under The Parthians were probably a Turanian tribe who had adopted Persian customs. At one time their India Syria. They withstood the Romans to power stretched from but succumbed to the Persian dynasty of Sassanids who ruled for about four centuries, establishing the Zoroastrian faith as their

same period

(,227 b.c.-a.d.

the Arsacids in Khurasan.

ASIA

6oo

and maintaining an equal conflict with the eastern Roman empire. But in the 7th century a.d. their power was overwhelmed in the first rush of the Mohammedan conquest which established Islam in Persia and in the neighbouring lands. India. The subcontinent of India is divided from the rest of Asia by the Himalayan mountain ranges. This has by no means kept India in isolation but it has resulted in the growth over a period of two to three millenniums of a Hindu civilization which in many of its aspects is unique. Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of a city civilization on the upper Indus valley which appears to have flourished in the 3rd millennium and to have had affinities with Sumerian civilization, but its inscriptions cannot yet be read and its history is still unknown. Hindu civilization came about in the 1st millennium B.C. as a result of the intermingling of Aryan and pre-Aryan cultures. Entering India sometime between 1800 and 1500 B.C., the nomadic state religion

—

Aryans settled in the northwest, thence gradually during the 1st millennium B.C. encroaching eastward on the pre-Aryan peoples in the Ganges valley and producing a multiplicity of settled states and a fusion of cultures. Society came to be dominated by a hereditary priestly class of Brahmans. Political multiplicity is a characteristic of India's history and the occasions on which most of the subcontinent was united under one rule were few and relaSuch periods occurred during the Mauryan rule of tively brief. Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., the Delhi sultanate in the 13th and 14th centuries a.d., the Mogul empire of the 17th century and British rule in the 19th century.

India lacked a common political consciousness probably because The Indoits social consciousness had developed so strongly. Aryan culture of the northern plains spread across the southern part of the peninsula during the second half of the 1st millennium B.C. and the Dravidian peoples of the south (Tamils, Kanarese, etc.) were at one with the north in accepting Hinduism and the caste system, a division of the population into groups, based partly on race, partly on occupation. In Hinduism, India cradled the oldest surviving world religion. India's greatest achievements lie in the intellectual and cultural field, and its religious and philosophical systems and Sanskrit literature stand among the finest achievements of the human mind. From the 4th century B.C. two Kharosthi in the northwest and the more imscripts were in use

—

portant Brahmi elsewhere. From developed not only for India but also for central and southeast the latter regional modifications

Indian grammar, law, architecture, sculpture, painting, music, arts and crafts, such as metal casting, enamel work, jewIn India elry, ivory and wood carving, were highly developed. the invention of calculation on a system of nine digits and zero Asia.

took place.

Indian art and science grew directly from

its religions

and philosophies. In the main this was a Brahmanical achievement, but in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. various reactions to Brahmanism began, the most important being the doctrines of Gautama the Buddha, which in the form of Buddhism grew into one of the greatest religions For many centuries the intellectual development of in the world. the Hindus depended mainly on the interaction of Buddhism and Hinduism, but Buddhism was finally absorbed and disappeared in India. But it proved acceptable on the frontiers and spread far and wide. Ceylon was converted. In the northwest it crossed the passes into Afghanistan and moved along the trade routes

through Turkistan into China, bearing with it in literature, sculpIt passed ture and painting, material forms of Indian culture. into Korea and Japan, gradually adapting itself to its new environments. In the 7th century a.d. Buddhism was imposed on Tibet, and that country remains a stronghold of the faith, which there takes the form of

Lamaism.

To

the south, in the early centuries

Buddhism followed the trade routes across the seas to southeast Asia and as a result mixed cultures sprang up

of the Christian era,

which Indian influences are discernible. In this direction, unmovements to the north, Hinduism also followed Buddhism, and petty Indianized kingdoms in Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia and Indochina were set up and a movement of Some of the greatest traders, scholars and travelers took place.

Borobudur and Lara Djonggrang

Java and Angkor

Wat

in

Cam-

ture. There it came directly into contact with Chinese civilization which had molded the adjacent empire of Annam. Champa was overrun by Annamite armies in the 15th century a.d. In general, the contacts between India and the west took place on the material plane. Trade, for example, between the Roman empire and southeast Asia via south India was considerable even in

the early centuries of the Christian era.

Europe was

little

affected

tury.

Southeast Asia.

many

by India

—The peoples of

whom

On

until the

the whole, western

end of the iSth cen-

this extensive region belong

with a determinable history were the speakers of the Mon-Khmer languages still used in Pegu and Cambodia. Early in the Christian era Indianized kingdoms were to

races, of

established in

the

first

Cambodia and

in

The Burmese, who are Burma from the northBurma had become a united kingChampa.

linguistically allied to the Tibetans, entered

west.

By

dom.

The Thais

the 16th century a.d. or Siamese,

who speak

a language of the Chinese

type but use an Indian alphabet, infiltrated from southern China and took power in Thailand in the 13th century a.d. The Annamites and Malays are discussed above. All these peoples have been closed about by the cultures of India and of China, and the higher elements of their civilization have been taken from these two primary sources. China, Japan and East Asia. Chinese civilization appears in northern China in the latter half of the 2nd millennium B.C. The discovery at An-yang in Honan province in 1899 of thousands of bone fragments, many of them inscribed, has confirmed the existence of the Shang dynasty (c. 1523-1027 B.C.), which previously had been thought to be legendary. Early Chinese civilization grew in the Yellow river plain extending southward toward the Yangtze and westward and northward along the Wei and Fen valleys in Shensi and Shansi provinces. During the Chou dynasty (1050-

—

256 B.C.), the great formative age of Chinese civilization, the intervening areas populated by groups of a lower culture were

conquered and absorbed. In

Han

times (202 b.c.-a.d. 221) the centre of Chinese culture

was still in the north but by the Sung dynasty (960-1279) the Yangtze valley began to outweigh the north in population and importance. Chinese expansion to the north, which reached the steppelands during the Chou dynasty, was much slower and it came to a halt on the steppe, among the nomadic herdsmen, where the Chinese system of settled agriculture could not be applied. conflict

between two ways of

life

resulted in the building

This

by

the

Chinese of a series of defensive walls, finally linked together by the Ch'in dynasty into the Great Wall. Korea and Annam came under Chinese dominance in the Ch'inHan period, but the former broke free again in the 4th century a.d. and the latter in the 10th century. Both absorbed Chinese culture. On the other hand, Japan, which was a united power by the 4th century a.d., never came under Chinese rule. However, Japan received the first elements of higher culture from China through Korea and in later times Japan set itself with determination and success to absorb Chinese culture.

In early historical times in China, society was dominated by a hereditary ruling class whose religion, involving the cult of heaven and of the family and clan, was not shared by the masses. The rulers were the custodians of the written language and of the traditions, and the scholars among them gradually formed during a period of political troubles a system of ethics

and

political

theory which the philosopher Confucius preserved and transmitted to posterity. These thinkers, moreover, had evolved the rational, ethical ideal of the ruler, the "son of heaven," holding the mandate of heaven but not himself divine and capable of being replaced if Theirs, too, was the ideal of supremacy of learning and of the scholar-ruler which became the accepted standard of the mandarin administrators of imperial

in

his

like the

the

surviving architectural creations in the Indian world, for example.

in

bodia, were conceived and built in southeast Asia. The kingdom of Champa in Indochina marked the farthest reach of Indian cul-

conduct betrayed his position.

China.

Many centuries passed, however, before the ideal of government through bureaucracy, selected on the basis of learning, reached it?

1

ASIA Tang dynasty

OiS lamination system, through which the mandarins were selected, This administrative system undoubtedly profunctioning fully. In- backbone of the remarkable political continuity of the vide.! empire helped to strengthen the ideal Ol political and Chinese unity, "all under heaven." which was throughout feature of ChiThe actual achievement of unity under the nese political theory. sct tne standard for the following Chin dynasty (221-207 Br 2.000 years, a unity which persisted through about 20 sui ci empire of the 10th century a.d. Different was the dynasties. as from that of the Chin, it had in fact undergone no major political revolution in the interim. Rebellions might take place, provinces might break away, rulers might change or be changed, but the system persisted. China's artistic achievement, like its ethical and political system, This is eswas greatly influenced by the scholar bureaucracy. pecially true of those arts that were based on the written character, whether in the form of literature or calligraphy or a great But the main stream of Chinese culture deal of Chinese painting. was also affected from the outside. New ideas, especially in the centuries the Christian era. entered freely from India and early of Of these Buddhism was much the most imthe Iranian world. portant, competing with Confucianism for the allegiance of the upper classes, deeply penetrating the later Taoist religion and providing a pattern for the organization of the Taoist Church. With Buddhism, too. came a deep influence on all Chinese art. An outstanding characteristic of Chinese civilization was its inventiveness which produced, among other things, paper, printing, gunpowder, the mariner's compass, the sternpost rudder and the wheelbarrow. Chinese silks, ceramics, jades and bronzes early found a market in other parts of Asia and in Europe. The expaninto sion of the Former or Earlier Han dynasty (206 b.c.-a.d. 8 central Asia opened up a major caravan route through Turkistan which for centuries provided a link with the Roman world. China's relations with the nomad peoples affected the movements of peoples throughout central Asia, from time to time creating repercussions in the near east, in Europe, in northern India and Iran. By the 2nd and 3rd centuries a.d. a southern sea route was opened from India and the west around Malaya to Annam and south China and by these land and sea routes trade and travelers passed freely. After the rise of Islam in the near east, trade bysea flourished and Arab ships were to be seen at Canton and Chinese junks in the Persian gulf. In the 8th century the caliphate and the T'ang empires came into Overland contact, direct land contact and conflict (a.d. 751 ). interrupted from time to time by the pressures of the steppe peoThen ples, was maintained from this time until the 13th century. a sudden major outburst of the Mongols created for a short period a single empire reaching from south Russia to the Pacific, allowing Europeans for the first time to visit and write about China. The Mongol empire soon dissolved, but the legend of Cathay (g.v. that was born in European minds lived on. and in the 16th century played its part in inducing the Portuguese to venture round the Cape of Good Hope and the Spaniards to cross the Pacific. Thus there came to the west a more detailed knowledge of Chinese civilization which in the iSth century created in Europe a craze for things Chinese. But by this time the Chinese Manchu empire was decaying, its administration rotting with corruption and its inspiration dead. As seen above, Japan had early begun to assimilate Chinese culture and in a.d. 645 a deliberate and wholesale introduction of Chinese forms of government took place. But the administration remained subordinate to a number of great landed warrior families who fought among themselves for control of the country. The Fujiwara. the Taira and the Minamoto bore the brunt of the struggle, the latter emerging victorious and in a.d. 1192 establishing a .dual system under which an emperor ruled in name while the real |power rested in the hands of a hereditary military chief called the shogun. This system was carried on by the Ashikaga family In the (1336-1568) and the Tokugawa family (1603-1867). 16th century the Portuguese reached Japan and attempted to introduce Christianity. In the resulting ferment, ideas of conquest

Not

fulfillment.

until the

(a.d.

t

.1

-

'

1

;

1

60

developed among a remai Hideyosbi, organised the invasion I

1

Death interrupted oi Korea no deforbidden and isolation. on policy was a cided oi Christianity ined until after Japan was closed to loreien ly history ol Japan oiefly remarkable for the singleminded way in which its people wen able to lose ranks and follow a set line of policy such as deliberately setting out to copy Chinese culture, adapting Chinese forms of government or shutting out i

I

the foreigtier.

Islam.

— The

term Islam (g.v.) covers the peoples and states and law of Islam and professed to live by them. Islam begins with the life and teaching of the prophet Mohammed in Arabia in the early 7th century a.d. The first Muslim state in Medina erupted in successive waves of conquest over Arabia into the fertile crescent and across Persia into central Asia. Its influence reached into China and northern Asia; at the same time it had also pushed westward across northern Africa to the Atlantic. Fresh impulses of conquest took Islam into southern Europe and through Spain into France. By sea first and then by land Islam was also carried into India, thence by sea again southeastward to Malaya and the East Indies. However, the heart of the Islamic world was and is the near and middle east. The caliphate under the Omayyads (Umayyads of Damascus (661-750,1 and then the Abbasids of Baghdad (750-1258; became the principal power. Wherever Islam was accepted it carried with it a sense of unity based on its strictly formulated faith and on its holy law which, despite much variation of custom over so vast a zone of conquest, remains a common ideal and pattern of belief and conduct for the whole Muslim world. Wherever it has gone it has taken its language, Arabic, which is the holy tongue of Islam, the language of the Koran and of the traditions of the Prophet. Almost all the languages of the Muslim world have borrowed heavily from Arabic and are written in its script. The art and architectural that accepted the faith

1

forms of Islam,

too. are distinctive, proclaiming the unity of the

Islamic cultural pattern.

Through

their military

and

political

power, reinforced by their culture, the Muslims brought together two formerly conflicting worlds, the diversified Mediterranean tradition of the ancient near east, Greece and Rome and the rich civilization of Persia, a fusion which produced great scientific and philosophic developments. Islamic scholars preserved something of the heritage of Greek antiquity, which was later handed on to Christian Europe. Through the Arabs the Chinese art of paper-

making and the Indian system of numerals reached Europe. Arab power was explosive and quickly burned itself out and by the nth century a.d. fissiparous tendencies produced a singularly complete collapse of the empire of which the European crusaders and traders in the 12th and 13th centuries took advantage by invading the near east. But the peoples on the periphery carried Islam with them. The khanate of the Golden Horde, which between 1241 and 1395 ruled from the Danube to the Urals, was a Muslim state as also were its successors in the Crimea, the Caucasus and the Volga. In the 14th century the islamized Ottoman Turks brought large areas of Europe under Muslim rule and created an Ottoman empire which lasted until 1922. Muslim dynasties ruled in Persia, and Islam was carried through central Asia in two main waves into north India by the Turks (1000-1526) and The Muslims never fully subjugated the Moguls (1526-1707). south India but their rule in the north under such rulers as Akbar and Shah Jahan was brilliant, both politically and culturally. But Hindu powers, especially western India, struck back at the Muslims in the 17 th century, creating disorder and disrupting the emIn these disturbed conditions European trading companies pire. already established on the Indian coasts, especially the English and the French, were drawn in to compete for political supremacy. Through trade Islamic influence had reached out in the 16th century from India to Malaya and Indonesia, peacefully overlaying Hindu culture in the main centres, though not in Bali. The influence of Asia on Africa was until the 19th century greater than that of Europe. The ancient near east drew on the resources both in men and material of the regions beyond the

ASIA

6o2

upper Nile valley. The ancient Abyssinian kingdom was founded by Semites from southern Arabia, and Islam penetrated both north and south of the Sahara across to west Africa. There was a continuous Arab migration to east Africa which founded a series of There was also an ancient connection between cities on the coast. India and eastern Africa, which was reinforced in the igth century by Indian immigration.

The great civilizations of Asia spread out over immense areas. Although they were separated one from the other by distance and slow communication, their contacts were numerous and between them the cross-fertilization of ideas and material culture was extensive. They were slow growing and slow changing, based in the main on subsistence economies. Their upper classes, however, created an active trade in ideas and luxury goods and in each civilization developed a way of life, whether Indian, Chinese or Islamic, that was chiefly remarkable for its inner harmony. Each religion or ethical code formed a way of life for its peoples and aspects of life served to express this.

Nevertheless, that their ways of life were very different one from the other is to be seen, for example, in their respective attitudes to history. The Chinese regarded the writing of their own history as an important state function and a significant branch of literature. Official historians all

were regularly In this

way

at

work producing

official histories

of each dynasty.

the doctrines of Confucianism were perpetuated

and

record of the times was made to conform to the accepted What man did in this life on earth was taken to be supremely important. The civilizations of the ancient near east and of Islam produced histories and chronicles justifying the the

official

doctrines.

ways of God to man and in the case of Islam seeking to show that a good Muslim would certainly be a good ruler or a good subject. What a Muslim did on earth was necessarily important. In striking contrast the Brahmans of India disregarded their own history. Consistent with their view of

life,

they did not regard the recording

any significance compared with These differences illustrate the fact that oriental civilizations did not find uniform solutions to their problems. Asia and Western Dominance. At the close of the 15th century, that is, about a quarter of a century before the Moguls began to conquer northern India and a half-century before the last great dynasty of China (the Manchus) established itself, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama found its way around the Cape of Good Hope into Indian waters. While the Moguls went on to conquer the Indian mainland, the Portuguese made themselves

Meanwhile the French, pushed out of India and forestalled in Burma, established control over Cochin China, Annam, Tongking, Laos and Cambodia. The independence of Siam (Thailand) was preserved because of its buffer position between the British in Burma and the French in Indochina. In the near east, the Ottoman empire was crumbling under internal stresses and external pressures. In 18S2 the British took control of Egypt in order to safeguard the new route to India through the Suez canal (1869), and the French, who had already crossed the Mediterranean into north Africa, later found a foothold in Syria. The far east was to some extent protected by distance and the rivalries of the European states elsewhere, but in 1842 and thereafter China was forced to open some of its ports to foreign trade and residence and to accept treaty provisions giving a special position to foreigners, a status which was substantially maintained 1930s. Beginning in 1854, the United States opened Japan, under arrangements similar to those forced on China. Meanwhile across central and northern Asia Russia was advancing by military force, political manipulation and colonization. By 1900 Russia was established on the Pacific coast, and both China and Korea were being threatened from land and sea. The Recovery of Asia. By this time the peoples and governuntil the

—

ments of Asia had begun

to react to the impact of Europe. Their 20th-century history is largely the story of change looking toward recovery of full independence and political and economic moderni-

Japan, a tightly organized, compact island state, moved by again making a deliberate decision to acquire the matepower and organization of the apparently superior power, this time the European. By 1894 the legal and judicial order had been modernized; a new school system had been created; the foundations for a modern economy had been laid; the military system had been modernized; and a constitutional system had been established (1889). These changes enabled Japan to negotiate revision zation. first

rial

of man's practical activities as of

of

spiritual issues.

Japan to defeat China in 1894-95 and These two wars enlarged Japan to include Formosa (1895) and Korea (1910) and gave it a position in Manchuria from which to move in empire building on the Asian mainland. European domination in Asia, together with the introduction of "western learning" into Asian countries, gave rise to nationalist movements. Capitalist enterprise and higher-education policies in the Islamic world, China, southeast Asia and India had brought into existence a new intellectual and middle class, the members of which respected the scientific and industrial revolution of the west and wanted to emulate it. They sought to introduce into their several countries the political and economic institutions of the west, but at the same time to reject western political and economic supremacy. Everywhere in Asia nationalism and anticolonialism formed the co-ordinates of these movements. Although nationalism itself, together with the presence and dominance of European powers, tended to isolate the Asian countries into self-contained units, the individual nationalist movements interacted on each other. The victory of Japan over Russia and the early successes of the Chinese reform and revolutionary movements stimulated action elsewhere in Asia. The rise of the freedom movement in India encouraged similar developments in Ceylon, Burma and In-

—

masters not only of Indian waters but of

all

the eastern seas.

Where they led, the Spanish, Dutch, French and English followed. Above all, trade was sought, especially in silks and spices, but various attempts were also made to spread Christianity, especially by the Portuguese, who had themselves felt the proselytizing impact of Islam in Europe and north Africa and were not reluctant to carry the fight to the east. During the 15th to the 19th centuries Europe itself was changNation-states, perhaps as a solvent of religious wars,

ing rapidly.

were growing up.

The foundations

technological revolution were laid.

of a scientific, industrial

Europe learned how

and

to navi-

gate the oceans, apply sea power, wield artillery, organize representative government, cultivate religious toleration and use money

and credit in trade. Thus it was a supremely confident Europe that began to feel its way along the coasts of the traditional, slowchanging societies of Asia. The Portuguese quickly established themselves in Goa and Macao; the Spanish took the Philippines in 1565. The rivalries of Europe were extended to Asian waters and the Dutch evicted the Portuguese and consolidated a spice empire in Java and Sumatra, centring on Batavia. Between 1740 and 1805 the French and British on the coasts of India fought a severe struggle for supremacy, which the latter won, in the process being drawn into the vacuum which the collapse of the Mogul empire had created. During the 19th century British power easily spread across India to the Himalayas and the whole subcontinent and its peoples became a major field of British investment. To protect this, new British bastions of power were erected in Aden, Persia, Arabia,

Burma and

Singapore.

its treaties,

Its

new power

Russia

in

donesia.

establishing legal equality with the western states. also enabled

1904-05.

The

revival of Islam in the near east after

World War

I

stimulated Muslim consciousness in India and southeast Asia.

In China the

Manchu

first

reaction to the western impact was anti-

as well as antiforeign.

ment (1900) inaugurated

The

failure of the

Boxer move-

Manchu reform

designed to avoid revolutionary change. Revolutionaries were, however, successful in replacing the dynasty with a parliamentary republic in 1911-12. The traditional provincialism, however, soon made ineffective the national parliamentary republic, although China as a state retained its identity against pressures both from the west and

Japan.

a period of

National political unity began to be re-established when

the Nationalist party took over the government of China (1928). Concurrently with the nationalist phase of the Chinese revolution Marxist-Leninist ideas were introduced into China with the or-

ganization of the Chinese

Communist

international.

Communist party, affiliated with the In the ensuing struggle the Nationalist

ASIA government maintained its ascendancy until 1949. The establishment of the People's Republic by the Chinese Communist party not only inaugurated the Communist phase of the Chinese revolution but also enabled Chinese and Russian inliuence to replace western in a number of peripheral areas. In the Indo-British empire an effort was made by the British to establish forms of representative and responsible government. But the attempt to hand over power roused the self-consciousness of the Muslim and Hindu communities so that the subcontinent

when freed

in

1

94 7 was also partitioned into two independent coun-

— Pakistan

Nationalism had been sufficiently and India. strengthened in Burma and Ceylon during World War II so that Britain was obliged to concede independence by 1947. A new relationship with Malaya was similarly established a decade later, but British North Borneo, Singapore, Sarawak. Brunei and Hong Kong remained British colonial territories. With British imperial responsibilities being thus largely liquidated, other European powers, already weakened by World War II and the temporary overrunning of southeast Asia by Japan, began to yield their positions, The United States fulfilled its promise to grant independThe Dutch gave way to the ence to the Philippines in 1946. Indonesian nationalists in their colony (1949), and the French, by 1954, had been compelled to withdraw from Indochina. The U.S. occupation of Japan was officially terminated by the peace treaty which became effective in 1952 but U.S. forces remained under the terms of a security treaty. Thus the tide of the west in Asia was reversed after World War II. The idea of the nationstate was firmly planted in all Asian countries. Internal political and economic stability, however, had not always been fully In the background the .established following independence. •U.S.S.R.. on the landward side, strengthened its grip on central and northern Asia, and the United States, on the seaward side, isought to fill the power vacuum left by the Japanese defeat in the tries

jPacific,

iporting

603

ern democratic capitalism.

In short, the influence of the west

i

BlBVi A a -1 of the following works contain detailed bibliographies: E. Drioton and J. Vandier, Egypt (iu8) A. T. E. Olmtsyria (ig itead, Histoi y 0) R Gurnej Thi Hiltiti Pritchard indent Texts Relating tn the old B. (ed Seat tern I; Ea J. Testament (1950); J. Sauvaget, Introduction i Western Asia," /. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xli, pp. 221-244 (1911) K. Bittel, Grundziige der Vorp. H. F. Lloyd, Early Anatolia (1956) •und Friihgeschichte Kleinasiens, 2nd ed. (1950) J. L. Myres, "Recent Archaeological Discoveries in Asia Minor," Iraq, J. of Brit. School of Arch, in Iraq, vol. vi, pp. 71-90 (1939) S. A. Kansu, "Stone Age Cultures in Turkey," Am. Journ. Arch., vol. li, pp. 227-232 (1947); J. ,3arstang, Prehistoric Mersin (1953) H. Schliemann, Ilios, the City \md Country of the Trojans (1SS0) C. W. Blegen et al. (eds.), Trqy, Vol. i-iii (1950-53) H. H. von der Osten and E. F. Schmidt, The Alishar Biiyiik (1930-37); S. Lloyd and N. Gokce, "Excavations at Polatli," Anatolian Studies, J. of Brit. Inst. Arch, at Ankara, vol. i, pp. 21-75

I

—

:

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

A. Dbnmez and W. C. Brice, "The Distribution of Some VarieEarly Pottery in South-East Turkey," Iraq, J. of Brit. School of xi, pp. 44-54 (1949) W. Lamb, "Excavations at iftusura Near Afyon Karahisar," Archaeologia, 86:1-64 (1936), 87:217j?73 (1937) S. Hood, "Excavations at Tabara el Akrad," Anatolian 'Studies, vol. i, pp. 113-147 (1951) J. Mellaart, "Excavations at Hacilar, Preliminary Reports," Anatolian Studies, vol. viii-x (1958-60) S. H. F. i-loyd et al., "Excavations at Beycesultan, Preliminary Reports," Anaolian Studies, vol. v-x (1955-60) E. Chantre, Mission en Cappadoce, \S93~1894 (1S98) G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria and Lycia (1892) W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics if Phrygia, 2 vol. (1895-97) Sir Charles Leonard Woolley, .4 Forgotten Kingdom (1953) M. Osward, Asia Minor (1958). .(1951)

;

ties of

Arch, in Iraq, vol.

;

;

par-

Negros or "Asiento trea concluded between Great Britain and Spain in 1713. The idea of a contract foi the upply of Negro slaves to Spanish America originated in the middle of the 16th century, when the Spanish monipplied archy found itself unable to do more than keep with manufactures. Asientos before 1713 had been held by individual Spaniards, by Portugal and, in 1701, by France. Though heavy taxation, government interference and disturbed conditions of trade had combined to make them unprofitable, the idea of an asiento yet remained popular with foreigners as affording a chance to share in the trade with Spanish America and to acquire some of the bullion that it produced. Consequently the treaty signed with Great Britain on March 26, 1713, raised high hopes and constituted the solid basis for the South Sea Bubble (q.v.). Essentially the treaty gave the South Sea company the right to send 4,800 Negro slaves to the Spanish colonies yearly for 30 years and permitted the dispatch of an annual ship of 500 tons to engage in general trade. The South Sea company found its asiento no more profitable than had earlier contractors: first, trade was considerably disturbed by war (between 1717 and 1727, for inticular to designate

the Asiento de

stance, the ship sailed only four times)

;

secondly, the

company

pay an annual tax of £34,000 on the first 4,000 slaves, regardless of whether they were actually imported (which, in fact, they never were). Moreover, the concession of the right was obliged

and Attis.

613

ASIANIC LANGUAGES: see Anatolian Lancuaoi ASIENTO, a Spanish word meaning contract, is used in

to

annual ship gave

to send the

rise to a vast

contraband trade which

continually exacerbated relations between Great Britain and Spain, leading, in 1 739, to war. This upset the profitable trade with peninsular Spain, Therefore, although Spain renewed the asiento at the

peace of 1748, Great Britain agreed,

treaty of 1750, to relinquish

its

in a

new commercial payment

rights in return for a

from Spain of £100,000. See J. O. McLachlan, Trade (1940).

and Peace with Old Spain, 1667-1750 (B. J. R.)

IF," PHILOSOPHY OF, the English version of the name given by the German philosopher Hans Vaihinger (18521933) to the system expounded in his book Die Philosophie des Als Ob (1911 English trans, by C. K. Ogden, The Philosophy of As If, The distinctive feature of this work is its account of 1924). "fictions." These fictions are held to be the constituent elements of all human knowledge, whereby the will, in its effort to come to terms with irrational and unknowable reality, constructs rational explanations of phenomena "as if" there really were knowable grounds for believing them to be true in the sense of con-

"AS

;

forming to reality. The value of these fictions (which are not to be confused with hypotheses, verification of which would be assumed to be possible) consists only in their satisfying the practical purpose of the will to fabricate a habitable universe. For this purpose, Vaihinger maintained, it did not matter if they were recognized as involving ultimate logical contradictions. Fictions must provide all man's science and the foundation of all ethical behaviour and of all religious belief. Man must make up his physics "as if" such concepts as force and matter corresponded to a physical reality, his morality "as if" ethical certainty were possible, his theology "as if" there were a God. Vaihinger's philosophy, which he himself described as based on "idealist positivism" or "positivist idealism," owes much to the

immediate influence of Arthur Schopenhauer and F. A. Lange. Ultimately it takes as its point of departure the Kantian distinction between the phenomenon, to which knowledge is confined, and the "thing in itself," or unknowable reality (see Kant, Immanuel). It is interesting as a development of Kantianism in the direction of pragmatism (q.v.) a move made by Vaihinger quite independently of contemporary U.S. philosophers.

—

ASIR

(

'Asir), the southwestern province of Saudi Arabia, con-

;

;

;

;

high mountains with and the upper Bishah and Tathlith Area 40,130 sq.mi.,

sists of three parts: a coastal plain, a belt of

a highest peak of 9,400 valleys, both of

pop. about

which

1,000,000.

ft.,

rise in its highlands.

The

capitals

of the three

sections

are

;

;

;

Qizan (Jizan), the principal Red sea port, Abha (7,150 ft. and Khamis Mushayt, respectively. The southern boundary, from a I

'ASKARI— ASMARA

614

point on the coast 40 mi. S. of Qizan to the edge of the Empty Quarter (Rub' al Khali) (and including the administratively separate province of Najran), was agreed between the Saudi and Yemen governments in the treaty of Taif (May 1934), being later The northern (1935-36) demarcated and mapped in detail. boundary runs roughly along 18° N. lat. from the small port of Mushayt, whence it goes northand Khamis Abha Qahmah to AI east to Al

Kahfah

in the Tathlith valley.

kingdom is peak, terraced up to

tain scenery of the

Some

of the finest

moun-

in this province, as at Fayfa', a fine

its summit with varied cultivation, 7,000-ft. Geographically the including coffee, indigo, ginger and Catha. province forms a northern extension of Yemen, whose mild climate

and relatively generous

rainfall

it

largely shares.

the aegis of the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, Asir long constituted the Mikhlaf Sulaimani of the Zaidi rulers of Yemen,

Under

a large revenue from its agricultural prosperity, which government has planned to revive. In the 13th century its capital, Quhaifa, on the banks of the Wadi Qizan, was reputed The principal mosque of to have had 500 sesame oil presses. Abu'Arish, built in the 17th century by an ancestor of the imams

who derived the Saudi

of

in ruins; but the surviving 18th-century mosque commemorates a revolt against Zaidi rule by a local who made the town his capital (of Asir Tihamah). His

Yemen,

is

of the Ashraf sharif,

successors maintained their position until 1872 when, after the opening of the Suez canal (1869), the Turks occupied Asir and

Yemen

until

World War

I.

Ahmad

ibn Idris al-Idrisi, a sharif

from Morocco, founded in the early 19th century at As Sabya, 22 mi. N. of Qizan, the Idrisiyya religious order, and the hamlet developed into a considerable township of his devotees. He died there in 1837. Neither he, however, nor his son and grandson who succeeded to his spiritual mantle showed any sign of coveting temporal power, living peaceably under the Ashraf and Turkish regimes until about 1909 when the Young Turks sought to replace the prevailing Shari'a law by their secular codes. This produced revolt, before which the Turks withdrew, leaving the field open to Ahmad's great-grandson, Mohammed al-Idrisi, who proclaimed himself ruler of Asir Tihamah. During World War I he sided with the British against Turkey, and was rewarded with the gift of the Yemen Tihamah down to Al Hudaydah inclusive in 1921, though the imam Yahya recovered this slice of territory in 1925. Mohammed died in 1923 and was succeeded by his inexperienced son 'AH, who was deposed in favour of his uncle Hasan by Ibn Sa'ud in 1926 on his proclamation of a protectorate over Asir. Meanwhile, in 1920, Ibn Sa'ud had wrested the highland and eastern sections of Asir from the Ibn 'Aidh dynasty of Abha; and in 1930 the process of absorption of the province into his realm was completed by the abolition of the protectorate and the establishment of

monarchy. Thereafter until his murder by insurgent troops at Baghdad on Oct. 30, 1936, he was repeatedly minister, prime minister and Iraqi ambassador in London, contributing greatly to Iraqi progress and stability. H. Longrigg, Iraq, 1900

to 1950 (1953). (S. H. Lo.) (1501P-1537), English country gentleman 1536 led the northern insurrection called the Pilgrimage of Grace, came from an old Yorkshire family. Discontented with the policies of Henry VIII, he occupied York on Oct. 16 and five days later captured Pontefract castle from Lord Darcy of Templehurst, who with the archbishop of York then joined the rebels. Aske arranged for the monks and nuns to be reinstated and prevented the king's herald from reading to the commons a royal proclamation which had recently quieted a similar rebellion in Lincolnshire. With the banner of St. Cuthbert and the badge of the "five sacred wounds" brought by the Durham contingent, he led some 30,000 men toward London to present their grievances to the sovereign and to obtain the expulsion of low-born councilors and restitution for the church. But at Doncaster he met the duke of Norfolk who, commanding royal forces vastly inferior in numbers, tricked him into disbanding his followers on the assurance of the king's pardon and the promise of a parliament at York. Aske then went to London under safe conduct, was well received by Henry VIII and put into writing a full account of the rising and of his share in it. Persuaded of the king's good intentions, he returned home in Jan. 1537, bringing with him Henry's promise to hold a freely elected parliament at York. Throughout prolonged negotiations he alone was responsible for keeping the rebels quiet and content to rely on Henry's word; in Jan. 1537 he assisted in pacifying Sir Francis Bigod's rising. This new rebellion, however, gave the king an excuse for breaking his promise and he sent the duke of Norfolk to Yorkshire with another army. Aske, now at last disillusioned, appears to have involved himself in technically new treasons not covered by his pardon, and on false assurances of security he was persuaded to go to London, where he was arrested in April and on May 17 was sentenced to death. He was taken back to Yorkshire on June 28, paraded through the towns and countryside and on July 12 was hanged at York, expressing his repentance for having broken the law but maintaining that both the king and Thomas Cromwell had promised him pardon. Though little enough is known of him, it is clear that Aske possessed remarkable qualities of leadership. He gave to an ex-

See

S.

ASKE, ROBERT

and lawyer who

in

pression of largely selfish discontents the spirit of a religious crusade, and his hold especially over the common people rested on his

manifest sincerity. A loyalist by nature, he made an ineffectual rebel, but his fate and person dignified the Yorkshire rising and

regular administration.

the old religion.

Apart from agriculture, the economy of Asir is supported by a mine of rock salt at Qizan, while the Farasan Islands, 10 mi. offSeveral efforts to prospect shore, consist largely of salt domes. Cattle, sheep, goats for oil in the latter proved unsuccessful. and camels are widely raised throughout the province.

Bibliography. M. H. and R. Dodds, The Pilgrimage of Grace 15361537 (1915) M. Bateson, "The Pilgrimage of Grace and Aske's Examination," in English Historical Review, vol. v (1890) P. Hughes, The Reformation in England, vol. i (1950). (G. R. E.)

See H.

St. J.

B. Philby, Arabian Highlands (1952).

'ASKARI, JA'FAR AL-

(H. St. J. B. P.) (1887-1936), Iraqi statesman, a

devoted servant of the kingdom of Iraq from its creation in 1921, was born in Baghdad in 1887, educated locally and in Istanbul and commissioned in the Turkish army in 1909. A burly, attractive figure and an accomplished linguist, he gave proof of excellent Sent in abilities and of outstanding moral and social qualities. 1915 to join Turkish forces in Cyrenaica during World War I, he was wounded and taken to Cairo as a prisoner by the British and, after an attempted escape, joined the Arab rebel movement against the Turks (1916), together with Nuri as-Sa'id (q.v.), his brother-in-law and lifelong close associate. In the Hejaz and later Syrian campaign of 1916-18 he rendered valuable services as the amir Faisal's chief of staff and army commander, and during 1918-20 he served as Faisal's governor of Aleppo and in other posts. Moving to Iraq, he became, under the high commissioner Sir Percy Cox (q.v.), defense minister in the first Iraqi cabinet, a creator of the Iraqi army and, from Aug. 1921, a pillar of the new

—

;

;

ASMA'I, AL-

(al-Asma'i 'Abd-al-Malik ibn Quraib)

(c.

740-830), Arab scholar, the greatest philologist of his age, was born in Basra and became a leading figure in the philological school there. He later became for a time tutor to the son of Harun alRashid in Baghdad and then retired to Basra, where he died c. 830. He was famed especially for his knowledge of ancient Arabic poetry and most of the existing collections of the works of the old poets of Arabia were compiled by him, as well as an anthology, called al-Asma 'iyyat. Of Asma'i's many works mentioned in the Fihrist ("Catalogue") of the 10th-century Arabic bibliographer al-Nadim about 15 or 20 are extant, mostly in recensions made by his students. They are mainly philological monographs on the various animals, plants, customs, grammatical forms, etc., which occur in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. Bibliography. The text of al-Asma 'iyyat was ed. by W. Ahlwardt For a life of Asma'i see Ibn Khallikan's biographical dictionary (1902) See in Eng. trans, by M'G. de Slane, vol. ii, pp. 123-127 (1842-71). also G. Fliigel, Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber, pp. 72 ff. (1862) C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, vol. i, pp. 104-105 (1898), and Supp., vol. i, pp. 163-165 (1937).

—

.

;

ASMARA, the capital of the state of Eritrea, northeast Africa,

j

ASNIERES— ASPAR formerly an Italian colony but now federated with Ethiopia, stands on the eastern edge of the Hamasen plateau al an altitude of 7,600 road and a mountain railway descend ft, from where a spectacular It has to the port of Massawa on the Red sea coast 40 mi. away, 'a

pleasant climate, with a rainy season from June to Septembei is hilly and somewhat bare. Pop. (1956 roughly half Christian and half Muslim, with 10,000

The surrounding country '

foreign !

S.0S3,

inhabitants, mainly

Italians.

into European and native zones, contain* well-planned streets, avenues and modern buildings, including the palace in its park, now the residence of the imperial representative, the legislative assembly building reconstructed since

The town, formerly divided

federation

and the new municipal building.

The Roman Catholic

cathedral, the striking Coptic church, one of the largest of

its

kind,

There are large and a fine mosque were built by the Italians, markets and many good shops. From the airport, 2 mi. away, there are services to Addis Ababa and other African towns linked ',

up with world airlines. Until 1S97 Asmara was a hamlet with no distinction save that of having been for a while in the 1880s the headquarters of Ras It became the Alula, the viceroy of King John IV (Johannes). capital of the new Italian colony of Eritrea (1900), but until 1934 was a small colonial town. It then expanded rapidly, first as the main base for the attack on Ethiopia and then as leading city in It was captured by commonwealth forces 'the new Italian empire.

i

'in

1941 and with the rest of the territory remained under British Nov. 1952, when, in accordance with

military administration until la

resolution of the United Nations, Eritrea

became federated with (F. E. Sd.)

Ethiopia.^

ASNIERES,

a

town

in

615

and stressed the sanctity of animal life. One of the edicts records thai \ oka became a lay Buddhisl {tipasaka) t bul then evident e thai hi entered the Buddhi order as a monk. He did however, send out envoys and missionaries to foreign countries, and the conversion ol Ceylon to Buddhi m is attributed by the Pali chronicles to Asoka's son Mahinda. In the 13th year after his coronation he instituted quinquennial circuits of officials for the purpose of proclaiming the moral law, and in the following year he appointed dharma-makamatras, or He w.i- euloci/.ed for his policy censors of religion and morals of religious toleration, and there is no need to doubt his sincerity; but it is also clear that his preaching was a deliberate instrument 1

of policy.

See also Index references under "Asoka"

in the

Index volume.

BlBLIOCRAPHY.—V. A. Smith. Asoka, 3rd ed. (1920); E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum) , vo\ L. de la Yallee-Poussin, L'lnde aux temps drs Mauryas (19i0) J. Przyluski, La Legende de I'empereur Acoka dans les textes indiens et chinois (1923); L. Renou and J. FiUiozat, L'lnde dassique, vol W. B. Henning, "The Aramaic Inscription of Asoka Found (1947) in Lampaka," Bull. Sch. orient. Stud. Lond. Univ., xiii. part D. Schlumbcrger et al., Jules Bloch, Les Inscriptions d'Asoka (1950) "Une Bilingue grecoarameenne d'Asoka," /. asiat. (1958). (C. C. D.; J. Br.) 1

1

;

i

;

i

I

;

ASP,

the very

venomous Egyptian cobra (Maja

haje), a snake

sacred to the Egyptians and adopted as a symbol by their royalty. The asp, as the aspis of the Greeks and Romans, is familiar in literature; and since Galen reports the use of this species to give a merciful death,

by

a bite in the breast, to

condemned

prisoners,

there seems to be no reason to search further for the identity of

Cleopatra's asp.

north central France in the former

bank of the Seine, 1.5 mi. N.N.W. of the fortifications of Paris of which it has become an industrial (suburb. Pop. (1962) 81,747. There are the 17th-century church jof St. Genevieve, an 18th-century chateau and a dogs' cemetery on The town is a boating centre for Parisians. 'an island in the Seine. Automobiles, medicines, margarine and perfumes are manufacdepartement of Seine on the

left

tured.

ASOKA, emperor of

India from c. 274 to 232 B.C. His precise The evidence for his reign have been much disputed. comes both from inscriptions engraved on rocks and pillars throughout his dominions and from traditions preserved in Sanskrit litAccording to the erature and in the Pali chronicles of Ceylon. latter he secured his throne by a wholesale massacre of his brothers, To the empire inherited from 'but this may be merely legendary. his father Bindusara and his grandfather Chandragupta {q.v.), he added the coastal province of Kalinga between the Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers. On the northwest his empire embraced the satrapies of Paropanisadae (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Kandahar) and parts of Gedrosia (Baluchistan), ceded to Chandragupta by Seleucus I Nicator; on the northeast his empire reached Kamarupa (Assam), and included Kashmir and Nepal land the whole of the Indian peninsula as far south as the Penner dates

river.

Two

versions of the inscriptions in the northwest (at Shahbazand Mansehra) are in the Kharosthi script, while those from the remainder of the subcontinent are in Brahmi. They are 'thus of great importance not only as historical documents but jalso as evidence for the early development of the Indo-Aryan languages and for the study of the history of writing in India. Com,posed in Prakrit, these inscriptions were first deciphered in modern times by James Prinsep in 1S37. In addition to the inscriptions entirely Indian in language, a fragmentary inscription in Aramaic is known from near Laghman (Sanskrit, Lampaka on the Kabul river; and in 195S a bilingual inscription in Greek and Aramaic was discovered near Kandahar. garhi

)

is regularly named only by the ("of benevolent aspect," Sanskrit Priyadarsin; the Kandahar Greek reads Piodasses), but his identification with the Asoka of the literary sources was confirmed by the discovery at Maski in 1915 of a version of one of the minor edicts

In the inscriptions the king

;royal title Piyadassi

where the name Asoka does occur. In accordance with the doctrine of ahimsa ("nonviolence") he suppressed the royal hunt

>

«5

EGYPTIAN COBRA (NAJA HAJE) differs from the common cobra of India in having a much narrower hood. It reaches a length of fully six Egyptian snake charmers, who use the asp in their street feet. performances, are said to be able to make it rigid like a stick by a pressure on the neck; some biblical scholars suggest that it was the asp that served as Aaron's staff in the famous countertransformation recorded in the Old Testament (Ex. vii, 8-12).

The Egyptian cobra

"Aspis" being a well-known classical name for a snake, it is not surprising that it should have been used as a technical name for various venomous snakes (the south European Vipera aspis, for example). (K. P. S.) See also Cobra. Flavius Ardaburius Aspar) (d. a.d. 471), Roman general of Alan descent, influential in the Eastern Roman empire under Marcian and Leo I. He led an East Roman fleet in 431 to expel the Vandals from Africa, but was defeated and withdrew in 454. in which year he was consul. He fought the Persians successfully in 441, but in 443 was defeated outside Constantinople by Attila. His influence increased when Marcian. who had formerly been in his service, became emperor in 450. He then became a patrician, and his son was appointed magister militum (master of

ASPAR

the soldiers patrician.

(

)

in

the east and soon afterward was also made a died Aspar had his protege raised to the

When Marcian

throne as Leo

I

(Feb.

7,

457).

Aspar was then

at the height of

ASPARAGUS—ASPEN

6i6 Gothic army devoted

Leo, however, was his power, with a not content to be a puppet and began more and more to rely on Isaurian supporters. For about four years there was a struggle for ascendancy in the East Roman empire between the two factions, Aspar's Germans and the Isaurians led by Zeno. Aspar managed to have the rank of Caesar conferred c. 470 on his son Patricius, although the latter was, like his father, an Arian, which caused much resentment in Constantinople; and Patricius was soon after betrothed to the emperor's daughter Leontia. But a conspiracy organized in 471 by the Isaurians and Leo led to the murder of Aspar and thus put an end to German domination over East Roman policy, which had lasted for several decades. (E. A. T.) a large genus of the lily family (Liliaceae) with about ISO species native from Siberia to southern Africa. Perhaps the best-known asparagus is the garden asparagus (A. officinalis, especially variety atlilis) cultivated as a green vegetable Several African species, however, for its succulent spring stalks. are grown as ornamentals (see below). to him.

ASPARAGUS,

The plants are The rhizomelike

erect or climbing,

sometimes more or

—or sometimes tuberous—roots give

less

woody.

rise to

con-

spicuous leaflike branchlets (cladodes) true leaves are reduced to small scales. Small greenish-yellow flowers in the spring are fol;

lowed by red berries

in the fall.

Garden Asparagus. species of the genus.

and

is

now

— Economically

It is

this

is

the

most important

native from England to central Asia

cultivated and naturalized in

most temperate and subAs a vegetable it has been prized by

tropical parts of the world.

epicures since

Roman

times.

In the United States over 150,000 ac. are planted to asparagus annually for the commercial market. The production totals about

175,000 tons, of which almost 60,000 tons are sold for the fresh market and more than 115,000 tons are sold for processing. Increases in production for processing have resulted from advances in the methods of freezing and handling asparagus. Nearly half of the asparagus acreage in the United States is in California. The remainder is produced chiefly in New Jersey, Washington, Illinois and Michigan; several other states are lesser producers. Commercial plantations are not undertaken in regions where the plant continues to grow throughout the year, for the shoots become more spindling and less vigorous each year; a rest period is required. In some warm, dry regions the rest period may be provided by withholding irrigation. Where the climate is favourable a plantation may be productive for 10 to 15 years. Asparagus can be grown in many kinds of soil with good drainage, but the best types for permanent plantations are deep, loose and light clays with much organic matter and light sandy loams. Asparagus will thrive in soils too salty for most other crops, but acid soils are to be avoided. In starting a crop, seeds are sown as early as possible, dropped 10 or 12 to a foot of row; the rows are usually 24-30 in. apart. The plants are grown for one year in nursery rows, then the year-old crowns (roots with stem attachment near the ground surface) are transplanted into the permanent fields as early in the year as the soil can be worked in parts of the south and in California where climatic conditions are favourable even in fall or winter. Only the best and most vigorous crowns are used in transplanting; they are set 6 to 8 in. deep in loose soil and only 3 to 4 in. in heavier soil, placed 12 to 24 in. apart in rows 4 to 8 ft. apart, depending on soil and climate and on the end use of the

of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin

ASPARAGUS PEA

No. 1646 (1958).

(L. O.

W.)

(Goa Bean), the name

of a group of cultivated leguminous plants mostly derived from Psophocarpui tetragonolobus, native to India. All varieties are rapidly growing vines, 10

pods, 3

ft.

to 50 ft. long, producing quadrangular, green-winged The tender young pods are eaten like and have a distinct flavour resembling that of aspara-

to 9 in. long.

in.

string beans gus.

The

which are about the size of peas, have a high proBecause of their extreme hardness when ripe, they to cook, hence usually only the immature seeds are

seeds,

tein content.

are difficult eaten.

The

plant

is

a quasi-perennial, bearing almost continuously

one or two years, and countries;

it

is

ASPASIA man

also

its

grown

cultivation

is

increasing in

foi

tropica

as a cover crop.

(5th century b.c), mistress of the Athenian

states-

was born in Miletus. Coming to Athens, she livec with Pericles from c. 450 B.C. to his death in 429. Pericles alread) had two young sons by an Athenian wife whom he had divorcee and had himself carried a law in 451 requiring Athenian birth or both sides for citizenship. His son by Aspasia, who took his owr name, was therefore illegitimate. Aspasia was a vivid figure in Athenian society. She was continually attacked in comedy for her private life and public influence. She was irresponsibly accused of urging Pericles to crust Samos (Miletus' old rival) and to provoke the Peloponnesian War But she was respected and remembered by philosophers. The associates of the young Socrates knew her well; she is a character ir the Menexenus (falsely attributed to Plato); and she gave hei name to a philosophic, dialogue by the Socratic Aeschines. Shortl) before the Peloponnesian War she was prosecuted for impiety but, acquitted, and, when Pericles' two legitimate sons had died in the plague, his son by Aspasia was made an Athenian by special enactment and later became a general. After Pericles' death she is said to have lived with Lysicles (probably the man elected strategos for 428, regarded by Aristophanes unfairly as a vulgar demagogue) Pericles,

ASPECT RATIO.

The

(R. 'Me.) aspect ratio of an airplane wing

the ratio of the span to the chord, the latter being the length of straight line

drawn from the leading

to the trailing edge, at righi

angles to the length of the wing (see Airplane).

on which an image

is

For a

screer

projected, such as a motion-picture

television screen, the aspect ratio

is

is

the

the ratio of image width

oi tc

image height (see Motion Pictures: History: Wide Screens)

ASPEN,

a

common name for several trees of the poplar genus common aspen of Europe, P. tremulo,

(Populus), of which the may be taken as the type.

This

is

a

tall,

fast-growing tree with a

—

asparagus.

Three classes of asparagus based on colour are marketed. Green spears and green with white butts are the kinds produced for the fresh market. Most canning asparagus is blanched white. The cutting season varies from

2

to

12 weeks,

depending on age of

plantation and on climate.

Ornamentals.

—The

several species prized for their delicate

and graceful foliage are: A. plumosus, the asparagus fern or florist's fern (not a fern at all, however), which has feathery sprays of branchlets often used in corsages and in other plant arrangements; and A. sprengeri and A. asparagoides (the latter being the smilax of florists) likewise grown for their attractive lacy foliage, sometimes as house plants. See Ross C.

Thompson

et ai.,

"Asparagus Culture," U.S. Department

TREMBLING. OR QUAKING. ASPEN (POPULUS TREM U LOI DES RIGHT. FEMALE CATKINS BEARING FLOWERS AND FRUIT

)

:

LEFT. LEAVES:

ASPENDUS— ASPHALT

617

slender trunk and gray bark that becomes rugged when old. The roundish leaves, toothed on the margin, are slightly downy when young but afterward smooth, dark green above and grayish green below; the long slender petioles, flattened toward the outer end, allow of free lateral motion by the slightest breeze, giving the By their friction on foliage its well-known tremulous character.

people with holy water before High Mass in the Roman Catholic Church, so called from the opening words, Asperges me, Pontine, hyssopo (Ps. li., 7 l. of the chant that accompanies the ceremony. The sprinkler is called aspergillum, and a vessel for holy water is

each other the leaves give rise to a rustling sound. The flowers, which appear in March and April, are borne on pendulous hairy

ASPERN-ESSLING, BATTLE OF, Napoleon's first seriMay 21 and 22, 1809, between his French and allied forces and the Austrians commanded by the archduke Charles (see Napoleonic Wars). After the repulse of his initial invasion of Bavaria in April. Charles s army had retired eastward in two groups. The French entered Vienna on May 12 to find the bridges across the Danube cut and the enemy reassembled on the north bank. Napoleon accordingly determined to force a crossing six miles below Vienna via Lobau, the largest of the islands which split the swollen river into smaller channels about On May 21, by midday, 25,000 French troops had that point. reached the farther bank, where the villages of Aspern and Essling Although the state of the their left and right flanks. secured bridges delayed the arrival of reinforcements, they maintained their bridgehead until nightfall against the heavy but badly coordinated attacks of Charles's 95,000 men. Reinforced substantially during the night, the French resumed battle at first light Massena cleared Aspern of the enemy who had on May 22. penetrated it, and Lannes retook Essling, which had fallen early in the day. A general French offensive in the centre was halted, however, and Aspern was again lost. Furthermore, the bridges to the right bank were severed, and at 11 a.m. Napoleon called off his attack. Furious fighting accompanied the costly French retreat Determined French resistto the Danube during the afternoon. ance, their own exhaustion and Charles's indecision prevented the Austrians from routing the French before they could withdraw to Lobau under darkness. The French suffered 20,000 casualties (Lannes being killed), and the Austrians 23,000. Early in July the French were able to cross the Danube again to defeat Charles at the battle of Wagram. (J. H. N.) ASPHALT, an organic material that is sticky, black or brown in colour and of a consistency varying from heavy liquid to solid. Asphalt, whose chemical composition is too complex and variable to be determined precisely, is obtained either from the distillaAsphalts from the tion of petroleum or from natural deposits. two sources resemble each other in all respects except that natural asphalt, believed to be an early stage in the breakdown of organic marine deposits into petroleum, often contains minerals while petroleum asphalt does not. Asphalt is of great commercial value, with its most important uses in road building, waterproofing, roofing, floor tiling and automobile manufacturing. Sources. The earliest known asphalts occurred in springs in the east and to some extent in Europe. Later, deposits of solid, semisolid and liquid asphalts, usually mixed with minerals ranging from dust to sand, were found and mined. Lake asphalt from Trinidad was the first large commercial source but natural asphalt has declined in relative importance as petroleum became the major source. Gilsonite, wurzilite and similar vein asphalts that are very hard and are mined like coal have special uses in heat-resistant enamels. Petroleum asphalt is produced in all consistencies from light road oils to heavy (high viscosity) industrial types. History. The use of asphalt is very old. Probably its earliest use was as a water stop between brick walls of a reservoir at Mohenjo-Daro (beginning in the 3rd millennium B.C.) in India. Early Buddhist traditions mention "earth-butter." In the middle east it was extensively used for roads and water works, such as flood control; a king left an inscription to the effect that he had found his realm in mud and had left it "laced with roads glistening

two or three inches long; male and female catkins are, the other species of the genus, borne on separate trees

catkins, in

as

(dioecious >.

The American aspen (P. trenmloides) called trembling aspen, European species, attains a maximum height ,

closely allied to the

of 100

and a trunk diameter of

ft.

The bigtooth aspen

3

ft.,

but

is

usually

much

North America has ovate or roundish leaves deeply and irregularly serrated on smaller.

(P. grandidentata) of

the margin. P. tremuloides is the most widely distributed tree in North America, ranging from Labrador to the mouth of the Mackenzie river and the valley of the Yukon and southward to Pennsylvania,

Rocky mountains and the Chihuahua and Lower California, often ascendThe aspen is an abundant tree in ing to an altitude of 10,000 ft. northern Great Britain, and is found occasionally in the coppices southern counties; it abounds in the forests of northern of the Missouri and Nebraska, and in the Sierra

Nevada

to

Europe, while in Siberia

Aspen wood various articles

its

range extends to the Arctic

circle.

and soft, though tough; it is employed for for which its lightness recommends it in medieval light

is

;

was valued for arrows; the bark is used for tanning; cattle Charcoal and deer browse on the young shoots and suckers. prepared from it is light and friable, and has been employed in gunpowder manufacture. The powdered bark is given to horses as a worm medicine. The wood of both American species is manufactured into furniture, matches and wood pulp. days

it

(E. S. Hr.; X.)

ASPENDUS Turkish

(Gr. Aspendos;

modern Bal-kiz kale

in the

of Antalya), an ancient city of Pamphylia, strongly

il

on the right bank of the Eurymedon where it issues from the Taurus mountains. The sea is about 7 mi. distant, and the river is navigable only for about 2 mi. from the mouth, but in the time of Really of preThucydides ships could anchor off Aspendus. Hellenic date, the place claimed to be an Argive colony. It derived wealth from great salt pans by Lake Capria (possibly marked now by the winter marshes to the west of the site) and from a trade in oil and wool, to which the wide range of its admirable coinage bears witness from the 5th century b.c. onward. The city bought off Alexander the Great in 2ii B.C., but, not keeping faith, was forcibly occupied by him. In due course it passed from Pergamene to Roman dominion and, according to Cicero, was plundered of many artistic treasures by Verres. It was ranked by Philostratus the third city of Pamphylia. In Byzantine times it seems to have been known as Primopolis, under which name its bishop signed at Ephesus in a.d. 431. In the middle ages it was situated on an isolated

(Koprusu) river

evidently

still

hill

at the point

a strong place but

With the Roman

theatre, the

is

now

a small hamlet.

most perfect

in

Asia Minor and

possibly the finest in the world, the ruins have earned for the

Sheban queen. On the summit of the hillock, divided in two by a small ravine and surrounded by a wall with three gates, lie the remains of the city. These include an agora, a basilica, a nymphaeum, a small theatre, an arcade and traces of rock-cut chambers of Phrygian style. In the plain below are large thermae and ruins of a splendid aqueduct. The huge theatre, half hollowed out of the northeast flank of the hill, had an auditorium of a circuit of 313 ft. with 40 tiers

place a mythical connection with Solomon's flat

and would accommodate 7,500 spectators.

It was Marcus Aurelius and his Lucius Verus by the architect Zeno for the heirs of a

of seating

erected to the honour of the emperor colleague

local citizen.

colonnade

is

A

relief of

Bacchus over the centre of the theatre's from whom the present

the "Bal-kiz" or ''honey girl"

village takes its

name.

ASPERGES,

the

(Wm. ceremony of sprinkling the

altar

C. B.) and the

called aspersorium. See C. Gocb, "The Asperges," Orate Fratres, 2:.«8-342 (1927-28).

ous reverse, was fought on

—

—

with asphalt."

—

Composition. Asphalts are often referred to as hydrocarbons (hydrogen and carbon compounds) but this is seldom technically correct. For the most part they consist of hydrocarbons that have combined with nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen. No method for acIts concurately analyzing asphalt has yet been discovered. stituents appear to be enormously variable, complex and subject to rapid change under different methods of treatment, although

—

;

ASPHALT— ASPIRIN

6i8

possessing rather stable physical properties except when heated. Methods of analysis have usually consisted of determining relative

molecular weights, general nature of compounds and elemental composition rather than specific chemical structure. Uses. Asphalts for Roads. A great variety of road uses exists,

—

from light oil dust layer treatments, which by repetition may gradually build up a permanent surface, to precisely designed road surfaces of graded mineral-asphalt composition up to eight inches thick. is

The

lowest-cost method, aside from the dust layer method,

by

the spraying of road oil on the prepared surface, followed

what

the application of granular aggregate, forming

is

termed a

The seal may consist of single, double or multiple The next method in increasing order of cost is the mixing coats. of local materials in place with road oils, by traveling machinery, "seal coat."

form a low-cost but also usually a low-quality pavement. A considerable use of asphaltic oils has been made for mixing directly with soils to form waterproof bases or subbases for paveto

This

ments.

quires special

is

termed

"soil stabilization"

oils.

Asphalts for Hydraulic Uses. to canal linings,

dam

and for success

re-

—These uses include applications

facings, river

and sea revetments, beach

For impacts, there are various vibratory methods, some for field and some for laboratory use. The history of asphalt-testing methods has been influenced by the somewhat paradoxical fact that although the subject is very complex scientifically, good results in road work can be obtained by trial and error, and this is the manner in which such work

informative.

proceeded in former times. Research on testing has actually largely taken the form of rationalizing and improving work done originally by trial and error at great public cost. See Geochemistry: Bioliths; Trinidad and Tobaco; Gilsonite; Ozocerite; Roads and Highways: Construction; House Design: Materials;

Black Varnish.

—

Bibliography. H. Abraham, Asphalts and Allied Substances (1945) P. Pfeiffer, Properties of Asphaltic Bitumen (1950); Gordon O'Donnell, "Separating Asphalt Into Its Chemical Constituents," Analyt. Chem., 23:894 (1951); L. W. Corbett and R. E. Swarbrick, "Composition Analysis," Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists (1960). For articles on research and development see the proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, the Highway Research Board and the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists. For information on the uses of asphalt see the literature of the Asphalt Institute. (V. A. E.) TILE: see Floor Coverings. J.

ASPHALT

ASPHODEL,

erosion barriers and reservoir linings, and injection into sands and fissured rock formations to stop the flow of

underground water.

a

much misunderstood common name

for sev-

eral flowering plants belonging to the lily family (Liliaceae).

The

Linings vary from thin, sprayed

membranes covered with earth for protection against weathering and mechanical damage to thick surfacings similar to road pavings, and to stone riprap bound with asphalt. In general, mixtures used for hydraulic purposes employ more asphalt by percentage than do road work mixtures and are

often a narcissus; of the ancients it is either of two genera, Asphodeline or Asphodelus, containing numerous species in the Mediterranean region. They are hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted radical leaves and an elongated stem bearing a handsome spike of white

mechanically resistant. Asphalts for Industrial Use. These normally consist of road type or steam-refined asphalts that have been intensively oxidized.

or yellow flowers.

less

The

—

principal industrial uses are for roofs, coatings, floor tiling,

automobile manufacture, battery manufacture, soundproofing, waterproofing and other specialities in great number. A considerable amount of industrial-type asphalt also is used in hydraulic works. Asphaltic Emulsions. Asphaltic emulsions consist of fine globules of asphalt suspended in water and prevented from coagulating by protective surfaces furnished by chemicals mixed into the asphalt prior to emulsifying. The emulsification is carried out with a colloid mill. The uses in general parallel those of regular asphalts except that emulsions are not used in heavy paving mixtures. An advantage of emulsified asphalt is that it does not have to be heated before being applied. Mechanical Properties. Asphalt is thermoplastic and subject to variable mechanical reactions; these properties are affected by the conditions of loading and by the presence of solvents remaining from distillation or added. Mechanical resistance to deformation can be measured in terms of poise, which is an absolute unit of viscosity; resistance can be measured in all ranges Formulas also of consistency and at all ordinary temperatures. exist for transforming some older units of resistance to absolute

—

—

units.

In asphalts deviation from pure liquid, or Newtonian, flow

is

common, with various forms of plastic behaviour being found. The deviation also can be measured and expressed in terms of poises. The sliding plate viscometer was the most suitable instrument for measuring viscosity early in the sixth decade of the 20th century. Elasticity appears in asphalts under certain conditions.

Newtonian or pseudo-Newtonian types effect, or reaction to

a

weak

it

In the

appears as a roentgen

impact; in oxidized industrial asphalts

solid-type, partly static reaction.

These

effects

it

is

have vari-

ous applications in practical use. The roentgen effect is of special importance in road use, where dynamic impact is high. Mechanics of Asphalt-Mineral Mixtures. The mechanical

—

properties of asphalt are of

little

significance except

when

it

is

used as a binder or adhesive. The reactions that occur in binding and adhesion are exceedingly complex, involving viscosity, plasticity and granular solid structure. For static loadings or loadings at low velocities, the triaxial form of test, which applies loads to a completely confined test specimen, is the most scientific and

asphodel of the poets

is

Asphodelus albus and A. fistulosus have white flowers and grow from i\ to 2 ft. high; A. ramosus is a larger plant, the large white flowers of which have a reddish-brown line in the middle of each segment. Bog asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum). of the same family, is a small herb growing in boggy places in Great Britain, with rigid, narrow, radical leaves and a stem bearing a raceme of small goldenyellow flowers. In the United States the American bog asphodel (N. americanum) of the pine barrens of New Jersey and Delaware, and the western bog asphodel (N. calif ornicum), of the coast ranges of California and Oregon, are both rare plants. In Greek legend the asphodel is the most famous of the plants connected with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes it as covering the great meadow, the haunt of the dead. It was planted on graves and is often connected with Persephone. Its general connection with death is due no doubt to the grayish colour ,

of

its

leaves and

its

yellowish flowers, which suggest the gloom of

the underworld and the pallor of death.

The

roots

were eaten by

the poorer Greeks; hence such food was thought good enough for the shades.

The asphodel was also supposed to be a remedy for poisonous snake bites and a specific against sorcery; it was fatal to mice, but preserved pigs from disease. According to Herodotus, the Libyan nomads made their huts of asphodel stalks. ASPHYXIA, a term in medicine signifying suffocation or any It is the result of interference with oxygenation of the blood. many causes and may be seen at any stage of life. See Respira(F, L. A.) tory System, Diseases of. ASPIDISTRA (Cast-Iron Plant), a small genus of the lily family (Liliaceae) native to China and Japan. The plant will withstand adverse conditions and thus is considered among the most useful foliage plants for growing indoors. Aspidistra elatior bears green or white striped leaves, about 18 to 20 in. long, and when pot-bound produces small, purple, cup-shaped flowers close

(R. T. V. T.)

to the soil.

name for acetylsalicylic acid, introduced medicine by Hermann Dreser in 1893. It is widely used as

ASPD3.IN into

is

a trade

an antipyretic and analgesic. Like other salicylates, aspirin will relieve the joint pains in acute rheumatic fever without, however, influencing the course and complications of the disease. The symptoms of overdosage ("salicylism") include ringing of the ears, headache, dizziness, dimness of vision, mental confusion, nausea, vomiting and diar-

ASQUITH— ASSAM rhea.

Some

,

individuals are hypersensitive to aspirin as manifested

by skin rashes and anaphylactic phenomena.

Aspirin

may

also

.cause gastric irritation.

See also Salicylic Acid.

ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY:

see Oxford and Herbert Henry Asqi'ith. 1st Earl of. ASS, a member of the horse family, typified by the domestic donkey. The ears are long, the long hairs on the sides and end of the tail form a tuft, the mane is hogged or erect and there are

Asqi'itii,

no horny bare patches on the hind leg just below the hock or heel A dark stripe runs along the back and another crosses it

joint.

over the shoulder; the legs are often banded with dark stripes.

The voice is a roaring "hee-haw" bray. Gestation lasts 12 months, a month longer than in the horse. When an ass or donkey is mated with a horse, the offspring is a mule (q.v.). The common donkey is a domesticated race of the African wild ,ass, Equus asinus, of Ethiopia and other parts of northeast Africa, which with some exceptions is larger than most domestic varieties. In Somaliland the wild asses lack the shoulder stripe and have conspicuous bands on the legs so that they are regarded as a distinct subspecies.

The wild

|

is

generally similar but with

along the back and across the shoulder and the bands on the legs

Five subspecies are recognized: the the Syrian desert but now

are also generally present.

Syrian wild ass,

EM. hemippus, from

nearly extinct; the onager, E.h. onager, of northwest Iran to Soviet

Turkestan; the Indian wild ass, E.h. khur, from western India and Baluchistan, in which the shoulder stripe and leg bands are often pale or wanting; the kiang, E.h. kiang, of the high plains of Tibet at a height of 1 5 ,000 ft. and more, a large ass with pale back stripe, no band on the legs and little indication of the shoulder stripe; and the kulan, E.h. hemionus, from central Mongolia. Wild asses inhabit arid, semidesert plains where the vegetation is sparse and coarse; the domestic donkey does well on very coarse food and is extremely hardy under rough conditions, hence its great usefulness to

man

as a beast of

burden

in places

where horses

cannot flourish. ,

The donkey's occasional obstinacy in refusing work too heavy it has become proverbial, but its equally proverbial stupidity has probably become legendary through its reaction to brutal

treatment and neglect. It is naturally patient and persevering, responding to gentle treatment with affection and attachment to (L.

master.

ASSAB,

H. M.)

on the Eritrean coast, 60 the entrance to Assab Say in a rainless region of very high temperatures. Pop. (1956 est. 4.248. The federation between Ethiopia and Eritrea in 1952 made possible the development of the port as a natural outlet for a port of Eritrea, Ethiopia,

mi. N. of the strait of

Bab

Mandeb.

el

lies at

i

the southern half of the country. ;

The port, which is connected by a good truck road with the main Addis Ababa-Asmara highway, was being enlarged and mod-

lernized in the early 1960s.

About one-third

trade passes through Assab.

The

of Ethiopia's external

salt-evaporation pans produce

.about 125,000 tons annually.

Assab was for many centuries a terminus of caravan routes the Danakil desert from the highlands, and there are Sabaean ruins 10 mi. S. of the town. It acquired a greater sigInificance after the opening of the Suez canal, and the area was purchased in 1869 by Giuseppe Sapeto from the sultan of Raheita (30 mi. S.). It was later taken over by the Societa di Navigazione Rubattino which was acquired by the Italian government in 1882, Assab thus becoming the first Italian colonial possession in Africa.

I

lacross

(G. C. L.)

ASSAM,

the northeastern state of the Republic of India, is almost cut off from the rest of the country on the west by East Pakistan, and borders Bhutan (N.W.), Tibet (N.) and Burma j(E.) Area 47.09S sq.mi. excluding the North East Frontier Agency

In British times the province of Assam included also the district of Sylhet (q.v.) in the south. (q.v.

;

area 31,438

most of which is now part of East Pakistan, and the governor of Assam had supervision over Manipur which, on partition in 1947, became a union territory. Pop. (1951)9 ,043 707 ( 1 96 1 ) 11,872,772.

;

—

Physical Geography. Assam proper comprises the valley of Brahmaputra as far as the foothills of the Himalayas on the north where lies the frontier with Bhutan occupying the Himalayas to the west. The North East Frontier Agency covers the HimaThe layas in the northern and northwestern part of the state. valley is roughly 500 mi. from east to west and 50 to 100 mi. wide and is bounded on the south by a succession of hill masses the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills beyond which lies Pakistan, the Barail range on the Manipur border and the Patkai hills on the Burmese border. The agency has a long frontier with Tibet and China. Near the head of the valley a number of rivers unite to form the Brahmaputra (q.v.) proper; by far the most important is the Tsangpo (often called Brahmaputra on western maps), which the

—

after flowing eastward through Tibet for hundreds of miles turns

south through the main Himalayan ranges in great gorges to fall Assam valley where, 1.000 mi. from the sea, it is only 400 ft. above sea level. From there it follows a sluggish course meandering, dividing and reuniting, frequently many miles wide so that periodic flooding renders much of the Assam valley of little use. The various hill areas round the valin a series of rapids to the

for

its

RIVER. ASSAM. INDIA

,

ass of Asia, E. hemionus,

gray and more rufous or fawn in the coat colour; the stripes

less

SAMPAN SKIFFS ON THE BRAHMAPUTRA

sq.mi.).

ley are

named

after the

hill

tribes inhabiting

eastern end the great mountain barrier

them;

at the far

became known during the

II as "The Hump" over which supplies western China then resisting the Japanese invasion. Geologically the hill mass of southern Assam is a detached portion of the Indian plateau consisting of Pre-Cambrian schists and gneisses overlain in places by little folded Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, sometimes with seams of coal and also with nummulitic limestone beds. The Himalayan and Burmese ranges are intensively folded, apparently against and around the stable block of the Assam hills, and include rocks up to Late Tertiary. Oil occurs associated with Mid-Tertiary rocks in tight anticlinal folds, notably at Digboi. Folding has not ceased; earthquakes are frequent in the mountains of the northeast and especially severe were those of 1897, affecting the Garo-Khasi hills, destroying

early part of

were flown

World War

to

Shillong and killing 1,542 people, and of 1950.

is

Climatically the cool season (Jan. average 61° F. in the valley) the northeast monsoon blowing down the valley and

marked by

fogs are

common and

a

little

rain.

Assam escapes the normal March onward but

Indian hot dry season; some rain occurs from the real force of the

They blow

(q.v.) overlooking the to

monsoon winds is felt from June onward. Assam hills, and Cherrapunji valley of the Surma (in Pakistan is reputed

at right angles to the

be the wettest place

more than 400

in.

By

)

in the world,

with an annual average of

the time the winds have crossed the hills

they bring little rain to the valley where Gauhati averages only 67 in. Average temperature is kept moderate (84° F. in the hottest month). At high levels snow falls.

ASSAM

620 reflected in natural vegetation

— from

The range in climate evergreen rain forests resembling but floristically different from equatorial forests, through evergreen oak and pine, to rhododendron thickets and the snow line. Timber is valuable. Elephants is

are numerous in the foothills; the Kaziranga game reserve is the last great Indian stronghold of the one-horned rhinoceros and has herds of buffalo and swamp deer. Other animals beside the ordi-

nary Indian fauna include the clouded leopard, Temminck's cat, Malayan bear, Malayan sambar, musk and mouse deer, red serow, (L. D. S.) pigmy hog and white-browed gibbon. History. Only the broad alluvial plain of the Brahmaputra tribes in the flanking valley can be said to have a history, for the hills remained culturally static until the 20th century, and their relations with the plainsmen were virtually confined to raids on the one hand and punitive expeditions on the other. Sources for the history of Assam are scanty, being limited to Ahom (see below) chronicles of doubtful accuracy, references in Burmese chronicles, a few inscriptions and copper plates, coins for the later periods and Muslim accounts of the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. From remote antiquity the valley was occupied by a Tibeto-Burman-speaking people, sections of which came to be known as Kachari, Koch (qq.v.), Mech (Sanskrit Mleccha), Chutiya, etc. This stock still forms the bulk of the indigenous population. In the Indian epics Assam is mentioned as Pragjyotisha, a Mleccha kingdom, ruled by a King Bhagadatta. Later its more

—

common name was Kamarupa. Indo-Aryan ley

must have begun before the opening

the 4th to 7th centuries kings of the line of for a time as feudatories of

settlement in the val-

of the Christian era.

Samudra gupta.

From

Pushyavarman ruled, The Chinese pilgrim

Hsiian Tsang visited the country about a.d. 640. From the 7th to 10th centuries a second line of kings ruled, and for the next two centuries a third. In the 13th century the first Muslim invasions

took place and the old kingdom broke up, and about 1515a Koch dynasty carved out a kingdom covering the present district of Cooch-Behar (q.v.) and lower Assam, which soon split into an eastern and a western kingdom.

Meanwhile the Burmese Shans, known as Ahoms, who were to name to the country and rule it for centuries, had crossed the low ranges at the head of the valley and were consolidating The traditional date of the Ahom their power in upper Assam.

give their

invasion according to their chronicles is a.d. 1228, but students of Burmese history consider a date in the late 15th or early 16th century more probable (see Ahom). It is certain that they at once

whose leaders retreated down bank of the Brahmaputra. Even in upper Assam Hindu In 1527 Muslim marauders from influence was soon apparent. Gaur (q.v.) invaded the Ahom kingdom for the first time and were defeated. The Ahoms, pressing west against the Kacharis, sacked Dimapur, their capital, and forced them into the north Cachar hills, where they built a new capital at Maibang. Surviving ruins show that the Kacharis at this period had attained a

came

into conflict with the Kacharis,

the south

considerably higher state of civilization than their conquerors. the Muslims occupied much of the 17th century, and in 1662 lower Assam was ceded to the Mogul emperor Aurangzeb. In 1 706 the Kacharis were driven out of Maibang and established

Wars with

their last capital at

Khaspur

in the plains of

Cachar.

About

this

Ahom

king Rudra Singh became an orthodox Hindu, and in the reign of his successor Sib Singh (1714-44) Hinduism became

time the

the predominant religion.

The country had frequently been distracted by rebellions in which both sides showed appalling brutality, and by 1792 such was the state of affairs that the king, Gaurinath, sought and received This aid was soon withdrawn, aid from the British in Bengal. however, and in 1816 a claimant to the throne called in the Burmese, who plundered the country and returned the following year. After further disorder and a period of direct British rule (182622) Assam was in 1838 incorporated in Bengal (q.v.) and remained a part of that province until a separate chief commissionership was set up in 1874. This arrangement continued until 1919 except for the period of the partition of Bengal (1905-11), during which Assam was united with the eastern districts of Bengal

under a lieutenant governor. Under the Government of India act of 1919 Assam became a governor's province. During World War II the Naga hills, especially the area around Kohima, were the scene of bitter fighting between the British 14th army and the Japanese forces which had occupied Burma in 1942. Assam became one of the main supply routes for all the Allied forces operating in this area.

On

when the constitution of India came into Assam became a part A state of the republic. A movement for independence, which started in 1955 among the Naga tribes in the Tuensang frontier division of the North East Frontier Agency and in the Naga Hills district of Assam, deJan. 26, 1950,

force,

veloped into a rebellion in 1956-57, necessitating operations by the Indian army. As from Dec. 1, 1957, the whole area affected was placed under the direct administration of the central government of India.

(J. P.

Population and Administration.

M.; F. R. A.)

— According

to the

1961

census the population of Assam was 11,860,059. The population is heterogeneous and includes many people of distinctly Mongoloid physical type, among them such tribal groups as the

Khasis and the Nagas. About 40% are recorded as speaking Assamese and about 24% Bengali. About 65% are Hindus, 22% Muslims, and most of the remainder professing Christianity or tribal beliefs. Labour for the tea gardens has brought in many workers from Bihar, while after 1911 many land-starved peasants from Mymensingh in Bengal settled in the valley. Hindi, Oriya, Mundari, Nepali and a variety of languages and dialects classified under the general category of Tibeto-Burman languages (q.v.) are also spoken. There has never been a regular or adequate census of the tribal population in the state for the administration in the North East Frontier Agency and other tribal areas rests lightly.

The

state

government has a unicameral

governor and cabinet.

Assam

legislature

under

a

The N.E.F.A. is completely separate from The governor rules the agency with the

administratively.

help of an adviser in Shillong and the ultimate responsibility for the area rests with the external affairs ministry of the government

Assam comprises the 1 1 administrative districts of Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang, Nowgong, Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, Cachar, Garo Hills, Khasi-Jaintia Hills, Mizo Hills and Mikar and

of India.

North Kachar Hills. Social Conditions.

(S. Ch.) 1956-57 an estimated 1,155,000 children were receiving education, of whom more than two-thirds were boys, and 90% came from rural areas. Primary education was being given to 61.7% and secondary education to 16.3% of the children in the respective age groups. Compulsory primary education was in force for children of 6-12 in 13 towns and 4,405 villages. The 1961 census recorded that literacy among males was 35.5% and among females only 14.6%. Gauhati (q.v.) is In 1955 birth and death the seat of Assam's only university. rates were respectively 33.9 and 15.6 per 1,000 persons. Seventeen welfare extension projects, operating through 83 centres and covering 300,000 people, were providing recreational and cultural facilities for women and children. (S. B. L. N.) The Economy. In comparison with most of the states of India Assam is still relatively underpopulated and has land awaiting settlement and development. Government reserve forests cover 6,350 sq.mi. (1951-52). Among the many valuable hardwoods are sal (Shorea robusta), bonsum (Phoebe hainesiana) and hollock (Terminalia myriocarpa) but much forest land is too inaccessible to be of economic importance. Bamboo cane is also exported. In

—In

—

the Assam valley rice is the principal crop, averaging in the more than 4,000,000 ac. and a production of nearly 2,000,000

state tons.

Large areas of land liable to flooding and changes of river course are at present classed as "cultivable waste." The western end of

comes within the jute-growing belt of India. Tea is most important article of commerce and its cultivation is a More basic factor in the development and economy of Assam. than 1,000 tea gardens covering nearly 400,000 ac. and employing the valley the

over 500,000 people are found especially on the sloping land of the valley sides but also, provided soil drainage is good, on the plains. The Assamese are too concerned with their own holdings and

ASSAMESE— ASSAULT work on

too prosperous to seek

labour

is

brought

plantations; the necessary from Bihar ami central parts of India, Legis-

in

tea

and repatriation but many settle permanently at the end of their engagement, indeed less than a quarter (if the state's population are native-born Assamese. Other crops include sugar cane, oilseeds and mustard, with shortstapled cotton, millet and maize in the hills. Potatoes and oranges are exported in large quantities from the Khasi hills. The hill tribes practise shifting cultivation, which creates an erosion problem, but permanent irrigated terraces are found in some areas. Cottage industries, mainly sericulture and hand weaving, employed about 2,000,000 persons in the early 1960s. Modern industry has scarcely reached Assam but the refinery at Digboi processes about 250,000 cans of petroleum annually from the nearby oil fields. A little coal is quarried, and many deposits are not yet touched. Limestone is quarried on the southern fringe of the Khasi hills, and sillimanite from the plateau above is used in glass furnaces in India and Europe. Shillong (q.v.), the state capital pleasantly situated on the cool height of the plateau, has no railway but is reached by motor road from Gauhati where the two main sections of the Assam railway are separated by the Brahmaputra. The direct line from there to Calcutta lies through East Pakistan and there has been no through running since partition in 1947. By the construction of a short link line, Calcutta can now be reached by a tortuous route round the north of East Pakistan but one lying entirely in Indian territory. The only direct access to Assam from the main part of India is by air. See also Index references under "Assam" in the Index volume. lation ensures the labourers' protection

;

—

Bibliography. G. A. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India, vol. ii and iii (1904); J. H. Hutton, The Sema Xagas (1921); J. P. Mills, The Ao Xagas (1926) N. E. Parry, The Lakhers (1932) L. S. Sastry (ed.). The Constitution of India (1950) E. A. Gait, History of Assam (1905) B.K. Barua, Cultural History of Assam (Early Period) (1951) L. W. Shakespear, History of Upper Assam, Upper Burmah and XorthEastem Frontier (1914); S. N. Bhattacharyya, History of Mughal Xorth-East Frontier Policy (1929) A. Mackenzie, History of the Relations of the Government with the Hill Tribes of the Xorth-East Frontier of Bengal (1884) S. K. Bhuvan, Anglo-Assamese Relations, 1771-1S26 (1949); R. C. M. Thomson, Assam Valley: Beliefs and Customs of the Assamese Hindus (1948). (L. D. S.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

ASSAMESE LANGUAGE,

the Indo-Aryan tongue spoken

Assam

valley. In its grammar it closely resembles Bengali since both are derived from a common source. Its vocabumainly tadbhava. Tadbhava means "of the same character as" Sanskrit, contrasted with tatsama, "identical with" the Sanskrit word. The French word ange is tadbhava, while angelus is tatsama, identical with the Latin. The Assamese language has been affected by its proximity to Tibeto-Burman dialects both in vocabulary and in structure, as in the use of pronominal suffixes, and in phonetics, though followin the

(q.v.

lary

),

is

ing Bengali generally in

its

accentuation.

fully preserved.

ASSASSIN, a general term for one who murders by treacherous violence (properly hashishin, a taker of hashish), originally a name applied to the branch of the Isma'ili sect of Shi'ite Muslims founded by Hasan ibn al-Sabbah at the end of the 11th century. Hasan, a native of Khurasan and a supporter of the official Isma'ili doctrine of the Fatimid caliphate in Cairo, became the of

against the

the great

Isma'ili

new Seljuk regime

revival

in

Persia directed chiefly

Seljuks).

After the death of the Fatimid caliph Mustansir in 1094, Hasan and the Persian Isma'ilis refused to recognize the new caliph in Cairo and transferred their allegiance to his deposed elder brother Nizar. Nizar and his son were murdered in prison in Egypt, but, according to Assassin tradition, an infant grandson was smuggled out to Persia and there brought up by Hasan ibn al-Sabbah to found a new line of Nizari imams. Hasan and his two successors in the grand mastership of the Persian Isma'ilis, Kiya Buzurgumid (1124-38) and {see

1

621

ol

of

a

q.v.).

The

\

a

open imams (now represented in- made a number of changes the most significant, from the

doctrine and practice point of view of the outside world, being the adoption of "assassination" (i.e., the murder of the sect's enemies) as a sacred in Isma'ili

religious duty

The open Sabbah, the of

Alamut

history of the sect begins in 1090, when Hasan ibn alfirst "Old Man of the Mountain," seized the castle

in

an impregnable valley near Kazvin.

By

the end of

1 1th century he commanded a network of strongholds all over Persia and Iraq, a corps of devoted terrorists and an unknown

the

number

of agents in the camps and cities of the enemy. In Alamut, which remained the headquarters until its destruction by the Mongols, the grand master presided over a hierarchy of propagandists (da'i), terrorists and lay brothers and directed the policies and activities of the sect. Seljuk attempts to capture it were unavailing, and soon the Assassins were claiming many victims among the generals and statesmen of the caliphate, including even some of the caliphs themselves. The Fatimid government in Cairo, with which the Assassins were now on terms of open hostility, also suffered from their attentions, though to a lesser extent. At the beginning of the 12th century the Persian Assassins extended their activities to Syria, where the expansion of Seljuk rule, followed by the arrival of the crusaders, had created a favourable terrain. The Syrian population had long included important extremist Shi'ite minorities who might be expected to

welcome the Assassin

emissaries.

After a period of preparation the Assassins seized a group of

which was Masyaf, and from there waged a war of terror against Turks and crusaders alike. They seem to have remained under the orders of Alamut, though there is evidence that Rashid al-Din Sinan (d. 1192), the greatest of the Syrian grand masters, acted independently. After two attempts on the life of Saladin, he appears to have reached some understanding with him against the common enemy. After the death of Sinan the authority of Alamut was restored over the castles in the Jebel Ansariya, the chief of

Syrian castles.

The end

power of the Assassins came under the double Mongols and of their deadliest enemy, the Mameluke In Persia the Mongol general Hulagu captured the Assassin castles one by one with surprising ease; in 1256 Alamut itself fell, and the last grand master, Rukn al-Din Khurshah, was compelled to surrender. He was hanged shortly after. of the

assault of the

sultan Baybars.

In Syria the Assassins tried to ingratiate themselves with Baybars, but without success. One by one the Syrian castles were subjugated and placed under Mameluke governors, the last, Kahf, falling in 1273.

with

Henceforth the

sect stagnated as a

or no political importance.

minor heresy,

Its followers are still to

be numbers in Syria, Persia and central Asia, with the group in India and Pakistan, where they are known as Khojas and owe allegiance to the Aga Khan. The term assassin was brought to Europe by the crusaders from Syria and derives from the terrorists' alleged practice of taking little

found

in small

largest

The chief glory of Assamese literature is in history. The buranjis or historical works are voluminous and have been care-

leader

Egypt and the fin by the AgaKhan;

Mohammed

(1138-62), claimed only to be representatives of the 'ala Dhikrihi al-Salam (1162-66), proclaimed himself the son of the infant brought from

imams; but the fourth grand master, Hasan

hashish to induce ecstatic visions of paradise before setting out to face martyrdom. The stories told by Marco Polo and others of the gardens of paradise into which the drugged devotees were introduced to receive a foretaste of eternal bliss are not confirmed

by any known Isma'ili source. The fame of the sectaries soon spread

in the west, and before long perfervid imaginations detected the hand of the "Old Man of the Mountain" in political murders and attempts even in Eu-

rope.

ASSAULT AND BATTERY.

(B. Le.)

Under common law

in the

United States and England, and by statute in many states of the United States, an assault is generally defined as an attempt to commit a battery, or the commission of an unlawful act which causes another reasonably to fear an imminent battery. A battery is an unlawful application of physical force to another. The legal concepts of assault and battery are designed to protect the individual from rude and undesired physical contact or force and

from the fear or threat thereof. The protection afforded by the law against assault does not

ASSAYING

622

extend to the mere possibility of harm or to the threat of a battery in the distant future. Rather, an apparent, imminent danger is required, and some overt act which appears to threaten a battery is prerequisite to an assault. Thus, words alone do net constitute an assault.

With

respect to the actual commission of a battery, the degree

is unimportant; a battery may be accomplished by a mere Moreover, the force used need not be direct. For example, one may commit a battery not only by coming into physical contact with another but also by striking his cane or horse, administering poison or drugs, or even communicating a disease.

of force

touching.

There are some instances in which force may be lawfully employed without the consent of the victim. For example, due execution of the law, defense of one's person or property, or reasonable Generally correction of a child may warrant the use of force. speaking, however, lack of consent by the person to whom force is applied results in a battery. Nonetheless, even where consent has been given, the law will not recognize it when obtained by fraud or duress, when given by one too young or too feeble-minded to be capable of consent, or when given in connection with a battery so serious that the law could not permit consent, as in the case of a serious beating or a breach of the peace. One is presumed, however, to consent to certain physical contacts normal to everyday life, such as a tap on the shoulder or jostling on a

crowded bus. There are two forms of legal redress for assault and battery: by the victim for damages, and a criminal

a civil or private action

prosecution in the

between the

civil

name

of the state.

Certain differences exist

and criminal law with respect to assault and

battery.

In a civil case, the victim of an assault must show that he has been harmed in some manner. Consequently, if he was unaware of any danger at the time of the assault, he cannot recover in a civil suit. The purpose of a criminal prosecution, however, is the punishment of conduct prohibited by society through its laws. Therefore, in the United States, one who has committed an assault is criminally responsible for his conduct irrespective of whether his intended victim knew of the attempt. In England, however, the rule is different. There, neither a criminal nor a civil assault has occurred unless the victim knew of the threat. In both civil and criminal law, a battery may take place even though the victim is unaware of the use of force against him at the time of its application. Assault and battery generally require an intent to harm. However, where one has intentionally placed another in fear of a battery, although without any intention of actually committing one, English courts and most courts in the United States hold that the party is guilty of a criminal as well as a civil assault. A few courts in the United States, however, refuse to hold such a party guilty of criminal assault, reasoning that neither criminal intent

nor ability to harm exists in such a case. A typical situation is that in which one points an unloaded revolver at another, threatening to shoot. A purely accidental injury is not punishable as a battery. However, where one accidentally causes injury to another during the commission of an unlawful act, he is guilty of a battery. Moreover, careless conduct may result in an action for damages or a criminal prosecution. Thus, a civil action may be brought for an injury caused by the ordinary negligence of another. A criminal prosecution, however, cannot be maintained for an injury caused by ordinary negligence; gross, or criminal, negligence, involving a high degree of carelessness, is required in such an

metals in ores and metallurgical products.

There has been a tendrestrict the term to methods for the determination of the precious metals and to fire methods (reducing the metallic

ency to

content of an ore sample to metal in a small analytical crucible) for the determination of base metals such as lead and tin. Wet chemical analytical procedures and spectrographic methods of analysis are usually termed analyses instead of assaying.

The methods of assaying had their beginnings in antiquity, bedawn of chemical knowledge. They evolved from the fumbling experiments of ancient alchemists and goldsmiths who were striving to find and produce the precious metals. Successful recovery processes were devised and quantitative procedures developed at an early date. Trial by touchstone and by fire is mentioned by Theophrastus (c. 371-c. 288 B.C.). Germination of the seeds of modern chemistry and metallurgy can be seen in the Probierbuchlein, "The Little Book on Assaying," and in Lazarus Ercker's Treatise on Ores and Assaying, both published in the fore the

6th century. Many of the operations of fire assaying are carried out today much as they were then. These ancient methods are still taught in university courses for metallurgists because they offer a convenient way of studying the reactions of igneous chemistry. They 1

still used in industry because modern science has been unable develop better methods of determining the precious-metal content of ores. This is largely due to the sampling problem. The precious metals tend to occur in ores as ductile particles and each particle has a high value. Hence the sample of ore must be relatively large so that the chance variation in the number of preciousmetal particles will not change the value of the sample beyond the allowable error. Large samples can be economically and accurately assayed by the fire methods but spectrographic methods of analysis are not adapted to operating on large sample portions and wet chemical methods, involving the complete decomposition of large samples, would be very expensive. Leaching with cyanide solution has been used as an analytical process but usually an important part of the values remains in the undecomposed ore particles and is not recovered.

are to

UNITS USED IN ASSAYING In the United States. Canada and South Africa the proportion of precious metals is expressed as troy ounces per short ton (2,000 avoirdupois pounds) of ore. A system of assay-ton weights is used in weighing the assay portion of ore which is taken for the assay process. The assay ton contains the same number of milligrams (29.166I) as there are troy ounces in a short ton. Hence the number of milligrams of precious metals found in an assay ton of ore indicates the assay in troy ounces per short ton. In England and Australia the long or gross ton of 2,240 lb. is used. It has an equivalent assay long ton of 32.667 g. The gold assay in British countries is commonly reported in pennyweight (dwt.), a troy weight containing ^L troy ounce. In Mexico. South America and other countries using the metric

system the proportion of the precious metals

Under military

law, assault

ASSAYING,

the process of determining the proportion of

defined as an attempt or offer with unlawful force or violence to do bodily harm to another. An assault against a superior officer is generally punishable by death in time of war. (C. R. Se.) is

reported in

kilo-

of ore indicates 100

g. of gold per metric ton of ore. Assays of lead and copper bullion are reported in the same units as those used for ores. Gold and silver bullion assays are universally reported in fineness, or parts per 1,000. The gold content Twenty-four-carat of jewelry is reported in carats, or -^ parts. gold is pure gold and 18-carat gold is •£-§ or 75% gold. Eighteen-

carat gold

action.

England and some jurisdictions in the United States define certain types of assault (such as assault with a deadly weapon. with intent to kill, etc.) as "aggravated" assault, with convictions carrying higher penalties than ordinary assault.

is

grams and grams per metric ton of ore. The metric ton contains 1. 000.000 g.; consequently, 1 mg. of gold from a 10-g. assay portion

750

is

fine.

ASSAYING FOR GOLD AND SILVER Ores are assayed for gold and silver by the following steps: 1. Sampling: taking a representative portion of ore for assay. 2. Fusion decomposing the assay portion by melting with fluxes and reagents to produce a lead button containing the precious metals and a slag which is discarded. 3. Cupellation: melting the lead button in an oxidizing atmosphere to oxidize the lead and leave a dori (gold and silver alloy) :

bead.

ASSAY OFFICE Weighing: the weight of the dori bead

4.

is

reported as gold

plus silver.

Parting: treating the dori bead with hot dilute nitric acid

5 J

arge which

623

is

mostly absorbed by the cupel.

it must also be At the end of the process a and most of the platinum the ore is left in the bowl of the

must be low to avoid excessive loss above the melting point of litharge.

of silver but

to dissolve the silver. 6. Weighing: the residual gold

d '"' bead containing the gold, silver

and reported as gold

cupel;

is weighed on a delicate balance The weight of silver is obtained by calcuthe difference between this weight and the weight of the dori

lating

bead.

Sampling. size that will

tion to

taken.

is

—

Samples are customarily dried and pulverized to a pass through a 100-mesh sieve before the assay porAt this particle size an assay portion of one-tenth

may compose

a sufficiently reliable sample.

For

the assay portion of the pulverized ores must vary with the degree of uniformity of the ore particles. When the finely divided and uniformly distributed, small assay values are Pulverized ores portions can be used with a saving of reagents.

same

reliability,

containing relatively large, rich particles require larger assay por-

Some

tions. .'than

or

ores contain rich malleable particles which are larger

100-mesh.

more which

is

Such ores require an assay portion of a kilogram handled by a "metallics assay." In the metallics is weighed and then carefully crushed

'assay the large assay portion in

stages with repeated screening to separate the malleable par-

obtained which contains the malleable particles, and the bulk of the sample has been pulverized All of the metallics portion is put to pass a 100-mesh sieve. through an assay process to recover its gold and silver, and the minus 100-mesh material is sampled and assayed in the usual way. The gold and silver content of the ore is calculated from the results Finally a "metallics portion"

'ticles.

present in

Weighing and Parting.

—

The dori bead is squeezed with and brushed to remove adhering material from the cupel. It then weighed. This weight represents the weight of the com-

pliers

two assay tons

the

may have been

that

The temperature

is

is

bined precious metals. Silver is then removed by parting (dissolving) in hot dilute nitric acid. The residual gold is washed, dried, annealed and weighed. Dori beads containing less than two times as much silver as gold will not part. Such beads are melted with additional silver, a process called inquartation, before parting.

ASSAYING ORES FOR PLATINUM METALS The platinum metals present

in an ore are collected in the lead button of an ordinary fire-assay crucible fusion or scorification. Platinum, palladium and rhodium dissolve in the molten lead and Osmium, are collected in the same manner as gold and silver. iridium and ruthenium do not alloy with the lead but are "wetted" by it in the assay fusion they sink into the lead and are mechani:

cally held at the

bottom of the lead button.

Cupellation of lead buttons containing more than 15 times as gold and silver as platinum metals proceeds normally. Platinum, palladium and rhodium alloy with the gold and silver and Platinum causes a are satisfactorily recovered in the final bead. roughening of the surface of silver beads, giving them a charac-

much

appearance.

Iridium does not alloy with the gold cupellation it forms a black deposit

two assays. Fusion. In assay fusion the assay portion of ore is heated -with reagents in such a manner that the ore is decomposed and formed into a fusible slag while the precious metals are released and dissolved in molten lead. Lead is supplied in the form of lead oxide (litharge) in the crucible process and as granulated lead in the

teristic frosted

jscorification (reduction to slag) process.

analyzed by wet chemical methods. The nitric acid parting treatment given dori silver beads during the assay for gold and silver will dissolve palladium and part of the platinum. To avoid reporting these metals as silver, the spent acid should be watched for indications of platinum and palladium.

of the

The

—

a reducing fusion in which a part of the litharge in the charge is reduced to metallic lead. Reduction is brought about by reducing agents such as flour or charcoal added to the charge or by sulfide minerals in the ore. Some ores possess too much reducing power and require the addition of an oxidizing reagent such as nitre. The objective is to produce about 25 g. of lead and to leave as a flux an amount of litharge at least equal to the weight of the assay portion of ore. Other fluxes such as soda ash and borax glass are commonly used to help decompose the ore and to increase the fluidity of the slag. Crucible fusions are effected at a temperature slightly over 1.000° C. in muffle furnaces, in which the charge is separated from the combustion chamber by a closed vessel, or oven. After the reactions have been completed the fluid contents of the crucibles are poured into conical iron molds and allowed to solidify. The slag is then broken and the lead buttons are hammered to Ifree them from the slag and to produce a cubical shape for easy

I

crucible process takes place in a clay crucible.

It is

handling.

The

scorification process

is

not often used because

'conveniently handle as large an assay portion of ore as

it

is

cannot

generally

The maximum weight of ore ordinarily handled by scorification is 0.2 assay ton. The assay portion is charged into necessary.

shallow fire-clay dish with granulated lead and a little borax glass. its charge are then placed in a muffle furabout 600 ° C. After the lead has melted the muffle door is 'opened to provide air for oxidation and the temperature is gradually raised to approximately 1.000° C. The molten lead oxidizes

|a

'The scorifying dish and jnace at

and the lead oxide fluxes the ore. Finally the ore is decomposed and a fluid slag is formed which covers the remaining lead. At this stage action has stopped and about 25 g. of lead should be !left unoxidized. The scorifying dish is withdrawn from the furnace and the contents poured into an iron mold as in the crucible

and

silver;

when present during

that clings to the

form

bottom of the bead. Osmium and ruthenium when heated in air and consequently they suf-

volatile oxides

Cupellation.

Palladium produces a yellow colour in the acid. Platinum dissolves only when the bead contains more than ten times as much silver as platinum. A considerable amount of platinum gives the spent acid a dark brown colour like a colloidal solution of carbon. Rhodium, iridium, osmiridium and some platinum remain with the gold during parting and give it a "not completely parted" appearance. When platinum metals are present, either the lead button or the dori bead should be treated by wet chemical methods for the determination of the separate platinum metals.

FIRE ASSAYING FOR BASE METALS Fire-assaying methods have been used for the determination of the easily reducible base metals such as lead, bismuth, tin. antimony and copper. In order to determine one of these metals byfire methods a five- or ten-gram assay portion of the ore is mixed

with fluxes and an excess of reducing agent in a crucible. The crucible is heated in a furnace to produce a button of the reduced metal and a fusible slag. The button is weighed to determine the amount of metal. Results tend to be low because of loss of metal and tend to be high due to reduction of impurities. Wet chemical analytical procedures give greater precision and have almost completely supplanted fire-assaying methods for the determination of the base metals.

For information on chemical analytical procedures see

Chem-

istry: Analytical Chemistry. See also articles on the various metallic elements, as Gold;

Iron; Zinx;

etc.

—

Bibliocraphy. Bergwerk und Probierbiichlein (1534; Eng. trans, by A. G. Sisco and C. S. Smith, 1949) Lazarus Ercker, Treatise on Ores and Assaying (1580; Eng. trans, by A. G. Sisco and C. S. Smith, 1951); O. C. Shepard and W. F. Dietrich, Fire Assaying (1940).

— Lead buttons containing the gold and

silver

from

by cupellation to recover the precious is an oxidizing fusion in a small porous vessel During cupellation the lead is oxidized to lith-

assay fusions are treated

known

these metals are pres-

ent cupellation should be avoided and the lead button should be

;

iprocess.

metals.

When

fer a large loss during cupellation.

Cupellation as a cupel.

(O. C. S.)

ASSAY OFFICE, are tested to determine

where samples of metals and ores what quantity of the various metals are

a place

ASSEMANI— ASSEMBLY

624

present in them. The term assay office was first generally applied to offices established by the United States in various locations as part of the government mint service to purchase newly mined

See Elmer T. Clark, The Small Sects in America (1949) Charles W. Conn, Like a Mighty Army (1955) The Church of God (periodical published at Queens Village, N.Y.). (E. T. Cl.)

gold and silver and to assay samples of bullion and ores. There are two U.S. assay offices, one in New York city and the other The latter, known as the San Francisco in San Francisco, Calif.

meet together for such purposes

mint, discontinued coinage operations in 19SS. The assay offices receive deposits, assay, process, and store gold

and

silver bullion.

The New York

refinery for refining gold

and

maintains an electrolytic It has special facilities for

office

silver.

assaying metals in the platinum group and also receives and issues gold bars for the settlement of international balances. Both the New York and San Francisco offices sell gold and silver bars for industrial, professional and artistic use. Two other U.S. mints, in Philadelphia, Pa., and Denver, Colo., also handle gold and silver.

;

;

ASSEMBLY, RIGHT OF,

the privilege of individuals

to

as deliberation, worship or the

expression of grievances.

Assembly to discuss grievances poses a dilemma for every government which aspires both to freedom of the citizen and to order in society. Angry crowds can seriously trouble many, partisans and nonparticipants alike; but liberty to meet and debate grievances

is

basic in a reasonably free society.

Essential to

reconciliation of these conflicting tensions are not only wise con-

the Maronite college in Rome and then entered the Vatican library. Having been sent to Egypt and Syria in 1715 in search of manuThis success inscripts he secured about 150 select specimens.

and statutory guarantees, enforced by independent and courageous judges; even more essential is an enlightened policing system. England approached this problem by forbidding disorderly gatherings rather than by guaranteeing free assembly. A statute of 1661 forbade presentation of petitions to king or parliament by more than ten persons at a time (13 Car. 2, c. 5). The English Bill of Rights of 1689 omitted assembly but guaranteed the right to petition the king (1 Will. -Mary, sess. 2, c. 2). Across the Atlantic, however, the First Continental Congress on Oct. 14, 1774, proclaimed the colonists' right to assemble and petition the king. Seventeen years later the first amendment to the then three-year-old constitution forbade the congress to abridge ". the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the

duced the pope to send him again in 1735 and a still more valuable collection was acquired. On his return he was created titular arch-

Government for a redress of grievances." Almost all state constitutions in the United

bishop of Tyre and librarian of the Vatican library. His chief work is his Bibliotheca Orientalis, a treasure store for later scholars. This was intended to cover in four parts manuscripts in Greek and a number of oriental languages, but only the Syriac in three volumes appeared: De Scriptoribus Syris Orthodoxis (1719); De Scr. Syr. Monophysitis (1721); and De Scr. Syr. Nestorianis With his nephew, Stephen Evodius (see below), (1725-28). Simonius published Bibliothecae Apostolicae Vaticanae Codicum Manuscriptorum Catalogus (1756-59). This was reproduced photographically in Paris in 1927-30. He also produced the first three in volumes, the Greek texts, of Ephraemi Syri Opera Omnia sex tomos distributa (1732—46). His nephew, Joseph Aloysius (c. 1710-82), was professor of oriental languages at Rome. Stephen Evodius (1707-82), titular archbishop of Apamea in Syria and holder of several ecclesiastical preferments in Italy, assisted his uncle, Joseph Simonius, in the Vatican library and collaborated in producing its catalogue. His chief works are Bibl. Mediceae Laurentianae et Palatinae Codd. Mss. Oriental Catalogus (1742) and Acta SS. Martyrum (1748). Simon (1752-1821), grandnephew of Joseph Simonius, was professor of oriental languages at Padua. (W. D. McH.) ASSEMBLIES GOD, a religious sect in the United States belonging to the so-called Pentecostal group, was formed by a union of several small bodies at Hot Springs, Ark., in 1914. In 1916 its headquarters were established at Springfield, Mo., and it was incorporated under the name of the General Council of the Assemblies of God. It is the largest of all the numerous Pentecostal bodies in the country, having more than 8,000 local churches and pastors and more than 500,000 members, with a dozen administrative boards and several publications issued by its central publishing house. In doctrine the Assemblies of God is conservative, embracing the so-called Fundamentalist theology. It teaches entire sanctification but differs from similar churches in that it does not insist that this is a second work of grace subsequent to justification or conversion but recognizes the progressive character of the experi-

similar guarantees; and the U.S.

A

Assay commission meets at the Philadelphia mint once examine and test U.S. silver coins. The assay offices, bullion depositories and mints comprise the bureau of the mint, which is a part of the treasury department. (L. Hd.) See also Assaying; Mint. ASSEMANI, the name of a Syrian Maronite family of orienspecial

a year to

talists.

Joseph Simonius (1687-1768), from Mt. Lebanon, studied

.

.

at

.

OF

ence.

The

distinctive feature of the doctrines

and practices of the

Assemblies of God is that of the glossolalia, or "speaking in other tongues as the Spirit gives utterance." (See Tongues, Gift of.) This is regarded as the climactic experience of the religious life and is bestowed upon believers instantaneously following the attainment of holiness or perfection. It derives from the phenomenon on the Day of Pentecost as recorded in Acts ii, 1-13.

stitutional

.

when

States

.

contain

supreme court has held that even

a state constitution fails to assure a reasonable right of

assembly the 14th amendment of the federal constitution guarantees against unreasonable state restriction (De Jonge v. Oregon, 299 U.S. 353 [1937]). There are difficult problems in applying this guarantee, however. Often assemblies arouse their adversaries to violent objection; police sometimes find it easier to stop the meeting than to suppress the disorderly opponents. The supreme court has indicated that police cannot thus be used as an instrument to suppress unpopular views, but when a public speaker attracts a crowd which blocks traffic, or when he passes the bounds of argument or persuasion and incites to riot, the police may constitutionally arrest him (Feiner v. New York, 340 U.S. 315 [1951]). Where the meeting is held indoors, violent opposition from outside furnishes less justification for police interference with the meeting (Terminiello v. Chicago, 337 U.S. 1 [1949]). Another administrative problem arises from competition for public space.

A

state or city, as proprietor of its parks,

empowered

was once

meetings there (Davis v. Massachusetts, 167 U.S. 43 [1897]). This is probably not law today, but a state may enforce reasonable requirements for permits in order to prevent unseemly clashes between groups which attempt to meet at the same time (Poulos v. New Hampshire, 345 U.S. 395 [1953]). An official may not constitutionally be entrusted with discretion to grant or deny a permit as he sees fit, with no standards to guide his judgment (Kunz v. New York, 340 U.S. 290 [1951]). And functionaries empowered to grant permits for park meetings may not constitutionally play favourites between groups (Fowler v. Rhode Island, 345 U.S. 67 [1953]). An assembly to plan or carry out a crime is not privileged. Judicial protection of the right of assembly is inevitably slow. The Committee for Industrial Organization, forbidden by Mayor Frank Hague in Nov. 1937 to hold a public meeting in Jersey City, N.J., sued the mayor and other officials. The supreme court of the United States finally decided in favour of the committee's right to hold the meeting, but not until June 1939 (Hague v. Com-'' In mittee for Industrial Organization, 307 U.S. 496 [1939]). many cases far less delay would frustrate the purpose of the meeting. An effective right of assembly really depends on wise and tolerant police, willing to allow meetings unless impending violence The English have provided a proverbial is clearly apparent. example of such tolerance in Hyde Park, London. (See also Bill of Rights, United States.) (A. E. Su.) I English Law.- As suggested above, in English law the best apheld

constitutionally

—

to

forbid

all

'

ASSEMBLY—ASSIGNATS assembly is to find out what vpcs of assembly are unlawful and in what circumstances. J. ? Archbold's Criminal /'leading, Evidence and Practice, 34th ed. i'1959), p. 1335, defines an unlawful assembly at common law as an assembly of three or more persons (a) for purposes forbidden iy law, such as that of committing a crime by open force; or (b) ,vith intent to carry out any common purpose, lawful or unlawul, in such a manner as to endanger the public peace, or to give reasonable grounds to apprehend a breach of the peace in ;onsequence of it." Riots are punishable both by common law and jnder the Riot act, 1714, while a rout (an assembly which gathers ."or the purpose of rioting and which makes a move towards the ;ommission of its purpose) is another example of an unlawful neeting. In some parts of the Commonwealth and colonies par:icular emergencies have from time to time led to a suspension of iroai

li

to the question of the right of

.

.

.

See also Riot. Bibliography. A. V. Dicey, Introduction

—

(W. T. Ws.)

to the Study of the Law hf the Constitution, 10th ed., (1959) J. M. Jarrett and V. A. Mund, 'The Right of Assembly," New York University Law Quarterly Review, N. L. Stamps, "Freedom of Assembly," University j/ol. 9, p. 6 (1931) ;

j

;

,)f

Kansas City Law Review, Jr., "Assembly, Right

Chafee,

vol.

of,"

11, p. 187 (1942-43); Zechariah Encyclopaedia of the Social Sci-

275 (1937), Free Speech in the United States, pp. 409R. L. Perry and J. C. Cooper, Sources of Our Liberties (33 (1946) 1' 1959). References to various relevant matters in England and other European nations can be found in a note, "Public Order and the Right laf Assembly in England and in the United States: a Comparative jjtudy," Yale Law Journal, vol. 47, p. 404 (1938), and in C. L. Rossiter, Constitutional Dictatorship (1948). ences, vol.

i,

p.

;

,

ASSEMBLY LINE: ASSEN,

town

see

Mass Production.

northern Netherlands, capital of the province of Drenthe, lies 16 mi. S. of Groningen. Pop. (1957 Situated amid wooded surroundings, Assen has three jsst.) 27,041. parks, including one where children learn traffic regulations, and ja museum of antiquities. The main electric railway from Amster;dam to Scandinavia, and the main road linking with Stockholm 'pass through the town. Eelde airport is 10 mi. north. Assen was founded in 1257 around the site of a small convent. It has some light industry and is scheduled by the government as an area for industrial development. ASSENS, a county council district (amtsrddskreds) of southern Denmark, covers the northwest of Fyn (Fiinen) Island. Pop. Area 257 sq.mi. Its fertile loams grow good 1(195 5) 58,005. Dairying and pigcrops of barley, oats, wheat, rye and roots. irearing are traditional. The district is centred on the port of ;Assens (pop., 5,012) which has sugar and bacon factories. At Middelfart (pop., 8,883), a port connected to Jutland by the iLittle Belt bridge, there are porcelain and metal industries and .market gardening flourishes in the surrounding district. (Ha. T.)

ASSER friend, 1(9.1'.),

a

(d. c.

in the

909), Welsh monk, chiefly remembered as the and biographer of Alfred the Great Wales and became a monk at St. David's abbey,

teacher, counselor

was born

in

In 886, eager to learn Latin, Alfred summoned reputation for learning, to his court ,in Wessex, and on St. Martin's Day (Nov. 11), 887, as Asser himIself tells us, the Latin lessons began. Thereafter Asser divided his time between the court and his own community, and became 'Alfred's friend as well as his teacher. The king made him abbot [of the monasteries of Congresbury and Banwell, Somerset, and '.later appointed him bishop of the diocese of Devon and Cornwall. At the time of his death (recorded as being in 909) he was bishop iOf Sherborne, Dorset. Asser's Life of King Alfred follows Alfred's career from his birth to his accession in 871, and describes in detail his reign and his wars, stopping abruptly in 887, 12 years before Alfred's death. JAs an account of historical events, it draws largely on the AngloSaxon Chronicle, but it adds much information on Alfred's care [for his army, his fleet, his cities and their houses, his lawcourts, |his enthusiasm for learning and for the spread of education, and his piety. It is naive, and overfull of enthusiasm, carelessly constructed and sometimes hard to follow, but it is an indispensable source. Scholars have suggested that, in whole or in part, it is not the work of Asser, but this view has not been widely accepted. iPembrokeshire.

lAsser,

1

I

:

—The

625

edition of Asser's life of Alfred (1574), contained grievous interpolations by Archbishop Matthew Parker. It was excellently edited by W. H. Stevenson (1904) edition reissued in 1959, with much additional material by Dorothy Whitelock. Asser's authorship is held doubtful by J. VV. Adamson, The Illiterate AngloSaxon (1946) V. H. Galbraith, Historical Research in Medieval England (1951). There is an English translation by L. C. Jane (1924). (E. S. Dt.) first

;

;

ASSER, TOBIAS MICHAEL CAREL

(1838-1913),

jurist, who shared the Nobel peace prize in 1911 with Alfred H. Fried, was born at Amsterdam, Neth., on April 28, 1838.

Dutch

In 1862 he

became professor

and private internaAmsterdam, being at the same time In 1868, with John Westlake and Rolin a successful barrister. Jacquemijns, he started the Revue de droit international et de legislation comparee. He was also one of the founders of the of commercial

tional law in the University of

Institut de Droit International in 1873.

right of assembly.

iJie

Bibliography.

who had acquired some

In 1891 Asser prevailed upon the Dutch government to convoke Hague Conference for the Unification of International Private Law, which first met in 1892 and later became a permanent institution, responsible, among other things, for the Hague treaties of 1902-05 concerning family law. In 1911-12 he presided over conferences for the unification of the law relating to bills of exchange. In 1893 he resigned his professorship and retired from his law practice, becoming a member of the raad van state (privy council). Asser was a Netherlands delegate to the Hague peace conferences of 1899 and 1907. His greatest success at the first conference was the organization of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. He died on July 29, 1913. (Gd. E. L.) the

ASSESSED VALUATION: see Valuation. ASSESSMENT, a demand or call made by a corporation stockholders for a specified

sum

of

money

upon

per share of stock in

Such assessments are generally made when the company is financially embarrassed and it is a question of the stockholders meeting the assessment or the company becoming insolvent. Reorganizations of corporations frequently involve the placing of an assessment on the stockholders See Judiciary and and sometimes even upon bondholders. Court Officers; Valuation. ASSESSOR, in the United States, an official who evaluates property for purposes of taxation. An assessor exists as a county officer in virtually all the states, and is elected by the voters Originally, in the early for a term of two, three or four years. colonial days, the work of the assessor was done by justices of the peace and was transferred in later colonial days to county boards of commissioners or supervisors. The duties of the assessor are generally to list all property and persons subject to taxation and to determine the value of property to be taxed. Appeals are provided by statutes to county boards of commissioners or supervisors or courts where the person taxed may protest against the amount assessed as being unfair. Some states have provided for township assessors, elected by the voters of the township, to work under the supervision of the assessor, and in others the assessor is permitted a sufficient number of deputies to aid him in the addition to that already paid

in.

completion of his work, the assessments generally being made anMost of the states have state boards of taxation which some extent, the work of the assessors. In most of the states this board is named by the governor, but in a few, such

nually.

supervise, to

as Illinois,

In

where

it is

called the board of equalization,

it is

elected.

Roman

system

is

law, used throughout Europe, wherever the civil law prevalent, an assessor is one who is called by the courts

and assistance. In the United States federal experienced shipmasters serve as assessors in this in admiralty matters. See also Judiciary and Court Officers; Valuation: Taxa(S. Le.) tion. ASSIGNATS, the paper currency notes issued during the French Revolution period on the security of property belonging to give legal advice district courts

sense of the

to the

word

French nation.

financial crisis that had brought about the summoning of the estates-general in 1789 (see France: History; French Revolution) obliged the constituent assembly first to put ecclesiastical

The

property "at the disposition of the nation" (Nov.

2,

1789) and

ASSIGNMENT— ASSINIBOIN

6a6

then to establish an "extraordinary fund" for the purpose of raising 400,000,000 livres (francs) by means of assignats on this propThe assignat was thus a erty and on crown lands (Dec. 19). certificate of debt, a sort of treasury bond bearing interest at 5%, entitling the holder to repayment in property to the value of the assignat. The intention was that, as the transfer of the property was effected, the assignats would be returned and canceled and the national debt thus paid off. The operation, however, did not succeed, as the assignats were not taken up very readily (the clergy was still in occupation of its property, and the ecclesiastical

reform had not yet taken place ) The state's need for ready money remained constant, however, so that on Aug. 27, 1790, a crucial change was made: it was decided that the assignats should no longer bear interest. This turned the assignats from bonds into a paper currency, equivalent to banknotes. At the same time the issue was increased to 1,200,000,000 livres, despite grave warnings .

The change had Whereas

political

and

social as well as financial conse-

the original assignats transferred property only

to creditors of the state (financiers, contractors, persons entitled to

compensation for

loss of office as a result of administrative re-

forms), the assignats as currency might come into anyone's hands. Then, as more and more were issued, the assignats depreciated rapidly, particularly as the partisans of the former regime declared that if they were restored to power they would not recognize the currency of the Revolution. When the assembly itself authorized dealing in coin, there was little to check this depreciation; coin was hoarded and silver money went out of circulation. Finally, after long hesitation, the assembly even issued assignats of small denominations (assignat of five livres, 1791). Thereupon the price of commodities and the cost of living rose (higher prices were charged when payment was in assignats than when it was in coin), and unrest ensued. Even so, the consequences of the currency assignat were not altogether disastrous. In its beginnings, it revived the economy, ended unemployment and served to reduce the rate of foreign exchange (exporters, paid abroad in coin and paying to their workers at home wages which were only slowly rising, were especially benefited by it). The outbreak of war in April 1792 was necessarily followed by more issues of notes, and inflation brought with it the eventual failure of the assignat.

In Jan. 1793,

it still

stood at

60%-6S%

its nominal value; the next month, it went down to 50%; and in July it stood at less than 30%. Capital went abroad, speculation increased, merchandise was hoarded and prices continued to rise. Pierre Joseph Cambon (g.v.), the financial expert of the Convention, now devoted himself to checking inflation and, on July 31, 1793, demonetized all royal, i.e., pre-republican, assignats of more than 100 livres in nominal value. Price control, instituted

of

by the loi du maximum general (Sept. 29, 1793), was more effective, and in December the assignat rose again to 50% of its nominal value. On Dec. 26, Cambon requisitioned all foreign bills and paid for them, at par, in assignats. In the summer of 1794 inflation, which had been halted for a time, began again, and in the Seine departement the assignat went

down

34%

nominal value. The situation deteriorated further after the Thermidorian reaction, when the abandonment of the guided economy of the previous 12 months brought catastrophe. Prices soared, foreign exchange collapsed, and the state had to resign itself to large-scale inflation. In July 1795 the assignat was worth barely 3% of its face value. Tradespeople and peasants refused it and would no longer accept anything but coin. On June 21, 1795, the Convention reduced the nominal to

of

its

value of the assignat according to a proportional scale related to the successive issues. On July 20, moreover, it ordered that half the amounts due under the land tax and for farm rents should be paid in kind. It also granted to officials the principal victims of the depreciation of the paper currency a sliding salary scale calculated on the price of bread. Then, as salaries could no longer follow the steep rise in prices, purchasing power was correspond-

— —

and numerous businesses were forced to close. Famand the Parisian sans-culottes rose revolt (April and May, 1795). When price control (as

ingly reduced

ine aggravated the situation,

twice in

francs: in the course of a night money was being printed for the morrow's expenditure. On Feb. 19, 1796, pretenses could no longer he kept up, and the assignat was abandoned. There could be no question, however, of returning to a metal currency. The circulation of coin was then estimated at about

300,000,000

—

cordingly, on in the

of the risk of inflation.

quences.

under the loi du maximum general) was abolished (Dec. 24, 1794), the paper money in circulation was estimated at 8,000,000.000 livres; and on Oct. 2i, 1795, three days before the dissolution of the Convention, it was assessed at 20,000,000,000. When the Directory was established, inflation reached its highest point: the assignat of 100 francs was worth only 15 sous. The sale of national property was suspended, and in order to save creditors from ruin, a moratorium was declared. Within four months, issues had risen, reaching the nominal value of 39,000,000,000

as against at least 2,000,000,000 livres in 1789.

March

18, 1796, a

new paper currency was

Ac-

issued

form of mandats territoriaux ("land warrants"), valid

for

the acquisition of national property, of which 2,400,000,000 francs'

worth were

issued.

Of these 600,000,000 were

to serve for repay-

ment of the assignats at the rate of 30 assignats for 1 mandat; the rest would go to the treasury. The public, however, had no confidence in the mandats, which by July 1796 were no longer being taken up. The Directory then decided to return to a metalcurrency. The law of 16 Pluviose year V (Feb. 4, 1797), with-

lic

circulation. Thus ended the history of the paper currency of the Revolution. The social consequences of the issue of assignats were farreaching. Inflation dealt a heavy blow to acquired wealth. During 1794-95 debtors hastened to redeem their debts cheaply and on July 11, 1795, the Convention was obliged to forbid the repayment of loans made before July 1, 1792, and the discharge of subsequent ones before they fell due. The old bourgeoisie of rentiers and office-holders, in so far as it was the state's principal creditor, was ruined by the inflation, with the result that many of its members transferred their sympathies to the enemies of the Revolution. On the other hand the fluctuation of the currency brought into being a new bourgeoisie of successful speculators, who took advantage of it to enrich themselves to the detriment of the national assets and without benefit to the community.

drew the mandats from

—

Bibliography. R. Stourm, Les Finances de I'ancien regime et de la Revolution (1885); C. Gomel, Histoire fmanciere de I'Assemblee constituante, 2 vol. (1896-97) M. Marion, Histoire financierc de la France depuis 1715, vol. ii (1919); J. Morini-Comby, Les Assignats (1925); ;

The Assignats (1930). (A. So.) ASSIGNMENT, in law, denotes a transfer of rights, particularly with reference to intangible property, whether or not evidenced by a specialty, such as an insurance policy or a certificate of corporate shares. For the assignment of the property of a debtor for the benefit of creditors, see Bankruptcy; Debtor and S.

E. Harris,

(J. A. MacL.) name formerly applied to three districts in western Canada. (1) The grant made by the Hudson's Bay company to Lord Selkirk in 1811 for his Red River settlement (q.v.), which included all southern Manitoba and also the Red river valley

Creditor Law.

ASSINIBOIA,

a

North Dakota and Minnesota. (2) When the Selkirk grant was resumed by the Hudson's Bay company, the "District of As-| Comprising the area within a siniboia" was organized in 1835. radius of 50 mi. from Fort Garry, it was administered by a local governor and council appointed by the company until it was ended by the formation of Manitoba in 1870 {see Manitoba: History). (3) In 1882 the federal district of Assiniboia was created as a part of the old Northwest Territories to extend from the boundary of Manitoba westward to the district of Alberta along the internaIn tional boundary and south of the district of Saskatchewan. 1905 about one-fifth of Assiniboia was absorbed by Alberta and the rest became part of Saskatchewan. The original district had as its centre the valley of the Assiniboine river, a tributary of the Red, and the name was formed from that of the river and the Assiniboin Indians. (W. L. Mo.) ASSINIBOIN, an American Indian Plains tribe who split from the Vanktonai Sioux before the 1 7th century and were known to the early French and English traders after 1640 as allies of the Algonkian Cree with whom they lived in the area west of Lake in

,

|

ASSISI— ASSIZE Over a period of 150 years, the Assiniboin gradually moved westward and southward. A few led in Canada

ASSIZE

Winnipeg.

I

where they still continued to be known as Stonies, while the remainder settled near the junction of the Missouri and Yellowstone Although restricted in their movements after 1851. they rivers. were not placed on reservations until 1884. They are still dependent upon government for a good part of their subsistence and are more disorganized, poorer and less educated than their nonIndian neighbours.

The Assiniboin today

are divided into three groups: the Stonies over 1.000 members; the I S Assiniboin of Fort Belknap reservation in Montana with approximately 800; and those of Fort Peck with over 2,000. Less than one-quarter of the Montana Assiniboin can be considered full-bloods; the others are mixed with white, Yanktonai Sioux, Cree and Gros Ventre. See David Rodnick, The Fort Belknap Assiniboine of Montana

'

in

1

Alberta with a

little

(D. Ro.)

(1938).

ASSISI,

birthplace of St. Francis,

is

a city of the region of

Umbria and province of Perugia in central Italy standing on a hill, 1,300 ft. high, above the valleys of the Topino and Chiascio 16 mi. by road east-southeast of Perugia. Pop. (1957 est.) 24,853 commune. The town, with its narrow winding streets, is surrounded oy walls. The chief feature is the Romano-Gothic Sacred Convent of St. Francis with its upper and lower churches, begun immediately after the canonization of St. Francis in 1228 and completed The crypt was added in 1818, when the tomb of St. in 1253. Francis was opened. The saint is buried in the lower church which has frescoes by Giunta Pisano. Giovanni Cimabue, Giotto, Pietro Lorenzetti, Simone Martini and Andrea da Bologna; the upper church has frescoes representing stories of the life of St. Francis by Giotto and his followers, and others of the Old and New Testaments by Cimabue, Pietro Cavallini and Jacopo Torriti. In the church of Santa Chiara (St. Clare, begun 1257) is the crucifix that spoke to St. Francis and in its crypt is St. Clare's tomb. The cathedral of S. Rufino (1140) has a fine fagade with three rose windows. Etruscan and Roman remains of Asisium are found in

museum and the Roman Forum and there is a temple of Minerva. Two miles to the east is the "Prison-Hermitage" given to St. Francis by Benedictine monks; outside the Porta Nuova are .the convent and the church of S. Damiano where after 1212 St. Clare and the first "Poor Clare" nuns lived; near the station is the 'great church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli (1569) enshrining the tiny ,Romanesque church of the Porziuncola where St. Francis died; and 3 mi. away is the shrine of Rivotorto where the saint instituted 'the Franciscan order. Many people are attracted to the town, because of its art treasures and its association with St. Francis, who was born there in 1182 and died there in 1226. In the middle ages Assisi waged a long struggle with Perugia before passing to the Papal States. Except for the years of French domination (1798-1815) it remained in papal hands until 1S60, when it became part of the the city

kingdom. June 1944. [Italian

During World

War

II

it

fell

to the Allies in

(G. Z.)

627

(Assise), a legal term meaning

literal!;,

but in fact sometimes a jury, the sittings of a court, or the ordinances of a court or assembly. It originally sonified the form of trial by a jury of 16 persons, which eventually superseded the barbarous judicial combat; this jury was named the grand assize and was sworn to determine the right of seisin of land (see Evidence). The grand assize was abolished in 1833; but the term assize is still applicable to the jury in criminal causes in Scotland.

In the only sense in which the word is not now almost obsolete, means the periodical session of the judges of the high court of justice held in the various counties of England, chiefly for the purposes of trying jailed prisoners and causes at nisi prius

assize

Previous to Magna Carta C1215) all writs of assize had (q.v.). Westminster, or to await trial in the locality in which they had originated at the septennial circuit of the justices in eyre; but, by way of remedy for the great consequent delay and inconvenience, it was provided by this celebrated act that the assizes of mort d'ancestor and novel disseizin should be tried annually by the judges in every county. By successive enactments, the civil jurisdiction of the justices of assize was extended, and to be tried at

number of their sittings increased, until at last the necessity of repairing to Westminster for judgment in civil actions was almost the

obviated to country litigants by an act, passed in the reign of Edward I, which provided that the writ summoning the jury to Westminster should also appoint a time and place for hearing such causes within the county of their origin. The date of the alternative summons to Westminster was always subsequent to the former date, and so timed as to fall in the vacation preceding the Westminster term, and thus "Unless before," or nisi prius, issues came to be dealt with by the judges of assize before the summons to Westminster could take effect. The nisi prius clause, however, was not then introduced for the first time. It occurs

occasionally in writs of the reign of

Henry

III.

The

royal

com-

missions to hold the assizes are (1) general, (2) special. The general commission is issued twice a year to the judges of the high court of justice, and two judges are generally sent on each circuit. It covers commissions (1) of oyer and terminer (q.v.), by which they are empowered to deal with treasons, murders, felonies, commission; (2) of nisi prius; (3) of jail delivery, which requires them to try every prisoner in jail, for whatever offense committed; (4) of the peace, by which all justices must be present at their county assizes or else suffer a fine. Special commissions are granted for inquest in certain causes and crimes (see Court; Practice and Procedure). Assizes, in the sense of ordinances or enactments of a court or council of state, as the "assize of bread and ale," the "assize of Clarendon," the "assize of arms," are important in early economic history. As early as the reign of John the observance of the Assisae venalium was enforced, and for a period of 500 years thereafter it was considered no unimportant part of the duties of the legislature to regulate by fixed prices the sale of bread, ale, fuel, etc.. The word assize is used in a wider legislative connection by early chroniclers and historians the "assisae of the realme," e.g., occasionally meaning the organic laws of the country. For the "assizes of Jerusalem" see Crusades Organization

etc.; this is their largest

—

:

of the Latin States.

The term assize, became transferred which they were

originally applying to an assembly or court,

by more important.

to actions before the court of the writs

instituted.

The following

are the

Assize of darrein presentment, or last presentation, was a writ summon an assize or jury to inquire the last patron that presented to a church then vacant,

directed to the sheriff to

who was

was deforced or unlawwas abolished in 1833 and the action of quare impedit substituted. But by the Common Law Procedure act, 1860, no quare impedit can be brought, so that an action in the king's bench of the high court was substituted of which the plaintiff complained that he fully deprived

for

by the defendant.

It

it.

Assize of mort d'ancestor was a writ which lay where a plaintiff complained of an "abatement" or entry upon his freehold,

SACRED CONVENT OF

ST.

FRANCIS

IN ASSISI

effected

by

a stranger

on the death of the

plaintiff's father,

mother,

O

:

ASSOCIATED—ASSOCIATION, CHEMICAL

628

It was abolished in 1833. was an action to recover lands of which had been "disseised" or dispossessed. It was also

brother, sister, uncle, aunt, etc.

.Wize of novel

disseizin

the plaintiff abolished in 1833.

"who

writes

all

things judicially done

by the justices of assizes in their circuits." He has charge of the commission and takes recognizances, records, judgments and sentences, grants certificates of conviction, draws up orders, etc. By the Clerks of Assize act, 1869, he must either have been for three years a barrister or solicitor in actual practice, or have acted for three years in the capacity of subordinate officer of a clerk of

on

may be polar, one end having an excess positive charge and the other an excess negative charge, or it may contain polar groups. In either case it tends to orient and attract another similar molecule in the vicinity. If the attraction energy is large enough, relative to the average kinetic energy (see Association in a whole

Assize, clerk of, an officer

assize

Molecules may also be held together, if the temperature is not too high, by dipolar attraction, resulting from the separation of positive and negative charges in each molecule. The molecule as

Gases, below), association occurs. Still weaker, in general, are the so-called

London dispersion forces which act between any two atoms which are close together. These may be explained

circuit.

See Sir F. Pollock and F. ed. (1898).

W.

Maitland, History of English Law,

(rotating)

ASSOCIATED BANKS, banks that make daily clearings through the same clearinghouse. See Clearinghouse.

cloud

ASSOCIATED PRESS: see News Agency. ASSOCIATION, CHEMICAL. Association in a specialized

is

a

term used

sense in chemistry to denote the aggregation of

atoms or molecules into larger units, the forces holding these units together being weaker than those involved in the formation of ordinary chemical bonds. The term is usually restricted to the formation of aggregates of like atoms or molecules. Polymerization (q.v.) also refers to the formation of large units by the union of like small units. A molecular aggregate formed by association is a polymer in which the forces holding the smaller units together are relatively weak. tion.

Association

It is difficult

is

thus a special case of polymeriza-

or impossible to draw a sharp dividing line be-

tween association and other types of polymerization. In general, however, a polymerization which is not an association involves the formation of ordinary chemical bonds between the smaller units (monomers), whereas in mere association of molecules they are held together by weaker forces. Because of the qualitative difference between the strengths of the forces holding the small units together an equilibrium is often observed between an association complex and the corresponding simple molecules, whereas such an equilibrium is rarely found, except at quite high temperatures, between a polymer of the chemical bond type and its monomer. An equilibrium mixture of an association complex and the corresponding small molecules behaves chemically in much the same manner as would the small molecules by themselves, since the removal of some of the small molecules by chemical reaction shifts the equilibrium in such a way as to dissociate more of the aggregate, in accordance with the law of mass action (see Reaction Kinetics). Many physical properties (for instance, the density of a gas at a given temperature and pressure) depend on the number and average size of the independently moving units and thus on the number of molecules in each aggregate and the relative numbers of simple molecules and aggregates under the conditions For these reasons, of the experiment (see Stoicheiometry).

much of the information regarding the existence come from studies of these physical properties,

of aggregates has

rather than from chemical studies. In some cases. X-ray diffraction (see Crystallography: Structure of Crystals) and electron diffraction studies confirmed the conclusions arrived at in this way and, in addition, supplied detailed knowledge of the relative positions of the atoms

in the following

way: an atom consists by a cloud

a heavy, positively charged nucleus, surrounded

2nd

may

The negative

negatively charged electrons.

of of

electron

with respect to the positive nucleus. The atom can then be described as an oscillating dipole, changing polarity with each oscillation. Two neighbouring atoms tend to oscillate in synchronism with each other, in such a way that most of the time the two dipoles are so oriented as to produce a mutual attraction. This attraction is relatively w eak; yet it is strong enough to produce some molecular association at low temperatures. Association in Gases. Molecules in the gaseous state are in practically constant motion, frequently colliding with each other. (See Kinetic Theory of Matter.) As a rule, when two molecules collide they immediately rebound, remaining close together for only a short time. If, however, the attractive forces between them are strong enough, they stick together for awhile, until the oscillate

T

—

association complex so formed

is

broken up by a

ergetic collision with another molecule.

sufficiently en-

energy of association is considerably greater than the average molecular kinetic energy, most of the molecules are associated at any given instant. Since raising the temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the molecules, it tends to decrease the degree of association; i.e., the average fraction of the molecules which are associated. As already implied, the degree of association of the molecules in a gas can be computed from measurements of its density at a given pressure and temperature. From a series of such measurements at various pressures, the equilibrium constant at that temperature for the association-dissociation equilibrium can be calculated. From measurements at two or more temperatures the energy of association can be obtained. With this information the degree of association at other temperatures and pressures can be computed. For a specific example, the association of molecules of acetic acid, CH3CO2H, in the gaseous state may be considered. Measurements by F. H. MacDougall and M. D. Taylor of the pressure exerted at constant temperature by a given mass of acetic acid vapour in different volumes show that, contrary to the behaviour of a nonassociating gas, the product of the pressure times the volume is not even approximately constant. The data can be quantitatively accounted for by assuming an equilibrium between single and double molecules: If the

2CH 3 CO.H^±(CH 3 C0 ,H ), 1

The heat of dissociation The pressure of acetic

briefly considered. Most important are the forces of "hydrogen bond" (or "hydrogen bridge") formation, in which a hydrogen atom, bonded to an electronegative atom (e.g., oxygen), forms a bridge to another electronegative atom. If these two electronegative atoms are in

about 15.3 kg.cal. per mole. acid vapour in equilibrium with the liquid at 25° C. is about 15.5 mm. of mercury. Under these conditions 91% of the acetic acid in the vapour is associated. At lower pressures or higher temperatures the association is less. In an electron diffraction study of acetic acid vapour at room temperature and at 143 C. (when the association is about 9%) conclusions and deJ. Karle and L. 0. Brockway confirmed these termined the relative positions of all the atoms except hydrogen

different molecules, the formation of the bridge unites the two.

in

The energy required

hydrogen bond is of the order of 5 to io kg.cal. per mole; i.e., about one-tenth that needed to break an average chemical bond in an organic compound. This is still much greater than the average energy per molecule at ordinary temperatures; hence, association complexes in which the component molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds are not readily broken up by molecular collision except at higher tem-

latter

peratures.

The complex

in the aggregates.

Forces Producing Association. to

make

like

molecules associate

to break a

—The types of forces tending

may be

is

both the simple molecule and the dimer. The structure of the can be diagrammatically represented by the following formula

0-H—

\ / c— en, \ O-H-0/

H C— c3

is

held together by means of two hydrogen bridges.

•

ASSOCIATION, CHEMICAL

629

Further confirmation of this structure came from studies of the infrared absorption spectrum by R. C. Herman and R. Hofstadtei

that for the pure

•""' others.

associated, the degree of association

Another substance exhibiting association in the gaseous state From vapour density measurements by is hydrogen fluoride, HF. Mallet, K. Fredenhagen and others, it can be concluded that ,. etc. An electron diffraction study by S. H. Bauer, J. V. Beach and J. H. Simons confirmed this and showed that the larger molecules have a zigzag structure, with adjacent fluorine atoms held together by hydrogen !

,

,

I

On dilution

F

/

'••

H

H

H

/

F

Alcohols solution

in

of a solution in which

*•.

H

\

V

H

/

/

H

':

H

V

t

he solute molecules are largely

becomes progressively smaller

(e.g., methanol Ml nil are also associated in dilute nonpolar solvents, l.ut freezing poinl data indicate the |

ROH

presence of a series ol aggregate in equilibrium with one another.

—

to that in

The

R

R

°

°.

is

R

H

/ \H

H

'H

\O

H

\

° "H

H

\

• O'

A

A

R

of association which does not involve hydrogen

O

aluminum

chloride, AICI3. Vapour density measurements by many workers show that in the gaseous state, below 400° C. (at atmospheric

furnished by

pressure),

''K\

closely parallel

I

R

An example

(ROH

KOIIi...

hydrogen fluoride gas and here also one may confidently to be held together by hydrogen bonds:

etc.

bonds


the Royal medal (1938) and the Duddell medal (1945). He was an honorary member of the Russian academy of sciences and the Accademia dei Lincei. He died in Cambridge. Nov. 20. 1945. 1

place of the Italian tragedian Vittorio Alfieri (q.v.).

ASTIGMATISM,

form of aberration in optical systems, ,as a result of which rays proceeding from a point source form an area instead of a point and thus cause blurred vision. In the is caused by uneven and unequal curvatures on the eye refractive surfaces (i.e., the cornea and lens that diffuse the Irays and interfere with a sharp focus at a point on the retina. See Optics: Vision; see also Index references under "Astigmatism" in the Index volume. F. L, A (Altyn Tag), the northernmost range of the ASTIN Kunlun mountains q.v. 1, in Sinkiang. China. It extends from the Tokuzdavan pass ("86° E.) in a northeasterly and easterly direction 3 .to the borders of Kansu, where the Tangyn pass (94 E. separates lit from the Humboldt range. In the west it rises steeply above the Takla Makan desert of the Tarim basin; at this end of the range a

il

\

1

1

1

TAGH

1

)

Maximum height 17.716 ft. Lake north of the centre of the range, while the eastern half 'of the range limits the Tsaidam depression, forming its northeastern boundary. (R. E. F S. 1

1

1

;

there are extensive glaciers.

Lobnor

lies

I

ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY,

Baron- (1579-1652 I, Enelish soldier, who was a royalist commander in the English Civil War. tcame of a Norfolk family. He served under Maurice and Henry of Orange in the Netherlands in 1598 and afterward fought under Frederick V of the Palatinate and under Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War. Returning to England with a well-deserved military reputation, he was employed by Charles I in various 'capacities. At the outbreak of the Civil War 1642 he was made major-general of the foot. His battle prayer at Edgehill Oct. 1642 has become famous: "0 Lord, Thou knowest how busy I ;must be this day. If I forget Thee, do not Thou forget me. March on. boys!" He led the infantry of the royal army in the first battle of Newbury (Sept. 1643) and gallantly defended Shaw house in the second (Oct. 1644). In Nov. 1644 he was created 'baron. At Naseby (June 1645) he commanded the main body of the royalist foot. Later in 1645 he was commander in south Wales, afterward serving in the west. With 1,500 men he fought stubbornly but vainly for the king in the last battle of the first phase of the war, at Stow-on-the-Wold (March 1646). His remark to his captors has become as famous as his words at Edgehill: "You have now done your work and may go and play, unless you will fall out amongst yourselves." Because he had given his parole at Stow-on-the-Wold. his scrupulous honour forbade him to take any part in the second phase of the Civil War. He died at Maidstone, 'Kent, in Feb. 1652. (S. R. Bt.) (1877-1945), English ASTON, scientist, was the recipient of the Nobel prize in chemistry (1922) for his development of the mass spectrograph, discovery of many isotopes, and formulation of the whole number rule. He was born in Harborne. Birmingham, on Sept. 1, 1877, and educated !

1

;

(

)

1

1

1

!

j

j

i

1


h Columbia. Nevada and Colorado, arc used for food by the !rees In the plains region of the ind other North American Indians. United States, extending from Nebraska and Wyoming southward toTexas and New Mexico, A. mollissimus and other related species, railed locoweed, are poisonous to grazing animals. Mam- highly ibtained

cultivated for

I

irnamental old-world species of Astragalus are in cultivation, and North America are sparingly planted.

several native to

ASTRAKHAN, Socialist

an oblast of the Russian Soviet Federated

Republic, U.S.S.R.,

from

lies in a

long relatively narrow strip

below Volgograd to the Caspian Area 17,027 sq.mi. The axis of the oblast is the floodplain of the lower Volga and its parallel The floodplain. with marshes, groves distributary, the Akhtuba. of trees and meadows is cut up by innumerable arms of the rivers and oxbow lakes. Soils are a fertile alluvium. The Volga and \khtuba terminate in a large delta of sluggish distributaries and stagnant or semistagnant lakes, with wide areas of reeds and enormous numbers of wild birds, especially pelicans, herons, ducks, geese, swans, sea gulls and cormorants, and also the lotus (Nelumbium caspicum). A reserve was established in the delta for the protection of the wild life. Outside the belt of floodplain and delta the oblast consists of dry steppe in the northwest, giving way toward the Caspian to semidesert. There are extensive areas 'of bare, shifting sand dunes, many salt lakes and frequently saline Soils. There is only a sparse vegetation of sage, although in places attempts have been made to fix the sands by plantation. The climate is dry, with an annual rainfall of only 8-9 in. Average temperatures are 19° F. for January and 77° F. for July. In the lower Volga region the capital of the Tatar khanate of the Golden Horde was located at Sarai and later at Astrakhan city. In 1556 Ivan the Terrible captured Astrakhan and Russian colonization followed, pushing out most of the previous Kalmuck (Kalmyk) population. Many Russians and Ukrainians migrated along the lower Volga,

sea.

Pop.

(1959)

just

702.000.

there in the late 19th century.

Most

of the population

is

ASTRO!.

\

IT

639 The town

Engels, while another line runs to Baku. large fishing tleet

ami

cludes

it

i-

imporl mi

Food proa

preserving centre.

;

ing

a 1

a

G

h

is

canning and caviar-

the chief industry and in-

meat and vegetable canning. Other indu

trie

arethemanu-

on

woolen and leather goods, and boots and shoes, Astrakhan fur, which comes from the karakul lamb of central Asia, is named after the town because was lirst brought to Russia by Astrakhan traders. Astrakhan was formerly the capital of a Tatar khanate, a remnant of the Golden Horde, when it was located on the higher rii;ht bank of the Volga. It was captured in 1556 by Ivan IV ('the Terrible") and two years later it was moved to its present site, as ire oi

1

oit

ship-repairing and cooperage

it

being more easily defensible.

The kremlin. built shortly afterward, Thirty-one bridges link the different parts of the town. There are medical and pedagogical institutes and a technical institute of fisheries and the food industry. (R. A. F. a term comprising a group of agents that tend to shrink mucous membranes and raw surfaces and to dr\ up secretions. They are usually classed according to their mode of action into: (1 those that decrease the blood supply by narrowing the small blood vessels (adrenaline and cocaine are in this group those that abstract water from the part, as glycerin and alcohol; and (3 those that coagulate the superficial layers and form a crust, as the metallic astringents. They are used in medicine to reduce swollen mucous membranes in inflammations of the nasal, alimentary and urinary passages. They are frequently employed in attempts to dry up excessive secretions and to stop the oozing is still

in existence.

ASTRINGENT, )

1

)

of blood.

ASTROLABE,

an instrument used for the taking of altitudes of celestial bodies, from which time and latitude are deducible. The planispheric astrolabe, to which the name is commonly restricted,

is

believed to have been a Greek instrument invented by B.C.), or even by Apollonius of Perga (c, 240

Hipparchus (150

con-

centrated along the fertile floodplain and in the delta; about 52*

mainly in the administrative centre of Astrakhan. is the major industry of the oblast, particularly in the and along the Caspian shores. Sealing has been carried on for over two centuries. Agriculture is concentrated almost entirely in the floodplain, where melons, tomatoes, vegetables and fruit are grown. Floods, however, restrict the area that can be cultivated. Cattle and sheep rearing is carried on in the steppe and semidesert areas. Salt is obtained from Lake Baskunchak, near Vladimirovka. Industry is mainly food processing and canning, in Astrakhan city and a number of smaller places. A large volume of trade, especially in oil and timber, uses the Volga, while railways run from Astrakhan south to Baku and along the Volga to Volgograd (Stalingrad) and Engels. (R. A. F.) a town and the administrative centre of Astrakhan oblast of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., is situated in the delta of the Volga, 62 mi. from the Caspian sea. It lies on several islands on the left bank of the main (westernmost) stream of the Volga. Pop. (1959) 294.000, is of mixed character, with Russians, Armenians, Tatars, Jews, Kalmyks (Kalmucks) and Kazakhs. The town's greatest importance is as a port and transshipment point, petroleum and timber are urban, living

Fishing

delta

ASTRAKHAN,

being the

major cargoes handled.

The

actual river port

is

in the

town

itself, but. because of the extreme shallowness of the Caspian the Volga delta, sea-going craft have to transship at the 12-Foot Roads about 45 mi. out in the Caspian sea and 125 mi. from Astrakhan, which is reached by a dredged channel. A railway from the off

town runs parallel to the Volga to Volgograd (Stalingrad) and

Brass astrolabe made

known originally

in 1462 by regiomontanus, as johann muller

German astronomer

ASTROLOGY

640

It was revived by Prof. Charles Jenkin of Oxford as a useful educational instrument, so with a history of 2,000 yr. it may claim to be the oldest scientific instrument in the world, and

B.C.)-

has played a correspondingly important part in the history of Seamen from the time of Martin Behaim (c. 1480) civilization. to the middle of the iSth century, when the astrolabe and cross-

were superseded as navigational instruments by John Hadley's reflecting quadrant (see Sextant), relied largely upon such instruments and tables of the sun's declination for finding their staff

latitude.

In

its

most usual form

it

or disk of metal or wood,

consisted of an evenly balanced circle

hung by a

ring

and provided with a

rotatable alidade or a diametral rule with sights, turning within a circle of degrees, for measuring the altitudes of sun or stars. On the back was a circular map of the stars, the rete, often beautifully

designed

fretwork cut from a sheet of metal, with named show the positions of the brighter stars relative to one

in

pointers to

another and to a zodiacal circle showing the sun's position for every day of the year. Lying below the rete were one or more interchangeable plates engraved with circles of altitude.

To sun,

obtain the time, the user then, having noted

first

measured the altitude of the

the sun's position for the day in the

zodiacal circle, rotated the rete until the sun's position coincided

with a circle on the plate corresponding to the observed altitude. A line drawn through this point of coincidence and the centre of the instrument to a marginal circle of hours showed the time. Among the accessories often introduced in the earlier astrolabes

were shadow scales, for simple surveying and measuring heights and distances; calendar scales showing the sun's place in the zodiac for every day of the year; magnetic compasses, usual in instruments of the 16th and 17th centuries; and various lines and tables of use to astrologers. See Robert T. Gunther, The Astrolabes of the World (1932) Derek J. To 1500," in Charles Singer et at., A His(R. T. G.; X.) (1957). ;

Price, "Precision Instruments:

tory of Technology, vol. 3

ASTROLOGY

is the art or science which claims to forecast events on earth by observation of the fixed stars and of the sun, moon and planets. It originated in Mesopotamia, perhaps in the

3rd millennium B.C., but attained its full development only much later, within the orbit of Greek civilization of the Hellenistic In

Mesopotamian form

spread to India in It is probable, however, that only the idea of prognostication by the stars was adopted in China and not the specifically astronomical knowledge, which seems to have had an independent development there. In its fully developed Greek form astrology was a vast, complex and apparently scientific system which for about 2,000 yr. exerted a dominant influence on the religion, philosophy and science first of pagan and then of Christian Europe. Islamic culture likewise absorbed it as part of the Greek heritage; and in the middle ages, when western Europe was strongly affected by Islamic science, astrology also acquired an Arabian colour. Astrology in Mesopotamia and in Egypt. In Mesopotamia the magicians and astrologers practised divination in two ways. In the first, they scrutinized the livers of sacrificial sheep for omens likely to concern the king or his kingdom. In the second and, eventually, far more important method, omens were drawn from celestial phenomena. Systematic observation of the celestial bodies was begun, records were kept and arithmetical procedures were developed to correlate these data. Believing, as they did, that the heavenly bodies were powerful gods, the astrologers began to associate with their belief this growing body of astronomical knowledge, which constitutes the earliest exact science known to

period.

its

older

it

the 6th century B.C. and reached China not long after.

—

history.

The Greek astronomer Ptolemy says of eclipses were available

from

that

Mesopotamian records and

a date expressed as 747 B.C.,

excavation confirms that early in the 1st millennium B.C. accurate knowledge existed of the sun's annual course, of the phases of the

moon and

of the periodicities of certain planets. It was on this combination of religion and science that the astrologers based their prognostications; and it was this form of divination, roughly corresponding to what was called mundane astrology in later times,

that spread to India and for

later

China and also provided a starting point Greek developments. Astrology's original association

with the ruling family explains

The Egyptians

its title

also contributed,

rise of astrology.

They constructed

of the royal art.

though

less

directly,

a calendar of 12

to the

months

of

30 days each with five days added at the end of the year. This calendar, which avoids all the irregularities of lunar or lunar-solar calendars, was taken over by the Greeks as a standard of reference for astronomical observations and has proved of great historical importance. Another of their contributions is of more mixed quality. In order that the starry sky might serve them as a clock, the Egyptians selected a succession of 36 bright stars whose risings were separated from each other by intervals of ten days. These stars, which served to indicate the time throughout the year, came to be called decerns by Latin writers. Each of them was conceived of as a spirit with power over the period of time for which he served; and when these 36 decans later entered the zodiac (q.v.) as subdivisions of its 1 2 signs they signally contributed to that conception of a different quality for each moment of time which is characteristic of astrology. The Greek term horoskopos, from which the word horoscope is derived is, in one of its meanings, a synonym for "decan star."

Greek Speculation and Catasterism.

—The

fact that

men

discover signs of future events in the stars does not necessarily mean that they believe the stars cause these events. But before the Greeks learned astrology from the

Mesopotamian

priests the

development of their own speculation had strongly inclined them toward this view. Basing their thought on such obvious phenomena as the dependence of the earth upon the sun for its lifegiving heat, various schools taught the view that the divine source When the of terrestrial happenings was situated in the sky. astral gods of Mesopotamia were introduced to the Greeks in the 4th century B.C., many leaders of thought embraced them eagerly. Greek planetary lore was derived from Mesopotamia, and the Mesopotamian planets, as already seen, were not only stars but The Greeks were at this time making rapid advances in gods. astronomy by the application of new geometrical techniques, and were thus ready for the view that their growing knowledge of the motion of the stars was identical with a growing knowledge of Many were also ready for the further idea that the the divine. stars not only indicated but caused terrestrial events.

But long before the 4th century B.C. the fertile popular imaginahad peopled the world with a host of gods in human shape, who had little or nothing to do with the stars. These gods of the popular imagination were more powerful than men and exempt from death, but in all else they were human. They were male and female, young and old; they ate and drank; they fought and loved; they married and begot children. Furthermore, they were enshrined in a rich national literature and worshiped in innumerable cults. Philosophers, in turning toward the star-gods, could not abolish the gods of popular belief; by choice or by necessity they identified the two. Plato, in the middle of the 4th century B.C., proposed as the supreme object of worship for the state which he outlined in his Laws a composite god, ApolloHelios. By this means he united the god of mythology, the patron of Delphi and Delos, with the sun. His contemporary, the astronomer Eudoxus, was similarly engaged in a process known as catastion of the Greeks

terism;

i.e.,

the identification of the stars with the personages of

mythology. Later astronomers continued the task. The Greek heavens assumed a dual character. The astronomers not only revealed the celestial bodies as wheeling eternally in their circular orbits according to the laws of Greek spherical geometry; they also showed them palpitating with the life and passions of the By a slow process of cultural' familiar anthropomorphic gods. evolution the mentality had been prepared which would trace in the physical and mental constitution of individual men and in every detail of their lives the effect of starry influences. The astrological age was about to be born. The old mundane astrology of Mesopotamia was about to be transformed into the personal astrology of Hellenistic Greece. The Zodiacal Belt and the Horoscope. In the casting of a person's horoscope everything depends on the determination of

—

'

1

;

ASTROLOGY the configuration of the

heavens

calculation the zodiacal belt

this

history of astrology

the

moment

plays the

therefore

1-

it

al

ol

ol

In

birth

hii

For the

li

mporl ince

supre

to de-

date when

the belt was invented. In antiquity, prachad an interest in putting this date as far back and extravagant claims were made that the Chaldeans, or Mesopotamian star-clerks, had had knowledge of the zodiac tens or even hundreds of thousands of years before. Mod-

termine the

titioners of the art

possible,

as

em

scholarship dues not support tin-

the constitution of the zodiacal belt

\

iew

,

lull

ii:'li

i

[.illn-itli.it

was an achievement of Greek

ajlence slowly perfected over several centuries.

Pliny ascribes the the bth

Anaximander and Cleostratus in But the tracing out of the annual

steps to

first

and 5th centuries

B.C.

through the constellations of the sun with its attendant 30° each and the

path

planets, the division of the belt into 12 signs of

tailoring of the older constellations to fit so far as possible into 2 signs was an enterprise probably carried out in stages. On completion might well have depended the discovery by HipIparchus in the 2nd century B.C. of the precession of the equinoxes The divisions of the year governed by the 12 signs are (q.v.

the

1

1.

Aries, the

Ram March

ITaurus, the Bull April

2

i-April 19 20

20-May

Gemini, the Twins

May n.

r*

/-.

21-June 21

i_'t

t

1

Cancer, the Crab June 22-Julv 22 ..Leo. the Lion July 23-Aug. 22

Aug. 23-Sept. 22 Libra, the Balance Virgo, the Virgin

Sept. 23-Oct. 23

Scorpio, the Scorpion Oct. 24-Nov. 21 Sagittarius, the Archer Nov 22-Dec. 21 .. _ Capncornus, the Goat v .

Dec. 22-Jan. 19 Aquarius, the Water Carrier Jan. 20-Feb. 18 Pisces, the Fishes Feb. 19-March 20

These divisions are still adhered to. despite the gradual loss of [Correspondence between the signs and the actual constellations due I

!

to precession.

scheme the Greeks were indebted to and there is evidence that by the 5th century the Mesopotamians had some idea of the belt. Already at this date Greek and Mesopotamian astronomy were influencing each other. Nevertheless, the zodiac is a product of Greek geometry rather than of MesopotaIn the elaboration of their

the

Mesopotamians

for their records of planetary motions,

mian arithmetic. It was in the 3rd century that the Mesopotamian practice of ,divination [special ;(i.e.,

by the

stars

was introduced

to

the Greeks.

mental climate of Greek civilization be borne

the effect of the intimate blending of the Greeks'

If the in

own

mind per-

gods with the borrowed astral gods, and the intellectual prestige given to this new religious conception by the brilliant 'new geometrical astronomy with which it was combined), it can be readily understood that the Greeks transformed astrology into something unknown in the land of its origin. In Mesopotamia, astrology had been a royal institution in which omens concerning ;the welfare of king and country had been drawn from signs in the ]sky. With the Greeks it became a supposedly scientific means of •ascertaining the future, and its use was no longer confined to heads lOf state but extended to give personal information concerning his 'character and his future career to every individual who cared, or who could afford, to pay for it. The system was illusory, but in 'this illusion were involved the speculative thought and the scientific achievement of a uniquely gifted people. It is in the 2nd century B.C. that evidence of this personal, or igenethlialogical, astrology is first found; the first known textbook came from Ptolemaic Egypt and dates probably from the end of that century. For the casting of an individual horoscope it is (necessary to determine the configuration of the heavens at the moment of birth, and the ascendant, i.e., the point where the ecliptic intersects the eastern horizon at that moment, marks the sonal

\

•

I

,

the whole calculation. A chart of the heavens is completed which the positions of sun, moon, planets and constellations are Their influence on the newborn child is deduced from the mythological character of the celestial bodies, and this influence is modified by the geometrical relationship between them i.e., by their relative positions in conjunction, in opposition, in quintile. sextile or other aspects. The sun, moon and planets, bestart of

!in

iplotted.

had their pn

bodes

[1

among

the -in

it erred to as houses The influence of the then fore further modified by these houses, According in one system the zodiacal bell tva divided into 12 suih hi and these were ingeniou Ij allotted to tfa 'cnants 1

on the assumption that the sun who gives light by day. and the moon, who gives light by night, need only one house each, while the other live planets need two hi ir use by day, Another arrangement of 12 the oilier for use by night. was made by means of a geometrical construction, starting from the point of intersection of the ecliptic and of the horizon, which divided the whole sphere of the fixed stars (not merely the zodiacal belt). To these houses, however determined, were a the several departments of human life, the planets of the various houses giving information about the matters pertaining to their sphere of influence, such as wealth, dignities, marriage, children, 1

friendship, enmities or death.

Scientific

its

as follows:

64.1

ing living beings,

Romans. ble,

Acceptance

of

Astrology

by

— By such arbitrary correspondences was

and plausible, to

elicit

from the motions of the

Greeks made

it

stars

and possi-

advance

information about all the circumstances of life. It may seem inconceivable that so great a man as Hipparchus, one of the greatest in the history of science, should support and encourage this delusion. His intellectual climate must be remembered. The number mysticism of the Pythagoreans and the astral theology of Plato offered a prepared foundation for the erection of the astrological system and, in a world in which small political units with their local gods were being absorbed into great empires, the stars formed an object of worship acceptable to all. As the psalmist said of them, "There is no speech nor language where their voice is not heard." Of the two great philosophical schools which divided the allegiance of later centuries the Epicureans, it is true, rejected the astral gods and fought the astrological illusion, but the Stoics, who proved the more influential in ruling circles, ac-

cepted

it

preached

from the it

first,

strengthened

it

by their firm

logic

and

with fervour.

Once established, the astrological conception of causation invaded all the sciences. Medicine with its allied disciplines affords the most instructive example of this process. To the believer it appeared obvious that the mental and physical constitution of a man, as well as his fortune, was determined by the configuration of the heavens at the moment of his birth, for that was the decisive moment when the tender new life was fully receptive to the manifold influences raining down upon it from the great gods of the sky.

The

Stoics' doctrine of a universal

"sympathy" linking the

little

world of man, the microcosm, with the great world of nature, the macrocosm, was illustrated by astrology, which provided a picture of the process at work. A new branch of astrology, melothesia, put each limb, each organ, each function of the human body under the domination of the several planets and of the signs of the zodiac. Thus the concepts of planetary man and of zodiacal man created a pseudomedicine which continued at least until the 17th century Botany, zoology and mineralogy a.d. to confuse the true science. suffered the

same

fate as medicine.

When

the Romans began to absorb Greek culture they did not once welcome astrology. They had their own native methods of divination, and the established soothsayers and augurs resisted the innovation. At the close of the republic not only the Epicurean poet Lucretius but also his great opponent Cicero rejected

at

But Xigidius Figulus, the most learned man of their it and introduced to the Romans both the Greek zodiac and the Egyptian decans, the spkaera graecanica and

astrology.

generation, supported

With the empire, astrology triumphed. Augustus favoured the older conception of the art as a royal prerogative; or so may be interpreted Virgil's allotment to him of a place among the stars and the astrological design of the Pantheon, the sphaera barbarica.

first erected by Agrippa, his minister of public works. To Augustus' age also belongs the beginning of the full exposition of the art in all its aspects by the poet Marcus Manilius. As a police measure astrologers (mathematici) were repeatedly banished, their influence on the fickle populace being feared, but the addiction of

ASTRONAUTICS— ASTRONOMY

642

emperors (Tiberius, Nero) to the superstition and its persistence among the masses is abundantly supported. Astrology in the Christian World. The reception of astrol-

minded him of the nobler aspects of a belief which could once commend itself to great minds as the perfect blend of religion and

ogy by Christianity is a most curious page in its history. As against the omnipotence of the stars Christianity taught the omTo the determinism of astrology nipotence of their Creator. Christianity opposed the freedom of the will. But within these limits the astrological world view was accepted. To reject it would have been to reject the whole heritage of classical culture, which had assumed an astrological complexion. It was in the 2nd century ad. that Ptolemy summed up in his Almagest the whole achievement of ancient astronomy; yet, as his extant Tetrabiblos shows, he was a determined astrologer, defending the system with a zeal beneath which the modern reader may perhaps detect evidence of embarrassment and even of bad faith. So compelling at this period was the astrological view. But evidence of the criticism to which Christianity subjected it may be found in a terminological change which took place at this time. Throughout pagan antiquity the words astronomy and astrology had been

As a popular pastime or superstition, however, astrology still engages the attention of millions of civilized people, this interest being catered for by articles in the daily press, by special almanacs and by manuals, large and small, devoted to various aspects of the subject. But, as a serious and systematic world view claiming the allegiance of many of the best intellects in every rank of society, astrology is dead. If it be asked what dethroned astrology

later

—

synonymous terms; in the first Christian centuries the valuable modern distinction between astronomy, the science of the stars, and astrology, the art of divination by the stars, began to appear. But though various Christian councils condemned astrology, the belief in the

world view

it

implies was not seriously shaken.

The

week with its seven days named moon and planets, and the choice of an astrological

persistence of the astrological after the sun,

date for Christmas are examples of

power. The overthrow of the western empire involved a decline of astrology. But it revived with Charlemagne, and then, with the spread of Islam into Europe, became dominant in every department of knowledge. Up to the 12th century, knowledge of the art in western Europe had depended on late Latin (5th century) sources like Macrobius. After this date the original Greek sources, enriched by their Arab commentators, became available in Latin translations often made by Jewish scholars familiar with both the its

science.

the answer

the general progress of science and scholarship.

lies in

Astrology had been born

in a geocentric world, and the Copernican a shattering blow. The predictions of the astrologers do not survive the test of the experimental method. Scholarship, in its concern with the history of ideas, shows how

revolution dealt

it

knowledge can combine with illusory notions to form grandiose systems of thought in which the mind is content to dwell for a time. easily genuine elements of

Bibliocraphy.

—A.

Bouche-Leclercq, L'Astrologie grecque

(1899);

and C. Bezold, Sternglaube und Sterndeuting (1931); R. C. (ed. and trans.), The Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon in the British Museum, 2 vol. (1900); F. V. M. Cumont, Les Religions orientales dans le paganisme romain F. Boll

Thompson

4th ed. (1929), "Les noms des planetes et l'astrologie chez les grecs," L'Antiquiti classique, vol. iv (1935) G. Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) Lynn Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental Science, vol. i-vi (1923-41) R. Eisler, The Royal Art of Astrology (1947); O. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (1952) J. J. Seznec, La Survivance des Dieux antiques, Eng. trans, by B. F. Sessions (1953) N. J. T. M. Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. ii (1956). For a standard work by a modern astrologer, see A. J. Pearce, The Text-Book of Astrology, 2nd ed. (1911). Accessible ancient sources are: Marcus Manilius, Astronomica, i-v, ed. by A. E. Housman (1933) Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, ed. and trans, by F. E. Robbins (1940). (B. Fn.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

ASTRONAUTICS,

into their Christian philosophy a modified

the science and technology of space See Navigation; Rockets and Guided Missiles; Space Exploration. see Navigation. (ARTICLES ON). The article Astronomy reviews the role of this science in the history of civilization, its insights into the nature of the universe, and the development

conception of causation.

of

Islamic and the Christian worlds. The strength of astrological ideas in 13 th century Europe is shown by the fact that both Dante and St. Thomas Aquinas admit

form of the astrological Great princes and prelates now again begin to have astrologers to advise them. In the 14th century a number of universities, among them Paris, Padua, Bologna and Florence, had chairs of astrology. The revival of ancient studies by the humanists only encouraged this interest, which persisted into the Renaissance period. Nor did the Reformation bring any change. Melanchthon, Tycho Brahe and Kepler all accepted the astrological world view.

The Decline

of

Astrology.—The study

of such a pioneer of science as Kepler throws light upon the mentality of the great scientific astrologers of the preceding 2,000 yr. Hipparchus, who laboured in the tradition of his Greek and Mesopotamian

modern

predecessors to discover the precession of the equinoxes; Ptolemy, the basis of Hipparchan astronomy created the system which goes by his name and which was only superseded after 1,500 years by that of Copernicus; Kepler, who worked on materials

who on

accumulated by Tycho Brahe to arrive at his theory of planetary motion; all were astrologers as well as scientists. But it is certain that, with the ancients as with Kepler, the casting of horoscopes took second place to philosophic and scientific interests. Impatience with the superstitious aspect of astrology is natural, but it is still possible to be moved by the spectacle of Kepler's excusing himself from the labour of casting horoscopes in order to save time for his scientific work, and of his sustaining himself in his lifelong endeavour by the conviction that to solve astronomical problems was to enter into the very mind of the Creator and discover truths which must serve both to unite all mankind and raise the individual above his selfish personal concerns. At the dawn of the 19th century, when astrology had become an exploded superstition, Friedrich Schiller, engaged in writing his tragedy of Wallenstein, was embarrassed at the prospect of putting on the

whom

the

employ, until Goethe

re-

stage a figure so ridiculous as that of the astrologer historical Wallenstein

had kept

in his

flight.

ASTRO-NAVIGATION:

ASTRONOMY its

methods for bringing the investigation of

celestial bodies

within the scope of the laboratory. Astrophysics describes the techniques by which the light emanating from the outer layers of the heavenly bodies is used as raw material for the extraction of significant information.

Cosmogony

discusses various concepts of the evolution of the

or the

universe,

origin

of

individual

galaxies,

stars,

planetary

and of the elementary particles of which these bodies are composed. Cosmology deals with efforts to explain the constitution and dynamics of the universe by organizing the available data into a logical pattern. The points of view represented in this article range, from the mythological cosmos of the ancients to such post-Einsteinian models as the steady state theory, which postulates a still-continuing process of the creation systems and

satellites,

of matter.

Galaxy sun and

describes the rotating system of stars within which the

its

planets, including the earth, are located,

and around

the centre of which the sun revolves in a "cosmic year," or period, of approximately 200,000,000 earth years.

Nebula

describes the

study of galaxies with the help of light that in some instances started from its source hundreds of millions of years ago.

Star discusses the visual and physical properties of these resimilarly, Star Cluster treats of the groups of stars that are considered to have a common physical origin. The variable stars are discussed in Nova and Supernova; and many articles are devoted to individual stars, such as Aldebaran, Betelgeuse, Sirius. The visual patterns of groups of stars and nebulae are treated in Constellation and in articles on individual constellations, such as Andromeda, Cassiopeia, Orion. The dwarf star around which the earth revolves has been studied from many points of view, ranging from its subatomic particles to prominences extending at times 500,000 mi. into space; the findings of these studies are presented in Sun.

mote suns;

ASTRONOMY Among

1

ire

cles

the articles devoted to other bodies in the solar system

2.

Asteroids; Comet; Meteor; Moon; Planets; and the artion individual planets, including Earth. The minuscule but

3.

significant particles of

unknown

643

The Seasons Time Positions and Names and Occultations

4. Stellar 5.

origin that are sparsely distributed

B.

trough outer space are discussed in Interstellar Matter. Meteorites treats of the objects that constitute a material link Detween the chemistry of our planet and other planetary bodies. The conjectures of astronomers concerning the possibility of life

2.

Tin

4.

The Milky Way System The Universe of Galaxies

5.

Astronomical Instruments

3.

I

Eclipses

The Objects in Outer Space 1. The Solar System

CosHabit-

jn planets other than the earth are presented in a section of

mogony under ibility

the caption Origin oj Planetary Systems; in

of the Planets, in

Planets; and

in

Mars.

Articles on astronomical phenomena include: Aberration (of Light); Aurora Polaris; Chromosphere; Corona; Eclipse; Orbit; Parallax; Precession of the Equinoxes; Quasi-Stel-

lar Radio Sources; Zodiacal Light; etc. Articles dealing with astronomical

•'

I.

HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY

The development

equipment and techniques

Mechanics; Ephemeris; Observatory (Astronomical); Photography, Celestial; Photometry, Celestial; Planetarium; Radio Astronomy; Sextant; Spectroheliograph Spectroscopy, Astronomical; Telescope; Some of the familiar applications of Telescope, Radio; etc. istronomy are discussed in Calendar; Navigation; Sundial; Time Measurement; and Time, Standard. nclude Astrolabe; Celestial

Copernican revolution

new astronomy

Astrology and Zodiac bf the

deal. with the great visual configurations heavens in terms of the body of legendary pseudoscience

related to astronomy as alchemy is to chemistry. Astronomers do not feel that the exploration of the universe to which we belong requires justification on a utilitarian basis. However, much of our knowledge of the earth and phenomena iffecting it is derived from the growing collaboration between Among the articles conistronomical and terrestrial studies. '•

Cosmic Geochemistry; Geodesy; Space Exploration Quantum Mechanics; Relativity; Space-Time; Tides; and Light, Vecerned with various phases of this interrelationship are: IRays;

;

locity of.

biographical articles help set in perspective the work from Aristarchus of Samos, the first

Many

the great astronomers,

'of

man known sun, to

have reasoned that the earth revolves around the such modern pioneers as Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley. to

ASTRONOMY, the tion,

science that deals with the origin, evolucomposition, distance and motion of all bodies and scattered

matter in the universe. I

Astronomy is the most ancient dawn of recorded civilization.

to the present time;

and overlapping

it

the

of astrophysics, mainly a product of the 20th

century.

A.

;

,.hat is

astronomy can be divided into three pe-

of

(1) Ancient astronomy, dating from the first significant contributions of the earliest civilization to the Almagest of Ptolemy; (2) medieval astronomy, from the decline of Alexandrian culture to the Renaissance; (3) modern astronomy, from the riods:

1.

Mesopotamia.

Ancient Astronomy

— Much of the ancient knowledge of the

celes-

bodies and their ways is frequently credited to people who dwelt in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, the region These were the Babylonians, Assyrians and that is now Iraq. Chaldeans, and before them a pre-Semitic population, the Sumerians. Some confusion is avoided by referring to them all as tial

the Babylonians. Our understanding of what these people learned about the heavens comes partly from the recovery from the sites of their cities of texts inscribed by their priests in cuneiform Some of their astronomical lore is identiscript on clay tablets. fied in information they seem to have transmitted to neighbouring

peoples, particularly the early Greeks. is presumed to have consurrounded by a moat of sea beyond which the inverted bowl of the sky came down all around. It had similarities to the sort of world portrayed later in the Iliad of

The world viewed by

the Babylonians

sisted of a disk-shaped earth

The story of creation recited in some of their tablets suggests the belief that the dry land emerged by supernatural means from the waters of the sea. There was also the account of a great flood that threatened to return the land to the sea. The celestial bodies rose over the rim of that world, moved across the

Homer.

and set. Although the stars always remained

sky, of sciences, having existed since

in fixed formations,

seven

Because it is essentially a nonutilitarian science, few practical uses have been found for it, but those uses have been of primary importance. As long ago as 2000 B.C. the Egyptians and Babylonians were using calendars based

planetary bodies moved among the stars, thus demonstrating The sun, moon, and five known planets were their importance. believed to be gods whose movements could reveal their intentions concerning the world and its people.

on the regularity of certain astronomical events. In later years, utilized in telling precise time, locating the positions of ships at sea and geographical features on land, predicting [seasons of the year and, more recently, computing the orbits of

It was the duty of the Babylonian priest-astrologers to watch the seven wandering bodies so that they might predict and warn the king of any disasters the gods might be preparing for the nation. Such observations promoted knowledge of occurrences in the heavens; the interpretation of these observations required

the

astronomy was

lartificial satellites.

This article ition

discusses

modern

.sections is 1

I.

is

divided into two main sections. The first secdevelopment of astronomy and the second descriptive astronomy. The material in the two

traces the historical

arranged under the following main headings:

History of Astronomy A. Ancient Astronomy 2.

Mesopotamia Egypt

3.

Greece and Alexandria

1.

B. Medieval Astronomy C. The Founding of Modern 1.

2.

!3.

4. S.

7.

Stars and Nebulae The Galactic System

8.

Radio Astronomy

6.

;

II.

Astronomy The Copernican Revolution Dynamical Astronomy Development of the Telescope The Sun The Solar System

9. The Exterior Galaxies Modern Descriptive Astronomy A. The Celestial Pageant 1. The Celestial Sphere

familiarity with constellations, particularly the constellations of the zodiac through which the planetary bodies moved. A second incentive for acquaintance with the heavens was the usefulness of celestial bodies in serving as guides to travelers through the desert and over the sea, in telling the time of day or night and in regulating a calendar.

People in Mesopotamia are believed to have recognized a number of prominent constellations as early as 3000 B.C. and to have named them after animals, such as the Lion, and representatives This plan was of certain occupations, such as the Herdsman. transmitted to the Greeks and, with changes of names and additions of other constellations, has descended to us. The Babylonians are credited with inventing the signs of the zodiac; these 12 divisions of equal size could serve better for describing the positions of the sun, moon and planets than could the 12 constellations of the zodiac of unequal lengths, for which the signs

These people seem to have recognized the precession of the vernal equinox, the point on the sun's path around the heavens from which the signs are marked off. They accordingly knew that the signs are shifting westward gradually with respect were named.

ASTRONOMY

644 to the corresponding constellations. 2.

Egypt.

—Ancient Egypt, where

civilization

began at about the

same time as in Mesopotamia, devised the first solar calendar, in which the length of the year remained fixed at 365 days. From observations of the first appearance of the star Sirius (their Sothis) before dawn, an event with which the beginnings of the Nile floods were associated, the Egyptians learned that the length of the year is actually more equal to 365^ days. This value was first employed for calendar purposes by Gaius Julius Caesar in his reform of the Roman calendar (see Calendar). The Egypwas less scientific than that of the Babylonians, being peopled with gods and goddesses. The sky itself was identified with the goddess Nut. tians' picture of the universe

3.

Greece and Alexandria.

— Greek cosmology seems

to

started with ideas comparable to those of the Babylonians. rational ideas about the universe

from Pythagoras (6th century

have

More

were held by Greek philosophers (384-322 B.C.).

B.C.) to Aristotle

Our information about their thinking is derived mainly from Aristotle's De caelo. The earth came to be regarded as a globe, and proofs were given to support this view. Although Aristotle supposed that the earth was stationary, certain other philosophers believed that it was moving. Aristarchus of Samos (3rd century B.C.) is said to have advocated the earth's annual revolution around the sun and its daily rotation on its axis; but whatever he may have written on the subject has been lost. In the same century, Eratosthenes, librarian of the museum at Alexandria, determined the circumference of the earth with remarkable accuracy, considering the simple means employed. The sky of the later Greek philosophers was a hollow globe surrounding the earth and having the stars set like jewels on its inner surface. The sky was supported on an axis thrust through the earth; on this axis the sky rotated westward daily, causing the celestial bodies to rise and set. This conception of a rotating celestial sphere persisted to the time of Copernicus and is useful as a convention today. There was then the necessity of accounting for the independent movements of the sun, moon and five planets, which changed their places among the stars. These wanderers were believed to move in the space between the earth and the celestial sphere at distances from the earth corresponding to the periods of their eastward revolution around the heavens. It was known that the sun and moon move nonuniformly, and that the planets also turn at intervals and retreat westward for a time before resuming the eastward progress. By what combinations of uniform circular motions centred in the earth may the movements of the seven wanderers among the stars be represented? This famous problem was proposed not to explain celestial motions but to portray them by mathematical machinery. A successful plan could predict the places of these bodies among the stars at any time and also the times of occurrences such as eclipses of the sun and moon. One solution of

the problem was devised by the mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus (4th century B.C.). Each body was moved by a set of rotating

by a sort of gimbal arrangement (see The outermost shell of a set was attached to the long axis on which the celestial sphere rotated; it gave the planet its daily westward motion along with the stars. The shell next inside turned slowly eastward on the first, imparting to the planet its principal motion among the stars. Other inner shells turning independently produced other movements. The planet itself was attached to the innermost shell of the set and partook of the motions of them all. This solution was adopted by Aristotle, who employed 55 shells in all, including the sphere of the stars. It accounted for the motions of the wanderers because they were not very accurately observed at that time, but it kept each planet always at the same distance from the earth and therefore could not explain its observed variation in brightness. As an example, the planet Mars is at times second only to Venus in brightness and at other times may not be much brighter than the pole star. Since it was unable to explain these and other occurrences, the spherical shells connected fig. 1).

first

solution failed.

A more

enduring solution of the problem of the seven wanderers was devised by another mathematician, Apollonius of Perga (3rd century B.C.), who worked mainly at Alexandria; he is also known for his treatise on the conies. His method was adopted by Hipparchus of Bithynia (2nd century B.C.), the most persistent observer among the Greek scholars. Hipparchus attempted to adjust the method to interpret the motions of the sun and moon, but had found the positions of the planets and stars observed by his predecessors too scanty and inaccurate for him to make much headway with the motions of the planets themselves. The records of his own observations provided the data with which Ptolemy was later able to put the whole plan in workable order. Alexandria, founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander III, (the Great), was the centre of Hellenistic culture for several centuries. Its last distinguished astronomer was Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaus, 2nd century a.d.); he was the author of Megale syntaxis tes astronomias, later known to the Arabs as the Almagest. In this book Ptolemy explained in detail the geometrical interpretation of the celestial motions known as the Ptolemaic system. In the simplest form of the system, each planet moved in a small circle, the epicycle, in the period of its actual revolution around the heavens relative to the sun's place. Meanwhile, the centre of this circle moved eastward around the earth on a larger circle in the observed

An alperiod of the planet's revolution relative to the stars. ternative and less favoured method of eccentrics had the planet moving in a large circle whose centre circled around the earth. Such combinations of circular paths could produce the looped courses of the planets and the variable speeds of all seven wanderers. With initial conditions it would be possible to predict the positions of these bodies among the stars at any future time. If one of them was then not in the expected position, the plan could be revised by adding more epicycles or by making other changes It was hoped that the appropriate plan of in the specifications. See celestial clockwork might be perfected by trial and error. Ptolemy Ptolemaic System Almagest. ;

;

B.

Greek astronomy, at least until its later years, was based mainly on philosophical thinking rather than observational data, and it progress. It did, however, produce a rational picture of the universe that might be improved later, but any considerable improvement in the picture, except in the details of the Ptolemaic system, was to be delayed all through the dark ages. After the time of Ptolemy and especially after the fall of the Roman empire, the civilized world was to be divided between two movements, Christianity and Islam, that for many centuries were unfavourable to modification of the Greek picture. Astrology, although banned by the Christian church, continued in strength in a form that the Babylonian priest-astrologers would scarcely have recognized. Theirs had been an astrology requiring attention to the heavens and leading to astronomical discoveries, whereas the post-Christian type was more concerned with divina-

made slow

FIG.

I.

—AN

ANCIENT CONCEPTION OF THE SPHERICAL COSMOS

Medieval Astronomy

ASTRONOMY The scholasticism of these times led ion than with observation. neglect of other ways of thinking and, particularly at first, of People lived again on a he learning of the Greek scholars. arth under an inverted bowl of the sky.

flat

were built for this purpose. The practical .stronomers of Islam also employed their calculating skills to >erfect the Ptolemaic system of the planetary motions. Their Several observatories

extbook was the Almagest, which they had translated into Arabic. Toward the close of the middle ages, certain European rulers iegan to attract to their

kingdoms Muslim and Jewish

scholars,

Arabic numerals, divisions of the Some of these scholars were asked to transirele, and algebra. ate the Almagest and other books on astronomy from the Arabic. Cing Alfonso X of Castile kept a number of scholars occupied or ten years constructing tables (the Alphonsine tables, c. 1270) By this time or predicting positions of the planetary bodies. ach planet had been provided with from 40 to 60 epicycles the

use

of

o represent after a fashion its

Amazed

complex movement among the

Alfonso is credited remark that had he been present at the Creation he have given excellent advice. After surviving for more than millenium, the Ptolemaic system had failed; its geometrical lockwork had become unbelievably cumbersome and without satsfactory improvement in its effectiveness. The way was open for new approach not only to the problem of the planetary motions tars.

at the difficulty of the project,

the

/ith

light

.

'mt to that of the structure of the

universe as well.

In the early part of the 16th century the scientific ignorance of surope began to be lessened. Columbus had sailed far to the west

new world; he had not

an abyss beyond he edge of the world, nor had he been destroyed by monsters eputed to operate in that vicinity. The companions of Magellan lad returned from their voyage around the world. Johann Gutenlerg's invention, in the mid-1 5th century, of printing from movable ype gave wider dissemination to the works of Aristotle and other .lassical scholars. Copernicus was one of those eager to take .dvantage of the new opportunities to study. Copernicus was :onvinced that the complex plan of epicycles of the Ptolemaic ystem would become unnecessary if the earth is itself a planet noving with the others around the sun. In his reading of classical vorks he had learned that several scholars were said to have conidered the earth as in motion in specified ways. discover the

C.

The

The Founding

Copernican

of

fallen into

Modern Astronomy

Revolution.

—

Copernicus Nicolaus '1473-1543) in Polish Prussia disposed of much of the complexity if the Ptolemaic system by assigning the central position to the un. In the new system the earth, attended by the moon, became 'me of the planets revolving around the sun. Certain epicycles of he Ptolemaic system were still required, however, to compensate or the retention of the traditional idea that the planetary orbits 1.

vere circles.

Copernicus also proposed the daily axial rotation

from west to east, so that the daily circling of the celestial bodies around us became simply the apparent motion if the scenery. He published the heliocentric theory in his book De revolutionibus orbium coelesthim, which first appeared in 1543, he year Copernicus died. (See Copernicus, Nicolaus.) The theory of the earth in motion was an abrupt departure from he view that with few exceptions had persisted since the begin)f

the earth

;

nings of reflections

about

it.

Religious leaders abhorred the

new

dea as a doctrine that seemed to demote man from his central Some position in the universe to a place of lesser importance. cholars opposed the new idea because it was not then supported for simplicity in accounting the convincing proof; its greater >y

Observed celestial motions was the only argument offered in its iefense. Indeed, the theory seemed to be disputed by the evilence of the celestial bodies themselves, as Tycho presently dis:overed.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601),

observer of

a part of

from 1576 to 1S97. at the fine observatory the king of had helped to finance for him on the island of Hven, 20 mi. N.E. of Copenhagen. Because this period preceded the invention of the tele ope Tycho'j instruments had only plain sights instead of lenses; but they had metal circles that were larger and more accurately divided than ever before, and the observed positions of the celestial bodies were corrected for the first time for effects of atmospheric refraction. These improvements, tohis life,

irk

The followers of Mohammed, who founded Islam in the 7th cenury a.d., needed observers to determine by sights on the stars he direction of Mecca from various parts of their dominions so hat the faithful might face in these directions in their prayers.

vho introduced

645 Denmark, was the first noted astronomical modern times. He spent (he most productive years of

Sweden, then

a native of the extreme south of

1

gether with allowances for the errors inherent in his instruments, made it possible for Tycho and his associates to measure the places of stars and planets in the heavens with the remarkably small average error for naked-eye observations of scarcely more than a minute of arc. Tycho and other observers of his time had the mistaken idea that the brightest,

and presumably the nearest,

stars

showed ap-

preciable disks, having diameters about

-^ of the sun's apparent were actually as large as the sun, their distances from us would then be only about 30 times the sun's distance. At such small distances these stars should show conspicuous annual parallax oscillations if the earth revolves around the sun. Observing the directions of some of the brightest stars through the year, Tycho was unable to detect any oscillations at all. Either the stars were thousands of times more remote than the sun's distance, which seemed impossibly great at the time, or else the Copernican theory of the earth's revolution was untrue. Tycho proposed as a compromise that the sun revolved around a stationary earth, while all the other planets went around the sun. Late in his life, Tycho moved from Hven to Prague, taking his instruments and records with him. There he obtained

diameter.

If the stars

the assistance of Kepler, who was as skilled in calculation as Tycho was in precise observation. (See Brahe, Tycho.) Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) inherited Tycho's records of observed positions of planets over many years. He began with Mars and devised a simple way of transforming its directions seen from the earth to corresponding places in its orbit around the

much

experimenting with traditional epicycles to repwas simply an ellipse. As applied at first only to Mars, Kepler announced in his Astronomia nova of 1609 the first two of his three laws of planetary motions: (1) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of its focuses; (2) Each planet revolves so that a line joining it with the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of time. The remaining law was given in his De harmonice mundi of 1619; (3) The squares of the periods of revolution of any two planets are in the same proportion as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. The first and second laws assert that the planets revolve in ellipses, not circles, and therefore at nonuniform rates around the sun. The third, or "harmonic," law gives a useful proportion from which to calculate very nearly the mean distances of the other planets from the sun when the distance of one planet is known. The known distance is usually considered that of the earth, and this distance is accordingly called the astronomical unit. (See Kepler, Johannes.) While Kepler was engaged in his studies of planetary motions, his contemporary. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) in Italy, heard a rumour that a spectaclemaker in Holland had combined lenses in such a way as to make a distant object look nearer and clearer. Galileo fitted two lenses into a tube and went out, in 1609, to view the heavens. The stars appeared no larger through this "optic tube," but fainter ones could be seen. He also saw the mysterious Milky Way as a "mass of innumerable stars." Some of the nearer celestial objects appeared larger as well as clearer; Galileo observed mountains on the moon, phases of Venus like those of the moon, and the four bright satellites of Jupiter. Later he saw dark sunspots carried across the disk of the sun by its rotation. The earliest discoveries were first reported in his small Other European observers, notably Sidereus nuncius (1610). David Fabricius, Simon Marius and Christoph Scheiner, had small telescopes at about the same time and participated in some of these discoveries, but did not dramatize them as effectively. Much sun.

After

resent the orbit, he concluded that the planet's path

ASTRONOMY

646

that Galileo saw in the heavens with the telescope seemed in harmony with the Copernican theory of the revolving and rotating earth, a theory he ably defended in his great Dialogue of the Two Chief Systems of the World (1632). Galileo was an experimental scientist whose conclusions were based on observation rather than on the traditional fitness of His predecessors had supposed with Aristotle that rest things. was the natural state and motion an enforced one; the continued motion of a body had required an explanation of how it was kept Galileo's experiments with falling bodies led to the in motion. radically different law of inertia: A body under no constraint continues to move uniformly in a straight line or else to remain Only change of motion, either in speed or direction, or at rest. both, now required explanation. This was the beginning on which Newton would formulate the laws of motion of bodies on the earth and in the heavens. (See Galileo Galilei.) 2. Dynamical Astronomy. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was born in England in the year of Galileo's death. His persistent curiosity concerning a variety of perplexing matters in physical science was matched by his remarkable ability to supply the reasons for them. At the age of 24 he set out to interpret motions in

—

the universe as controlled

by

From the early Greek had been represented only by

a single force.

scholars to Kepler, these motions

geometrical means without interpretation. The principle of inertia, grasped in greater or lesser degree by Galileo, Rene Descartes and Robert Hooke, received its classic formulation in the second of the three laws of motion which Newton prefixed to his

Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (1687). These laws were based on the concept of force. The amount of the force exerted on a body is directly proportional to the mass of that body multiplied by its acceleration, or rate of change of velocity. Because velocity is speed in a specified direction, acceleration

may

appear as changing speed or changing direction, or both. A. falling stone picks up speed as it falls. A planet revolving around the sun is continuously accelerated; its fall keeps changing the direction in which it revolves. In both cases a force is operating. This is the substance of Newton's second law of motion. The first law is the obvious corollary that if no force is exerted there is no acceleration; and the third law is concerned with the equality of action and reaction.

Newton sought to interpret the motions of the planets, as described by Kepler's laws, on the basis of the three laws of motion. Given an initial motion in a particular direction, an otherwise undisturbed planet would go on moving uniformly in a straight The planet is continuously attracted by the sun, however, and keeps departing from a straight line course in the line forever.

sun's direction.

Thus

a planet revolves.

Newton showed

that the

proportional directly to the product of the masses of the sun and planet, and inversely as the square of the distance between them. Next, on comparing the acceleration toward the earth of a stone near the earth's surface with force of the sun's attraction

is

moon approximately

60 times as far away, he found a Newton then concluded that he had discovered the law that applies to the attractive force exerted by any body anywhere, and so announced it as the law of universal gravitation: Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional directly to the product of their masses, and inversely as the square of the distance between them. {See Newton, that of the

similar rule for the force of the earth's attraction.

Sir Isaac.)

The law of gravitation made it possible to represent and predict the motion of a planet relative to the sun as though the planet were influenced only by the sun's attraction. This problem of two bodies could now be solved directly and completely. The resulting elliptical orbit could serve as a first approximation, be-

cause the sun has the dominant mass in the solar system and also because each planet is widely separated from any of the others. The planet considered, however, is subject to the perturbations, that is, the departures, from the two-body orbit caused by the Thus attractions of all the other members of the sun's family. the problem to be solved for a more precise representation of the Progress in this complanet's motion is that of many bodies.

plex problem in England through the 18th century was retarded by the retention of the less explicit notations that Newton had preferred to employ. This important work passed into the hands

of a succession of able continental mathematicians, who developed and applied the more powerful operations of the calculus. Especially noteworthy among these mathematicians were L. Euler

(1707-83), A. C. Clairaut (1713-65), J. D'Alembert (1717-83), L. Lagrange (1736-1813) and P. S. Laplace (1749-1827)! Laplace summed up the achievements of his predecessors and himself in his great Mecanique celeste (5 vol., 1799-1825). Among the more prominent results of the work of these investigators in dynamical astronomy, Euler in 1753 applied the method of the variation of parameters in the treatment of perturbations; the orbit of a body remains an ellipse having its elements, such as the size and eccentricity of the ellipse, continuously changing under the disturbing forces. D'Alembert, in 1749, established the earth's precession on a sound basis of theory. Lagrange introduced methods of great generality into mechanics. He and Laplace investigated the limits within which the elements of the planetary elliptic orbits must lie, and they demonstrated the very long life expectancy of the solar system. C. F. Gauss (17771855) published in his Theoria motus (1809) the method of least squares, by which the most probable value of a result can be J.

inferred

from observational data.

calculating the orbit of a planet in

He

also described a

from three observed

the heavens and afterward employed

it

mode

of

positions

to recover the

first

discovered asteroid, Ceres, which had seemed likely to be lost. The complex theory of the moon's motion, the work of many investigators, was given its present form by E. W. Brown (1866— 1938). 3.

Development

of the Telescope.

—The

earliest

form

of the

and a concave eyepiece, gave an erect image but a small field even with low powers. This Galilean telescope was soon replaced for astronomical purposes by one in which both lenses were convex; this gave an inverted image but a larger field. In either form, however, the single lens of the object glass did not give a clear image of the object examined. The difficulty was mainly chromatic aberration; a telescope, having a convex object glass

single lens disperses the light, bringing its

component colours

to

focus at different distances from the lens. A partial remedy was effected by greatly increasing the length of the instrument. Telescopes of the 17th century became so excessively long, sometimes much more than 100 ft., that the problem of supporting and

them was serious; the two lenses were either contained wooden tubes or else were supported separately. With such unwieldy apparatus, however, Christiaan Huygens (1629controlling

in

long

95) in Holland discovered Saturn's brightest satellite, and in 1659 concluded that the planet is encircled by a thin ring; and G. D. Cassini (1625-1712) at Paris, in addition to making other noteworthy observations of planets, saw in 1675 the division in Saturn's rings that bears his name. Newton's opinion that the colour dispersion of a lens was independent of the kind of glass of which it was made discouraged for half a century attempts to compensate the chromatic difficulty The opinion did with a second lens of different composition. inspire

Newton, however, to construct, in 1668, a model of a is free from chromatic aberration; it was a re-

telescope that

having a concave mirror as its objective. At about the same time, J. Gregory and N. Cassegrain suggested somewhat different designs of the new telescope. Increase in size and improvement in performance of early reflecting telescopes is peculiarly associated with the name of William Herschel (1738-1822) in England; he constructed many mirrors of various diameters, culminating in the 48-in. mirror of a telescope 40 ft. long. Herschel's many achievements with his telescopes, especially with some of more moderate dimensions, included the discovery of He is also known as a pioneer in sidereal the Planet Uranus. astronomy. William Parsons, third earl of Rosse, in Ireland, possessed the giant among the early reflectors; its mirror was 72 in. in diameter. This telescope was first used in 1845. Among its limited triumphs was the revelation of the spiral form of the galaxy M51, a form now known to be characteristic of many flecting telescope

ASTRONOMY ;alaxies.

Meanwhile, the development of the refracting telescope was nade possible by the invention of the achromatic object glass, a Combination of a convex lens of crown glass and a concave lens First designed in 172°, the combination was im>f flint glass. lroved by John Dolland in England in 1758. Joseph von Fraunlofer (1787-1826) in Germany designed and constructed some of he largest refractors of the early 19th century, including a 9^-in. nstrument for the Dorpat observatory, Tartu, Estonia. Construction of refracting telescopes in the United States began in earnest around the middle of the century. Alvan Clark and Sons, lear

Boston, became especially famous as makers of very large They made the objectives for the 36-in. telescope of the

enses.

Jck observatory, on Mt. Hamilton, Calif., completed in 1888, ind the 40-in. telescope of the Yerkes observatory, Williams Bay, Ms., in 1897, still the largest of all refractors. The Yerkes telescope approaches the limiting diameter for instruments of this :ype, where the object glass, which is supported only around its circumference, may become heavy enough to sag under its own weight.

to the reflecting telescope toward the end of was encouraged by the substitution of glass for he original speculum metal for the mirror. Silver coating of the dass was achieved in 1856, and coating with more effective and The reflecting telescope with durable aluminum began in 1932. .he greatest diameter at mid-20th century was the 200-in. Hale telescope on Palomar mountain in California, completed in 1948. The second in size was the 120-in. telescope (1959) of the Lick observatory, and the third was the 100-in. telescope (1917) on Mt. Wilson near Pasadena, Calif. These and many other reflecting telescopes were employed primarily as cameras, and they

The

.he

shift

back

19th century

purpose admirably for very limited areas of the heavens. The Schmidt reflecting telescope, designed by Bernhard Schmidt (1879-1935) at the Hamburg observatory in Germany and first described by him in 1932, was used as a high-speed astronomical camera. The largest of the numerous instruments of this and allied types was at the Palomar observatory; it has a correcting plate 48 in. in diameter and a 72-in. mirror. served

this

Efforts to increase the

power

of optical telescopes

by construct-

instruments became limited by the mid-20th century owing both to physical difficulties in constructing and mounting anything larger than a 200-in. mirror and the immense costs inAlternatives were to make existing instruments more volved. efficient by using improved techniques or by operating them above Experiments the obstructing effects of the earth's atmosphere. with electronic image-producers also were in progress, and photoing larger

manned and unmanned balloons and most troublesome levels of the atmosphere.

graphs were taken from rockets above the

Proposals were heard for space stations and even for an observing station

The alternative of employing receiving apnew types met with significant success in the radio The radio telescope is analogous to the optical instru-

on the moon.

paratus of 'telescope.

ment, having an antenna for receiving and concentrating the radiation from the celestial source, and a receiver to record the strength of the radio signal. One type of radio telescope employed a flat array of collectors; an example was the "Mills cross" jinferometer radio telescope in Sydney, Austr. A second type had ;a

paraboloidal antenna resembling the mirror of the optical tele-

One example of the second type was the great radio telescope completed at the Jodrell Bank experiment station of the University of Manchester with a "dish" 250 ft. in diameter. (See scope.

1

Telescope; Telescope, Radio.) 4. The Sun. Astronomy of the 19th century and into the beginning of the 20th century had become to a considerable extent a description of the celestial bodies combined with extraterrestrial surveying. Physics for its part had become a bookkeeping of past achievements where the hope of progress, as a distinguished physicist remarked, seemed to be the evaluation of the next decimal place. Early in the present century came such novelties as the quantum theory (1900) of Max Planck and inquiries about the structure of the atom. Astronomers began in earnest to employ apparatus and techniques in the study of the heavens similar to

—

1

647

those of the terrestrial physical laboratory. The new astronomy, or astrophysics, initiated exciting inquiries in which physicists collaborated b il h profil to both. The cause of the dark lines in the solar spectrum, first ob-

served by 1859,

J.

von Fraunhofcr,

in

1814, remained

when G. R. Kirchhoff (1824-87) announced

unknown

until

the basic laws

These laws showed thai the dark lines are abstracted from the sunlight by gases above the sun's surface at characteristic wave lengths which reveal the chemical composition of the gases. In the following year, dark bands in the spectrum were explained as abstracted by molecules in the earth's atmosphere. With the effective use of the spectroscope, former fantastic

of spectroscopy.

ideas about the sun gave

physics; the sun

came

way

to the findings of the

to be regarded as

new

solar

composed of hot gas

At the total solar eclipse of 1868 the chromosphere, prominences and corona were definitely shown to belong to the sun and not to the eclipsing moon; and P. J. C. Janssen (1824— 1907) had thought of a way to observe the prominences with the spectroscope at times other than during an eclipse. The American astronomer C. A. Young (1834-1908) observed the bright-line "flash spectrum" of the chromosphere at an eclipse of 1869, and at the same eclipse the English astronomer J. N. Lockyer (18361920) found in the spectrum of a prominence a yellow line of a hitherto unrecognized element, which he called helium. The tables and atlas of the solar spectrum, published by the physicist H. A. Rowland (1848-1901), have served as the basis for subsequent investigations. With its revisions and extensions into the ultraviolet and infrared, it lists the wave lengths and intensities of 26,000 lines. More than 60 chemical elements are recognized in the sun, and 18 chemical compounds are identified, mainly in the cooler throughout.

regions of sunspots.

The invention of the spectroheliograph by G. E. Hale (18681938) in the U.S., in 1891, and of a similar device by H. Deslandres (1853-1948) in France permitted photography of the sun in the light of a single element and at different levels above the surface. Hale later devised the spectrohelioscope to promote continuous monochromatic surveys of the sun. This instrument improved the chances of observing sudden changes such as the outbursts of solar flares. The flares, which had been reported sporadically since 1859, are likely to break out in the vicinities of large sunspot groups; they are sources of intense ultraviolet radiations, high-speed particles and bursts of emission at radio wave lengths. The spectroheliograph has much value in studies of the chromosphere and prominences. Its use with motion-picture films, initiated at the McMath-Hulbert observatory, Lake Angelus, Mich., by R. R. McMath, greatly improved the understanding of the prominences and their motions. The discovery that sunspots vary in frequency in cycles of about ten years was announced in 1843 by an amateur German astronomer, H. S. Schwabe (1789-1875), after he had made systematic counts of the spots for 1 7 years. Correlation with the frequency of geomagnetic storms was soon established. R. Wolf (1816-93) and his successors at Zurich determined the overall average interval between spot maxima as 11.1 years, but in the first half of the 20th century it was more nearly 10 years. R. C. Carrington (182675) in England discovered in 1859 that the period of the sun's rotation increases with distance from its equator and that the zones of sunspot activity shift from higher latitudes toward the equator in the course of each sunspot number cycle, an effect observed soon afterward by F. W. G. Sporer (1822-95 ) and usually connected with his name. W. S. Adams, at Mount Wilson in 1906, extended the spectroscopic determination of the sun's rotation to high latitudes and found that it increases from 25 days at the equator to 33 days in latitude 75°. Hale, in 1908, observed the splitting of lines, known as the Zeeman effect, in the spectra of sunspots, showing that the spots have a strong magnetic field. In bipolar spots the leader and follower spots were found to have opposite magnetic polarities, and the signs for the southern hemisphere were opposite to those in the northern hemisphere. These When relations continued until the sunspot minimum of 1913. spots of the following cycle then began to appear in the higher latitudes, the polarity relations were completely reversed; and

ASTRONOMY

648

the reversal has continued with each new cycle since that time. effective scanning process, employed by H. W. and H. D. Bab-

An

cock at the Hale solar laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., since 1952 for mapping magnetic fields over the sun, has revealed persistent general magnetic fields of 1 or 2 gauss of opposite polarity around

equal to the period of revolution. The rotation period of Venus is still in doubt. F. E. Ross's pioneer ultraviolet photographs, in 1927, of markings in its atmosphere suggested to him that the

period

may

the two solar poles.

very scarce

Systematic photography of the sun's corona at total solar eclipses began with an eclipse of 1869. The form of the corona was soon found to be quite different at sunspot maximum and minimum. Photography of the corona and its spectrum at times other than during an eclipse began in 1930 with B. Lyot's use of the coronagraph at the Pic du Midi observatory, Hautes-Pyrenees, France. A dozen or more similar instruments have since begun operation at mountain stations in various parts of the world. Special monochromatic filters have also proved effective for viewing and photographing the corona and the prominences as well. Since the green line in the spectrum of the corona was first observed at the eclipse of 1869, 21 bright lines have been photographed. These lines were identified in 1941 by B. Edlen in Sweden. They are unusual lines of from 9 to 15 times ionized atoms of iron, nickel, calcium and argon; their degrees of ionization and their considerable widths indicate for the corona a kinetic temperature of 1,000,000° C. (See Sun; Corona.)

dioxide

—

be about a month.

Mount Wilson concluded is

in

W.

Adams and T. Dunham at vapour and free oxygen are

S.

that water

the atmosphere of the planet, but that carbon

surprisingly abundant.

G. P. Kuiper concluded more

recently that the clouds which obscure the planet's surface consist of carbon suboxide

formed by action of the sun's

may

ultra-

on the carbon dioxide. The status of the surface markings of Mars was clarified by photographic and spectroscopic inquiries in the first half of the 20th century. The white polar caps were identified by Kuiper violet radiation

as rather thin deposits of ice crystals.

The red

areas are deserts,

their colour resembling that of pulverized limonite, according to

The green

may

be coloured by something like lichens growing in the lava basins, or they may have a different cause. A network of fine markings, reported in 1877 by A. Dollfus.

blotches

and called by him canali, was interpreted by P. Lowell (1855-1916) as an array of artificial waterways. A number of

Schiaparelli

other observers, however, have not succeeded in detecting the very fine canals and have concluded that they may be subjective. The two small satellites of Mars were discovered in 1877 by A.

5. The Solar System. The five bright planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, have been recognized from very early times. The earth was formally added as the sixth by Copernicus in 1543. Uranus was discovered in 1781 and Neptune in 1846. The discovery of Pluto in 1930 completed the list of the nine known principal planets. Ceres, the first of the multitude of minor planets to be recognized, was found in 1801. The moon was the only satellite that could be observed prior to the in-

Hall with the then-new 26-in. refracting telescope of the U.S. Naval observatory, Washington, D.C. The inner satellite, Phobos, proved to be unique among the satellites of the solar system in having a period of revolution shorter than the planet's rotation

vention of the telescope. Some modern contributions to knowledge of the planets and

Ceres proved to have the same distance from the sun as a planet for which astronomers were then searching to fill a vacancy in a Minor planets series of planetary distances known as Bode's law. having reliably determined orbits exceeded 1,600 by the middle of the 20th century. Although they revolve mainly in orbits of

their satellites are the following.

The globular form of the earth, proved by early Greek scholars, was first revealed clearly in photographs from rockets; an example was a photograph from a height of 101 mi. from a V-2 rocket launched in 1947 from White Sands, N.M. The dimensions of the oblate earth, reduced to sea level, were standardized in the international spheroid (1909) calculated by the U.S. coast and geodetic survey. New information about the earth and its atmosphere was obtained by means of artificial earth-satellites; the first of these were launched in 1957-58. The earth's daily rotation was first demonstrated to the public by J. B. L. Foucault at Paris (1851) by the behaviour of the Foucault pendulum. It was later shown that the speed of the rotation is decreasing slowly, with accompanying periodic and irregular variations, and that the poles of the rotation axis wander over very small areas of the surface. The earth's annual revolution around the sun was first demonstrated by J. Bradley's discovery of the aberration of starlight in 1727. The solar parallax, which determines the earth's mean distance from the sun, has been derived mainly from the observations of planets nearer us than Noteworthy contributions were the parallax the sun's distance.

deduced by D. Gill at the Cape of Good Hope, in 1895, from a program for several minor planets and the parallax calculated by E. Rabe in the U.S., in 1950, from the motion of the minor planet Eros. By international agreement the most probable value of the solar parallax is 8.803 seconds, and the earth's mean distance from the sun

is

accordingly 92,900,000 mi.

of the moon's visible face began with Galileo in Noteworthy among the selenographers of the 19th century

The mapping 1610.

were W. Beer and J. H. Madler at Berlin (1837) and J. F. J. Schmidt at Athens (1878). A map by H. P. Wilkins in England (1955) shows at least 90,000 formations. An early photographic atlas was prepared by M. Loewy and P. Puiseux at Paris (189698).

Two

causes assigned to the origin of the lunar formations in 1873, and

were meteoritic impact, advocated by R. A. Proctor vulcanism, by

The

J.

Nasmyth in 1874. Mercury long remained

rotation period of

of the faintness of the surface markings.

mined by G. V.

It

Ceres, the

first

known

of the

minor planets, or

doubt because

asteroids, was

discovered incidentally by G. Piazzi (1746-1826) at Palermo, Italy, in 1801 it is the largest of all, having a diameter of 480 mi. ;

Mars and Jupiter, number have orbits of considerable eccentricity, and some of these come near the earth. Eros, discovered in 1898, may come within 14,000,000 mi. of the earth, and some minor planets discovered more recently make closer approaches. The minor planet rather small eccentricity between the orbits of

a

Icarus, which left its trail on a Palomar photograph of 1949, passes within the orbit of Mercury; another asteroid, Hidalgo, retreats from the sun as far as the distance of Saturn. The majority vary in brightness in periods of a few hours, which are the rotation

periods of these irregularly shaped bodies. According to one 20th century theory, the smaller minor planets are fragments produced by collisions, and some of the larger ones were nicked by the collisions.

The collisions have also caused the erratic orbits of some of which fall onto the earth as meteorites, ac-'

these bodies,

cording to the theory. Until well -into the 20th century the giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, were believed to be, gaseous throughout, and Jupiter in particular was described as a sort of smaller replica of the sun. Later, however, measures of the temperatures showed that these planets are about as cold as solar heating can allow them to get and that the high compression must make Theoretical models of Jupiter by R. Wildt interiors solid. W. C. DeMarcus in 1958 assigned a preponderant mass of drogen to the planet with helium second, as with the sun. Of 12

known

satellites of Jupiter,

the

and hythe

the four bright ones were dis-

covered by Galileo in 1610, and the fifth and innermost satellite was detected by E. E. Barnard (1857-1923) in 1892. The other satellites, which are faint and much more distant from the planet, were found in the 20th century. Three of these were discovered by S. B. Nicholson, who showed that the orbits of the outermost satellites change rapidly because of strong perturbations by the sun.

Saturn's rings, regarded as solid by Laplace, were in

was correctly deterMilan as 88 days,

Schiaparelli (1835-1910) at

period.

shown mathe-

Clerk Maxwell in 1857 to be composed of a multitude of small bodies, and their discrete character was confirmed spectroscopically by J. E. Keeler in 1895. Kuiper concluded that matically by

J.

ASTRONOMY he small bodies are either snow-covered or else composed mainly )f ice; he reported from his inspection of Saturn with the Hale elescope that the only real break in the ring system

by G. D. Cassini

discovered ites

were

all

in 1675. Saturn's nine discovered prior to the 20th century.

is

the division

known satelThe largest

ind brightest satellite, Titan, has an atmosphere; its orange s

hue

probably caused by atmospheric action on the surface material,

according to Kuiper, as seems to be true of the deserts of Mars. Uranus, the first principal planet to be discovered in historic

was found by W. Herschel in 1781. One of its five satelMiranda, was first detected by Kuiper, in 1948. Neptune ,vas first seen at the Berlin observatory in 1846, near the place Dredicted for it by U. J. Leverrier in France from his calculations oased on its disturbances of the motion of Uranus. J. C. Adams' contemporaneous prediction in England did not receive equally effective telescopic co-operation. Neptune's faint satellite. Nereid, discovered by Kuiper in 1949, proved to have the most eccentric orbit, 0.75, of any known satellite. Pluto, the most distant planet, was found in 1930 by C. W. Tombaugh in his photographs at Lowell observatory, Flagstaff, \riz.. where a search for such a planet had long been in progress. ;imes, itcs.

!

Its small size is in striking contrast to the giant statures of the

luter planets,

and

its

orbit has the greatest eccentricity

timation to the ecliptic of any principal planet. sidered it

it

definitely established that Pluto

was

other

and

in-

Kuiper has con-

originally a satellite

Xeptune.

Comets were described by Newton

as celestial bodies subject to Halley (1656-1742) in 1705 from recorded posiHe noticed a similarity between the orbits of tions in the sky. the great comet of 1682 and of two previous comets, decided that all three were of the same comet traveling in an elliptic orbit around the sun in a period of about 76 years and predicted the comet's return to view in 1758. This, the first recognized periodic comet, came to be known as Halley's comet. Encke's comet, discovered in 1 7S6, was shown by the German astronomer J. F. Encke at its return in 1818 to be moving in an elliptical orbit with a period of 3.3 years; it was the second periodic comet to be established and the first of Jupiter's family of comets to be recognized. S. Arrhenius, in 1900, explained that the tails of comets are directed away from the sun because their material is repelled by the pressure of the sun's radiation, a reason that Kepler had suggested in his Treatise on Comets (1619). An important contribution on comets was proposed by F. L. Whipple in 1950. According to his theory, a comet far from the sun is a porous structure of ices a mile or so in diameter, in which small metallic and rocky particles are imbedded; the ices are mainly frozen methane, ammonia and water. Whenever a comet approaches the sun, some of the ices thaw. Gases issue explosively from the nucleus to form the coma and are then driven out through the tail. The solid particles released in the thaw are scattered along the comet's ,

:he control of gravitation.

Edmund

lad calculated parabolic orbits of 24 comets

meteor stream. (See Comet.) Chladni, a German, in 1794 gave his opinion that "shooting stars" are produced when small celestial objects fall into our atmosphere and are heated by friction to incandescence. Falls of groups of stones at L'Aigle, France, in 1803 and later at Weston, Conn., were reliably reported. Yet the idea that stones fall from the sky was generally discredited until well into the 19th century. The spectacular shower of Leonid meteors in 1833 and its repetition in 1866, which had been predicted by H. A. Newton (1830Schia96) two years earlier, aroused much interest in meteors. parelli announced in 1866 that the stream of Perseid meteors has the same orbit around the sun as that of comet 1862 III, and in the following year the identity of the orbits of the Leonids and of comet 1866 I was established. Since then the search for parent comets of meteor streams has been rewarded in more than a dozen cases. Beginning in 1947, radar was used for observing 'meteor trails and measuring the speeds of the bodies. Records by D. W. R. McKinley and others at Ottawa of more than 10,000 meteors showed no speeds high enough to definitely suggest that any of these meteors came from outside the solar system. Similar results were obtained at the Jodrell Bank experiment station in orbit as a

E. F. F.

649

Cheshire, Eng., where daytime meteor showers have also been I. Meanwhile, the Harvard meteor program of recorded. Whipple and associates began in employ stereoscopic photographs of meteor trails, from which the ims and their idenSpecimens tities with orbits of parent comets were determined. from 1,600 falls of meteorites have been recovered, and 55 of these objects weigh more than a ton. More than a dozen craters or 1

'

groups of craters

work

as the

in

various parts of the world have been recognized

of meteorites.

An example

is

the

Meteor

crater in

(See Meteor.) noteworthy hypothesis of the origin of the planetary system was published by Laplace in his popular Exposition du systeme du monde (1796). His tentative account began with a As the flattened nebular envelope revolving around the sun. nebula contracted, it abandoned successive gaseous rings that condensed into planets and their satellites. Widely acclaimed during the 19th century, this nebular hypothesis eventually gave way to others designed to explain further features of the system discovered An example is the protoplanet hypothesis of in the meantime. Arizona.

The

first

Kuiper. (See Cosmogony.) 6. Stars and Nebulae. The problem of measuring the very small annual parallaxes of stars and their distances therefrom was first solved by visual means in 1837-39 by F. G. W. von Struve for

—

Vega, F. W. Bessel for 61 Cygni and T. Henderson for Alpha CenPhotographic methods of high precision were devised by tauri. F. Schlesinger in 1903. The General Catalogue of Trigonometric Stellar Parallaxes (1952) lists 5,822 stars with known direct paralBecause the amount of the parallax diminishes with inlaxes. creasing distance, reliable direct parallaxes are restricted to stars within something like 300 light-years from the sun. Other basic data of observation are the apparent brightness of

In Ptolemy's early catalogue the lucid stars were divided order of brightness into six classes, or magnitudes. This plan was adapted to modern purposes by N. Pogson, in 1856. The apparent magnitudes of standard stars at a variety of wave lengths and determined most accurately by photoelectric measures are available to investigators. The absolute magnitudes of stars, or stars. in

the apparent magnitude at the distance of 10 parsecs (32.6 lightwhen the observed magnitudes and dis-

years), can be calculated

Where the absolute magnitudes are known tances are known. independently and the apparent magnitudes have been observed, the distances can be calculated; this is the photometric means of extending the known distances of stars beyond the limit for the direct parallaxes.

A

third category of basic observational data is concerned with the first to J. von Fraunhofer, in 1823, was

the spectra of stars.

observe dark lines in stellar spectra. E. C. Pickering (1846-1919) at Harvard observatory, Harvard, Mass., began in 1885 the photographic program that resulted in the Henry Draper Catalogue, which with its extensions lists the positions, magnitudes and spectra of 400.000 stars. The spectra are described by means of spectral classes, mainly the work of Annie J. Cannon (18631941) the principal classes are lettered O, B, A, F, G, K. and in order of decreasing surface temperatures or increasing redness

and associates

M

;

of the stars.

A

diagram

in

which the spectral classes of stars are arrayed with

respect to their absolute magnitudes was constructed by H. X. It Russell at Princeton observatory, Princeton, N.J., in 1913. is often known as the Hertzsprung-Russell, or H-R, diagram, because the Danish astronomer E. Hertzsprung in 1905 had recog-

nized that some red stars are much brighter intrinsically than others and had called the two groups giant stars and dwarf stars In Russell's diagram the majority of the plotted respectively. points form a band that extends from the very luminous B-type stars to the M-type dwarfs; this is known as the main sequence. The giant stars lie above this sequence in the diagram and the

supergiants far above it. White dwarf stars were later discovered and added below the main sequence. The H-R diagram inspired and guided subsequent researches on the stars. In appropriate cases, as for star clusters, the H-R diagram is replaced by the colour-magnitude diagram because the colour indexes of stars can be determined more readily and more precisely than the spectral

ASTRONOMY

650 classes.

A

fourth category of basic data comprises the masses of stars; these can be calculated for binary stars where their period of revolution and size of orbit are known. Castor, the first of the very numerous visual binaries, was found to be revolving by W. Herschel The binary character of Mizar, the first-known spectroin 1803. scopic double, was discovered by Harvard astronomers in 1889

from the doubling of

its

spectral lines.

The

periodic decline in

the brightness of Algol, the first-known eclipsing binary, rectly explained

by

J.

was

cor-

The masses

Goodricke (1764-86).

of

single stars may also be derived, with certain exceptions, from the mass-luminosity relation discovered in 1924 by A. S. Eddington (1882-1944). The distances of celestial objects more remote than the limit for reliable direct parallaxes are found by photometric means when these objects are, or are associated with, recognized distance Cepheid variable stars are such indicators; they are indicators. yellow supergiant pulsating stars that can be observed even as far away as the nearer exterior galaxies. H. S. Leavitt at Harvard

reported in 1912 that the period in which their brightness varies increases as the observed

median magnitude of the

star

is

brighter.

corresponding standard periodluminosity relation applicable to Cepheids anywhere. W. Baade's announcement in 1952 that the absolute magnitudes of classical Cepheids are all 1.5 magnitudes brighter than previously supposed resulted in the doubling of all celestial distances previously determined by means of Cepheids. More recently, H. C. Arp showed that the period-luminosity relation of the Cepheids may be a band rather than a line. Another type of pulsating variable stars, the RR Lyrae variables, have also been useful as distance indicators because all their median luminosities are believed to be the same; but these stars are intrinsically less bright than the Cepheids and cannot be seen as far away. Star clusters and nebulae began to be discovered in large numbers by the Herschels and to be listed in catalogs of increasing extent. Dreyer's New General Catalogue (1888) and its extensions Because the in 1895 and 1908 included over 13,000 such objects.

H. Shapley,

in 1913, established the

of a star cluster are all practically at the same distance from the earth, they may be compared fairly one with another. The clusters accordingly have added to the understanding of the relations between the different kinds of stars and of their places

members

The colour-magnitude diagrams of clusters differ in a remarkable way that suggests differences in the age of the clusters. Very young clusters have the main sequence practically intact. With increasing age of the clusters the stars break away from the main sequence at lower and lower points, as shown by H. L. Johnson and Allan Sandage in 1954, and move in the evolution of stars.

For the oldest clusters and the globular which are believed to be as old as the galaxy itself, the remaining main sequence begins with stars nearly as yellow as the sun and goes on into the red stars. Sandage's semiempirical evolu-

into the giant sequences. clusters,

tion tracks of stars in the globular cluster

M3

leave the

main

se-

quence at spectral type F5, extend up and to the right, and finally go back to the left to the region of the blue stars. (See Star.) Stationary hazy spots among the stars were all known as nebulae The "great nebula" in Andromeda had been in former times. recognized before the invention of the telescope. Huygens thought he had discovered the Orion nebula in 1656, but it had been seen Halley worked on the nebulae as early as the second before. decade of the 18th century. Although the idea had developed that all nebulae were really star clusters, W. Huggins' observation in 1864 of bright lines in the spectrum of a planetary nebula in Draco showed that some of these objects must be gaseous. Eventually a numerous class of spiral and associated nebulae, which seemed to avoid the Milky Way, were given the name "extragalactic nebulae" to distinguish them from the nebulae proper, which congregate toward this band of the heavens; the former proved later to be exterior galaxies. E. P. Hubble (1889-1953), in 1922, showed that nebulae are made luminous by involved or neighbouring stars. Where the stars are cooler than spectral type Bl, the nebulae shine mainly by reflected starlight; where the stars are very hot, they ionize the gases of the nebulae and set them glowing.

Prominent bright lines in the spectra of emission nebulae were explained by I. S. Bowen in 1927 as "forbidden lines" of oxygen and nitrogen.

In the absence of neighbouring stars the nebulae

M. Wolf (1863-1932) and E. E. Barnard had previously shown that the dark rifts in the Milky Way are areas of dark nebulae and not vacancies. In 1904, J. Hartmann observed "stationary lines" in the spectrum of the binary star Delta Orionis; and eventually these and similar lines in the spectra of other stars were understood to be interstellar lines caused by absorption of the starlight by intervening cosmic gases. R. J. Trumpler's studies of galactic clusters showed in 1930 that starlight is also dimmed and reddened by interstellar dust, which is widespread in the heavens and relatively concentrated in the vicinity of the Milky Way. (See Nebula.) The idea, pioneered by Kant and Laplace in the 18th century, that stars condense from nebulae has persisted. Contraction was are practically dark.

believed in the early theories to be the sole process that kept the stars shining thereafter; but it proved insufficient to account for the long lives of many stars. Interest in the problem of stellar evolution reawakened in the 1920s with the work of J. Jeans and A. S. Eddington, the latter suggesting subatomic means for the

generation of stellar energy, while in 1938 H. A. Bethe proposed the fusion of lighter into heavier chemical elements in the interiors of stars as an important supplement to contraction; and a new

After condensing from a evolution theory presently appeared. cosmic cloud, according to the theory, a group of stars goes on contracting and moves to the left in the colour-magnitude diagram until the stars are arrayed in order of mass along the main sequence. Contraction is then replaced by fusion of hydrogen into helium in the cores of the stars. The stars grow hotter and

begin to expand, leaving the main sequence to become giant stars. the available fuel is exhausted, the stars contract again

When

until they become white dwarfs. Hydrogen fusion is the main process and may be the only one of importance in stars like the sun. More massive stars may continue to build up heavier eleat least as far as iron, as W. A. Fowler and others explained 1956; these stars may attain central temperatures of several billion (milliard) degrees and may explode as supernovae before they begin to decline.

ments in

7.

come

to

—

The system of the Milky Way has be known as "our galaxy," and the term "Milky Way" is

The Galactic System.

applied usually only to the luminous band around the heavens. A number of scholars in the 18th century believed the system of stars

W. Herschel to have a much-flattened structure. reached the same conclusion in 1784 from his star "gauges," but he decided later that the depth of the system in space was unfathomable. The statistical treatment of star counts remained about the only means of trying to determine the galactic structure until well into the 20th century, and it made little progress. Shap-

around us

measures of the distances of globular star clusters, basically by means of their RR Lyrae variable stars, led to his conclusion, in 1917, that the galaxy has finite extent and that the sun is far from its centre. The original dimensions that he gave were considerably too large and could not be corrected until Trumpler's work, in 1930, on the effect of the cosmic dust in magnifying the ley 's

photometric distances of stars. The diameter of the disk of the galaxy is usually given as S0.000 light-years and the distance of the galactic centre from the sun as 30,000 light-years in the direction of Sagittarius, where Shapley placed it. Although the flattened disk of the galaxy, as evidenced by the appearance of the Milky Way, suggested a centrifugal effect of the galactic rotation, no other effect was recognized until B. Lindblad, in Sweden in 1926, demonstrated a general rotation around J. H. Oort, in The reported a differential effect of the rotation

a centre also in the direction of Sagittarius.

Netherlands

from

in 1927,

his studies of the radial velocities of stars in the sun's vicinity.

Oort's studies

showed that the disk rotates

in a longer period as the

distance from the centre increases. The sun is moving in the rotation in the direction of Cygnus

with a speed of 134 mi. per second, as determined by Dutch radio astronomers in 1954. The double-armed spiral pattern of stars, gas and dust imbedded in the disk of the galaxy was first definitely

.

1

ASTRONOMY traced in the heavens, in 1951

,

by W. W. Morgan,

S.

Sharpless

and D. E. Osterbrock at Yerkes observatory with the collaboraThey located many emission nebulae tion of other astronomers.

Milky Way, arms and the suggestion This important tracing of the arms was soon of a third arm. extended by radio astronomers. (See Galaxy.) Astronomy. Cosmic radiations at radio wave 8. Radio lengths were first detected by K. G. Jansky in 1931. Grote Reber, an electronics engineer at Wheaton, 111., employed a fixed 3 1 -ft. and associated blue stars

in various regions of the

objects that outlined parts of

two

spiral

—

make recordings of radio emission from various areas of the Milky Way as they crossed his meridian. Radio reception from the sun was recorded at British radio stations in 1942, when a large sunspot group with associated solar flares was passing near the centre of the sun's disk and was first announced in 1946. J. S. Hey and associates in England, in 1946, discovered the first-known discrete cosmic radio source, in the constellation Cygnus. Also in England and in that year, A. C. B. Lovell and associates at the Jodrell Bank experiment station made extensive recordings by radar of the shower of Giacobinid meteors; and in the following year they began daytime recordings of meteor showers. Following Reber's pioneer radio map of the sky, other such maps were made at various wave lengths of the continuous radio spectrum and with improved resolving power. As an example, a map by H. C. Ko and J. D. Kraus, in 1957, based on their observations at Ohio State university, showed the Milky Way prominently paraboloidal antenna in 1936 to

1

and also the positions of the brightest discrete radio sources. Only a few discrete sources had by mid-20th century been identified with optical instruments, particularly by W. Baade and R. Minkowski with the 200-in. Palomar telescope; these include an emission nebula in Cassiopeia, a pair of colliding galaxies in Cygnus, The only recogthe Crab nebula and the nucleus of our galaxy. nized emission line in the radio spectrum, at the wave length of 21 cm., was discovered in 1951 by Harvard physicists H. I. Ewen and E. M. Purcell; the line is produced by a slight change at the lowest energy level of the hydrogen atom and has also been observed as an absorption line. Tracings of the spiral arms of the galaxy by use of this line were accomplished especially by observers at the Leiden observatory, in The Netherlands in 1954, and at the Radiophysics laboratory, Sydney, Austr., at about the same time. (See Radio Astronomy.) 9. The Exterior Galaxies. Although Kant, as early as 1755, had thought that the nebulae might be "other universes," his speculation was not generally received with favour. It remained for E. P. Hubble to establish in 1924 the status of the hitherto mysterious spiral structures and other extragalactic nebulae. His photographs with the 100-in. Mt. Wilson telescope showed sepa-

—

rate stars

objects.

and among them Cepheid variable stars in some of these distances derived from the Cepheids ran into milThese were galaxies beyond our own. Mean-

The

lions of light-years.

while, the scale of distances derived originally for the exterior

Hubble suspected might be the case. The distances of galaxies in which Cepheid variable stars were employed have been multiplied by the factor 2 by Baade's revision in 1952, and the distances originally assigned to more remote galaxies may need to be multiplied by a factor as great as 10, as Sandage showed in 1958. Studies of the great spiral in Andromeda, which except for its galaxies required revision, as

system quite closely, provided the pattern for interpreting features of our own galaxy. In generally are grouped in announced that the stars Baade 1943, larger dimensions resembles our spiral

comprises young stars, represented by the stars right around us in the dusty arm of our galaxy and in the arms of the Andromeda spiral. Population II comprises old stars, represented by stars of the globular clusters and those in the central regions of galaxies like ours. Because these are extreme populations, three additional types have since been proposed tentatively to include stars of intermediate ages.

two distinct populations.

From nounced

his

Population

picture of the expanding universe. the inquiry to the

Hydra

researches on the spectra _of galaxies, Hubble an-

M.

L.

Humason

ixies at

1

later extended about the spectro-

scopic limit of the 200-in. telescope; the red shifts for these galaxies correspond to a recession velocity of i the speed of light.

W.

A. Baum's photoelectric measures with the same telescope, extended the limit to the most remote clusters of galaxies then definitely recognized; there the red shifts of the spectral lines correspond to a velocity of recession equal to $ the speed of light. In both investigations the relation between line-displacement and assigned distance continued very nearly linear. in 1957,

—

Bibliocraphy. H. Shapley and H. E. Howarth, A Source Book in Astronomy (1959); O. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity

Thomas Heath,

Artistarchus of Santos (1913), Greek Astronomy (1932); J. L. E. Dreyer, History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler (1906), rev. ed. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (1958); F. R. Johnson, Astronomical Thought in Renaissance England (1937); R. L. Waterfield, A Hundred Years of Astronomy (1938); G. de Vaucouleurs, Discovery of the Universe (1957) P. Rousseau, Man's Conquest of the Stars (1959) J. B. Sidg-

(1957)

;

Sir

;

;

wick, William Herschel (1954) H. C. King, History of the Telescope (1955), Background of Astronomy (1957); R. Thiel, And There Was Light (1957) Martin Schwarzschild, Structure and Evolution of the Stars (1957). (R. H. Br.) ;

;

II.

MODERN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY A.

The

The

Celestial Pageant

—

To an observer, ancient or modern, the night sky appears as a hemisphere resting on the horizon. Consequently, the simplest descriptions of the motions of the heavenly bodies are those presented on a sphere. Fig. 2 illustrates 1.

Celestial Sphere.

the daily circuits of celestial bodies.

As the earth rotates from west to east, the celestial sphere ap; in other words, pears to rotate from east to west on its axis, the point, P, remains stationary and Polaris, the bright star which is close to the north pole, moves in a very small circle around it. All objects that lie in the shaded area remain above the horizon at all times, slowly circling the pole, although, of course, they are A star situated at some point on the circle invisible in daytime.

PF

BAB'.A'

will

move

along that

circle, rising at

B

and setting at B'

star on the circle EQWQ' will rise at the east point and set at the west point just 12 hours later; this circle is the celestial equator. Stars south of the celestial equator are above the horizon for less than 12 hours daily as seen from the northern hemisphere of the

A

earth; this would be the case for a star on the circle GFG'F. Finally, the circle NPAS is known as the celestial meridian. No-

reach their greatest elevation above the horizon

tice that stars

when they pass across the meridian. The diagram assumes the observer

is located at a northern equal to the angle 4> on the diagram, or approximately 35°. If the observer is at a very different latitude the diagram should be redrawn. Thus, for an observer on the equator, the north celestial pole is on the horizon and all stars rise vertically from the horizon and set just 12 hours later; on the other hand, for an observer at the south pole of the earth, the south celestial pole is directly overhead in the zenith and the stars of the southern

latitude

which

is

celestial 1

hemisphere complete always parallel

their daily circles

zenith

to

the horizon, never rising or

setting.

—

2. The Seasons. The sun, the moon and the planets move per5 ceptibly among the stars. The £ moon moves approximately 13°

5 every day direction.

I

1929 that the spectral lines are displaced to the red in direct proportion to the distances. Here began the spectacular in

651

more

in a general easterly

The sun moves much

slowly, progressing about

every day in

The „„

-APPARENT DAILY MOTIONS OF CELESTIAL BODIES BECAUSE OF earth s rotation, o represents POSITION OF OBSERVER ON EARTH

larly.

planets

One

its

° 1

easterly journey.

move more feature that

irreguall

of

these apparent motions have in common is that the bodies travel

along a rather narrow belt of the The sky known as the zodiac central line of this belt

is

called

ASTRONOMY

652 the ecliptic;

follows

The

the path the sun the stars, making

positions of hundreds of thousands of stars have been measured and listed in catalogues. The oldest such catalogue still existing is contained in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemaus (fl. 127-151 a.d.), usually referred to as Ptolemy. Thirty or 40 bright stars are still commonly referred to by the names given them by the Arabs, the Romans, the Greeks, etc. About 1,000 are designated by a Greek letter followed by the name of the constellation in which they appear. But most stars are known by their serial number in a catalogue. Thus, BD +24° 1382 refers to star No. 1382 in declination zone +24° of the

it is

among

an angle of 23° 27' with the celestial equator as illustrated in Figure 3. On March 21 the sun is at the intersection of the ecliptic and the equator traveling east and north; the symbol of the ram's

horns (t) traditionally used to designate this point

is

is

of ancient

the

there, the length of the

day

vernal equinox,

sun

is

known as since, when

origin; the point

is

Bonner Durchmusterung catalogue. 5. Eclipses and Occultations.— Two other phenomena with

the

which the ancients were well acquainted were eclipses and fig.

occul-

3.— apparent yearly moOF SUN AMONG THE STARS.

tations. If the moon crosses the line between the earth and a planet or a star, an occultation is said to occur. On the other hand, if the moon comes between the earth and the sun, it is said

equal to the length of the night.

During the next three months the sun continues to move northeast it reaches the summer solstice at A. At this point it is 23° 27' north of the celestial equator

TION

NORTH POLE OF THE EQUATOR IS AT P. THE POLE OF THE ECLIPTIC AT K. DIRECTION OF SUNS APPARENT MOTION IS INDICATED BY

location of the observer on the earth and the position of the moon. Similarly, if the earth crosses between the sun and the moon, the

and

ARROW

moon

until

consequently (cf. fig. 2) nights are at their shortest on the

It

northern hemisphere of the earth and at their longest on the southern hemisphere. From this point the sun's path turns southeast past the autumnal equinox at B to the winter solstice at C. It is because the sun's apparent path is so much inclined to the celestial equator that the seasons are so pronounced. Actually, it is the earth's annual circuit around the sun which makes the

sun appear to be moving among the stars as seen from the earth. Furthermore, the fact that the earth's axis of rotation is directed 2S° 27' away from the pole of the earth's orbit around the sun accounts for the inclination of the ecliptic to the celestial equator.

The

ancients divided the zodiac into 12 equal constellations or "signs," each sign bearing the name of the fancied pattern the stars in that portion of the sky appeared to resemble. Thus, there

was Aries the ram, Taurus the bull, Gemini the twins, etc. It is a simple matter to follow the motion of the moon or of the planets along the zodiac but much more difficult in the case of the blindingly bright sun.

was able to

Despite

this fact,

Hipparchus

(fl.

146-126

b.c.)

a very slow shift in the position of the ecliptic on the celestial sphere amounting to about 1° 15' establish that there

is

Two thousand years later, in 1888, it became clear that there are irregular changes in the position of the pole of the

per century.

earth; and in 1926

it

was found that there are variations

rate of the earth's rotation over a period of a decade or so.

in the

The

development of much more accurate timepieces, such as the crystal clock, have immensely improved observations since 1940; as a result it has been established that there are also short-term fluctuations in the rate of the earth's rotation.

Time.

—

The astronomer sets his clock by the stars. The mothe vernal equinox crosses the meridian is zero hours and sidereal clocks are timed to follow the course of this point on the 3.

ment sky.

Thus, at 6 hours

it is

to eclipse the sun, either partially or totally,

setting on the west point on the horizon

and

at 18 hours it is rising at the east point. Now, according to the sidereal clocks, the sun reaches the meridian some four minutes later every day since it is traveling eastward among the stars;

more precisely, solar clocks run 3 min. 56.56 sec. slow per day as compared with sidereal clocks. The orbit of the earth around the sun is not quite circular, being closest to the sun on Jan. 2. The earth moves most rapidly when closest to the sun; consequently, the sun's apparent motion among the stars is most rapid on Jan. 2. Because of this and because the sun travels along the ecliptic, rather than straight eastward, apparent solar time as measured on the sundial runs 10 or 15 minutes fast in May and November as compared with mean solar time, a time based on a fictitious mean sun similarly, apparent solar time is slow in February and July. (See Time Measurement.) 4. Stellar Positions and Names. The time shown by the sidereal clock when a particular star crosses the meridian is called ;

—

the star's right ascension; this defines the star's position in the sky in the east-west direction. The declination of a star is its angular distance north or south of the celestial equator. Together, the two co-ordinates completely define the position of any star.

depending on the

is darkened by the earth's shadow and a lunar eclipse occurs. was the spectacular eclipses and occultations that gave man his

first

positive evidence that the celestial bodies are not

same distance from

all at the

He

could deduce that the moon must be nearer to us than the sun, the planets and the stars. This marked the beginning of a new phase of astronomy. Hipparchus determined the distance to the moon by observing the size of the earth's shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse, a method first suggested by Aristarchus of Samos (c. 250 b.c). (See Eclipse.) B.

us.

The Objects

The Solar System.

—At

in

Outer Space

it will be useful to have something in the nature of a road map, one which has been adapted from John Herschel (1792-1871). The sun, a huge self-luminous body, has a few insignificantly small, nonluminous bodies in its entourage, namely, the planets, of which the earth is one. On a drastically reduced scale the sun may be pictured as a brightly shining sphere 2 ft. in diameter. The planet Mercury on this scale will be the size of a rather large pinhead revolving around the sun in a circle of 82-ft. radius; Venus is a pea on a circle of radius 142 ft.; the earth, also a pea, at 215 ft.; Mars, a small cherry stone at 327 ft.; the minor planets (also called asteroids), fine grains of sand at distances of 500 to 600 ft. Jupiter, a fairsized orange on a circle of nearly 0.25 mi. radius; Saturn, a small orange at 0.4 mi.; Uranus, a walnut at more than 0.75 mi.; Neptune, also a walnut, at 1.25 mi.; and finally, Pluto, a pea revolving around the sun at a distance of 1.6 mi. On this scale the nearest star would be more than 10,000 mi. away. Six of the planets have satellites revolving around them in the way the moon revolves around the earth. In addition, there are comets and meteoric matter. All of these bodies move in orbits under their mutual attraction in accordance with the law of gravitation, but since the sun is nearly 1,000 times more massive than

1.

this point

;

all

the others,

it

much

exerts a controlling influence.

controversy and insight to establish this theory that the earth rotated on its axis and revolved about the sun had been advanced in the 3rd century b.c, probably by Aristarchus of Samos, but failed to win acceptance. Indeed, it was not until more than 100 years after the death of Copernicus that his heliocentric theory finally triumphed over the various apparently valid objections to it. Johannes Kepler accepted the central position of the sun and based his three remarkable laws of planetary motion upon it, three laws that completely accounted Kepler's third for the complicated motions of all the planets. law sufficed to establish the relative distances of the planets from the sun in terms of the earth's distance. That distance, however, was exceedingly difficult to establish with any accuracy. The Distance Scale. From his observation of a lunar eclipse Hipparchus had found that the distance to the moon was 59 times the radius of the earth; this amounts to 230,000 mi., exceedingly Three centuries later, close to the modern value of 238,860 mi. Ptolemy confirmed Hipparchus' value using the surveyor's method It

took

picture.

scientific

A

—

I

ASTRONOMY Thus, assuming the stars are exceedingly far

triangulation.

.f

[way, he used the position of the moon among the stars as obsimultaneously from two points far from one another nn 1

The distance between the two points formed base line and the angle between the two observed positions equal moon is to the angle subtended by this base at the the

he earth's surface. Lis if

noon.

The distance

to the

sun

much more

is

difficult to

measure.

Since

he stars are invisible in daytime they cannot be used as reference The lOints; besides, the sun's heat affects measuring instruments.

from a determination of the distance 1671-73 by the same surveyor's method which Ptolemy This provided the yardstick for an ised for the moon's distance. pproximate scale of the solar system. The most modern value 93.000,000 mi. ;>f the mean distance from the earth to the sun is This resulted from an invith a probable error of 11,000 mi. ensive international effort to measure the distance of the minor ilanet. Eros, in 1930-31 when it was relatively close to the earth. Vith the astronomical unit, or the distance of the sun, well deternined. it is possible to compute the dimensions of the various lumbers of the solar system. The Sun. The immense size of the sun can be understood when is nearly twice the it is realized that its radius of 432,700 mi. Its mass, as measured by listance of the moon from the earth. ts gravitational pull on the earth, is 333.420 times the mass of the 27 tons (the number may be written as 2 'arth, or about 2 X 10 irst

reliable value resulted

Mas

ii

in

—

I

mean density is 1.41 times the density over a quarter of the earth's mean denits axis as do all principal members of he solar system. Its temperature on the surface is approximately >,000° C. and the vast amount of energy constantly radiated from it is believed to arise from nuclear reactions deep in its inThe terior where temperatures may be as high as 20.000,000° C. followed

by 27 zeros).

water, or only a

i)f

sity.

The sun

surface it

'in

far

is

Its

little

rotates on

from uniform

in

appearance and dark spots appear

frequently; the diameters of these spots range from 500

Sunspots have great influence on the earth's magand can even disrupt radio service; the number of

50,000 mi.

i.o

letic

field

over an 11-year period. The relative abundance of chemical elements in the sun's outer layers as determined pectroscopically is remarkably similar to that in the earth's outer ':rust, with the important exception that hydrogen and helium ,pots varies greatly

much more abundant in the sun. The Earth-Moon System. The earth and moon revolve around l.heir common centre of gravity, which is 2,900 mi. from the earth's :entre. the mass of the moon being ^ times that of the earth. ire

—

moon is about £ the earth's diameter follows that the moon's mean density s less than that of the earth (3.34 v. 5.52 times that of water). The surface gravity on the moon is about £ the force of gravity Since the

!'2,160 v.

diameter of the 7.921

mi.),

it

A man who can throw a baseball 400 ft. on the moon, to throw it nearly half a mile, furthermore, the "velocity of escape" is much less on the moon. To escape from the earth's gravitational pull, a rocket must travel jpward at a speed of about 24.000 miles per hour whereas on the Inoon it would require a speed of only 5,400 miles per hour. However, if the sun and moon are approximately in line with the direction in which the rocket is fired from the earth, their gravitational pull reduces somewhat the speed required for escape. The 'noon is without atmosphere and without life on its rugged mounthe earth's surface.

'on

nere

would be

able,

6.53

never more than 48° away from the sun. When seen through a telescope, both Mercury and Venus exhibit phases similar to the pha e ol thi moon, with the illuminated portion facing on Venus is almost the earth's twin in size, density and the surface gravity. It has sufficient atmosphere to conceal its surface markings. On the other hand, the surface markings of the reddish planet, \I ir and their seasonal changes can be fairly well observed beIn spite of this, some sort cause it has very little atmosphere. of rudimentary vegetable life may well exist there. Mars has two satellites revolving small rapidly around it. Jupiter is the largest and most massive of the planets with a diameter of 89.000 mi., but its mean density is only 0.25 the The irregular belts that constitute its apparent surface earth's. markings vary in number, breadth and position from year to year. Four of Jupiter's 12 satellites can easily be seen with field glasses sun;

is

it

of high magnification.

Saturn is unique among the observed heavenly bodies, a great globe surrounded by a system of rings. The rings are composed of a vast aggregation of separate particles, each moving in its own In addition, there are nine larger satelorbit around the planet. lites. Saturn's mean density is only 0.7 the density of water. Uranus and Neptune, on the other hand, are similar to Jupiter in their

mean

densities but

much

smaller.

around the sun once every 248 years; its mean distance from the sun is 3,675,000,000 mi. or nearly 40 astronomical units. Minor Planets, Comets, Meteors. The minor planets (aster-

most distant of the

Pluto, the

planets, revolves

—

within the reach of modern telescopes must number thousands. More than 2,000 have been photographed and oids

)

many more

than 1.600 have been sufficiently observed for their orbits to be determined. Ceres, the largest, is 480 mi. in diameter; the majority probably range from 10 to 50 mi. in diameter. One of the most spectacular and rare of all celestial phenomena Occasionally, one can be seen in daytime with is a bright comet. a nebulous head as large as the moon accompanied by a long tail.

But the great majority of comets are mere wisps of light, visible only with a telescope; a dozen or so are picked up every year but relatively few return to visibility near the sun in a thousand years. They are "airy nothings" of immense volume and very small mass. Their orbits are mostly very elongated. Meteors are small pieces of matter seen individually only when, falling into the earth's atmosphere, they appear as shooting stars.

There

is

evidence that some meteors were once associated with

comets.

Underlying Implications. tion sufficed to describe

— Kepler's three laws of planetary mo-

and predict the motions of

all

the planets

with an accuracy adequate to the observations existing in the 17th century. When Isaac .Newton published his law of gravitation it was realized that Kepler's laws were a consequence of Newton's

Various slight discrepancies which later planetary motions were satisfactorily accounted for by the relativity theory of Albert Einstein (1879-1955). There is another notable feature, however, namely that the nine planets revolve around the sun in the same direction that the sun rotates. Moreover, they all rotate on their axes in the same sense

more general appeared

principle.

in the

tainous surface.

and. with few exceptions, the minor planets and planetary satellites also conform to the pattern, although not all of them move This regularity is evidently close to the plane of the ecliptic. connected with the way in which the solar system was formed.

The Planets. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn appear as bright stars to the naked eye and were known to the ;incients. Uranus appears as a very faint star to the unaided eye

2. The Stars. The fact that the stars are other suns at immense distances from us was exceedingly difficult to establish with certainty although Newton and others believed it probable. The first

was discovered in 17S1 Neptune, which can be seen with field was found in 1846; finally, Pluto is so faint that it was liiscovered only on long exposure photographs with a powerful

actual evidence that stars are not at an infinite distance came in 1718 when Edmund Halley discovered that a few of the brightest

—

'

ind

:

''lasses,

Mercury, the smallest of the planets, is much of the time so near sun that it is not noticed; it is never more than 28° away from the sun.

:he !

Venus

J

s

is

by

far the brightest planet of

easily visible in the

stars

had

all,

so bright that

it

daytime when far enough away from the

definitely

moved from

their positions given in Ptolemy's

inference that the stars are subject to the law of gravitation was suggested by the discovery of William Herschel components of a double star were moving around one two that the another. Finally, in 1S38, the first successful measurement of a catalogue.

telescope in 1930. 1

—

The

stellar distance

others.

was made by Friedrich Bessel (1784—1846) and

ASTRONOMY

654 Distances.

— Measurement of

stellar distances

by the method of

triangulation from different sides of the earth's orbit had been

many

times before Bessel used it. At six-month intervals the position of a comparatively close star is measured relative to a much more distant star which is apparently close to it on the celestial sphere. As seen from opposite sides of the earth's orbit,

attempted

the nearby star shifts slightly with respect to the distant star. Stellar distances turned out to

the light-year, was devised; Thus, one light-year year.

be so enormous that a new

i.e.,

unit,

the distance light travels in one

X

is equal to 6.33 10 4 astronomical 10 12 (5,880,000,000,000) mi. Accordingly, the distance to Proxima Centauri, the nearest star, is 4.3 light-years. The triangulation method has been used in finding the distances

units, or 5.88

X

of about 6,000 stars but

not suitable for distances greater than 100 light-years. Other methods have been developed to measure greater distances. (See Photometry, Celestial.) Stellar Characteristics. Stars are the primary bodies in which the light of the universe is generated. Spectroscopic studies have shown that stars generally have roughly the same chemical composition, with hydrogen predominating. The studies have also shown that the surface temperatures vary from approximately 1,500° C. for the very red stars to perhaps 50,000° C. for the bluest of them. Stars rotate on their axes, as does the sun, and very occasionally when the rate of rotation is very fast a star becomes unstable and splits into two parts. is

—

masses are well known from studies of double stars; few stars are known to have less than 0.1 of the mass of the sun and few have more than 20 times the solar mass. It Stellar

relatively

if the mass exceeds a certain value the star tends to become unstable; on the other hand, if the mass is less than a certain value the body is not self-luminous. The total amount of energy radiated by a star is a function of the star's mass, the most massive stars radiating the most energy. The stars of faintest intrinsic brightness radiate less than t b a 1 6

appears that

as

much

visible light as the sun,

more than 20,000 times as much. the stars are more than 10 times

many

a great

known

^

are less than

Stars' densities also

as dwarfs

whereas the brighest pour forth Only a small percentage of all as luminous as the sun whereas

as luminous.

and those with lowest densities are

called giants

In certain dwarfs mean densities 50,000 times that of water; at the other extreme, they Si -^jy

may may

reach

be as

that of air in certain supergiants.

As seen from the sun, stars move in all directions and with velocities ranging up to more than 50 mi. per second. The sun itself moves among its neighbours with a speed of 12 mi. per second. The more massive stars with high surface temperatures

move

Stars with low surface

relatively slowly.

whether giants or dwarfs, move

—

at

much

temperatures,

greater speeds.

Variable Stars. Not all The medieval Arabs must have observed the variability of the light of the star, Algol, since the name means "blinking demon." stars shine with constant steady light.

an example of an eclipsing variable star in which one of a double star periodically obscures the light from the other component. Most variable stars, however, are in an unstable state, periodically expanding and contracting. The periods range from 80 minutes to more than a year. Of great importance to astronomers are the Cepheid variable stars; a strong Algol

is

component

correlation exists between their luminosities pulsation.

The Cepheids

and

their periods of

are an important tool in measuring great

distances since they are very massive and of high luminosity.

The most unstable of known as novae. Very pands so rapidly that

all

the variables are the explosive stars

occasionally, an originally faint star ex-

outer layers are completely driven off into space. Simultaneously its brightness increases perhaps 10,000 times, after which it gradually returns to its original brightness its

in the course of a year or so. As a result of the explosion, however, nebulous wisps occasionally are visible expanding rapidly away from the star. Even more rare in occurrence are the supernovae. Three of these have been observed since the year 1000 a.d. Apparently the entire star explodes, leaving only a gaseous nebula behind. These nebulae are the source of very strong radio emis-

Crab nebula, which

is all

that remains

of

the supernova of 1054 a.d. 3.

The Milky Way System.—The

unearthly beauty of the Milky Way, spread irregularly across the sky on a clear moonless night, is enhanced by the realization that it is a galaxy of stars seen edge-on from a point within its bounds. The centre of the Milky Way system is hidden from our sight by clouds of obscuring matter in the constellation of Sagittarius. However, it can be perceived in infrared light to which the eye is not sensitive; it can also be located by the use of radio waves. Before either of these methods were used, however, its position had been inferred from the distribution in the sky of the compact swarms of stars known as globular clusters. The sun is in the outskirts of the system, approximately 30,000 light-years from the centre, while the overall equatorial diameter of the galaxy is perhaps 80,000 light-years. The total mass of the galaxy is estimated to be of the order of 10 11 times the solar mass. The galaxy mass, of which less than 10% is interstellar matter, is heavily concentrated toward the centre of the system. One of the most notable features of oui galaxy is its flatness; an overwhelming majority of the stars are fairly close to the equatorial plane of the galaxy as is most of the diffuse matter between the stars. However, in the case of certain

types of stars, and of globular clusters, the distribution is more nearly spherical with respect to the galactic centre. Rotation. The entire galaxy rotates about its centre in a manner somewhat analogous to that of the solar system; thus, the

—

outer parts lag behind the inner parts, forming great spiral arms as "seen" by radio waves. The period of rotation for stars in the vicinity of the sun is 230,000,000 years, with a probable erroi

The stars that are concentrated most strongly toward the central plane, such as the very massive blue stars, move nearly circular orbits around the galactic centre. Those that are relatively little concentrated toward the Milky Way plane, such as the RR Lyrae variables, move in a great variety of orbits, many of them very elongated. The sun, like the great majority of stars in our neighbourhood, is in an intermediate category, moving of 16,000,000 years. in

in a slightly eccentric, i.e., flattened,

Stellar Populations.

vary over a wide range; the densest are

or even supergiants.

low as

sion as in the so-called

—The

orbit.

variety in the distribution and mo-

tions of different kinds of stars

connected with their time and manner of origin. The very massive blue stars, found predominantly in the spiral arms together with clouds of interstellar matter, are apparently of recent origin, being perhaps no more than 10,000,000 years old; these are exceptional, however. The sun, a yellow star of intermediate mass, is thought to be about 4,500,000,000 years old. Stars of certain other types, such as the RR Lyrae variables, are probably older still. In general, the stellar population of the globular clusters and in the region near the galactic centre consists of older stars than the population in the outlying portions, such as the neighbourhood of the sun. Although the space between the stars is a Interstellar Matter. far higher vacuum than anything ever achieved in laboratories There are vast aggregations of fine it is not completely empty. dust particles mixed with neutral and ionized gases, particularly hydrogen. The dust reddens and obscures the light of distant stars. The gases are frequently made luminous by the young blue stars associated with the clouds as in the Pleiades. The extremely low densities in the clouds enable astrophysicists to study the radiation of highly ionized gases in conditions never encountered on earth, a circumstance that has furthered the understanding of various atomic phenomena. The vast amounts of neutrai hydrogen in the interstellar clouds emit a definite radio wave length and can be detected by radio receiving equipment. is

—

4.

The Universe

of

Galaxies

That the Milky

Way

is

a gal-

axy of stars was not established until the invention of the telescope although several astronomers had previously speculated that it was probably so. In 1924, about three centuries after the invention of the telescope, photographs taken with the newly installed 100-in. telescope at Mt. Wilson established that the Andromeda nebula is actually another galaxy of stars. This brought to an end a lively debate of the preceding decade as to whether all the soThe called nebulae were members of the Milky Way system. spectroscope had revealed that certain nebulae close to the plane

)

ASTRONOMY, RADIO— ASTROPALIA Milky

of the

of a great

Way

many

are luminous clouds of gas and that the spectra others are rather similar to stellar spectra. The

Andromeda nebula

second category; it is referred to an extragalactic nebula. variable stars were soon recognized among the brightest stars of the Andromeda nebula falls in this

as an external galaxy or as I

The Andromeda Nebula.

— Cepheid

and. since their intrinsic luminosities are known fairly well, it is possible to compute the distance of the galaxy as roughly 1,500,000 light-years. is

It is

the largest of the nearer external galaxies and

naked eye as a small luminous patch in the it shows beautiful spiral strucaround a large, bright central mass. There are also great of dark obscuring matter analogous to the dark clouds in our

faintly visible to the

sky. ture rifts

On

well exposed photographs

own galaxy.

Spectroscopic observations show that

Andromeda

is

moving like a wheel and the outer portions lagging behind. The overall dimensions are comparable to those of the Milky Way system. (See Andromeda.) rotating with the central portions

Other

Galaxies.

— Perhaps

reach of the 200-in.

Palomar

1,000,000,000 galaxies are within Several thousand are close

telescope.

enough to show details of their structure; they vary widely in appearance. For instance, there are chaotic mottled-looking systems named irregular galaxies, such as the famous Clouds of Magellan in the southern sky; these irregular galaxies make up 2%-3% of There are also perfectly smooth symmetrical the total number. systems called elliptical galaxies, which constitute about 20% of the total number; these galaxies show no trace of interstellar dust The great majority of or gas and have no young blue stars. galaxies, however, show some evidence of spiral structure. It is believed that the irregular galaxies are the youngest, and the elliptical

galaxies the oldest;

it is

possible to divide the spiral types

into age groups.

Enormous as are the distances between galaxies, still, the imendous numbers of them in the universe make it inevitable

tre-

,

that

Galaxies in close proximity had been photographed but the first evidence of galaxies in collision was obtained in 1951. A very strong source of radio waves had presented a puzzle for several years until it was pinpointed with a radio interferometer upon an area of less than one square minute of arc; when this area was photographed with the 200-in. telescope two overlapping and deformed galaxies were discovered. Since that time a few other such cases of collision have been

collisions should occur occasionally.

.found.

The Expanding Universe. ,it

—With the

200-in.

Palomar telescope

possible to photograph galaxies at a distance of approxi-

is

mately 1,000,000,000 light-years. In other words, the light that reaches the photographic plate actually left the galaxy 1.000,000,000 years earlier. The most remarkable single feature of the universe of galaxies is its expansion. Individual galaxies may show wide diversity in their motions; but statistically, the farther the galaxy is situated from the Milky Way system, the more rapidly jit is receding. Recession speeds of more than 35,000 mi. per second have been observed. •

5.

Astronomical Instruments.

mised.

Two

— For the great variety of

as-

many

types of instruments have been deprincipal types of optical receiving instruments are

tronomical investigations

those which collect light through large lenses, refracting telescopes, and those using concave mirrors,

used;

.reflecting telescopes.

known known

as as

Similarly, there are two principal types of

radio receivers; those depending on an array of half-wave dipoles,

,and those which use a small antenna at the focus of a parabolic reflector, known as a radio "dish." Since radio waves are 1,000,000 times as long as optical waves, it is necessary that radio receivers be very much larger than telescopes to obtain satisfactory resolution. Thus, the largest optical reflector has a mirror 200 in. across and the diameter of the lens of the largest refractor is only 40 in., whereas the largest radio dish is 250 ft. in diameter. Many ;kinds of auxiliary equipment are also used, such as interferome'ters, spectrographs, polariscopes and photometers. Telescopes for Amateurs. The amateur, like the professional, should choose his telescope according to the uses to which he will put it. A small refractor with a 2-in. objective lens is undoubtedly more easily handled by a beginner than is a reflector. It should ,

;

—

655

be mounted on a simple tripod. However, most amateurs soon outgrow such a telescope and desire more light-gathering power without too much additional weight. For these, a 6-in. reflector makes a very satisfactory working instrument if it is provided with an equatorial mounting and a driving clock, the entire apparatus weighing less than 50 pounds. The equatorial mounting enables the observer to point to an object whose position on the sky is known although it is not visible to the naked eye; the driving mechanism compensates for the earth's rotation and keeps the object in the field of view, even permitting photography if desired. Such a telescope may be constructed in a home shop, or may

be purchased from any one of many reputable manufacturers at a reasonable price. Most larger instruments are not easily portable.

See Constellation;

Moon; Planets; Asteroids; Celestial

Mechanics; Astrophysics; Star Cluster; Observatory (Astronomical); Photography, Celestial; Spectroscopy, Astronomical; Cosmology. See also references under "Astronomy" in the Index.

—

Bibliography. W. Kruse and W. Dicckvoss, The Stars (1957) Clyde B. Clason, Exploring the Distant Stars (1958); Oliver J. Lee, Measuring Our Universe (1950) John Pfeiffer, The Changing Universe (1956) Robert H. Baker, Astronomy, 7th ed. (1959) H. J. Bernhard, Dorothy A. Bennett and H. S. Rice, New Handbook of the Heavens (1957); G. de Vaucouleurs, Discovery 0) the Universe (1957); H. P. Wilkins and P. A. Moore, How to Make and Use a Telescope (1956). (A. N. V.) ;

;

;

;

ASTRONOMY, RADIO: see Radio ASTRONOMY, SOCIETIES OF.

Astronomy.

This article lists the major astronomical societies, professional and amateur, that have been founded throughout the world together with their publications.

The Royal Astronomical society was founded in 1820 as the Astronomical Society of London and was incorporated March 7, 1831. Its headquarters are at Burlington house, London, and Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (1882 et seq.) and Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1827 et seq.) are published.

The

International Astronomical union, organized at Brussels in

Rome (1922), Cambridge, Eng. (1925), Leiden, Neth. (1928), Cambridge, Mass. (1932), Paris (1935), Zurich Stockholm (1938), (1948), Rome (1952), Dublin (1955) and Moscow (1958). Transactions of the International Astronomical Union have been published following each meeting. 1919, has held meetings in

The American Astronomical society was originally founded in 1899 as the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America, and has published the Astronomical Journal since 1944. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific was founded in 1889 and publishes Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1889 et seq.) and Leaflet (1925 et seq.). The American Association of Variable Star Observers, composed mostly of amateur astronomers having their own equipment, was organized in 1911. It publishes the

Quarterly Report of Variable Star Observation

and the Bulletin. Other astronomical

societies

and

their

British

publications:

Astronomical association, Journal of the British Astronomical Association (1890 et seq.), Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association (1893 et seq.) and Observer's Handbook (1908-21); Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Toronto, Ont. (1890), Transactions (1890), Proceedings (1902) and Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (1906 et seq.); Societe Astronomique de France, Paris (1887), Astronomie (1911 et seq.); Kbnigliches Astronomisches Rechininstitut, Berlin (1897); Astronomische Gesellschaft. Hamburg (formerly in Leipzig; 1863), Pnblikationen der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, Leipzig (1S651912) and Yierteljahrsschrijt der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, Leipzig (1866 et seq.); Societa Astronomica Italiana. Milan (1920), Memorie delta Societa astronomica italiana, Rome (1920 et seq. Societe Beige d'Astronomie. de Meteorologie et de Physique du Globe (1895)", Ciel et Terre (1880 et seq.); Societe d'Astronomie. Antwerp (1905). Gazette astronomique 190S et seq.); Sociedad Astronomica de Mexico (1902), Boletin de la Sociedad astronomica de Mexico (1902 et seq.). (F. K. E.) ASTROPALIA: see Astypalaia. ;

1

ASTROPHYSICS

656

ASTROPHYSICS

is a science concerned with the physical properties of the celestial bodies. It is a part of physics because it provides new information on (i) the behaviour of matter and

radiation under

conditions

of

temperature, pressure, magnetic

force and gravitation that cannot be realized in a laboratory; (2) laws of nature discovered in the laboratories when such laws operate over very long intervals of time (up to several billion years)

and over enormous distances (up to about 30,000,000,000,000,000.000 mi.); (3) the existence of new laws of nature which might remain forever undetected under terrestrial conditions. Astrophysics is also a part of classical astronomy because it derives much valuable information from measurements of the motions of stars, nebulae, planets, satellites, etc., all of which constitute the subject matter of "positional astronomy." It depends upon chemistry for the study of the behaviour of various types of molecules in the atmospheres of the planets and the cooler stars, the formation of simple molecules and dust (or smoke) particles in interstellar space, the internal constitution of the planets and the chemical composition of meteorites. Astrophysics is related to geology and geophysics, not only in the study of the surface features of the moon with its meteoric craters, extinct volcanoes and mountain chains, but with the interpretation of the surface markings of the planet Mars and the "red spot" of Jupiter. There is also a connection with biophysics, especially with regard to the origin and evolution of living organisms on the earth and (probably) on other planets in our solar system and on planets belonging to the families of other stars. Mathematics is an important tool in nearly all branches of astrophysics; many modern mathematical theories have found applications to the study of stellar atmospheres and interiors and of the evolution of stars and nebulae, and certain astrophysical problems have stimulated new research in analytical mathematics. Several complicated problems of stellar pulsations and stellar evolution would have remained intractable were it not for the development of fast electronic computers of different types which are capable of performing in a few hours calculations that would require many thousands of hours of work with ordinary desk calculators.

Engineering knowledge and

skill

are of the utmost importance

in the construction of astrophysical instruments.

The

parabolic

mirror of a large reflecting telescope must be true to shape at every point of its surface to better than one-millionth of an inch, and

must be so supported in its cell that it is not perceptibly disby the elasticity of the glass in any of its orientations; thermal distortion must be eliminated through the use of low expansion glass, such as Pyrex, and by means of special devices that prevent rapid temperature changes in the observatory dome. The mounting of the telescope must be balanced in all positions and must be provided with a guiding mechanism that will automatically follow the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere around the observer. Electronics plays an important role in the construction it

torted

of photoelectric photometers that are capable of recording the light of a star too faint to be registered on a photographic emul-

and other space

vehicles.

Astrophysical instruments had to be

within the permissible limits of weight and cubic footage inside a space vehicle, and to withstand shock during the fast acceleration of the rockets in the launching process. Teleme-

designed to

fit

tering devices

had

The word "astrophysics"

is

of relatively recent origin.

)

started observing the spectra of the stars with a simple spectro-

scope.

It

came

into even greater

troduced photography into the started measuring

The

largest steerable para-

heavy and must be so

built that they not sag in any orientation. Their electronic receivers must be of the highest sensitivity and must be accurately tunable to any predetermined frequency. Special types of radio telescopes, such as the "Mills Cross" in Australia, consist of separate arrays of small antennas with each beam of the cross about one mile in will

length. Entirely new engineering problems arose in connection with the exploration of outer space from artificial earth satellites

in the third quarter

field of stellar

spectroscopy and

from the Doppler displacements of their spectral absorption lines. Since about 1950 there has been a trend to replace the photographic emulsion by a photoelectric surface and to "scan" the spectra of the celestial bodies in order to take advantage of the enormous the

radial

velocities

of

the stars

sensitivity of the photoelectric cell to small differences in the in-

tensity of the radiation.

During the 100-year period of modern astrophysics chronologically five principal stages of development: 1.

From about

sodium

1859,

when G. Kirchhoff

we

detect

identified the element

as the source of a close pair of yellow absorption lines

spectrum, until about 1888, the main emphasis in astrophysics was to observe, record and classify the great variety of stellar and nebular spectra (including those of the sun and in the solar

planets). 2.

From

1888,

when Vogel succeeded

in obtaining high-resolu-

tion photographs of stellar spectra, until about 1915, most astrophysicists were primarily interested in measuring radial velocities

of stars, in studying the spatial arrangements of the stars in our

galaxy and in discussing the kinematical properties of the system in the vicinity of the sun.

stellar

1915, when W. S. Adams and A. Kohlschiitter discovered the correlation between the luminosities of the stars 3.

From about

and the

bolic antennas are exceedingly

prominence

when William Huggins in England and Angelo Secchi in Italy started classifying the spectra of the stars, and toward the end of the century when H. C. Vogel in Germany inof the 19th century

stellar spectra, until 1930, there

of different types of radio telescopes.

Although

had been used occasionally by several astronomers since the middle of the 19th century, it became a standard expression through the efforts of George Ellery Hale, in the United States, who founded, at Williams Bay, Wis., the Yerkes observatory of The University of Chicago in 1892 and, near Pasadena, Calif., the Mt. Wilson observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1904 as astrophysical research centres, and who started the Astrophysical Journal in 1895 as the world's most distinguished "international review of spectroscopy and astronomical physics." Although the word did not exist, the study of astrophysics began long before the middle of the 19th century. Much of the work of Galileo (his drawings of sunspots, of the ring of Saturn and of the map of the moon was pure astrophysics, and so was Sir Isaac Xewton's work on optics. An important new stimulus for the study of astrophysics came in 1814 when Joseph von Fraunhofer it

+ 24)

emulsion gives at best a precision of about 0.04 magnitude). Various modifications of commercial television techniques are used for the construction of electronic "image convertors" which record on a screen (or a photographic emulsion) a photoelectric image of an entire field of stars and nebulae. New engineering problems constantly arise in the construction

the

devices.

sion with the largest existing telescope (stellar

magnitude about and of measuring changes in brightness of a variable star amounting to only 0.00 1 stellar magnitude (the human eye can detect changes of the order of 0.1 magnitude; the photographic

back to the earth

to be designed to radio

readings of the instruments, and a source of power in the form of had to be constructed to operate the telemetering

solar batteries

intensities of certain pressure-sensitive absorption lines in

was a return to a problem previously studied by N. Lockyer and others; namely, the determination

of the abundances of the chemical elements in different celestial

This stage culminated in the now-famous "ionization" Meghnad Saha, E. A. Milne, H. N. Russell and many others, which led to the establishment by Russell of a reliable table of atomic abundances in the sun that was then often, but incorrectly, labeled as the "cosmic abundance scale of the elements." 4. Between about 1930 and 1950 astrophysicists finally succeeded by various methods (some purely observational and others objects.

theory of

theoretical in character) in discovering large differences in the

chemical compositions of many stars and nebulae. Russell's solar abundances, though amply confirmed and improved upon by later workers, are approximately duplicated in many stars of the "main sequence." But there are many other stars which are rich in helium and poor in hydrogen, and there are others in which some other chemical elements (for example, lithium or technetium or carbon) are much more abundant than in the sun, while other ele-

—

:

ASTROPHYSICS merits are less abundant.

tin'

Since [950 the most spectacular development has been the unraveling of the principal processes of stellar evolution and the

objei

5.

of "evolutionary tracks" of stars

lition

diagram (in which the energy production,

the Hertzsprung-

in

luminosity of each star, its surface temThe phenomenal success of this work (which is based upon earlier work by A. S. Eddington, S. Chandrasekhar, R J. Trumpler, G. P. Kuiper and man) othi was primarily associated with the names of M. Schwarzschild. B. Stromgren, F. Hoyle, A. Sandage and others. It rests upon the recognition that certain groups of stars, the galactic and globular star clusters, have different H-R diagrams and may be arranged into a sequence of different ages: the youngest clusters, such as the double cluster in Perseus, may be only a few million years old; the oldest, such as Messier 67 and all the globular clusters, We reason that a young star, are five or six billion years old. such as Vega in the constellation Lyra, may after several hundred The imillion years resemble Deneb in the constellation Cygnus. former is a main sequence star with a central temperature not much above the 20,000.000° central temperature of the sun; the latter is a supergiant with a central temperature of perhaps sevor even one billion degrees, at which eral hundred million degrees many nuclear processes are active in producing the heavy elements Russell

or

total

it-

intrinsic

is

plotted against

perature, or colour equivalent).

1

—

of the periodic table.

We

believe that the supergiant will probably

focal plani

brightne

wave slit

ol

lengi

tin-

ol

photoi

ib''

1

657 tele

cope

i"

obtain a direct picture ol the

i'

1

ource,

thi

a

ter to

radiometei to record

'In-

....

I

measui heat tin ,,

all

the

di pei e the radiation into its conAlthough the light-gathering power of the

of a spectrogi iph which

stituent

wave length

telescope

is

usually

its

most important property, the

scale of the

the focal plane- (01 for visual observations the magnificaalso may be important, for example, the scale of the 40-in. tion refractor of the Vcrkes observatory is 10 sec. of arc per millimetre.

image

in

1

small nebula, such as the Ring nebula in Lyra, may th its integrated light (as would be the case with a telescope of short focal length) but with respect to its structural details. There are, however, some special fields of ob-

A

investigated not only in

little or no In solar research, because of the brilliance of sunlight, the light-gathering often more important than the scale of the image is power. Hence, many solar tower telescopes have small apertures

servational astrophysics in which the telescope plays role.

(12 in. at Mt. Wilson) but very great focal lengths (150 ft. at Mt. Wilson). The very long-wave radio radiation of astronomical sources often requires for its study antennas which so little resemble an ordinary telescope that it requires an unusual imagination to think of them as radio telescopes. Finally, for the study of cosmic rays and of the chemical composition of meteorites, and for the measurement of X-ray radiation from the sun,

tary

no telescopes of any kind are required. Theoretical astrophysics is usually conducted in university departments which have no large telescopes and auxiliary instruments. But the work of the observational and the theoretical

plosive processes of the

astrophysicist often overlaps.

ultimately

become

a "subluminous" blue star with an atmosphere

containing mostly helium and heavier gases and

little

hydrogen.

may even become

a "white dwarf" (a celestial body of planedimensions and of immense density) after one or more exnova or supernova outburst type. The important thing about this stage of astrophysical thought is that !it is not based upon observing the very slow evolutionary change :in any individual star but upon comparing several different stars .which are believed to be of different ages but nearly identical (The present theories of stellar evolution predict only [masses. la very' small loss of mass, less than 1%, as a result of the conversion of mass into radiation by nuclear fusion.) If we are permitted to speculate upon what the next stage of astrophysics will be. it is reasonable to expect: (1) that with the development of space science there will be at first a reversion

'it

:

—

the character of the first stage the more or less chaotic accumulation of many new and unexpected observational results and discoveries such as have already been made by means of high'flying rockets; these have given totally unexpected data on the extreme ultraviolet spectrum of the sun and of certain new kinds at nebulae (for example, the one surrounding the star Spica in the constellation Virgo) and on the existence of luminous hydrogen atoms in interplanetary space; and (2) that methods will be developed to record systematic evolutionary changes in a few in'to

dividual stars.

If a star like

Vega

or, in this context, a star like

an observational and

realistic are the

claims of those observers

— — then

as the volume increases the period of the vibration become longer. The precision with which the period can be measured is so great that even a minute change in radius .should

may occur after 50 or 100 years jneasurable increase in the period. bay one that

The

1

field of

astrophysics

useful to subdivide 'ale

criteria.

it

is

—should produce a It

is,

therefore,

some suitamethod basis we dis-

into several groups, according to criterion

is

that of the

:mployed in carrying out the research. On this between observational and theoretical astrophysics. The jormer is conducted at 100 or more observatories and other research centres distributed all over the earth. In most of them ,jse is made of the light-gathering power of a telescope, such as a

tinguish

jarabolic reflector, in order to concentrate as

.

from

much

radiation as

a faint astronomical source in a small spot in the This radiation is then analyzed with various types of luxiliary instruments a photographic plate placed directly in

possible

ocal plane.

—

all

On the other hand, the discovery by A. Hiltner and J. S. Hall of the interstellar polarization of the light of very distant stars was totally unexpected and came as the result of a search for eclipsed star) which

known

(produced in the atmosphere of a partially had been predicted by Chandrasekhar and is

to exist.

probably better to subdivide the field of astrophysics into several branches according to the nature of the problem under study rather than the method of investigation. On this basis astrophysics can be subdivided into the following fields Solar physics, including the structure of the sun's atmosphere and interior; solar activity; nuclear processes inside the sun and on its surface; solar magnetism solar-terrestrial relationships; and It

is

;

highly diversified.

The conventional

believe that

Einstein's theory of relativity.

also

aours

who

Among the most spectacular dispredicted by a theoretician. coveries of this type was W. S. Adams' measurement of the gravitational red shift of the lines of the white-dwarf companion of Sirius, a phenomenon which had previously been predicted by

it is much too small to be detected after interhundreds or even thousands of years. But if such a star Vibrates and /3 Canis Majoris does vibrate, with a period of six

radius directly:

vals of

conventional division

important discoveries were "unexpected." It is true that some discoveries were not predicted by theory, and the observer must at all times be prepared to find something entirely new on his records. But it is equally true that some of the greatest advances were the result of searching for effects that had previously been

stellar polarization

|;n

fact, the

a theoretical

systematic, theoretical discussion of the known laws of nature. Yet, it is doubtful that by this process even the existence of stars Equally unin the universe could or would have been predicted.

Canis Majoris, should ultimately become a supergiant it must Increase in radius and volume. We cannot measure the change ,3

In

branch is quite unsatisfactory. It is true that some theoreticians have claimed that the properties of the universe could have been predicted from a into

cosmic rays from the sun. Physics of the solar system, including the physical properties of planets, satellites, comets, zodiacal light and interplanetary gas; cosmogony. Physics of the

stars, including stellar atmospheres and inenergy generation by nuclear processes; stellar origin and evolution; distribution of stars in the Milky Way and their kinematical properties; star clusters and population differences; stellar magnetism and rotation; abundances of the elements. Physics of the interstellar medium, including properties of gas and dust in the Milky Way and their chemical composition; polarization of starlight produced by interstellar dust; reddening teriors,

ASTURA—ASTURIAS

658

of starlight; distribution in the spiral arms of the Milky Way; interaction between stars and interstellar medium; distribution of

servations (gravitational bending of light rays passing close to the sun, red shift of spectral lines, advance of the perihelion of

cold hydrogen from radio observations of the

Mercury). Important experiments on the gravitational measurement of time may be carried out by means of two atomic clocks, one located in an artificial earth satellite, the other on the surface of the

21-cm. emission gaseous nebulae. stars, Peculiar including novae and supernovae; radio emission and visible light produced by synchrotron radiation from the Crab nebula and other old supernovae; high-energy cosmic rays from old supernovae; pulsating variable stars; binaries and multiple stars, including the evolution of close pairs which lose mass to line;

interstellar space.

Galaxies, including structure and evolution of the Milky Way and other galaxies; the distance scale of the universe and its age; the problem of the expansion of the universe and the "cosmological constant"; interaction between close pairs of galaxies and processes in colliding galaxies; the mysterious "central nucleus" of the Milky Way and the outflow of cold hydrogen from the central bulge; intergalactic matter; origin of spiral arms in galaxies. is

closely connected with physics

it

is

of

interest to discuss by means of several examples the three aspects mentioned in the first paragraph of this article. The behaviour of matter and radiation under physical condi-

tions that cannot be realized in a laboratory:

The

internal temperature of the sun

is

The constancy

of the velocity of light in a

vacuum from

wave

lengths has been established from observations of distant spectroscopic and eclipsing binaries. 3.

The

for all

effect of aberration of light

by means of observations of distant

has also been established

stars

and

galaxies.

New

laws of nature: 1. The most spectacular effect of this sort, presumably involving a new law of nature, concerns the observed recession of the galaxies and has led to the theory of the expanding universe. The red shifts of the spectral lines of distant galaxies have been found Lilley and E. F. McClain to be proportional to the wave length over an interval of 500,000 to 1 in the electromagnetic spectrum (between wave lengths of about 4,000 A and 21 cm.). This is the law of the Doppler effect.

is

conditions hydrogen

—

Hence its mean density is about 1,000,000 times greater than the mean density of the sun, which is 40% greater than the density of water. At such enormous densities that of the earth.

gases are said to be "degenerated," and obey an equation of state which differs from that of a "perfect gas."

The elements

and boron are of very low the atmosphere of the sun. Pre-

lithium, beryllium

abundance on the earth and in sumably they have mostly disappeared because of the relatively low temperatures (of the order of a few hundred thousand degrees) that are required to cause their nuclear transformations. But in the atmospheres of some stars the lithium lines are very strong. It is probable that surface phenomena on the stars, and even on the sun (perhaps those associated with the magnetic fields of sunspots), result in the production of new lithium atoms to replace those that disappear through the action of thermo-

nuclear reactions. 4. The density of the interstellar gas is on the average about one hydrogen atom per cubic centimetre (or about io -24 g./cm. 3 ).

The temperature of the gas in some regions may be about 10,000° K. The state of ionization and excitation of such a gas differs from that encountered thermodynamic equilibrium.

greatly

under

conditions

resembling

The operation of known laws of nature at great distances and over long intervals of time: 1. The properties of the force of gravitation can best be examined by means of astronomical observations. Newton proved that this force keeps the moon in its orbit around the earth, and the planets in their orbits around the sun. The same law acts

between the component

stars of binary systems, and determines the galactic orbits of stars around the galactic nucleus. It almost certainly acts between galaxies, and causes remarkable tidal dis-

turbances (or "bridges") between neighbouring galaxies. tions of solar eclipses over several thousand years

Observa-

show that the

not absorbed by intervening bodies, and that the force is independent of the composition or the physical state of the attracting bodies. Nothing is as yet known regarding the speed of the propagation of the gravitational force but, presumably, astronomical observations alone could be used to study this question. Einstein's modification of the Newtonian concept of gravitation has been verified by means of astronomical obforce of gravitation

is

2.

Astronomical observations

new law involving

about 20,000,000° and

roughly 150 g. per cubic centimetre. Under these is fused into helium at a rate which is given by the energy production of the entire sun, 4 X io 33 ergs per second. Very massive stars about 50 times the mass of the sun—produce about 1,000,000 times as much energy per second as does the sun. 2. A white dwarf (like the companion of Sirius) has a mass resembling that of the sun, but a radius more nearly resembling the density

3.

2.

moving sources and

by A. E.

Since astrophysics

1.

earth.

the

may

phenomenon

lead to the discovery of a of "continuous creation" of

I

matter as suggested by F. Hoyle and others. It may even be possible to establish how the local environment (spiral arms of galaxies, magnetic field, etc.) influences this process. 3. Astronomy, more than physics, is concerned with the ultimate fate of the radiation emitted into space by billions of stars in billions of galaxies: Does it disappear forever and process of the universe irreversible?

is

the aging

See also Astronomy; Galaxy; Star; Planets. Bibliography. G. O. Jones, J. Rotblat and G. J. Whitrow, Atoms and the Universe (1956); F. Hoyle, Frontiers of Astronomy (1955); L. Goldberg and L. H. Aller, Atoms, Stars, and Nebulae (1943) 0.

—

;

Struve, Stellar Evolution (1950)

L. H. Aller, Astrophysics: Nuclear Transformations, Stellar Interiors, and Nebulae (1954). (O. St.) a tiny peninsula on the Tyrrhenian coast approxi;

ASTURA,

mately 37 mi. S.E. of Rome, was once an island; a river of the same name enters the sea a few hundred yards east of the peninsula. Astura was a station on the Via Severiana, the coast road from Anzio to Terracina, and the present castle is built on the foundations of a Roman villa, with fish tanks and harbour still preserved. The Frangipani built the medieval castle, where Conradin, grandson of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, sought refuge after his defeat at Tagliacozzo in 1268. Giovanni Frangipani, owner of the castle, betrayed Conradin and handed him over In Roman times to Charles of Anjou, to be beheaded in Naples. there were several villas along the coast between Astura and Antium (Anzio). According to Suetonius, both Augustus and Tiberius contracted malaria there, of which they died. (G. Kh.)

ASTURIAS,

a region of Spain consisting of the northern half

of the modern province of Oviedo, was, from 718 to 910, the only independent Christian kingdom in the Iberian peninsula. The kingdom was formed by a number of Visigothic nobles and official; who, after the Muslim invasion of Spain, retired to this area as high mountain ranges to the east, south and west made it £ small and easily defended enclave. They elected Pelayo, a Visigothic prince, as king and set up a capital at Cangas de Onis. Tht

new kingdom managed

to survive repeated attacks by the armies Cordoba and extended its frontiers to include Galicia and Cantabria before the end of the 8th century. Thf capital was transferred first to Pravia (c. 780) and thence, in th< reign of Alfonso II (791-842), to a strategically sited new cit; During the reign constructed for the purpose at Oviedo.

of the amirate of

Alfonso III (866-910) the frontiers of Asturias were pushed

soutl

Duero from the Atlantic to Osma. By thi: time, the kings of Asturias, with the aid of Mozarab (Christian immigrants from the amirate, commanded sufficient manpowe to garrison and repopulate the areas south of the Asturian moun The kings made alliances with dissident Muslim leader tains. and sometimes established a modus vivendi with the amirs to the line of the

Cordoba, but always retained their independence.

An

importan

'

ASTYAGES— ASUNCION factor

in in

jfcrly

building up a sense of national identity was the discovery, the 9th century, of the supposed tomb of St. James at

Padron.

Galicia.

in

The

shrine

subsequently

established

at

Santiago de Compostela was soon to become the spiritual centre By the 10th century the kingdom was too large to

built

tory (thi

on osl

Brazilian

temperatun

910.

The

architectural tradition.

of the

Similarly the secular ad-

Asturian kings continued, although in at-

tenuated form, the system of the Yisigothic rulers, and the Forum Some Frankish inOldicitm remained the basis of Asturian law. fluence

his

evident in the administration and in architecture, and contacts with Charlemagne and

is

are traces of diplomatic

there

successors, but, generally, the Asturian

isolation

from the

rest of Christian

kingdom

eldest son,

Henry,

lived in total

Europe.

Asturias was created a principality by John

I

of Castile for his

This principality survived during the modern times borne by the sovereign's eldest son. See also in 13S8.

existence of the Spanish monarchy- as a title (in

purely honorific

Spain

:

1

History.

See L. Barrau-Dihigo. "Recherches sur l'histoire politique du royaume asturien (71S-910)," Revue hispanique, vol. Hi (1921); R. Menendez Pidal (ed.). Historia de Espaha, vol. vi (1956). (P. E. R.)

ASTYAGES '550 B.C.),

1

Babylonian Ishtumegu)

the last king of

the

(reigned

Median empire.

c.

584-c.

According to

'Herodotus, he was the son of Cyaxares and reigned 35 years; his

was Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes of Lydia; and Cyrus of Persia was his grandson through his daughter Mandane. The relationship with Cyrus is probably legendary, but the Harpaigus who figures in Herodotus' account as a general of the Median army who went over from Astyages to Cyrus seems to be a historical person, as the family of Harpagus afterward held a According to Babylonian .high position in the Persian empire. inscriptions Cyrus, king of Anshan (in southwestern Iran), began :war against Astyages in 553 B.C.; in 557 the troops of Astyages .rebelled and he was taken prisoner. Then Cyrus occupied and plundered Ecbatana, the Median capital. Herodotus states that The story of the the captive king was treated fairly by Cyrus. war was also related by Ctesias, according to whom the leading .figure in the insurrection against Astyages was Oebares. known from Babylonian sources as Ugbaru. Ctesias says that Astyages was made satrap of Barcania or Hyrcania by Cyrus, but was later slain by Oebares. (I. M. D.) iwife

\{g.v.

1

ASTYPALAIA

Stampalia. modern Astipalaia, Astypalaea 1. an island of the Dodecanese (q.v.K Greece, lies SO mi. W.N.W. of Rhodes. Pop. (1951) 1,797; area 3S sq.mi. iPerhaps a Cretan possession before 1400 B.C., it was later colonized T)y Dorians from Epidaurus (not Megara as one tradition says). )As a member of the Athenian empire its annual tribute of two Italents is evidence for a modest prosperity, probably agricultural. Although for a time subject to Macedon and Egypt, it remained 'on the whole independent, even during the supremacy of Rome, whose fleet used its harbours against the pirates (after 105 B.C.). The Venetian family, the Quirini. who held the island in the 'middle ages, built the fortress (now restored which dominates 'the chief town. Castello (Astropalia or Astipalaia) on its south(Italian

jLatin

1

east shore. ;

See Inscriptiones Graecae, xii (2), the main evidence for the history and antiquities of the island; L. Ross, Reisen (1841). (W. G. F.)

ASUNCION,

capital and port of the republic of Paraguay, on bank of the Paraguay river near its confluence with the Pilcomayo. The population of the city (1960 est.) was 304.450. The surrounding district is a rich agricultural and pastoral area producing cotton, sugar, maize, tobacco, fruit and cattle products. the eastern

May

he

ol

to

to

P

wooded

red sandy pi

11

the

uncommon, although avi ire warm and relatively dry. Mosl some 50 in. falls in summer thunder

frosts are not

ministration

point

quel;,'

Summer Paraguay river c are high frequently exceeding ioo P., but in winter

the annual rainfall of

to Yisigothic

picture

a

ding

he effectively controlled from the mountain capital at Oviedo, and Garcia I (910-914) made Leon his administrative centre in

from

659

plati

of the nation.

Self-conscious Yisigothicism was a feature of the Asturian kingdom. whose princes claimed direct descent from the Yisigothic ruler- of Spain and whose earliest chroniclers stressed the duty of the kingdom to proceed to the early and total reconquest of Church organization was re-established on the whole peninsula. the Yisigothic model, aided by the immigration of Mozarabic priests, and the many churches built in Asturias adhered closely

i

Vsunci6n

1

of

abundant and beautiful flowering and for its numerous large parks, especially the Botanical garden along the Paraguay river, li The an hiiec ture of the older part of the city adjacent to the river 1city

is

noted for

colonial in style

its

— one-story,

red-tiled, pastel-coloured houses,

with

and creeper-covered patios set in cobbled streets. The centre of the town is well modernized, particularly the Calle Palma with business blocks, stores, amusement places and government offices The cathedral, the presidential palace and the National Pantheon (a smaller replica of Les Invalides at Paris), all built in the 19th century, and the modern Bank of the Republic are among the notable buildings. The large church of La Encarnacion is atop the highest hill in the city centre, but the town is spreading into the surrounding hills. Until 1955 houses were dependent on wells, cisterns and horse-drawn tanks for water supply, but a piped supply was then installed, and a new electricity plant provides adequate power and light lor domestic and industrial needs. River steamers of 9 ft. to 12 ft. draft, depending on seasonal river depths, are the principal means of importing and exporting " freight. Some -$ c c of this trade is handled by a state-owned Argentine company, although a Paraguayan company and some small ocean-going vessels from the Netherlands and Great Britain also serve Asuncion. The 1.000-mi. passage to and from Buenos Aires takes three to four days in each direction and considerably increases the cost of goods transshipped by this route. It is also the terminus of the Central Paraguayan railway which connects with the Argentine rail systems via a train ferry across the Parana river, linking Encarnacion with Posadas. Another ferry connection across the Paraguay provides trunk-road communication with Buenos Aires. Its transportation facilities and modern U.S. -built docks and warehouses, although inadequate for its needs, make it the principal distributing centre and export port of the most densely populated region of Paraguay. Its central location and significance as a junction in the southern half of the continent have also made it an important air route point, with regular flights between Rio de Janeiro. Braz.; Buenos Aires. Arg.; Santiago. Chile; La Paz, Bob; and Lima, Peru. Its industrial plants, while not large, are numerous and active and produce textiles, vegetable oils, footwear, flour, canned meat, beverages, verba mate, processed foods, small river craft and tobacco products. It is the financial trees

centre of the nation.

As the home

government. Asuncion has extensive and it is the seat of the The National University of Paraguay

of the national

political, military

and naval

activities

archbishop of Paraguay. was founded in 1S89; among the other educational institutions of the city are the national military academy, a normal school, an agricultural school and a Roman Catholic seminary. The French Salesian order maintains a boys' school (the College of San Jose), and U.S. Congregational churches maintain a grade school and high school (International college). In all aspects of Paraguay's social, cultural

and economic

life

the significance of Asuncion

is

dominant.

The

city

was so named when Juan de Salazar y Espinosa. acting

Martinez de Irala, completed a stockade fort there on Assumption day, Aug. 15, 1537. When Buenos Aires was evacuated in 1541 under attack of the Pampa Indians, the inhabitants joined the earlier colonists in Asuncion, which thus became for nearly half a century the headquarters of Spain's colonial activities As such it furnished 60 Paraguayan in eastern South America. Spanish families to the expedition of 15S0, sent by the Spanish government to found anew the city of Buenos Aires. With the for his superior,

coming of the Jesuits to Asuncion in 15SS, the city became the base for the conversion of the Indian population in the mission settlements of the Parana basin. The Guarani Indians living in the Asuncion district intermarried with the Spanish troops and

ASVINS—ASYLUM

66o colonists

people.

and established the mestizo character of the Paraguayan official separation of Buenos Aires from Asun-

After the

cion in 1617, the latter city declined in importance and, partly because of its remoteness from the mother country, nationalist

and separatist movements started early. Independence from Spain and from Argentina was declared in Asuncion on May 14, 1811. Its strategic position at the head of a great river system linking its three enemies in the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) invited its capture by Argentine, Brazilian and Uruguayan forces in 1S6S. and it was under Brazilian occupation and administration until 1S76. In the succeeding years it has been the scene of more revolutions and coups d'etat than any other South American capital (G.

city.

J.

B.)

ASVINS (Sanskrit asvina), twin Vedic deities, are the gods most frequently invoked after Indra, Agni and Soma. They are gods of light, probably representing the morning twilight or the morning and evening star, although their connection with any definite natural phenomenon is obscure. They are awakened by Dawn, whom they follow

across the sky in their golden chariot, been conceived originally as deities who rescued the light of the vanishing sun. They are accompanied by the Daughter of the Sun and are known as "golden-pathed" and "drinkers of honey." They succour the distressed, restoring sight and youth and curing the sick; in this benevolent guise they appear in Brahmanical literature as Nasatya and Dasra. Although Indian in name (literally "horse possessors") they have unquestionable Indo-European parallels in the Greek Dioscuri (see Castor and Pollux) and in Lettish mythology. (J. B.-P.) (Assuan), a town of Upper Egypt on the east bank of the Nile, 555 mi. (893 km.) S of Cairo by rail. It is situated opposite Elephantine Island (Jazirat Aswan) below the First Cataract, and has benefited commercially from its position as the southern frontier town of Egypt, being the entrepot of a substantial trade with Sudan and Ethiopia. Pop. (1960) 48,393. A broad embankment flanks the river and provides the site of the principal buildings, including modern hotels and an English church. Aswan is a popular tourist centre and a winter health resort. It is the capital of Aswan governorate, which has an area of 341 sq.mi. (883 sq.km.), and a population (1960) of 385,350. On the granite outcrop at the beginning of the cataract 3J mi. above the town, the Aswan Dam stretches across the Nile and, when full, converts the river for 150 mi. (241 km.) upstream into a vast lake. Completed in 1902, and heightened in 1912 and again in 1933, this dam holds back in the late autumn from the tail of the Nile flood about 4,000,000 ac.ft. (4,900,000,000 cu.m.) of water and, with the smaller Jabal al Awliya' ( Jebel Aulia) Dam upstream in Sudan, stores the water which permits summer cultivation in Middle and Lower Egypt. When filled, the Aswan reservoir raises the level of the water nearly 120 ft. (37 m.) and submerges for nine months each year a number of islands including Philae with its exquisite temple of Isis. Vessels can negotiate this change of level by locks on the western side. The dam's massive wall of granite. It mi. long, is pierced by 180 sluices which can pass the whole Nile flood practically without checking its flow, permitting the heavy load of silt to be passed through. Once one of the largest dams in the world, the boldness of its design and

and

may have

ASWAN

its

enormous

benefit to

humanity give

it

of the world's great engineering works.

began operating in 1960. Four miles above the Aswan Dam

a high place in the list Hydroelectric power in-

stallations

Dam, begun

the site of the

will

submerge

(

)

ASYLUM,

The derivation is of interest. a place of refuge. In classical Greece it was the right of seizing the ship or cargo of a foreign merchant to cover losses incurred through him, and In so came generally to mean the right of seizure or reprisal. ancient Greece the term meant "the right of sanctuary," so that an asylum was an inviolable refuge for persons in search of protection. All Greek temples and altars were inviolable; that is, it was a crime against religion to remove by force any person or thing once under the protection of a deity. But this protecting right of a deity was recognized by common consent only in the case of a The right of sanctuary appears to small number of temples. have become limited to a few temples in consequence of abuses of it. Asylums in this sense were peculiar to the Greeks. The asylum of Romulus cannot be considered as such. Under Roman dominion the rights of existing Greek sanctuaries were at first confirmed, but their number was considerably reduced by Tiberius. Under the empire the legions were

the statues of the emperors and the eagles of

made

refuges against acts of violence.

Generally

who claimed

the rights of asylum were slaves who had been maltreated by their masters; soldiers defeated and pursued by the enemy; and criminals who feared a

speaking, the classes of persons

trial

or

With

who had escaped before sentence was

passed.

the establishment of Christianity, the custom of asylum

became attached to the church or churchyard. In modern times the word asylum came to mean an institution providing shelter or refuge for any class of afflicted or destitute persons, such as the blind, deaf and dumb, etc., but more paror sanctuary (q.v.)

ASYLUM, RIGHT

Aswan High

in 1960. with a

Dam

Dam necessitated the replanning of these communications. Extensive deposits of good quality hematite, lying about 30 mi. (48 km.) E of Aswan in the Arabian Desert, are worked and shipped downstream for processing near Cairo. In ancient times Yeb, capital of the frontier nome, the first of the upper country, stood on Elephantine q.v. Island, guarding the entrance to Egypt. Near the granite quarries on the eastern bank, which supplied the material for many magnificent monuments, there grew up another city, at first dependent on, and afterward successor to, the island town. This city was called Swan, the mart, whence came the Greek Syene and Arabic Aswan. Syene is twice mentioned (as Seveneh) in the prophecies of Ezekiel, and papyri, discovered on the island and dated in the reigns of Artaxerxes I (465-424 B.C.) and Darius II (423-404 B.C.), reveal the existence of a colony of Jews, with a temple to Yahu (Yahweh, Jehovah), which had been founded at some time before the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses II in 525 B.C. In Roman times Syene was strongly garrisoned to resist the attacks of the desert tribes. In virtual banishment, the poet Juvenal, according to one tradition, was sent there by Domitian as prefect. In the early days of Christianity the town became the seat of a bishopric, and numerous ruins of Coptic convents are in the neighbourhood. On the conquest of Egypt by the Turks in the 16th century, Selim I placed a garrison there, from whom, in part, the present townspeople descend. During the Mahdia (1884-99) it was occupied by British and Egyptian troops. See also Nile. (A. B. M.) High

ticularly the insane. is

planned storage capacity of 125,600,000 ac.ft. (154,930,000.000 cu.m.). Designed substantially to increase Egyptian farmland and make the country virtually independent of the annual fluctuations of the Nile, the High Dam, scheduled to be completed by 1968, will flood the valley for about 400 mi. (644 km.) upstream, well into Sudan. This necessitated the transfer of about 90,000 Egyptian and Sudanese peasants to new agricultural settlements at Kawm Umbu, Egypt, and Khashm al Qirbah, Sudan.

The High

launched in 1960 with the cooperation of many states (see Nubia: Excavation and Preservation of Nubia's Sites and Monuments). A few miles south of Aswan, above the cataract, at Ash Shallal on the east bank opposite Philae, the railway from Cairo terminates and communication with Sudan was maintained by steamer. The

In international law the right of

the state, not of the individual.

This right of the state

into three clearly defined categories:

territorial,

falls

extraterritorial

and neutral asylum. Territorial.

sites of great archaeological value,

notably the temples at Abu Simbel (q.v.), so the government of the U.A.R. appealed to UNESCO for help in saving them. A rescue operation involving about 20 temples and shrines was

OF.

asylum designates the protection granted by a state to a foreign citizen against his own government. The person for whom asylum is established, however, has no legal right to demand it, while the state as the agency that has the legal right to grant asylum Asylum is therefore a right of is under no obligation to give it.

(q.v.), it.

It

and

it is

— Territorial asylum

is an exception to extradition granted within the territory of the state that gives

stems from the principle of territorial sovereignty. Ocit is granted to fugitives from justice in the absence of

casionally

ASYMPTOTE— ASYUT and most nations, with the notable ezi eption of the United States and the countries of the liritish Commonwealth, claim the right to grant asylum to their own nationals. an extradition treaty,

But

it

is

for the protection of persons accused of a political of-

fense that the right of

asylum

is

primarily designed.

The category

"political offense" specifically includes treason, desertion, sedition

and espionage. Moreover, with the signing of the armistice agreement of July 27, 1953, which terminated the war in Korea, it was agreed that a detaining power might grant asylum to prisoners of war not wishing repatriation. The rule that political offenders are entitled to asylum is the product of the development of constitutionalism and democracy in the 19th century, and the usual operating motive is the unwillingness of governments to assume the unpleasant obligation of handing over such refugees to political vengeance in their own countries. Accordingly, most extradition treaties explicitly exempt from surrender persons charged with the commission of political offenses. This generally accepted practice is reflected in art. 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations general assembly on Dec. 10, 1948, which specifically guarantees the right of asylum to those fleeing from persecution. In the sphere of domestic law, the constitution of France adopted in 1946, the constitution of Italy adopted in 1947 and the constitutions of a substantial number of Latin-American countries and of countries behind the "iron curtain" have similarly recognized this right. But in the effort not to enlarge excessively the content of a political offense, it has become a widespread practice to exclude from this category the murder of the head of a state, anarchism, collaboration with the enemy in time of war and, after the Nuremberg trials of 1945, crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity. Closely related to the last, the Convention on the Prevention of the Crime of Genocide adopted by the United Nations general assembly on Dec. 9, 1948, and ratified by a number of states, provides in art. 7 that genocide is not considered a political offense. Extraterritorial. Extraterritorial asylum refers to asylum

—

661

by consideration! of humanity. plum was widely discussed in Colombian government to Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, a prominent Peruvian political figure Having been indicted for complicity in an unsuccessful attempl to overthrow the Peruvian government in 1948, Haya de U SOUghl and was granted asylum in the Colombian embassy in Lima on Jan. 3, 1949, The refusal of Peru to recognize this asylum, clearly required

The

when

legality oj diplomatii

;i

i

vluin w:r- gi.niird by the

alleging the nonpolitical nature of the offense, led the parties to resort to the International Court of Justice at The Hague for a decision. On Nov. 20, 1950, the International court denied that any general right of diplomatic asylum existed in international law and that if it existed in Latin America it was only on the basis of treaty law and not of customary law. In a decision of June 13, 1951, the court intimated that the asylum granted to Haya de la Torre was illegal and strongly suggested that it be brought to an end. It was not until April 8, 1954, after the controversy had risen to a new pitch of intensity in a flurry of notes and protests from other Latin-American governments supporting the Colombian position, that the Colombian and Peruvian governments reached an agreement permitting Haya de la Torre to leave Peru, thus ending five years and three months of asylum in the Colombian embassy in Lima. Though the case was finally settled, the position of diplomatic asylum remains far from satisfactory. Neutral. As regards neutral asylum, a state neutral in time of war is considered to possess the right to offer asylum within its territory to belligerent troops provided they submit to internment for the duration of the war. This matter was regulated by art. 11, 12, 13 and 14 of the Hague convention v of Oct. 18, 1907. Similarly, warships of belligerents have a right to temporary asylum in neutral ports. However, art. 12-19 of the Hague con-

—

vention

xiii of Oct. 18, 1907, provide that in the absence of local regulation to the contrary, the normal period of sojourn in the

neutral port, roadsteads or territorial waters

This period, however,

may

is

limited to 24 hours.

be extended in the case of damaged is such that more time is needed

the condition of the ship

granted in legations, consulates, warships and merchant vessels in foreign territory. It is therefore granted within the territory

ships

from which protection is sought. Its most controversial expression is to be found in the asylum granted in legations, and generally known as diplomatic asylum. The latter was formerely based on the principle of exterritoriality of legations, which meant that the official residences of diplomatic agents were excluded from the territory of the receiving state. It is significant that this principle similarly supported the practice of asylum in consulates and warships. With the abandonment of this fiction, however, diplomatic asylum became a practice founded upon humanitarian grounds when a person's life was in imminent danger

battleship "Admiral Graf Spee," which entered the port of

of the state

mob or other violence. In an attempt to regulate this pracadequately, the 21 American republics signed a number of conventions carefully defining its scope. Among such efforts, the

if

to repair

it.

Thus, during World

which to make the necessary

Specific instances of asylum took place during the Spanish civil war of 1936-39, when, it is estimated, between 3,000 and 4,000 persons were given asylum in the embassies and legations at Madrid. Also, on Sept. 20, 1955, the overthrown dictator of Argentina. Juan Domingo Peron, was granted asylum in the Paraguayan embassy in Buenos Aires; and during the Hungarian revolt of Nov. 1956 against the Communist regime, the United States government granted asylum to Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty in its legation in Budapest. the United States

asylum, and

its

This

last action is particularly striking, for

government strongly disapproves of diplomatic

embassies are not authorized to give

it

unless

This, however,

a matter

See also

Asylum; Sanctuary.

—

Bibliography. Manuel R. Garc'a-Mora, International Law and as a Human Right (1956); John Bassett Moore, Asylum in Legations and Consulates and in Vessels (1892). (M. R. G.-M.)

Asylum

ASYMPTOTE, in geometry, a line which approaches finite distance.

Britain.

Monte-

is

repairs.

ally nearer to a given curve, but

Significant as these conventions are, they have remained largely unratified, thereby leaving diplomatic asylum without any legal support. Instead, where asylum is practised, it is not a right of the legate state but a custom invoked or consented to by the territorial government in times of political instability. Actually, diplomatic asylum is frequently resorted to in the countries of Latin America, the near and far east and occasionally in Europe, but has never existed in the United States and Great

German

the celebrated

largely falling within the discretion of the neutral power.

tice

deserve notice.

II,

video on Dec. 14, 1939, in a damaged condition resulting from engagement with enemy war vessels, was granted 72 hours within

from

Havana convention of Feb. 20, 1928, the Montevideo convention of Dec. 26, 1933, and the Caracas convention of March 26, 1954,

War

More

precisely,

continu-

which does not meet it within a a curve, c, has an infinite branch and if there is a straight line, a, such that the distance PP' to a from a point P on c approaches zero as a limit, as P moves toward infinity, then a is called an asymp-

if

tote to this curve.

Geminus

of

Rhodes, writing in the 1st century B.C., remarked that some lines exist which approach indefinitely and yet remain apart. Elsewhere he gives the cases of the hyperbola q.v. and conchoid, each with its asymptote. The asymptote is often spoken of as a tangent to a curve at a point infinitely distant. ASYUT, the chief town of a governorate of the same name and one of the largest towns in upper Egypt, is situated on the west bank of the Nile 235 mi. south of Cairo by rail; pop. (1962 est.) 134,000. Important for its schools and as a centre of the Copts, it also has a reputation for its fine pottery, inlaid woodwork, carved ivory, leatherwork and rugs. Just below the town is the Asyut barrage, constructed in 1902, consisting of an open weir of limestone 2,691 ft. long, with 111 sluices each 16i ft. wide and a lock on the western side. This barrage raises the summer water level of the Nile to feed from its western side the Ibrahimiya canal. It is this canal, nearly 200 ft. wide and 200 mi, long, that (

)

ATACAMA—ATAHUALPA

662

The supplies irrigation water to middle Egypt and Al Fayyum. canal is skirted by a magnificent tree-lined embankment leading from the river to the town. Asyut is the successor of the ancient Egyptian Syut (later Lycopolis ), capital of the 17th nome of upper Egypt and centre of the worship of the jackal-headed god Wepwawet. The habitable part of the governorate is mainly confined to a narrow strip, generally three to five miles wide, flanking the Nile. The town owes its importance to its central position in a broadening of this fertile strip and to being the terminus of a trade route leading to the oases of the Libyan desert and thence to Darfur and Sudan. Modern buildings, including a museum, cover the old city, but the slopes of the limestone hills behind contain a number of rock tombs of which Near the most important is that of Hepzefa (12th dynasty). Badari, about 20 mi. upstream on the east bank, the remains of one of the two earliest known prehistoric civilizations of Egypt have been discovered and named after it the Badarian. Asyut governorate has an area of 597 sq.mi. with a population (A. J. Al.; A. B. M.) (1960) of 1.325,000. See Nile. a province of northern Chile noted for mining, was created in 1843. Present boundaries were fixed in 1927. Except for San Felix and San Ambrosio islands, which lie about 500 mi. W. of Chanaral, the province's 30,843 sq.mi. lie within 25° 18' and 29° 44' south latitude and 68° and 71° 38' west longitude. Pop. (1960) 114,277. Although the area is largely desert, scrub vegetation in the south permits pastoral activity. Farming, chiefly in Copiapo and Huasco valleys, is notable for production of fresh and dried subtropical fruits, raisins, and pisco, a distilled drink

ATACAMA,

centres of Copiapo (g.v.) and Vallenar also from operation of copper and lead smelters. Ore and concentrates come from scattered, small, locally owned mines or government mills. The foreign-owned 100,000-tonper-year copper operation at Potrerillos is integrated. Copper reserves at El Salvador and iron ore at Algarrobo promise sustained large-scale mining. Gold and silver, associated with 19thcentury provincial wealth and fame, and lead and apatite are secondary to copper. Chanaral. outlet for Potrerillos, and Caldera and Huasco are ports and rail terminals. (J. T.) DESERT (Desierto de Atacama), a Chilean segment of the west-coast South American arid region that lies between latitudes 5° and 30 S. There are differing concepts as to its areal extent, but the nucleus of the Atacama desert may be identified with the land between the south bend of the Loa river and the mountains separating the Chanaral-Copaipo drainage basins. Elements of coastal range, interior depression and Andean benefit, respectively,

ATACAMA

to 3,000

coastal

The

straight,

abrupt coast

may

rise 2,000

ft. from the sea or from narrow terraces. The zone of mountains has elevations to 9,000 ft. Hills interrupt

the continuity of the longitudinal depression,

creating a

num-

ber of bolsons or basins of interior drainage (2,400-3,000 ft. elevation). The basins, also present in the coastal mountain area, are saline. Among the salts present are the nitrate compounds

which give

rise to the region's

major industry.

Across the longi-

tudinal depression the alluvial fans or cones of the Cordillera de

Domeyko

slope from the east.

To

the east of the

Domeyko

range

second, higher, structural trough with saline basins (as Salar de Atacama). Eastward of the trough the land is about 10,000 lies a

ft., and climate, vegetation, geology and terrain are identified with highland puna or altiplano (as Puna de Atacama). The desert has narrow coastal phase of extremely sparse vegetation. Fog, stratus clouds, high relative humidity and moderate diurnal and annual

a

temperature ranges prevail. Inland the desert is barren, except at higher elevations where infrequent summer showers occur; clear sky, low relative humidity and comparatively wide temperature ranges prevail. It lies within Antofagasta and Atacama provinces The bulk of the Atacama desert was ceded (1883-84) (qq.v.). by Bolivia following the War of the Pacific. See Pacific, War of the. _ (J. T.) (Atacama, Kunza), a South American Indian group of northern Chile and northwestern Argentina. The

ATACAMENO

Early assimilated by the Spaniards and seldom mentioned by hisAtacameno are known largely through archaeology. They irrigated maize, quinoa, potatoes, squash, beans, cotton and tobacco and kept llamas and alpacas at the rare oases. Their implements were typically of wood, but they traded gold, copper and bronze objects from the north. Villages consisted of rowsi of stone houses surrounded by a fortifying wall. Each probably torians, the

was a

localized patrilineal clan. Lances, clubs, knuckle-dusters, doublets and helmets evidence warfare which was probably defensive. Religion was largely shamanistic; burial, typically in a roofed-over cylindrical cyst. See Wendell C. Bennett, "The Atacameno," 2:599-618, in Handbook 0) South American Indians, ed. by Julian H. Steward, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143 (1946). (J. H. Sd.) slings,

ATACAMITE, Atacama

in Chile.

found originally in the desert of an oxychloride of copper and its colour

a mineral It is

presents various shades of green.

Some

of the finest crystals

have been yielded by the copper mines of South Australia, especially at Wallaroo. It occurs also, with malachite, at Bembe, near Ambriz, in west Africa. From one of its localities in Chile, Los Remolinos, it was also termed remolinite. Small quantities of atacamite have been found in Arizona. The basic chloride of copper,

it is

of frequent occurrence in the green patinas of Egyptian

bronzes but

is

unstable in moist climates.

mula CuCl 2 .3Cu(OH) 2 and ,

Atacamite has the orthorhombic

crystallizes in the

for-

sys-

about 3 and its specific gravity 3.7. (Atabalipa) (atahu, "virile," and allpa, "sweet") (c. 1502-1533), "the last of the Incas" of Peru, so called because he was the last ruler of that great Indian empire, was the favourite son of the Inca Huayna Capac. His mother was Pacchas, the daughter of the conquered sovereign of Quito. His halfbrother, Huascar, succeeded Huayna Capac in 1525, for, since Atahualpa was not descended on both sides from the line of the Incas, Peruvian law considered him illegitimate. His father left him, however, the kingdom of Quito. In 1530 a quarrel arose between the brothers over the suzerainty of an interjacent province. Civil war broke out, and by 1532, about the time that the Spanish conqueror Francisco Pizarro (g.v.) was beginning his march inland from the coast, Huascar had been defeated and thrown into prison, and Atahualpa had become Inca. Pizarro set out from San Miguel in Sept. 1532 enroute to Cajamarca, a favourite resort of the Incas, where Atahualpa had his headquarters. Messengers passed frequently between them, and the Spaniards on their march were hospitably received by the inhabitants. On Nov. 15 Pizarro entered Cajamarca and sent his brother Hernando and Hernando de Soto to request an interview with the Inca. On the evening of the following day Atahualpa entered the great square of Cajamarca, escorted by 3,000 or 4,000 of his followers, who were either unarmed or carried only short clubs and slings concealed under their garments. Pizarro's artillery and soldiers were strategically arranged in the buildings and streets opening on to the square. The interview was carried on by the priest Vicente de Valverde through an interpreter. He stated briefly and dogmatically the history and tenets of the Christian faith and the Roman Catholic policy, and called upon Atahualpa to become a Christian and to acknowledge Charles V as his master. To this extraordinary harangue the Inca pointed out to him vehemently certain difficulties in the Christian religion, acknowledged the obvious greatness of the emperor and declined to accept either Christianity or Spanish sovereignty. He then took the Bible from the priest's hands, looked at it and flung it resentfully to the ground. The priest retired to give an account of the interview to Pizarro, and Pizarro immediately gave the prearranged signal for attack. The Spaniards rushed out from all sides, and the Peruvians, astonished and defenseless, were cut down in hundreds. Pizarro himself seized the Inca, and, in endeavouring to preserve his life, received the only wound inflicted that day on a Spaniard. Atahualpa, thus treacherously captured, offered in ransom the famous roomful of gold and silver. He fulfilled his promise and the Spaniards received $4,000,000 of bullion, but Pizarro still detem.

Its

hardness

is

ATAHUALPA

made from grapes. The oasis trading

Cordillera are present.

Atacamenan language (Likan-antai) was possibly related to Diaguita, and J. Alden Mason proposed the joint name Ataguitan.

;

,

ATALANTA— ATBARA him until reinforcements should arrive. While in captivity Uahualpa was accused of giving secret orders for the assassination his brother, Huascar, and also of plotting the overthrow of the In February of 5S.s Diego de \lm. ipaniards. arrived from he coast with more than 150 Spaniards; rumours soon spread hrough the camp of a vast invasion from Quito; and Pizarro orlered the Inca to be brought to trial on the charges of murder, He was condemned to death, and, as an edition and idolatry. dolator, to death by fire, an act of treachery that called forth the protest of the most influential of Pizarro's advisers except the But Pizarro feared the anger of his soldiery if he >riest Valverde. and Atahualpa, although he professed himself a Chrisetracted, ian and received baptism, died by strangulation on Aug. 29, 1533. Vith him died the Peruvian empire. See Andean Civilization. lined

f

1

—

The standard authority for these events is still W. H. Prescott's listory of the Conquest of Peru (1847; 1948). Where there is a discrepancy of opinion, he offers comparisons in his voluminous footnotes, ice also J. H. Rowe, "Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conluest" in J. H. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, jureau of American Ethnology, bulletin 143, vol. 2 (1946).

(W. B.

ATALANTA, •ariously

said

to

P.)

a heroine, probably a by-form of Artemis, be daughter of Schoeneus of Boeotia or of

and Clymene, of Arcadia. She was a renowned and swiftFrom her complex legend the following incidents She was exposed at birth, as her father wanted son, but suckled by a she-bear (a beast connected with Artemis). [2) She took part in the Calydonian boar hunt (see Meleac.er). ,'3) She offered to marry anyone who could outrun her; those who Hippomenes (or Milanion was given three 'ost were to be killed. 'asus

"ooted huntress.

ire

of interest: (1)

ii

)

)f

the apples of the Hesperides

(q.v.)

ilropped them, Atalanta stopped to pick

by Aphrodite; when he them up, and so lost the

Their son was Parthenopaeus, one of the Seven against Thebes. (4) She and her husband, proving ungrateful to Aphrodite, were led to profane a shrine with their loves, for which Cybele

retired into private

:urned

them

into lions.

ATARGATIS,

the great goddess of northern Syria; a Greek name is Derceto. Her chief sanctuary was at Hierapolis-Bambyce (modern Membidj), northeast of Aleppo, where she was worshiped together with her consort, Hadad, and i youthful male divinity. Her ancient temple there was rebuilt about 300 B.C. by Queen Stratonice, and it was perhaps partly as a result of this royal Greek patronage that the cult, carried by returning Greek merchants and mercenary troops, as well as by Syrian slaves and traders, spread to various parts of the Greek world, where the goddess was generally regarded as a form of Aphrodite. Outside Syria her male companions seldom appear. The Roman west was somewhat less receptive, but Nero was briefly a devotee of the cult, and Roman soldiers carried the Dea Syria (Syrian goddess) even to northern Britain. Knowledge of the cult derives chiefly from the mock-serious 'essay of the satirist Lucian, "On the Syrian Goddess," and on the unflattering picture of her mendicant servitors, the self-castrated Galli, in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius, books viii-ix. The

j

Sanctity of

fish,

peculiar to her cult,

and archaeological evidence.

is

HASHIM

He

died in 1960.

;

ATATURK, MUSTAFA KEMAL:

see

Kemal Ataturk,

Mustafa.

ATAULPHUS

(Atawulf; Ataulf) (d. a.d. 415), chieftain from 410 to 415, the successor of his brother-inlaw Alaric (q.v.). In 412 he left Italy and tried to settle his people in southern Gaul. In 414 he married at Narbonne the Roman princess Placidia (sister of the emperor Honoriusj, who had been captured by the Goths at Rome in 410. Driven from Gaul he retreated into Spain early in 415 and was in that year assassinated at Barcelona. The most important fact known about him is his statement, recorded by Orosius, that his original aim had been to overthrow the Roman empire and replace it by a Gothic empire, but that later, recognizing the savagery of his people, he decided to restore Roman power by means of Gothic arms. His ambition to fuse Romans and barbarians together in a revitalized empire of the Visigoths

was not

(E. A. T.)

realized.

ATBARA

CAtbarah),

a

town

in

the

Northern province,

on the right bank of the Nile, 195 mi. N. of Khartoum by rail and 201 mi. by river. Pop. (1955-56) 36,298. It is situated at the point where the Atbara river enters the Nile and is also at the junction of the two main railway lines to Khartoum, from Wadi Haifa and from Port Sudan. The Atbara bridge carries the Khartoum-Atbara line over the Atbara river and is also used by road traffic. The town is the headquarters of the Sudan government railways administration and workshops. There is a cement factory 5 mi. to the south. The occupation of the majority of the inhabitants of the town is connected directly or indirectly with railway services and maintenance. Upstream 12 mi. from Atbara on

Sudan,

lies

the Nile

is

Ed Damer. (Nahr 'Atbarah),

the provincial capital,

ATBARA RIVER

(A. el-S. O.) the last tributary of

the Nile, is nearly 500 mi. long. It joins the Nile at the town of Atbara, Sudan, about 17° 40' N. As the Takazze, the main stream rises near the eastern escarpment of Ethiopia and crosses the northern basalt plateau in a steeply incised ravine which attains a maxi-

mum

depth of nearly 2,000 ft. only 10 mi. from the river source. After turning north near Debra Tabor the Takazze is joined by numerous large streams which, like itself, run very low or are intermittent from to

maximum volume

of

silt

when

to May but rise with the summer rains July and August and carry a heavy load

November

by inscriptions

Phoenician counterpart, Astarte, though as befits her geosome kinship with the Anatolian Gybele. Primarily she is a goddess of fertility, but as the Baalat i(mistress) of her city and people she is responsible for their protection and well-being on all scores. Hence she is commonly 'portrayed wearing the mural crown and holding a sheaf of grain, ;while the lions who support her throne suggest her strength and her power over nature. See also articles on the related figures Aphrodite; Astarte; iGreat Mother of the Gods; Ishtar. See also Hierapolis. (F. R. Wn.) ATASI, AL- (Hashem Atassi) (1875-1960), Syrian politician who played a leading part in establishing Syrian independence, was born in Horns in 1875, while his country was still part of the Ottoman empire. In early life he held positions in the Ottoman administration. After World War I he was prominent in the short-lived government of Amir Faisal and then beof her

graphical position she also shows

life.

closely resembles that

also attested

Her nature

663

See S. H. Longrigg, Syria and Lebanon under French Mandate (A. H. H.) (1958) N. A. Ziadeh, Syria and Lebanon (1957).

'•ace.

yariant of the

RIVKR

came one of the leaders of nationalist opposition to the French occupation and mandate. In 19,36 he headed the Syrian delegation which negotiated the Franco-Syrian treaty promising Syria independence, and in the same yen elected president -of the a republic. The agreement with France broke down arid in 1939 he resigned. Following a military coup in 1949 he became prime minister, then again president. The political group supporting him favoured union with Iraq, but this tendency was reversed when in late 1949 Adib Shishakli seized power. Atasi continued in office, but effective power was in Shishakli's hands and in 1951 he resigned. In 1954 a further coup ended Shishakli's regime and Atasi was restored to the presidency. After the 1955 election he

in

in spate.

Turning westward to form the southern frontier of Eritrea, the Takazze becomes the Setit and after entering the Sudan is joined by the smaller Atbara to form the main Atbara 310 mi. distant from the Nile. From this point onward the Atbara gains little water from its tributaries, small seasonal khors, and after Khashm al Girba it loses volume by evaporation and by seepage into the coarse silt of its own bed, so that the monthly discharge from February to May is negligible. By May most of the visible water has sunk to separate pools used as watering places by the nomads. Even the July discharge into the Nile averages about 700 cu.m. (916 cu.yd.) per second, against 2,150 (2,812 cu.yd.) in August and 1,190 (1,557 cu.yd.) in September, after which it falls rapidly again; but the August figure represents a steady flow amounting to 22% of the total Nile discharge below Atbara. At the rapids of Khashm al Girba (i.e., "Bottleneck") a dam was being built (1961) for storage of floodwater and irrigation. Firm banks of solid rock at the narrows and locally quarried stone

'

ATCHISON— ATHANASIUS, SAINT

66 4

favour the project, as they did the building of the Butana bridge Trucks must for the Khartoum-Kassala railway and for cars. There is little permanent settlement use the dry-season fords. along the Atbara. The gravels contain some semiprecious stones, but riparian land with fertile new silt is generally lacking, for the bed is cut down into the clay plain, the banks are often badlands and from 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 tons of silt are swept annually straight into the Nile (q.v.). See H. E. Hurst and P. Phillips, "The Topography of the Blue Nile and Atbara," The Nile Basin (1950) H. E. Hurst, A Short Account of H. Bell, Irrigation by Gravity from the River the Nile Basin (1944) Atbara (1956). (M. T. P.) ;

;

ATESTE:

see Este.

ATHABASCA,

a river

and lake

in

midwestern Canada.

The: rises at the conti-i nental divide in the Columbia ice field, in the Canadian Rocky mountains, at the southern end of Jasper National park. It river,

which

lies

in the

province of Alberta,

flows 765 mi. diagonally across Alberta to

Lake Athabasca

in the

northeast corner of the province. Important tributaries include the McLeod, Pembina, Lesser Slave (which drains the lake of' that name) and Clearwater. Navigation above McMurray (formerly Fort McMurray) is limited. The main shipping route is,

from McMurray (and Waterways 2 mi. upstream on Clearwater and Great Slave lake to Mackenzie river to the Arctic ocean. Large deposits of bituminous tar sands outcrop for 120 mi. along the Athabasca in the McMurray river) via Slave river

ATCHISON,

a city of Kansas, U.S., 42 mi.

N.W.

of Kansas

on the Missouri river; seat of Atchison county. (For comparative population figures see table in Kansas: Population.) territory is an exceedingly rich agricultural area, and it contains deposits of the loess soil which is especially favourCity,

The surrounding

able to fruit growing.

The

city's industrial

establishments include

and steel foundries, flour mills and clothing plants. an important wholesale centre for hardware, drugs, groceries, athletic equipment, fruit and candy. At Atchison are St. Benedict's college for men (founded in 1859) and Mount Saint Scholastica college for women (founded large iron

Atchison

is

in 1863).

Atchison was founded in 1854 by a group of proslavery settlers and was named after their leader, David R. Atchison, U.S. senator from Missouri. The town was chartered in 1858, and the following year a charter was granted for the Atchison and Topeka railroad which later was named the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe. A council-manager form of government was adopted in 1921.

ATE,

Gr.

"ruin,"

"disaster,"

including

material

loss,

but

and north area.

Lake Athabasca, 208 mi. long and about 32 mi. wide, is 699 ft. above sea level and has an area of 3,120 sq.mi., of which 2,165 sq.mi. are in the province of Saskatchewan and 955 sq.mi. in Alberta. Formerly, the lake extended west to include the basins of Mamawi and Claire lakes, but the Athabasca and Peace rivers, by building deltas into Lake Athabasca, have cut off the two lakes. Athabasca and Peace river waters make the western part of Lake Athabasca turbid. The lake usually begins to freeze in early October; discharge from Athabasca river may open the west end in early May, but ice may linger in the lake until mid-June. Most of the lake is within the geological region of the Canadian Shield with important mining areas at Uranium City and Goldfields. Fort Chipewyan, a small settlement, is on the west end of the lake. (J. R. M.) (in the Douai version of the Bible, Athalia), in the Old Testament, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and wife

ATHALIAH

to a state of infatuation in which evil appears good. Personified as a mythological figure, Ate made Zeus take a hasty oath that resulted in Hercules' becoming subject to Eurystheus

Jehoram (qq.v.), king of Judah. After the death of Ahaziah, her son, she usurped the throne and reigned for seven years. She

Hercules). Zeus thereupon cast Ate by the hair out of Olympus, after which she remained on earth, working evil and mischief. She is followed by the Litai ("prayers"), the old and crippled daughters of Zeus, who repair the harm done by her (see

xi,

1-3).

by

his

coming

mean

(see

Iliad).

In some Elizabethan writers (e.g., Edmund Spenser) and other moderns she becomes a kind of fiend. (H. J. R.)

ATELLANA FABULA,

kind of farce, popular in republican and early imperial Rome. (Fabula was the general term for a play.) The ancients derived the name from the town Atella in Campania if they were right, then the farces were of Oscan origin, perhaps influenced by the Greek farces of Tarentum and other cities. Strabo mentions that in his own day (in the time of Augustus), although the Oscans had died out, metrical pieces in Oscan were produced on the Roman stage at a certain traditional festival; perhaps he meant no more than that the language was rustic Latin, spiced with Oscan words. According to Livy the Atellanae were often acted by amateurs, and to be an actor of Atellanae did not involve loss of civic status. Other evidence, however, indicates that the actors may have been professionals. In the last century B.C. the Atellanae became a literary genre, and there are some fragments by L. Pomponius of Bononia, Novius and other writers; see Otto Ribbeck, Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta (Leipzig, 1897-98). There seem to have been four stock masked characters: Maccus, the Clown; Bucco ("Fatcheeks"), the Simpleton; Pappus (in Oscan, "Casnar"), the Old Fool; and Dossennus, whose name (perhaps from dorsum) has been taken to mean "hunchback." Manducus, the ogre with champing jaws, is also mentioned by some, but he may not have been an Atellan character. Many of the recorded titles of plays a

:

suggest everyday Italian

life,

but some are reminiscent of the

fabula palliata (adaptations of Greek new comedy: see Drama), and some suggest burlesque. The language was rustic and coarse. The Atellanae finally disappeared because of the popularity of the mime.

—

Bibliography. Schanz-Hosius, Rbmische Literatur-Geschichte, vol. (1927); W. Beare, The Roman Stage, 2nd ed. (1955); E. Paratore, Storia del teatro latino (1957). (Wm. Be.) i

i

of

massacred

members

Judah (II Kings was concealed in the temple aunt, Jehosheba, wife of the priest Jehoiada. These orall

the

The

of the royal house of

sole survivor, Joash,

ganized a successful revolution in favour of Joash (II Kings xi; II Chron. xxii, 10-12, xxiii, xxiv, 7). The story of Athaliah forms the subject of one of Racine's best tragedies. See Ahaziah;

Joash,

ATHAMAS,

in Greek mythology, king of the prehistoric Minyae in the ancient Boeotian city of Orchomenus. His first wife was Nephele (see Argonauts). Athamas and his second wife, Ino, incurred the wrath of Hera, because Ino had nursed Dionysus. Athamas went mad and slew one of his sons, Learchus; Ino, to escape, threw herself into the sea with her other son, Melicertes. Both were afterward worshiped as marine divinities Ino as Leucothea, Melicertes as Palaemon. Athamas, with the guilt of his son's murder upon him, was obliged to flee from Boeotia. He was ordered by the oracle to settle in a place where he should receive hospitality from wild beasts. This he found at Phthiotis in Thessaly, where he surprised some wolves eating sheep; on his approach they fled, leaving him the bones. The legend is perhaps founded on a very old custom of human sacrifice

—

among

the Minyae.

ATHANARIC 376,

who

(d.

381), a Visigothic chieftain from 364 to

fiercely persecuted the Christians in his territories (ap-

proximately the modern Rumania) between 369 and 372. His most famous victim was St. Sabas the Goth. Utterly defeated by the Huns in 376, he fled with a few followers to Transylvania. The bulk of his people, however, took refuge under their leader, Athanaric, too, took refuge Fritigern, in the Roman empire. there in 381, but died at Constantinople a fortnight after his arrival.

ATHANASIUS, SAINT,

(E. A. T.)

the Great (c. 295-373), bishop of Alexandria and doctor of the church, was an Egyptian, probably an Alexandrian, by birth. Associated with the Alexandrian chancery at an early age, he was ordained a deacon by the year 318, with priesthood following shortly after. Despite his early brilliance, it is difficult to believe that he composed his Sermon Against the Arians and The Incarnation of the Word at this period, as has been claimed. It was during the episcopacy of Alexander of Alexandria

|

ATHANASIUS, SAINT (312-328) that the Arian heresy reached

its

Arius (q.v.),

height.

an elderly, ascetic priest of Alexandria, had been dealt with by Alexander in a kindly way, but his heretical teaching spread de-

condemnation at a local synod about the year 518 Arius' position was an attempt to explain the doc trine of the Trinity in a Gnostie l\('c (Inosihism) or Xeoplatonic way. in order to preserve the uniqueness of Clod the Father and to avoid, as he thought, the heresy of Sabellianism (that is, that the three Persons were only names or modes of the divine nature; see Sabellianism"). Though the doctrine was born at Antioch, where Arius had studied, According to Arius, the Alexandria was indeed its proper soil. Father, Son and Holy Spirit were three separate essences (ousiai) {hypostases) the Father was God in a unique sense, substances or whereas the divinity of the Son and Spirit was only derivative, for Many of the monks and consethey had been created in time. crated women throughout Egypt, as well as the excitable populace As the controof Alexandria, were attracted by Arius' teaching. versy spread beyond Egypt, the emperor Constantine sensed the spite

lii

s

;

danger of the religious conflict; his defeat of Licinius

in

323 pre-

sented a favourable opportunity, and under the pressure of the episcopacy he convoked the first general council of the church at

Nicaea in 325. The emperor was hardly a theologian, and his interest was primarily civic peace; his role, therefore, should not be exaggerated, for, if in the matter of the creed he exerted influence upon the hierarchy, it must be admitted that he was also influenced by them. (See Arianism.) Athanasius accompanied Alexander to the council as the bishop's private secretary. Despite the remarks of the 5th-century church historian Socrates in his Ecclesiastical History, Athanasius' role at this time would appear to have been relatively unimportant; nonetheless, his support of Alexander and the orthodox position won him many future enemies in the Arian and semi-Arian camp. The records of the great council have not been preserved, but some ;idea of it may be formed from the eulogy on The Life of Constantine by Eusebius of Caesarea, from Socrates, Theodoret and fragments of Philostorgius. The account compiled by Gelasius of Cyzicus in the latter part of the 5th century contains much that is /untrustworthy. Eusebius, who was present at the council, tells that more than 250 bishops attended; of these, the majority, together with the emperor, sided with the views of Alexander of Alexandria. Arius and his party were condemned and the famous treed of Nicaea, or Nicene creed which may have been an older Palestinian formula, revised by Bishop Hosius and other Fathers '

—

—

the council was finally drawn up (see Creed, where it is quoted). The last lines read: "As for those who assert that there was a time when He was not and that before He was begotten He was not; and that He was made out of nothing; or that He is of a

at

;

different substance

Son of

God

is

(hypostasis) or essence (oitsia)

created, changeable,

mutable

Church declares anathema."

— these

;

or that the

men

the uni-

(See also Council.) Although it is an exaggeration to suggest, with Gustave Bardy, that Athanasius found the formula of his life at Nicaea, this was nonetheless the doctrine that was to be at the heart of religious Icontroversy for the next two centuries. Here, too, it is unfair to suggest that in all of this the state was the decisive force; actually the emperors were themselves manipulated by the quarreling factions. As yet, however, the implications of the Xicene doctrine 'remained undefined: the distinction between homoousios and homoiousios had not yet been established and the final formula, !"Three persons (prosopa, hypos taseis in Greek; personae, hypostases in Latin), one essence (ousia, substantia or essentia')," had not yet been theologically canonized. Philostorgius, an Arian historian, says in his History of the IChurch that "seeing that Arius and his followers refused their !assent to the Council, the emperor declared that all who did not iaccept the common formula were to be exiled.'' Arius fled to Palestine, but he was far from being subdued. Abetted by sympathetic followers, he circulated his Thalia ("Banquet"), a miscellany of songs and other pieces by which he aimed to communicate his heretical message to the masses. At Bishop Alexander's death in 328, Athanasius, about 30 years of age, succeeded to his uneasy throne over the opposition of versal

'

;

'

i

An

665

and Meletians [see Melktius), Eusebius of N lis med

Arius'

in

si. inline

,11

Con

had reassured

hop

bi

pecially at the court of

When Ami

tantinople. the

t

emperoi

conduct

to

1

paign against the young

friend, the wily

in

a

pei onal

nee

oi

ol

Con-

inti

Nicene

the

formula, Athanasius received .1" imperial order to reconcile all Arians who might wish to make their peace. Still suspicious, in 335, Athanasius refused. At the local synod ol Arius was formally reinstated he died mysteriously in 336 before he could be reconciled and Athai inished to n Germany, where he remained until after Constantine's death in his first exile. This was Even after his return his enemies 337. did not remain idle, and he was again banished by a synod held at Antioch in 337; a certain Gregory, "a monster from Cappai as Gregory of Nazianzus calls him, was made bishop of Alexandria in his stead. Athanasius, however, evaded arrest, and with the help of sailors slipped unwatched out of the port and sailed off to Rome to present his case before Pope Julius I, The Roman pontiff submitted the problem to an assemblage of bishops who upheld Athanasius; a council called at Sardica in 343 also declared in his favour; but Athanasius returned to Alexandria only after the violent death of the usurper Gregory in 345. The ten-year period (346-355) which followed his second exile was one of comparative peace. Athanasius took the occasion to build up Alexandria and the dependent dioceses, appointing many But another blow soon loyal Egyptian monks to episcopal sees. fell. In 355 the emperor Constantius convoked a synod at Milan, and the council, controlled by Athanasius' enemies, once more deposed him. Athanasius tells in his Apology for My Flight that more than 5,000 Roman soldiers surrounded the Church of St. Theonas while he was celebrating the sacred liturgy. In the riot which followed, women were attacked and sacred vessels deseThis time he took crated; but Athanasius managed to escape. refuge with the fathers of the Egyptian desert, whose way of life he profoundly admired. It was in their honour that he composed the History of the Arian Heresy, a curious, forthright book which Inreflects Athanasius' vehemence as well as his ironic humour. deed, to the period of his third exile belong perhaps his greatest works. After Constantius' death in 361, Athanasius returned to his see and straightway convoked a council at Alexandria to reaffirm the doctrines of Nicaea and to conciliate the semi-Arians. The semi-Arians were divided into three main factions, the Anomoeans. the Homoeans and the Homoiousians. The first group, under the leadership of Aetius and Eunomius, were the doctrinal successors of Arius, and taught that the Son was unlike (anomoios) the Father; it was against this group that Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa (qq.v.) wrote important treatises. The second group, under Acacius of Caesarea, remained in favour at the court of Constantius. Acacius seems to have continued the work of Eusebius, his predecessor, and attacked the orthodox group as I

—

teaching Sabellianism.

The

—

1

1

central point of their doctrine

the Son was distinct but like (homoios) the Father.

was that

The

third

Athagroup, or Homoiousians. were nasius and his party. Under Basil of Ancyra, they stanchly opclosest in their teaching to

posed the extreme semi-Arians under Eunomius. and attempted to bridge the gulf which separated the heretics from the orthodox. Their differences were primarily of a linguistic sort, and their suggestions were treated by Athanasius with great sympathy, espeThe cially in his work On the Synods and in the council of 362. view of the Homoiousians was that the term homoousios, "of the same, identical substance,'' which had perhaps arisen as a translation of the Latin term consubstantialis, did not sufficiently stress the distinction between the Persons and thus favoured Modalism or Sabellianism. They therefore wished to substitute the word homoiousios, meaning "distinct, but of a similar nature." Unfortunately Basil of Ancyra and his followers tended at the end to deny the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and Athanasius' overtures were in vain. In any case, within a few years the terminological differences were to be reconciled: the Son was of like nature because, though distinct, He was of one substance with the Father. The Nicene term had absorbed the other. The way was now prepared for the doctrinal advances of the Cappadocians, Basil the

—

ATHANASIUS, SAINT

666

Great, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus. Only by understanding Athanasius' readiness for reasonable compromise can a correct insight into his character and personality

be achieved. But the storm was still not allayed. The toleration with which Julian began his reign in 361 was soon transformed into almost hysterical measures in an effort to regenerate the pagan Athanasius was caught up with many other victims of religion. the autumn of 362, the emperor forced "this notoriously troublesome man," "and hardly a man.'' But he was soon to return after the emperor was mortally wounded in June 363. Athanasius enjoyed comparative calm under Jovian (363-364) and Yalentinian (364-375); but under Valens, as Theodoret relates, the incense burned once again on pagan altars. In Oct. 365 Athanasius was removed from his see, to remain in exile about four months. Recalled by Valens in Feb. 366, the elderly bishop was at last allowed to live out his life in peace. The end came on May 2. 373 (his feast day is May 2). It had been an incredible Julian's revivalist

him

whims in more :

into exile once

—

as Julian wrote of him.

chapter in the history of the church. Great as he was, Athanasius is one of the most tragic figures of A small, energetic man, he was at heart a monk, unworldly and sometimes uncompromising. To the emperors, who

early Christianity.

were little interested in theological speculation, he represented a storm centre of civil and religious strife. As for his ecclesiastical enemies, it is perhaps not too difficult to understand the religious bickering of an earlier day. In any case, this man, whom Gibbon thought more capable of ruling Rome than all the sons of Constantine, aroused fiercer loyalties and hatreds than any other Father of the church. A contemporary letter preserved in a British museum papyrus (P. Jews 1914, ed. by H. I. Bell. 1924) paints him as cruel and despotic; but coming as it does from the hand of a Meletian cleric, it cannot be accepted as totally reliable. In his theological doctrine Athanasius was clear and uncomplicated, more conservative than profound, and gifted with a stubborn sense of tradition. His teaching on the Atonement was intimately bound up with his Trinitarian theology: we are redeemed by Christ's life and death because in Him God and man are united in one Person. The Atonement is achieved by the union of God with man in the life, death and glorification of Christ. Indeed, "if Christ had not of Himself been the substantial image of the Father, He could not have formed the divine image in any man." The actions of Christ belong to both God and man; there are two natures, but one Person.

In fighting against the Pneumatomachi,

substantiality of the

who denied

the con-

Holy

truly Clod, "proceeding

Spirit, he insisted the Spirit was also from the Father through the Son." His

extant writings do not deal extensively with sacramental theology; but in an Epistle to Serapion he asserts that after the prayers of the liturgy "the bread and wine, which had before been ordinary food and drink, become the Body and Blood of the Lord." Athanasius' theology was fundamentally Pauline and Johannine. His encouragement of the Egyptian monastic movement had widespread consequences. Whether or not the Life of Antony is from his own hand, he was largely responsible for its circulation; through the Latin version made about 361 by Evagrius of Antioch and used, for example, by Augustine, it introduced eastern ascetic ideals to the Latin world. The Life is a subtle fusion of historical details and symbolic presentation of the spirit of early monasticism.

The

core of the

work may be found

a series of discourses are put into the

in sec. 16-43,

mouth

of

m

which

Antony on the

monk's struggle as a "martyr in conscience" against the evil forces of this world, and on the witness he must bear to the truth of Jesus' message until the final coming. Although Athanasius insisted on sobriety and celibacy, he emphasized the importance of moderation and the internal spirit in the tradition of Methodius' Symposium on Chastity a work on which, incidentally, the pseudo-Athanasian

—

Life of Syncletica in part depends. Athanasius' authentic doctrine is focused on the restoration of the divine image in man: this is ideally achieved

by the practice of evangelical perfection

;

and the

union with the Word, he teaches, will bring about a special illumination of the mind as well as the conquest of man's lower impulses. Thus his ascetic teaching is a logical complement to his doctrine on the Trinity and the Atonement. The divine image impressed

—

on man at creation had been destroyed or at least tarnished by man's estrangement from God. Thus an authentic model must once more be presented to the human race; and this was achieved by the Incarnation and Atonement. The Word, as true God, is both the exemplar and the cause of our redemption. It is this restoration of the divine image, entailing mystical knowledge, love and purification, which is the ultimate goal of all Christian asceticism. Though Athanasius' doctrine is here dependent upon Alexandrian Platonism, its main outlines are coherent and clear. Athanasius' authentic works may be divided into four groups: 1. The dogmatic, controversial works, such as the History of the Arians, the Discourses Against the Arians, the Treatise on the Synods of Rimini and Seleucia, and various apologies written in the

:

heat of controversy.

The

which are today perhaps the most interesting secThese include the Festal {Paschal) Letters, written over the years 329-348 to exhort his flock on the occasion of the Lenten fast and the approach of Easter; four Letters to' Serapion dealing especially with the divinity of the Holy Spirit; doctrinal letters On the Teaching of Dionysius, On the Decrees'-, of Nicaea and several others dealing with the Incarnation. There' are many more, including a number of official episcopal documents; to these should be added the Letter to Paphnutius preserved in a British museum papyrus which may be from Athanasius' own hand (P. Jews 1929, ed. by Bell). 3. The ascetic corpus includes the Life of Antony; a number of treatises On Virginity preserved in whole or in part, whose authenticity is still disputed; and the pseudo-Athanasian Life of Syncletica. The Greek treatise On Virginity (ed. by Von der Goltz, 1905 ). surely reflects Athanasian teaching, but its use of the term hypostasis in the sense of divine Person makes the attribution somewhat doubtful. There are fragments of other treatises on the subject in Coptic, Syriac and Armenian translations. Further, a' Coptic ascetic epistle On Love and Self-Control may be authentic. 4. Of what must have been a considerable exegetical corpus there remains a short treatise On the Interpretation of the Psalms, and some fragments of an allegorical exegesis of the psalms pre2.

letters,

tion of his works.

:

'

served in catenae.

Among

the inauthentic works

must be mentioned a sermon On

the Devil along with other short pieces.

The

'

Interpretation of the

Creed and On the Unity of Christ are recognized as inauthentic; and the 12 books of De Trinitate preserved in Latin, though derived in part from Athanasius, probably comprise five distinct works which originated in Italy or northern Africa toward the end of Athanasius' life and after his death. Finally, the so-called Athanasian Creed, the Quicumquc, consisting of 40 rhythmic Latin cola, though attributed to Athanasius since the 7th century, undoubtedly comes from a later period. It is, again, a Latin work, and originated perhaps in the area of northern Italy or southern France; some have plausibly linked it with the school of Lerins, others with the Ambrosian chancery at Milan. In any case it represents orthodox Trinitarian doctrine of the post-Nicene period. In connection with the Greek text of Athanasius, the critical work of H. G. Opitz, R. P. Casey and others has drawn attention to the various recensions which existed even in his authentic works, the result of competitive editorial activity by Athanasius' followers on the one side and by his enemies on the other. See also Index references under "Athanasius, Saint" in the Index volume. Bibliography. For the text, J. Lopin and B. de Montfaucon, 3 vol. (1698), reprinted with additions by N. A. Giustiniani, 4 vol. (1777), and again, with additions, by J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, vol. 25-28 (1857). The first nine fascicles of a projected definitive

—

critical edition of the

Greek

text (Berlin corpus) see Opitz,

W. Schneemelcher appeared 1934-41;

by H. G. Opitz and Vntersuchnngen zur'

Veberliejerung der Schriften des Athanasius (1935) cf. also G. J. Ryan and R. P. Casey, De Incarnatione in Studies and Documents, 14 (1945-1 46). There is a Lexicon Athanasianum by G. Midler (1952). Selected works were translated by John Cardinal Newman in his Select Treatises see also W. Bright, The Orations of St. Athanasius, 2 vol. (1842-44) of St. Athanasius Against the Arians (1S73) and Historical Writings of St. Athanasius According to the Benedictine Text (1881). An extensive collection of translations is edited by A. Robertson in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 2, vol. iv (1892) see also R. T. Meyer, St. Athanasius: The Life of St. Antony in Ancient Christian Writers, ;

;

;

ATHAPASKAN— ATHEISM 10 (1950) C. R. B. Shapland, The Letters of St. Athanasius on There are individual editions "I the rning the Holy Spirit (1951). reek text of On the Incarnation by A. Robertson, 2nd ed, (1893); r. Camelot (with the treatise Against the Pagans) in Sources P 1.

.

;

I

no. 18 (1934); and by F. L. Cross (ig Against the Pagans were also edited by W. Bright (1873); the by J. Lebon, Sources chrilicnncs, no. 95 (1947); two Apologies by J. M. Szymusiak, Sources chritiennes, no. 56

iritiennes,

I

!,

om

etters to Sera/>ion ie

1958)-

For the vast literature on Athanasius see the bibliographies in B. See also 1) Papebroch Itaner, Patrologie, pp. 230-239 (1951). [eta mctorum (for May 2), Maii vol. i, pp. 186-258 (1680) J. H. Newian. St. Athanasius, 2 vol. (1841-44 and later editions) H. M. GwatStudies of Arianism (1882; 2nd ed., 1900); X. Ie Bachelet, in, Mhanase," in Dictionnaire de thiologie catholique (1903) G. Bardy, \tbanase," in Dictionnaire de Spiritualite' (1937) F. L. Cross, The tudy oj St. Athanasius (194s) R. Bernard, Vintage de Dieu d'apres aini Athanase (1952); G. L. Prestige, God in Patristic Thought H. A. VVolfson, The Philosophy of the Church Fathers, vol. i, 1952) aith, Trinity, Incarnation (1956). (H. Mu.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

ATHAPASKAN

(Athabaskan), a large and widespread imily of North American Indian languages which included, durig the aboriginal period, 50 or more distinct idioms. More than alf of these, the Northern Athapaskan languages, were spoken in ;ie whole interior of Canada and Alaska northwest of the Churchill iver. A second major division, Pacific Coast Athapaskan, inluded 16 languages spoken in southwestern Oregon and adjacent orthern California, from the Umpqua river in Oregon to the

The

Southern ithapaskan or Apachean, contained only seven languages. These ere spoken by the Navaho and six Apache tribes in Arizona, Jew Mexico, Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua and ead of the

Eel

California.

in

third

division,

!oahuila. is not entirely consistent with strictly linguistic classification only Pacific Coast Athapaskan In the nd Apachean are both geographic and linguistic units. orth there are at least seven linguistic subfamilies. Four of Tanaina, Koyukon, Ahtena and Ingalik lie wholly within hese daska. The fifth, Kutchin-Han, occupies the territory on both ides of the northern half of the Alaskan-Canadian boundary, lie sixth subfamily includes Tanana and Nabesna, spoken in daska south of the Kutchin-Han; Carrier, spoken in central iritish Columbia and Hare-Dogrib, Slave and Chipewyan, which 'ccupy a continuous area in northern Canada from the Mackenzie iver to Hudson bay. Those of the seventh subfamily the ,ieaver. Sarsi, Kaska and Sekani live south of the Hare, Slave nd Chipewyan and north of the Carrier. Finally there are a lumber of northern languages which cannot be classified for lack if sufficient data: Tutchone, Mountain, Tagish, Tahltan and

This geographical classification

—

—

—

;

—

—

Tsetsaut.

Pacific coast subfamily includes Umpqua, Coquille, Galice, Chasta Costa, Euchre Creek, Tututni and Chetco Oregon, and Tolowa, Hupa, Mattole, Kato, Wailaki, Nongatl, i-.assik and Sinkyone in California. There are seven Apache languages: Navaho, San Carlos, Chiricahua, Mescalero, lq.v.)

The

Vpplegate,

,n

Lipan and Kiowa Apache. The northern languages are more diverse than the Pacific coast This means that the original Athapaskan

ficarilla, )

;roup or the Apache.

lomeland lay iind

in the

north and that both the Pacific coast peoples

the Apaches migrated southward from the Canadian-Alaskan

Chronological studies indicate that the breakup of the iriginal Athapaskan speech community began about 200 b.c. and :hat the movement southward began about four hundred years ater. These short time periods help to account for the great similarity between the northern languages and those in the south. The difference between Kutchin and Navaho, for example, is little greater than that between English and German. The Athapaskan languages differ markedly from most of the Indian languages spoken near them. There are, however, a num;egion.

•

between Athapaskan, Tlingit, on the "lorthern coast of British Columbia, and Haida, on Queen Charlotte Island. Edward Sapir in 1915 examined these similarities and roncluded that all three groups were members of a single larger family called Nadene. Although detailed proof of his hypothesis las not been published, it is accepted by most of the scholars who

ber of features of similarity

667

have reviewed Sapir's data. Athapaskan speech communities have always been small.

more

total population in the northern area, with its 25 or

The tribes,

never exceeded 30,000. European colonization reduced the Indian populations of the Americas and altered the language habits of the groups that survived. Thus, by mid-20th century, most of the

Coast languages were either extinct or spoken only by a few older people. Only Hupa was still active and it had fewer than 200 speakers. Similar changes occurred in the north and among the Apaches but not to the same degree. Navaho had at the largest number of speakers (about 80,000; of any that time Athapaskan tongue but most of these spoke English as well. It is probable that most and perhaps all the Athapaskan languages will Pacific

become

extinct.

See also Index references under "Athapaskan" in the Index volume. Bibliography. Harry Hoijer, "The Southern Athapaskan Languages," Amer. Anthrop., 40: 75-85 (1938), "The Chronology of the Athapaskan Languages," International Journal of American Linguistics, 22: 219-232 (1956); Fang-kuei Li, Mattole, An Athabaskan Language (1930); Cornelius Osgood, The Distribution of the Northern Atha-

—

paskan Indians, Yale University Publications in Anthropology, No. 7 Edward Sapir, "The Na-Dene Languages, a Preliminarv Re(1936) port," A mer. A nthrop., 17: 534-558 (1915). (H. Hr.) ;

ATHEISM, it

is

the denial of

"God"

or of "the gods."

As such,

the opposite of theism (q.v.), which affirms the reality of the

divine and seeks to demonstrate

its

Atheism is to be which leaves open the ques-

existence.

distinguished from agnosticism {q.v. I, tion whether there is a god or not, professing to find the question

unanswered or even unanswerable. For the atheist, the question has been answered, and in the negative: "There is no god."

To include all that is designated as atheism, it is necessary to distinguish between theoretical atheism and practical atheism. Theoretical atheism is the denial, in principle, that there is a god. Most often, the term is used polemically to label the position of an opponent who denies one's conception of the divine. Thus the Jews and the early Christians were accused of atheism by the Romans, despite the obvious theism of Jewish and Christian beliefs,

Roman

because they refused to acknowledge the

the other hand,

employed the term

gods,

Orthodox Christians, on

including the emperor, as truly divine.

atheist

in

their

polemics

against various heretics, notably against those who, while affirming the existence of God, denied the doctrine of the Trinity (q.v.). Thinkers like Spinoza (q.v.) earned the label because they seemed not to distinguish accurately enough between God and the world and thus appeared to deny the transcendence of the divine. From these examples it is evident that theoretical atheism in the absolute sense is not so common 3s the frequent use of the term might suggest. At the same time, it is not accurate to maintain, as some A thoroughgoing materialism have, that there are no atheists. or mechanism (q.v.) has led some to the flat declaration that there If is no Being that deserves the title or the attributes of deity. it is maintained that the universe is fully self-explanatory, this seems to be an atheistic philosophy. Similarly, a thoroughgoing humanism (q.v.) appears to require the adjective atheistic, for it asserts that man neither has nor needs the help of any Holy to which to turn in penitence, prayer or adoration. Nevertheless,

the effort of certain

modern philosophers

to posit a "finite

God"

panentheism of others tend to limit the applicability of the label "theoretical atheism" in modern

and the pantheism

(q.v.) or

thought. is not limited to the inbut represents the working philosophy of large numPractical atheism is the denial, in practice, that bers of men. there is a god. For such a philosophy, the question of the existence

Practical atheism, on the contrary,

telligentsia,

of God human

is irrelevant to the meaning of life and the decisions of existence. The discovery of scientific explanations for phenomena formerly attributed to supernatural causes has helped to bring about the "disenchanted world" of many modern men.

Similarly, the elimination of the influence of organized religion

from spheres of activity such has prompted

men

as medicine, education

to construct for

which ideas of God and of a

life

and the arts

themselves a world view

after death play

no

in

significant

ATHEL— ATHENA

668

The term secularism was coined in the middle of the 19th century to identify such a philosophy of life. When pressed in its adherents may assert their belief in God. that is. their acceptance of the idea that there is a god. Apart from such debate, of course, they have no need for this hypothesis. Most theologians would claim that this is in fact atheism. For if the term god has any meaning, they would argue, that meaning

language of the Greeks' predecessors. The pre-Greek Minoan Cretans, as M. P. Nilsson showed, worshiped a snake-goddess who protected the home and who, like other Minoan deities, was thought to appear among men in the shape of a bird; snake and

must include the obligation of man to enter into significant relations with the divine, whatever form those relations may assume. As many observers have noted, however, "practical atheists" may

and palaces, her

role.

a debate,

be deeply religious in their outlook on the universe, regardwith reverent awe both the processes of nature and the functioning of society. Even without the idea of divine sanction

still

ing

and law, they hold

moral ideals with deep conviction and them. Thus they are ethical without or perhaps religious without having an explicit to their

strive earnestly to live

being religious, faith in

its

up

to

God,

The presence of such an atheism, whether modern forms, has compelled the revision

in its primitive or

of the very defini-

Marxism, which elicit a religious loyalty from their faithful even as they deny the reality of divine Being. Meanwhile, both theists and agnostics (and perhaps even atheists) would agree that whatever God there is does not depend for his reality or sovereignty upon the efforts of theologians and philosophers to attack or defend tion of religion to include nontheistic

faiths such as

his existence.

—

F.

Bibliography. J. Laird, Theism and Cosmology, 2 vol. (1940-41) Mautner, Der Atheismus und seine Geschichte im Abendlande, 4 ;

vol. (1920-23).

ATHEL, articulata)

(J.J. Pn.)

the

name given

Tamarix aphylla. (T. Originally a native of north-

to the tree

of the Tamaricaceae.

eastern Africa and western Asia, it has become naturalized in several other parts of the world, including arid regions of south-

western United States, where it is well established. The tree, which resembles certain conifers, occasionally attains a height of 6o ft. and is readily distinguished by its jointed twigs with minute, ensheathing leaves and small sessile flowers borne in terminal panicles. The bark is rich in tannin. Reproduction is accomplished equally well by seeds, cuttings or coppice.

(E. S. Hr.)

ATHELNEY,

a slight eminence of small extent, formerly an island and now rising from the drained marshes about the junction of the rivers Tone and Parrett in Somerset, Eng. Early in 87S King Alfred, hard pressed by the Danish advance, took refuge amid the marshes of Somerset, constructing a stronghold at Athelney. Using this as a base he broke out to win a decisive victory at Edington, near Chippenham. The Danish king, Guthrum, sought terms and was received and baptized at Aller on the mainland opposite Athelney. Alfred founded a monastery on the island as a thank offering for his victory. The Alfred jewel, now in the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, was found at Athelney in 1693. It is an elaborate gold ornament with an enameled plaque covered with crystal and an inscription recording that it was made for the king (see Jewelry). The story of Alfred minding the cakes for the mistress of the hut in which he was sheltered is credibly recorded as an illustration of the straits to which he was reduced; details, including his negligence in allowing them to burn, were later literary embellishments. (C.A. R. R.)

ATHELSTAN:

see

Aethelstan.

ATHENA

(Athene), the Greek city-protectress, goddess of war, handicraft and practical reason, identified by the Romans with Minerva (q.v.). The portrait of Athena found in poetry and from Homer onward is accurate for her cult generally, largely because her activities were especially appreciated by the society of poets and artists. She was essentially urban and civilized, the antithesis in many respects of Artemis (q.v.), goddess of the out-

art

doors.

When, during the 2nd millennium B.C., the Greeks settled the peninsula to which they later gave their name, they probably found Athena's worship already established, in Crete if not on the mainland.

Her

certainly non-Hellenic

name apparently belongs

to the

bird attributes as well as bird epiphany are especially characteristic of Athena as she appears in Homer and afterward. The

Minoans worshiped

their goddess in recessed sanctuaries in

priest being the

master of the house

the king.

The Greeks

called the

Mother of the Moun-

Mycenaean age

homes

or, in palaces,

end of the millennium included such sanctuaries in their palaces. Yet their economy, unlike that of the Minoans, was largely military, so that Athena, while retaining her domestic functions, became in answer to her worshipers' demands a goddess of war. The name Athena Potnia, "Lady Athena," has been read on one of the Mycenaean tablets, though unfortunately difficulties remain in the way of its complete acceptance. But archaeology confirms the continuity of her worship, for Athena's temples on the acropolises. of Athens and Mycenae stand directly on the ruins of the Mycenaean palaces. The locale remained holy while later societies succeeded the Mycenaean, and doubtless owed its sanctity to the presence of the same goddess throughout the centuries. Athena was very early associated with the acropolises of a numThis has led some to style her a ber of other cities as well. "mountain mother" similar to the Asiatic Magna Mater and a Cretan goddess who is sometimes tains

(see

of the

Artemis).

at the

But

Athena's choice of the acropolis as a dwelling place more likely stems from the location there of the king's palace, while the theory that

Athena

was

originally

a

mother-goddess depends upon a

most unscientific generalization from a handful of exceptional references. She has no consort and, worse yet, no offspring, unwild interpretations of one or two relatively late myths are accepted. She need not have been a virgin from the beginning, but the characteristic was very early acquired, and thus were her epithets Pallas and Parthenos head of athena. probably a copy ("Maiden," which exhibits the of the lemnian. in the museo same ambiguity as the Greek cmco. bologna, italy words) generally interpreted. The fifth Homeric hymn expressly states that Aphrodite cannot affect Athena, but the idea is older: for a war-goddess to accept domination, or a palace-goddess violation, seems intolerable. The, old theory that she was a water-goddess and perhaps of Libyan origin rested largely on a doubtful interpretation of her epithet Tritogeneia ("Water-Born") and can be discarded with the same' confidence with which the epithet can be declared unexplained. Ulrich von Wilamowitz' view that Athena was originally a shield-, goddess has not found general acceptance, though his account of her later development is a masterful exposition. In the Iliad Athena as war-goddess inspires and fights alongside the Greek heroes, notably Diomedes in his defeat of Ares in book v. To possess her aid is synonymous with military prowess and is not, as readers occasionally feel, considered an unfair adless

vantage. In the Iliad Zeus specifically assigns to Ares and Athena the sphere of war. Ares, the Trojan war-god, is generally pictured as delighting in blood lust and death. It is unsafe, however, to hold, that in contrast Athena represents the noble and rational side of war; her moral and miljtary superiority to Ares derives in part from the vastly greater variety and importance of her functions, in part from the patriotism of Homer's predecessors, Ares being of foreign origin.

Athena proclaims her nationalism

the Iliad, where she wishes that

all

who

in

book

xxi of

help the Trojans might be

'

—

ATHENAEUM vanquished as she lias just vanquished Ares and \phrodite Should long ago have ceased from battle, having de troyed the Strong- founded ity ol Ilium." lie qualities thai lead to victory arc found on the aegis (g.v.) Athena carries when she goes to war: fear, strife, defer e and On it too is the Gorgon's assault, but not reason or prudence. head, terrifying indeed but scarcely remarkable for its acumen 1

1

(Iliad, v).

As palace-goddess Athena was bound to preserve the sanctity of Mcnelaus' household, and the pre-Homeric tradition probably atand apparently unreasonable hatred of everything Trojan to her anger at Paris's rape of Helen. The obscurity of the Iliad on this point may be due to a dimming awareness at that time of Athena's role as palace-goddess; later poetry supplied her motivation through the story of the judgment of Paris tributed her violent

&«.). The Minoan house-goddess would have been interested in the household arts, and such female skills are Athena's domain. She moves symbolically from domestic to bellicose role when, in book v of the Iliad, before donning the aegis, she removes a robe woven by her own hands. To say that a woman "rivalled Athena in handicrafts" (cf. Iliad ix, 390) was high praise. Behind the moral problem of the Odyssey, the hero's restitution of his home, Athena the palace-guardian is faintly visible, but as tutelary deity of the king she presses Odysseus to assert his rights

and his

rid his

palace of Penelope's suitors; she likewise undertakes

Somewhat surprisingly she her proteges, but since mankind

son Telemachus' moral education.

bestows beauty generally

fails

charts to

— upon

benefit

from these attentions they must be and the royal

:

r

1

a

sess.

Athena was widely worshiped, but in modern times she is associHer ated primarily with Athens, to which she gave her name. emergence there as city-goddess, Athena Polias, accompanied the transition from monarchy to democracy. She retained her association with birds, particularly the owl, which became famous as the

',

city's own symbol. The snake continued to live in the Erechitheum, a temple of Athena Polias named after an early hero, 'Erechtheus. The Odyssey tells how Athena visited Erechtheus' house, and the scene is interpreted as the goddess's epiphanic descent to the Athenian priest-king, whose house may be the palace

;upon which the Old Temple on the Acropolis (perhaps an earlier ;Erechtheum) was built. More famous is the Parthenon, with its 'statue of Athena Parthenos and its pediments depicting Athena's birth and her contest with Poseidon for the suzerainty of the city. With each pediment frieze is connected a myth, neither satisfactorily explained. Hesiod, in the Theogony, tells how Athena sprang from Zeus's forehead, and Pindar adds that Hephaestus struck open his head with an ax. Pindar's version has been referred to the ritual of the Buphonia (q.v.), wherein an ox was sacrificed by splitting its skull. Others, reflecting that the Greek word 'koruphr means both "forehead" and "summit," have interpreted the myth as presupposing Athena's birth from mountain or acropolis. But birth from male limbs without female assistance is a common folk motif, perhaps adopted because Athena had no known or, in the light of her stature and independence, suitable

'

Po eidOD

'in

tl

I

on the difficulty that the victors' god was defeated; Poseidon occupied a quite secondary role at Athens. Erechtheus' alter ego, Erichthonius, was said to have instituted Athena's worship at Athens as well as her birthday festival, the Panathenaea (q.v.). The story that Athena entrusted the daughters of Cecrops with a chest containing the infant Erichthonius, and that for opening it in defiance of her command they were driven mad, is an etiological myth for another rite, the Arrephoria. Two maidens carried secret objects from Athena's temple on the

to the sanctuary of Aphrodite and returned similarly burdened; they may have borne snake symbols and, for Aphro-

Acropolis

The

dite's benefit, phalluses.

rite

concerned the growth of vegetation, the sphere of Erichthonius and of the daughters of Cecrops, who were dew spirits. The simpurposed Procharisteria ilarly celebrated

goddess's

the

rising

from the ground with the coming But Athena's connection with vegetation was an acciof spring.

Mythology made Erichthonius the issue of an abortive attempt

Hephaestus

by

upon

virginity, the seed

Athena's impregnating

the ground instead.

Scholars as

impressed with her virtue „.,„,„, as Hephaestus have seen behind promachos ("champion ') athena this story another in which his in the national museum. Athens desire was not frustrated, in which he was her consort. But Erichthonius, as a vegetative spirit, was probably always thought to be born of the earth or an earthgoddess such as Athena never was. Her relationship with Hephaestus derives from the similar functions of the smith-god and the goddess of industry, Athena Ergane ("Working," a very common little

epithet).

Two

Athenians. Phidias and Aeschylus, contributed significantly development. She inspired three of Phidias'

to Athena's spiritual

masterpieces: the archaistic Promachos ("Champion"), in which her military character doubtless predominated; the Lemnian, where the maiden superseded the warrior; and the chryselephantine Parthenos, where the warrior, tempered by pensive majesty, was felt to represent perfectly the city-goddess. In Aeschylus' Eumenides she founds the Areopagus (q.v.), and by breaking a

deadlock of the judges in favour of Orestes, the defendant, she sets the precedent that in Athenian jurisprudence a tied vote signified acquittal. As goddess of wisdom she pleads for justice tempered with reason and mercy, as against the blind vengeance demanded by the Furies. Though she and Zeus strive for the same end. she alone appears on the stage; symbolizing the city's striving toward this higher concept of justice, she still does not leave the realm of men. See Nike; see also Index references under "Athena" in the

Index volume.

—M.

P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, L. R. Farnell, The Cults of ed., vol. i (1955) i (1896); Walter F. Otto, The Homeric Gods, (W. M. Se.) Hadas (1954).

Bibliography.

t

'

Hi'!

1

offer to

civic duties.

Agamemnon and warns Odysseus against and his retinue. In post-Mycenaean times the city, especially its citadel, replaced the palace as Athena's domain; the city-goddess has begun Later epic poetry symbolized to emerge in book vi of the Iliad. this role with the palladium (g.v.), an armed statue of Athena that Odysseus and Diomedes had to steal from Troy before the city could fall, and that several Greek cities later claimed to pos-

11

spring of water

dental by-product of her general

assaulting Sarpedon

hi

the Athenians ol the olive, hi-- of the A chief goddess Athena naturally supervised the economically vital olive culture, but the contest beories hypothesizing a conflict between itself remains battling an invading Greek god, Poseidon, and the native goddess founder

pedimenl featured her

Myths from later sources portray her similarly as helper of Perseus and Heracles, perhaps originally Mycenaean priestkings, suggesting that her efforts were extended to all who held the office. Yet the kingship as such did not claim her protection; this charge fell upon the more remote Zeus. Athena, the "ever-near." in W. Otto's phrase, guarded rather the king's person, and in so doing became goddess of good counsel as well as war. The goddess of good counsel is found in the Iliad also; she prevents Achilles from carrying out his threat to

1

669

Thl

ascribed to the manifold relation between herself family.

'

mother.

with bibliography, 2nd

;

the Greek States, vol. trans,

by Moses

ATHENAEUM,

name

originally applied in ancient Greece Athena, and specially used as the designation of a temple in Athens, where poets and men of learning were accustomed to meet and read their productions. The acad-

a

to buildings dedicated to

emy

for the

promotion of learning that the emperor Hadrian

•

ATHENAEUS—ATHENS

670

135) at Rome, near the Forum, also was called Poets and orators still met and discussed there, but regular courses of instruction were given by a staff of projurisprudence, grammar and philosophy. The rhetoric, fessors in

(about

built

the

a.d.

Athenaeum.

institution, later called Schola

the 5th century.

until

Romana, continued

in.

high repute

Similar academies were founded in the

provinces and at Constantinople by the emperor Theodosius II. In modern times the name has been applied to various academies, as those of Lyons and Marseilles and the Dutch high schools;

and

it

has become a very general designation for literary and clubs, the most famous club of the name being that

scientific

in London by Sir Walter Scott and Thomas Moore in In the United States the well-known Boston Athenaeum,

founded 1S24.

founded

The word

in is

1S07,

is

the

home

of

George Washington's

ATHENAEUS

(fl. C.

a.d.

marian, whose Deipnosophistai

much

library.

also familiar as the title of several literary periodicals,

notably of the London weekly founded

in 1828.

200), Greek rhetorician and gramis a storehouse of varied informa-

it

drawn from works no longer

—

—

extant, was born at Naucratis in Egypt. He himself states that he wrote a treatise on the thratta a kind of fish and a history of the Syrian kings, both now lost. The Deipnosophistai ("Authorities on banquets," tion,

of

sometimes incorrectly translated, "Philosophers at dinner"), in 15 books, belongs to the genre of symposium literature of which Plato's Symposium is the first example. The first two not, as

books, and parts of the 3rd, nth and 15th, are extant only in epitome, but the rest has survived complete. It professes to be an account of a banquet held at the house of Laurentius, a scholar and wealthy patron of art. Among the guests are historical persons such as Galen the doctor and Ulpian the jurist. The conversation ranges from the dishes before the guests and information about food to literary matters of every description, including points of grammar and criticism, with remarks on music, song, dances, games and courtesans. The plan is clumsy, but the work is an invaluable repertory of fragments from nearly 800 writers. The Deipnosophistai was edited by G. Kaibel in three volumes

"Teubner Series" (1887-90) and by C. B. Gulick with an English translation in the "Loeb Series" in seven volumes (192741 J. The epitome was edited by S. P. Peppink in three volumes in the

(1936-39). See F. A. Wright, History of Later Greek Literature, pp. 283-288 (1932)(G. B. Kd.)

ATHENAGORAS

(2nd century a.d.), Greek Christian Platonist who wrote an apology for the Christian religion, was an Athenian and probably taught in Alexandria. His apology, styled "embassy" (Presbeia), was addressed to the Roman emperors Marcus Aurelius and L. Aurelius Commodus between 176 and 180. It deals with the stock charges of atheism, cannibalism and incest or promiscuity alleged against the Christians, giving incidentally a survey of famous statues of Greek gods and one of the first statements on Christian sexual morality. In the earliest manuscript (dated 914) this work is followed by a treatise on resurrection (Peri anastaseos), also ascribed to Athenagoras, whose authenticity some modern speculation has questioned. It shows the same tenderness for Plato and the same use of Platonic terms as the apology, and the Christian doctrine of bodily resurrection for all (here grounded on arguments from the motive of creation, the nature of man and the need for rewards and punishments for body and soul in another life) is precisely the one that a Platonist would find most novel and provocative. Athenagoras' writing is clear and forcible, and he is a pioneer in the fashioning of technical terms for the concepts of Christian theology. See also Apologists, Early Christian.

physician.

which the Spartans dedicated at Delphi after their victory at Aegospotami (405 B.C.) in the Peloponnesian War. The second was Athenodorus of Rhodes, who collaborated with his father, Agesander, on the celebrated Laocoon group (see Greek Art). The Philosophers. Athenodorus Cordylion (1st century

—

became keeper of the but finally settled in Rome, where he died, house of the younger M. Porcius Cato. Athenodorus Cananites (also called Athenodorus son of Sandon; c. 74 b.c.-c. a.d. 7), also a Stoic, was born at Canana, near Tarsus. After studying under Poseidonius in Rhodes, he went to Apollonia in Illyria, where the young Octavian (afterward the emperor Augustus) was his pupil. Athenodorus acquired a lasting influence over Octavian and followed him to Rome in 44 B.C., but was later allowed to return to Tarsus to remodel the city's constitution. There he succeeded (c. 15-10 B.C.) in setting up a government of property owners in the Roman interest. Strabo, a friend of his, and Cicero, whom he helped in the composition of the De Officiis, provide the main sources of information about him, as none of his writings are extant. Strabo describes him as a learned scientist. Sir William Ramsay, in an article in the Expositor (Sept. 1906), suggested that the influence of Athenodorus may account for the resemblances discernible between St. Paul and the younger Seneca, as St. Paul can hardly not have b.c), a Stoic, born at Tarsus in Cilicia,

library in

Pergamum

an old man,

known

in the

his doctrine.

The Physician.

—

Another Athenodorus (1st century a.d.) was the author of a work On Epidemics. (Baile Atha an Riogh), a market town of County Galway. Republic of Ireland, lies on the river Clarin, 15 mi. E. of Galway by road. Pop. (1956) 1,287. Its Gaelic name means "the town of the king's ford" and after the Anglo-Norman invasion it grew to importance as the first town of the De Burghs and De Berminghams. There are remains of walls erected in 1211 and of a castle of 1238. A Dominican monastery was founded by Myler de Bermingham in 1241 and repaired in 1893. Of the Franciscan monastery of 1464 little is left. The town returned two members to the Irish parliament from the time of Richard II to the Union; but it never recovered from the wars of the Tudor period during which it was successfully besieged by "Red" Hugh

ATHENRY

Roe O'Donnell

in

1596.

ATHENS

(Lat. Athenae; mod. Gr. Athinai; modern colGreek Athena), the capital of the kingdom of Greece and of the nome (department) of Attica, lies toward the southern end of the central and principal plain of Attica (q.v.). It is the poThere have been litical, economic and cultural centre of Greece. various theories with regard to the origin of the name, which is now held to be derived from the patron goddess Athena, whose name, like others with the same ending, is thought to be preloquial

Hellenic.

This article

divided into the following sections and sub-

is

sections: I.

Topography and Antiquities 2.

Influence of the Geographical Position Sources for Athenian Topography

3.

Scientific

4.

Prehistoric Athens

5.

The Dark Age

1.

6. 7. 8.

9.

Research

Archaic Athens Classical Period The "Long Walls" The Acropolis

14.

The The The The The

15.

Hellenistic Period

10. 11.

—

Bibliography. Works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. vi (1857), and ed. by E. Schwartz in Texte und Vntersuchungen, vol. iv, part 2 (1891) Eng. trans, with introduction and commentary by J. H. Crehan (1956) in Ancient Christian Writers. See also J. Quasten, Patrology, vol. i (1950); R. M. Grant, "Athenagoras or PseudoAthenagoras," Harvard Theological Review, vol. xlvii (1954).

—

The Sculptors. The earlier of the two sculptors was Athenodorus of Cleitor, who executed the statues of Apollo and Zeus

12. 13.

Dipylon and Ceramicus

Theseum Agora Dionysiac Theatre and Asclepeum Choragic Monument of Lysicrates

;

(J.H. Cn.)

ATHENODORUS,

an ancient Greek personal name, the bearers of which include two sculptors, two philosophers and a

16. II.

Roman

Period

History 1.

2. 3. 4.

Prehistoric Period The Rise of Athens

Imperial Athens 4th Century B.C.

— VI 6.

Hellenistic Period Relations with the

7.

The Roman Empire

5.

8.

9.

10. 11.

III.

The 1.

2.

3. 4.

The

hand

Roman

now

Attic plain slopes gently toward the coast of the Saronic

is a little more than three miles. Influence of the Geographical Position. The situation of Athens naturally favoured the growth of a powerful community. The Attic plain, notwithstanding the lightness of the soil, furnished an adequate supply of cereals; olive and fig groves and vineyards were cultivated from the earliest times, and pasturage The surrounding mountains for sheep and goats was abundant. are broken toward the northeast by an opening between Mt. Hymettus and Mt. Pentelicus toward Marathon, and are traversed by the passes of Decelea. Phyle and Daphne on the north and northwest, but the distance between these and the city was sufficient to obviate the danger of surprise by an invading land force. On the other hand Athens was sufficiently far from the sea to enjoy security against the sudden descent of a hostile fleet.

—

Yet the three natural harbours, the ancient Piraeus (Piraievs or Peiraicus), Zea (Kea) and Munychia, favoured maritime commerce and the sea power which formed the basis of Athenian hegemony. The climate is temperate but liable to sudden changes;

mean temperature is 63.1° F., the maximum (in July) minimum (in January) 31.55°. The clear, bracing

99.01°, air,

ac-

cording to ancient writers, fostered the intellectual and aesthetic

endowed them with mental and physiFor the architectural adornment of the city the finest building material was procurable in abundance; Mt. Pentelicus forms a mass of white, blue-veined marble; another variety, somewhat similar but generally of a bluer hue, was obtained from Hymettus. For ordinary purposes gray limestone from Lycabettus and the adjoining hills, limestone (the so-called poros stone) from the promontory of Acte (Akti) and conglomerate were largely employed. For the ceramic art admirable material was at energy.

ihr

•

on the east it is overlooked by Mt. Hymeton the northeast by Mt. Pentelikon (q.v.; (I'entelicus); on the northwest by Mt. Parnes 3,638 ft.) (Parnis) (4.636 ft.); and on the west by Mt. Aegaleos (AigaleosJ In (1,534 ft.), which descends abruptly to the bay of Salamis. the centre a ridge, now known as Turcovuni. runs from northeast to southwest and culminates in the sharply pointed Mt. Lycabettus (1,112 ft.), the most prominent feature in the Athenian landscape, which directly overhung the ancient city but was not included in This range separates the valleys of the Cephisus its walls. (Kifissos) and Ilissus (Elisson) rivers. The former, rising in Mt. Pentelicus, enters the sea at Phaleron (Faliron), but in summer dwindles to an insignificant stream. The latter, coming from Mt. Hymettus, skirts the city on the southwest and is now usually dry owing to denudation caused by the destruction of the forests. Separated from Mt. Lycabettus by a depression to the southwest, through which flows a brook (probably the Eridanus river ). stands the remarkable oblong rocky mass of the Acropolis (512 ft.), rising precipitously on all sides except the western; it served as a fortress and also as the sacred sanctuary of its tutelary goddess, Athena (see below). Close to the Acropolis on the west is the lower rock (370 ft.) of the Areopagus (q.v.), the seat of the famous council. Farther west are three elevations: to the northwest the so-called "Hill of the Nymphs" (348 ft.), on which the modern observatory stands; to the west the Pnyx (351 ft.); and to the southwest the loftier hill known as the Mouseion or Museum hill (4S2 ft.). A cavity to the west of the observatory is supposed to be the ancient barathron or place of execution. The distance from the Acropolis to the nearest point of the seacoast at

cal

Sources for Athenian Topography. First in importance |nii| Lific topography is the evidence of the natural features of Attica and the architectural remains; to these added the testimony of inscriptions often of decisive imNext comes the evidence derived from ancient literaportance. ture and especially from descriptions of the city or its different The earliest known description of Athens was that of localities. Diodorus of Athens (4th century B.C.). Among his successors were Polemon of Ilium (2nd century B.C.), who gives a minute account of the votive offerings on the Acropolis and the tombs on the Sacred way. and Heliodorus (probably of the 2nd century B.C.), who wrote 15 volumes on the monuments of Athens. Of these and other works of the earliest topographers only some fragments remain. About a.d. 150 Pausanias (q.v.) visited Athens at a time when the monuments of the great age were still in their perfection and the principal embellishments of the Roman period had already been completed. The first 30 chapters of his invaluable Description of Greece are devoted to Athens, its ports and environs. His account, based mainly on personal observation, pos2.

Imi

TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES

character of the people and

large

terns.

tus tq.v.; 3,369 ft.);

the

a

bj

1

gulf on the southwest;

the

The water supply and growing City, was

northwest of the Acropolis.

an aqueduct constructed in the time of the A great numtratid Pi uoui bj othen ol the Roman period ber of wells were also sunk and ram water was stored in cis-

Layout and Principal Buildings Museums and Societies Communications and Industry

1.

t

being insufficient lor

supplemented

Modem City Population

Phaleron

671

in the distric

Republic

Bvzantine Period Latin Rule: 1204-1458 Turkish Rule: 1458-1833 Athens After Greek Independence

I.

\s

III

sesses an especial value because of his

method of describing each

object in the order in which he saw it during his walks. The literature of succeeding centuries furnishes only isolated references.

Pausanias' accuracy was remarkably vindicated in the 20th century by excavations at Athens and elsewhere. The notices of Athens during the earlier middle ages are scanty

In 1395 Niccolo da Martoni, a pilgrim to the Athens and wrote a description of a portion of the city. Of the work of Cyriacus of Ancona, WTitten about 1450, only some fragments remain, which are well supplemented

in the

extreme.

Holy Land,

visited

by the contemporaneous description of the capable observer known Two treatises in Greek by unknown as "Anonymus of Milan." writers belong to the same period. The Dutchman Johannes Meursius (1579-1639) wrote three disquisitions on Athenian topography. The conquest by Venice in 1687 led to the publication of several works in that city, including the descriptions of R. de la Rue and Francesco Fanelli and the maps of Vincenzo Maria Coronelli and others. Systematic study was begun in the 17th century by French residents at Athens, the consuls J. Giraud and F. Chataignier and the Capuchin monks. The visit of the French physician Jacques Spon and the Englishman Sir George Wheler (or Wheeler) (1650-1723), fortunately took place before the partial destruction of the Parthenon in 1687; Spon's Voyage d'ltalie, de Dalmatic, de Grece et da Levant, which contained the description of the ruins of Athens, appeared in 1678; Wheler's Journey into Greece in 1682. A period of British activity The monumental work in research followed in the 18th century. of James Stuart and Nicholas Revett. who spent three years at Athens (1751-54). is still indispensable, owing to the demolition of ancient buildings which began about the middle of the 18th century. To this period also belong the labours of Richard Pococke and Richard Dalton, Richard Chandler. E. D. Clarke and Edward Dodwell. The great work of W. M. Leake (Topography of Athens and the Demi, 2nd ed., 1841 brought the descriptive literature to an end and inaugurated the period of modern scientific research. 3. Scientific Research. Since the mid- 19th century, excavations by the Greek archaeological service and by foreign archaeological schools, not to mention accidental discoveries during building operations in the modern town, have transformed our knowledge of the ancient city. At first Athenian topography befirst scientific

)

—

came

a speciality of

German

scholars, chief

among them Wilhelm

Dorpfeld, but after World War*i members of the American School of Classical Studies began to work on the Acropolis and in 1931 the school began its momentous excavation of the agora (q.v.) the painstaking campaign, financed by the Rockefeller foundation. Marshall Aid funds, the Greek government and others, not completed until 1960, was in many ways the most remarkable achieve;

ATHENS

672 ment of archaeology

in Greece.

tectural terms used below see

(For explanation of the archi-

Greek Architecture.)

—

Athens. The natural advantages of the 4. Prehistoric Acropolis were exploited from the earliest times. Remains of the Neolithic period are succeeded by plentiful traces of Early and Middle Bronze Age habitation and in the Late Bronze Age the rock was fortified, like the citadels of Mycenae and Tiryns. A Cyclopean wall ran around the natural edge of the rock, best preserved behind the temple of Nike and east of the Erechtheum (g.v.) where a postern gate gave access to the royal palace; two column bases of the palace hall were discovered in the foundations of the old temple of Athena nearby. West of the Erechtheum a staircase led down to an underground reservoir in the north face to provide a water supply in time of siege. The western approach to the Acropolis was further protected by a complex of walls called Enneapulon, "Nine-Gate" wall, but no certain traces survive. It seems probable, however, that it extended some way round the flanks of the rock to enclose the spring Clepsydra to the north or others unnamed to the south, and perhaps to give some protection to the clusters of dwelling houses on the north slope. Tradition ascribed the construction of this and the circuit wall to pre-Hellenic Pelasgians (g.v.), but later Athenians used the name Pelargicum to describe only the area once covered' by Enneapulon, an area in their day thought to be under a curse. The apparent connection between the name and the reputed builders of the walls has caused much confusion, but the confusion is largely etymological and mythological and need not be discussed here.

The only substantial traces of prehistoric (chiefly Mycenaean) houses so far discovered are on the northern slope of the Acropolis, but tombs and other remains have been found in the Ceramicus, the agora, by the Hill of the Nymphs and elsewhere, the most notable being a series of Mycenaean rock-cut chamber tombs on

the northern slope of the Areopagus. All this makes it clear that in the last phase of the Bronze Age Athens was a settlement of

some wealth and importance. 5. The Dark Age. Athens survived the Dorian invasion and

—

as a result her culture developed without a break through the sub-

Mycenaean, proto-Geometric and Geometric periods (c. 1200-700 B.C.). The rich pottery finds from tombs in the outer Ceramicus, already apparently the chief cemetery, give a clear picture of the poverty which followed the collapse of the Mycenaean world and of the gradual return to prosperity in the following centuries, a return accompanied by the development of a pottery style which by the 8th century was well in advance of anything else in Greece: Athenian Geometric (see Greek Art). Of the city itself little or nothing is known. On the Acropolis there would have been, no doubt, a primitive temple to Athena Polias (Athena as protector

(Homer Odyssey vii, 81), but no The northern slope was still a residential was the Areopagus, on the northwestern slope of which a complete house of the Geometric period has been excavated. Negatively, the rich harvest of tombs from the agora area shows that this was not yet set aside as a public place. 6. Archaic Athens By about 560 B.C. the city had taken on its classical shape. There was no doubt a circuit wall (Thucydides vi, 57, 1), although its course cannot now be traced, from the gates of which the roads from the country converged on the Acropolis. On the west side of the agora, by then established as the centre of civic life, the excavators uncovered an early 6thcentury building, which they plausibly identify as the headquarters of the Solonian council (see Solon), and a small temple of Apollo Patrous ("Ancestral Apollo") of similar date. A few hundred yards away, on the hill from which it took its name, sat the rival aristocratic council, the Areopagus, but no traces survive and only a small cleft in the northeastern face marks the site of the sanctuary of the Eumenides (g.v.), so memorably associated by of the city) and to Erechtheus solid traces survive.

area, as

—

reign of Pisistratus

and

his sons (c.

560-510

B.C.)

trans-

formed the city. In the agora the council's quarters were greatly enlarged and remodeled and on the south side a large building was erected, perhaps to serve as a meeting place for Solon's popular court of appeal, the Heliaea.

—

unknown, the other by a tiled conduit connected with a stone aqueduct which came from the upper Ilissus river past the southern slope of the Acropolis. Outside the Dipylon gate the Academy, later the School of Plato, was laid out as a gymnasium. The gods, too, received their due: near the agora fountain house was built the Eleusinium, an urban branch of the great sanctuary of Demeter and Kore (Persephone) at Eleusis (g.v.) Pisistratus, the tyrant's grandson, celebrated his archonship in 522-52 1 B.C. by constructing an altar to the Twelve Gods, now hidden under the railway which cuts across the north side of the agora but securely identified by a corner of its surrounding fence which projects into the excavated area and by which was found a dedication to these deities; work was begun on a gigantic dipteral temple to Olympian Zeus southeast of the Acropolis, work which was interrupted by the fall of the tyranny and only resumed, on a different plan, in 174 B.C. (see below); another shrine in the same area received a new altar from Pisistratus the younger to commemorate his archonship; and about the same time his father, Hippias, completed the building of a new and splendid temple to Athena Polias on the Acropolis, the Early or so-called Old Temple, between the later sites of the Parthenon and Erechtheum. This Pisistratean building program introduces two topographical problems of long standing and some importance: (1) Pausanias (i, 14, 1) says that the fountain Enneacrunus ("the fountain of the nine spouts") was embellished by Pisistratus. He places it firmly in the agora, near the Eleusinium; in other words he is almost certainly speaking of the southeastern fountain house mentioned above. On the other hand Thucydides, in a passage of ;

great importance

for Athenian topography (ii, 15), puts Enneacrunus, which he says was also called Callirrhoe, just as firmly to the south of the Acropolis together with the sanctuaries of Zeus Olympius, Apollo Pythius, Ge and "Dionysus in the Marshes"; the last two cannot be certainly identified but both may be near the theatre of Dionysus the first two are firmly fixed near the north bank of the Ilissus and by an apparently happy chance there is a fountain on its opposite bank, called to this day Callirrhoe. Alternatively with a liberal interpretation of Thucydides Enneacrunus might be found in the fountain house east of the Pnyx, near which Dorpfeld found what he claimed to be the appropriate sanctuary of Dionysus. In either case there is a conflict between Pausanias and Thucydides. Some scholars would alter Thucydides' text to read "to the north of the Acropolis" and proceed to reduplicate sanctuaries of Zeus, etc., on the north slope, but this drastic solution fails to convince and there remains a choice between the authority of Thucydides and that of the conscientious but fallible traveler of the 2nd century a.d. (2) It is impossible here to do more than hint at the problems which surround the history of the early temples on the Acropolis. The archaeological elements are three: (a) the foundations of the ;

Old Temple and some fragments of its architectural members (of about 520 B.C.); (b) the foundations of an earlier temple, begun about 490 b.c but never completed, on the site of the Parthenon; and (c) some fragments of pedimental sculpture of the first half of the 6th century, on a scale which indicated that they must have belonged to a substantial building. Most scholars accept in some form the following economical and attractive solution. Certain peculiarities in the construction of (a) suggest that the inner part

once stood alone as a simple cella, distyle in antis; to this early The Pisistratids would structure the sculpture could be fitted. then have added the imposing colonnade round it and after the institution in 508 B.C. of the new democracy the construction of a yet more impressive building on an entirely new site would have begun. But according to an American architect, W. B. Dinsmoor,

Temple is Pisistratean and to accommodate the sculpture he postulates an even earlier structure on the Parthenon site, "the grandfather" of the Parthenon. This grandfather left no trace on the ground but according to Dinsmoor bequeathed the whole of the Old

Aeschylus with the foundation of *he council.

The

by the construction of the southeastern fountain house in the agora and of another east of the Pnyx the first supplied by a pipe running along the north slope of the Acropolis, from a source as yet

The water supply was improved

name to his successors. This name, the Hecatompedon or "Hundred-footer," has usually been thought to belong to the Old

his

A Till NS E'emple

in its earlier

673

form (the measurements are approximately

orrect) and to have been transferred thence to the Parthenon, which the cella proper is of similar length. Dinsmoor pn fi

of

the

to

restrict

in

the earliest

name

and would have first applied of Dinsmoor's arguments are the unity of the Old Temple) but the

to one Parthenon.

site

it

Many

weak (especially those for problem was still far from final solution in the 1960s. The almost complete destruction of the 7. Classical Period. buildings on the Acropolis and in the city in the Persian invasion nf 480 B.C., among them many shrines which religious sentiment might have preserved, facilitated the magnificent architectural of Themistocles, Cimon and Pericles (qq.v.). while the rapid growth of the Athenian empire provided the necessary means After the departure of the Persians the first for their execution.

—

1

-

was the reconstruction of the defenses. The walls, then under the direction of Themistocles, embraced a larger area than the previous circuit, with which they coincided at the Dipylon gate on the northwest where the Sacred way to Eleusis was joined by the carriage route to the Piraeus and roads to the Academy and iColonus. The other important gates were the Piraic and Melitan on the west; the Itonian on the south leading to Phaleron; the Diomean and Diocharean on the east; and the Acharnian on the tnorth. The wall, strengthened with numerous towers, enclosed the quarters of Collytus on the north, Melite on the west, Limnae on By mid-20th ithe southwest and south and Diomea on the east. century the remains had not been systematically excavated except ;near the Dipylon; sepulchral monuments built into the masonry illustrate the statement of Thucydides with regard to the employment of such material in the hasty construction. The circuit has toeen ascertained in its general lines; it is given by Thucydides (ii, as 43 stades (about 5^ m.), exclusive of the portion between 113, 7 ithe points of junction with the long walls to the Piraeus, but the Iwhole circumference cannot have exceeded 37 stades. 8. The "Long Walls." The design of connecting Athens with ithe Piraeus by long parallel walls is ascribed by Plutarch to Themistocles. Of these the north and Phaleric walls were actually built between 461 and 456 B.C. in the early years of the administration of Pericles; the middle wall may be as late as 444-442 B.C. The north wall, leaving the city near the modern observatory, :ran from northeast to southwest near the present road to the Piraeus until it reached the Piraeus walls a little to the east of The middle wall, beginning south of iheir northernmost bend. Museum hill, gradually approached the northern wall and, following a parallel course at an interval of 550 ft., diverged to the east near the modern New Phaleron and joined the Piraeus walls on Munychia where they turn inland from the sea. The course •of the Phaleric wall has been much disputed, but it must have 'left the city w^all near Museum hill and then have run either directly to the eastern corner of Phaleron bay or in a rough semicircular sweep to rejoin the middle wall near the defenses of the 'Piraeus. It may have been abandoned toward the end of the (Peloponnesian War; it was certainly destroyed with the others in '404 B.C. and was not rebuilt by Conon in 393. The parallel walls fell into decay during the Hellenistic period and were finally demolished by Sulla. For a detailed account of the Piraeus and its fortifications which completed the defensive system of Athens, \see Peiraeeus. Acropolis. The "Pelasgian" fortifications of the 9. The Acropolis were destroyed by the Persians and all its major monuIments razed or severely damaged. Soon after their departure the existing north wall was hastily erected with many fragments from the sack built into it. The fine walls on the south and east were 'built by Cimon after the victory of Eurymedon, 468 B.C.; they necessity

PLAN OF THE ACROPOLIS. ATHENS

built

)

—

I

:

I

;

!

—

i

!

'

'

]

extend considerably beyond the prehistoric circuit, the intervening space being filled up with the debris of the ruined buildings so as to increase the level space, an operation which produced a priceless

and vases. Cimon also completed both ends and added to its height; the ground behind was leveled up on this side also, the platform of the Acropolis thus receiving its present shape and dimensions. At the southwestern corner, on the right of the old entrance, an early bastion was encased in a rectangular projection which formed

'collection of archaic statuary the wall on the north side at

a base for the

The

greater

temple of Nike.

monuments

are described in

of the classical epoch on the Acropolis (Sec Parthenon; Erechseparate articles. Next in interest to these is the beautiful

theum; Propylaea.)

temple of Athena Nike, wrongly designated "Nike Apteros" (Wingless Victory), standing on the bastion mentioned; it was begun in 449 B.C. and was probably finished toward the end of the Archidamian War (421 B.C.). The temple, which is entirely of Pentelic marble, is amphiprostyle tetrastyle, with fluted Ionic columns, resting on a stylobate of three steps; its length is 27 ft., its breadth 18 V ft. and its total height, from the apex of the pedilittle

ment

to the

the east a

steps, 23 ft. The frieze represents on of deities, on the north and south Greeks fight-

bottom of the

number

and on the west Greeks fighting with Greeks. Before the east front was the altar, beneath which an earlier The irregularly shaped precinct was enaltar has been found. closed by a parapet about 3 ft. 2 in. in height, decorated on the outside with beautiful reliefs representing winged victories engaged in the worship of Athena. The temple was still standing in 1676; some eight years later it was demolished by the Turks and its stones built into a bastion; on the removal of the bastion in 1835 the temple was reconstructed faultily by L. Ross, but was dismantled and more accurately rebuilt between 1935 and 1940. At either corner of the Propylaea entrance were equestrian statues dedicated by the Athenian knights; the bases with inFrom the Propylaea a passage scriptions have been recovered. led eastward along the north side of the Parthenon; facing the ing with Persians

entrance was the colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos by Phidias (q.v.), a dedication from the spoils of the Persian War. The statue, 30 ft. high, represented the goddess fully armed; the gleam of her helmet and spear could be seen by the mariners ap-

proaching from Sunium (Pausanias i, 28, 2). On both sides were numerous statues, one of Athena Hygeia (whose altar lies at the southeast angle of the Propylaea), set up by Pericles to commemorate the recovery of a slave injured during the building of the Parthenon; a colossal bronze image of the wooden horse of Troy; and Myron's group of Marsyas and Athena. Another statue by Myron, the Perseus, stood near the precinct of Artemis Brauronia, lying between the southeastern corner of the Propylaea

and the wall of Cimon. Adjoining it to the east was a large rectangular building, which was apparently fronted by a colonnade; this has been identified with the Chalcothece, a storehouse of bronze implements and arms. Beyond the Parthenon, a little to the northeast, was the great altar of Athena, and near it the Immediately west of the statue and altar of Zeus Polieus. Erechtheum is the Pandroseum or temenos of Pandrosos, the daughter of Cecrops, seen there by Pausanias (i, .27, 2). This precinct, in which the sacred olive tree of Athena grew, was fixed by an inscription. Between it and the Propylaea were a number of statues, among them the heifer of Myron and perhaps his Erechtheus. the Lemnian Athena of Phidias and his effigy of his friend Pericles. 10.

The Dipylon and Ceramicus.

—The Ceramicus ("Potters'

quarter") gives the best opportunities for studying both the cemeThe latter divide the region into teries and the walls of Athens. the inner and outer Ceramicus and three stages are clearly seen:

'

ATHENS

674

the wall of Themistocles, the restoration by Conon in 393 B.C. and a reconstruction by Lycurgus (c. 396-325 B.C.; q.v.) some 60 years later. The Dipylon gate belongs to the last stage and consists of an inner and outer double gate separated by a rectangular court and flanked by towers on either side. Immediately to the

Pompeum, built in the 4th century B.C. to serve as an assembly point for the Eleusinian and Panathenaic procesnoted also as a haunt of philosophers. Destroyed by but sions Sulla in 86 B.C., it was later reconstructed on a different plan, probably in the time of Hadrian. South again lay the Sacred gate, the starting point of the Sacred way to Eleusis and at the same time an exit for the brook called Eridanus. Outside were tombs Inside lay of every period, private and (from 464 B.C.) public. crowded streets of shops the real commercial centre of Athens and colonnades, cut by two main roads; the Panathenaic way, the route of Athena's great procession, which started from the Dipylon, passed the altar of the Twelve Gods and crossed the agora to mount the col between the Acropolis and Areopagus; and a continuation of the Sacred way, which skirted the small sanctuaries of Aphrodite Urania and of the People and of the Graces at the northern tip of the hill called Colonus Agoraeus and so entered the agora at its northwest corner. 11. The Theseum. On Colonus, dominating the whole agora, stood the temple of Hephaestus and Athena as patroness of the arts and crafts. Its style indicates that this, the best preserved Greek temple in the world, is slightly older than the Parthenon {i.e., c. 450-440 B.C.), and the unknown architect may even have changed his plan for the interior after seeing Ictinus' designs for the Parthenon. It has been known as the Theseum since the middle ages, apparently because some of its sculptures represent the exploits of Theseus, but its identification with the temple of Hephaestus seen by Pausanias (i, 14, 6) is practically certain. The temple is a Doric peripteral hexastyle in antis, with 13 columns at the sides; its length is 104 ft., its breadth 45| ft., its height, to the top of the pediment, 32 ft. Some fragments of the east pedimental sculpture have been discovered, enough to recover the theme, the apotheosis of Heracles. The frieze contains sculptures only in the metopes of the east front and in those of the sides immediately adjoining it; the frontal metopes represent the labours of Heracles, the lateral the exploits of Theseus. As in the Parthenon, there is a sculptured frieze above the exterior of the cella walls; this, however, extends over the east and west fronts only and the east ends of the sides. The eastern represents a battle scene with seated deities on either hand, the western a kentauromachia (battle of centaurs). The temple is of Pentelic marble, except the foundations and lowest step of the stylobate, which are of Piraic stone, and the frieze of the cella, which is in Parian marble. The preservation of the temple is due to its conversion into a church in the middle ages. 12. The Agora. Immediately beyond the entrance to the agora (or central market place) from the Sacred way could be seen the altar of the Twelve Gods. Beyond it and slightly to the north, beneath the modern railway, was the Stoa poikile (the "Painted portico"), the earliest of the stoas (c. 460 B.C.), which later enclosed the open space on all four sides. It took its name "painted" from the battle scenes which were hung around its walls, the work of Polygnotus (q.v.) and other noted artists, and gave its name, in part, to the Stoic school of philosophy founded by Zeno (q.v.), who practised there c. 300 b.c. The open space was dotted with statues, clustering most thickly along each side of the Panathenaic way, most notable among them those of the tyrannicides, Harmodius and Aristogiton, who in 514 B.C. killed Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus. This group was the work of Critius and Nesiotes (q.v.), a replacement of the earlier work of Antenor which the Persians had carried off in 480 and which was returned to the agora by Alexander the Great. Southward along the street which skirted the west side was first of all the Stoa of Zeus, built toward the end of the 5th century to replace an older shrine. This stoa was in the form of a colonnade with, a rare feature, two projecting wings between which stood an altar to the god. Pausanias' account (i, 14, 6) suggests that it may also have been known as the Stoa Basileios or Royal stoa, the seat of the

Aphrodite Urania

Stoa ot Zeus

south lay the

—

—

—

PLAN OF THE AGORA, ATHENS court of the archon basileus (see Archon), where the revised law codes of Solon and Draco (qq.v.) were displayed at the end of the 5th century; but

some scholars

reject this identification

and postu-

another stoa beneath the railway to the north. Next was the tiny temple of Zeus Phratrius and Athena Phratria (c. 350 B.C.) and the temple of Apollo Patrous, a limestone structure, tetrastyle Together these deities presided over in antis, of about 330 b.c. Apollo as the ultimate ancestor of the the tribal past of Athens Ionians (q.v.), the others as patrons of the gentilitial association known as phratries. At Apollo's temple all citizens were registered and to him the magistrates swore their oaths on entering office. After a gap, giving access to the Hephaesteum (temple of Hephaestus) above, stood the complex of buildings which housed the chief administrative offices of Athens. Early in the history of the new democracy (c. 500 b.c.) a new and more splendid meeting place late

—

for the council (boule; q.v.)

was

built

on top of Solon's tiny rooms,

came a replacement for (c. 470 b.c.) This was the Tholos, a simple circular structure some 60 ft. in diameter, the roof supported on six interior columns, designed as living quarters for the standing committee of the council, the fifty prytanes. By about 400 B.C. the accumulation of state papers in the council house left no room for the councilors and another meeting room (the bouleuterion) was constructed at the rear, to which a covered approach and portico were added in the great building program of the time of Lycurgus and some years Pisistratus'

later

additions.

the orator, carried out from 338-326 b.c. Alongside the roadway on the east ran a great stone-lined drain of about 500 B.C. carrying rain water from the Areopagus north-

ward

to the channel of the Eridanus.

Beyond

this,

and opposite

the council house, was a small oblong enclosure surrounding a

base on which were set statues of the eponymous heroes of the ten post-Cleisthenic tribes (see

Cleisthenes)

;

the sides of the

base served as an official notice board. A little farther south, beyond the Tholos, both road and drain divided and there was a stone pillar carrying the words "I am the horos (the 'boundary stone') of the agora." Straight ahead and to the left were the Pisistratean fountain house and Heliaea, the gap between them filled

by the rather shoddy South stoa of the

late

5th century,

colonnade fronting a row of small rooms, probably designed to shelter the numerous courts into which the Heliaea was now divided; in the extreme southeast corner, at the side of the Panathenaic way, lay a small 5th-century building which the excavators plausibly identify with the Argyrokopeion (the mint). A branch left the road immediately after the horos, leading past a structure which probably served as the strategeion, headquarters a long two-aisled

of the strategoi (see Strategus), toward the Hill of the

Nymphs;

:

—

ATHENS main road carried on round the west end of the Areopagus with a branch mounting from there to the Pnyx. In the 6th century the popular assembly had met in the agora, hut Cleisthenes' democracy of 508 B.C. soon had to construct for itself a quirt it meeting place on the gentle northeast slope of the Pnyx. In the first period use was made of the natural theatrelike shape of the hillside and the speaker faced up the hill his audience; toward the end of the Sth century the arrangement was reversed the speaker stood on a bema or rostrum above the front rows of his audience while artificial terracing raised the outer edge of the semicircular auditorium to a slightly higher level. Somewhat less than a century later, again perhaps on the initiative of Lycurgus. the whole structure was extended and improved to produce the impressive form which can still be seen on the ground. The bema, a cube of rock, stood in front of two walls cut from the solid rock which met at an angle of about 158°. The ends of these were then connected by a semicircular retaining wall on a radius of approximately 70 yd. Immediately above the bema was •an altar and behind it two stoas backing on the city wall which the

1

:

point ran along the crest of the

at this

13.

'.

hill.

The Dionysiac Theatre and Asclepeum.

—The

Dio-

nysiac theatre, situated beneath the south side of the Acropolis,

was from its declivity. The representation of plays transferred there from an original orchestra in the agora by

partly hollowed out .was

the beginning of the 5th century B.C.; the

Pynx

as the

it

afterwards superseded

meeting place of the assembly.

There the

first

structures were provisional and of wood, and traces were found

and auditorium which had its seats in straight .lines. This was replaced by a stone theatre during the administration of Lycurgus but the present arrangement of stage and orchestra date from Roman times. The stage building consisted of a rectangular hall with square projections on either side; in 'front of this was built in late Greek or early Roman times a stage with a row of columns which intruded upon the orchestra space. A later and larger stage, dating from the time of Nero, advanced still farther into the orchestra, and this was finally faced (probably in the 3rd century a.d.) by the bema of Phaedrus, a platform of the early orchestra

wall decorated with earlier reliefs, cut

The remains

down

to suit their

new

two temples of Dionysus have been found adjoining the stoa of the theatre, as well as an altar of the same god adorned with masks and festoons; the smaller temple .probably dates from the 6th century B.C. and the larger from the position.

of

end of the Sth or the beginning of the 4th century, i

West

of the theatre

is

the precinct of Asclepius, established in

420 b.c, where were discovered the foundations of the temple together with several inscriptions and a great number of votive reliefs offered by grateful invalids. A Doric colonnade with a double row of columns extended along the base of the Acropolis for a distance of 54 yd. behind it in a chamber hewn in the rock is the sacred well mentioned by Pausanias. The colonnade was •a place of resort for the patients; a large building close beneath •the rock was probably the abode of the priests. East of the theatre •and closely related to it was the odeum (concert hall) of Pericles, ,the only building which can be assigned to him, though he may !have designed the first plan of the theatre too. This was a large rectangular hypostyle with probably six rows of six marble columns •which would have replaced the original wooden columns at its irestoration by Ariobarzanes of Cappadocia after its destruction by ;

Plutarch says that the odeum imitated the tent Xerxes, referring no doubt to the pointed roof of the building. 14. The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. The beautiful

Sulla in S6 b.c. ,of ;

—

choragic

monument

of Lysicrates, dedicated in the archonship of

Euaenetus (335-334 B.C.), is the only survivor of many such structures which stood in the "Street of the Tripods" to the east of the Dionysiac theatre, bearing the tripods given to the successiul choragi at the Dionysiac festival. It owes its preservation to its former inclusion in a Capuchin convent. The monument consists of a small circular temple of Pentelic marble, 21J ft. in height and 9 ft. in diameter, with six engaged Corinthian columns and a sculptured frieze, standing on a rectangular base of Piraic stone. The delicately carved convex roof, composed of a single block, was surmounted by the tripod. Another choragic monument was

675

that of Thrasyllus, which faced a cave in the rock of the Acropolis above the Dionysiac theatre. A portion of another, that of Nicias, In make the late .,t In one the Ai ropolis. monu nous Satyr of Praxiteles. Hellenistic Period.—After the age of Alexander Athens was adorned with many new buildings, a tribute paid to her intel-

was used

I

of these 15.

lectual renown by foreign potentates or dilettanti who desired to add their names to the list of its illustrious citizens and patrons. Among the first of these benefactions was the great gymnasium of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (see Ptolemies;, built northeast of the agora about 250 B.C. Attalus I of Pergamum (see Ai set up a number of bronze statues on the Acropolis; Eumenes II 1

Pergamum (see Eumenes built the long portico west of the Dionysiac theatre; Attalus II erected the magnificent stoa which and which was completely rebuilt on the ancient plan in the closing stages of the American excavations in order to serve as a museum for the site. The stoa consisted of a row of 21 single-roomed shops, fronted by a double colonnade, the outer Doric and the inner Ionic. At each end there was a staircase approached through an arched opening the earliest use of a visible arch in Athens leading to a second story, again with shops, and a double colonnade double Ionic at the front joined by a balustrade and Pergamene behind. About the same time the whole of the south side of the agora was drastically remodeled. A stoa (now known as the Middle stoa) some 160 yd. long was built between the southern end of the Stoa of Attalus and the Tholos, offering two colonnades, one facing north into the square and the other south toward the old South stoa; soon afterward a second stoa was added at right angles to its east of

)

closes the east side of the agora

—

—

end, again facing outward (to the Panathenaic way) and inward to what became a new enclosure; the replanning was then completed by the replacement of the old South stoa by a new one at right angles to the East stoa

and connecting

The whole complex thus created Athens' legal business.

A

it

with the Heliaea. conduct of

a separate area for the

few years later the civic offices themold complex had included, to the

The

selves were improved.

north of the council house, a small archaic temple (Metroon) dedicated to the Mother of the Gods; a building was then designed to fulfill the functions of both one small room remaining as the sanctuary of the goddess, two others serving as deposits

—

for the archives, while a spacious two-storied section to the north may have been an official residence. The whole was fronted with an elegant colonnade in Pentelic marble. The greatest monument, however, of the Hellenistic period, the colossal temple of Olympian Zeus, stood by the Ilissus, southeast of the Acropolis. Its foundations were laid on the site of a small ancient shrine by Hippias, but the building in its ultimate form was for the greater part constructed, under the auspices of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, king of Syria, by the Roman architect Cossutius between 174 and 164 b.c, the date of the death of Antiochus. The work was apparently resumed under Augustus and finally, in a.d. 129, completed and dedicated by Hadrian, who set up a chryselephantine statue of Zeus in the cella. The building was octostyle; its length was 318 ft. and its breadth 132 ft. With the exception of the foundations and two lower steps of the stylobate, it was entirely of Pentelic marble and possessed 104 Corinthian columns, 56 ft. 7 in. in height, of which 48 stood in triple rows under the pediments and 56 in double rows at the sides; of these, 16 remained standing in 1852, when one was blown down by a storm. 16. Roman Period. An earlier building of this period is the

—

Horologium of Andronicus of Cyrrhus (otherwise known as the "Tower of the Winds"), still standing near the eastern end of the Roman agora. This may belong to the 2nd or 1st century b.c. It is an octagonal marble structure, 42 ft. in height and 26 ft. in diameter; the eight sides, which face the points of the compass, are furnished with a frieze containing inartistic figures in relief representing the winds; below it, on the sides facing the sun. are the lines of a sundial. It was surmounted by a weathercock in the

form of a bronze Triton and contained a water clock when the sun was not shining.

to record

the time

The new,

or

Roman, agora

to the north of the Acropolis, per-

ATHENS

676

market, was constructed after the year 27 B.C. open rectangular space surrounded by an number of shops or storehouses. The eastern gate was adorned with four Ionic columns on the outside and two on the inside, the western entrance being the well-known Doric portion of Athena Archegetis with an inscription recording its erection from donations of Julius Caesar and AugusOn one theory the site of this agora had previously been tus. occupied by a Sth-century temple of Ares (almost a twin of the Hephaesteum and undoubtedly the work of the same architect). There is no positive evidence for this but it is a curious coincidence that Ares' temple was dismantled and reassembled block by block in the old agora about the same time as the new agora was being built. Its foundations and a few architectural fragments can now be seen in the area between the temple of Apollo and the Panathenaic way. Space was further restricted by the construction (about IS B.C.) of a massive odeum to the southeast of the temple on the site of the primitive orchestra. This, the gift of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, was a rectangular structure, entered from the terrace of the Middle Stoa, which contained seating for about 1,000 people on semicircular tiers of marble benches. The auditorium had a span of 27 yd. and this was roofed without any interior support unwisely, for about a.d. ISO the roof collapsed. In the reconstruction which followed a crosswall was introduced which cut the capacity by about a half; at the same time the north front was adorned by the insertion of six colossal statues of giants and tritons supporting an architrave to form a colonnade in place

haps mainly an

oil

It consisted of a large

Ionic colonnade into which opened a

—

the original projecting porch. At the eastern end of the Acropolis a charming circular temple of white marble with a peristyle of nine Ionic columns was dedicated to Rome and

of

The conspicuous monument which crowns Museum hill was erected as the mausoleum of Antiochus Philopappus of Commagene, grandson of Antiochus Epiphanes, in a.d. 114-116. It was nearly square, but the only portion remaining is the slightly curved front, with three niches between Corinthian pilasters; in Augustus.

the central niche

The emperor Hadrian was

He

The Arch

of Hadrian

the boundary between the new and vast rectangular enclosure immediately north of the identified as the library of Hadrian. A portion of its western front, adorned with monolithic unfluted Corinthian columns, is still standing the familiar "Stoa of Hadrian"; an-

Olympeum marked

A

new agora was

—

other well-preserved portion, with six pilasters, runs parallel to the west side of Aeolus street. The interior consisted of a spacious court surrounded by a colonnade of 100 columns, into which five chambers opened at the eastern end. A portico of four fluted

Corinthian columns on the western side formed the entrance to the quadrangle. A pantheon, a gymnasium and temples of Hera and Zeus Panhellenius were likewise built by Hadrian; the aqueduct, which he began, was completed by Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-161); it is still in use. About the same time the generosity of one T. Flavius Pantainus provided a splendid library adjoining the Stoa of Attalus.

The stadium,

which the Panathenaic games were held, was

in

out by the orator Lycurgus (see above) about 330 B.C. It was an oblong structure filling a depression, partly natural, partly artificial, near the left bank of the Ilissus beneath the first laid

eastern declivity of the Ardettus ever,

that constructed in

hill.

The immense

building,

how-

1896 and the following years, was Pentelic marble about a.d. 143 by Herodes

which was restored

Atticus, a wealthy

in

Roman

resident.

The

seats, rising in tiers as

accommodated about 44,000 spectators; the arena was 670 ft. in length and 109 ft. in breadth. The odeum, built beneath the southwest slope of the Acropolis after a.d. 161 by Herodes Atticus in memory of his wife Regilla, is comparatively in a theatre,

well preserved.

The plan

is

that of the conventional

theatre; the semicircular auditorium, which seated sons,

is,

In the raid of the Heruli (q.v.), a.d. 267, much of the city was destroyed. The Athenians then abandoned the old defenses and a smaller circuit was constructed, the so-called Valerian wall

much

This began at the present entrance to the Acropolis, followed the line of the Panathenaic way to the library of Pantainus, where a part is preserved, then incorporated the surviving shops of the Stoa of Attalus, turned east for about 500 yd. through trie library of Hadrian and then returned to the Acropolis circuit. The ma-

came from the shattered buildings outside, in the surviving portion of the agora which had lain desolate for a hundred years. terial

Then, about

came

city

Roman

some 5,000

per-

like that of the Dionysiac theatre, partly hollowed from

a.d.

400, the old fortifications were resumed and the from this time dates the vast gymnasium

to life again;

complex

in the agora covering the site of Agrippa's odeum (and incorporating the giants in a new stoa) and much of the Middle,

East and South stoas. versity of Athens until

See also Porcelain.

This probably served as part of the

was closed

it

uni-

in a.d. 529.

Greek Architecture; Greek Art; Pottery and

Bibliography.

commentary by

—Pausanias, Description of Greece,

i

1-30, trans, with

G. Frazer (1898). For the area outside the agora Topographic von Athen, 2nd ed. (1931) see also I. C. T. Hill, The Ancient City of Athens (1953; handbook including bibliography). For the agora in general, see Guide to the Excavations (1954) by members of the American School of Archaeology; T. L., Shear and H. A. Thompson, annual reports in the periodical Hesperia (1933 et seq.) and other articles on more detailed points; American School of Archaeology, The Athenian Agora, vol. i-v et seq. For German excavations in the Ceramicus see Deutsches Archaologiscb.es Institut, Kerameikos, vol. i-vi (1939 et seq.). (J.D. B.;A.J.B.W.;W. G. F.) see

W.

J.

Judeich,

;

II.

1.

a lavish benefactor to Athens.

walls were fortified with rectangular towers.

old cities.

in

the statue of Philopappus.

is

enlarged the circuit of the city walls to the east and so created the City of Hadrian (Hadrianopolis) or New Athens (Novae Athenae), a handsome suburb with numerous villas, baths and gardens; its

near the

The orchestra is paved with marble squares. The fagade Piraic stone, displays three stories of arched windows. The; whole building was covered with a cedar roof. The structure without the roof has now been restored and is again in use as an openair concert hall and theatre. the rock.

Prehistoric Period.

HISTORY

—Archaeology supplies the early

history

of Athens, for it is barely mentioned by Homer and the numerous legends have little historical value. Its Neolithic inhabitants, of

the race that occupied most of Greece and was related to that

Danubian and Carpathian areas, were followed by a bronzeusing folk akin to the islanders and Cretans, possibly a nonHellenic people. Next (perhaps at the turn of the Early and Middle Bronze Age) came the irruption of Hellenic peoples into the Aegean area, including Greece (see Aegean Civilization), and of the

in the Late Bronze Age Athens became a strong castle like Tiryns with traces of a "palace" remaining unconquered though not unshaken by the Dorian invasion. Rich finds of Geometric vases indicate prosperity in the Early Iron Age. At the dawn of history proper the independent communities of Attica were absorbed into a central state of Athens under a mon-, archy of Ionian affinities, for the people were divided into four Geleontes, Hopletes, Argadeis and Aegicoreis tribes whose names The centralization recur in several true Ionian towns. (synoecism), to which many Greek peoples never attained, laid the foundations of Athenian greatness; but in other respects the When the new constitution tended to arrest development. monarchy was supplanted in the usual Greek fashion by a, hereditary nobility, all power was appropriated by a privileged

—

—

Eupatridae (q.v.), who owed their predominance to their Geomoroi and Demiourgoi, who formed the bulk of the community, enjoyed no political rights. The aristocratic council of the Areopagus (q.v.) constituted the chief criminal court and nominated the magistrates, among whom the chief archon (q.v.) passed judgment in family suits and controlled admission to the genos or clan and consequently the acquiThis system was further supported by sition of the franchise. religious prescriptions which the nobles retained as a corporate seThe Eupatridae also tended to become sole owners of the cret. class of

control over legal procedure; the

land, reducing the original freeholders or tenants to the position of serfs.

During

its militia,

this period

commanded by

Athens seems

to

have made

the polemarch, or of

raised in special local divisions

known

its

little

use of

navy, which was

as naucraries; hence no

ATHENS esprit

military

de corps could

Nor

ascendancy.

did the

arise

commons

to

check

obtain

relief

Eupatrid through any

the

commercial or colonial enterprises as in many other Greek States, The lirst attack upon the aristocracy proceeded from a young noble named Cylon, who endeavoured to become tyrant about 630 B.C. The people helped to crush this movement; yet discontent must have been rife for, in 621, the Eupatrids commissioned Draco to draft and publish a code of criminal law. By this notable (q.v. concession the nobles lost that exclusive legal knowledge which had formed one of their main instruments of oppression. 2. The Rise of Athens. A still greater danger grew out of the widespread financial distress, which was steadily driving many of the agricultural population into slavery and threatened the After a protracted war with the neighentire state with ruin. bouring Megarians accentuated the crisis, the Eupatrids gave to one of their number, the celebrated Solon (q.v.). free power to remodel the whole state (594 B.C. or perhaps slightly later) and revise the Draconian code, a revision which was the basis for all later Athenian law and found many imitators elsewhere (jes Greek Law). By his economic legislation Solon placed agriculture once more upon a sound footing and encouraged commercial enterprise, His constituthus laying the foundation of material prosperity. tional reforms proved less successful, for, although he put into the hands of the people safeguards against oppression, he could not enAfter a period of party feud among the sure their use in practice. nobles the new constitution was superseded by the autocratic rule The age of af Pisistratus and his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. despotism, which lasted, with interruptions, from 560 to 510, 1

—

The

rulers

fostered agricul-

was a period of great prosperity. stimulated commerce and industry (notably the famous Attic ceramics), adorned the city with public works and temples and Their vigorous foreign policy rendered it a centre of culture. arst made Athens an Aegean power and secured connections with

ture,

They also weakened the undue influence of the and created a national Athenian spirit in place of the ancient

mainland powers. nobles

elan feeling.

The equalization of classes was already far advanced when, 509, an Alcmaeonid named Cleisthenes (q.v.), who had

about

taken the chief part in the final expulsion of the tyrants, acquired His constitution (508ascendancy as leader of the commons. 507) expressed the change of political feeling by providing a naBy making tional basis of franchise and a new state organization. effective the powers of the ecclesia (popular assembly), the boule '(council) and heliaea (judicial assembly or people's law court),

became the true founder of Athenian democracy. This revolution was accompanied by a conflict with Sparta and Athens worsted powerful enemies like Thebes and Chalcis (506). A bolder stroke followed in 500, when a force was sent to support the Ionians in revolt against Persia (499-494) and helped sack Sardis. After the failure of this expedition the Athenians became absorbed in a struggle with Aegina (q.v.). In 493 the prospect of a Persian invasion arought into power men like Themistocles and Miltiades (qq.v.), to whose firmness and insight the Athenians largely owed their triumph in the great campaign of 490 against Persia. After a second political reaction, the prospect of a second Persian war and the naval superiority of Aegina led to a strong policy: ThemisItocles overcame the opposition of Aristides (q.v.) and passed his famous measure providing for a large increase of the Athenian Cleisthenes

:

sther powers, but in the ensuing wars

fleet. ;

In the great invasion of 480-479 the Athenians displayed a which could not be shaken even by the evacuation and destruction of their native city. Though the traditional account resolution

was chiefly due and the wise policy of

'exaggerates the services of Athens, ultimate victory to

the

numbers and

efficiency of its fleet

(See Greco-Persian Wars.) Imperial Athens. After the Persian retreat and the reoccupation of their city the Athenians continued the war with unabated vigour. Led by Aristides and Cimon they rendered such promiThemistocles.

,

3.

—

nent service as to receive in return the formal leadership of the

Greek (q.v.).

allies

and the presidency of the newly formed Delian league

The ascendancy acquired

in these

years eventually raised

677

Athens to the rank of an imperial state For the moment it tended to impair the good relations which had subsisted between Athens and Sparta since the first day- of the Persian peril. But so long as Cimon's influence prevailed the ideal of "peace at home and the complete humiliation of Persia" was steadily upheld, Similarly the internal policy of Athens continued to be shaped by the conservatives. The only notable innovations since the days of Cleisthenes had been the reduction of the archonship to a routine magistracy appointed partly by lot (487), and the rise of the ten elective strategoi (generals; see Stratecus) as chief executive officers. But the triumph of the navy at Salami's in 480 and the great expansion of commerce and industry had shifted the political centre of gravity from the moderate democrats to the more radical party. Though Themistocles soon lost his influence, his party eventually found a new leader in Ephialtes and. after the failure of Cimon's foreign policy (JjeB ClMON triumphed over the conservatives. The year 462-461 marks the reversal of Athenian policy at home and abroad. By canceling the political power of the Areopagus and multiplying the functions of the popular law court. Ephialtes abolished the last checks upon the sovereignty of the commons. His successor, Pericles, merely developed the 1.

full

democracy so

as to secure

its

effectual as well as its theoretical

supremacy.

The

foreign policy of Athens was

now

reckless expansion (see Pericles.)

possessions and its last

its

commerce by

rivals at sea,

central Greece

and

directed toward an almost Besides securing its Aegean

the defeat of Corinth and Aegina,

Athens acquired an extensive dominion in overshadowed the Spartan

for a time quite

land power. The rapid loss of the new conquests after 447, howAthens lacked a sufficient land army to defend permanently so extensive a frontier. Under the guidance of Pericles the Athenians renounced the unprofitable rivalry with Sparta and Persia and devoted themselves to the consolidation and judicious extension of their maritime influence. The years of the supremacy of Pericles (443-429) are the most glorious in Athenian history. In actual extent of territory the empire had receded somewhat, but in point of security and organization it now stood at its height. The Delian league lay under Athenian control, and the points of strategic importance were largely held by cleruchies (q.v.; see also Pericles) and garrisons. ever, proved that

Out of a citizen body of more than 50,000 freemen, reinforced by mercenaries and slaves, a superb fleet exceeding 300 sail and an army of 30.000 trained soldiers could be mustered. The city, with its fortifications extending to the port of Piraeus, was impregnable to a land attack. Athenian commerce extended from Egypt and Colchis to Etruria and Carthage, and Athenian manufactures, which attracted skilled operatives from many lands, found a ready sale all over the Mediterranean. With tolls and the tribute of the Delian league (q.v.), a large reserve was amassed in the treasury.

Yet the material prosperity of Athens under Pericles was less notable than its brilliant attainments in every field of culture. No city ever adorned itself with such an array of temples, public buildings and works of art as the Athens of Pericles and Phidias. Its

achievements

drama

in literature

of the period produced

were hardly

The Attic the scientific

less great.

many masterpieces, and

thought of Europe in the departments of logic, ethics, rhetoric and history mainly owes its origin to a new movement of Greek thought which was largely fostered by the patronage of Pericles himself. Besides producing numerous men of genius itself Athens attracted

all

the great intellects of Greece.

Thucydides

The

brilliant

summary

famous funeral speech of Pericles (delivered in the winter of 431-430), in which the social life, the institutions and the culture of his country are set forth as a model, gives an ideal picture of Athens in its greatest days. The payment for public service which Pericles had introduced may have contributed to raise the general level of culture of the citizens, but it created a dangerous precedent and incurred the censure of notable Greek thinkers. Moreover, all this prosperity was obtained at the expense of the confederates, whom Athens exploited in a somewhat selfish and illiberal manner. The cry of "tyrant city" roused public opinion in Greece against of the historian

in the

ATHENS

678 Athens and brought on the Peloponnesian

War

(q.v.),

which

ruined the Athenian empire (431-404). The issue was determined less by any intrinsic superiority on the part of its enemies than by the blunders committed by a people unable to carry out a consistent foreign policy

and served since Pericles by none but

speaks well for the patriotism of its commons that Athens, weakened by plague and military disasters, should have withstood for so long the blows of enemies from without and the damage inflicted by traitors within. (See selfish or shortsighted advisers.

Theramenes.) 4. 4th Century B.C.

—

—

—

attained

its

zenith.

Athens

The democracy was respected by

the

Mace-

donian kings; the rulers of Egypt, Syria and especially of Pergamum courted Athens by gifts of buildings and works of art, to which the citizens replied by unbecoming flattery, even to the

new

tribes

named

after their benefactors.

'